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218205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontypridd | Pontypridd | Pontypridd () is a town and community in Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales. Colloquially known as "Ponty", it is north of Cardiff.
Geography
Pontypridd comprises the electoral wards of Cilfynydd, Glyncoch, Graig, Hawthorn, Pontypridd Town, 'Rhondda', Rhydyfelin Central/Ilan (Rhydfelen), Trallwng (Trallwn) and Treforest (Trefforest). The town mainly falls within the Senedd and UK parliamentary constituency by the same name, although the Cilfynydd and Glyncoch wards fall within the Cynon Valley Senedd constituency and the Cynon Valley UK parliamentary constituency. This change was effective for the 2007 Welsh Assembly election, and for the 2010 UK General Election.
The town sits at the junction of the Rhondda and Taff valleys, where the River Rhondda flows into the Taff just south of the town at Ynysangharad War Memorial Park. Pontypridd community recorded a population of about 32,700 in the 2011 census figures. while Pontypridd Town ward itself was recorded as having a population of 2,919 also as of 2011.
The town lies alongside the north–south dual carriageway A470 between Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil. The A4054, running north and south of the town, was the former main road, and like the A470, follows the Taff Valley. South of the town is the A473 for Llantrisant and Pencoed. To the west is the A4058, which follows the River Rhondda to Porth and the Rhondda Valley beyond.
History
Etymology
The name Pontypridd derives from the name , Welsh for "bridge by the earthen house", referring singly to successive wooden bridges that once spanned the River Taff at this point.
Old Bridge
Pontypridd is noted for its Old Bridge, a stone construction across the River Taff built in 1756 by William Edwards. This was Edwards's fourth attempt, and at the time of construction, was the longest single-span stone arch bridge in the world. Rising above the level of the river, the bridge forms a perfect segment of a circle, the chord of which is . Notable features are the three holes of differing diameters through each end of the bridge, the purpose of which is to reduce weight. On completion, questions were soon raised as to the utility of the bridge, with the steepness of the design making it difficult to get horses and carts across. As a result, a new bridge, the Victoria Bridge, paid for by public subscription, was built adjacent to the old one in 1857. Pontypridd was known as Newbridge from shortly after the construction of the Old Bridge until the 1860s.
Coal
The history of Pontypridd is tied to the coal and iron industries; before their development Pontypridd was a hamlet of a few farmsteads, with Treforest initially becoming the main urban settlement in the area. Sited at the junction of three valleys, it became an important location for transporting coal from the Rhondda and iron from Merthyr Tydfil, first by the Glamorganshire Canal, and later by the Taff Vale Railway, to the ports at Cardiff, Barry and Newport. Its role in coal transport lengthened its railway platform, which is thought to have once been the longest in the world in its heyday. Pontypridd in the second half of the 19th century was a hive of industry, once nicknamed the "Wild West". There were several collieries within the Pontypridd area itself, including:
Albion Colliery, Cilfynydd
Bodwenarth Colliery, Pontsionnorton
Daren Ddu Colliery, Graigwen & Glyncoch
Dynea Colliery, Rhydyfelen
Gelli-whion Colliery, Graig
Great Western/Gyfeillion Colliery, Hopkinstown
Lan Colliery, Hopkinstown
Newbridge Colliery, Graig
Pen-y-rhiw Colliery, Graig
Pontypridd/Maritime Collieries, Graig & Maesycoed
Pwllgwaun Colliery/'Dan's Muck Hole', Pwllgwaun
Red Ash Colliery, Cilfynydd
Ty-Mawr Colliery, Hopkinstown & Pantygraigwen
Typica Colliery, Hopkinstown & Pantygraigwen and
Victoria Colliery, Maesycoed
As well as deep-mined collieries, there were many coal levels and trial shafts dug into the hillsides overlooking the town from Cilfynydd, Graig, Graigwen and Hafod. The Albion Colliery in the village of Cilfynydd in 1894 underwent one of the worst explosions in the South Wales coalfield, with the death of 290 colliers (see Keir Hardie).
Iron and steel
Other instrumental industries in Pontypridd were the Brown Lenox/Newbridge Chain & Anchor Works south-east of the town, and Crawshay's Forest Iron, Steel & Tin Plate Works and the Taff Vale Iron Works, both in Treforest near the now University of South Wales.
Buildings
The town has a hospital, Dewi Sant Hospital and acts as the headquarters of Transport for Wales Rail at Llys Cadwyn.
Government
Pontypridd Urban District Council operated from 1894 to 1974, when it was incorporated into Taff Ely Borough Council. That in turn came under the unitary Rhondda Cynon Taf Council in 1995. Pontypridd Town Council functions as a community council. Labour is the dominant political force and has been since the First World War. The community elects 23 town councillors from 11 community wards: Cilfynydd, Glyncoch, Graig, Hawthorn, Ilan, Pontypridd, Rhondda, Rhydfelen Central, Rhydfelen Lower, Trallwng and Treforest.
Pontypridd community
Pontypridd community comprises the town centre itself, with the following key villages/settlements:
Cilfynydd
Coedpenmaen (Coed-Pen-Maen)
Glyntaff (Glyn-Taff)
Glyncoch
Graig
Graigwen & Pantygraigwen
Hawthorn (Y Ddraenen-Wen)
Hopkinstown (Trehopcyn)
Maesycoed (Maes-y-Coed)
Pen-y-coedcae
Pontsionnorton (Pont Sion Norton)
Pwllgwaun
Rhydyfelin (Rhydfelen)
Trallwn (Trallwng)
Treforest (Trefforest)
Upper Boat (Glan-Bad)
Pontypridd serves as the postal town for the community of Llantwit Fardre under the CF38 postcode district, although the area is not considered part of Pontypridd.
Transport links
Pontypridd came into being because of transport, as it was on the drovers' route from the south Wales coast and the Bristol Channel, to Merthyr, and onwards into the hills of Brecon. Although initial expansion in the valleys occurred at Treforest due to the slower speed of the River Taff at that point, the establishment of better bridge building meant a natural flow of power to Pontypridd.
Railway
The establishment of Pontypridd over Treforest was finally confirmed with the building of the Glamorganshire Canal to serve the coalmines of the Rhondda valley. However, the volumes of coal extraction soon led to construction of the Taff Vale Railway, which at its peak meant a train passed through Pontypridd railway station (including the freight lines immediately to its west) every two or three minutes. The station was originally built as a long single island, at one point the world's longest platform, a reflection of both the narrow available geography of the steep valley side and the need to accommodate many converging railways lines at what became the 19th-century hub of the valleys.
Due to the restrictive geography, only parcels and mail were handled at Pontypridd. Heavy freight went to . The station today is operated by Transport for Wales, which is headquartered in the town. It reflects the fewer destinations served since the Beeching and earlier cuts, with one up (valley) platform, one down (through) platform, a down bay platform (opened in December 2014), and one passing loop.
Trams, trolleybuses, and buses
A tram service began on 6 March 1905 from Cilfynydd through Pontypridd to Treforest. It gave way on 18 September 1930 to trolleybuses, which on 31 January 1957 were replaced by buses following the same route.
Education
Pontypridd County Intermediate and Technical School was built in 1895 as a co-educational school in Tyfica Road, later becoming Pontypridd County Grammar School for Boys. In 1973, it became the Coedylan Comprehensive School, and is now the Pontypridd High School in Cilfynydd on the west side of the A4054.
Hawthorn High School is near the A4054 in Hawthorn (south-east of the town)
Pontypridd Grammar School for Girls was in Glyntaff Road in Glyntaff.
Bryn Celynnog Comprehensive School is on Penycoedcae Road in Beddau.
Cardinal Newman RC School is on Dynea Road in Rhydyfelin.
Ysgol Gyfun Garth Olwg is on the A473 in Church Village (south of the town).
The University of South Wales is in Treforest (south of the town), next to the A473.
Entertainment and social history
Sport and recreation
Ynysangharad War Memorial Park, opened by Field Marshal Viscount Allenby on 6 August 1923, features a bandstand, basketball courts, a dog exercise area, a lido swimming pool (dubbed the National Lido of Wales), tennis courts, lawn bowls greens, a football pitch, a cricket pitch, and memorials to the war dead of Pontypridd and to the composers of the Welsh national anthem. It has also hosted festivals and music concerts, including the annual Ponty's Big Weekend festival.
Pontypridd hosts Pontypridd Rugby Football Club, one of Wales's notable rugby union clubs, with a successful junior rugby and age-grade sections. It frequently contribute players to the national team. Formed in 1876, Pontypridd RFC play in the Principality Premiership, SWALEC Cup and the British and Irish Cup. Pontypridd RFC plays home games at Sardis Road, with its junior section playing at Taff Vale Park and Pontypridd High School Fields, Cilfynydd.
Pontypridd Town A.F.C. is a Welsh football club which currently plays in the Cymru South, the second tier of the Welsh football league system.
Speedway racing was staged at Taff Vale Park in the town's Broadway area in 1929/1930.
Pontypridd Bowls Club plays in the top division in the Cynon Valley, Mid Glamorgan and the Cardiff League, having been promoted in all three divisions after the 2009 season. Home games are played at Ynysanghard Park.
Media
Pontypridd has a community radio station which broadcasts to the county of Rhondda Cynon Taf on 107.9FM. Its studios are in Rhydyfelin, near Cardinal Newman School. It offers local news and information and a wide variety of music, while providing volunteering and training opportunities.
The Pontypridd and Llantrisant Observer is the local newspaper.
Pontypridd has a digital media scene, with various companies having offices there.
Culture
The Welsh national anthem Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau (Land of my Fathers) was composed in Pontypridd by local poets/musicians Evan James and James James.
Pontypridd was home to the eccentric Dr William Price who performed the first modern cremation in the United Kingdom.
Pontypridd hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1893.
Côr Meibion Pontypridd (Pontypridd Male Voice Choir)
Pontypridd holds the Welsh Poetry Competition, the biggest of its kind in Wales.
The singer Tom Jones was born in Treforest and often mentions his home town in interviews. He headlined in a 65th birthday concert at the town's Ynysangharad Park.
In popular culture
The name of the fictional Welsh town of Pontypandy, where children's television programme Fireman Sam is set, is a portmanteau of Pontypridd and Tonypandy.
The Welsh TV show Belonging was shot in Pontypridd.
The BBC's Doctor Who and Torchwood have been filmed at locations in and around Pontypridd, such as at the Market Tavern, a pub in Market Street, and the Lido in Ynysangharad Park. Other locations include Treforest, Hawthorn, Graigwen, Upper Boat, Trallwng, and Ynysybwl.
Twinning
Pontypridd is twinned with Nürtingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Initial contact was made between them in 1965, with a visit by Côr Meibion Pontypridd Welsh male voice Choir to a choir called Liederkranz ("Coronet of Songs") based in the Oberensingen area of Nürtingen. The visit was returned a year later. Reciprocal choir visits have continued and the partnership prompted Pontypridd Urban District Council to join with Nürtingen in formal twinning relations, under an agreement signed in July 1968 by John Cheesman, Mayor of Pontypridd, and Karl Gonser, Mayor of Nürtingen.
Pontypridd is twinned with Mbale, Uganda, since an official twinning ceremony in 2005, following links by local churches and health-care workers under the charitable Partnerships Overseas Networking Trust.
Notable people
In alphabetical order:
See :Category:People from Pontypridd
Robert Bye (1889–1962), recipient of the Victoria Cross in World War I
Stuart Burrows (born 1933), opera singer, born in Cilfynydd
Geraint Evans (1922–1992), opera singer, born in Cilfynydd.
Phil Campbell (born 1961) of Motörhead, Gareth Davies and Darran Smith ex-members of Funeral for a Friend
Climbing Trees, indie-folk band, formed in Pontypridd in 2011.
Catrin Collier (born 1948), novelist, had the Ty Catrin adult education centre in Pontypridd named in her honour in 2002.
Evan James (1809–1878) and James James (1832–1902), writers of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, the national anthem of Wales
Alan Wayne Jones (born 1945), forensic toxicologist
David Lloyd Jones (born 1952), Judge of the High Court (QBD), Lord Justice of Appeal, and first Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to come from Wales was educated at Pontypridd Boys' Grammar School.
Tom Jones (born 1940), singer, was born at 57 Kingsland Terrace in village of Treforest.
David Kelly (1944–2003), specialist in biological warfare, attended Pontypridd Boys' Grammar School.
Lostprophets, alternative metal band formed in 1997.
Elaine Morgan (1920–2013), scriptwriter and anthropologist
Kimberley Nixon (born 1985), actress
William Price (1800–1893) carried out the first cremation in the UK in modern times on Llantrisant Common.
Chris Slade (born 1946), drummer for AC/DC and Asia
Ian Watkins, convicted sex offender and former lead singer of Lostprophets
Tasker Watkins (1918–2007), VC, Lord Justice of Appeal, deputy Lord Chief Justice, and President of the Welsh Rugby Union, was educated at Pontypridd Boys' Grammar School
Sports people
Danny Canning (1926–2014), Colin Gale (1932–2008), Richard Haig (born 1970), Ceri Hughes (born 1971), Pat Mountain (born 1976), Jason Price (born 1977) and Owain Warlow (born 1987), association footballers
Jamie Donaldson (born 1975), professional golfer
Harri Greville (born 1990), rugby league footballer
John Gwilliam (1923–2016), Neil Jenkins (born 1971), Kevin Morgan (born 1977), Michael Owen (born 1980), Richard Parks (born 1977), Russell Robins (1932–2019), Ceri Sweeney (born 1980), Martyn Williams (born 1975) and Gareth Wyatt (born 1977), Welsh international rugby players
Sheila Laxon (living) was the first female horse trainer to win the Australian "cups double": the Caulfield Cup and Melbourne Cup.
Peter Turnbull (born 1989), first-class cricketer
Freddie Welsh (1886–1927), world champion boxer
Bibliography
See also
Pontypridd (UK Parliament constituency)
Pontypridd (Senedd constituency)
References
External links
Pontypridd Town Council: official website of Pontypridd Town Council
Pontypridd Town website & forum: Official Pontypridd Town website
Ponty.net: Pontypridd Rugby Football Club's official website
GTFM: GTFM - Local Radio & local News for the Pontypridd area
British strike – extra fodder for pit ponies, Pontypridd Photo from the Library of Congress's George Grantham Bain Collection
Aerial photograph of Pontypridd
The history of Pontypridd
Pontypridd Trolleybus Pontypridd trolleybus during World War II
International Welsh Poetry Competition International Welsh Poetry Competition based in Pontypridd
Definitive guide to eating well in Pontypridd Walesonline guide to places to eat in Pontypridd
International Poetry Book Awards International Poetry Book Awards based in Pontypridd
Communities in Rhondda Cynon Taf
Towns in Rhondda Cynon Taf | [
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|
218207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced%20Small%20Disk%20Interface | Enhanced Small Disk Interface | Enhanced Small Disk Interface (ESDI) was a disk interface designed by Maxtor Corporation in the early 1980s to be a follow-on to the ST-412/506 interface. ESDI improved on ST-506 by moving certain parts that were traditionally kept on the controller (such as the data separator) into the drives themselves, and also generalizing the control bus such that more kinds of devices (such as removable disks and tape drives) could be connected. ESDI used the same cabling as ST-506 (one 34-pin common control cable, and a 20-pin data channel cable for each device), and thus could easily be retrofitted to ST-506 applications.
ESDI was popular in the mid-to-late 1980s, when SCSI and IDE technologies were young and immature, and ST-506 was neither fast nor flexible enough. ESDI could handle data rates of 10, 15, or 20 Mbit/s (as opposed to ST-506's top speed of 7.5 Mbit/s), and many high-end SCSI drives of the era were actually high-end ESDI drives with SCSI bridges integrated on the drive.
By 1990, SCSI had matured enough to handle high data rates and multiple types of drives, and ATA was quickly overtaking ST-506 in the desktop market. These two events made ESDI less and less important over time, and by the mid-1990s, ESDI was no longer in common use.
Connector pinouts
References
Micropolis ESDI X3.170-90 Interface Specification
ESDI Specification, Magnetic Peripherals Inc, 1984
IBM ESDI Fixed Disk Drive Adapter/A Technical Reference
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|
218208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESDI | ESDI | ESDI may refer to:
ESDi School of Design, at University Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
Enhanced Small Disk Interface, a computer disk interface
European Security and Defence Identity, a European initiative in NATO overseen by the Western European Union
Escola Superior de Desenho Industrial, at Rio de Janeiro State University, Brazil | [
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218211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist%20Catholicism | Traditionalist Catholicism | Traditionalist Catholicism is characterized by beliefs, practices, customs, traditions, liturgical forms, devotions, and presentations of Catholic teaching that preceded the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). It is associated in particular with attachment to the Tridentine Mass, which traditionalist Catholics call "the Latin Mass", "the traditional Mass", "the ancient Mass", "the immemorial Latin Mass", "the Mass of All Time", "the Mass of the ages" or "the Mass of the Apostles", "the Traditional Latin Mass", or "the Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite".
Traditionalist Catholics were disturbed by the liturgical changes that followed the Second Vatican Council, which they feel stripped the liturgy of its outward sacredness and made it too Protestant, eroding faith in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Many also oppose the social teachings given by the Church during and after the Council, and see the teaching on ecumenism as blurring the distinction between Catholicism and other Christians. Traditional Catholics generally practice a modest style of dressing and teach a complementarian view of gender roles.
History
Towards the end of the Second Vatican Council, Father Gommar DePauw came into conflict with Cardinal Lawrence Shehan, Archbishop of Baltimore, over the interpretation of the council's teachings, particularly about liturgical matters. In January 1965, DePauw incorporated an organization called the Catholic Traditionalist Movement in New York State, purportedly with the support of Cardinal Francis Spellman, Archbishop of New York.
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, conservative Catholics opposed to or uncomfortable with the social and liturgical changes brought about by the Second Vatican Council began to coalesce. In 1973, the Orthodox Roman Catholic Movement (ORCM) was founded by two priests, Francis E. Fenton and Robert McKenna, that set up chapels in many parts of North America for the preservation of the Tridentine Mass. Those priests that participated in this were listed as being on a leave of absence by their bishops, who disapproved of their actions. In 1970, French Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre founded the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), made up of priests who would say only the Traditional Latin Mass and who stood opposed to what he saw as excessive liberal influences in the Church. Over time, Lefebvre's movement grew despite split-offs by various offshoot groups, such as the Istituto Mater Boni Consilii (IMBC), a sedeprivationist religious congregation of clergy who were dissatisfied with the SSPX position of acknowledging John Paul II as an authentic pope but disobeying him. Sedeprivationists hold that the current occupant of the papal office is a duly-elected pope, but he lacks the authority and ability to teach or to govern unless he recants the changes brought by the Second Vatican Council.
Some Catholics, many never affiliated with Lefebvre, took the position of sedevacantism, which teaches Pope John XXIII and his successors are heretics and cannot therefore be considered popes, and that the new Church and new expressions of the sacraments are not valid. Other, marginal groups known as conclavists have elected their own popes in opposition to the men generally considered by the world to be the true popes. The Society of Saint Pius V (SSPV) broke off from Lefebvre over its objections to the SSPX's use of the missal of Pope John XXIII, preferring instead the missal in use prior to the post-1955 liturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII, and publicly questioning the legitimacy of the post-Vatican II popes. Lefebvre officially denounced these positions, but his movement still drew the suspicion of Roman authorities. In 1988, he and another bishop consecrated four men as bishops without papal permission, resulting in excommunication Latae sententiae for all six men directly involved, not of the Society.
Some members of the SSPX, unwilling to participate in what they considered schism, left and founded the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (FSSP), which celebrates the Traditional Latin Mass but in full communion with the Holy See. During the papacy of Pope Benedict XVI, numerous attempts were made to bring the SSPX back from its separation from the authority of the Church, including the lifting of the excommunications on the four surviving bishops by Pope Benedict XVI in 2009. These efforts failed, but the efforts of the SSPX to negotiate with Rome led to the establishment of the minority SSPX Resistance.
Different types
Traditionalist Catholics may be divided into four broad groups.
In good standing with the Holy See
Since the Second Vatican Council, several traditionalist organizations have been started with or have subsequently obtained approval from the Catholic Church. These organizations accept in principle the documents of the Second Vatican Council, and regard the changes associated with the Council (such as the revision of the Mass) as legitimate, if often prudentially unwise, but celebrate the older forms with the approval of the Holy See.
Priestly Fraternity of St Peter (FSSP)
Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest (ICRSS, ICKSP)
Sons of the Most Holy Redeemer (FSSR)
Institute of the Good Shepherd (IBP)
Servants of Jesus and Mary (Servi Jesu et Mariae, SJM)
Canons Regular of the New Jerusalem (CRNJ)
Canons Regular of Saint John Cantius (SJC)
Canons Regular of Saint Thomas Aquinas
Canons Regular of the Holy Cross
Fraternity of Saint Vincent Ferrer
Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney (PAASJV)
Miles Christi (MC)
Missionaries of Saint John the Baptist (MSJB)
There are also multiple monastic communities, including
Monastery of Our Lady of the Annunciation of Clear Creek
Monastery of St. Benedict in Norcia
Monks of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel
Monastery of Our Lady of the Cenacle
Le Barroux Abbey
See Communities using the Tridentine Mass for a more detailed list.
In addition, many traditionalist Catholics in good standing with Rome are served by local diocesan or religious priests who are willing and able to offer the traditional rites. Many other Catholics who sympathize with or who identify themselves as traditionalist are not able to attend the traditional liturgy regularly because it is not offered in their area (at least not with regular canonical standing) and attend the Mass of Paul VI, the current ordinary or normal Roman Rite of Mass following the Second Vatican Council. Others may attend the liturgies of Eastern Catholic Churches, if they are available. There are also numerous local and international lay organizations of traditionalist Catholics, such as the youth-groups of Juventutem.
Communities viewed by the Holy See as having irregular status
Some traditionalists receive the Sacraments from priests considered suspended a divinis by Church authorities, though these priests and the Catholics that flock to them affirm their loyalty to the Church, while at the same time affirming that teachings of the Second Vatican Council on ecumenism, religious liberty, and collegiality are inconsistent with Catholic teaching and doctrine. They form what Julie Byrne terms the right wing of independent Catholicism: "Independents vary widely, ranging from right to left in the political spectrum. On the right traditionalist churches practice versions of Catholicism more conservative than Rome. These include the Society of St. Pius X, founded by Marcel Lefebvre, as well as the Mount St. Michael's community in Spokane, Washington, and actor Mel Gibson's church in Malibu, California, which made headlines when he directed the movie, The Passion of the Christ, in 2004.
The largest priestly society to fit this description is the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), which was founded in 1970, with the authorisation of the bishop of Lausanne, Geneva and Fribourg, by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre. Members of this category view many of the post-Conciliar changes as doctrinally and pastorally unacceptable. They recognise the official Church hierarchy, while generally functioning independently of them and rejecting some decisions which they perceive as inconsistent with the Catholic faith, or ineffective in terms of catechesis and how the Catholic faith is passed down. This way of acting draws accusations of disloyalty and disobedience from many, including from members of the preceding groups that are recognised by the Holy See; on the other hand, the SSPX and groups like them consider their accusers guilty of blind obedience, which is not imposed by—and can be contrary to—the requirements of Catholic faith and morals. Discussions between the SSPX and the Holy See have been in progress for some years. In January 2009 the Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops remitted the excommunications which the Congregation had declared to have been incurred by the Society's bishops in 1988. Bishop Bernard Fellay of the Society expressed his gratitude for this act, though the Society has always held that the excommunications never took effect in the first place (citing canon 1323, §4, canon 1323, 7 and canon 1324, §3; §1, 8 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law). The Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops further expressed the hope that the Society would speedily return to "full communion" with the Church by showing "true fidelity and true acknowledgment of the Magisterium and the authority of the pope".
The SSPX rejects the notion of "full" and "partial" communion with the Church, insisting that they belong to the Church according to the criteria given by Pope Pius XII, because they have the same faith, celebrate the same Sacraments, and recognise the same hierarchy of the Church. More recently, the Vatican has granted priests of the SSPX the authority to hear confessions and has authorised local ordinaries, in certain circumstances, to grant delegation to SSPX priests to act as the qualified witness required for valid celebration of marriage. In each of these documents the hope was expressed that thereby "the process towards full institutional regularisation may be facilitated".
Sedeprivationists
Sedeprivationists hold that the current occupant of the papal office is a duly-elected pope, but he lacks the authority and ability to teach or to govern unless he recants the changes brought by the Second Vatican Council. Sedeprivationists teach that the popes from Pope John XXIII onward fall into this category.
Traditionalist Catholic groups that espouse sedeprivationism include the Istituto Mater Boni Consilii, as well as the Orthodox Roman Catholic Movement among others.
Sedevacantists
Sedevacantists hold that the Vatican II popes have forfeited their position through their acceptance of heretical teachings connected with the Second Vatican Council and consequently there is at present no known true pope. They conclude, on the basis of their rejection of the revised Mass rite and their rejection of certain aspects of postconciliar Church teaching as false, that the popes involved are also false. This is a minority position among traditionalist Catholics and a highly divisive one, so that many who hold it prefer to say nothing of their view, while other sedevacantists have accepted episcopal ordination from sources such as Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục.
The terms sedevacantist and sedevacantism derive from the Latin phrase sede vacante ("while the chair/see [of Saint Peter] is vacant"), a term normally applied to the period between the death or resignation of one pope and the election of his successor.
The best-known, and likely best-organized Sedevacantist organization is the Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (CMRI). Many often refer to the Society of Saint Pius V (SSPV) as being a Sedevacantist organization as well; however, it has never formally adopted this position and considers the question of the validity of recent Papacies to be unresolved.
Conclavists
Conclavism is the belief and practice of some who, claiming that all recent occupants of the papal see are not true popes, elect someone else and propose him as the true pope to whom the allegiance of Catholics is due. They are often classified as sedevacantists because they reject the official papal succession for the same reasons. Conclavist groups include the
"True Catholic Church", founded by Lucian Pulvermacher ("Pope Pius XIII")
Palmarian Catholic Church, founded by Clemente Domínguez y Gómez ("Pope Gregory XVII")
Pope Michael
Positions
Traditionalist Catholics believe that they are preserving Catholic orthodoxy by not accepting all changes introduced since the Second Vatican Council, changes that some of them have described as amounting to a "veritable revolution". They claim that the positions now taken by mainstream Catholics—even conservative Catholics—would have been considered "modernist" or "liberal" at the time of the Council, and that they themselves hold positions that were then considered "conservative" or "traditional".
Many traditionalists further believe that errors have crept into the presentation and understanding of Catholic teachings since the time of the Council. They attribute the blame for this to liberal interpretations of the documents produced by the Second Vatican Council, to harmful post-conciliar pastoral decisions, to the text of the conciliar documents themselves, or to some combination of these.
Most traditionalists view the Council as a valid, albeit problematic, Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church, though most sedevacantists regard it as wholly invalid. It is common for traditionalists in dispute with Rome to affirm that the Council was "pastoral", and hence that its decrees were not absolutely binding on Catholics in the same way as the dogmatic decrees of other Ecumenical Councils. Support for this view is sought in Pope John XXIII's Opening Address to the Council, Pope Paul VI's closing address, statements from Pope Benedict XVI, and the lack of formal dogmatic definitions in the Conciliar documents.
Pope Benedict XVI contrasted the "hermeneutic of discontinuity and rupture" that some apply to the Council (an interpretation adopted both by certain traditionalists and by certain "progressives") with the "hermeneutic of reform, as it was presented first by Pope John XXIII in his Speech inaugurating the Council on 11 October 1962 and later by Pope Paul VI in his Discourse for the Council's conclusion on 7 December 1965." He made a similar point in a speech to the bishops of Chile in 1988, when he was still Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger:
[Archbishop Lefebvre] declared that he has finally understood that the agreement he signed aimed only at integrating his foundation into the 'Conciliar Church'. The Catholic Church in union with the Pope is, according to him, the 'Conciliar Church' which has broken with its own past. It seems indeed that he is no longer able to see that we are dealing with the Catholic Church in the totality of its Tradition, and that Vatican II belongs to that.
Responding to a comment that some consider tradition in a rigid way, Pope Francis remarked in 2016 that "there’s a traditionalism that is a rigid fundamentalism; this is not good. Fidelity on the other hand implies growth. In transmitting the deposit of faith from one epoch to another, tradition grows and consolidates itself with the passing of time, as St Vincent of Lérins said [...] 'The dogma of the Christian religion too must follow these laws. It progresses, consolidates itself with the years, developing itself with time, deepening itself with age'.”
There is some tension between different traditionalist groups at the official level: the SSPX, for example, condemns the FSSP and attendance at its Masses and is also often in conflict with other traditionalists. In fact, the common denominator that is held by all the groups identifying as traditionalist is love of the traditional form of the Mass and the other sacraments, traditional devotions, a handful of teachings that they claim have become obscured since the Second Vatican Council, and, usually, suspicion of modern "neoconservative" Catholicism, which is viewed as shallow, ahistorical, and intellectually dishonest. On other questions, there are a variety of opinions.
Many traditionalist Catholics associate themselves with a particular priestly society. Other small groups of traditionalists sometimes form around an individual "independent" priest who has no ties with any particular organisation.
Some leaders of Independent Catholic Churches also claim to be traditionalist Catholics and to be preserving the Tridentine Mass and ancient traditions. Examples are the Apostolic Catholic Church, the Canonical Old Roman Catholic Church, and the Fraternité Notre-Dame.
Traditionalists' statements of discontinuity and rupture
Traditionalists' claims that substantive changes have taken place in Catholic teaching and practice since the Council often crystallise around the following specific alleged examples, in which others see not what Pope Benedict XVI called "discontinuity and rupture", but what he called "renewal in the continuity of the one subject-Church which the Lord has given to us":
A new ecclesiology which they claim fails to recognise the Catholic Church as the one true church established by Jesus Christ, and instead holds that the Roman Catholic Church is some sub-set of the Church founded by Christ. They see some of the confusion as stemming from an unclear understanding of the phrase "subsists in" which appears in the Vatican II document Lumen gentium, and which the Church has declared applies uniquely to the Catholic Church and means the "perduring, historical continuity and permanence of all the elements instituted by Christ in the Catholic Church, in which the Church of Christ is concretely found on this earth". They claim that this "new ecclesiology" contradicts Pope Pius XII's Mystici corporis Christi and other papal documents.
A new ecumenism which they see as aiming at a false pan-Christian religious unity which does not require non-Catholics to convert to the Catholic faith. They see this as contradicting the teachings of the Bible, Pope Pius XI's Mortalium animos, Pope Pius XII's Humani generis and other documents. See also Traditionalist criticism of ecumenism and criticism of doctrine on relations with non-Christians.
In this connection, some traditionalist Catholics called it a blasphemy on the part of Pope Francis when, in 2017, the Philatelic Office of Vatican City State, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Protestant Reformation issued a postage stamp showing Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon kneeling with a penitential disposition on either side of the cross.
Acceptance of the principle of religious liberty as involving more than prudent religious tolerance, based on one interpretation of the Second Vatican Council's decree Dignitatis Humanae, allegedly in contradiction to Pope Pius IX's teachings in Quanta cura and the Syllabus of Errors.
A revision of the Mass liturgy of the Roman rite which, they affirm, de-emphasises the central Catholic doctrines that the Mass is a true sacrifice and that the bread and wine are changed through transubstantiation into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, that it has been stripped of important prayers, that it is centered on the congregation rather than on God, that it is less beautiful and spiritually edifying, and that it omits certain Bible readings that mention subjects such as hell, miracles, and sin. Traditionalists hold differing opinions on the validity and acceptability of the revised rite of Mass:
Some see it as valid, and as acceptable when necessary, though the older form should be attended when possible.
Some, including the leadership of the Society of St Pius X, hold that it is in principle valid as a sacramental rite but maintain that the revisions in the liturgy are displeasing to God, and that it is often celebrated improperly to the extent of being sacramentally invalid. They therefore generally refuse to attend it.
Some, including many sedevacantists, see it as categorically invalid in principle and entirely unacceptable.
Some hold that celebration of any modern-language translation even of the Tridentine Mass would have to be presumed invalid.
An inappropriate emphasis on the "dignity of man", which they claim ignores original sin and the need for supernatural grace, and which they also claim has led to a utopianism that sees world peace as possible without recognising the kingship of Christ. They see this orientation as contradicting Pope Pius XI's Quas primas, Pope Leo XIII's Rerum novarum, and other papal and conciliar documents.
A teaching on collegiality that attributes to the bishops of the world a share, with the Pope, of responsibility for the Church's governance in a way that they claim is destructive of papal authority and encourages a "national" church mentality that undermines the primacy of the Holy See. They also claim that national bishops' conferences, whose influence was greatly increased following the Council, "diminish the personal responsibility of bishop[s]" within their dioceses.
A new and critical attitude towards the Bible that, they say, contradicts Leo XIII's Providentissimus Deus and Benedict XV's Spiritus Paraclitus, among other documents.
A departure from the traditional belief that the Church and the world are at variance with one another to some degree, and that the Church has enemies. They believe that Pope Pius X's warnings in Pascendi Dominici gregis, Leo XIII's Humanum genus and other papal warnings against Freemasonry and other alleged enemies of Christianity have gone unheeded.
Example of one such claimant
Georges de Nantes, a priest of the Diocese of Grenoble and founder of the traditionalist Catholic League for Catholic Counter-Reformation, criticized the Second Vatican Council for encouraging ecumenism and reform of the Church, and accused Pope Paul VI of heresy and of turning the Church into a movement for advancing democracy, a system of government that de Nantes abhorred. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a notification on 10 August 1969, stating that, as de Nantes continued to maintain his views on the Council, the aggiornamento of the Church, the French episcopate, and the "heresies" of Pope Paul VI, he thereby "disqualified the entirety of his writings and his activities". It issued another notification in 1983, published on L'Osservatore Romano of 16–17 May of that year, stating that de Nantes had come to Rome to present a "Book of Accusation against Pope John Paul II for Heresy, Schism and Scandal", and that the Secretary of the Congregation had received him, as instructed by the Pope, but had refused to accept from him a book that contained unjustified gravely offensive accusations of the same character as those that de Nantes had directed against Pope Paul VI in a book published in 1973. It added that the refusal of de Nantes to retract his previous attacks on Pope Paul VI and the Second Vatican Council, to which he was now adding attacks on Pope John Paul II, made it impossible to believe in the sincerity of his declaration in 1978 and 1981 of a desire for the reconciliation for which the Pope remained always disposed.
Responses to traditionalists' statements
Those who in response to these criticisms by certain traditionalists defend the decisions of the Second Vatican Council and the subsequent changes made by the Holy See make the following counterclaims:
They say that the criticisms are false, exaggerated, or lacking appreciation of the organic character of Tradition, and give as examples traditionalist criticisms that Dignitatis humanae contradicts the Church's earlier teaching on religious liberty, and that the revised rite of Mass represents a break rather than a prudent development of the earlier liturgy.
They say that traditionalists who claim that there has been a break from and discontinuity with the Church's traditional teaching are displaying a Protestant attitude of "private judgement" on matters of doctrine, instead of accepting the guidance of the Magisterium of the Church.
They say that such traditionalists fail to distinguish properly between changeable pastoral practices (such as the liturgy of the Mass) and the unchangeable principles of the Catholic faith (such as the dogmas surrounding the Mass).
They say that traditionalists of this kind treat papal authority in much the same way as the dissident, liberal Catholics. While liberals believe that, on sexual matters, "the Pope can teach whatever he wants... but whether or not he should be listened to is very much an open question", the stance of certain traditionalists on the reform of the Mass liturgy and contemporary teachings on ecumenism and religious liberty amounts to the view that, on these issues, "faithful Catholics are always free to resist [the Pope's] folly.... As theories of religious dissent go, Catholic liberals couldn't ask for anything more."
The traditionalist claim that the Second Vatican Council was pastoral (and not infallible) is often countered by referring to Paul VI subsequently emphasizing the authoritative nature of the Council's teachings.
Reception
Integrism is traditionalist Catholicism that integrates social and political contexts. Kay Chadwick writes: "It would be naive to suppose that [Catholic integrism] does not harbour a political agenda. It is anti-Masonic, anti-liberal and anti-Communist. It finds a voice in the Right-wing press. ... The annual Joan of Arc procession in Paris brings together integrists and National Front supporters. The annual National Front party celebration is preceded by a Latin Mass, celebrated in the pre-1970 form. Just before his death in March 1988, Lefebvre was fined eight thousand francs by the Court of Appeal in Paris for 'racial defamation' and 'incitement to racial hatred', for publicly suggesting that immigrants, beginning with Muslims, should be expelled from Europe. In 1976, he declared his support for Latin American dictatorships. He was an admirer of Maurras and Pétain, and supported the cause of French Algeria."
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) used the term radical traditionalist Catholics to refer to those who "may make up the largest single group of serious anti-Semites in America, subscribe to an ideology that is rejected by the Vatican and some 70 million mainstream American Catholics. Many of their leaders have been condemned and even excommunicated by the official church." The SPLC claims that adherents of radical traditional Catholicism "routinely pillory Jews as 'the perpetual enemy of Christ'", reject the ecumenical efforts of the Vatican, and sometimes assert that all recent Popes are illegitimate. The SPLC says that adherents are "incensed by the liberalizing reforms" of the Second Vatican Council (1962–65) which condemned hatred for Jewish people and "rejected the accusation that Jews are collectively responsible for deicide in the form of the crucifixion of Christ" and that "Radical traditional Catholics" also embrace "extremely conservative social ideals with respect to women."
The SPLC clarifies, however, "Radical traditionalists are not the same as Catholics who call themselves 'traditionalists' — people who prefer the old Latin Mass to the mass now typically said in vernacular languages — although the radicals, as well, like their liturgy in Latin."
Practices
Rite of Mass
The best-known and most visible sign of Catholic traditionalism is an attachment to the form that the Roman Rite liturgy of the Mass had before the liturgical reform of 1969–1970, in the various editions of the Roman Missal published between 1570 and 1962. This form is generally known as the Tridentine Mass, though traditionalists usually prefer to call it the Traditional Mass. Many refer to it as the Latin Mass, though Latin is the language also of the official text of the post-Vatican II Mass, to which vernacular translations are obliged to conform, and canon law states that "the eucharistic celebration is to be carried out in the Latin language or in another language provided that the liturgical texts have been legitimately approved." In his 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum Pope Benedict XVI relaxed the regulations on use of the 1962 Missal, designating it "an" extraordinary form of the Roman Rite, as opposed to "the" ordinary or normal form, as revised successively by Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II. In 2021, Pope Francis promulgated Traditionis custodes, amending and abrogating parts of Summorum Pontificum.
Different traditionalist priests use different editions of the Roman Missal to celebrate the Tridentine Mass. Most, not only those in good standing with the Holy See but also such as those in the SSPX, use the 1962 edition, the only one that the Holy See authorises. A series of modifications to the 1962 liturgy introduced in 1965 are used by some traditionalists in good standing with Rome. This version of the liturgy is sometimes referred to as that of the "1965 Missal", though no new edition of the Roman Missal was in fact published in that year. The Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter, in an effort to get around the 1955 Holy Week reforms of Pius XII, which are part of the 1962 edition, has requested special permission from the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei for provisional use of the older Holy Week rites "ad experimentum," beginning in 2018 and running through Holy Week 2020, at which point it will be determined whether the Holy See will grant a broader permission.
Since sedevacantists consider John XXIII not to have been a Pope, they reject the 1962 typical edition of the Roman Missal, which he promulgated. They generally use the 1920 typical edition, updated to some date previous to 1962. The Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen follows the Missal as in 1955, accepting the changes introduced by Pius XII, but others reject his alteration of the calendar of saints and his revision of the rites of Holy Week. Thus these others reject John XXIII's 1962 edition, which most notably featured the addition of St. Joseph to the enumeration of saints in the Roman Canon, and Pius XII's changes, seeing these changes as steps that led to the post-Vatican II Mass. There are no reports of priests regularly using any typical edition of the Missal earlier than that of 1920, which incorporated the rubrical and calendar changes made by Pope Pius X in 1910.
Linked with the celebration of the Tridentine Mass is the observance of the liturgical calendar of saints' days as it existed before the revision of 1969 (see General Roman Calendar of 1960). Some also ignore the revisions of 1960 by Pope John XXIII, and of 1955 by Pope Pius XII, and use instead the General Roman Calendar of 1954.
Individual and private devotions
Many traditionalist Catholics lay stress on following customs prevailing immediately before the Second Vatican Council, such as the following:
Abstaining from meat on Fridays. Present discipline maintains Fridays and Lent as days and times of penance, declares that abstinence from meat or some other food as determined by the local episcopal conference is to be observed on all Fridays (excluding solemnities) and on Ash Wednesday, and allows episcopal conferences to permit other practices of personal penance to take the place of abstinence from meat.
Fasting from Midnight until the reception of Holy Communion. The traditional Catholic rule of fasting from midnight until the reception of Holy Communion (this Eucharistic Fast is from both food and liquids), which is required by the 1917 Code of Canon Law, was shortened in 1953 by Pope Pius XII to a 3-hour fast. In 1966, Pope Paul VI reduced the fast further to one hour, a rule included in the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Many traditional Catholics will thus fast from midnight until they receive Holy Communion at Mass, while others will keep a Eucharistic Fast for at least three hours.
Kneeling to receive Communion directly upon the tongue, under the Host species alone, and from the hand of a cleric rather than a layperson. Some would refuse to receive even from deacons, who, before the reforms of Pope Paul VI, were allowed to give Holy Communion only if there were a serious reason for permitting them to do so. Many traditionalists regard the practice of receiving communion in the hand, though ancient and authorised by the Holy See, as an abuse and as sacrilegious.
Women wearing a headcovering when praying at home and when worshipping inside a church, as St. Paul required in 1 Corinthians 11:1-17 and which the 1917 Code of Canon Law required. Accordingly, many traditionalist Catholic women wear a veil, a hat, or a headscarf when praying at home and when worshipping inside a church.
Frequent confession, a practice that grew in the first half of the 20th century, when increasingly frequent Communion led to more frequent confession.
Prayers such as the Stations of the Cross and the Rosary in the form in use in the mid-20th century, and so without the alterations in the number and identity of the Stations that became common, though by no means universal, in the time of Pope Paul VI and without the addition of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary given as an option by Pope John Paul II.
These practices are not confined to traditionalists: many mainstream Catholics also follow them. Likewise, they are not all followed by all traditionalist Catholics at all times.
Clothing and lifestyle
Traditional Catholics, with respect to male and female gender roles, adhere to the doctrine of complementarianism.
The standards of clothing among Traditional Catholics, based on instructions given by Pope Pius XI and consequently promoted by the Purity Crusade of Mary Immaculate, is referred to as "Mary-like Modesty", which includes for women, wearing sleeves "extending at least to the elbows" and "skirts reaching below the knees", as well as having a neckline no more than two inches with the rest of the bodice fully covered.
Richard Williamson, then a bishop of the Society of Saint Pius X, stated that "women's trousers, as worn today, short or long, modest or immodest, tight or loose, open or disguised (like the "culottes”), are an assault upon woman's womanhood and so they represent a deep-lying revolt against the order willed by God."
It is commonplace for women who identify as traditionalist Catholics to wear a head covering (veil) while praying at home and attending celebrations of the Mass.
The Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX) opposes the presence of television in the household, teaching that it is an occasion of sin.
In the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
Since the Second Vatican Council, various Eastern Catholic Churches have removed some practices and emphases that were derived from those of the Latin Church. Opposition to this has been given relatively high publicity with regard to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC).
Background
Even before the Second Vatican Council the Holy See declared it important to guard and preserve whole and entire forever the customs and distinct forms for administering the sacraments in use in the Eastern Catholic Churches (Pope Leo XIII, encyclical Orientalium Dignitas). Leo's successor Pope Pius X said that the priests of the newly created Russian Catholic Church should offer the Divine Liturgy Nec Plus, Nec Minus, Nec Aliter ("No more, No Less, No Different") than priests of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Old Believers.
In the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, liturgical de-latinization began with the 1930s corrections of the liturgical books by Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky. According to his biographer Cyril Korolevsky, Metropolitan Andrey opposed use of coercion against those who remained attached to Latin Rite practices, fearing that any attempt to do so would lead to a Greek-Catholic equivalent of the 1666 Schism within the Russian Orthodox Church.
De-latinization in the UGCC gained further momentum with the 1964 decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum of the Second Vatican Council) and several subsequent documents. Latinisations were discarded within the Ukrainian diaspora, while among Byzantine Catholics in Western Ukraine, forced into a clandestine existence following the Soviet ban on the UGCC, the latinizations remained, "an important component of their underground practices", in illegal parishes, seminaries, and religious communities. After proscription of the UGCC was lifted in 1989, priests and hierarchs arrived from the diaspora and began to enforce a liturgical conformity that met with opposition.
In response, many priests, nuns, and candidates for the priesthood found themselves, "forced towards the periphery of the church since 1989 because of their wish to 'keep the tradition'." In some eparchies, particularly those of Ivano-Frankivsk and Ternopil-Zboriv, the bishops would immediately suspend any priest who, "displayed his inclination toward 'traditionalist' practices".
Vlad Naumescu reports that an article in the February 2003 issue of Patriayarkhat, the official journal of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church, written by a student of the Ukrainian Catholic University, which since its 1994 foundation has been, "the strongest progressive voice within the Church". The article named priests and parishes in every eparchy in Ukraine as being involved in "a well-organized movement" and who described themselves as "traditionalists". According to the article, they constituted "a parallel structure" with connections with the Society of St. Pius X and with a charismatic leader in Fr. Basil Kovpak, the Pastor of St. Peter and Paul's Church in the suburb of Lviv-Riasne.
According to Vlad Naumescu, "Religious life in a traditionalist parish followed the model of the 'underground church.' Devotions were more intense, with each priest promoting his parish as a 'place of pilgrimage' for the neighboring areas, thus drawing larger crowds on Sunday than his local parish could provide. On Sundays and feast days, religious services took place three times a day (in Riasne), and the Sunday liturgy lasted for two and a half to three hours. The main religious celebrations took place outside the church in the middle of the neighborhood, and on every occasion traditionalists organized long processions through the entire locality. The community was strongly united by its common opponent, re-enacting the model of the 'defender of faith' common to times of repression. This model, which presupposes clear-cut attitudes and a firm moral stance, mobilized the community and reproduced the former determination of the 'underground' believers."
Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat
The Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat (SSJK), which operates a seminary, Basilian convent, and numerous parishes, receives priestly orders from the bishops of the SSPX. Its superior, Father Basil Kovpak, has accused the UGCC hierarchy of using intense psychological pressure against priests who are reluctant or unwilling to de-Latinise. He alleges that numerous laity, attached to the Latinisations since the Soviet persecution of the UGCC, would prefer to stay home on Sunday rather than attend a de-Latinised liturgy.
The SSJK opposes removal of the stations of the cross, the rosary and the monstrance from the liturgy and parishes of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. They also reject replacement of the UGCC's liturgical language, Old Church Slavonic, with the vernacular Ukrainian language. In his memoir Persecuted Tradition, Kovpak also mentions many examples of the UGCC turning away Orthodox clergy and laity who wish to convert to Eastern Catholicism. In many cases, he alleges, this is because the converts are not ethnically Ukrainian. Fr. Kovpak called this a betrayal of the efforts by Pope Pius X, Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky, and Exarch Leonid Feodorov to create the Russian Greek Catholic Church and to convert the Russian people.
In 2004, the year after the publication of Fr. Kovpak's book, Cardinal Lubomyr excommunicated Kovpak from the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Kovpak appealed this punishment at the papal Sacra Rota Romana in Vatican City and the excommunication was declared null and void for lack of canonical form.
In 2006, the SSJK got Latin Bishop Richard Williamson, at that time a member of the SSPX, to ordain two priests and seven deacons in Warsaw, Poland, an action that violated canons 1015 §2, 1021 and 1331 §2 of the Code of Canon Law and the corresponding canons of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.
Fr. John Jenkins, an SSPX priest who was present, later remarked, "We were all very edified by their piety, and I myself was astonished by the resemblance of the atmosphere amongst the seminarians with that which I knew in the seminary – this in spite of the difference of language, nationality and even rite."
Archeparch Ihor Vozniak of Lviv, the Archeparchy in which the PSSJ is most active, denounced the ordinations as a "criminal act", and condemned Fr. Kovpak's participation in the ceremony. He stressed that the two priests whom Bishop Williamson had ordained would not receive faculties within the Archeparchy. Officials of the Lviv archdiocese said that Kovpak could face excommunication, and that "'he deceives the church by declaring that he is a Greek (Byzantine) Catholic priest,' while supporting a group [SSPX] that uses the old Latin liturgy exclusively, eschewing the Byzantine tradition, and does not maintain allegiance to the Holy See."
Father Kovpak's excommunication process was restarted by the hierarchy of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church and was confirmed by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on 23 November 2007.
Sedevacantism and Conclavism in the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
On 3 March 2008 a group of Basilian priests stationed in Pidhirtsi, Ukraine, informed Pope Benedict XVI that four of them had been consecrated as bishops in order to save the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) from heresy and apostasy. On 11 August 2009, they announced the formation of the Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church as a "new Church structure for the orthodox faithful of the UGCC", professing the Catholic faith, including the primacy of the Roman Pontiff, and disassociating themselves from "contemporary heresies which destroy both the Eastern and the Western Church". Having elected Czech Basilian priest Fr. Anthony Elias Dohnal as "Patriarch Elijah", they declared on 1 May 2011 that both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI were excommunicated and that the Holy See was vacant (Sedevacantism). They added: "The Byzantine Catholic Patriarchate is now commissioned by God to protect the orthodox doctrine of the Catholic Church, including the Latin Church. Only after an orthodox Catholic hierarchy and an orthodox successor to the Papacy is elected, will the Patriarchate be relieved of this God-given duty."
On 29 September 2019, Patriarch Elijah of the UOGCC issued "an anathema [...] on 26 cardinals, 134 bishops and 99 priests, participants in the [...] Amazon Synod"
On 14 October 2019, the UOGCC broke with their former policy of Sedevacantism and embraced Conclavism. They announced they had elected Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, the former Apostolic Nuncio to the United States, as their Pope.
In a 2014 article in The New York Times about the UOGCC, Patriarch Elijah and his followers were alleged to be Pro-Russian, anti-Ukrainian, and violently opposed to the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution. In the same article, Kyr Ihor Vozniak, UGCC Archeparch of Lviv, was quoted as saying that the UOGCC is financed and secretly led by the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation in order to introduce anarchy and chaos into the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.
According to the Lviv-based newspaper Ekspres, Fr. Dohnal, alias Patriarch Elijah, was a KGB informer inside the Roman Catholic Diocese of Litoměřice before the Fall of Communism in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In support of their claims, Ekspres published a document identifying Fr. Dohnal as a KGB mole with the code name “Tonek.” The UOGCC denies the accusation.
Relations with the Holy See
The Holy See recognises as fully legitimate the preference that many Catholics have for the earlier forms of worship. This was apparent in Pope John Paul II's 1988 apostolic letter Ecclesia Dei and Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum. Naturally, however, the Holy See does not extend its approval to those who take a stand against the present-day Church leadership, which is reiterated in Traditionis Custodes.
Ecclesia Dei Commission
The Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei was founded in July 1988 in the wake of Pope John Paul II's apostolic letter Ecclesia Dei. Pope Benedict XVI was a member of the Commission during his tenure as Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
Speaking on 16 May 2007 to the Fifth General Conference of the Bishops of Latin America and the Caribbean, Cardinal Castrillón, the current head of the Commission, stated that his department had been founded for the care of those "traditionalist Catholics" who, while discontented with the liturgical reform of the Second Vatican Council, had broken with Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, "because they disagreed with his schismatic action in ordaining Bishops without the required papal mandate". He added that at present the Commission's activity is not limited to the service of those Catholics, nor to "the efforts undertaken to end the regrettable schismatic situation and secure the return of those brethren belonging to the Fraternity of Saint Pius X to full communion." It extends also, he said, to "satisfying the just aspirations of people, unrelated to the two aforementioned groups, who, because of their specific sensitiveness, wish to keep alive the earlier Latin liturgy in the celebration of the Eucharist and the other sacraments."
In the same speech Cardinal Castrillón indicated that it was intended to make the Commission an organ of the Holy See for the purpose of preserving and maintaining the traditional liturgy; at the same time he stated that this was not with the purpose of "going backward, of returning to the times before the 1970 reform.... The Holy Father wishes to preserve the immense spiritual, cultural and aesthetic treasure linked with the old liturgy. Recovery of these riches goes together with the no less precious riches of the Church's present liturgy." In 2019, Pope Francis suppressed this commission and transferred its responsibilities directly to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
Summorum Pontificum
Following months of rumour and speculation, Pope Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum in July 2007. The Pope ruled that priests of the Latin Rite can freely choose between the 1962 Roman Missal and the later edition "in Masses celebrated without the people". Such celebrations may be attended by those who spontaneously ask to be allowed. Priests in charge of churches can permit stable groups of laypeople attached to the earlier form to have Mass celebrated for them in that form, provided that the celebrating priest is "qualified to [celebrate] and not juridically impeded" (this would exclude traditionalist priests not in good standing with Rome). In 2021, Pope Francis issued Traditionis custodes, which severely restricted the use of the Extraordinary Form for those not addressed by Ecclesia Dei.
The document, as well as being welcomed by the traditionalist groups that have been in good relations with Rome, has been considered by groups such as the Sons of the Most Holy Redeemer, which have been in dispute with Rome, to be sufficient grounds for seeking an agreement. The Society of Saint Pius X welcomed the document, but referred to "difficulties that still remain", including "disputed doctrinal issues" and the notice of excommunication that still affected its bishops. Sedevacantists of course consider all documents issued by Benedict XVI to be devoid of canonical force.
Validity of holy orders
The conferring of holy orders may be valid but illicit. The Catholic Church obviously considers the orders of traditionalist clergy who are in good standing with the Holy See, such as the clergy of the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter, to be both valid and licit. It sees as valid but illicit the orders of the bishops and priests of the Society of Saint Pius X, and accordingly considers them to be forbidden by law to exercise priestly offices, but still technically priests. As for the "independent" traditionalists, whether bishops or priests, it certainly sees their ordination as illicit, but its judgement on the validity is less clear. The Holy See declared devoid of canonical effect the consecration ceremony conducted by Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục for the Carmelite Order of the Holy Face group at midnight of 31 December 1975, while expressly refraining from pronouncing on its validity. It made the same statement with regard also to any later ordinations that those bishops might confer, saying that, "as for those who have already thus unlawfully received ordination or any who may yet accept ordination from these, whatever may be the validity of the orders (quidquid sit de ordinum validitate), the Church does not and will not recognise their ordination (ipsorum ordinationem), and will consider them, for all legal effects, as still in the state in which they were before, except that the ... penalties remain until they repent."
Traditionalists themselves are divided on the question of the validity of the orders conferred using the rite promulgated by Pope Paul VI in 1968. Those who deny or put in doubt the validity of the sacramental liturgies as revised after the Second Vatican Council pass the same negative judgement on all such ordinations. The Society of Saint Pius V split from that of Saint Pius X for reasons that included Archbishop Lefebvre's acceptance of priests ordained according to the revised sacramental rites as members of the traditionalist Society that he founded.
Demographics
Estimates of the number of traditionalist Catholics vary. Catholic World News reported that "the Vatican" estimated the number of those served by the Fraternity of St Peter, the Society of St Pius X and similar groups at "close to 1 million". Various sources estimate the adherents of the Society of St Pius X alone at 1 million. No major religious survey has ever made an attempt to sample and enumerate subsets of Catholics by their position on a liberal to mainstream conservative to traditionalist and sedevacantist continuum, so any figures on the numbers of traditionalist Catholics must by necessity be more or less educated guesses.
The SSPX had priests resident in 37 countries and priests on mission in 35 more in 2018. The next largest, the FSSP, served 129 dioceses in the previous year and were in charge of 40 personal parishes. A large share of their members in each case are stationed in France. Two smaller societies, the SSPV and CMRI, are based in the United States.
List of groups
This is a list of notable traditionalist Catholic groups. Some are in full communion with the Holy See, and some have irregular status, according to doctrines and disciplines of the Catholic Church.
Canonically regular traditionalist groups
Canons Regular of Saint John Cantius
Canons Regular of the New Jerusalem
Foederatio Internationalis Una Voce
Fœderatio Internationalis Juventutem
Fraternity of Saint Vincent Ferrer
Heralds of the Gospel
Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest (ICRSS, ICKSP)
Institute of the Good Shepherd
Latin Mass Society of England and Wales
Militia Templi; The Poor Knights of Christ also called the Order of the Poor Knights of Christ (), a lay order formed on 21 September 1979 with headquarters at the Castello della Magione, Poggibonsi, Italy
Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney
Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter (FSSP)
Servants of the Holy Family (Servi Sanctae Familiae, SSF)
Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Still River, MA group only)
Sons of the Most Holy Redeemer
Canonically irregular traditionalist groups
Fraternite Notre Dame
Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat
Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX)
Sedevacantist groups
Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (Congregatio Mariae Reginae Immaculatae, CMRI)
Society of Saint Pius V
Priestly Society of Trent
Sedeprivationist groups
Istituto Mater Boni Consilii
Orthodox Roman Catholic Movement
Conclavist groups
Palmarian Catholic Church
Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church
See also
Doctrinal and liturgical issues
Cafeteria Catholicism
Counter-Reformation
Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus
Feeneyism
Second Vatican Council
Mass of Paul VI
Sedevacantism
Tridentine Mass
Catholic fundamentalism
Comparable phenomena in other churches
Old Believers, a comparable phenomenon in the Russian Orthodox Church which dates back to the 17th century
True Orthodoxy, Old Calendarism and the Catacomb Church – comparable phenomena in the Eastern Orthodox Church which date back to the 1920s
Continuing Anglican movement, a comparable phenomenon in the Anglican Communion
Confessing Movement, a similar movement in Mainline Protestant denominations
Other
Old Catholicism, which started around comparable circumstances surrounding papal infallibility and the First Vatican Council
Independent Catholicism
List of traditionalist Catholics by nationality
Criticism of traditionalist Catholics
Freedom of religion in Germany § Censorship, for a discussion about a traditionalist Catholic news service which was shut down
The Remnant – an American newspaper which is dedicated to traditionalist themes
References
Further reading
Peter Jan Margry (2019), 'The Global Network of Deviant Revelatory Marian Movements', in: Chris Maunder (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Mary (New York: Oxford University Press, p. 662-683; ISBN 978-0-198792550.
Hull, Geoffrey (2010). The Banished Heart: Origins of Heteropraxis in the Catholic Church, 1995, rpt. T&T Clark/Continuum, London.
Jungmann, Joseph, (1951) The Mass Of The Roman Rite : Its Origins and Development (Missarum Sollemnia) Volume 1 of 2 Allen, TX: Christian Classics Replica edition 1986
External links
International Federation Una Voce The main international organisation of Traditionalists considered regular by the Holy See
The Society of St. Pius X The largest traditionalist body considered irregular by the Holy See
The Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei The Vatican department which deals with relations with traditionalists
Media
Video of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre's 1988 consecration of Bernard Tissier de Mallerais, Richard Williamson, Bernard Fellay, and Alfonso de Galarreta as bishops of the Society of St. Pius X
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|
218220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinuxFocus%20%28magazine%29 | LinuxFocus (magazine) | LinuxFocus was a bi-monthly webzine covering Linux. It was part of the Linux Documentation Project, and a sister webzine of the Linux Gazette. Each issue was published in a number of languages and was distributed free.
History and profile
LinuxFocus was started in November 1997 by Miguel Angel Sepulveda, primarily as a resource for Linux users in non-English speaking countries. Later, Guido Socher became project leader. The last article was published in 2005.
LinuxFocus is issued under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
See also
Computer magazine
References
External links
LinuxFocus
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Online magazines published in the United States
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Free magazines
Linux magazines
Magazines established in 1997
Magazines disestablished in 2005
Multilingual magazines | [
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|
218221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20Gazette | Linux Gazette | The Linux Gazette was a monthly self-published Linux computing webzine, published between July 1995 and June 2011. Its content was published under the Open Publication License.
History
It was started in July 1995 by John M. Fisk as a free service. He went on to pursue his studies and become a medical doctor. At Mr. Fisk's request, the publication was sponsored and managed by SSC (Specialized System Consultants, who at that time were also publishers of Linux Journal). The content was always provided by volunteers, including most of the editorial oversight.
After those years, the volunteer staff and the management of SSC had a schism (see Bifurcation below). Both the volunteer-run magazine and the magazine run by SSC has been closed down.
One way Linux Gazette differed from other, similar, webzines (and magazines) was The Answer Gang. In addition to providing a regular page devoted to questions and answers, questions to The Answer Gang were answered on a mailing list, and the subsequent conversations are edited and published as conversations. This started with an arrangement between Marjorie Richardson and Jim Dennis (whom she dubbed "The Answer Guy"). She'd forward questions to him; he'd answer them to the original querent and copy her on the reply; then, she'd gather up all of those, and include them in the monthly help desk column.
With its motto, "Making Linux just a little more fun", the magazine always had a finger on the pulse of Linux's open, collaborating, and sharing culture.
The last issue (#186) was published in June 2011.
Bifurcation
Fisk transferred the management of the Linux Gazette to SSC (under Phil Hughes) in 1996 in order to pursue medical studies, on the understanding that the publication would continue to be open, free, and non-commercial.
In October 2003, the Linux Gazette split into two competing groups. The staff of LinuxGazette.net, however, said that their decision to start their own version of Linux Gazette was due to several factors: SSC's assertion that Linux Gazette would no longer be edited or released in monthly issues, as well as the removal of material from older issues without notifying the authors.
SSC attempted to assert trademark claims over the publication. LinuxGazette.net contributing editor Rick Moen, however, addressed this claim in an article for LinuxGazette.net:
The very same day it received our notice of the magazine's departure, SSC, Inc. suddenly filed a US $300 fee and trademark application #78319880 with the USA Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), requesting registration of the name "Linux Gazette" as a service mark. On that form, SSC certified that it had used the mark in commerce starting August 1, 1996. ... SSC's recent legal claim to hegemony over the name “Linux Gazette” strikes us as outrageously unmerited, and cheeky.
Starting May 30, 2004, the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) Trademark Electronic Business Center's TDR (Text Document Retrieval) online record showed a USPTO "Office Action" on application #78319880, summarily refusing registration on grounds that the proposed mark "merely describes the subject matter and nature of the applicant's goods and/or services", and also because publishing a journal is not per se a "service" within the meaning of the term in trademark law (SSC having not provided descriptive evidence or arguments to counter that presumption). The notice gave SSC six months to cure these deficiencies. On Dec. 27, 2004, USPTO's follow-up Notice of Abandonment ruled that "The trademark application below was abandoned because a response to the Office Action mailed on 05-30-2004 was not received within the 6-month response period", adding that any request for reinstatement would have to be received within two additional months. On Jan. 6, 2005, USPTO noted return of its Notice of Abandonment by the post office: "Not deliverable as addressed. Unable to forward."
The magazine run by SSC was closed down, and for an undisclosed reason the volunteer-run magazine was also abandoned. In early 2006, SSC closed the Web site at LinuxGazette.com, and made it an HTTP redirect to the Linux Journal site.
References
External links
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Online magazines published in the United States
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Linux magazines
Linux websites
Magazines established in 1995
Magazines disestablished in 2011
Online computer magazines | [
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|
218225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley%20Crabtree | Shirley Crabtree | Shirley Crabtree (14 November 1930 – 2 December 1997), better known as Big Daddy, was an English professional wrestler with a record-breaking 64-inch chest. He worked for Joint Promotions and the original British Wrestling Federation. Initially appearing on television as a heel, he teamed with Giant Haystacks. After splitting with Haystacks, he became a fan favourite and the top star of Joint Promotions from the late 1970s to the early 1990s.
Early life
He was the first child of a burly blacksmith's daughter and weighed about twelve pounds at birth.. He was given the name Shirley, like his father, who was a professional player of rugby league for Halifax R.L.F.C. and part of the team that won the Challenge Cup at Wembley in 1931. Shirley was traditionally a man's name but had become popular as a girl's name following the Brontë novel, Shirley. In the 1930s, the name was especially associated with the child movie-star, Shirley Temple, and so the boy was teased and bullied at school. His father abandoned the family when his son was seven, and so the bullying toughened up the young Crabtree in the manner portrayed by "A Boy Named Sue",
Professional wrestling career
Early career
Crabtree decided to follow in the footsteps of his father, Shirley Crabtree Sr., becoming a professional wrestler in 1952. He first became popular in the late 1950s, and early 1960s as a blue-eye billed as "Blond Adonis Shirley Crabtree." He won the European Heavyweight Championship in Joint Promotions and a disputed branch of the British Heavyweight title in the independent British Wrestling Federation before he quit in 1966 following a (non-kayfabe) campaign of harassment at wrestling shows by former champion Bert Assirati. He retired for roughly six years. During the 1960s Crabtree owned an underground nightclub in Bradford which is now called Sunbridge Wells.
Comeback
In 1972, Crabtree returned to Joint Promotions as a villain with a gimmick of the Battling Guardsman based on his former service with the Coldstream Guards. It was during this period that he made his first appearances on World of Sport on ITV.
Not long afterwards, Shirley's brother, Max, was appointed as Northern area booker with Joint Promotions and began to transform Crabtree into the persona for which he would be best remembered. Based originally on the character of the same name played by actor Burl Ives in the first screen adaptation of Tennessee Williams' Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958), 'Big Daddy' was first given life by Crabtree in late 1974, initially still as a villain. The character's leotards were emblazoned with just a large "D" and were fashioned by his wife Eunice from their chintz sofa. The character first gained attention in mid-1975 when he formed a tag team with TV newcomer Giant Haystacks and together they became notorious for crushing blue eye opponents. However, during this period, Daddy began to be cheered for the first time since his comeback when he entered into a feud with masked villain Kendo Nagasaki, especially when he pulled off Nagasaki's mask during a televised contest from Solihull in December 1975 (although the unmasked Nagasaki quickly won the bout moments later).
By the middle of 1977, Daddy had completed his transformation into a blue eye, a change cemented by the breakdown of his tag team with Haystacks and a subsequent feud between the two which would last until the early 1990s. A firm fans' favourite particularly amongst children, Big Daddy came to the ring in either a sequinned cape or a Union Flag jacket and top hat. In addition to his feud with Haystacks, Daddy also feuded with Canadian wrestler 'Mighty' John Quinn. He headlined Wembley Arena with singles matches against Quinn in 1979 and Haystacks in 1981. Later in the 1980s he feuded with Dave "Fit" Finlay, Drew McDonald and numerous other villains.
In August 1987 at the Hippodrome circus in Great Yarmouth, Big Daddy performed in a tag team match pitting himself and nephew Steve Crabtree (billed as "Greg Valentine") against King Kong Kirk and King Kendo. After Big Daddy had delivered a splash and pinned King Kong Kirk, rather than selling the impact of the finishing move, Kirk turned an unhealthy colour and was rushed to a nearby hospital where he was pronounced dead on arrival. Despite the fact that the inquest into Kirk's death found that he had a serious heart condition and cleared Crabtree of any responsibility, Crabtree was devastated.
He continued to make regular appearances into the early 1990s, but he eventually retired from wrestling altogether in 1993 to spend the remainder of his days in his home town of Halifax. During his career, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Queen Elizabeth II said they were fans of 'Big Daddy'.
Personal life
Crabtree was a professional rugby league footballer for Bradford Northern, and Halifax (Heritage No. 364). His temper often forced him off the pitch early. He also had stints as a coal miner and with the British Army's Coldstream Guards.
Crabtree's 64-inch chest earned him a place in the Guinness Book of Records.
His brother Brian Crabtree was a wrestling referee and later MC, while his younger brother Max was a booker for – and later proprietor of – Joint Promotions. His nephews Steve and Scott Crabtree also had wrestling careers – Steve wrestled in the 1980s, and 1990s, billed as 'Greg Valentine' (named after the American wrestler of the same name) while Scott wrestled as Scott Valentine. Both worked as tag team partners for their uncle. Another nephew; Eorl Crabtree is a former rugby league footballer for England and the Huddersfield Giants.
Crabtree died of a stroke in December 1997 in Halifax General Hospital. He was survived by his second wife of 31 years, Eunice and six children.
Other media
Big Daddy had his own comic strip in Buster during the early 1980s drawn by Mike Lacey. In 1982 ITV planned to build a TV programme around 'Big Daddy' as a replacement for the popular children's Saturday morning Tiswas show. A pilot for Big Daddy's Saturday Show was shot and a series announced but Crabtree pulled out at the last moment, leaving the hastily renamed The Saturday Show presented by Isla St Clair and Tommy Boyd.
A stage play by Brian Mitchell and Joseph Nixon, Big Daddy vs Giant Haystacks premiered at the Brighton Festival Fringe in East Sussex, England between 26–28 May 2011 and subsequently toured Great Britain.
Big Daddy features on Luke Haines' 2011 album 9½ Psychedelic Meditations on British Wrestling of the 1970s, and early '80s as the owner of a Casio VL-Tone synthesizer.
Championships and accomplishments
British Wrestling Federation
British Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
European Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Notes
External links
Obituary in The Independent
BBC.co.uk's h2g2 article – The Immortal Legends of British Professional Wrestling
1930 births
1997 deaths
Coldstream Guards soldiers
English male professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from Halifax, West Yorkshire
Bradford Bulls players
Crabtree family | [
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|
218230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20survival%20syndrome | Urban survival syndrome | The urban survival syndrome, in United States jurisprudence, can be used either as a defense of justification or of excuse. The first case using, unsuccessfully, the defense of "urban survival syndrome" is the 1994 Fort Worth, Texas murder trial of Daimion Osby.
The use of the urban survival syndrome as a defense to criminal charges followed the success of the battered woman syndrome defense in State v. Kelly (1984), which was based on the acceptance that the presence of such a syndrome may cause the defendant, a victim of domestic violence, to reasonably believe she was in peril and was therefore justified in using deadly force, given the circumstances.
Defense
As an excuse defense, the urban survival syndrome is presented as a version of the abuse defense. Here an individual experiencing the daily life of racial segregation and violence common in many inner cities in the United States causes a subjective state equivalent to that caused by survival in a violent battleground of war. As such it leads to a condition similar to a syndrome already recognized in both psychological and psychiatric practices, that is, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
As a justification defense, the urban survival syndrome is offered to bolster self-defense claims in which a defendant argues that he or she should not be held criminally responsible for actions which broke the law, as the defendant was objectively reasonable in believing his or her lethal actions were necessary for survival. In this case, the act would be termed justifiable homicide. A defense of justification is a codification of the common law defense of necessity.
History
State v. Brown
In State v. Brown, 91 N.M. 320, 573, P.2d 675 (N.M. 1977), the court was dealing with a similar situation to that of Osby, and a justification defense was used. The term, urban survival syndrome, had not yet come into being. Brown, a black man living in an inner city neighborhood, was charged with two counts of assault with intent to kill upon a police officer. Brown said that he was in fear of the police officers and acted in self-defense when he shot them. The court allowed defense witnesses to describe the verbal and physical harassment of blacks by police officers, including Brown, although the court refused to allow a social psychologist to testify describing studies of police conduct toward minority groups, nor those that concluded that minority groups might perceive police officers as hostile to them and would be apt to fear them in any street encounter. These studies could offer evidence of justification. Brown was convicted and appealed.
The New Mexico Court of Appeals reversed the decision to exclude expert testimony and remanded the case back for a new trial. The court felt such testimony supported Brown in his claim that he was in fear of immediate bodily harm when he shot the police officers, rather than acting out of anger and rejection of authority, as the prosecution alleged. Therefore, evidence bearing on Brown's state of mind at the time of the offense had been excluded as a reversible error.
People v. Goetz
In People v. Goetz, 68 N.Y.2d 96 (N.Y. 1986), Bernhard Goetz, a white man, used the defense of a subjective state of terror and fear to justify the shooting of four black teenagers on a New York City subway. The court held that the test for whether the use of deadly force is justified should be entirely subjective and focus on the defendant's state of mind at the time of the incident and dismissed the criminal indictments of attempted murder, assault, and reckless endangerment. However, upon appeal the New York Court of Appeals, in a unanimous finding, held that the use of an entirely subjective test to determine the appropriateness of deadly physical force by a defendant could permit a jury to acquit every defendant who believed that his actions were reasonable, regardless of how bizarre the rationale, creating a slippery slope. The jury could determine a different reasonable test for every single defendant claiming justification. The Court explained that the justification statute requires an objective element; deadly physical force is only permissible if a reasonable person would believe that he is in imminent fear of serious physical injury or death.
Osby trial
State v. Kelly (1984), by allowing testimony on battered woman syndrome, opened the door to considering the subjective state of the perpetrator as a pathological syndrome caused by environmental factors and allowing a defense on those grounds.
The term "urban survival syndrome" was first used in 1994 in a Fort Worth, Texas murder case in which two defense attorneys, David Bays and Bill Lane, defended Daimion Osby, their 17-year-old black client, who had shot and killed two unarmed men in a parking lot and was on trial on two counts of first degree murder. The victims were also black, and the defendant told the police he shot them because he was in fear for his life and had to kill them before they killed him. The attorneys argued that Osby had reason to be fearful because he lived in a dangerous community, an inner city neighborhood with one of the highest crime rates in the country. Expert testimony was allowed into evidence, provided by a sociologist, Jared Taylor, who had written on race relations and who produced statistics that the Fort Worth area where the crime took place was a dangerous area with a high crime rate, and that the two men who were killed fit the FBI profile of America's most dangerous men. Jared Taylor is identified by the Southern Poverty Law center as a white nationalist. He also testified that being killed is the greatest danger facing young men in such neighborhoods. Osby claimed that for the past year the two men had repeatedly harassed and threatened him and his family over the payment of a gambling debt. Evidence was also presented that the two men had a gun in their car.
Based on the testimony, the defense attorneys argued that the defendant's belief that he was in danger for his life was reasonable, and therefore he was justified in using lethal force. The jury of nine whites and three blacks deadlocked, eleven to one, in favor of conviction. The prosecutor was a black attorney who forcefully argued that there was no such syndrome in the field of psychiatry as "urban survival syndrome". The one holdout was a black man from the same neighborhood as Osby and who agreed that the area was a "war zone". Six jury members interviewed after the trial said they disregarded the defense as far-fetched. Further, a coalition of black ministers from Osby's neighborhood publicly disavowed that the neighborhood was so dangerous and complained that the defense reinforced racial stereotypes.
Upon retrial on the murder charges, the defense attempted to introduce testimony from a psychologist, in addition to that of the sociologist, on the psychological effects of living in a violent urban area. The psychologist's testimony was disallowed and Osby was convicted on the two murder counts and sentenced to serve life in prison.
Criticisms
The "urban survival syndrome" has been criticized by blacks as a stereotype as if all blacks react in the same way: that as a group blacks are violent, angry and more than likely guilty. This perspective demonstrated the flaw in any defense that depends on the rules and mores of a subculture as a replacement for those of the dominant society. Fort Worth minister Ralph Waldo Emerson stated:
The battered woman syndrome has been criticized on similar grounds: that it encourages the societal stereotype of women as helpless and incapacitated. While the court testimony can support the woman's actions as reasonable under the circumstances as self-defense, the courts seem to focus on testimony that portray the battered woman as "dysfunctional". Further problems arise with this defense when an analogous syndrome, the "battered child syndrome" is used as a defense, as the unique susceptibility of a woman to domestic violence can seem to be undercut.
See also
Abuse defense
Black rage
Notes
External links
Criminal defenses
Syndromes
Urban decay in the United States
Common law | [
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|
218231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Dolan | Daniel Dolan | Daniel Lytle Dolan (born 28 May 1951) is an American Catholic sedevacantist bishop.
Biography
Daniel Lytle Dolan was born on 28 May 1951, in Detroit, Michigan, United States. In 1965, he began his preparation for the priesthood at the archdiocesan minor seminary in Detroit. He continued his studies in the Cistercian Order and at the seminary of the traditionalist Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX) in Écône, Switzerland.
In 1973, as a seminarian at Écône, he came to the conclusion that "the only logical explanation" for the New Mass and the alleged heresy of the Second Vatican Council was that Pope Paul VI had lost the Roman pontificate. Since then he has held the position of sedevacantism.
Priesthood
On 29 June 1976, in Écône, Dolan was ordained a priest by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre of the SSPX. In 1977, Dolan returned to the United States where he would establish more than 35 traditionalist Mass centers.
Lefebvre directed the SSPX's American priests to follow the 1962 liturgical books. Dolan and eight other American priests refused to do these. On 27 April 1983, these nine priests, along with some seminarians who were sympathetic to them, were promptly expelled from the SSPX by Lefebvre, for their refusal to use the 1962 Missal and for other reasons, such as their resistance to Lefebvre's order that priests of the SSPX must accept the decrees of nullity handed down by diocesan marriage tribunals, and their disapproval of the SSPX's policy of accepting into the society new members who had been ordained to the priesthood according to the revised sacramental rites of Paul VI. Almost immediately, these priests formed the Society of Saint Pius V (SSPV).
In 1989, Dolan and Father Anthony Cekada (another one of the nine American priests expelled from the SSPX in 1983) left the SSPV for reasons such as the Superior General Father Clarence Kelly's rejection of the validity of sedevacantist bishops consecrated by or in the lineage of Bishop Ngô Đình Thục. Other original priests of the SSPV later followed suit. Dolan continued his work at his principal church in West Chester, Ohio, United States.
In 1989, he initiated contacts with the American sedevacantist Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (CMRI). Subsequent discussions revealed agreement on major theological issues. In 1992, with a view towards assisting clergy formerly belonging to SSPX, as well as Spanish-speaking and French-speaking traditionalists, Bishop Mark Pivarunas of the CMRI asked Dolan to receive episcopal consecration. In 1993, after considerable hesitation, Dolan agreed.
Episcopacy
On 30 November 1993, in Saint Gertrude the Great Church, West Chester, Pivarunas consecrated Dolan a bishop.
On 11 May 1999, in Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico, Dolan assisted as the co-consecrator in Pivarunas' episcopal consecration of Father Martín Dávila Gandara of the Sociedad Sacerdotal Trento (Priestly Union of Trent).
On 22 February 2018, in Brooksville, Florida, United States, Dolan assisted as a co-consecrator in Bishop Donald Sanborn's episcopal consecration of Father Joseph Selway of the Roman Catholic Institute.
On 29 September 2021, Dolan consecrated Brazilian Father Rodrigo da Silva, a former priest of the SSPX-Resistance, as a bishop for Mexico and South America.
Dolan serves in Saint Gertrude the Great Church, as well as in other sedevacantist communities in the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and Europe.
References
External links
St Gertrude the Great
Traditional Catholic Sermons
1951 births
American traditionalist Catholics
Living people
People expelled from the Society of St. Pius X
Thục line bishops
Traditionalist Catholic bishops
Sedevacantists
Clergy from Detroit | [
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|
218232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes%20Store | ITunes Store | The iTunes Store is a digital media store operated by Apple Inc. It opened on April 28, 2003, as a result of Steve Jobs' push to open a digital marketplace for music. As of April 2020, iTunes offers 60 million songs, 2.2 million apps, 25,000 TV shows, and 65,000 films. When it opened, it was the only legal digital catalog of music to offer songs from all five major record labels.
The iTunes Store is available on most Apple devices, including the Mac (inside the Music app), the iPhone, the iPad, the iPod touch, and the Apple TV, as well as on Windows (inside iTunes). Video purchases from the iTunes Store are viewable on the Apple TV app on Roku and Amazon Fire TV devices and certain smart televisions.
While initially a dominant player in digital media, by the mid-2010s, streaming media services were generating more revenue than the buy-to-own model used by the iTunes Store. Apple now operates its own subscription-based streaming music service, Apple Music alongside the iTunes Store.
History
Steve Jobs saw the opportunity to open a digital marketplace for music due to the rising popularity of easily downloadable tracks. In 2002, Jobs made an agreement with the five major record labels to offer their content through iTunes. The iTunes Store was introduced by Jobs at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference in April 2003. It was initially available on Mac computers and the iPod, and was later expanded to Microsoft Windows in October 2003.
In April 2008, the iTunes Store was the largest music vendor in the United States, and in February 2010, it was the largest music vendor in the world. The iTunes Store's revenues in the first quarter of 2011 totaled nearly US$1.4 billion. By May 28, 2014, the store had sold 35 billion songs worldwide.
In 2016, it was reported that music streaming services had overtaken digital downloads in sales. It was reported that iTunes-style digital download sales had dropped 24% as streaming sales continued to increase.
In April 2018, the iTunes app was added to the Microsoft Windows 10 app store. Beginning in the spring of 2019, the iTunes app became available on Samsung Smart TVs.
In October 2019, with the release of macOS Catalina, iTunes was split into separate Music, TV, and Podcasts apps. Apple's storefront for movies and television shows moved inside the TV app. Any music in users' iTunes library would transfer to the Music app, which would still offer access to the iTunes Store.
Features and restrictions
Pricing model
History
Following the introduction of the iTunes Store, individual songs were all sold for the same price, though Apple introduced multiple prices in 2007. Music in the store is in the Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format, which is the MPEG-4-specified successor to MP3. Originally, songs were only available with DRM and were encoded at 128 kbit/s. At the January 2009 Macworld Expo, Apple announced that all iTunes music would be made available without DRM, and encoded at the higher-quality rate of 256 kbit/s. Previously, this model, known as "iTunes Plus", had been available only for music from EMI and some independent labels. Users can sample songs by listening to previews, ninety seconds in length, or thirty seconds for short tracks.
In addition, the iTunes Store offers apps, which are applications used for various purposes (games, productivity, news, etc.) that are compatible with the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad, although some apps are specifically for the iPhone or iPad only. Some Apps cost money (called "Paid Apps") and some are free (called "Free Apps"). Developers can decide which prices they want to charge for apps, from a pre-set list of pricing tiers, from free to several hundred dollars. When someone downloads an App, 70 percent of the purchase goes to the developer(s), and 30 percent goes to Apple.
At the Macworld 2008 keynote, Steve Jobs, who was Apple's CEO at the time, announced iTunes movie rentals. Movies are available for rent in the iTunes Store on the same day they are released on DVD, though the iTunes Store also offers for rental some movies that are still in theaters. Movie rentals are only viewable for 24 hours (in the US) or 48 hours (in other countries) after users begin viewing them. The iTunes Store also offers one low-priced movie rental a week: in the United States, this rental costs 99 cents. Movie rentals are still not available in all countries but they are available in many countries including the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, India and New Zealand.
There is a weekly promotion in which one to three songs are available to download for free to logged-in users. Free downloads are available on Tuesdays, and remain free until the following Tuesday, when the store gets refreshed with new content. Some artists choose to have select songs available for no charge. This is not available at all iTunes Stores. Some iTunes television programs have begun the same technique to encourage brand loyalty; although those stay longer. In fact, the iTunes Store has a "Free TV Episodes" page where free episodes are organized by length, either as "featurettes" (shorter than 15 minutes) or full length episodes (longer than 15 minutes). Free content can vary from a preview of a show to bonus content to pilot episodes and entire seasons of TV shows (examples of free seasons include HBO's The Weight of the Nation and ABC's Pan-Am). Some networks, such as ABC and NBC, have their own pages of "Free Season Premieres".
While previously the US iTunes Store has offered as many as three free songs each week (the single of the week, Discovery Download, and Canción de la Semana) in recent years, the store has instead replaced the three aforementioned categories with a unified "Single of the Week" banner, with the week's single being from a new up and coming artist. In 2015, Apple discontinued the "Single of the Week" program.
Current model
Music
A song usually costs 99¢; however, for songs with high popularity, the price is usually raised to $1.29. By default, songs that are more than 10 minutes are considered "Album Only"; distributors also have the power to make a song "Album Only." For special offers, song prices can be dropped to 69¢ or free.
By default, music albums cost $9.99 or the price of all the songs combined if it is less than $9.99. However, the music album's distributor can set a higher price for the album (as long as it is some amount of dollars and 99 cents), which usually happens on popular music albums. For special offers, prices of music albums can be dropped to $4.99, $5.99, $6.99, or $7.99.
On June 30, 2015, Apple launched Apple Music as a subscription service, initially available in 110 countries. New subscribers are offered a three-month free trial with ongoing subscriptions priced from $9.99/month in the US and £9.99 in the UK or €9,99 for countries in the Eurozone.
TV shows
By default, HD television episodes cost $2.99, while standard definition television episodes cost $1.99. However, distributors can make a television episode "Season Only."
A television season costs either an amount of dollars (determined by number of episodes and definition) and 99 cents with the number in the one's place being a 4, 7, or 9, or the price of all episodes combined.
Movies
Unpopular movies cost $7.99 to buy in standard definition and $13.99 or $14.99 to buy in HD. Popular movies or new releases cost $13.99 or $14.99 to buy in standard definition and $17.99 or $19.99 to buy in HD.
Unpopular movies cost $2.99 to rent in standard definition and $3.99 to rent in HD. Popular movies cost $3.99 to rent in standard definition and $4.99 to rent in HD. For recent releases, this price is increased by $1.
Movies that are available in 4K and HDR (either HDR10 or Dolby Vision with an HDR10 profile) cost the same price as HD, and are automatically upgraded from HD to 4K and HDR at no additional cost. Movies can be played back in 4K and HDR on an Apple TV 4K or a Mac released in 2018 or later running macOS Catalina when hooked up to a compatible display, and can be played back in HDR on an iPhone 8/X or later, a 10.5" or 11" iPad Pro, and a 2nd gen or later 12.9" iPad Pro running iOS 11 or later, or a MacBook released in 2018 or later running macOS Catalina or later.
Movies that are available with a Dolby Atmos audio track requires an Apple TV 4K running tvOS 12 or later hooked up to a Dolby Atmos soundbar or receiver, a MacBook released in 2018 or later running macOS Catalina, an iPhone XS/XR running iOS 13 or later, or an 11"/3-gen 12.9" iPad Pro running iPadOS or later.
Apps
App prices are set by the developer; they can be free of charge or charged at 99 cents plus any number of dollars.
iTunes Store for iOS
The iTunes Store allows users to purchase and download items directly to portable Apple devices, such as the iPhone, iPad, Apple TV and iPod Touch. Apple offers three apps, each of which provides access to certain types of content.
The App Store app sells apps for iOS, and also provides updates to these apps.
The iTunes Store app sells music and videos.
The iBooks app sells ebooks.
Other, free content available from the iTunes Store can be accessed from two other iOS apps:
The Podcasts apps lets users download, subscribe to and sync podcasts.
The iTunes U app gives access to iTunes U educational material.
Originally, mobile users had to be connected to a Wi-Fi network in order to enter the store, hence its original name: iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store. However, at Macworld 2009, Apple issued a software update which automatically allowed 3G and EDGE users to access the store's full functionality for files smaller than 10 megabytes (MB). The iOS 3.0 update added the ability to download movies, TV shows, audiobooks, iTunes U, and ringtones on mobile devices, in addition to the previously available songs and podcasts. On February 18, 2010, Apple increased the 10 MB 3G download limit to 20 MB. In March 2012, Apple increased the 3G download limit to 50 MB, and, in late 2013, Apple increased the limit to 100 MB when they released the final version of iOS 7 for their new iPhones.
Customer support
In the United States, Apple provides technical support for the iTunes Store via email, there is no phone number for issues with iTunes purchases. Most customer service inquiries are handled online, via the Report a Problem link in iTunes.
Charitable donations
In response to major natural disasters, Apple provides the facility for donations to be made through the iTunes Store. Unlike other iTunes purchases, donations made to charitable organizations through this system are not subject to the 30% handling fee Apple usually charges. iTunes donation pages were set up following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Japanese earthquake and ensuing tsunami, and 2012's Hurricane Sandy. In all of these cases, donations were redirected to the Red Cross.
Music
The store began operations after Apple signed deals with five major record companies: EMI, Universal Music Group, Warner Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, and Bertelsmann Music Group. Songs from more than 2,000 independent labels were added later, the first being from The Orchard on June 24, 2003.
As of April 2020, iTunes offers 60 million songs, including exclusive tracks from numerous artists. Not all artists are available on iTunes, but many holdouts, such as Led Zeppelin and Radiohead, have allowed their music to be sold on the iTunes Store in recent years. New songs are added to iTunes catalog on a daily basis, and the iTunes Store is updated each Tuesday.
Downloaded songs come with song information (name, artist, album) already filled out, though iTunes provides a free service by Gracenote to do this for songs not purchased from the store, although they must be imported with iTunes. Songs that have an entry in the iTunes Store also come with album artwork (Artwork is embedded in the metadata). Artwork can be obtained for songs not purchased from the store for free if the user has an iTunes Store account. Purchased songs do not come with lyrics, nor does iTunes provide a service for acquiring the missing lyrics. However, several third-party applications exist to locate and automatically add lyrics to the user's music.
"Album Only" songs
Some songs are available from the store by "Album Only", meaning the song can only be acquired through the purchase of the entire album, whereas most songs can be downloaded separately from the album they belong to.
Songs above 10 minutes in length are by default Album Only songs. However, this is not universally true; for example, Living in the Heart of the Beast by Henry Cow is 16 minutes and 18 seconds, yet is available for individual purchase as of December 24, 2013. Soundtracks also often have many Album Only tracks.
Sometimes, the 10-minute restriction works in an artist's favor. Examples of this include Prince's Lovesexy and the deluxe version of Phoenix's Bankrupt!, which both have an album as a single track instead of being separate, (in Prince's case, the track was the album, while in Phoenix's case, it was a collection of demos and outtakes) forcing the buyer to buy the album itself.
Movie soundtracks normally include songs owned by many different labels, making licensing more complex. For example, Forrest Gump: The Soundtrack includes songs from Peacock Records, Argo Records, and Capitol Records, among many others. Greatest Hits by Red Hot Chili Peppers has only one song, "Higher Ground", that is not available for download on a per song basis, whilst Circus (Britney Spears' 2008 album) has two songs that are available for album download only, Rock Me In and Phonography.
Partial Albums
Some albums on the iTunes store are available only as a "Partial Album" meaning that one or more of the songs on an album's CD release aren't available on its iTunes equivalent, often due to differing copyright holders between songs.
"Work Only" songs
Some tracks are listed as "Work Only", which means they can only be obtained by purchasing the entire piece of work (within the album); the tracks cannot be bought as singles. Works are generally pieces of classical music: symphonies, string quartets, etc., in multiple movements.
"LP" format
In September 2009, Apple introduced the iTunes LP format (known pre-launch by the code name "Cocktail") which features visual, interactive content alongside album tracks and lyrics.
Store Sections
When entering the US music store, there are multiple sections one can visit. Music is divided into genres (Alternative, Classical, Jazz, Soundtrack, etc.), and there are a number of links to other sections of the store under the Quick Links header. These include Recommended for You, Complete My Album, iTunes LP, as well as thematic sections, such as iTunes Festival sections.
On November 1, 2006, Apple created a category for Latino and Hispanic content, "iTunes Latino". Telemundo and Mun2 made some of their popular programs available for purchase, becoming the first Hispanic television content in the store. It offers music, music videos, audiobooks, podcasts and television shows in Spanish in a single concentrated area. The brief descriptions given to the content are in Spanish as well as several subcategories. Gibraltarian Flamenco Metal band Breed 77, released an exclusive album called Un Encuentro to coincide with the launch of "iTunes Latino". It features 11 songs, all from previous albums, but all sung in Spanish.
In 2012, Apple created Mastered for iTunes. When iTunes launched, the decision was made to standardize on AAC instead of the more popular MP3 format on the supposition that it offers better quality compared to other codecs at similar bit rates. Mastered for iTunes (MFiT) is a procedure developed by Apple specifically for Mastering Engineers to follow. This set of tools allows Mastering Engineers to audition Apple's proprietary encoding during the mastering process to take into account how music will eventually interact with Apple's encoding. In addition to auditioning the encoder, there is also a tool (called afclip) that processes the audio file and creates a text file for audio clips. Because of this special encoding process, extra attention must be paid to headroom and inter-sample peaking while mastering. In August 2019 it was announced that the Mastered for iTunes program would be rebranded as Apple Digital Masters. With the rebranding the high resolution masters are now available with Apple Music through streaming. It is speculated that the rebranding came because the functionality of iTunes would be changing in macOS Catalina and therefore the Mastered for iTunes name no longer made sense.
Censorship
There is a policy of censoring profanity in titles on iTunes. This has resulted in a Scunthorpe glitch, by which inoffensive titles are censored due to a coincidental string of letters. If the song has an explicit label, it will be marked "explicit" next to the song title. If a song is marked "explicit" it is unavailable for purchase if "restrict explicit content" is checked under the parental controls preference. Often there will be a "clean" mark next to the title of some songs, meaning the lyrics have been censored, and is available to purchase on all accounts. Generally if a song is marked "clean" there is an explicit version available as well.
Reception and commercial success
In the first 18 hours, the iTunes store sold about 275,000 tracks, and more than 1 million tracks were sold in its first 5 days. When released for Windows in October 2003, iTunes was downloaded more than 1 million times in the first 3 days, selling more than 1 million songs in that period. On December 15, 2003, Apple announced that it had sold 25 million songs.
In January 2004 at the Macworld Conference & Expo in San Francisco, Steve Jobs announced (Sellers, 2004) that an unnamed person had purchased US$29,500 worth of music. On March 15, 2004, Apple announced that iTunes Music Store customers had purchased and downloaded 50 million songs from iTunes Music Store. A song sold on iTunes gives the artist 9 cents in profit. They also reported that customers were purchasing 2.5 million songs a week which translates to a projected annual run rate of 130 million songs a year. The 50 millionth song was "The Path of Thorns" by Sarah McLachlan.
On April 28, 2004, iTunes Music Store marked its first anniversary with 70 million songs sold, clear dominance in the paid online music market and a slight profit. The store also offers hundreds of movie trailers and music videos, in an attempt to boost soundtrack sales. In the conference, Steve Jobs reiterated that a subscription service is still not in the interest of customers and reported that only 5 million of the 100 million songs offered in the Pepsi giveaway campaign were redeemed, which he blamed on technical problems in Pepsi distribution. According to an Apple press release dated August 10, 2004, iTunes Music Store was the first store to have a catalog of more than one million songs. Also, iTunes Music Store at that point maintained a 70 percent market share of legal music downloads.
The emerging monopoly of the store was criticized in 2011 by Mike Lang of Miramax for "effectively strangling the industry". He says that because the music industry has allowed too few content providers, it is now suffering. Lang views the issue as being more of a threat than music piracy.
Sales milestones
Music
100 million songs sold: July 11, 2004
(Kevin Britten of Hays, Kansas, bought the 100 millionth song, and the twenty-year-old received a call from Steve Jobs congratulating him.)
125 million songs sold: September 1, 2004
150 million songs sold: October 14, 2004
200 million songs sold: December 16, 2004
(Ryan Alekman of Belchertown, Massachusetts, bought the 200 millionth song, which was one of the tracks on U2's digital box set The Complete U2.)
250 million songs sold: January 24, 2005
300 million songs sold: March 2, 2005
400 million songs sold: May 10, 2005
On July 5, 2005, Apple announced a promotion counting down to half a billion songs
sold.
500 million songs sold: July 18, 2005
(Amy Greer of Lafayette, Indiana, bought the 500 millionth song, "Mississippi Girl" by Faith Hill.)
850 million songs sold: January 10, 2006
1 billion songs sold: February 23, 2006
(Alex Ostrovsky of West Bloomfield, Michigan, bought the billionth song, "Speed of Sound" by Coldplay. He later got a call from Steve Jobs with the news that the sixteen-year-old was getting ten iPods, an iMac, a $10,000 music gift certificate, and a scholarship established in his name at the Juilliard School.)
1.5 billion songs sold: September 12, 2006
2 billion songs sold: January 10, 2007
2.5 billion songs sold: April 9, 2007
3 billion songs sold: July 31, 2007
4 billion songs sold: January 15, 2008
5 billion songs sold: June 19, 2008
6 billion songs sold: January 6, 2009
8 billion songs sold: July 21, 2009
8.6 billion songs sold: September 9, 2009
10 billion songs sold: February 24, 2010
(Louie Sulcer of Woodstock, Georgia, downloaded "Guess Things Happen That Way" by Johnny Cash. At 71 years old, he was the oldest milestone winner to that date. He received a call from Steve Jobs and a $10,000 iTunes gift card.)
15 billion songs sold: June 6, 2011
20 billion songs sold: September 12, 2012
25 billion songs sold: February 6, 2013
35 billion songs sold: May 28, 2014
Video
1 million videos sold: October 31, 2005
3+ million videos sold: December 6, 2005
8 million videos sold: January 10, 2006
15 million videos sold: February 23, 2006
45 million videos sold: September 12, 2006
50 million television episodes sold: January 10, 2007
1.3 million feature-length films sold: January 10, 2007
2 million feature-length films sold: July 31, 2007
200 million television episodes sold: October 16, 2008
1+ million HD episodes sold: October 16, 2008
Applications
10 million apps downloaded: July 14, 2008
100 million apps downloaded: September 9, 2008
200 million apps downloaded: October 22, 2008
300 million apps downloaded: December 5, 2008
500 million apps downloaded: January 16, 2009
800 million apps downloaded: March 17, 2009
1 billion apps downloaded: April 23, 2009
1.5 billion apps downloaded: July 14, 2009
1.8 billion apps downloaded: September 9, 2009
2 billion apps downloaded: September 28, 2009
3 billion apps downloaded: January 5, 2010
7 billion apps downloaded: October 20, 2010
10 billion apps downloaded: January 22, 2011
15 billion apps downloaded: July 7, 2011
25 billion apps downloaded: March 5, 2012
30 billion apps downloaded: June 11, 2012
35 billion apps downloaded: October 23, 2012
40 billion apps downloaded: January 7, 2013
50 billion apps downloaded: May 16, 2013
60 billion apps downloaded: October 22, 2013
75 billion apps downloaded: June 2, 2014
100 billion apps downloaded: June 8, 2015
250 billion apps downloaded: December 2016
Market share
On September 12, 2006, Steve Jobs announced in his "It's Showtime" keynote that Apple had 88% of the legal US music download market.
On April 11, 2007, Apple announced that the iTunes Store had sold more than two million movies, making it the world's most popular online movie store.
On February 26, 2008, the iTunes Store surpassed Best Buy to become the second-largest music vendor in the US behind Walmart, and became number one on April 3, 2008.
On October 10, 2012, the iTunes Store was reported to have a 64% share of the online music market, and a 29% share of all music sales worldwide.
Internationalization
Originally only Mac OS X users who had a US billing address could buy songs with the service, but Steve Jobs announced plans to support both Windows and non-American users. The Windows version of iTunes and support for the Windows platform from iTunes Music Store were announced on October 16, 2003, with immediate availability. Beginning in 2004, the service has become available in a number of countries other than the United States:
To buy files through the store, a user must install the proprietary digital media player iTunes to access the store. This software is available only for certain versions of the Macintosh or Windows operating systems.
According to an Apple press release, the European iTunes Music Stores sold a combined total of 800,000 songs in one week, with 450,000 of those songs sold in the UK.
The Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, Greek stores have been localized.
On December 3, 2004, the British Office of Fair Trading referred iTunes Music Store to the European Commission because it prevents consumers in one EU country from buying music from stores in other EU countries, in violation of EU free-trade legislation; the immediate cause of the referral was because the €0.99 price charged in the Eurozone equates to GB£0.68 in sterling, rather than the GB£0.79 actually charged there.
iTunes Music Store in Japan had 1 million songs available at start. In the next four days the store had sold one million songs – the pace faster than that of the US store. In addition to a long delay, Apple failed to have one set price for singles. Pundits speculated that this may have indicated the introduction of new price structure to the rest of the stores in future, in favor of record labels who would like to see higher prices for new songs. This extension to other countries was announced in January 2009.
The release of video-capable iPods also saw the store launch in Australia with music videos and short films by Pixar. iTunes Gift Cards (as they are now known) are now also available in many more stores such as JB Hi-Fi, David Jones, and the Woolworths chain of stores. Access was inadvertently given to some people in New Zealand, too. Failed negotiations with the Sony BMG label meant that none of that label's artists were available at the time of launch; they were later added on January 17, 2006.
New Zealand users had briefly been able to buy from the Australian store when it first opened until that loophole was closed.
On November 1, 2006, the store started offering a range of Latino content including television shows and music for its Hispanic American, Mexican and Puerto Rican clients.
The Spanish used on the Mexican store has been modified to Mexican Spanish.
As of the 2009 Macworld Conference & Expo, Apple had given no new information of the (possible; future) inclusion and expansion of music videos, TV-shows and movies in other European countries. The stores of the UK, Germany and France currently remain the only European Stores with local and/or localized selections of TV-shows, movies and music videos.
Payment options
A user must also pay with an iTunes gift card or a credit card with a billing address in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brunei, Bulgaria, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Japan, Laos, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macau, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, the United States or Vietnam. Apple also offers other payment methods (like PayPal), which differ from country to country. Residents in other countries can only buy a gift card from a merchant or download free podcasts and previews.
Digital rights management
The iTunes Store used in the past Apple's FairPlay digital rights management (DRM) technology. FairPlay is built into the MP4 multimedia file format as an encrypted AAC audio layer, and is used by the company to protect copyrighted works sold through the store, allowing only authorized devices to play the content. The restrictions imposed by FairPlay, mainly limited device compatibility, have sparked criticism, with a lawsuit alleging antitrust violation that was eventually closed in Apple's favor, and various successful efforts to remove the DRM protection from files, with Apple continually updating its software to counteract such projects.
In February 2007, an open letter by Steve Jobs, Apple's then-CEO, discussed the use of DRM on music, raising points about the future of the protection and announcing the company's support for ending the use of DRM. Although the open letter initially caused mixed industry reactions, Apple signed a deal with a major record label the following month to offer iTunes customers a purchase option for a higher-quality, DRM-free version of the label's tracks. In January 2009, Apple signed deals with all major record labels as well as a large number of independent labels to offer all iTunes music in the DRM-free option. On January 6, 2009, Apple announced that DRM had been removed from 80% of its music catalog in the US. Full iTunes Plus availability was achieved in the US on April 7, 2009, coinciding with the introduction of a three-tiered pricing model. This does not apply to songs downloaded while using Apple Music, Apple's subscription-based music streaming service. Television episodes, many books, and films are still FairPlay-protected.
Promotions
On Super Bowl Sunday, February 1, 2004, Apple launched a promotion with Pepsi in which they gave away 100 million songs, through tokens on selected soft drink bottle caps. Unfortunately for Apple, Pepsi failed to properly distribute the bottles to major metropolitan areas until only weeks before the promotion ended, despite a one-month extension of the deadline by Apple. The promotion was repeated beginning January 31, 2005, with 200 million songs available, and an iPod Mini given away every hour.
On July 1, 2004, Apple announced that, starting with the sale of the 95 millionth song, an iPod would be given away to the buyer of each 100 thousandth song, for a total of 50 iPods. The buyer of the 100 millionth song would receive a PowerBook, iPod, and US$10,000 gift certificate to iTunes Music Store.
Ten days later, on July 11, Apple announced that 100 million songs had been sold through iTunes Music Store. The 100 millionth song was titled "Somersault (Dangermouse Remix)" by Zero 7, purchased by Kevin Britten of Hays, Kansas. He then received a phone call from Apple CEO Steve Jobs, who offered his congratulations, as well as a 40 GB 3rd Generation iPod laser-engraved with a message of thanks.
Inspired by Pepsi's marketing success with iTunes giveaways, Coca-Cola partnered with 7-Eleven to give away a free iTunes song with every . Slurpee frozen beverage until July 31, 2005. Songs could be redeemed until August 31, 2005, by entering a code printed on the Slurpee cup into iTunes Music Store application. Coca-Cola did this in spite of having its own music store, myCokeMusic.com, that competed with iTunes Music Store in Europe. myCokeMusic.com ceased business on July 31, 2006.
On July 5, 2005, Apple announced that they were counting down to half a billion songs. The buyer of every 100 thousandth song up to 500 million would receive an iPod Mini and a 50-song gift card. The grand prize for the person who downloads the 500 millionth song was 10 iPods of their choice, a 10,000-song gift card, 10 50-song gift cards or 4 tickets to the Coldplay world tour. Twelve days later, on July 17, Apple announced that 500 million songs had been sold through iTunes Music Store. The 500 millionth song, purchased by Amy Greer of Lafayette, Indiana, was "Mississippi Girl" by Faith Hill.
On July 28, 2005, Apple and The Gap announced a promotion to award iTunes music downloads to Gap customers who tried on a pair of Gap jeans. From August 8 to 31, 2005, each customer who tried on any pair of Gap jeans could receive a free download for a song of their choice from iTunes Music Store.
On February 7, 2006, Apple announced that they were counting down to the billionth song download and began a promotion similar to the previous 100 million and 500 million countdown. Whoever downloaded the billionth song would receive a 20" iMac, ten 60 GB iPods, and a US$10,000 iTunes Music Card. The billionth song was purchased on February 23, 2006, by Alex Ostrovsky of West Bloomfield, Michigan. The purchased song was "Speed of Sound" as part of Coldplay's X&Y album.
On July 25, 2006, Facebook and iTunes began offering a promotion where members of the Apple Students group would receive a free 25 song sampler each week until September 30 in various music genres. The idea behind the promotion was to get students more familiar and enthusiastic with each service as Autumn classes approached. However, in order to prevent abuse of the promotion, the weekly code that Facebook provided stopped working after it was redeemed one million times. In addition, the promotion caused discontent among international students, as the code was only valid in the US iTunes Music Store.
On April 10, 2009, Apple announced that it will be counting down to the billionth app (apps being the applications for iPod Touch and iPhone). Apple launched a continuous counter to the billionth app on Good Friday. Connor Mulcahey, age 13 of Weston, CT, downloaded the billionth app, "Bump" by Bump Technologies, and received a 17" MacBook Pro, a 32GB iPod Touch, a Time Capsule, and a $10,000 Gift Card for the iTunes Store.
On February 11, 2010, Apple announced that it would be counting down to 10 billion songs downloaded. A $10,000 gift card was offered as a prize. On February 24, 2010, the 10 billionth song, "Guess Things Happen That Way" by Johnny Cash, was purchased by Louie Sulcer of Woodstock, Georgia.
Other platforms
Currently, iTunes is supported on the macOS (Leopard and above) and Microsoft Windows operating systems. iTunes was known to run passably well in Linux on x86-based computers using the Wine compatibility layer; however, by December 2011, this was no longer the case. Users without iTunes installed can see a content database (but not hear or view the content itself) using the iTunes Preview service, which runs inside their internet browser. This service also allows users to watch trailers for upcoming film releases. Should they choose to purchase any media, they will be redirected to iTunes.
Technical details
Store pages are delivered using standard HTML with a special header. This change was made when iTunes 9.0 was released. iTunes uses WebKit to render these pages on the screen. These pages are also accessible on the Web, at iTunes.apple.com, allowing pages from the iTunes Store to show up in search engine search results.
Prior to iTunes 9.0, the iTunes Store was delivered using a custom XML format that describes the position of all of the elements, boxes, album art and all of their properties – including whether a reference link can be dragged out of iTunes and into another document.
The store's back-end software uses WebObjects – Apple's own application server it acquired from NeXT. Content is uploaded to iTunes data store using an internal Apple program called iTunes Producer, which automatically encodes and adds metadata to uploaded files.
Legal disputes
Apple records
For three years, The Beatles' record company Apple Records were in a legal dispute, Apple Corps v Apple Computer, with Apple Computer over the name "Apple." On May 8, 2006, a ruling was declared in favor of Apple Computer, but Apple Records said it would appeal the ruling. Despite this, plans were announced by Neil Aspinall in April 2006 to remaster completely and release the entire Beatles catalog on an unspecified online music service, as well as release some previously unheard work by the band. No date was set at that time. It has also been reported that the Beatles' music catalog might initially be appearing on iTunes only, as Apple is reported to be negotiating with Britain's EMI group over an online distribution deal that might be exclusive for a limited time.
During his January 9, 2007 Macworld Keynote address, Apple CEO Steve Jobs used the band's song "Lovely Rita" to introduce the music-playing capabilities of the company's new iPhone. This was regarded by industry observers as further evidence that the Beatles catalog would be introduced to iTunes Music Store catalog in the near future. On February 5, 2007, Apple Corps and Apple Inc. announced they had reached a settlement in their legal dispute.
In a related development, Apple announced on August 14, 2007, that the entire solo catalog of John Lennon would be available on iTunes. The solo catalogs of the other three Beatles, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, and George Harrison, are also available on iTunes.
On November 16, 2010, the entire Beatles catalog was officially made available on the iTunes Store.
The Consumer Council of Norway EULA challenge
On June 6, 2006, The Consumer Ombudsmen in Norway, Sweden and Denmark launched a common open letter to Apple regarding the EULA of iTunes through the Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman Bjørn Erik Thon. The iTunes case is based upon an official complaint filed by The Consumer Council of Norway on January 25, 2006.
The main allegations were that:
The EULA is unbalanced to disfavor the customer. Scandinavian law requires any written agreement to favor both parties. The weak party also enjoys protection from exploitation according to Norwegian consumer laws.
The iTunes Store's use of Digital rights management limits the number of devices purchased songs can be played on.
iTunes' contract entitles the company to at any time change the terms of the contract without notice, including the selection of players or software that must be used for iTunes files, and also the number of times a customer can change or copy already purchased files.
The EULA is both vague and hard to understand for the customers.
The EULA states that the legal relationship between the company and customers is regulated by English contract law. It is unreasonable to expect Norwegian consumers to have comprehensive knowledge of English law. Products marketed to Norwegian consumers in Norway are subject to Norwegian law—a right that cannot be waived by a clause in a company's standard customer contract.
The EULA removes iTunes' responsibility regarding damage to the consumer's computer caused by software errors even though responsibility cannot be waived in Scandinavian Law.
Apple responded July 31, 2006.
On January 22, 2007, German and French consumer groups joined forces with Norway and Finland. Their goal is to create a united European front against iTunes (Germany and France have each had their own negotiation process with iTunes). According to the press statement Apple is in favor of this. The key points in the negotiations were:
Interoperability: the consumer should have the right and ability to play his or her music on any device of his or her own choice.
Change of conditions: iTunes must revoke their right to change the terms and conditions (EULA) at any time without the consent of the consumer.
Liability: iTunes should change its clause limiting its liability to recover consumer damages if they are caused by content sold by iTunes.
Applicable Law: Consumers entering into a contract with iTunes should be able to rely on the consumer protection rules according to the law of the country in which they live.
EU antitrust case
In 2004, Which? magazine complained to the European Commission about the higher prices in the UK for the same songs sold in other parts of the European Union: typically €0.99 in the rest of the EU and £0.79 in the UK. In 2008, the Commission withdrew its investigation after Apple agreed to end the price disparity.
Content disputes
Universal Music Group
On July 1, 2007, the New York Times reported that Universal (the world's largest music corporation at the time of writing) would not renew its annual contract to sell music through iTunes. Instead, Universal said that it would market music to Apple at will, allowing it to remove its songs from the iTunes service on short notice if the two sides did not agree on pricing or other terms.
On August 9, 2007, UMG announced a plan to sell some songs in MP3 format, without Digital rights management, through a variety of online services such as Amazon Music and the newly created gBox. While these tracks continue to be available through the iTunes Store, Universal chose to license these songs in DRM-free formats only through other services.
NBC Universal TV series
On August 31, 2007, Apple announced that programs on NBC's 2007–08 television schedule would not be available on iTunes. NBC had informed Apple the previous day that it would not be renewing its contract. It was later clarified that this change only applied to series produced by NBC Universal-owned Universal Media Studios, including Universal-produced shows on other networks such as House. NBC programs produced by other studios, such as Chuck (Warner Bros.) and Journeyman (20th Century Fox), would remain available on iTunes.
Apple has publicly asserted that NBC would only renew their contract if Apple agreed to a price increase of US$4.99 per episode, which they did not. NBC disputes that claim, claiming that Apple balked at NBC's request to package shows together and make wholesale pricing more flexible. NBC claims that they never asked to double the wholesale price and insisted that their shows would be sold by the iTunes Store through early December. Other networks who sold their shows via iTunes did not follow suit. On December 1, 2007, NBC shows were pulled from the iTunes Store.
On September 9, 2008, Apple and NBC Universal announced that NBC's TV shows were once again available on the US iTunes Store.
The UK iTunes Store has many shows from NBC available, although they are distributed by Universal Studios. The pricing for these seasons are higher than they were on the US store, an example being, Season 3 of The Office is priced at GB£43.47 (roughly US$72) vs. $52.99 (US Store HD).
See also
iTunes
Apple Music
iTunes Festival
Apple Inc.
Apple TV
iBookstore
Comparison of digital music stores
References
Store
Apple Inc. services
Video on demand services
Internet properties established in 2003 | [
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218235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Grey%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Grey%20of%20Fallodon | Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon | Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, (25 April 1862 – 7 September 1933), better known as Sir Edward Grey, was a British Liberal statesman and the main force behind British foreign policy in the era of the First World War.
An adherent of the "New Liberalism", he served as foreign secretary from 1905 to 1916, the longest continuous tenure of any holder of that office. He renewed the 1902 alliance with Japan in 1911. The centrepiece of his policy was the defence of France against German aggression, while avoiding a binding alliance with Paris. He supported France in the Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911. Another major achievement was the Anglo-Russian entente of 1907. He resolved an outstanding conflict with Germany over the Baghdad railway in 1913. His most important action came in the July Crisis in 1914, when he led Britain into World War I against Germany. He convinced the Liberal cabinet that Britain had an obligation and was honour-bound to defend France, and prevent Germany from controlling Western Europe. Once the war began, there was little role for his diplomacy; he lost office in December 1916. By 1919 he was a leading British supporter of the League of Nations.
He is remembered for his "the lamps are going out" remark on 3 August 1914 on the outbreak of the First World War. He signed the Sykes-Picot Agreement on 16 May 1916. He was ennobled in 1916, prior to which he was the 3rd Baronet Grey of Fallodon, and was Ambassador to the United States between 1919 and 1920 and Leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Lords between 1923 and 1924.
Background, education and early life
Grey was the eldest of the seven children of Colonel George Henry Grey and Harriet Jane Pearson, daughter of Charles Pearson. His grandfather Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet of Fallodon, was also a prominent Liberal politician, while his great-grandfather Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet of Fallodon, was the third son of Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey, and the younger brother of Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. He was also a cousin of two later British Foreign Secretaries: Anthony Eden and Lord Halifax. Grey attended Temple Grove School from 1873 until 1876. His father died unexpectedly in December 1874, and his grandfather assumed responsibility for his education, sending him to Winchester College.
Grey went on to Balliol College, Oxford, in 1880 to read Literae Humaniores. Apparently an indolent student, he was tutored by Mandell Creighton during the vacations and managed a second class in Honour Moderations. He subsequently became more idle, using his time to become university champion at real tennis. In 1882 his grandfather died and he inherited a baronet's title, an estate of about , and a private income. Returning to Oxford in the autumn of 1883, Grey switched to studying jurisprudence (law) in the belief that it would be an easier option, but by January 1884 he had been sent down but allowed to return to sit his final examination. Grey returned in the summer and achieved Third Class honours in Jurisprudence. Though he was entitled to receive a BA, he never received one. He would receive an honorary doctor of law from Oxford in 1907.
Grey left university with no clear career plan and in the summer of 1884 he asked a neighbour, Lord Northbrook, at the time First Lord of the Admiralty, to find him "serious and unpaid employment." Northbrook recommended him as a private secretary to his kinsman Sir Evelyn Baring, the British consul general to Egypt, who was attending a conference in London. Grey had shown no particular interest in politics whilst at university, but by the summer of 1884 Northbrook found him "very keen on politics," and after the Egyptian conference had ended found him a position as an unpaid assistant private secretary to Hugh Childers, the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
In 1898 Grey became a director of the North Eastern Railway, later becoming Chairman (1904-5; curtailed by his appointment as Foreign Secretary). In Twenty-Five Years (see Works, below) Grey later wrote that ‘…the year 1905 was one of the happiest of my life; the work of Chairman of the Railway was agreeable and interesting…’. After leaving the Foreign Office Grey resumed his directorship of the NER in 1917, and when the North Eastern Railway became part of the London and North Eastern Railway he became a director of that company, remaining in this position until 1933. At the Railway Centenary celebrations in July 1925, Grey accompanied the Duke and Duchess of York and presented them with silver models of the engine Locomotion and the passenger carriage Experiment.
Two of Grey's brothers would be killed by wild animals in Africa: George was mauled by a lion in 1911, and Charles was felled by a buffalo in 1928. His other brother, Alexander, was a vicar in Trinidad and died there aged 48 from the after-effects of a childhood cricket injury.
Early political career
Grey was selected as the Liberal Party candidate for Berwick-upon-Tweed where his Conservative opponent was Earl Percy. He was duly elected in November 1885 and, at 23, became the youngest MP (Baby of the House) in the new House of Commons. He was not called in the Home Rule debate, but was nonetheless convinced by Gladstone and Morley of the rightness of the cause. A year later Grey summoned up the courage to make a maiden speech, at a similar period to Asquith. During the debate over the 1888 Land Purchase Bill he began "an association and friendship" with R. B. Haldane, which was "thus strengthened as years went on". The nascent imperialists voted against "this passing exception". On a previous occasion he had met Neville Lyttelton, later a knight and general, who would become his closest friend.
Grey retained his seat in the 1892 election with a majority of 442 votes and to his surprise was made Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs by William Ewart Gladstone (albeit after his son Herbert had refused the post) under the Foreign Secretary, Lord Rosebery. Grey would later claim that at this point he had had no special training nor paid special attention to foreign affairs. The new Under-Secretary prepared the policy for making Uganda a new colony, proposing to build a railway from Cairo through East Africa, through later limiting government being used to build it. There was continuity in presentation and preparation during the Scramble for Africa; foreign policy was not an election issue. The Liberals continued to incline towards the Triple Alliance, causing the press to write of a "Quadruple Alliance".
Grey later dated his first suspicions of future Anglo-German disagreements to his early days in office, after Germany had sought commercial concessions from Britain in the Ottoman Empire; in return they would promise support for a British position in Egypt. "It was the abrupt and rough peremptoriness of the German action that gave me an unpleasant impression"; not, he added, that the German position was at all "unreasonable," rather that the "method... was not that of a friend." With hindsight, he argued in his autobiography, "the whole policy of the years from 1886 to 1904 [might] be criticized as having played into the hands of Germany."
1895 statement on French expansion in Africa
Prior to the Foreign Office vote on 28 March 1895, Grey asked Lord Kimberley, the new Foreign Secretary, for direction as to how he should answer any question about French activities in West Africa. According to Grey, Kimberley suggested "pretty firm language." In fact, West Africa was not mentioned, but when pressed on possible French activities in the Nile Valley Grey stated that a French expedition "would be an unfriendly act and would be so viewed by England." According to Grey the subsequent row both in Paris and in the Cabinet was made worse by the failure of Hansard to record that his statement referred explicitly to the Nile Valley and not to Africa in general. The statement was made before the dispatch of the Marchand expedition—indeed, he believed it might have actually provoked it—and as Grey admits did much to damage future Anglo-French relations.
The Liberal Party lost a key vote in the House of Commons on 21 June 1895, and Grey was among the majority in his party that preferred a dissolution to continuing. He seems to have left office with few regrets, noting, "I shall never be in office again and the days of my stay in the House of Commons are probably numbered. We [he and his wife] are both very glad and relieved..." The Liberals were soundly defeated in the subsequent General Election, although Grey added 300 votes to his own majority. He was to remain out of office for the next ten years, but was sworn of the Privy Council on 11 August 1902, following an announcement of the King's intention to make this appointment in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published in June that year.
He was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northumberland in 1901.
Foreign Secretary 1905–1916
With the Conservative government of Arthur Balfour divided and unpopular, there was some speculation that H. H. Asquith and his allies Grey and Richard Haldane would refuse to serve in the next Liberal government unless the Liberal leader Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman accepted a peerage, which would have left Asquith as the real leader in the House of Commons. The plot (called the "Relugas Compact" after the Scottish lodge where the men met) collapsed when Asquith agreed to serve as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Campbell-Bannerman. When Campbell-Bannerman formed a government in December 1905 Grey was appointed Foreign Secretary—the first Foreign Secretary to sit in the Commons since 1868. Haldane became Secretary of State for War. The party won a landslide victory in the 1906 general election. Whilst an MP he voted in favour of the 1908 Women's Enfranchisement Bill. When Campbell-Bannerman stepped down as Prime Minister in 1908, Grey was Asquith's only realistic rival to succeed his friend. In the event, Grey continued as Foreign Secretary, and held office for 11 years to the day, the longest continuous tenure in that office.
Anglo-Russian Entente 1907
As early as 13 December 1905, Grey had assured the Russian Ambassador Count Alexander Benckendorff that he supported the idea of an agreement with Russia. Negotiations began soon after the arrival of Sir Arthur Nicolson as the new British Ambassador in June 1906. In contrast with the previous Conservative government that had seen Russia as a potential threat to the empire, Grey's intention was to re-establish Russia "as a factor in European politics" on the side of France and Great Britain to maintain a balance of power in Europe.
Agadir Crisis 1911
Grey did not welcome the prospect of a renewed crisis over Morocco: he worried that it might either lead to a re-opening of the issues covered by the Treaty of Algeciras or that it might drive Spain into alliance with Germany. Initially Grey tried to restrain both France and Spain, but by the spring of 1911 he had failed on both counts. Grey believed that, whether he liked it or not, his hands were tied by the terms of the Entente cordiale. The despatch of the German gunboat Panther to Agadir served to strengthen French resolve and, because he was determined both to protect the agreement with France and also to block German attempts at expansion around the Mediterranean, it pushed Grey closer to France. Grey, however, tried to calm the situation, merely commenting on the "abrupt" nature of the German intervention, and insisting that Britain must participate in any discussions about the future of Morocco.
In cabinet on 4 July 1911, Grey accepted that Britain would oppose any German port in the region, any new fortified port anywhere on the Moroccan coast, and that Britain must continue to enjoy an "open door" for its trade with Morocco. Grey at this point was resisting efforts by the Foreign Office to support French intransigence. By the time a second cabinet was held on 21 July, Grey had adopted a tougher position, suggesting that he propose to Germany that a multi-national conference be held, and that were Germany to refuse to participate "we should take steps to assert and protect British interests."
Grey was made a Knight of the Garter in 1912. Throughout the period leading up to World War Grey played a leading part in negotiations with the Kaiser. He visited Germany and invited their delegation to the Windsor Castle Conference in 1912. They returned several times, with Haldane acting as interpreter.
July Crisis 1914
Although Grey's activist foreign policy, which relied increasingly on the Triple Entente with France and Russia, came under criticism from the radicals within his own party, he maintained his position because of support from the Conservatives for his "non-partisan" foreign policy. In 1914, Grey played a key role in the July Crisis leading to the outbreak of World War I. His attempts to mediate the dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia were ignored by both sides. On 16 July, British ambassador to Austria-Hungary advised that Austria-Hungary regarded the Serbian government as having been complicit in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, and would have to act if Austria-Hungary was not to lose her position as a Great Power. The British Cabinet were preoccupied with the crisis in Ulster, and Grey failed to realize the urgency of the situation, and chose to await further developments.
On 23 July, Austria-Hungary formally handed the Serbian government an ultimatum, which demanded their acceptance, by 25 July, of terms tantamount to Serbia's vassalage to Austria-Hungary; it was soon clear that Serbia would accept most of the demands but that Austria-Hungary would settle for nothing less than complete capitulation. On 24 July, the French ambassador in London tried to waken Grey to the realization that once Austrian forces crossed the Serbian border, it would be too late for mediation. Grey responded by urging the German ambassador to attempt a four-power conference of Britain, France, Italy and Germany at Vienna to mediate between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Serbia's patron, or at least to obtain an extension of the time-limit set by Austria-Hungary. Grey again proposed a four-power conference on 26 July. He also suggested that Russia and Austria-Hungary should be encouraged to negotiate. The other powers were open to the idea, but Germany had other intentions.
After the collapse of Grey's four-power talks on Tuesday 28 July, it was clear that war on the continent was now inevitable, although it was not yet certain whether Britain should be involved. Asquith, Grey and Haldane had a late night talk at the Foreign Office. On Wednesday 29 July two decisions were taken at Cabinet. Firstly, the Armed Forces were placed on alert (the "Precautionary Period" was declared and the War Book was opened at 2pm). Secondly, the Cabinet agreed to guarantee the neutrality of Belgium, but that Britain's response to any violation of Belgian neutrality would be decided on grounds of policy rather than strict legality. Grey was authorised to tell the German and French ambassadors that Britain had not yet made a decision as to whether or on what terms to join in or stand aside. Besides issues of party management (many Liberal MPs, including at least a third of the Cabinet, and the Liberal press apart from the Westminster Gazette, wanted Britain to stay out), Asquith and Grey genuinely believed that openly backing France and Russia would make them more intransigent, without necessarily deterring Germany. On Friday 31 July Grey had a "rather painful" interview with Paul Cambon, the French Ambassador, at which he resisted Cambon's pressure to back France openly.
King George telegraphed Berlin to confirm that Grey had stated that Britain would remain neutral if France and Russia were not attacked. By 31 July, when Grey finally sent a memorandum demanding that Germany respect Belgium's neutrality, it was too late. German forces were already massed at the Belgian border, and Helmuth von Moltke convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II it was too late to change the plan of attack.
At a meeting with Prince Lichnowsky, the German Ambassador, early on 1 August, Grey stated the conditions necessary for Britain to remain neutral, but perhaps with a lack of clarity. Grey did not make it clear that Britain would not ignore a breach of the Treaty of London (1839), to respect and protect the neutrality of Belgium. Nor it seems did he make it clear that Britain would support Russia, for at 11:14 AM that morning, Lichnowsky sent a telegram to Berlin which indicated that Grey had proposed that, if Germany were not to attack France, Britain would remain neutral. Saturday 1 August saw a difficult Cabinet from 11am to 1.30pm. The Cabinet were divided, but (with the notable exception of Churchill) predominantly against war. Grey threatened to resign if the Cabinet pledged not to intervene in any circumstances. Asquith's private preference was to stay out, but he gave Grey staunch support and reckoned he would have to resign if Grey did. Overnight Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia and France. The first of two Cabinets on Sunday 2 August was from 11am to 2pm. After much difficulty it was agreed that Grey should tell Cambon and the Germans that the Royal Navy would not allow the German navy to conduct hostile operations in the Channel (the French fleet was concentrated in the Mediterranean, under an Anglo-French naval agreement of 1912).
On Monday 3 August, Germany declared war on France and broke the old London treaty by invading Belgium. That afternoon Grey made an hour-long speech to the House of Commons. As Grey stood at a window in the Foreign Office, watching the lamps being lit as dusk approached on 3 August, he is famously said to have remarked to the editor of the Westminster Gazette, "The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our time."
United by the need to assist France as promised, and hold the Liberal party together lest the warmongering Conservatives take power, the Cabinet voted almost unanimously for war, with only John Burns and Viscount Morley resigning. On the afternoon of Tuesday 4 August the House of Commons was informed that an ultimatum had been given to Germany expiring midnight Berlin time (11pm in London). In terms of public appeal, the Liberals made a great deal of German violation of Belgian neutrality, but this was not the main cause for its decision to go to war.
In his memoirs published in 1925 Grey gave his retrospective analysis of the causes of the war:
More than one true thing may be said about the causes of the war, but the statement that comprises the most truth is that militarism and the armaments inseparable from it made war inevitable....After 1870 Germany had no reason to be afraid, but she fortified herself with armaments and the Triple Alliance in order that she might never have reason to be afraid in the future. France naturally was afraid after 1870, and she made her military preparations and the Dual Alliance (with Russia). Britain, with a very small Army and a very large Empire, became first uncomfortable and then (particularly when Germany began a big-fleet programme) afraid of isolation. She made the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, made up her quarrels with France and Russia, and entered the Entente. Finally, Germany became afraid that she would presently be afraid and struck the blow while she believed her power to be invincible.
Historians studying the July crisis typically conclude that Grey:
was not a great foreign secretary but an honest, reticent, punctilious English gentleman.... He exhibited a judicious understanding of European affairs, a firm control of his staff, and a suppleness and tact in diplomacy, but he had no boldness, no imagination, no ability to command men and events. [Regarding the war] He pursued a cautious, moderate policy, one that not only fitted his temperament, but also reflected the deep split in the Cabinet, in the Liberal party, and in public opinion.
First World War
After the outbreak of World War I, the conduct of British foreign policy was increasingly constrained by the demands of a military struggle beyond Grey's control. During the war, Grey worked with Marquess of Crewe to press an initially reluctant ambassador to the United States, Sir Cecil Spring Rice, to raise the issue of the Hindu–German Conspiracy with the American government; this ultimately led to the unfolding of the entire plot.
In the early years of the war, Grey oversaw negotiation of important secret agreements with new allies (Italy and the Arab rebels) and with France and Russia (the Sykes–Picot Agreement) which, among other provisions, assigned postwar control of the Turkish Straits to Russia. Otherwise, Asquith and Grey generally preferred to avoid discussion of war aims for fear of raising an issue that might fracture the Entente. In a 12 February 1916 paper the new Chief of the Imperial General Staff William Robertson proposed that the Allies offer a separate peace to Turkey, or offer Turkish territory to Bulgaria to encourage Bulgaria to break with the Central Powers and make peace, so as to allow British forces in that theatre to be redeployed against Germany. Grey replied that Britain needed her continental allies more than they needed her, and imperial interests could not incur the risk (e.g., by reneging on the promise that Russia was to have control of the Turkish Straits) that they might choose to make a separate peace, which would leave Germany dominant on the continent.
Grey retained his position as Foreign Secretary when Asquith's Coalition Government (which included the Conservatives) was formed in May 1915. Grey was one of those Liberal ministers who contemplated joining Sir John Simon (Home Secretary) in resigning in protest at the conscription of bachelors, due to be enacted in January 1916, but he did not do so. In late 1916 American President Woodrow Wilson secretly promoted a compromise peace to both sides of the war. Both sides rejected the offer. Germany thought that with the defeat of Russia it had enough troops, and new tactics, to win a decisive victory on the Western front . The British cabinet was hostile because of an intense degree of popular war hysteria had committed them to a policy of total victory; the leaders also distrusted Wilson's motives. Grey was the only senior leader who supported Wilson's proposal, but his influence was declining. The best he could do was to soothe Wilson's hurt feelings and prevent a possible rupture with Washington.
In an attempt to reduce his workload, he left the House of Commons for the House of Lords in July 1916, accepting a peerage as Viscount Grey of Fallodon, in the County of Northumberland. When Asquith's ministry collapsed in December 1916 and David Lloyd George became Prime Minister, Grey went into opposition.
Later career
Grey became President of the League of Nations Union in 1918. In 1919 he was appointed Ambassador to the United States, with responsibility for encouraging that country join the League of Nations. Grey's eyesight had deteriorated to near blindness by this stage and his appointment was a short-term one, for five months until 1920. He dealt with the issue of Irish independence, but failed to convince the U.S. to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. During his stay in the U.S. Grey was unable to obtain a meeting with President Woodrow Wilson, a fact which he attributed to the influence of the Irish lobby.
By mid July 1920 Lord Robert Cecil, a moderate and staunchly pro-League of Nations Conservative, was keen for a party realignment under Grey, who was also a strong supporter of the League. Grey had been irritated by Asquith's failure to congratulate him on his Washington appointment, but they reestablished relations in November 1920. Asquith reached an agreement with Grey on 29 June 1921, suggesting that he could be Leader in the Lords and Lord President of the Council in any future Liberal Government, as his eyesight was no longer good enough to cope with the paperwork of running a major department. Grey wanted British troops simply pulled out of Ireland and the Irish left to sort themselves out, a solution likened by Roy Jenkins to the British withdrawal from India in 1947.
The success of Anti-Waste League candidates at by-elections made leading Liberals feel that there was a strong vote which might be tapped by a wider-based and more credible opposition to Lloyd George's Coalition government. Talks between Grey and Lord Robert Cecil also began in June 1921. A wider meeting (Cecil, Asquith, Grey, and leading Liberals Lord Crewe, Walter Runciman and Sir Donald Maclean) was held on 5 July 1921. Cecil wanted a genuine coalition rather than a de facto Liberal government, with Grey rather than Asquith as Prime Minister, and an official manifesto by himself and Grey which the official Liberal leaders Asquith and Lord Crewe would then endorse. Another Conservative, Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, later joined in the talks, and his views were similar to Cecil's, but Maclean, Runciman and Crewe were hostile. Grey himself was not keen, and his eyesight would have been a major handicap to his becoming Prime Minister. He missed the third meeting, saying that he was feeding squirrels in Northumberland, and was late for the fourth. He did, however, make a move by speaking in his former constituency in October 1921, to little effect, after which the move for a party realignment fizzled out.
Grey continued to be active in politics despite his near blindness, serving as Leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Lords from 1923 until his resignation on the grounds that he was unable to attend on a regular basis shortly before the 1924 election. Having declined to stand for Chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1925, to make way for Asquith's unsuccessful bid, he was elected unopposed as in 1928 and held the position until his death in 1933.
Private life
Grey married Dorothy, daughter of S. F. Widdrington, of Newton Hall, Northumberland, in 1885. They enjoyed a close relationship, sharing a fondness for peaceful rural pursuits at their country residence by the river Itchen in Hampshire. After her death in a road accident in February 1906, Grey remained single until marrying Pamela Adelaide Genevieve Wyndham, daughter of the Honourable Percy Wyndham and widow of Lord Glenconner, in 1922. There were no offspring from either marriage. According to Max Hastings, however, Grey had two illegitimate children as a result of extra-marital affairs. According to Edward James, one of them is his sister, Audrey Evelyn James, officially the daughter of William Dodge James and Evelyn Elizabeth Forbes.
During his university years Grey represented his college at football and was also an excellent tennis player being Oxford champion in 1883 (and winning the varsity competition the same year) and won the British championship in 1889, 1891, 1895, 1896 and 1898. He was runner-up in 1892, 1893 and 1894, years in which he held office. He was also a lifelong fly fisherman, publishing a book, Fly Fishing, on his exploits in 1899, which remains one of the most popular books ever written on the subject. He continued to fish by touch after his deteriorating eye-sight meant he was no longer able to see the fly or a rising fish. He was also an avid ornithologist; one of the best-known photographs of him shows him with a robin perched on his hat; The Charm of Birds was published in 1927. In 1933 he was one of eleven people involved in the appeal that led to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), an organisation for the study of birds in the British Isles. He was, along with his fellow Liberal Haldane, one of the original members of the Coefficients dining club of social reformers set up in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners Sidney and Beatrice Webb.
Death
Lady Grey of Fallodon died on 18 November 1928. Lord Grey of Fallodon remained a widower until his own death at Fallodon on 7 September 1933, aged 71, following which his body was cremated at Darlington. The Viscountcy became extinct on his death, though he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his cousin, Sir George Grey.
Works
Fly Fishing (1899, 1929 two new chapters were added)
Cottage Book. Itchen Abbas, 1894–1905 (1909)
On Sea trout. (1913)
Recreation (1920)
Twenty-Five Years, 1892-1916. (1925)
Fallodon Papers (1926)
The Charm of Birds (Hodder and Stoughton, 1927)
See also
British entry into World War I
Liberal government, 1905–1915
Timeline of British diplomatic history#1897-1919
Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology
Notes
References
Further reading
Boothe, Leon. "Lord Grey, The United States and Political Efforts for a League of Nations, 1914-1920" Maryland Historical Magazine 1970, 65#1, pp 36–54.
Brown, William R. "Sir Edward Grey's rhetoric." Southern Journal of Communication 34.4 (1969): 276–287.
Cecil, Algernon. British Foreign Secretaries 1807-1916 (1927) pp 315–364. online
Clark, Christopher. "Sir Edward Grey and the July Crisis." International History Review 38.2 (2016): 326–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2015.1134620
Gooch, G.P. Before the war: studies in diplomacy (2 vol 1936, 1938) online vol 2 pp 1–133.
Lord Grey, Viscount of Fallodon. Twenty Five Years 1892-1916 (1925), his autobiography online; a primary source
online
vol 1 online; also vol 2 online
vol 3 online; primary sources
Lutz, Hermann. Lord Grey and the World War (1928) online
Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the coming of the Great War (Random House, 1991) excerpt see Dreadnought (book), popular history; pp 581–593.
Mombauer, Annika. "Sir Edward Grey, Germany, and the Outbreak of the First World War: A Re-Evaluation." International History Review 38.2 (2016): 301–325. online
Mulligan, William. "From Case to Narrative: The Marquess of Lansdowne, Sir Edward Grey, and the Threat from Germany, 1900–1906." International History Review 30.2 (2008): 273–302.
Murray, Gilbert. The Foreign Policy of Sir Edward Grey, 1906-1915 (1915)online
Neilson, Keith."'Control of the Whirlwind': Sir Edward Grey as Foreign Secretary, 1906-1916," in T.G. Otte (ed.), Makers of British Foreign Policy. From Pitt to Thatcher (Basingstoke 2002
Otte, T. G. "'Postponing the Evil Day': Sir Edward Grey and British Foreign Policy." International History Review 38.2 (2016): 250–263. online
Otte, Thomas G. "'Almost a law of nature'? Sir Edward Grey, the foreign office, and the balance of power in Europe, 1905–12." Diplomacy and Statecraft 14.2 (2003): 77–118.
Sontag, R. J. "British Policy in 1913-14" Journal of Modern History 10#4 (1938), pp. 542–553 online
Trevelyan, G.M. Grey of Fallodon; the Life of Sir Edward Grey (1937) online
Valone, Stephen J. "'There Must Be Some Misunderstanding': Sir Edward Grey's Diplomacy of August 1, 1914" Journal of British Studies (1988) 27#4 pp. 405–424 online
popular biography.
Williams, Joyce Grigsby. Colonel House & Sir Edward Grey: A Study in Anglo-American Diplomacy (1984)
Wilson, Keith M. "The British Cabinet's decision for war, 2 August 1914." Review of International Studies 1.2 (1975): 148–159.
Young, Harry F. "The misunderstanding of August 1, 1914." Journal of Modern History 48.4 (1976): 644–665. online
External links
1914-1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
Grey's Speech of 3 August 1914 before the House of Commons ("We are going to suffer, I am afraid, terribly in this war, whether we are in it or whether we stand aside.")
The Genesis of the "A.B.C." Memorandum of 1901.
British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
British ornithologists
People educated at Temple Grove School
People educated at Winchester College
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Chancellors of the University of Oxford
Deputy Lieutenants of Northumberland
Knights of the Garter
Grey of Fallodon, Edward Grey, 1st Viscount
Fellows of the Zoological Society of London
1862 births
1933 deaths
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
UK MPs who were granted peerages
Diplomatic peers
Hindu–German Conspiracy
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the United States
Fellows of the Royal Society (Statute 12)
North Eastern Railway (UK) people
Chatham House people
Edward
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|
218236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igua%C3%A7u | Iguaçu | Iguaçu or Iguazú may refer to:
Inhabited places
Puerto Iguazú, Argentina
Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná, Brazil
Nova Iguaçu, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Nova Iguaçu de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil
Iguaçu Territory, a former Brazilian federal territory
Rivers
Iguazu Falls, on the Iguazu River
Iguazu River, a river in Brazil and Argentina
Other uses
Iguaçu, a 1977 album by Passport
1684 Iguassú, a main belt asteroid
Iguaçu National Park (Brazil)
Iguazú National Park (Argentina) | [
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218238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob%20Schneider | Rob Schneider | Robert Michael Schneider (; born October 31, 1963) is an American actor, comedian, and screenwriter. A stand-up comic and veteran of the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live, he went on to a career in feature films, including starring roles in the comedy films Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo, The Animal, The Hot Chick, The Benchwarmers, and Grown Ups. Schneider is the father of singer Elle King.
Early life
Schneider was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in the nearby suburb of Pacifica. His parents were Pilar (née Monroe), a former kindergarten teacher and ex-school board president, and Marvin Schneider, a real estate broker. His father was Jewish and his mother was Catholic. Schneider's maternal grandmother was a Filipina who met and married his grandfather, a white American army private, while he was stationed in the Philippines. His mixed background is a common theme in his comedy acts. His older brother, John, is a producer. Schneider graduated from Terra Nova High School in 1982 and then attended San Francisco State University.
Career
Early career
Schneider started his stand-up comedy career while still in high school, opening for San Francisco favorites Head On, a band managed by his older brother John. After high school, he played Bay Area nightclubs such as the Holy City Zoo and The Other Cafe, and was a regular guest on local radio programs. After opening a show by comedian Dennis Miller in 1987, Schneider won a slot on HBO's 13th Annual Young Comedians special, which was hosted by Miller. Schneider's appearance on the HBO special led to a position as a writer for the late night NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live.
Saturday Night Live
Schneider was hired at Saturday Night Live in 1988. Schneider swiftly graduated from writer and featured player to full cast member. From 1990 to 1994 at SNL, he played such roles as "Tiny Elvis" and "Orgasm Guy". His best known recurring character was Richard Laymer, an office worker whose desk was stuck beside the photocopier, and who addressed each of his fellow employees with an endless stream of annoying nicknames. Schneider is featured in the video release The Bad Boys of Saturday Night Live, along with colleagues Adam Sandler, Chris Rock, David Spade, and Chris Farley.
Recurring SNL characters
The Richmeister, an office worker who annoys people by giving them nicknames as they make copies.
Carlo, from the Il Cantore Restaurant sketches
The Sensitive Naked Man, a nude man who gives advice to other characters
Feature films, sitcoms, and endorsements
After leaving SNL, Schneider played supporting roles in a series of movies including Surf Ninjas, Judge Dredd, The Beverly Hillbillies, Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, Demolition Man, and Down Periscope. He also appeared in a recurring part on the television series Coach. In 1996, he co-starred in the NBC sitcom Men Behaving Badly, an American take on the hit British series of the same name. The U.S. version ran for two seasons.
Schneider starred in the 1999 feature film Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo, a tale of a fish-tank cleaner who incurs a massive debt and is forced to become a "man-whore." This was followed by The Animal, about a man given animal powers by a mad scientist; The Hot Chick, wherein the body of a petty thief named Clive Maxtone (played by Schneider) is mystically switched with the body of a pretty, but mean-spirited high school cheerleader named Jessica Spencer (played by Rachel McAdams in her film debut); and the sequel Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo. The latter movie was not well received by critics or moviegoers, and as a result, Schneider won a 2005 Worst Actor Razzie Award for his role in the film.
In 2006, Schneider co-starred in the baseball-themed family comedy The Benchwarmers, along with his fellow SNL alumnus David Spade as well as Jon Heder. Other film roles include Schneider's appearance with Jim Henson's Muppets in the 1999 film Muppets from Space, and his role as a San Francisco hobo in the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days.
Schneider's directorial debut, the comedy Big Stan, was released in some overseas markets during the fall of 2008, with a U.S. release in early 2009. In the film, he starred as a real estate con artist who is arrested for perpetrating real-estate scams. He is sentenced to prison, so he takes a crash-course in martial arts to survive incarceration.
Schneider has also appeared in numerous comedies starring his SNL comrade Adam Sandler, including 1998's The Waterboy, 2010's Grown Ups, and 2020's Hubie Halloween. The comedic characters Schneider plays in these films include an overly enthusiastic Cajun man who proclaims the catch-phrase, "You can do it!"; an amiable Middle Eastern delivery boy; a prison inmate; and Sandler's one-eyed Hawaiian sidekick, Ula. Schneider has uttered the line "You can do it!" as a running gag in Sandler's films The Waterboy, Little Nicky, 50 First Dates, The Longest Yard, and Bedtime Stories, as well as in a deleted scene from Click (a sample of Schneider saying the phrase also turns up in the song "Original Prankster" by The Offspring). Returning the favor, Sandler appeared in a cameo to spout the same line in Schneider's The Animal. Schneider narrated Sandler's 2002 animated movie Eight Crazy Nights, and voiced the part of a Chinese waiter. Schneider also had an uncredited cameo as a Canadian-Japanese wedding-chapel minister in the 2007 Sandler-Kevin James comedy I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry, and played a Palestinian cab driver who serves as the title character's nemesis in the 2008 Sandler film You Don't Mess with the Zohan.
Schneider played a variety of roles in the 2005 television special Back to Norm, starring another former SNL player Norm Macdonald, and appeared on episodes of the popular television shows Seinfeld and Ally McBeal. Schneider hosted the Sports Illustrated: Swimsuit '97 TV special, and the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, and was a frequent guest on NBC's late-night variety program The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. In Schneider's appearance with Leno on the July 24, 2007 episode of The Tonight Show, he showed up in drag as actress Lindsay Lohan after the latter cancelled following a controversial arrest for driving under the influence.
Besides his efforts in movies and television, Schneider released his first comedy album Registered Offender in July 2010. Registered Offender is composed of audio sketches and songs, with Schneider himself doing all of the character voices on the recording. He also revived his stand-up comedy career in 2010 with an international tour of theaters, clubs, and casinos.
Schneider appeared in the music video for country singer Neal McCoy's "Billy's Got His Beer Goggles On", as the song's title character. McCoy and Schneider met while the two went on a USO tour in support of U.S. troops two months after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
Schneider starred as the title character in the CBS sitcom Rob, which was loosely based on his real life. The series was canceled by CBS in May 2012. In 2015, he produced, directed and starred in Real Rob, a sitcom that follows his life and includes his real-life wife Patricia and daughter Miranda. Netflix released a season of 8 episodes, and a second season in 2017.
Schneider is the official celebrity spokesperson for the Taiwan Tourism Bureau and the Ten Ren Tea company in Taipei.
Schneider was spokesperson for State Farm Insurance, but was dropped in 2014 due to his anti-vaccination views.
In May 2016, Schneider was featured as a special guest on the Let's Play webseries Game Grumps, alongside his wife Patricia, commentating over Midway's Mortal Kombat Trilogy. They reappeared on the show in November 2017, then commentating over Konami's Contra.
In 2021, Schneider competed on season six of The Masked Singer as the wild card contestant "Hamster". A running gag is that "Hamster" would pantomime urinating on Nick Cannon and get affectionate with him. When unmasked on the fifth week, Schneider dedicated his performance of Luis Miguel's Sabor a Mí to Patricia and his daughters Miranda, Madeline, and Elle. In addition, Schneider did a variation of his Townie character's "You can do it" line by quoting Hamster's final words "You can do it Masked Singer, all night long!"
Personal life
Schneider has a daughter with former model London King, musician Elle King, who was born in 1989.
In 1996, Schneider established the Rob Schneider Music Foundation. The foundation returned music education to Pacifica's elementary schools by paying the teachers' salaries and providing funds for instruments and other equipment. Prior to Schneider's efforts, the school system did not have music education programs for many years.
Schneider once co-owned the DNA Lounge, a San Francisco nightclub.
On April 23, 2011, Schneider married television producer Patricia Azarcoya Arce, in Beverly Hills, California. Their first child, Miranda Scarlett Schneider, was born in 2012. The couple had their second daughter, Madeline Robbie Schneider, in September 2016. The family supports Mexican soccer club Tigres, which is based in Patricia's hometown of Monterrey.
In December 2020, Schneider and his family moved to Arizona.
Views
In 2013, Schneider switched political parties from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party, explaining: "The state of California is a mess, and the super majority of Democrats is not working. I've been a lifelong Democrat and I have to switch over because it no longer serves the people of this great state."
That same year, Schneider endorsed Republican Assemblyman Tim Donnelly for governor in the election the following year.
Anti-vaccination activism
Schneider has been an outspoken critic of childhood vaccinations. In an interview with News10 in Sacramento, Schneider opined that "The efficacy of these shots have not been proven ... And the toxicity of these things – we're having more and more side effects. We're having more and more autism." Schneider's statements have been discredited as lacking any factual basis. He also views the actions from the state to mandate vaccinations as government overreach.
Schneider has actively opposed the passage of two California laws, California Assembly Bill 2109 and California Senate Bill 277, which both intended to make childhood vaccination exemptions harder to obtain. On September 28, 2012, Schneider and California State Assemblyman Tim Donnelly spoke at the "Medical Freedom Rally", where they urged California Governor Jerry Brown to veto Assembly Bill 2109, which would have made it more difficult for parents to utilize philosophical reasons for exemptions from mandatory childhood vaccinations. While the bill was not vetoed, Governor Brown added a signing message instructing the Department of Health to add a religious exemption and to make sure the process is not overly burdensome to parents. In 2015, Schneider fought against California Senate Bill 277, which removed exemptions to mandatory vaccinations due to personal beliefs, even leaving a phone message to California state Assemblywoman and bill co-author Lorena Gonzalez saying that he would spend money against her in her next re-election. Gonzalez, in an interview with The Washington Times, said that she found the message to be disturbing, but upon calling back, she said "he was actually much nicer to me, but let's be honest … that is 20 mins of my life I'll never get back arguing that vaccines don't cause autism with Deuce Bigalow, male gigolo. #vaccinateyourkids."
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
References
External links
1963 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male actors of Filipino descent
American male comedians
American male film actors
American anti-vaccination activists
American male screenwriters
American male television actors
American people of Jewish descent
Comedy film directors
People from Pacifica, California
Male actors from San Francisco
Living people
American sketch comedians
American male comedy actors
Comedians from California
Writers from San Francisco
San Francisco State University alumni
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
Screenwriters from California
American comedians of Asian descent
Golden Raspberry Award winners | [
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|
218239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Wellington%20%28title%29 | Duke of Wellington (title) | Duke of Wellington is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The name derived from Wellington in Somerset, and the title was created in 1814 for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Marquess of Wellington (1769–1852; born as The Hon. Arthur Wesley), the Anglo-Irish military commander who is best known for leading the decisive victory with Field Marshal von Blücher over Napoleon's forces at Waterloo in Brabant (now Walloon Brabant, Belgium). Wellesley later served twice as British prime minister.
The first Duke's father, Garret Wesley, had been granted the title of Earl of Mornington in 1760. His male-line ancestors were wealthy agricultural and urban landowners in both countries, among the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy. The dukedom has descended to heirs male of the body, along with eleven other hereditary titles.
History
The titles of Duke of Wellington and Marquess Douro were bestowed upon Arthur Wellesley, 1st Marquess of Wellington, on 3 May 1814 after he returned home a hero following Napoleon's abdication. He fought some sixty battles during his military career. He was considered "the conqueror of Napoleon". He stands as one of the finest soldiers that Great Britain and Ireland has ever produced, others being the 1st Duke of Marlborough and the 2nd Duke of Argyll.
The subsidiary titles of the Duke of Wellington are Marquess of Wellington (1812), Marquess Douro (1814), Earl of Mornington (1760 – but only inherited by the Dukes of Wellington in 1863), Earl of Wellington (1812), Viscount Wellesley (1760 – inherited in 1863), Viscount Wellington (1809), Baron Mornington (1746 – also inherited in 1863), and Baron Douro (1809). The Viscountcy of Wellesley and the Barony and Earldom of Mornington are in the Peerage of Ireland; the rest are in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.
Apart from the British titles, the Dukes of Wellington also hold the titles of Prince of Waterloo (Prins van Waterloo, 1815) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo (Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo, 1812) of the Kingdom of Spain, and Duke of Victoria (Duque da Vitória, 1812), with the subsidiary titles Marquess of Torres Vedras (Marquês de Torres Vedras, 1812) and Count of Vimeiro (Conde de Vimeiro, 1811) of the Kingdom of Portugal. These were granted to the first Duke as victory titles for his distinguished service as victorious commanding general in the Peninsular War (in Spain and Portugal) and at the Battle of Waterloo (in what is now Belgium).
The family seat is Stratfield Saye House, near Basingstoke, Hampshire. Apsley House, in London, is now owned by English Heritage, although the family retain an apartment there.
Dukes of Wellington (1814)
Title succession
Line of succession
Arthur Wellesley, 4th Duke of Wellington (1849–1934)
Gerald Wellesley, 7th Duke of Wellington (1885–1972)
Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington (1915–2014)
Charles Wellesley, 9th Duke of Wellington (b. 1945)
(1) Arthur Wellesley, Earl of Mornington (b. 1978)
(2) Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellesley (b. 2010)
(3) Lord Alfred Wellesley (b. 2014)
(4) Lord Frederick Wellesley (b. 1992)
(5) Lord Richard Wellesley (b. 1949)
(6) Lord John Wellesley (b. 1954)
(7) Gerald Wellesley (b. 1981)
(8) Lord James Wellesley (b. 1956)
(9) Oliver Wellesley (b. 2005)
Lord George Wellesley (1889–1967)
Richard Wellesley (1920–1984)
John Wellesley (1962–2009)
(10) Thomas Wellesley (b. 2000)''
Should the direct male line of succession from the first Duke of Wellington become extinct, the dukedom and its subsidiary titles in the British peerage will become extinct, as will the titles of Prince of Waterloo in the Dutch peerage and the dukedom of the Victory and its subsidiary titles in the Portuguese peerage. The dukedom of Ciudad Rodrigo in the Spanish peerage, together with its subsidiary titles, will continue to be held in the female line of descendants of the first Duke. The earldom and barony of Mornington, along with the viscountcy of Wellesley, which are all titles in the Irish peerage, will revert to the line of the Earl Cowley, a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the first Duke of Wellington.
The Colley or Cowley family had come to Ireland from Glaston, in Rutland about 1500; Sir Henry Colley was elevated to the Peerage as Lord Glaston by Henry VIII. He married the daughter of Thomas Cusack, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Catherine Wellesley Cusack (d. 1598) whose grandmother was a Wellesley. Upon the death of his cousin Garret Wesley and his inheritance of the Estates of Dangan and Mornington, Richard Colley (d. 1758) and his wife Elizabeth Sale (d. 17 June 1738) daughter of John Sale, Registrar of the Diocese of Dublin, on 23 December 1719. adopted the name Wellesley (from both Elizabeth's maternal family side from Catherine Wellesley Cusack her grandmother) and through her Husband's Family, his cousin, Garret Wesley (Wellesley).
See also
Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo
Prins van Waterloo
Duque da Vitória
Waterloo ceremony
References
External links
Duke of Wellington's Regiment
Genealogical information on the Dukes of Vitória
Genealogical information on the Marquesses of Torres Vedras
Genealogical information on the Counts of Vimeiro
Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
1814 establishments in the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1814
Noble titles created for UK MPs
British landowners | [
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|
218247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Audio%20Coding | Advanced Audio Coding | Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) is an audio coding standard for lossy digital audio compression. Designed to be the successor of the MP3 format, AAC generally achieves higher sound quality than MP3 encoders at the same bit rate.
AAC has been standardized by ISO and IEC as part of the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 specifications. Part of AAC, HE-AAC ("AAC+"), is part of MPEG-4 Audio and is adopted into digital radio standards DAB+ and Digital Radio Mondiale, and mobile television standards DVB-H and ATSC-M/H.
AAC supports inclusion of 48 full-bandwidth (up to 96 kHz) audio channels in one stream plus 16 low frequency effects (LFE, limited to 120 Hz) channels, up to 16 "coupling" or dialog channels, and up to 16 data streams. The quality for stereo is satisfactory to modest requirements at 96 kbit/s in joint stereo mode; however, hi-fi transparency demands data rates of at least 128 kbit/s (VBR). Tests of MPEG-4 audio have shown that AAC meets the requirements referred to as "transparent" for the ITU at 128 kbit/s for stereo, and 320 kbit/s for 5.1 audio. AAC uses only a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) algorithm, giving it higher compression efficiency than MP3, which uses a hybrid coding algorithm that is part MDCT and part FFT.
AAC is the default or standard audio format for iPhone, iPod, iPad, Nintendo DSi, Nintendo 3DS, YouTube Music, Apple Music (only used on web player, Google Home, Amazon Alexa, and Microsoft Windows app.), iTunes, DivX Plus Web Player, PlayStation 4 and various Nokia Series 40 phones. It is supported on PlayStation Vita, Wii, Sony Walkman MP3, Android and BlackBerry. AAC is also supported by manufacturers of in-dash car audio systems. It is also one of the audio formats used on the Spotify web player.
History
Background
The discrete cosine transform (DCT), a type of transform coding for lossy compression, was proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, and developed by Ahmed with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973, publishing their results in 1974. This led to the development of the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986. The MP3 audio coding standard introduced in 1994 used a hybrid coding algorithm that is part MDCT and part FFT. AAC uses a purely MDCT algorithm, giving it higher compression efficiency than MP3.
AAC was developed with the cooperation and contributions of companies including Bell Labs, Fraunhofer IIS, Dolby Laboratories, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT. It was officially declared an international standard by the Moving Picture Experts Group in April 1997. It is specified both as Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard, and Subpart 4 in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard.
Standardization
In 1997, AAC was first introduced as MPEG-2 Part 7, formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-7:1997. This part of MPEG-2 was a new part, since MPEG-2 already included MPEG-2 Part 3, formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-3: MPEG-2 BC (Backwards Compatible). Therefore, MPEG-2 Part 7 is also known as MPEG-2 NBC (Non-Backward Compatible), because it is not compatible with the MPEG-1 audio formats (MP1, MP2 and MP3).
MPEG-2 Part 7 defined three profiles: Low-Complexity profile (AAC-LC / LC-AAC), Main profile (AAC Main) and Scalable Sampling Rate profile (AAC-SSR). AAC-LC profile consists of a base format very much like AT&T's Perceptual Audio Coding (PAC) coding format, with the addition of temporal noise shaping (TNS), the Kaiser window (described below), a nonuniform quantizer, and a reworking of the bitstream format to handle up to 16 stereo channels, 16 mono channels, 16 low-frequency effect (LFE) channels and 16 commentary channels in one bitstream. The Main profile adds a set of recursive predictors that are calculated on each tap of the filterbank. The SSR uses a 4-band PQMF filterbank, with four shorter filterbanks following, in order to allow for scalable sampling rates.
In 1999, MPEG-2 Part 7 was updated and included in the MPEG-4 family of standards and became known as MPEG-4 Part 3, MPEG-4 Audio or ISO/IEC 14496-3:1999. This update included several improvements. One of these improvements was the addition of Audio Object Types which are used to allow interoperability with a diverse range of other audio formats such as TwinVQ, CELP, HVXC, Text-To-Speech Interface and MPEG-4 Structured Audio. Another notable addition in this version of the AAC standard is Perceptual Noise Substitution (PNS). In that regard, the AAC profiles (AAC-LC, AAC Main and AAC-SSR profiles) are combined with perceptual noise substitution and are defined in the MPEG-4 audio standard as Audio Object Types. MPEG-4 Audio Object Types are combined in four MPEG-4 Audio profiles: Main (which includes most of the MPEG-4 Audio Object Types), Scalable (AAC LC, AAC LTP, CELP, HVXC, TwinVQ, Wavetable Synthesis, TTSI), Speech (CELP, HVXC, TTSI) and Low Rate Synthesis (Wavetable Synthesis, TTSI).
The reference software for MPEG-4 Part 3 is specified in MPEG-4 Part 5 and the conformance bit-streams are specified in MPEG-4 Part 4. MPEG-4 Audio remains backward-compatible with MPEG-2 Part 7.
The MPEG-4 Audio Version 2 (ISO/IEC 14496-3:1999/Amd 1:2000) defined new audio object types: the low delay AAC (AAC-LD) object type, bit-sliced arithmetic coding (BSAC) object type, parametric audio coding using harmonic and individual line plus noise and error resilient (ER) versions of object types. It also defined four new audio profiles: High Quality Audio Profile, Low Delay Audio Profile, Natural Audio Profile and Mobile Audio Internetworking Profile.
The HE-AAC Profile (AAC LC with SBR) and AAC Profile (AAC LC) were first standardized in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2001/Amd 1:2003. The HE-AAC v2 Profile (AAC LC with SBR and Parametric Stereo) was first specified in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2005/Amd 2:2006. The Parametric Stereo audio object type used in HE-AAC v2 was first defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2001/Amd 2:2004.
The current version of the AAC standard is defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009.
AAC+ v2 is also standardized by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) as TS 102005.
The MPEG-4 Part 3 standard also contains other ways of compressing sound. These include lossless compression formats, synthetic audio and low bit-rate compression formats generally used for speech.
AAC's improvements over MP3
Advanced Audio Coding is designed to be the successor of the MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3, known as MP3 format, which was specified by ISO/IEC in 11172-3 (MPEG-1 Audio) and 13818-3 (MPEG-2 Audio).
Blind tests in the late 1990s showed that AAC demonstrated greater sound quality and transparency than MP3 for files coded at the same bit rate.
Improvements include:
more sample rates (from 8 to 96 kHz) than MP3 (16 to 48 kHz);
up to 48 channels (MP3 supports up to two channels in MPEG-1 mode and up to 5.1 channels in MPEG-2 mode);
arbitrary bit rates and variable frame length. Standardized constant bit rate with bit reservoir;
higher efficiency and simpler filter bank. AAC uses a pure MDCT (modified discrete cosine transform), rather than MP3's hybrid coding (which was part MDCT and part FFT);
higher coding efficiency for stationary signals (AAC uses a blocksize of 1024 or 960 samples, allowing more efficient coding than MP3's 576 sample blocks);
higher coding accuracy for transient signals (AAC uses a blocksize of 128 or 120 samples, allowing more accurate coding than MP3's 192 sample blocks);
possibility to use Kaiser-Bessel derived window function to eliminate spectral leakage at the expense of widening the main lobe;
much better handling of audio frequencies above 16 kHz;
more flexible joint stereo (different methods can be used in different frequency ranges);
additional modules (tools) added to increase compression efficiency: TNS, backwards prediction, perceptual noise substitution (PNS), etc. These modules can be combined to constitute different encoding profiles.
Overall, the AAC format allows developers more flexibility to design codecs than MP3 does, and corrects many of the design choices made in the original MPEG-1 audio specification. This increased flexibility often leads to more concurrent encoding strategies and, as a result, to more efficient compression. This is especially true at very low bit rates where the superior stereo coding, pure MDCT, and better transform window sizes leave MP3 unable to compete.
While the MP3 format has near-universal hardware and software support, primarily because MP3 was the format of choice during the crucial first few years of widespread music file-sharing/distribution over the internet, AAC is a strong contender due to some unwavering industry support.
Functionality
AAC is a wideband audio coding algorithm that exploits two primary coding strategies to dramatically reduce the amount of data needed to represent high-quality digital audio:
Signal components that are perceptually irrelevant are discarded.
Redundancies in the coded audio signal are eliminated.
The actual encoding process consists of the following steps:
The signal is converted from time-domain to frequency-domain using forward modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT). This is done by using filter banks that take an appropriate number of time samples and convert them to frequency samples.
The frequency domain signal is quantized based on a psychoacoustic model and encoded.
Internal error correction codes are added.
The signal is stored or transmitted.
In order to prevent corrupt samples, a modern implementation of the Luhn mod N algorithm is applied to each frame.
The MPEG-4 audio standard does not define a single or small set of highly efficient compression schemes but rather a complex toolbox to perform a wide range of operations from low bit rate speech coding to high-quality audio coding and music synthesis.
The MPEG-4 audio coding algorithm family spans the range from low bit rate speech encoding (down to 2 kbit/s) to high-quality audio coding (at 64 kbit/s per channel and higher).
AAC offers sampling frequencies between 8 kHz and 96 kHz and any number of channels between 1 and 48.
In contrast to MP3's hybrid filter bank, AAC uses the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) together with the increased window lengths of 1024 or 960 points.
AAC encoders can switch dynamically between a single MDCT block of length 1024 points or 8 blocks of 128 points (or between 960 points and 120 points, respectively).
If a signal change or a transient occurs, 8 shorter windows of 128/120 points each are chosen for their better temporal resolution.
By default, the longer 1024-point/960-point window is otherwise used because the increased frequency resolution allows for a more sophisticated psychoacoustic model, resulting in improved coding efficiency.
Modular encoding
AAC takes a modular approach to encoding. Depending on the complexity of the bitstream to be encoded, the desired performance and the acceptable output, implementers may create profiles to define which of a specific set of tools they want to use for a particular application.
The MPEG-2 Part 7 standard (Advanced Audio Coding) was first published in 1997 and offers three default profiles:
Low Complexity (LC) – the simplest and most widely used and supported
Main Profile (Main) – like the LC profile, with the addition of backwards prediction
Scalable Sample Rate (SSR) a.k.a. Sample-Rate Scalable (SRS)
The MPEG-4 Part 3 standard (MPEG-4 Audio) defined various new compression tools (a.k.a. Audio Object Types) and their usage in brand new profiles. AAC is not used in some of the MPEG-4 Audio profiles. The MPEG-2 Part 7 AAC LC profile, AAC Main profile and AAC SSR profile are combined with Perceptual Noise Substitution and defined in the MPEG-4 Audio standard as Audio Object Types (under the name AAC LC, AAC Main and AAC SSR). These are combined with other Object Types in MPEG-4 Audio profiles. Here is a list of some audio profiles defined in the MPEG-4 standard:
Main Audio Profile – defined in 1999, uses most of the MPEG-4 Audio Object Types (AAC Main, AAC-LC, AAC-SSR, AAC-LTP, AAC Scalable, TwinVQ, CELP, HVXC, TTSI, Main synthesis)
Scalable Audio Profile – defined in 1999, uses AAC-LC, AAC-LTP, AAC Scalable, TwinVQ, CELP, HVXC, TTSI
Speech Audio Profile – defined in 1999, uses CELP, HVXC, TTSI
Synthetic Audio Profile – defined in 1999, TTSI, Main synthesis
High Quality Audio Profile – defined in 2000, uses AAC-LC, AAC-LTP, AAC Scalable, CELP, ER-AAC-LC, ER-AAC-LTP, ER-AAC Scalable, ER-CELP
Low Delay Audio Profile – defined in 2000, uses CELP, HVXC, TTSI, ER-AAC-LD, ER-CELP, ER-HVXC
Low Delay AAC v2 - defined in 2012, uses AAC-LD, AAC-ELD and AAC-ELDv2
Mobile Audio Internetworking Profile – defined in 2000, uses ER-AAC-LC, ER-AAC-Scalable, ER-TwinVQ, ER-BSAC, ER-AAC-LD
AAC Profile – defined in 2003, uses AAC-LC
High Efficiency AAC Profile – defined in 2003, uses AAC-LC, SBR
High Efficiency AAC v2 Profile – defined in 2006, uses AAC-LC, SBR, PS
Extended High Efficiency AAC xHE-AAC – defined in 2012, uses USAC
One of many improvements in MPEG-4 Audio is an Object Type called Long Term Prediction (LTP), which is an improvement of the Main profile using a forward predictor with lower computational complexity.
AAC error protection toolkit
Applying error protection enables error correction up to a certain extent. Error correcting codes are usually applied equally to the whole payload. However, since different parts of an AAC payload show different sensitivity to transmission errors, this would not be a very efficient approach.
The AAC payload can be subdivided into parts with different error sensitivities.
Independent error correcting codes can be applied to any of these parts using the Error Protection (EP) tool defined in MPEG-4 Audio standard.
This toolkit provides the error correcting capability to the most sensitive parts of the payload in order to keep the additional overhead low.
The toolkit is backwardly compatible with simpler and pre-existing AAC decoders. A great deal of the toolkit's error correction functions are based around spreading information about the audio signal more evenly in the datastream.
Error Resilient (ER) AAC
Error Resilience (ER) techniques can be used to make the coding scheme itself more robust against errors.
For AAC, three custom-tailored methods were developed and defined in MPEG-4 Audio
Huffman Codeword Reordering (HCR) to avoid error propagation within spectral data
Virtual Codebooks (VCB11) to detect serious errors within spectral data
Reversible Variable Length Code (RVLC) to reduce error propagation within scale factor data
AAC Low Delay
The audio coding standards MPEG-4 Low Delay (AAC-LD), Enhanced Low Delay (AAC-ELD), and Enhanced Low Delay v2 (AAC-ELDv2) as defined in ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009 and ISO/IEC 14496-3:2009/Amd 3 are designed to combine the advantages of perceptual audio coding with the low delay necessary for two-way communication. They are closely derived from the MPEG-2 Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format. AAC-ELD is recommended by GSMA as super-wideband voice codec in the IMS Profile for High Definition Video Conference (HDVC) Service.
Licensing and patents
No licenses or payments are required for a user to stream or distribute content in AAC format. This reason alone might have made AAC a more attractive format to distribute content than its predecessor MP3, particularly for streaming content (such as Internet radio) depending on the use case.
However, a patent license is required for all manufacturers or developers of AAC codecs. For this reason, free and open source software implementations such as FFmpeg and FAAC may be distributed in source form only, in order to avoid patent infringement. (See below under Products that support AAC, Software.)
The AAC patent holders include Bell Labs, Dolby, Fraunhofer, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT.
Extensions and improvements
Some extensions have been added to the first AAC standard (defined in MPEG-2 Part 7 in 1997):
Perceptual Noise Substitution (PNS), added in MPEG-4 in 1999. It allows the coding of noise as pseudorandom data.
Long Term Predictor (LTP), added in MPEG-4 in 1999. It is a forward predictor with lower computational complexity.
Error Resilience (ER), added in MPEG-4 Audio version 2 in 2000, used for transport over error prone channels
AAC-LD (Low Delay), defined in 2000, used for real-time conversation applications
High Efficiency AAC (HE-AAC), a.k.a. aacPlus v1 or AAC+, the combination of SBR (Spectral Band Replication) and AAC LC. Used for low bitrates. Defined in 2003.
HE-AAC v2, a.k.a. aacPlus v2, eAAC+ or Enhanced aacPlus, the combination of Parametric Stereo (PS) and HE-AAC; used for even lower bitrates. Defined in 2004 and 2006.
MPEG-4 Scalable To Lossless (SLS), Not yet published, can supplement an AAC stream to provide a lossless decoding option, such as in Fraunhofer IIS's "HD-AAC" product
Container formats
In addition to the MP4, 3GP and other container formats based on ISO base media file format for file storage, AAC audio data was first packaged in a file for the MPEG-2 standard using Audio Data Interchange Format (ADIF), consisting of a single header followed by the raw AAC audio data blocks. However, if the data is to be streamed within an MPEG-2 transport stream, a self-synchronizing format called an Audio Data Transport Stream (ADTS) is used, consisting of a series of frames, each frame having a header followed by the AAC audio data. This file and streaming-based format are defined in MPEG-2 Part 7, but are only considered informative by MPEG-4, so an MPEG-4 decoder does not need to support either format. These containers, as well as a raw AAC stream, may bear the .aac file extension. MPEG-4 Part 3 also defines its own self-synchronizing format called a Low Overhead Audio Stream (LOAS) that encapsulates not only AAC, but any MPEG-4 audio compression scheme such as TwinVQ and ALS. This format is what was defined for use in DVB transport streams when encoders use either SBR or parametric stereo AAC extensions. However, it is restricted to only a single non-multiplexed AAC stream. This format is also referred to as a Low Overhead Audio Transport Multiplex (LATM), which is just an interleaved multiple stream version of a LOAS.
Products that support AAC
HDTV Standards
Japanese ISDB-T
In December 2003, Japan started broadcasting terrestrial DTV ISDB-T standard that implements MPEG-2 video and MPEG-2 AAC audio.
In April 2006 Japan started broadcasting the ISDB-T mobile sub-program, called 1seg, that was the first implementation of video H.264/AVC with audio HE-AAC in Terrestrial HDTV broadcasting service on the planet.
International ISDB-Tb
In December 2007, Brazil started broadcasting terrestrial DTV standard called International ISDB-Tb that implements video coding H.264/AVC with audio AAC-LC on main program (single or multi) and video H.264/AVC with audio HE-AACv2 in the 1seg mobile sub-program.
DVB
The ETSI, the standards governing body for the DVB suite, supports AAC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 audio coding in DVB applications since at least 2004. DVB broadcasts which use the H.264 compression for video normally use HE-AAC for audio.
Hardware
iTunes and iPod
In April 2003, Apple brought mainstream attention to AAC by announcing that its iTunes and iPod products would support songs in MPEG-4 AAC format (via a firmware update for older iPods). Customers could download music in a closed-source Digital Rights Management (DRM)-restricted form of 128 kbps AAC (see FairPlay) via the iTunes Store or create files without DRM from their own CDs using iTunes. In later years, Apple began offering music videos and movies, which also use AAC for audio encoding.
On May 29, 2007, Apple began selling songs and music videos from participating record labels at higher bitrate (256 kbps cVBR) and free of DRM, a format dubbed "iTunes Plus" . These files mostly adhere to the AAC standard and are playable on many non-Apple products but they do include custom iTunes information such as album artwork and a purchase receipt, so as to identify the customer in case the file is leaked out onto peer-to-peer networks. It is possible, however, to remove these custom tags to restore interoperability with players that conform strictly to the AAC specification. As of January 6, 2009, nearly all music on the USA regioned iTunes Store became DRM-free, with the remainder becoming DRM-free by the end of March 2009.
iTunes offers a "Variable Bit Rate" encoding option which encodes AAC tracks in the Constrained Variable Bitrate scheme (a less strict variant of ABR encoding); the underlying QuickTime API does offer a true VBR encoding profile however.
As of September 2009, Apple has added support for HE-AAC (which is fully part of the MP4 standard) only for radio streams, not file playback, and iTunes still lacks support for true VBR encoding.
Other portable players
Archos
Cowon (unofficially supported on some models)
Creative Zen Portable
Fiio (all current models)
Nintendo 3DS
Nintendo DSi
Philips GoGear Muse
PlayStation Portable (PSP) with firmware 2.0 or greater
Samsung YEPP
SanDisk Sansa (some models)
Walkman
Zune
Any portable player that fully supports the Rockbox third party firmware
Mobile phones
For a number of years, many mobile phones from manufacturers such as Nokia, Motorola, Samsung, Sony Ericsson, BenQ-Siemens and Philips have supported AAC playback. The first such phone was the Nokia 5510 released in 2002 which also plays MP3s. However, this phone was a commercial failure and such phones with integrated music players did not gain mainstream popularity until 2005 when the trend of having AAC as well as MP3 support continued. Most new smartphones and music-themed phones support playback of these formats.
Sony Ericsson phones support various AAC formats in MP4 container. AAC-LC is supported in all phones beginning with K700, phones beginning with W550 have support of HE-AAC. The latest devices such as the P990, K610, W890i and later support HE-AAC v2.
Nokia XpressMusic and other new generation Nokia multimedia phones like N- and E-Series also support AAC format in LC, HE, M4A and HEv2 profiles. These also supports playing LTP-encoded AAC audio.
BlackBerry phones running the BlackBerry 10 operating system support AAC playback natively. Select previous generation BlackBerry OS devices also support AAC.
bada OS
Apple's iPhone supports AAC and FairPlay protected AAC files formerly used as the default encoding format in the iTunes Store until the removal of DRM restrictions in March 2009.
Android 2.3 and later supports AAC-LC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 in MP4 or M4A containers along with several other audio formats. Android 3.1 and later supports raw ADTS files. Android 4.1 can encode AAC.
WebOS by HP/Palm supports AAC, AAC+, eAAC+, and .m4a containers in its native music player as well as several third-party players. However, it does not support Apple's FairPlay DRM files downloaded from iTunes.
Windows Phone's Silverlight runtime supports AAC-LC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 decoding.
Other devices
Apple's iPad: Supports AAC and FairPlay protected AAC files used as the default encoding format in the iTunes Store
Palm OS PDAs: Many Palm OS based PDAs and smartphones can play AAC and HE-AAC with the 3rd party software Pocket Tunes. Version 4.0, released in December 2006, added support for native AAC and HE-AAC files. The AAC codec for TCPMP, a popular video player, was withdrawn after version 0.66 due to patent issues, but can still be downloaded from sites other than corecodec.org. CorePlayer, the commercial follow-on to TCPMP, includes AAC support. Other Palm OS programs supporting AAC include Kinoma Player and AeroPlayer.
Windows Mobile: Supports AAC either by the native Windows Media Player or by third-party products (TCPMP, CorePlayer)
Epson: Supports AAC playback in the P-2000 and P-4000 Multimedia/Photo Storage Viewers
Sony Reader: plays M4A files containing AAC, and displays metadata created by iTunes. Other Sony products, including the A and E series Network Walkmans, support AAC with firmware updates (released May 2006) while the S series supports it out of the box.
Sonos Digital Media Player: supports playback of AAC files
Barnes & Noble Nook Color: supports playback of AAC encoded files
Roku SoundBridge: a network audio player, supports playback of AAC encoded files
Squeezebox: network audio player (made by Slim Devices, a Logitech company) that supports playback of AAC files
PlayStation 3: supports encoding and decoding of AAC files
Xbox 360: supports streaming of AAC through the Zune software, and of supported iPods connected through the USB port
Wii: supports AAC files through version 1.1 of the Photo Channel as of December 11, 2007. All AAC profiles and bitrates are supported as long as it is in the .m4a file extension. This update removed MP3 compatibility, but users who have installed this may freely downgrade to the old version if they wish.
Livescribe Pulse and Echo Smartpens: record and store audio in AAC format. The audio files can be replayed using the pen's integrated speaker, attached headphones, or on a computer using the Livescribe Desktop software. The AAC files are stored in the user's "My Documents" folder of the Windows OS and can be distributed and played without specialized hardware or software from Livescribe.
Google Chromecast: supports playback of LC-AAC and HE-AAC audio
Software
Almost all current computer media players include built-in decoders for AAC, or can utilize a library to decode it. On Microsoft Windows, DirectShow can be used this way with the corresponding filters to enable AAC playback in any DirectShow based player. Mac OS X supports AAC via the QuickTime libraries.
Adobe Flash Player, since version 9 update 3, can also play back AAC streams. Since Flash Player is also a browser plugin, it can play AAC files through a browser as well.
The Rockbox open source firmware (available for multiple portable players) also offers support for AAC to varying degrees, depending on the model of player and the AAC profile.
Optional iPod support (playback of unprotected AAC files) for the Xbox 360 is available as a free download from Xbox Live.
The following is a non-comprehensive list of other software player applications:
3ivx MPEG-4: a suite of DirectShow and QuickTime plugins which support AAC encoding or AAC/ HE-AAC decoding in any DirectShow application
CorePlayer: also supports LC and HE AAC
ffdshow: a free open source DirectShow filter for Microsoft Windows that uses FAAD2 to support AAC decoding
foobar2000: a freeware audio player for Windows that supports LC and HE AAC
KMPlayer
MediaMonkey
AIMP
Media Player Classic Home Cinema
mp3tag
MPlayer or xine: often used as AAC decoders on Linux or Macintosh
MusicBee: an advanced music manager and player that also supports encoding and ripping through a plugin
RealPlayer: includes RealNetworks' RealAudio 10 AAC encoder
Songbird: supports AAC on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X , including the DRM rights management encoding used for purchased music from the iTunes Store, with a plug-in
Sony SonicStage
VLC media player: supports playback and encoding of MP4 and raw AAC files
Winamp for Windows: includes an AAC encoder that supports LC and HE AAC
Windows Media Player 12: released with Windows 7, supports playback of AAC files natively
Another Real: Rhapsody supports the RealAudio AAC codec, in addition to offering subscription tracks encoded with AAC
XBMC: supports AAC (both LC and HE).
XMMS: supports MP4 playback using a plugin provided by the faad2 library
Some of these players (e.g., foobar2000, Winamp, and VLC) also support the decoding of ADTS (Audio Data Transport Stream) using the SHOUTcast protocol. Plug-ins for Winamp and foobar2000 enable the creation of such streams.
Nero Digital Audio
In May 2006, Nero AG released an AAC encoding tool free of charge, Nero Digital Audio (the AAC codec portion has become Nero AAC Codec), which is capable of encoding LC-AAC, HE-AAC and HE-AAC v2 streams. The tool is a Command Line Interface tool only. A separate utility is also included to decode to PCM WAV.
Various tools including the foobar2000 audio player and MediaCoder can provide a GUI for this encoder.
FAAC and FAAD2
FAAC and FAAD2 stand for Freeware Advanced Audio Coder and Decoder 2 respectively. FAAC supports audio object types LC, Main and LTP. FAAD2 supports audio object types LC, Main, LTP, SBR and PS. Although FAAD2 is free software, FAAC is not free software.
Fraunhofer FDK AAC
A Fraunhofer-authored open-source encoder/decoder included in Android has been ported to other platforms. It is the recommended AAC encoder of FFmpeg.
FFmpeg and Libav
The native AAC encoder created in FFmpeg's libavcodec, and forked with Libav, was considered experimental and poor. A significant amount of work was done for the 3.0 release of FFmpeg (February 2016) to make its version usable and competitive with the rest of the AAC encoders. Libav has not merged this work and continues to use the older version of the AAC encoder. These encoders are LGPL-licensed open-source and can be built for any platform that the FFmpeg or Libav frameworks can be built.
Both FFmpeg and Libav can use the Fraunhofer FDK AAC library via libfdk-aac, and while the FFmpeg native encoder has become stable and good enough for common use, FDK is still considered the highest quality encoder available for use with FFmpeg. Libav also recommends using FDK AAC if it is available.
See also
Comparison of audio coding formats
AAC-LD
MPEG-4 Part 14 (container format)
ALAC – Apple's own lossless codec
Vorbis – the main open, royalty-free competitor to AAC and MP3
Opus – an open, royalty-free codec for both pre-encoded and interactive use, standardized in 2012
References
External links
Fraunhofer audio codecs
AudioCoding.com – home of FAAC and FAAD2
Official MPEG web site
AAC improvements and extensions (2004)
- RTP Payload Format for MPEG-4 Audio/Visual Streams
- RTP Payload Format for Transport of MPEG-4 Elementary Streams
- The Codecs Parameter for "Bucket" Media Types
- MIME Type Registration for MPEG-4
Audio codecs
Lossy compression algorithms
MPEG
Open standards covered by patents | [
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218258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearco | Nearco | Nearco (January 24, 1935 – June 27, 1957) was an Italian-bred Thoroughbred racehorse described by Thoroughbred Heritage as "one of the greatest racehorses of the Twentieth Century" and "one of the most important sires of the century." He was unbeaten, winning 14 races at distances from 1000m (5 furlongs) to 3000m (1 mile 7 furlongs), including the Derby Italiano and Grand Prix de Paris. He was then sold for a record amount to Martin H. Benson and stood stud in England, where he became the patriarch of several of the most dominant sire lines in Thoroughbred history.
Breeding
Nearco was bred in Italy by Federico Tesio, who also bred several other champions including the undefeated Ribot. His dam was the excellent racemare Nogara, who had won the Italian 1000 and 2000 guineas and was Italian champion filly at ages two and three. In 1934, Tesio wished to breed Nogara to the leading English sire Fairway, but was unable to obtain a nomination. Therefore, Tesio chose to breed Nogara to Fairway's full brother, Pharos.
Nearco stood just over and had nearly perfect conformation. He was known for his fiery temperament and explosive turn of foot, traits he passed on to many of his descendants. After retiring to stud, Nearco could only be handled by his groom Ernie Lee.
Racing record
Two-year-old season
In 1937, Nearco won all seven of his starts on his way to being named Italian champion two-year-old. His races were as follows:
In his 1986 book Makers of the Modern Thoroughbred, Peter Willett wrote that Tesio tried to sell Nearco at two, believing that the colt would not have enough stamina to last the classic distances. Tesio later wrote in his stud book, "Not a true stayer, though he won up to 3,000 meters... He won these longer races by his superb class and brilliant speed."
Three-year-old season
In 1938, Nearco again won all seven starts and was named Italian champion three-year-old and Horse of the Year. His races were as follows:
Stud career
Nearco retired undefeated after 14 races. With the political turmoil and the possibility of war caused by Benito Mussolini aligning Italy with Nazi Germany, Federico Tesio sold Nearco in 1938 to Martin H. Benson of Beech House Stud in Newmarket, England, for £60,000 (a world record for a sire in those days; ). The potential importance of Nearco's progeny was forecast in the provision of a bomb shelter to ensure his survival should Newmarket be subject to an air raid.
Nearco was one of the top 10 sires in England for 15 years. He was the leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland in 1947 and, depending on the source, either 1948 or 1949 or both. From 482 named foals, he sired 273 winners (56.6%) and 87 stakes winners (18.0%). His major stakes winners include:
Nasrullah, top rated two-year-old of 1942
Dante, 1945 Epsom Derby
Royal Charger, 1946 Queen Anne Stakes
Sayajirao, 1947 St. Leger Stakes
Masaka, 1948 Epsom and Irish Oaks
Nimbus, 1949 Epsom Derby and 2,000 Guineas
Mossborough Sire of Ballymoss
Neasham Belle, 1951 Epsom Oaks
Hafiz, 1955 Queen Elizabeth II and Champion Stakes
Nearctic, 1958 Canadian Horse of the Year
Nearco was also the damsire of the French multiple Group One winner Charlottesville, and damsire of the Epsom Derby winners Arctic Prince (1948) and Tulyar (1952).
Nearco died from cancer on 27 June 1957, and was buried at Beech House Stud.
Sire of sires
Nearco's legacy primarily comes from three of his sons, Nasrullah, Royal Charger and Nearctic, although several other sons also sired important winners. In all, more than 100 of Nearco's sons have stood at stud around the world.
Nasrullah was the first son of Nearco to distinguish himself as a sire, first in England and then in America. Nasrullah's important sire sons include:
Grey Sovereign, to whom 2016 Kentucky Derby winner Nyquist descends through the Caro sire line
Red God, whose modern descendants include 2010 Kentucky Derby winner Animal Kingdom through the Blushing Groom sire line
Bold Ruler, eight-time leading sire in the United States, whose descendants include Triple Crown winners Secretariat and Seattle Slew. More recently, Seattle Slew has established a successful sire line that has produced several American classic winners including California Chrome
Never Bend, sire of Mill Reef, whose modern descendants include Sir Percy and Dalakhani
Royal Charger's most important son was Turn-To, whose most important sire sons were Halo and Roberto. Halo was the sire of dual classic winner Sunday Silence, who then became the leading sire in Japan from 1995 through 2007. Sunday Silence is the sire of numerous Japanese champions including Deep Impact, and is the grandsire of the top-rated horse of 2014 Just A Way.
Nearctic is principally known as the sire of Northern Dancer, who won the Kentucky Derby and Preakness before becoming one of the dominant sires of the late 20th century. Northern Dancer sired numerable sons who themselves went on to become outstanding sires, principally Nijinsky, Lyphard, Nureyev, Storm Bird, Danzig and Sadler's Wells. The Northern Dancer sire line accounts for hundreds of major winners from around the world, particularly in Europe. His modern descendants include Justify, Galileo, Ouija Board, Sea the Stars, Black Caviar, Frankel and Treve.
Several of Nearco's male-line descendants were ranked among the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century by The Blood-Horse: #2 Secretariat, #9 Seattle Slew, #10 Spectacular Bid, #18 Cigar, #19 Bold Ruler, #24 Nashua, #31 Sunday Silence, #35 Ruffian, #43 Northern Dancer, #57 Riva Ridge, #58 Slew o' Gold, #69 Noor, #70 Shuvee, #72 Go For Wand, #76 Lady's Secret, #82 Miesque, #85 Lure, #86 Fort Marcy, #90 Davona Dale, #95 Bayakoa and #97 Foolish Pleasure.
Other notable male-line descendants were Ballymoss, Arkle, Never Say Die, Royal Palace, Better Loosen Up, Sir Ivor, Invasor, Wise Dan, and Summer Breeze. Sireline descendants of Nearco include eight of the first nine horses to earn over $10,000,000 in stakes wins. These horses are Deep Impact, Makybe Diva, Narita Brian, Sunline, Symboli Kris S, T M Opera O, Viva Pataca, and Vodka.
According to France Galop, from 1985 through to 2010, every Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winner can trace a bloodline back to Nearco, through his son Nasrullah and / or his grandson Northern Dancer. Including the influence of the daughters from his sire line, it is increasingly rare to find a Thoroughbred without some trace of Nearco in its pedigree.
Pedigree
Fairway and Pharos were full brothers by leading sire Phalaris out of the great broodmare Scapa Flow. Fairway was the more successful racehorse, whose wins included the St Leger and Eclipse Stakes, and also initially was the more successful sire, leading the sire list in Great Britain four times. Pharos was a solid racehorse, winning multiple stakes races and finishing second in the Derby. Pharos also proved himself as a sire, leading the British sire list in 1931. Tesio originally wished to breed his mare Nogara to Fairway, but was unable to obtain a nomination so bred her to Pharos instead.
Nearco's dam Nogara was only but became a champion on the racetrack and then an outstanding broodmare. In addition to Nearco, she produced seven other winners, including Derby Italiano winner Niccolo dell'Arca, Oaks d'Italia winner Nervesa, and stakes winners Nakamuro, Naucide and Niccolo d'Arezzo. Nogara's dam Catnip was a "weedy" foal by Epsom Derby winner Spearmint. Purchased by Tesio at the Newmarket sales for just 75 guineas, Catnip went on to produce multiple stakes winners and stakes producers.
Nearco was inbred 5 x 4 x 4 x 5 to St. Simon, meaning St. Simon appears twice in the fourth generation and twice again in the fifth generation of his pedigree.
See also
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
References
Nearco's complete racing career
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
1935 racehorse births
1957 racehorse deaths
British Champion Thoroughbred Sires
British Champion Thoroughbred broodmare sires
Racehorses trained in Italy
Racehorses bred in Italy
Undefeated racehorses
Thoroughbred family 4-r
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|
218264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christological%20argument | Christological argument | The Christological argument for the existence of God, which exists in several forms, holds that if certain claims about Jesus are valid, one should accept that God exists. There are three main threads; the argument from the wisdom of Jesus, the argument from the claims of Jesus as son of God and the argument from the resurrection.
Argument from the wisdom of Jesus
The essential structure of this argument is as follows:
The character and wisdom of Jesus is such that his views about reality are (or are likely to be) correct.
One of Jesus' views about reality was that God exists.
Therefore, the view that God exists is (or is likely to be) correct.
Some forms of evangelism take this approach. Potential converts are introduced to Jesus as a historical character and the merits of Jesus' teachings are discussed. In such a context, the historicity of Jesus of Nazareth is a crucial factor in assessing the argument.
The principal objections to (1) are the suggestions that:
The reports of Jesus' character in the Bible are not reliable.
Jesus' views about reality are not (or not likely to be) necessarily correct. Bertrand Russell, in his essay "Why I Am Not a Christian", criticized Jesus' personal character and philosophical positions on various grounds.
Even supposing that Jesus was correct, wise, and knowledgeable about a great many things does not imply that he was knowledgeable about everything. A deep knowledge of moral philosophy and the iniquities of the human condition, for example, do not necessarily imply any valid expertise on astrophysics, Phoenician literature, or the literal existence of God.
Argument from the claims of Jesus to divinity
Lewis's trilemma is an apologetic argument traditionally used to argue for the divinity of Jesus by arguing that the only alternatives were that he was evil or deluded. One version was popularised by University of Oxford literary scholar and writer C. S. Lewis in a BBC radio talk and in his writings. It is sometimes described as the "Lunatic, Liar, or Lord", or "Mad, Bad, or God" argument. It takes the form of a trilemma — a choice among three options, each of which is in some way difficult to accept.
This argument is very popular with Christian apologists, although some theologians and biblical scholars do not view Jesus as having claimed to be God. Some argue that he identified himself as a divine agent, with a unique relationship to Israel's God. Others see him as wanting to direct attention to the divine kingdom he proclaimed.
The argument relies on the premise that Jesus was a great moral teacher. The structure of the argument is as follows:
Jesus claimed to be God
Jesus was a wise moral teacher
By the trilemma, Jesus was dishonest, deluded or God
No wise moral teacher is dishonest
No wise moral teacher is deluded
By 2 and 4, Jesus was not dishonest
By 2 and 5, Jesus was not deluded
By 3, 6 and 7, Jesus was God
By 8, God exists
Those who dispute these premises suggest that:
Disputing premise 1: Jesus was indeed a wise moral teacher, but his reported teachings have been distorted or misrepresented. For instance, he may not have actually claimed to be divine; this claim may have been added by later writers. Many modern New Testament scholars argue that Jesus did not, in fact, claim to be God.
Disputing premise 2: C.S. Lewis expressed the opinion that any mere man who claimed to be God could not, by definition, be a wise moral teacher (and that, conversely, any wise moral teacher would not claim to be God). Christopher Hitchens argued that Jesus was not a wise moral teacher by arguing against several of his teachings. For example, of Jesus' teaching "Let him who is without sin cast the first stone", Hitchens wrote: "if only the non-sinners have the right to punish, then how could an imperfect society ever determine how to prosecute offenders?"
Disputing premise 4: A person can be a wise moral teacher despite lying. Jesus could have believed (as some later philosophers have held) that religion is false but beneficial to society, and that by establishing a new religion (or a reform of Judaism) he was doing a good deed nonetheless.
Disputing premise 5: A person can be a wise moral teacher despite being delusional. Granting credence to some, or even most, of someone's claims does not require that we give credence to all of them. Someone can believe Socrates' philosophical claims about justice without also believing Socrates' theological speculations about the Greek gods, or accept Aristotle's views on poetry without also accepting his claim that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones.
Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as "textually careless and theologically unreliable", and this particular argument as logically unsound and an example of false dilemma. New Testament scholar N. T. Wright criticises Lewis for failing to recognise the significance of Jesus' Jewish identity and setting – an oversight which "at best, drastically short-circuits the argument" and which lays Lewis open to criticism that his argument "doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the gospels", although he believes this "doesn't undermine the eventual claim".
Argument from the resurrection
Another argument is that the resurrection of Jesus occurred and was an act of God, hence God must exist. Some versions of this argument have been presented, such as N. T. Wright's argument from the nature of the claim of resurrection to its occurrence and the "minimal facts argument", defended by scholars such as Gary Habermas and Mike Licona, which defend that God raising Jesus from the dead is "the best explanation for a set of claimed historical facts about Jesus and his disciples".
William Lane Craig, another advocate of this last argument, includes in the list of facts:
After his crucifixion, Jesus was buried in a tomb by Joseph of Arimathea
On the Sunday following the crucifixion, Jesus’ tomb was found empty by a group of his women followers
On multiple occasions and under various circumstances, different individuals and groups of people experienced appearances of Jesus alive from the dead
The original disciples believed that Jesus was risen from the dead despite their having every predisposition to the contrary.
In light of these, he goes on to say the best explanation is that God raised Jesus from the dead.
Such arguments have had many responses which depends on the version in question. The "minimal facts argument", for instance, have been criticized both regarding the actual veracity of the claimed historical facts as well as the inference to the best explanation being that God rose Jesus from the dead. In the second case, people such as Gerd Lüdemmann justify their rejection based on philosophical reasons while others, such as Bart D. Ehrman, do by more methodological reasons. Regarding the claimed facts, Ehrman and others defend that the sources used in their defense (normally the Gospels) are not trustworthy and so the facts can't be credibly established, while others have provided positive reasons to attest them as false.
This is the major position in Islam, which rejects that Jesus ever was crucified. Islamic texts categorically deny the crucifixion and death of Jesus at the hands of the Jews. The Qur'an states that the Jews sought to kill Jesus, but they did not kill or crucify him, although a likeness of it was shown to them. Traditionalists believe that Jesus was not crucified but instead was raised alive into heaven. This raising is understood by them to mean bodily ascension, while some Qur'anic scholars, such as Muhammad Asad, while cross referencing the text consider it to mean being raised in honour:
According to some Muslim traditions, Jesus was replaced by a double; others suggest it was Simon of Cyrene, or one of the disciples such as Judas Iscariot. Some others view it as Jesus surviving the crucifixion. A minority of commentaries of Ismaili or rationalist (falāsifa) leaning affirmed the crucifixion by arguing that Jesus' body had been crucified, but his spirit had ascended. However, this interpretation was generally rejected, and according to the Encyclopedia of Islam, there was unanimous agreement among the scholars in denying the crucifixion, despite famous Muslim apologist Shabir Ally have demonstrated that it is possible that Jesus was not crucified at all. Modern commentators such as M. Hayek interpret the verse to say that the crucifixion "seemed thus to them" [i.e. the Jews].
See also
Criticism of Jesus
Mental health of Jesus
References
Arguments for the existence of God
Christology | [
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|
218267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation%20of%20Mary%20Immaculate%20Queen | Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen | The Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (; CMRI) is a sedevacantist traditionalist Catholic religious congregation.
It is dedicated to promoting the message of Our Lady of Fátima and the devotion of the practice of Total Consecration to the Virgin Mary as taught by Saint Louis Marie de Montfort. Over the years, the Congregation has also been known as the Fatima Crusaders and Oblates of Mary Immaculate Queen of the Universe.
History
Schuckardt period
The Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen was formed in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, United States, in 1967, by Francis Schuckardt, with the assistance of Denis Chicoine. Schuckardt was layman who gained considerable fame as a charismatic speaker for the Blue Army of Our Lady of Fatima and served as its International Secretary.
In 1969, with the approval of Bishop Sylvester William Treinen of the Diocese of Boise, Shuckardt formed the group into a religious congregation of sisters and brothers.
With the implementation of the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, in about 1970, Schuckhardt and the CMRI came to believe that Pope Paul VI was not a valid pope (the theological position known today as sedevacantism), and therefore sought services from sympathetic Catholic priests who shared their views in this regard, among them Father Burton Fraser, S.J., a Jesuit from Colorado, United States, who became the congregation's spiritual advisor. Other Catholic priests who became associated with the congregation include Father Lawrence Brey, Father George Kathrein C.Ss.R., Father Joseph Pinneau, and Father Clement Kubish.
In 1971, from 28 October to 1 November, Schuckhardt was tonsured, ordained to the four Minor Orders, ordained a subdeacon and deacon, ordained a priest, and consecrated a bishop by Bishop Daniel Q. Brown. Brown was a Catholic layman who formed conclusions identical with Schuckhardt and out of desperation, had himself ordained a priest and consecrated a bishop in the Old Catholic Church, but after talking with some priests, who convinced him that he had made a great mistake, repented of his ordination and consecration from the Old Catholics and his involvement with them, renounced his ties with them, made a public abjuration and a profession of faith, went to confession, and received absolution from a priest. Soon after, however, Brown returned to the Old Catholic Church.
In 1977, the congregation acquired the old Jesuit scholasticate Mount Saint Michael in Spokane, Washington, United States, moving there its headquarters from Idaho.
In 1984, Chicoine and other members of the CMRI expelled Schuckardt from the congregation on reports of sexual abuses done by Schuckardt.
Post-Schuckardt period
In 1984, after the ousting of Schuckardt, the CMRI sought out a sedevacantist bishop to ordain clergy for the congregation, and found Bishop George J. Musey of Galveston, Texas, United States, whose episcopal lineage, like that of most other sedevacantist bishops, traces to the Vietnamese sedevacantist Bishop Ngô Đình Thục.
On 23 April 1985, three of the four remaining priests of the congregation formally and publicly took an "Abjuration of Error and Profession of Faith ad cautelam" before Musey in case, through their previous actions, they had incurred any ecclesiastical censures. Musey then conditionally ordained them. He publicly stated that he had little reason to doubt the validity of their earlier ordinations, but he nevertheless decided that the most prudent course of action would be to bestow conditional ordination on them, as he believed that since the Holy See is vacant, an authoritative and binding decision on their orders cannot be made, and that the validity of their orders will always be doubtful in the minds of some.
Other sedevacantist bishops who ordained priests for or assisted the congregation include Bishop Moisés Carmona and Bishop Robert McKenna, bishops whose episcopal lineages also trace to Thục.
In 1986, the congregation held its first General Chapter, establishing a formal set of Rules and Constitutions. In the same year, the Rule was approved by McKenna.
In August 1989, Father Tarcisius Pivarunas (Mark Pivarunas) was elected as the Superior General of the congregation, succeeding Father Chicoine.
On 1 February 1991, Carmona expressed his desire to consecrate as bishop whomever the congregation chooses. On 3 April 1991, Pivarunas was elected to be consecrated a bishop. In accordance with Catholic practice, Pivarunas discontinued the use of his religious name, "Tarcisius", and in accordance with the CMRI Constitutions, resigned his post as the Superior General. He was succeeded by Father Casimir M. Puskorius. On 24 September 1991, in Mount Saint Michael, Pivarunas was consecrated a bishop by Carmona.
In 1995, Pivarunas was re-elected as the Superior General of the congregation, succeeding Puskorius. He remains the Superior General to this day.
In June 2007, 15 sisters living at Mount Saint Michael in Spokane were expelled from the congregation because they had come to disagree with the congregation's stance of sedevacantism. They joined the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane and formed the Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Church (SMMC) under the authority of William Skylstad, bishop of Spokane.
Present day
The CMRI operates a major seminary, Mater Dei Seminary, in Omaha, Nebraska, United States, as well as a minor seminary, Saint Joseph's Minor Seminary, in Rathdrum, Idaho, United States, while the Sisters' motherhouse is located in Spokane, Washington, United States.
They have expanded into Canada, South America, Europe, and Asia. All in all, the congregation is responsible for over ninety churches and Mass centers throughout the world, at least thirteen schools ranging from K-8 to K-12 in the United States, several publications, and an online store, Mary Immaculate Queen Center.
List of Superiors General
Francis Schuckardt (1967–1984)
Denis Chicoine (1984–1989)
Mark Pivarunas (1989–1991)
Casimir M. Puskorius (1991–1995)
Mark Pivarunas (1995–present)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Griff Ruby, The Resurrection of the Roman Catholic 2002, p. 166.
Michael W.Cuneo, The Smoke of Satan: Conservative and traditionale dissent in contemporary American Catholicism, 1999, p. 103, 104.
Gary Waller, Walsingham and the English Imagination. 2011, p. 42.
Catholicism-related controversies
Christian organizations established in 1967
Sedevacantism
Traditionalist Catholicism
Communities using the Tridentine Mass | [
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218268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristic%20polynomial | Characteristic polynomial | In linear algebra, the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix is a polynomial which is invariant under matrix similarity and has the eigenvalues as roots. It has the determinant and the trace of the matrix among its coefficients. The characteristic polynomial of an endomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space is the characteristic polynomial of the matrix of that endomorphism over any base (that is, the characteristic polynomial does not depend on the choice of a basis). The characteristic equation, also known as the determinantal equation, is the equation obtained by equating the characteristic polynomial to zero.
In spectral graph theory, the characteristic polynomial of a graph is the characteristic polynomial of its adjacency matrix.
Motivation
Given a square matrix we want to find a polynomial whose zeros are the eigenvalues of For a diagonal matrix the characteristic polynomial can be defined by: if the diagonal entries are etc. then the characteristic polynomial will be:
This works because the diagonal entries are also the eigenvalues of this matrix.
For a general matrix one can proceed as follows. A scalar is an eigenvalue of if and only if there is a nonzero vector called an eigenvector, such that
or, equivalently,
where is the identity matrix. Since must be nonzero, this means that the matrix has a nonzero kernel. Thus this matrix is not invertible, and its determinant must therefore be zero. Thus the eigenvalues of are the roots of which is a polynomial in
Formal definition
Consider an matrix The characteristic polynomial of denoted by is the polynomial defined by
where denotes the identity matrix.
Some authors define the characteristic polynomial to be That polynomial differs from the one defined here by a sign so it makes no difference for properties like having as roots the eigenvalues of ; however the definition above always gives a monic polynomial, whereas the alternative definition is monic only when is even.
Examples
To compute the characteristic polynomial of the matrix
the determinant of the following is computed:
and found to be the characteristic polynomial of
Another example uses hyperbolic functions of a hyperbolic angle φ.
For the matrix take
Its characteristic polynomial is
Properties
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix is monic (its leading coefficient is ) and its degree is The most important fact about the characteristic polynomial was already mentioned in the motivational paragraph: the eigenvalues of are precisely the roots of (this also holds for the minimal polynomial of but its degree may be less than ). All coefficients of the characteristic polynomial are polynomial expressions in the entries of the matrix. In particular its constant coefficient is the coefficient of is one, and the coefficient of is , where is the trace of (The signs given here correspond to the formal definition given in the previous section; for the alternative definition these would instead be and respectively.)
For a matrix the characteristic polynomial is thus given by
Using the language of exterior algebra, the characteristic polynomial of an matrix may be expressed as
where is the trace of the th exterior power of which has dimension This trace may be computed as the sum of all Principal minors of of size The recursive Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm computes these coefficients more efficiently.
When the characteristic of the field of the coefficients is each such trace may alternatively be computed as a single determinant, that of the matrix,
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem states that replacing by in the characteristic polynomial (interpreting the resulting powers as matrix powers, and the constant term as times the identity matrix) yields the zero matrix. Informally speaking, every matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation. This statement is equivalent to saying that the minimal polynomial of divides the characteristic polynomial of
Two similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial. The converse however is not true in general: two matrices with the same characteristic polynomial need not be similar.
The matrix and its transpose have the same characteristic polynomial. is similar to a triangular matrix if and only if its characteristic polynomial can be completely factored into linear factors over (the same is true with the minimal polynomial instead of the characteristic polynomial). In this case is similar to a matrix in Jordan normal form.
Characteristic polynomial of a product of two matrices
If and are two square matrices then characteristic polynomials of and coincide:
When is non-singular this result follows from the fact that and are similar:
For the case where both and are singular, the desired identity is an equality between polynomials in and the coefficients of the matrices. Thus, to prove this equality, it suffices to prove that it is verified on a non-empty open subset (for the usual topology, or, more generally, for the Zariski topology) of the space of all the coefficients. As the non-singular matrices form such an open subset of the space of all matrices, this proves the result.
More generally, if is a matrix of order and is a matrix of order then is and is matrix, and one has
To prove this, one may suppose by exchanging, if needed, and Then, by bordering on the bottom by rows of zeros, and on the right, by, columns of zeros, one gets two matrices and such that and is equal to bordered by rows and columns of zeros. The result follows from the case of square matrices, by comparing the characteristic polynomials of and
Characteristic polynomial of Ak
If is an eigenvalue of a square matrix with eigenvector then clearly is an eigenvalue of
The multiplicities can be shown to agree as well, and this generalizes to any polynomial in place of :
That is, the algebraic multiplicity of in equals the sum of algebraic multiplicities of in over such that
In particular, and
Here a polynomial for example, is evaluated on a matrix simply as
The theorem applies to matrices and polynomials over any field or commutative ring.
However, the assumption that has a factorization into linear factors is not always true, unless the matrix is over an algebraically closed field such as the complex numbers.
Secular function and secular equation
Secular function
The term secular function has been used for what is now called characteristic polynomial (in some literature the term secular function is still used). The term comes from the fact that the characteristic polynomial was used to calculate secular perturbations (on a time scale of a century, that is, slow compared to annual motion) of planetary orbits, according to Lagrange's theory of oscillations.
Secular equation
Secular equation may have several meanings.
In linear algebra it is sometimes used in place of characteristic equation.
In astronomy it is the algebraic or numerical expression of the magnitude of the inequalities in a planet's motion that remain after the inequalities of a short period have been allowed for.
In molecular orbital calculations relating to the energy of the electron and its wave function it is also used instead of the characteristic equation.
For general associative algebras
The above definition of the characteristic polynomial of a matrix with entries in a field generalizes without any changes to the case when is just a commutative ring. defines the characteristic polynomial for elements of an arbitrary finite-dimensional (associative, but not necessarily commutative) algebra over a field and proves the standard properties of the characteristic polynomial in this generality.
See also
Characteristic equation (disambiguation)
Minimal polynomial (linear algebra)
Invariants of tensors
Companion matrix
Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm
Cayley–Hamilton theorem
Samuelson–Berkowitz algorithm
References
T.S. Blyth & E.F. Robertson (1998) Basic Linear Algebra, p 149, Springer .
John B. Fraleigh & Raymond A. Beauregard (1990) Linear Algebra 2nd edition, p 246, Addison-Wesley .
Werner Greub (1974) Linear Algebra 4th edition, pp 120–5, Springer, .
Paul C. Shields (1980) Elementary Linear Algebra 3rd edition, p 274, Worth Publishers .
Gilbert Strang (1988) Linear Algebra and Its Applications 3rd edition, p 246, Brooks/Cole .
Polynomials
Linear algebra
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|
218271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipresence | Omnipresence | Omnipresence or ubiquity is the property of being present anywhere and everywhere. The term omnipresence is most often used in a religious context as an attribute of a deity or supreme being, while the term ubiquity is generally used to describe something "existing or being everywhere at the same time, constantly encountered, widespread, common". Ubiquitous can also be used as a synonym for words like worldwide, universal, global, pervasive, all over the place.
The omnipresence of a supreme being is conceived differently by different religious systems. In monotheistic beliefs like Christianity, and Judaism the divine and the universe are separate, but the divine is present everywhere. In pantheistic beliefs the divine and the universe are identical. In panentheistic beliefs the divine interpenetrates the universe, but extends beyond it in time and space.
Introduction
Hinduism, and other religions that derive from it, incorporate the theory of transcendent and immanent omnipresence which is the traditional meaning of the word, Brahman. This theory defines a universal and fundamental substance, which is the source of all physical existence.
Divine omnipresence is thus one of the divine attributes, although in Western Christianity it has attracted less philosophical attention than such attributes as omnipotence, omniscience, or being eternal.
In Western theism, omnipresence is roughly described as the ability to be "present everywhere at the same time", referring to an unbounded or universal presence. Omnipresence means minimally that there is no place to which God’s knowledge and power do not extend. It is related to the concept of ubiquity, the ability to be everywhere or in many places at once. This includes unlimited temporal presence. William Lane Craig states that we shouldn’t think of God as being in space in the sense of being spread out like an invisible ether throughout space. He is not like an invisible gas that is everywhere present in space. This would be incorrect for several reasons. For one, it would mean that if the universe is finite, which is perfectly possible, then God would be finite. We do not want to say that because God is infinite. More seriously, if God is spread out throughout space, like an invisible ether, that means that he is not fully present everywhere.
Some argue that omnipresence is a derived characteristic: an omniscient and omnipotent deity knows everything and can be and act everywhere, simultaneously. Others propound a deity as having the "Three O's", including omnipresence as a unique characteristic of the deity. Most Christian denominations — following theology standardized by the Nicene Creed — explain the concept of omnipresence in the form of the "Trinity", by having a single deity (God) made up of three omnipresent persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Omnipresence in religions
Several ancient cultures such as the Vedic and the Native American civilizations share similar views on omnipresent nature; the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans did not worship an omnipresent being. While most Paleolithic cultures followed polytheistic practices, a form of omnipresent deity arises from a worldview that does not share ideas with mono-local deity cultures. Some omnipresent religions see the whole of existence as a manifestation of the deity. There are two predominant viewpoints here: pantheism, deity is the summation of Existence; and panentheism, deity is an emergent property of existence. The first is closest to the Native Americans' worldview; the latter resembles the Vedic outlook.. However, ample evidence exist in Vedic texts showing not only omnipresence, but also immanent transcendence. In one such Vedic text, namely Isavasya Upanishad, from Shukla Yajur Veda Samhita, verses 40:1,5 clearly shows immanence and omnipresence, while verses 40:4,8 clearly establish transcendence with respect to matter, time and limitations of any kind.
In traditional Jewish monotheism belief of panentheism, or an omnipresent God, is rejected. While the "entire concept of God occupying physical space, or having any category of spatial reference apply to him was completely rejected by pure Judaic monotheism," Hasidic teachings, along with certain Kabbalistic systems, diverged to postulate belief in panentheism.
In Islamic beliefs, pantheism is also rejected and omnipresence is described to transcend the physical. According to Shia tradition in Nahj al-Balagha, a compilation of Ali's teachings and letters, with commentary by Morteza Motahhari, the only territory that God does not enter is that of nothingness and non-existence. God is with everything, but not in anything, and nothing is with him. God is not within things, though not out of them. He is over and above every kind of condition, state, similarity and likeness. Ali says about God's omnipresence:
"He is with everything but not in physical nearness. He is different from everything but not in physical separation."
“He is not inside things in the sense of physical [pervasion or] penetration and is not outside them in the sense of [physical] exclusion [for exclusion entails a kind of finitude].”
“He is distinct from things because He overpowers them, and the things are distinct from Him because of their subjection to Him.”
In Christianity, as well as in Kabbalistic and Hasidic philosophy, God is omnipresent. However, the major difference between them and other religious systems is that God is still transcendent to His creation and yet immanent in relating to creation. God is not immersed in the substance of creation, even though he is able to interact with it as he chooses. He can make his human-divine body visible anytime and everywhere, whatever he wants: he cannot be excluded from any location or object in creation. God's presence is continuous throughout all of creation, though it may not be revealed in the same way at the same time to people everywhere. At times, he may be actively present in a situation, while he may not reveal that he is present in another circumstance in some other area. God is omnipresent in a way that he is able to interact with his creation however he chooses, and is the very essence of his creation. While contrary to normal physical intuitions, such omnipresence is logically possible by way of the classic geometric point or its equivalent, in that such a point is, by definition, within all of space without taking up any space. The Bible states that God can be both present to a person in a manifest manner (Psalm 46:1, Isaiah 57:15) as well as being present in every situation in all of creation at any given time (Psalm 33:13-14).
Specifically, Oden states that the Bible shows that God can be present in every aspect of human life:
God is naturally present in every aspect of the natural order, in every level of causality, every fleeting moment and momentous event of natural history... (Psalm 8:3, Isaiah 40:12, Nahum 1:3)
God is bodily present in the Incarnation (Christianity) of his Son, Jesus Christ. (Gospel of John 1:14, Colossians 2:9)
God is sacredly present and becomes known in special places where God chooses to meet us, places that become set apart by the faithful remembering community (1 Corinthians 11:23-29) where it may said: "Truly the Lord is in this place". (Genesis 28:16, Matthew 18:20)
Marbaniang points out that omnipresence doesn't mean divine occupation of all space, nor divine distribution over all space, nor indwelling of every entity, nor that God cannot move in space, nor the divinification of the universe; but means that God is fully present every-where, and that God can do different things at different places at the same time.
See also
Ubiquitous computing
Panentheism in Judaism
References
External links
Omnipresence from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Hindu philosophical concepts
Attributes of God in Christian theology
New Thought beliefs
Superlatives in religion | [
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|
218277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary%20Brown%20%28Canadian%20politician%29 | Rosemary Brown (Canadian politician) | Rosemary Brown (née Wedderburn; June 17, 1930 – April 26, 2003) was a Canadian politician.
Early years
Rosemary Brown was born in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1930. She came to Canada in the year 1951 to attend university. She proceeded to earn a Master of Social Work at the University of British Columbia. As a student at McGill, and later the University of British Columbia, she faced pervasive discrimination. It was through adversity that she found her purpose as a leader against racism and sexism. She helped to found the British Columbia Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (BCAACP) in 1956 to help advocate for housing, employment and human rights legislation.
Political history
Brown served as a Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) in the British Columbia legislature as a part of the New Democratic Party from 1972 to 1986, making her the first Black Canadian woman to be elected to a Canadian provincial legislature.
During that time, she advocated for Canadian minorities and changed legislature to uphold equality. She worked on improving "services for the elderly, the disadvantaged, immigrants and people with disabilities" as well as prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race or sex.
In 1972, she became the first black woman to run for the leadership of a Canadian federal party (and only the second woman, after Mary Walker-Sawka), finishing a strong second (with 40.1% of the votes on the fourth and final ballot) to Ed Broadbent in that year's New Democratic Party leadership election.
After departing politics, she became a professor of women's studies at Simon Fraser University. In 1993, she was appointed Chief Commissioner of the Ontario Human Rights Commission, and served until 1996. In 1995, she was awarded the Order of British Columbia and in 1996 was named an Officer of the Order of Canada.
Brown was sworn to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada as a member of the federal Security Intelligence Review Committee, responsible for overseeing the actions of the Canadian Security Intelligence Service, a role which she held from 1993 to 1998. She also served on the Order of Canada Advisory Committee from 1999 until her death in 2003.
Honours and awards
National Black Coalition Award, 1972
United Nations Human Rights Fellowship, 1973
YWCA Woman of Distinction Award, 1989
Order of British Columbia, 1995
Order of Canada, 1996
Government of Jamaica Commander of the Order of Distinction, 2001
Canadian Labour Congress Award for Outstanding Service to Humanity, 2002
15 honorary doctorate degrees from Canadian Universities including UBC, 1995.
Death
She died of a heart attack aged 72, in Vancouver, British Columbia.
Legacy
Canada Post featured Brown on a Canadian postage stamp released on February 2, 2009.
On June 17, 2005, a park in Brown's former provincial riding of Vancouver-Burrard was dedicated to and named for her.
In 2021 a new public school in the Durham District School board in Ontario was named Rosemary Brown Public School.
A recreation centre to be named for Brown is under construction at 10th Avenue and 18th Street in the Edmonds neighbourhood of Burnaby and is slated to open in 2022.
Bibliography
Brown, Rosemary. Being Brown: A Very Public Life. Toronto: Random House, 1989.
References
1930 births
2003 deaths
Black Canadian politicians
British Columbia New Democratic Party MLAs
Canadian activists
Jamaican emigrants to Canada
McGill University School of Social Work alumni
Members of the Order of British Columbia
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Simon Fraser University faculty
Women MLAs in British Columbia
Canadian autobiographers
Politicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Politicians from Vancouver
Black Canadian women
20th-century Canadian women politicians
Women autobiographers
History of Black people in British Columbia
University of British Columbia School of Social Work alumni | [
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|
218281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Broadbent | Ed Broadbent | John Edward "Ed" Broadbent (born March 21, 1936) is a Canadian social-democratic politician, political scientist, and chair of the Broadbent Institute, a policy thinktank. He was leader of the New Democratic Party from 1975 to 1989. In the 2004 federal election, he returned to Parliament for an additional term as the Member of Parliament for Ottawa Centre.
Early life and career
Broadbent was born in Oshawa, Ontario, the son of Percy, who worked at General Motors, and Mary (Welsh) Broadbent, a homemaker.
In 1961, he married Yvonne Yamaoka, a Japanese-Canadian town planner whose family had been interned by the federal government in World War II. They divorced in 1967. On September 22, 1988, when Brian Mulroney's government apologized for the internment, Broadbent brought up Yamaoka's experiences during his remarks in the House of Commons.
In 1971, he married a young Franco-Ontarian widow, Lucille Munroe. Munroe died of cancer on November 17, 2006, at the age of 71.
Broadbent married the Marxist historian and political theorist Ellen Meiksins Wood, an old friend, in 2014. She died in 2016, at the age of 73.
Broadbent received a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in political science from the University of Toronto in 1966, with a thesis titled "The Good Society of John Stuart Mill". He is currently a fellow in the School of Policy Studies at Queen's University, Canada.
Political career
Broadbent was a university professor when he won an election to the Canadian House of Commons in the riding of Oshawa—Whitby during the 1968 general election. He defeated a former Progressive Conservative cabinet minister, Michael Starr, by 15 votes. Broadbent ran for the leadership of the party but lost to David Lewis at the 1971 leadership convention. He won the 1975 leadership election to succeed Lewis and led the party through four elections.
Leader of the NDP (1975–1979)
In his early years as leader of the party, Broadbent was criticized for his long and complex speeches on industrial organization, but he came to be known as an honest and charismatic politician in person. He was one of the first Canadian politicians to stage a large number of political events in the workplace.
1984 election
The NDP finished with 30 seats in the 1984 federal election, just ten behind the Liberal Party of Canada, led by John Turner. Several polls later showed that Broadbent was the most popular party leader in Canada. Broadbent was the first leader who ever took the NDP to first place in public opinion polling, and some pundits felt that the NDP could supplant Turner's Liberals as the primary opposition to the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada of Brian Mulroney.
1988 election
Nonetheless, Broadbent was not successful in translating this into an election victory in the 1988 federal election since the Liberals reaped most of the benefits from opposing the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement. However, the NDP won 43 seats, a record unchallenged until the 2011 federal election, when the NDP won 103 seats and Jack Layton became the leader of the opposition.
On the international front, Willy Brandt was president of the Socialist International, and Broadbent served as a vice-president from 1979 to 1989.
Broadbent stepped down after 14 and a half years as leader of the federal NDP at the 1989 Winnipeg Convention, when he was succeeded by Audrey McLaughlin.
Later life
In the decade following Broadbent's retirement from politics, the federal NDP declined in popularity. The party would not come close to the popularity that it had enjoyed under Broadbent until Jack Layton took over the leadership in 2003.
Broadbent was director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. In 1993, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 2001.
Broadbent spent a year as Fellow at All Souls College, University of Oxford, in 1996–1997.
At Layton's invitation, he returned to politics in 2004. With the aid of a humorous and popular video clip, he successfully ran for Parliament in the riding of Ottawa Centre, where he now lives. He defeated the Liberal candidate Richard Mahoney, a close ally of Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin.
In the NDP shadow cabinet, Broadbent was Critic for Democracy: Parliamentary & Electoral Reform, Corporate Accountability as well as Child Poverty.
On May 4, 2005, he announced that he would not seek re-election in the 2006 federal election so that he could spend time with his wife, Lucille, who was suffering from cancer. She died on November 17, 2006.
Broadbent's third wife, Ellen Meiksins Wood, whom he married in 2014, died of cancer at the couple's Ottawa home at 73 in January, 2016. She was a noted political theorist and socialist historian, author of a number of books and a professor at York University for three decades.
In November 2008, Broadbent and former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien came out of retirement to help to negotiate a formal coalition agreement between the Liberals and the New Democratic Party, which would be supported by the Bloc Québécois. The coalition was formed in a bid to replace the Conservative government of Prime Minister Stephen Harper and would have been the first in Canada since World War I. However, the coalition talks died down after Governor General Michaëlle Jean prorogued parliament in December 2008 at Harper's request.
Broadbent has voiced his support for the Campaign for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organization that advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.
On June 17, 2011, he announced the creation of the Broadbent Institute to explore social-democratic policy and ideas. It provides a vehicle for social-democratic and progressive academics, provides education, and trains activists. It is independent of the New Democratic Party.
On September 12, 2011, he endorsed Brian Topp in his unsuccessful campaign during the 2012 leadership election.
Archives
There is an Ed Broadbent fonds at Library and Archives Canada. Archival reference number is R5828.
References
External links
How'd They Vote?: Ed Broadbent's voting history and quotes
1936 births
Canadian aviators
Canadian political scientists
Canadian people of Irish descent
Companions of the Order of Canada
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
NDP and CCF leaders
New Democratic Party MPs
People from Oshawa
Politicians from Ottawa
Queen's University at Kingston faculty
Royal Canadian Air Force personnel
Trinity College (Canada) alumni
University of Toronto alumni
21st-century Canadian legislators
20th-century Canadian legislators | [
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218283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonar%20Law | Bonar Law | Andrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.
Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to have been born outside of Great Britain. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.
As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.
Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health early in 1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".
Early life and education
He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.
His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.
James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, Bonar's father then accompanied him on his move to his Aunt's. Bonar would never return to Kingston.
Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.
Business career
At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.
The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.
During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.
By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.
In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).
The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.
Entry into politics
In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.
Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.
Tariff reform
Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.
Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.
As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.
As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.
The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.
In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.
In opposition
The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.
The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.
The People's Budget and the House of Lords
Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.
The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.
However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.
This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".
With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.
December 1910 general election
With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.
During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".
Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.
In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.
Leader of the Conservative Party
On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.
The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the National Review, and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.
At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.
With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"
As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.
On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).
In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.
Social policy
During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.
In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".
More tariff reform
After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.
Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".
Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.
Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of Standing Orders of the House at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they had been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.
The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.
However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.
Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.
After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.
Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.
Irish Home Rule
The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.
As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".
After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.
Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.
Third Home Rule Bill
The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.
At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.
The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.
In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.
Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.
If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.
The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".
On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.
Second passage
The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadic
outbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."
During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.
Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.
Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.
King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.
By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".
On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.
Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.
The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".
The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".
With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.
Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.
Army (Annual) Act
Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.
Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.
By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.
World War I
On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.
Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.
The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".
Coalition Government
Background and information
The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.
Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in The Times blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.
Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.
Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.
Colonial Secretary
During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.
Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.
While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.
Post-war and prime minister
At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.
By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.
Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to The Times supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".
At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.
Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.
Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.
Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.
One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.
On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to The Times.
Resignation and death
Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of ).
Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".
A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
Bonar Law's Government, October 1922 – May 1923
Bonar Law – Prime Minister and Leader of the House of Commons
Lord Cave – Lord Chancellor
Lord Salisbury – Lord President of the Council and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
Stanley Baldwin – Chancellor of the Exchequer
William Clive Bridgeman – Secretary of State for the Home Department
Lord Curzon of Kedleston – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords
The Duke of Devonshire – Secretary of State for the Colonies
Lord Derby – Secretary of State for War
Lord Peel – Secretary of State for India
Lord Novar – Secretary for Scotland
Leo Amery – First Lord of the Admiralty
Sir Philip Lloyd-Greame – President of the Board of Trade
Sir Robert Sanders – Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
Edward Wood – President of the Board of Education
Sir Montague Barlow – Minister of Labour
Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen – Minister of Health
Changes
April 1923 – Griffith-Boscawen resigned as Minister of Health after losing his seat and was replaced by Neville Chamberlain.
Cultural depictions
References
Bibliography
Adams, R. J. Q. '"Andrew Bonar Law and the fall of the Asquith Coalition: The December 1916 cabinet crisis," Canadian Journal of History (1997) 32#2 pp 185–200 online
Blake, Robert. The Unknown Prime Minister: The Life and Times of Andrew Bonar Law, 1858–1923 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1955) online
Charmley, John. A History of Conservative Politics, 1900–1996 London: Macmillan, 1996)
Clark, Alan. The Tories: Conservatives and the Nation State, 1922–1997, (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998)
online free to borrow
online free to borrow
External links
More about Andrew Bonar Law on the Downing Street website.
The Bonar Law Papers at the UK Parliamentary Archives
1903 illustrated article with photo of Bonar Law
Stuart Ball: Bonar Law, Andrew, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Parliamentary Archives, The Bonar Law Papers
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218290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carceral%20archipelago | Carceral archipelago | The concept of a carceral archipelago was first used by the French historian and philosopher Michel Foucault in his 1975 publication, Surveiller et Punir, to describe the modern penal system of the 1970s, embodied by the well-known penal institution at Mettray in France. The phrase combines the adjective "carceral", which means that which is related to jail or prison, with archipelago—a group of islands. Foucault referred to the "island" units of the "archipelago" as a metaphor for the mechanisms, technologies, knowledge systems and networks related to a carceral continuum. The 1973 English publication of the book by Solzhenitsyn called The Gulag Archipelago referred to the forced labor camps and prisons that composed the sprawling carceral network of the Soviet Gulag.
Concepts developed in Foucault's Discipline and Punish have been widely used by researchers in the growing, multi-disciplinary field of "carceral state" studies, as part of the "carceral turn" in the 1990s. Foucault, who died in the 1980s, did not witness the "unparalled escalation of prison populations" of the carceral state in the United States. Since the mid-1970s, there has been exponential increase in the number of incarcerated individuals in the United States, reaching an incarceration rate of 1 in 100 by 2008. Until the carceral turn, scholars propose how what they describe as the American mass incarcerations and prison-industrial complex were almost invisible. In 1993, the international criminologist, Nils Christie, who was one of the first to warn of the perceived dangers of the alarming growth and danger of the crime control industry in the United States, comparing the size and scope of the industry to Western style gulags.<ref name="Nils_CrimeControl_1993"/
Etymology of the term
Foucault's first used the phrase "carceral archipelago" to describe the penal institution at Mettray, France. Foucault said that Mettray was the "most famous of a whole series of institutions which, well beyond the frontiers of criminal law, constituted what one might call the carceral archipelago." Carceral comes from the Latin "carcer", which means jail or prison and archipelago refers to a group of islands.
"Archipelago", as used by Foucault, refers to Alexander Solzhenitsyn's book, The Gulag Archipelago: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, about the Soviet carceral system of forced labor. The book described the Russian Gulag's vast network of dozens of camps and hundreds of labour colonies scattered across the Soviet Union. The Gulag Archipelago, written between 1958 and 1968, was first published in English in 1974 and was based on Solzhenitsyn's own experience as prisoner. It has been described as the book that "brought down an empire", the most powerful indictment of a "political regime...in modern times", and "a head-on challenge to the Soviet state."
Discipline and Punish
Foucault was writing Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison in the early 1970s, against the backdrop of prison revolts "throughout the world" that protested a century-old system of cold, suffocation, overcrowding, hunger, physical maltreatment, so-called "model prisons", tranquilizers, and isolation.
As a co-founder of the Groupe d'Information sur les Prisons (GIP)—a group that was active in France for several years in the early 1970s—Foucault was highly critical of the French penal system, believing that it converted petty criminals into hardened delinquents. A year after the GIP folded, Foucault published Discipline and Punish, in which he examined the evolution of penal system, away from corporal and capital punishment, into the modern carceral system that began in Europe and the United States around the end of the 18th century. His biographer Didier Eribon described Discipline and Punish as "perhaps the finest" of Foucault's works.
Foucault described Discipline and Punish as providing an "historical background" to the "formation of knowledge in modern society". It provides a "history of the modern soul." He provided a "genealogy of the present scientifico-legal complex from which the power to punish derives its bases, justifications and rules." In both Discipline and Punish (1975) and The History of Sexuality (1976), Foucault developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role that power plays in society. The carceral network, with its mechanisms of normalizing social control, made the human sciences "historically possible" through its analytical investment into "knowable man"—his "soul, individuality, consciousness, and conduct. Foucault refers to the term "discipline" as used within punitive penal systems. In his 1969 publication, The Archaeology of Knowledge, and again in Discipline and Punish, he investigates the origins of the "disciplines" in the humanities and social sciences. In the chapter on "Science and Knowledge", he suggested that 'disciplines' could be called "groups of statements that borrow their organization from scientific models" that once they were accepted, became "institutionalized, transmitted, and sometimes taught as sciences." He goes on to challenge these disciplines—which he also does in Discipline and Punish—asking "[C]ould one not say that archaeology describes disciplines that are not really sciences, while epistemology describes sciences that have been formed on the basis of (or in spite of) existing disciplines?"
In his final chapter entitled simply "Carceral", Foucault described how, within the penal system, disciplinary networks expanded to include carceral mechanisms and technologies, the carceral city, culture, society, system, and network—that are all part of the carceral archipelago. "Medicine, psychology, education, public assistance", and social work began to assume "judicial functions" with an "ever greater share of the powers of supervision and assessment". Foucault called these disciplines, "mechanisms of normalization" and described them as "becoming ever more rigorous in their application". He said that the knowledge generated by the disciplines of "psychology, psychiatry, pedagogy, criminology, and so many other strange sciences" have a "terrible power of investigation" that developed the technologies and procedures of panopticism.
Foucault described how new forms of punishment in the 19th century became transformed into general techniques and procedures for controlling populations and how twentieth century society normalized social control, through constant and permanent surveillance and monitoring.
American historian, Peter Linebaugh, author of The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century wrote that Foucault's "great confinement"—was a contemporary form of "'enclosure', an important interpretative idea for understanding neoliberalism." "Enclosure indicates private property and capital: it seems to promise both individual ownership and social productivity, but in fact the concept of enclosure is inseparable from terror and the destruction of independence and community". In The London Hanged, Linebaugh described how the population in London had become criminalized in the 18th century—"People were so impoverished, they had to steal to survive." As the meaning of property changed, property laws were rewritten.
From a culture of spectacle to a carceral society
In Discipline and Punish, Foucault traced the genealogy of contemporary forms of the penal or carceral system, from the eighteenth century until the mid-1970s in the Western world.
The "culture of spectacle" included public displays of torture, dismemberment, and obliteration of the human body as punishment. Foucault opened Discipline and Punish with a detailed description of the execution of the French citizen, Robert-François Damiens in 1757 as punishment for regicide in a public display of drawing and quartering.
According to Foucault, punishment and the criminal become an integral part of 'western' scientific rationality by the late 18th century. Reformers called for "better punishments. It was based it on a model 'cure' for reforms—to "punish with an attenuated severity perhaps, but in order to punish with more universality and necessity; to insert the power to punish more deeply into the social body." This involved the submission of bodies through the control of ideas and the analysis of representations as a principle in a politics of bodies. Foucault quoted Servan—a member of the influential group called the Idéologues—Parisian intellectuals in the 1790s who developed ideology as a "science of ideas". Servan described how a "true politician" guides citizens by forming a "chain of ideas" on [crime and punishment] that is "strongly linked" with the "stable point of reason" securing the "end of the chain."
By 1810, in France, detention in the large "enclosed, complex and hierarchized structure", had replaced the scaffold as the "essential form of punishment" and punishment was "integrated into the very body of the state apparatus." The modern carceral system, was taking form with the publication by 1838, of books on prison reform by Charles Lucas, Louis-Mathurin Moreau-Christophe, and Léon Faucher. In his book House of Young Prisoners, Faucher prescribed "strict discipline, exact rules, surveillance and rehabilitation". From the late 18th century through the early decades of the 19th century, modern criminal codes were implemented in Europe and North America. By 1838, with the publication of Leon Faucher's book on prison reform, society had transitioned—the public execution was replaced by the "timetable".
The carceral society—in which "punishment and discipline" was "internalized and directed to the constitution and, when necessary, rehabilitation of social subjects"—had replaced the culture of spectacle.
According to Foucault, modern penal theories—including their inherent power structures—originate with the Mettray, a French penal colony for children and youth, that operated from January 22, 1840 until 1937. To Foucault, the carceral system is personified in the French penal institutions like Mettray and Neufchatel. Foucault described Mettray as the "most famous of a whole series of institutions which, well beyond the frontiers of criminal law, constituted what one might call the carceral archipelago." These penal systems included the prison, the school, the Church, and the work-house. Foucault said, "Were I to fix the date of completion of the carceral system... [t]he date I would choose would be 22 January 1840, the date of the official opening of Mettray. Or better still, perhaps, that glorious day, unremarked and unrecorded, when a child in Mettray remarked as he lay dying: 'What a pity I left the colony so soon.'"
The body of knowledge based on prisoners in institutions, such as Mettray and Neufchatel, was the origin of the concept of the "delinquent" class. In his discussion on illegalities and delinquency, Foucault illustrated how "programmes for correcting delinquents" and "mechanisms that reinforce delinquency" were are all part of the carceral system that "combines discourses, architectures, regulations and scientific propositions, and social effects." Foucault described three characters caught in this system, Eugène François Vidocq, Pierre François Lacenaire (1803 – 1836), and a 13-year-old charged with vagabondage who was sentenced to two years in a reformatory. Vidocq's contemporary, Lecenaire, was the typical "delinquent" according to what the dominant class considered to constitute delinquency, in the first third of the nineteenth century.
Panopticon to panopticism in a carceral culture
By "carceral culture, Foucault refers to a culture in which the panoptic model of surveillance has been diffused as a principle of social organization."
Foucault used Jeremy Bentham's prison reforms, which included architectural plans for the Panopticon as a "representative model for what happens to society in the nineteenth century." Although few of Bentham's Panopticon's were actually built, his plans included a central tower with individual cells that prevent interaction with each other while being constantly under the gaze of the panoptic tower, which can "pan" and see everything. Foucault quoted a 19th-century legal scholar who argued that Bentham's design was an event 'in the history of the human mind'. It was the "birth certificate" of "disciplinary society". Foucault said that the idea of the Panopticon became used in many different settings in diverse ways, including the university classroom, prison schools, some classroom auditoriums, hospital and factory architecture and in "urban planning—organized on a grid structure to facilitate movement but also to discourage concealment."
The Panopticon is "an architectural plan", while panopticism is a "set of general ideas about the control of populations".
In the chapter entitled, Panopticism, Foucault argued that the procedures and technology for the control of the plague established around 1700 became a template for a more general form of social control. In order to control the plague, a village was sequestered and every street was put under constant surveillance. The plague, he says, "stands for all forms of confusion and disorder".
Foucault explains how the "panoptic schema, without disappearing as such or losing any of its properties, was destined to spread throughout the social body" and to "become a generalized function." "We are neither in the amphitheatre, nor on the stage, but in the panoptic machine, invested by its effects of power, which we bring to ourselves since we are part of its mechanism."
Beyond panoptic forms of control
In his work after Discipline and Punish, Foucault became interested in a related question. Instead of looking at panoptic forms of control, he became interested in how people use information to think about themselves. He sometimes referred to this as a study of 'ethics', other times he used the grander title: 'technologies of the self'. Foucault studied two related issues: what information was on hand and what people chose to do with the information. In many ways, this took him in a new direction, suggesting perhaps ways of living in the carceral archipelago without striving to escape from it.
Foucault elaborated the notion of Biopower and Biopolitics to describe the practice of modern nation states and their regulation of their subjects through "an explosion of numerous and diverse techniques for achieving the subjugations of bodies and the control of populations". Biopower refers to a "set of mechanisms through which the basic biological features of the human species became the object of a political strategy, of a general strategy of power." "Starting from the 18th century, modern Western societies took on board the fundamental biological fact that human beings are a species." Foucault called this phenomenon biopower. In contemporary US political science studies, poststructuralists use "biopower" to denote social and political power over life.
The carceral state
In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s in American prisons, prisoner coalitions—including the Chicano Movement and Black Power organizations—protested together under the banner of "slaves of the state". Their legal challenge to prison conditions was successful. In response, the state introduced a "new prison regime" with paramilitary equipment and practices, the increased use of privatized prisons, "massive prison building programs", and new levels of punishment, such as "23-hour cell isolation." Author Robert Chase called this the "'Sunbelt' militarized carceral state approach that became exemplary of national prison trends."
Criminologist, Nils Christie, who is also a Criminology professor at the University of Oslo, Norway, in his 1993 book Crime control as industry: towards gulags, Western style?, a modern classic of criminology, argued that crime control was more dangerous to our future, than crime itself. In his 1994 review of Crime control as industry, Andrew Rutherford, described Christie as a criminologist of "international renown", who has written prolifically about punishment and the role of law for decades. Rutherford said the Christie "exemplified the enlightened humanist tradition" and called for criminal law with a "minimalist intervention." Rutherford said that Christie's writing had become much "darker" by 1993, as he warned of the "rapaciously devouring crime control industry" particularly in the United States. In a reference to Foucault's great Confinement in Discipline and Punish, Christie says that these "new great confinements" are part of an "unparalled escalation of prison populations" with "combat-style probation officers", and "widespread privatization" of prisons.
In her widely cited 2006 book entitled, The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Marie Gottschalk, an American political scientist and professor of political science at the University of Pennsylvania, traced the origins and construction of the carceral state in the United States from the 1920s through the 1960s. In The Prison and the Gallows she made reference to Foucault's "carceral archipelago". She described how "a tenacious carceral state has sprouted in the shadows of mass imprisonment and has been extending its reach far beyond the prison gate. It includes not only the country’s vast archipelago of jails and prisons, but also the far-reaching and growing penal punishments and controls that lies in the never-never land between the prison gate and full citizenship. As it sunders families and communities and radically reworks conceptions of democracy, rights, and citizenship, the carceral state poses a formidable political and social challenge." She said that until the carceral turn in the social sciences in the late 1990s, "mass imprisonment was largely an invisible issue in the United States". By 2014, there was widespread criticism of mass incarceration but very modest reform.
According to Ruth Wilson Gilmore, a geographer, whose 2007 book entitled, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California, in 2007, California had the largest prison population in the United States. Gilmore, who co-founded Critical Resistance an American prison abolition group, links carceral policies to economic and social factors. She described the nine hundred miles of prisons along "prison alley" with "old and new prisons" clustered along the California Highway 99, on land that was once farmlands. She called it an "archipelago of concrete and steel cages" with 33 "major" and 57 minor prisons. Forty-three of these prisons were constructed after 1984. Brett Story, who wrote and directed the 2017 feature documentary The Prison in Twelve Landscapes also wrote Prison Land: Mapping Carceral Power across Neoliberal America. In Prison Land, Story says that carceral space "stretches into the ordinary—where people gather in "courtrooms and in mess halls, in visiting centers, at public defenders' offices, and on visitors' buses that take care givers to and from "prison visiting centers that dot the carceral landscape."
Both Gilmore and Gottschalk are "established in their fields"; their ideas and assumptions reflect their home disciplines and not necessarily those of criminology, for example. The interdisciplinary field of carceral state scholarship began to emerge in the 1970s in the United States as a critique of the penal system. Carceral state scholarship is an area of study whose "boundaries are notoriously difficult to map" that includes "cognate disciplines" such as history and sociology, as well as critical theory, journalism and literature.
Foucault's Discipline and Punish has been a critical work for those whose work on geographies of power, examines how the state uses detention and confinement to exclude populations. Geographer Anne Bond investigated how social and criminal justice policies had become "increasingly punitive" as class and race inequalities became more entrenched. She argued that discourse on the poor, obscures how poverty is produced or increased because of the "neoliberal restructuring of rural economies and governance."
By 2017, the concept of a penal or carceral state was widely used in "punishment and criminal justice literature" with varying definitions and parameters.
According to a 2017 article in Theoretical criminology, the carceral state is far from being a "single, unified, and actor-less state responsible for punishment". As a result, the phrase, the carceral state, has a "proliferation of meanings and is frequently undefined."
According to Dan Berger, author of The Struggle Within: Prisons, Political Prisoners, and Mass Movements in the United States (2014), the phrases "carceral state," "mass incarceration," and "prison-industrial complex" are sometimes interchanged and are frequently used by scholars in the field without providing clear definitions of their meaning. They describe the "brutal history of extreme state punishment" in the United States that has led to an exponential increase in the number of incarcerated individuals in the United States since the mid-1970s. With an incarceration rate of 1 in 100, the United States has imprisoned more of its citizens than any other Western democracy. Its prison population represents 25 percent of global incarceration. According to Berger, while there is much disagreement about the definition of the term "carceral state", analyses of the topic all agree "that the United States has a lot of people in prison, that a disproportionate number of them are people of color, that police exert too much power with too much weaponry, and that the country's prison system is held together by an overriding investment in harsh and degrading punishment."
See also
Police state
Prison-industrial complex
Surveillance
Notes
References
Michel Foucault
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|
218291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss-Wright | Curtiss-Wright | The Curtiss-Wright Corporation is an American, global diversified product manufacturer and service provider, incorporated in Delaware with headquarters in Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey, which supplies the commercial, industrial, defense, and energy markets. Created in 1929 from the consolidation of Curtiss, Wright, and various supplier companies, by the end of World War II it was the largest aircraft manufacturer in the United States, supplying whole aircraft in large numbers to the U.S. Armed Forces. It has since evolved away from the final assembly of finished aircraft, becoming a component manufacturer specializing in actuators, aircraft controls, valves, and surface-treatment services. It also is a supplier to commercial nuclear power, nuclear navy systems, industrial vehicles and to the oil and gas industries.
History
Merger and expansion
Curtiss-Wright formed on July 5, 1929, the result of a merger of 12 companies associated with Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company of Buffalo, New York, and Wright Aeronautical of Dayton, Ohio, and was headquartered in Buffalo, New York. With $75 million in capital (equivalent to $ billion in ), it became the largest aviation company in the United States.
By September 1929, Curtiss-Wright had also acquired the Moth Aircraft Corporation and Travel Air Manufacturing Company.
Divisions
There were three main divisions: the Curtiss-Wright Airplane Division, which manufactured airframes; the Wright Aeronautical Corporation, which produced aircraft engines; and the Curtiss-Wright Propeller Division, which manufactured propellers. After 1929, most engines produced by the new company were known as Wrights, while most aircraft were given the Curtiss name, with a few exceptions.
Pre World War II
Throughout the 1930s, Curtiss-Wright designed and built aircraft for military, commercial, and private markets. But it was the Wright engine division and the longstanding relationship with the U.S. military that would help the company through the difficult years of the Great Depression. In 1937, the company developed the P-36 fighter aircraft, resulting in the largest peacetime aircraft order ever given by the Army Air Corps. Curtiss-Wright also sold the P-36 abroad, where they were used in the early days of World War II.
War production
During World War II, Curtiss-Wright produced 142,840 aircraft engines, 146,468 electric propellers and 29,269 airplanes. Curtiss-Wright employed 180,000 workers, and ranked second among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts (behind only General Motors).
Aircraft production included almost 14,000 P-40 fighters, made famous by their use by Claire Chennault's Flying Tigers in China, over 3,000 C-46 Commando transport aircraft, and later in the war, over 7,000 SB2C Helldivers. Its most visible success came with the P-40, variously known as the Tomahawk, Kittyhawk, and Warhawk, which were built between 1940 and 1944 at the main production facilities in Buffalo, New York. During the war, a second large plant was added at Buffalo, followed by new plants at Columbus, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri; and Louisville, Kentucky. Engine and propeller production was at plants in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.
In May 1942, the U.S. government assigned Curtiss-Wright a defense production factory for wartime aircraft construction at Louisville, Kentucky, to produce the C-76 Caravan cargo plane, which was constructed mostly of wood, a non-priority war material. However, after difficulties with the C-76 (including a crash of a production model in mid-1943), as well as the realization that sufficient quantities of aluminum aircraft alloys would be available for war production, plans for large-scale C-76 production were rejected. The Louisville plant was converted to C-46 Commando production, eventually delivering 438 Commandos to supplement the roughly 2,500 C-46s produced at Buffalo. The C-46 cargo plane was fitted with two powerful radial engines and could carry more cargo at higher altitudes than any other Allied aircraft. Consequently, it was used extensively in the China-Burma-India Theater.
Defective engines sold to U.S. military in World War II
From 1941 to 1943, the Curtiss Aeronautical plant in Lockland, Ohio produced aircraft engines under wartime contract destined for installation in U.S. Army Air Forces aircraft. Wright officials at Lockland insisted on high engine production levels, resulting in a significant percentage of engines that did not meet Army Air Forces (AAF) inspection standards. These defective engines were nevertheless approved by inspectors for shipment and installation in U.S. military aircraft. After investigation, it was later revealed that Wright company officials at Lockland had conspired with civilian technical advisers and Army inspection officers to approve substandard or defective aircraft engines for military use. Army Air Forces technical adviser Charles W. Bond was dismissed by the Army in 1943 for "gross irregularities in inspection procedure." Bond would later testify that he had been "wined and dined" by Wright company officials; one of those occasions was the night before Bond fired four AAF engine inspectors another AAF inspector had described as "troublemakers." In 1944, three Army officers, Lt. Col. Frank Constantine Greulich of Detroit, former chief inspection officer for the material command, Major Walter A. Ryan of Detroit, former central states inspection officer, and Major William Bruckmann, a former Cincinnati brewer and resident Army inspections officer at the Wright plant in Lockland were charged with neglect of duty, conspiracy, and giving false testimony in a general court martial. All three men were later convicted of neglect of duty. The story of defective engines had reached investigators working for Sen. Harry Truman's congressional investigative board, the Truman Commission, after several Wright aircraft assembly workers informed on the company; they would later testify under oath before Congress. Arthur Miller's play All My Sons is based on this incident.
Post–World War II
Demise of aircraft production
Curtiss-Wright failed to make the transition to design and production of jet aircraft, despite several attempts. During the war, the company had expended only small amounts on aircraft research and development, instead concentrating on incremental improvements in conventional aircraft already in wartime production. This was especially true in the first two years of the war. Curtiss' failure to research and develop more advanced wing and airframe designs provided an opening for North American, Bell, Lockheed, Northrop, and other U.S. aircraft manufacturers to submit newer and more advanced aircraft designs. The P-60, the firm's last prop-driven fighter design, was merely an extrapolation of its 1930s P-36 Hawk, offering no advantage over other designs already in service. With the rapid development of jet engine technology and near-supersonic flight, this technological lag resulted in Curtiss losing a number of critical postwar military aircraft orders. The final nail in the coffin was the choice of the Northrop F-89 Scorpion over the XF-87 Blackhawk; after the F-87 was cancelled October 10, 1948, Curtiss-Wright shut down its entire Aeroplane Division and sold the assets to North American Aviation.
Flight research
While this marked Curtiss-Wright's departure from preeminence in the aviation industry, one notable spin-off involved Curtiss-Wright's flight research laboratory, founded in 1943 near the main plant at the Buffalo airport. During divestiture of the airframe division, the lab was given to Cornell University along with a cash gift to finish the construction of a transonic wind tunnel. Cornell Aeronautical Labs, or CAL as it was known, was eventually spun off from the university as a private company, Calspan Corporation, which has been responsible for many subsequent innovations in flight and safety research.
Engine development
After the Government gave the development of the Whittle jet engine to GE, the company concentrated on reciprocating engines and propeller production for military transport and civilian airliners. With the approaching twilight of the big piston aircraft engine, Curtiss-Wright needed new design inspiration.
in 1950, Curtiss-Wright licensed the Sapphire jet engine from Armstrong Siddeley in the U.K and manufactured it as the Wright J65.
It powered models of the Martin B-57, and several other U.S. fighter planes. Subsequent derivative engines were late and did not find substantial markets.
For a brief time, Curtiss-Wright licensed rights to the Wankel rotary engine from NSU in 1958 as a possible aircraft power plant. For this major innovative engineering project, Curtiss-Wright relied extensively on the design leadership of NSU-Wankel engineer Max Bentele.
Flight simulators
In 1954, United Airlines bought four Curtiss-Wright flight simulators at a cost of $3 million. These simulators were like earlier ones produced in the late 1940s for airliners with the addition of visuals, sound, and movement. They were the first of today's modern flight simulators for commercial aircraft.
Business diversification
In 1956, financially strapped automaker Studebaker-Packard Corporation entered into a management agreement with Curtiss-Wright as a means for the nation's fifth-largest automobile manufacturer to avoid insolvency. The relationship lasted until 1959 at which time Curtiss-Wright withdrew from the agreement. The shift of civilian aircraft to jets left the company with little of its old business, and during the 1960s it shifted to components for aircraft and other types of equipment, such as nuclear submarines, a business that is still being conducted today.
In 2002, Curtiss-Wright acquired Penny & Giles, a supplier of black boxes and sensing devices (Hybrid linear, hybrid rotary, and VRVT sensors).
In 2003, Curtiss-Wright acquired Systran Corporation, a supplier of highly specialized, high-performance data communications products for real-time systems, primarily for the aerospace and defense, industrial automation and medical image markets. The acquisition also reintroduced Curtiss-Wright to Dayton, OH.
In 2010, Curtiss-Wright acquired Hybricon Corporation for $19 million in cash. Hybricon is a supplier of electronic packaging for the aerospace, defense and commercial markets, and provides electronic subsystem integration.
In 2011, Curtiss-Wright acquired Ireland-based Acra Control for $61 million in cash. Acra Control is a supplier of data acquisition systems and networks, data recorders and telemetry ground stations for both defense and commercial aerospace markets.
At the beginning of 2013, Curtiss-Wright acquired Exlar Corporation for $85 million in cash. Exlar, a private company, is a designer and manufacturer of highly engineered electric actuators used in motion control solutions in industrial and military markets. The acquired business will operate within Curtiss-Wright's Motion Control segment. In October 2013, Curtiss-Wright completed the acquisition of the Parvus Corporation, a business unit of Eurotech S.p.A., for $38 million. Parvus is a leading designer and manufacturer of rugged small form factor computers and communications subsystems for the aerospace, defense, homeland security and industrial markets.
Curtiss-Wright acquired military communications equipment supplier Pacific Star Communications for 400 million, on November 2, 2020.
Multinational divisions
As of 31 December 2012, the firm had several divisions:
Curtiss Wright Controls (UK) Ltd, United Kingdom
Curtiss-Wright Antriebstechnik GmbH, Switzerland
Curtiss-Wright Controls Electronic Systems Inc., California
Curtiss-Wright Controls Integrated Sensing Inc., Delaware
Curtiss-Wright Controls Inc., Delaware
Curtiss-Wright Electro-Mechanical Corporation, Delaware
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control Company Canada, Nova Scotia
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control Corporation, New York
Dy4 Inc, Delaware
Dy4 Systems Inc., Ontario : a manufacturer of electronic circuit boards acquired in 2003
Indal Technologies Inc., Canada
Metal Improvement Company LLC, Delaware
Novatronics Inc., Ontario
Peerless Instrument Co. Inc., New York
Penny & Giles Controls Limited, United Kingdom
Primagraphics (Holdings) Limited, United Kingdom
Tapco International Inc, Delaware
Products
Aircraft
Curtiss Electric propellers
As well as manufacturing engines, a range of electrically actuated constant speed three- and four-bladed propellers were manufactured under the name Curtiss Electric.
See also
United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., a 1936 U.S. Supreme Court case about the role of the President in foreign relations.
George Conrad Westervelt
Curtiss-Wright Technical Institute in Glendale, California
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bowers, Peter M. Curtiss Aircraft 1907–1947. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1979. .
Eltscher, Louis R. and Young, Edward M. Curtiss-WrightGreatness and Decline. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1998. .
External links
Curtiss-Wright Defense Solutions website
Curtiss-Wright Flow Control website
Curtiss-Wright Industrial website
Curtiss-Wright Sensors & Controls website
Curtiss-Wright Surface Technologies website
The Glenn Curtiss Companies: U.S. Centennial of Flight Commemoration
History of the Aerospace Industry in Buffalo, NY
1940 Curtiss Wright Buffalo NY Handbook – Internet Archive
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Aircraft engine manufacturers of the United States
Wright brothers
Manufacturing companies based in North Carolina
Companies based in Charlotte, North Carolina
Engineering companies of the United States
Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Manufacturing companies established in 1929
1929 establishments in New York (state)
American companies established in 1929
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218299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Council%20%28Switzerland%29 | Federal Council (Switzerland) | The Federal Council (, , , ) is the seven-member executive council that constitutes the federal government of the Swiss Confederation and serves as the collective head of state and government of Switzerland. It meets in the west wing of the Federal Palace in Bern.
While the entire Federal Council is responsible for leading the federal administration of Switzerland, each Councillor heads one of the seven federal executive departments. The position of President of the Swiss Confederation rotates among the seven Councillors on a yearly basis, with one year's Vice President of Switzerland becoming the next year's President of Switzerland. Ignazio Cassis has been the incumbent officeholder since 1 January 2022.
Members
The current (2022) members of the Federal Council are, in order of seniority:
Origins and history of the Federal Council
Origins of the institution
The Federal Council was instituted by the 1848 Federal Constitution as the "supreme executive and directorial authority of the Confederation".
When the Constitution was written, constitutional democracy was still in its infancy, and the founding fathers of Switzerland had little in the way of examples. While they drew heavily on the United States Constitution for the organisation of the federal state as a whole, they opted for the collegial rather than the presidential system for the executive branch of government (directorial system). This accommodated the long tradition of the rule of collective bodies in Switzerland. Under the Ancien Régime, the cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy had been governed by councils of pre-eminent citizens since time immemorial, and the later Helvetic Republic (with its equivalent Directorate) as well as the cantons that had given themselves liberal constitutions since the 1830s had also had good experiences with that mode of governance.
Today, only three other states, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Andorra and San Marino, have collective rather than unitary heads of state. However the collegial system of government has found widespread adoption in modern democracies in the form of cabinet government with collective responsibility.
Changes in composition
The 1848 constitutional provision providing for the Federal Counciland indeed the institution of the Council itselfhas remained unchanged to this day, even though Swiss society has changed profoundly since.
Party representation
Free Democratic hegemony, 1848–1891
The 1848 Constitution was one of the few successes of the Europe-wide democratic revolutions of 1848. In Switzerland, the democratic movement was ledand the new federal state decisively shapedby the Radicals (presently the Free Democratic Party, FDP). After winning the Sonderbund War (the Swiss civil war) against the Catholic cantons, the Radicals at first used their majority in the Federal Assembly to fill all the seats on the Federal Council. This made their former war opponents, the Catholic-Conservatives (presently the Christian Democratic People's Party, CVP), the opposition party. Only after Emil Welti's resignation in 1891 after a failed referendum on railway nationalisation did the Radicals decide to co-opt the Conservatives by supporting the election of Josef Zemp.
Emerging coalition government, 1891–1959
The process of involving all major political movements of Switzerland into the responsibility of government continued during the first half of the 20th century. It was hastened by the FDP's and CVP's gradually diminishing voter shares, complemented by the rise of new parties of lesser power at the ends of the political spectrum. These were the Social Democratic Party (SP) on the Left and the Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents (BGB; presently the People's Party, SVP) on the Right. In due course, the CVP received its second seat in 1919 with Jean-Marie Musy, while the BGB joined the Council in 1929 with Rudolf Minger. In 1943, during World War II, the Social Democrats were also temporarily included with Ernst Nobs.
Grand coalition, 1959–2003
The 1959 elections, following the resignation of four Councillors, finally established the Zauberformel, the "magical formula" that determined the Council's composition during the rest of the 20th century and established the long-standing nature of the Council as a permanent, voluntary grand coalition. In approximate relation to the parties' respective strength in the Federal Assembly, the seats were distributed as follows:
Free Democratic Party (FDP/PRD): 2 members,
Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC): 2 members,
Social Democratic Party (SP/PS): 2 members,
Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC): 1 member.
During that time, the FDP/PRD and CVP/PDC very slowly but steadily keeping losing voter share to the SVP/UDC and SP/PS, respectively, which overtook the older parties in popularity during the 1990s.
End of the grand coalition, 2008
The governmental balance was changed after the 2003 elections, when the SVP/UDC was granted a Council seat for their leader Christoph Blocher that had formerly belonged to the CVP/PDC's Ruth Metzler. Due to controversies surrounding his conduct in office, a narrow Assembly majority did not reelect Blocher in 2007 and chose instead Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, a more moderate SVP/UDC politician, against party policy. This led to a split of the SVP/UDC in 2008. After liberal regional SVP/UDC groups including Federal Councillors Widmer-Schlumpf and Samuel Schmid founded a new Conservative Democratic Party, the SVP/UDC was left in opposition for the first time since 1929, but returned into the Council with the election of Ueli Maurer on 10 December 2008, who regained the seat previously held by Schmid, who had resigned. The SVP/UDC regained its second seat on the Council in 2015, when Widmer-Schlumpf decided to resign after the SVP/UDC's large election gains in the 2015 election, being replaced by Guy Parmelin.
Women on the Council
Women gained suffrage on the federal level in 1971. They remained unrepresented in the Federal Council for three further legislatures, until the 1984 election of Elisabeth Kopp. In 1983, the failed election of the first official female candidate, Lilian Uchtenhagen and again in 1993 the failed election of Christiane Brunner (both SP/PS), was controversial and the Social Democrats each time considered withdrawing from the Council altogether.
There were two female Councillors serving simultaneously for the first time in 2006, and three out of seven Councillors were women from 2007 till 2010, when Simonetta Sommaruga was elected as the fourth woman in government in place of Moritz Leuenberger, putting men in minority for the first time in history. Also remarkable is the fact that the eighth non-voting member of government, the Chancellor, who sets the government agenda, was also a woman.
In total, there have been nine female Councillors in the period 1989 to present:
The first woman Councillor, Elisabeth Kopp (FDP/PRD), elected 1984, resigned in 1989.
Ruth Dreifuss (SP/PS), served from 1993 to 2002, was the first woman to become President of the Confederation in 1999.
Ruth Metzler (Metzler-Arnold at the time) (CVP/PDC), served from 1999 to 2003 and was not re-elected to a 2nd term (see above).
Micheline Calmy-Rey (SP/PS), elected in 2003 and Doris Leuthard (CVP/PDC), elected in 2006, were the first two women serving simultaneously. Both were reelected in December 2007 for a four-year term.
Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf was elected in December 2007 and served until December 2015.
Simonetta Sommaruga was elected in September 2010. Together with Micheline Calmy-Rey, Doris Leuthard and Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, women had the majority in the Federal Council for the first time, until January 2012, when Alain Berset replaced Micheline Calmy-Rey.
Karin Keller-Sutter and Viola Amherd were elected on 5 December 2018.
Regional balancing acts
Until 1999, the Constitution mandated that no canton could have more than one representative on the Federal Council. Until 1987, the place of origin was used to determine which canton a Federal Councilor was from. After 1987, the place of residence (or, for councillors who were previously members of the Federal Assembly or of a canton's legislative or executive body, the canton from which they were elected) became the determinant factor. Nothing prevented candidates from moving to politically expedient cantons; the rule was abandoned in 1999. Since then, the Constitution has mandated an equitable distribution of seats among the cantons and language regions of the country, without setting concrete quotas. Whenever a member resigns, they are generally replaced by someone who is not only from the same party, but also the same language region. In 2006, however, Joseph Deiss, a French Swiss, resigned and was succeeded by Doris Leuthard, a German-speaking Swiss. In 2016, Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, German-speaking, was succeeded by Guy Parmelin, a French Swiss.
Historically, at least two Council seats have always been held by French- or Italian-speaking Swiss. From 2016 to 2019 two members of the Federal Council were from the canton of Bern; previously, there had never been more than one Federal Councillor per canton in the Federal Council, as the constitutional rule in place until 1999 prohibited it. From 2003 to 2007, however, two of the members of the Federal Council, Moritz Leuenberger and Christoph Blocher, have resided in the canton of Zürich. In the 2010 election, the two new Councillors Simonetta Sommaruga and Johann Schneider-Ammann were both from the canton of Bern.
The language makeup of the Council as of 2017 is four German native speakers, two French native speakers and one Italian native speaker. In November 2017, Ignazio Cassis became the first Italian speaker to serve on the Council since 1999. For elections to the Federal Council, candidates are usually helped by a high degree of fluency in German, French and Italian.
Five cantons have never been represented on the Federal Council: Jura, Nidwalden, Schaffhausen, Schwyz and Uri.
Operation of the Federal Council
Presidency
Each year, one of the seven Councillors is elected by the United Federal Assembly as President of the Confederation. The Federal Assembly also elects a Vice President of Switzerland. By convention, the positions of President and Vice President rotate annually, each Councillor thus becoming Vice President and then President every seven years while in office.
According to the Swiss order of precedence, the President of the Confederation is the highest-ranking Swiss official. They preside over Council meetings and carry out certain representative functions that, in other countries, are the business of a head of state. In urgent situations where a Council decision cannot be made in time, they are empowered to act on behalf of the whole Council. Apart from that, though, they are a primus inter pares, having no power above and beyond the other six Councillors.
The President is not the Swiss head of state; this function is carried out by the Council in corpore, that is, in its entirety. However, it has recently become usual that the President acts and is recognised as head of state while conducting official visits abroad, as the Council (also by convention) does not leave the country in corpore. More often, though, official visits abroad are carried out by the Councillor who is head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. Visiting heads of state are received by the Federal Council in corpore.
Council meetings
The Federal Council operates mainly through weekly meetings, which are held each Wednesday at the Federal Palace in Bern, the seat of the Swiss federal government.
Apart from the seven Councillors, the following officials also attend the meetings:
Federal Chancellor Walter Thurnherr. As government chief of staff and head of the Federal Chancellery, he participates in the discussion but has no vote in the Council's decisions. Nonetheless, his influential position is often referred to as that of an "eighth Federal Councillor".
the Vice-Chancellor: André Simonazzi. Simonazzi is the spokesman of the Federal Council and conducts the weekly press briefing after the meeting.
the Vice-Chancellor: Viktor Rossi who is in charge of the Federal Council sector within the Swiss Federal Chancellery.
During the meetings, the Councillors address each other formally (e.g. Mrs. Sommaruga, Mr. Berset), even though they are on first name terms with each other. This is done to separate the items on the agenda from the person promoting them.
After the meetings, the Councillors take lunch together. The Council also meets regularly in conclave to discuss important topics at length; it annually conducts what is colloquially referred to as its "field trip", a day trip to some attractions in the President's home canton. In that and other respects, the Council operates like a board of directors of a major corporation.
Decisions and responsibilities
Each Federal Councillor heads a government department, much like the ministers in the governments of other countries. Colloquially and by the press, they are often referred to as ministers, most notably the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports as "Minister of Defence", even though no such post officially exists. However, as Council members, they are not only responsible for their own department, but also for the business of their colleagues' departments, as well as for the conduct of the government and the federal administration as a whole.
Decisions to be taken by the Council are always prepared by the responsible department. Accordingly, a change in the salaries of federal employees would be proposed to the Council by the head of the Federal Department of Finance, to whose department the Federal Office of Personnel belongs. Before a vote is taken at a Council meeting, though, all proposals are circulated in writing to the heads of departments, who commission the senior career officials of their department – the heads of the Federal Offices – to prepare a written response to offer criticism and suggestions. This is called the co-report procedure (Mitberichtsverfahren/procédure de co-rapport), designed to build a wide consensus ahead of a Council meeting.
To prepare for important decisions, an additional public consultation is sometimes conducted, to which the cantons, the political parties and major interest groups are invited, and in which all members of the public can participate. If a change in a federal statute is to be proposed to the Federal Assembly, this step is mandated by law. In such cases, the consultation procedure also serves to identify political concerns that could later be the focus of a popular referendum to stop passage of the bill at issue.
The decisions themselves are formally taken by voice vote by a majority of the Councillors present at a meeting. However, the great majority of decisions are arrived at by consensus; even though lately there is said to be a trend towards more contentious discussions and close votes.
Secrecy
The meetings of the Federal Council and the result of the votes taken are not open to the public, and the records remain sealed for 50 years. This has lately been the subject of some criticism. In particular, the parties at the ends of the political spectrum argue that this secrecy is contrary to the principle of transparency. However, the Council has always maintained that secrecy is necessary to arrive at consensus and to preserve the collegiality and political independence of the individual Councillors.
Constitutional conventions
Due to the Federal Council's unique nature as a voluntary grand coalition of political opponents, its operation is subject to numerous constitutional conventions. Most notable is the principle of collegiality; that is, the Councillors are not supposed to publicly criticise one another, even though they are often political opponents. In effect, they are expected to publicly support all decisions of the Council, even against their own personal opinion or that of their political party. In the eye of many observers, this convention has become rather strained after the 2003 elections (see below).
Election and composition
On 11 December 2019, the following Federal Councillors were reelected, as no seat opened (election per individual seat):
Simonetta Sommaruga (SP/PS), 192 votes, Environment Minister; elected President of Switzerland (for the second time) for 2020 with 186 votes out of 200,
Guy Parmelin (SVP/UDC), 191 votes, Economy Minister; elected Vice President of Switzerland for 2020 with 168 votes out of 183,
Ignazio Cassis (FDP/PRD), 145 votes, Foreign Minister,
Viola Amherd (CVP/PDC), 218 votes, Defence Minister,
Alain Berset (SP/PS), 214 votes, Interior Minister,
Ueli Maurer (SVP/UDC), 213 votes, Finance Minister,
Karin Keller-Sutter (FDP/PRD), 169 votes, Justice Minister
In addition, Walter Thurnherr (CDP/PDC) was reelected as Federal Chancellor with 219 votes out of 224.
Election mode
The members of the Federal Council are elected for a term of four years by both chambers of the Federal Assembly sitting together as the United Federal Assembly. Each officeholder is elected individually by secret ballot by an absolute majority of votes. Every adult Swiss citizen is eligible, but in practice, only members of Parliament or more rarely, members of cantonal governments, are nominated by the political parties and receive a substantial number of votes. The voting is conducted in several rounds, under a form of exhaustive ballot: in the first two rounds, anyone can enter their name; in subsequent rounds, the person receiving the fewest votes is removed from the race until one candidate gains an absolute majority.
Usually, the party which has a seat to fill presents two candidates with mainstream viewpoints to the United Federal Assembly, which then chooses one. This was not so, however, during the 2003 election, which was the most controversial in recent memory. Until the end of the 19th century, it was informally required of Federal Councillors to be elected to the National Council in their canton of origin every four years to put their popularity to a test. This practice was known under the French term of élection de compliment. The first Councillor who failed to be reelected (Ulrich Ochsenbein) lost his election to the National Council in 1854.
Once elected, Councillors remain members of their political parties, but hold no leading office with them. In fact, they usually maintain a certain political distance from the party leadership, because under the rules of collegiality, they will often have to publicly promote a Council decision which does not match the political conviction of their party (or of themselves).
Resignation
Once elected for a four-year-term, Federal Councillors can neither be voted out of office by a motion of no confidence nor can they be impeached. Reelection is possible for an indefinite number of terms; it has historically been extremely rare for Parliament not to reelect a sitting Councillor. This has only happened four times – to Ulrich Ochsenbein in 1854, to Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel in 1872, to Ruth Metzler in 2003 and to Christoph Blocher in 2007. In practice, therefore, Councillors serve until they decide to resign and retire to private life, usually after three to five terms of office.
Status of Federal Councillors
Councillors' lives
Unlike most senior members of government in other countries, the Federal Councillors are not entitled to an official residence (however, the Federal Palace houses living apartments for both the Federal Chancellor and President of the Confederation). Mostly, they have chosen to rent apartments or hotel suites in Bern (at their own expense). However, they are entitled to use the Federal Council's country estate, Lohn, for holidays; this estate is also used to host official guests of the Swiss Confederation.
While Councillors can draw on an Army security detail if they need personal protection (in particular during official events), it is more usual to encounter them without any escort at all in the streets, restaurants and tramways of Bern. Councillors are also entitled to a personal bailiff (huissier or Bundesweibel) who accompanies them, in a red and white ceremonial uniform, to official events.
The spouses of Councillors do not play an official part in the business of government, apart from accompanying the Councillors to official receptions.
Councillors' salary
Federal councillors receive an annual salary of CHF 445,000 (about EUR 416,000 / USD 451,000), plus another CHF 30,000 annually for expenses. The councillors pay tax on this income.
Former councillors with at least four years of service receive a pension equivalent to half the salary of Federal Council members in office. If a councillor leaves office for health reasons, they may receive this pension even if their length of service was less than three years. Councillors who leave their offices after less than four years may also receive a partial pension. After leaving office, "former federal councillors frequently pursue some other lucrative activity," but "their earnings, when added to the pension they receive as an ex-federal councillor, may not exceed the salary of a federal councillor in office, otherwise their pension is reduced accordingly."
Serving federal councillors "enjoy a certain number of special benefits, from free telephone contracts to a chauffeur-driven car for official business, a courtesy car for personal use or the use of federal planes and helicopters for official business trips. Each member of the Federal Council also has the right to a first-class SBB GA travelcard (also in retirement). They are also given personal security, which is often very discreet."
Immunity
Federal Councillors, like members of parliament, enjoy absolute legal immunity for all statements made in their official capacity.
Prosecution for crimes and misdemeanors that relate to the Councillors' official capacity requires the assent of the immunity commissions of the Federal Assembly. In such cases, Parliament can also suspend the Councillor in office (but not actually remove them).
According to statements to the media by a Federal Chancellory official, in none of the few cases of accusations against a Federal Councillor has the permission to prosecute ever been granted. Such cases usually involved statements considered offensive by members of the public. However, one unnamed Councillor involved in a traffic accident immediately prior to his date of resignation was reported to have voluntarily waived his immunity, and Councillor Elisabeth Kopp decided to resign upon facing an inquiry over allegations of secrecy violations.
List of firsts in the Federal Council
1848: The first seven members elected: Ulrich Ochsenbein, Jonas Furrer, Martin J. Munzinger, Henri Druey, Friedrich Frey-Herosé, Wilhelm Matthias Naeff and Stefano Franscini.
1854: First (of only four so far) sitting Federal Councillor not to be reelected, Ulrich Ochsenbein.
1891: First Councillor of the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland, Josef Zemp.
1893: First member whose father was a member of the Council: Eugène Ruffy, son of Victor Ruffy. In 2007, the second is elected: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, the daughter of Leon Schlumpf.
1911: First (and only) octogenarian in office, Adolf Deucher (FDP).
1913: First (and only) native Romansh speaker, Felix Calonder (FDP).
1917: First (and only) Councillor of the Liberal Party elected, Gustave Ador.
1930: First Councillor of the Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents (BGB/PAI; now the Swiss People's Party), Rudolf Minger.
1943: First Councillor of the Social Democratic Party, Ernst Nobs.
1983: First female candidate for the Council from a government party, Lilian Uchtenhagen (SP).
1984: First woman Councillor, Elisabeth Kopp (FDP).
1993: First Jewish Councillor, Ruth Dreifuss (SP).
1995: First Councillor living in a domestic partnership, Moritz Leuenberger (SP) (with architect Gret Loewensberg, whom he later married).
1999: First woman President of the Confederation, Ruth Dreifuss (SP).
2010: First majority of women in the Swiss Federal Council with the election of Simonetta Sommaruga (SP).
See also
List of members of the Swiss Federal Council (by date of election)
List of members of the Swiss Federal Council by date (by first day in office)
Composition of the Swiss Federal Council
:Category:Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) (alphabetical list)
List of presidents of the Swiss Confederation
Hotel Bellevue Palace
Notes and references
Bibliography
The Swiss Confederation: A brief guide 2006–2009, edited by the Swiss Federal Chancellery.
Resultate der Wahlen des Bundesrats, der Bundeskanzler und des Generals , compiled by the services of the Swiss Parliament.
Clive H. Church (2004). The Politics and Government of Switzerland. Palgrave Macmillan. .
Altermatt, Urs (1993). Conseil Fédéral: Dictionnaire biographique des cent premiers conseillers fédéraux. Cabédita, Yens.
External links
Federal Council
Collective heads of state
European governments
1848 establishments in Switzerland | [
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|
218311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Council%20%28Austria%29 | National Council (Austria) | The National Council () is one of the two houses of the Austrian Parliament and is frequently referred to as the lower house. The constitution endows the National Council with far more power than the Federal Council.
Responsibilities
The National Council is where Austria's federal legislative authority is concentrated; for a bill to become federal law, it must be resolved upon by this chamber. Bills passed by the National Council are sent to the Federal Council for corroboration. If the Federal Council approves of the bill or simply does nothing for eight weeks, the bill has succeeded. If the Federal Council vetoes the bill, the National Council may still force it into law by essentially just passing it again; a National Council resolution overruling a Federal Council objection merely has to meet a higher quorum than a regular resolution. In other words, the Federal Council does not have any real power to prevent adoption of legislation, the National Council being easily able to override it. There are three exceptions to this rule:
Constitutional laws or regulations limiting the competencies of the federal states
Laws relating to the rights of the Federal Council itself
Treaties concerning the jurisdiction of the federal states.
The approval of the National Council is also required for most of the prerogatives of the Federal Assembly to be exercised. For example, motions to call for a referendum aimed at having the President removed from office by the electorate, and motions to declare war all need a two-thirds majority in the National Council. Only motions to impeach the President can also be from the Federal Council.
Elections
The 183 members of the National Council are elected by nationwide popular vote for a term of five years; each Austrian sixteen years or older on the day the election takes place is entitled to one vote. National Council elections are general elections. The voting system aims at party-list proportional representation and uses partially open lists:
For the purpose of National Council elections, the nine states of Austria constitute regional electoral districts. The nine regional electoral districts are subdivided into a total of 39 local electoral districts. Political parties submit separate ranked lists of candidates for each district, regional or local, in which they have chosen to run. They also submit a federal-level list.
Votes cast are first counted within their local electoral districts. Since there are 39 local districts but 183 seats to fill, most local districts are multi-member districts. The number of seats assigned to each local district is based solely on electoral district population, as established by the most recent census; the partitioning and apportionment rules are simple enough to prevent gerrymandering from becoming an issue. The number of votes required to win one seat is simply the number of votes divided by the number of seats assigned to the district in question (ie the Hare Quota). For example, if 150,000 votes are cast in a five-seat local district, it takes 30,000 votes to win one seat. If a party has scored 61,000 votes out of the 150,000 votes cast, it is entitled to two seats, to be taken by the first two candidates on the party's local district list. Since 60,000 votes would have been sufficient to win two seats, 1000 votes are left unaccounted for by this first round of tallying.
Any vote not accounted for on the local level is dealt with on the regional level, provided that the party it has been cast for has obtained at least four percent of the regional total vote. The system is analogous to that used on the district level; the number of seats assigned to a regional district is simply the number of seats assigned to one of its constituent local districts but not filled during the first round of tallying.
Any vote not accounted for on the regional level either is dealt with on the federal level, provided that the party it has been cast for has obtained at least four percent of the federal total vote. The D'Hondt method is used to allocate any National Council seats remaining to be filled.
In addition to voting for a party list, voters may express preference for one individual candidate in the same party list. This means it is not possible to simultaneously vote for the party list of one party but exert influence on the candidate rankings on the party list of another party. A candidate receiving sufficiently many personal votes can rise in rank on his or her district party list; voters thus have a certain degree of influence as to which particular individual wins which particular seat.
Peculiarities
Austria's federal constitution defines Austria as a semi-presidential democracy: the executive branch of government is supposed to be headed by the President, but is also answerable to the National Council. In practice, however, nearly all of the day-to-day work of governing is left to the Chancellor and Cabinet, which are dependent on the confidence of the National Council. The President has the theoretical right to name anyone eligible to serve in the National Council as a minister or Chancellor. However, the National Council's right to sack a minister or the entire cabinet makes it all but impossible for Presidents to appoint a government entirely of their own choosing or keep it in office against the will of the National Council. While the President has the theoretical authority to dissolve a hostile National Council, constitutional convention prevents this power from being exercised.
Austria accordingly functions as a parliamentary democracy: for all intents and purposes, the cabinet is subject to approval by the National Council and is responsible to it, with the president being little more than a figurehead.
A related discrepancy between Austrian constitutional theory and Austrian political practice is that the constitution defines the President of the National Council to be Austria's second highest public official, junior only to the president proper. As a practical matter, however, the Chancellor, who nominally ranks third in the Austrian order of precedence, is the country's leading political figure. Thus, the President of the National Council is a representative of rather moderate significance: wielding less power than the president by extension means wielding less power than the Chancellor or even most federal ministers. The President of the National Council thus serves mostly as a moderator of parliamentary debate.
Latest election
Results by state
Historical composition of the National Council
1919-1930
Since 1945
Current composition of the National Council
See also
List of presidents of the National Council of Austria
Federal Assembly (Austria)
Federal Council (Austria)
Politics of Austria
List of legislatures by country
References
External links
National Council Elections Statute, official rules and regulations
Austria
Politics of Austria
Austrian Parliament
Government agencies with year of establishment missing
Organisations based in Vienna | [
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|
218312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Council%20%28Austria%29 | Federal Council (Austria) | The Federal Council (, ) is the upper house of the Austrian Parliament, representing the nine States of Austria at the federal level. As part of a bicameral legislature alongside of the National Council, it can be compared with an upper house or a senate. In fact, however, it is far less powerful than the National Council: although it has to approve every new law decided for by this "lower" chamber, the latter can—in most cases—overrule the Federal Council's refusal to approve.
The Bundesrat has its seat at the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna, in a conclave of the former Herrenhaus chamber of the Imperial Council (Reichsrat). During a major renovation of the Parliament Building the Federal Council meets in the Hofburg.
Role
As the Constitution of Austria (B-VG) draws a strict distinction between federal and state legislation, its Article 42 provides the Bundesrat only with the right to veto federal laws passed by the National Council. Moreover, in most cases a Federal Council's veto is just suspensive, meaning the National Council can override it, passing the law again by ordinary resolution of at least half of its members. Therefore, the decisions of the Bundesrat can only delay legislation.
In the following cases, though, the Federal Council's approval is mandatory:
Constitutional laws or regulations limiting the competencies of the federal states
Laws relating to the rights of the Federal Council itself
Treaties concerning the jurisdiction of the federal states.
Since its inauguration on 10 November 1920, the deputies of Bundesrat have never achieved the status of a counterbalance in relation to the National Council. Over the decades the role of the Federal Council as a mere adjunct of the Austrian parliament has led to several discussions upon regulatory reforms, towards an actual representation of the states' governments modeled on the German Bundesrat or the complete abolition of the second chamber. So far, the concept has been maintained as a manifestation of Austria's federal system.
The Federal Council and the National Council, if in joint session, form a third parliamentary body: the Federal Assembly that convenes for the oath of office of the President of Austria.
Composition
The 61 members of the Federal Council (Mitglieder des Bundesrats, colloquially called Bundesräte) are elected according to proportional representation by each of the Austrian states' legislatures (Landtage) for 5- to 6-year terms. The composition of the Bundesrat therefore changes after every state election and the distribution of seats in the Austrian Landtage. The second largest faction of the particular Landtag has the right to designate at least one deputy. The number of representatives delegated by each Bundesland ranges between three and twelve, depending on its population as ascertained by a regular census; it is fixed per presidential decree.
The deputies may ally along party lines and form parliamentary groups, which have to meet a quorum of five seats, if not admitted by particular resolution. Currently the MPs of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP), the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ), the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) and the GREENS form political groups in the Bundesrat. Although there is a NEOS member, political groups require 5 members:
The President of the Federal Council is nominated by the largest party of each state in half-yearly intervals.
Presidency
Presidium
The Federal Council is made up of a president (elected for a term of half a year) and 2 vice-presidents.
See also
Federal Assembly (Austria)
Politics of Austria
National Council (Austria)
Sources
Austria
Politics of Austria
Austrian Parliament | [
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|
218313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman%20S-2%20Tracker | Grumman S-2 Tracker | The Grumman S-2 Tracker (S2F prior to 1962) was the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft to enter service with the United States Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design — propeller-driven with twin radial engines, a high wing that could be folded for storage on aircraft carriers, and tricycle undercarriage. The type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Introduced in 1952, the Tracker and its E-1 Tracer derivative saw service in the U.S. Navy until the mid-1970s, and its C-1 Trader derivative until the mid-1980s, with a few aircraft remaining in service with other air arms into the 21st century. Argentina and Brazil are the last countries to still use the Tracker.
Design and development
The Tracker was intended as a replacement for the Grumman AF Guardian, which was the first purpose-built aircraft system for ASW, using two airframes for two versions, one with the detection gear, and the other with the weapon systems. The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft. Grumman's design (model G-89) was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two XS2F-1 prototypes and 15 S2F-1 production aircraft were ordered at the same time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, in February 1954.
Follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname "Stoof" (S-two-F) throughout its military career; and the E-1 Tracer variant with the large overhead radome was colloquially called the "stoof with a roof.".
Grumman produced 1,185 Trackers and another 99 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada. U.S.-built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan.
Sensors and armament
The Tracker had an internal torpedo bay capable of carrying two lightweight aerial torpedoes or one nuclear depth charge. There were six underwing hard points for rocket pods and conventional depth charges or up to four additional torpedoes. A ventrally-mounted retractable radome for AN/APS-38 radar and a Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) AN/ASQ-8 mounted on an extendable rear mounted boom were also fitted. Early model Trackers had an Electronic Support Measures (ESM) pod mounted dorsally just aft of the front seat overhead hatches and were also fitted with a smoke particle detector or "sniffer" for detecting exhaust particles from diesel-electric submarines running on snorkel. Later S-2s had the sniffer removed and had the ESM antennae moved to four rounded extensions on the wingtips. A 70-million-candlepower searchlight was mounted on the starboard wing. The engine nacelles carried JEZEBEL sonobuoys in the rear (16 in early marks, 32 in the S-2E/G). Early Trackers also carried 60 explosive charges, dispensed ventrally from the rear of the fuselage and used to create sound pulses for semi-active sonar (JULIE) with the AN/AQA-3 and later AQA-4 detection sets, whereas the introduction of active sonobuoys (pingers) and AN/AQA-7 with the S-2G conversion saw these removed. Smoke dispensers were mounted on the port ventral surface of the nacelles in groups of three each.
Operational history
The Tracker was eventually superseded in U.S. military service by the Lockheed S-3 Viking; the last USN Tracker operational squadron (VS-37 with S-2G models) was disestablished in 1976. The last Navy S-2 was withdrawn from service on 29 August 1976. For many years the TS-2A version of the Tracker was used by U.S. Navy training units, culminating with its use by Training Squadron 27 (VT-27), Training Squadron 28 (VT-28) and Training Squadron 31 (VT-31) for Student Naval Aviator training in the multi-engine pipeline with Training Air Wing FOUR (TRAWING 4) at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas.
A number of Trackers live on as firefighting aircraft while the design also continued to provide excellent service with the naval forces of other countries for years after the U.S. retired them. For example, the Royal Australian Navy continued to use Trackers as front line ASW assets until the mid-1980s.
Argentina
Argentine Naval Aviation received seven S-2As in 1962, six S-2Es in 1978, and three S-2Gs in the 1990s. They were operated from both aircraft carriers, and , and used in the COD (US-2A conversions), maritime patrol, and ASW roles. They were extensively used in the 1982 Falklands War, first from Veinticinco de Mayo, from where they detected the British task force, and then from the mainland when the carrier returned to port after the sinking of the cruiser . In the 1990s, six remaining airframes were refurbished by Israel Aerospace Industries with turboprop engines as S-2T Turbo Trackers. As of 2010, with the retirement of Argentina's only aircraft carrier, the Trackers were annually deployed on board Brazilian Navy aircraft carrier during joint exercises ARAEX and TEMPEREX. and with U.S. Navy aircraft carriers during Gringo-Gaucho maneuvers.
Australia
Between 1967 and 1984 the Royal Australian Navy operated two Squadrons of S-2E and S-2G variants, based at NAS Nowra (). These aircraft served with the RAN's 816 Squadron, which embarked aboard the as part of the 21st Carrier Air Group whenever that ship was deployed; and with 851 Squadron, the S-2 training squadron.
Australia initially acquired 14 S-2Es. During approximately 17 years of operation of the Tracker, the RAN lost only one S-2 during aircraft operations due to an accident at sea on 10 February 1975. However, on 4 December 1976, a deliberately lit fire in a hangar at Nowra destroyed or badly damaged a large proportion of the RAN's complement of Trackers. Of the 14 original aircraft, one was away from Nowra undergoing maintenance at the time of the fire and three aircraft were damaged but only two of these were repaired. The destroyed aircraft were subsequently replaced with 16 ex-USN aircraft. The replacement aircraft were all S-2Gs, including the original aircraft modified by the USN to that status. This saw the introduction of AQA-7 acoustic gear into RAN service and all RAN operational Trackers were subsequently modified to this standard.
Brazil
The Brazilian Air Force flew Trackers from the aircraft carrier NAeL . Both the S-2A and S-2E were used (respectively as P-16A and P-16E). At the end of its service in Brazilian Air Force, one S-2T Turbo Tracker was evaluated as a possible upgrade, but due high costs the program was canceled. However, in 2010 the Brazilian Navy contracted Marsh Aviation to convert four S-2Ts to Airborne Early Warning configuration and upgrade four additional Grumman C-1 Traders for tanking and carrier onboard delivery transport duties. The latter were scheduled to be back in service by 2015 and were expected to operate from the successor of Minas Gerais, NAe São Paulo. Following the bankruptcy of Marsh Aviation in 2009 the program suffered delays and the upgrade of the airframes was resumed in partnership with Elbit Systems's subsidiary, M7 Aerospace. The decommissioning of the São Paulo in 2017 means that the Brazilian Navy does not have an immediate need for carrier-based tankers, transports and AEW aircraft, however the navy proceeded with procurement and the delivery of four tanker aircraft are expected by 2021.
As noted under Argentina above, Trackers of that country have been flown from the São Paulo until its decommissioning in early 2017.
Canada
In 1954, de Havilland Canada (DHC) entered into a contract to build Trackers under license to replace the outmoded Grumman TBM-3E Avengers being used by the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN). 99 Trackers were built by DHC, with the first Canadian-built aircraft flying on 31 May 1956. From 1957 onwards, these aircraft operated from the newly deployed aircraft carrier and various shore bases. All the Canadian Trackers were built to the earlier "A" model airframe design with a length of (c.f. for later model Trackers) in order to fit in Bonaventures hangar. In 1960–1961, 17 CS2F-1 aircraft, which had been relegated to training and utility duties by the CS2F-2, were transferred to the Royal Netherlands Navy. From 1964, 45 CS2F-2s were upgraded by fitting revised electronic equipment and sensors, becoming CS2F-3s. Also in 1964, a pair of CS2F-1 aircraft were stripped of armament and ASW electronics, converted to transports, and subsequently used for carrier onboard delivery. The CS2F-1, -2, and -3 were redesignated as the CP-121 Mk.1, Mk. 2, and Mk. 3 respectively following the unification of Canadian forces in 1968.
After Bonaventure was decommissioned in 1970, all remaining Canadian Trackers were transferred to shore bases. This limited their usefulness for ASW patrols, and between 1974 and 1981 gradually all but 20 were placed in storage and the remainder were stripped of their ASW gear. The remaining active-duty Trackers served until 1990 on fisheries protection and maritime patrol duties. A handful of Trackers were kept in flying condition until the late 1990s but were no longer used for active service.
DHC obtained a single U.S.-built S2F-1, BuNo 136519, for manufacturing verification; it was initially given RCN serial number 1500. In 1954, this aircraft was transferred to the RCN for operational testing, and was given serial number X-500. In 1956, it was upgraded to CS2F-1 standards and assigned serial number 1501, and was used as a stationary instructional airframe at Shearwater until 1972.
Japan
The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force received 60 S2F-1s in 1957 from U.S. stocks, and were operated until 1984. After being received, six S2F-1s were reconfigured into four S2F-U and two S2F-C variants. The S2F-1 was nicknamed Aotaka(あおたか, Blue Hawk). They were replaced by the Lockheed P-3 Orion.
Netherlands
The Netherlands Naval Aviation Service (Marineluchtvaartdienst - MLD), the air arm of the Royal Netherlands Navy, received 28 S-2A (S2F-1) aircraft under MDAP from the US Navy in 1960. An additional 17 Canadian-built CS-2A (CS2F-1) aircraft formerly operated by the Royal Canadian Navy were delivered between December 1960 and September 1961 after being overhauled by Fairey Canada. These aircraft were operated from Valkenburg Naval Air Base as well as from the light aircraft carrier until a fire in 1968 took that ship out of Dutch service.
A total of 18 aircraft were converted to S-2N (for Netherlands) standard by Fairey Canada in 1968–1970 for ASW and MR use with 1 Sqn (at Hato International Airport), of which four were converted to US-2N trainer/transport standards in May 1971. Most of the de Havilland Canada-built CS-2As were scrapped by 1970 or used for ground instruction. The last Tracker in MLD service was withdrawn in January 1976, with some transferred to the Turkish Navy.
Peru
The Peruvian Navy operated with S-2E and S-2G from 1975 until 1989, they were assigned to Naval Aviation Squadron N°12 (Escuadron Aeronaval N°12). A total of 12 S-2Es were bought from the U.S. Navy in 1975 and 4 S-2G in 1983.
Taiwan
The Republic of China Air Force initially operated the S-2A in 1967. In 1976, they received S-2Es. The S-2As were later converted into target aircraft and later decommissioned in batches from 1979 to 1992. In 1986, several S-2Gs were purchased to make up for attrition. A modernization program began the same year, converting the remaining S-2E/G to a military S-2T configuration. The conversion involved the installation of two Garrett/Honeywell TPE-331-15AW turboprop engines, each rated at 1,227 kW (1,645 shp), with four-blade propellers This resulted in a payload increase of 500 kg. The upgrade also included new mission equipment of AN/AQS-92F digital sonobuoy processor, A/NARR-84 99-channel sonobuoy receiver, Litton AN/APS-504 radar, AN/ASQ-504 MAD and AN/AAS-40 FLIR.
The 27 S-2Ts upgraded were transferred to the ROCN Aviation Command on 1 July 1999. In 2013, the S-2s were transferred back into ROCAF service. In May 2017, all S-2Ts were withdrawn from active service.
Turkey
The Turkish Navy received a number of ex-U.S. Navy S-2E Trackers under the MAP program and operated them from the Cengiz Topel Naval Air Base starting in the 1960s. These were later supplemented by retired S-2A (or S-2N as called by the Dutch) airframes from Netherlands. Turkish Trackers were retired in 1994 after a series of accidents caused by the advanced age and fatigue of the airframes.
Uruguay
The Uruguayan Navy received the first three S-2A Trackers on 10 April 1965 at the Capitan Curbelo Navy Base. On 15 September 1982, one S-2G arrived. On 2 February 1983, another two S-2Gs arrived. By September 2004, the remaining Uruguayan Trackers were not in flight condition.
Civilian use
In the late 1980s and early 1990s Conair Aviation of Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada took possession of retired U.S. and Canadian Trackers and converted them into Firecats, with a fire retardant tank replacing the torpedo bay. The Firecats were made in two variants, a piston engine Firecat and a turboprop-powered Turbo Firecat.
In 1958, CAL FIRE, then CDF, contracted with a private air tanker service for the use of their converted World War II aircraft. By 1970 the department began to evaluate the use of former military Grumman S-2 aircraft. Over the next ten years CAL FIRE continued to build up its fleet of S-2A air tankers and in 1987, CAL FIRE began the process of converting their piston engines to turboprop. By 2005 all of CAL FIRE's airtanker fleet had been converted to S-2T air tankers.
Variants
XS2F-1
Two prototype anti-submarine warfare aircraft powered by 1,450 hp R-1820-76WA engines.
YS2F-1
Designation of the first 15 production aircraft used for development, redesignated YS-2A in 1962.
S2F-1
Initial production variant with two 1,525 hp R-1820-82WA engines, re-designated S-2A in 1962, 740 built.
S2F-1T
Trainer conversion of S2F-1, redesignated TS-2A in 1962.
S2F-1U
Utility conversion of S2F-1, redesignated US-2A in 1962.
S2F-1S
S2F-1 conversion with Julie/Jezebel detection equipment, redesignated S-2B in 1962. Survivors converted to US-2B after removal of ASW gear.
S2F-1S1
S2F-1S fitted with updated Julie/Jezebel equipment, redesignated S-2F in 1962.
S2F-2
As S2F-1 with asymmetrical (port-side) extension of bomb bay, slightly enlarged tail surfaces, 77 built, most redesignated S-2C in 1962.
S2F-2P
Photo reconnaissance conversion of S2F-2, redesignated RS-2C in 1962.
S2F-2U
Utility conversion of S2F-2/S-2C, redesignated US-2C in 1962. Some were used as target tugs.
S2F-3
Enlarged forward fuselage, enlarged tail surfaces, additional fuel capacity, and enlarged engine nacelles bays for 32 sonobuoys, redesignated S-2D in 1962, 100 built.
S2F-3S
As S2F-3 but with Julie/Jezebel equipment, redesignated S-2E in 1962, 252 built.
YS-2A
YS2F-1 redesignated in 1962.
S-2A
S2F-1 redesignated in 1962.
TS-2A
S2F-1T training version redesignated in 1962 and 207 conversion from S-2A.
US-2A
S-2A converted as light transports/target tugs, 51 conversions.
S-2B
S2F-1S redesignated in 1962.
US-2B
Utility and target tug conversions of S-2A and S-2B; most S-2Bs were converted and 66 S-2As.
S-2C
S2F-2 redesignated in 1962.
RS-2C
S2F-2P photo-reconnaissance version redesignated in 1962.
US-2C
S2F-2U utility version redesignated in 1962.
S-2D
S2F-3 redesignated in 1962.
YAS-2D/AS-2D
Proposed self-contained night attack aircraft to be developed under Operation Shed Light; none produced.
ES-2D
Electronic trainer conversion of the S-2D.
US-2S
Utility conversion of the S-2D.
S-2E
S2F-3S redesignated in 1962.
S-2F
S2F-1S1 redesignated in 1962.
US-2F
Transport conversion of S-2F.
S-2G
S-2E conversions with updated electronics (primarily AN/AQA-7 DIFAR sonobuoy processor and AN/ARR-75 sonobuoy receiver)
CS2F-1
Initial production run of anti-submarine warfare aircraft for Canada based on S2F-1. A total of 42 built by De Havilland Canada.
CS2F-2
Improved version of CS2F-1 with Litton Industries tactical navigation equipment. A total of 57 were built by De Havilland Canada.
CS2F-3
New designation given to 43 CS2F-2 aircraft upgraded with additional electronics.
CP-121
New designation given to all CS2F-1, -2, and -3 aircraft following unification of Canadian military in 1968.
Military S-2T Turbo Tracker For Argentina
Upgraded S-2E with new engines and military equipment by IAI in the 1990s for the Argentine Navy. 6 upgraded.
Military S-2T Turbo Tracker For Taiwan
Upgraded S-2E/S-2G with new engines and military equipment by Grumman from 1986 to 1992 for the ROC Air Force. 27 upgraded.
S-2T Turbo Tracker
Civil conversion
S-2AT
Civil firefighter conversion with turboprop engines.
S-2ET
Civil conversion
Marsh Aviation S-2F3AT Turbo Tracker
Turboprop conversion, powered by two Garrett TPE331 engines; A total of 22 are operated by the CDF.
Conair Firecat or Turbo Firecat
Civil conversion as a single-seat firefighting aircraft.
For the crew trainer/transport version based on the Tracker refer to Grumman C-1 Trader
For the Airborne Early Warning version based on the Trader refer to Grumman E-1 Tracer
Operators
Military operators
Argentine Naval Aviation 15 ex-USN trackers
(retired)
Royal Australian Navy
Brazilian Air Force (retired)
Brazilian Navy
(retired)
Royal Canadian Navy 99 - 42 CSF-1 and 57 CSF-2 (43 converted as CSF-3) (1956–1968) transferred to CF during unification as CP-121
Canadian Forces 99 CP-121 (1968–1990)
(retired)
Italian Air Force operated 45 Grumman S2F-1 Tracker delivered in 1957 and retired in 1978
(retired)
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
Air Transport Squadron 61
(retired)
Royal Netherlands Navy
(retired)
Peruvian Navy
(retired)
Republic of Korea Navy
(retired)
Republic of China Air Force operated S-2A/E/G from 1967 to 1992, S-2T from 1992 to 2017, replaced by 12 rebuilt U.S. Navy P-3C Orions.
(retired)
Royal Thai Navy
(retired)
Turkish Navy Aerial Wing
(retired)
United States Navy operated Trackers between 1954 and 1976.
United States Marine Corps operated some Trackers.
(retired)
Uruguayan Navy
(retired)
Venezuelan Navy
Civil operators
Many retired Trackers were sold to private owners for fire-fighting duties. Some were rebuilt and re-engined with turboprop engines.
Conair Group Inc. received TS-2A/Conair Firecat (G-89).
Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment received TS-2A/Conair Firecat (G-89).
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 7 CS2F-1; ex-Canadian Forces and later sold to Conair
Sécurité Civile received U.S.-2A/Conair Turbo Firecat (G-89).
KLM used ex-Dutch Navy Tracker to train its mechanics.
California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection received S-2F3AT Turbo Tracker (G-121)
Hemet Valley Flying Service received TS-2A(FF) Tracker (G-89)
Marsh Aviation received S-2A(FF) Tracker (G-89)
Sis-Q Flying Service received TS-2A Tracker (G-89/S2F-1T)
Aero Union, in addition to being an operator, Aero Union developed the prototype S-2 tankers for the State of California in 1973.
Aircraft on display
Although still in active service in South America, numbers of Trackers are on public display, mainly in countries that formerly operated the type.
Specifications (S-2F)
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Cummings, Bill. "Thirty Years and Still Counting: Grumman Trackers in Canadian Service". Air International, Vol. 34, No. 4, April 1988. pp. 180–188.
Francillon, René J. Grumman Aircraft since 1929. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1989. .
Gillett, Ross. Australia's Military Aircraft. Sydney, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd, 1987. .
Hotson, Fred W. The de Havilland Canada Story. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: CANAV Books, 1983. .
Stitt, Robert. "Round-Out". Air Enthusiast, No. 65, September–October 1996, p. 76. .
Sullivan, Jim. S2F Tracker in Action Aircraft number 100, Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1990. .
Taylor, Michael, ed. Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. New York: Gallery Books, 1987. .
Winchester, Jim (ed.). "Grumman S-2E/F/G/UP Tracker." Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books, 2004. .
Further reading
External links
Surviving Grumman S2F Tracker Information Repository
The S-2 Tracker Museum
S-2 Tracker at Patuxent River Naval Air Museum
S-002 Tracker
1950s United States anti-submarine aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1952
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft | [
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|
218315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel%20Adams%20Wilderness | Ansel Adams Wilderness | The Ansel Adams Wilderness is a wilderness area in the Sierra Nevada of California, United States. The wilderness spans ; 33.9% of the territory lies in the Inyo National Forest, 65.8% is in the Sierra National Forest, and the remaining 0.3% covers nearly all of Devils Postpile National Monument. Yosemite National Park lies to the north and northwest, while the John Muir Wilderness lies to the south.
History
The wilderness was established as part of the original Wilderness Act in 1964 as the Minarets Wilderness. The Minarets Wilderness was created by enlarging and renaming the Mount Dana-Minarets Primitive Area.
In 1984, after his death, the area was expanded and renamed in memory of Ansel Adams, well-known environmentalist and nature photographer who is famous for his black-and-white landscape photographs of the Sierra Nevada.
Geography and Geology
The Ansel Adams wilderness spans in elevation from , forming the northern end of the High Sierra.
The centerpiece of the Ansel Adams wilderness is the Ritter Range, which includes dark metavolcanic glaciated mountains such as Mount Ritter, Banner Peak, and The Minarets.
Immediately to the east of the Ritter Range is the Middle Fork of the San Joaquin River, which contains Devils Postpile, a series of basaltic columns that were revealed and smoothed by glacier action. The Middle Fork originates from Thousand Island Lake, at the foot of Banner Peak, one of the largest backcountry lakes in the Sierra.
To the east of the Middle Fork canyon is the true Sierra Crest, which, at roughly of elevation is lower than the Ritter Range. This relatively low region of the Crest allows winter storms through and cause large amounts of snowfall on Mammoth Mountain, which sits in the gap. The gap also allows migration of plants and animals across the Sierra Crest.
To the west of the Ritter Range lies the canyon of the North Fork of the San Joaquin, a relatively remote and unvisited high-country area. The southern part of the wilderness contains the deep canyon of the main San Joaquin River, which flows out of the Sierra Nevada to California's Central Valley.
Ecology
The Ansel Adams wilderness contains substantial area above treeline, at approximately . The area above treeline contains alpine meadows and fellfields, with a large number of glacial lakes. Below treeline, the wilderness is dominated by lodgepole pine, red fir, and Jeffrey pine, depending on elevation.
Recreation
The wilderness contains of hiking trails, including portions of the John Muir and Pacific Crest Trails. The Sierra High Route, an off-trail route described by Steve Roper, runs along the base of the Ritter Range, through the wilderness.
The Middle Fork of the San Joaquin receives the most visitors: a mandatory bus is required for visitors to reach Devils Postpile from the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area during the summer.
The Minarets are a well-known area for technical rock climbing.
Winter brings various cross-country ski possibilities, accessible from both Mammoth Mountain and the June Mountain ski area.
See also
Bibliography of the Sierra Nevada, for further reading
References
Sierra National Forest Wilderness Page
Inyo National Forest
External links
Sierrawild.gov: Ansel Adams Wilderness website
Wilderness.net: Ansel Adams Wilderness
Summitpost.org: Ansel Adams Wilderness
TopoQuest map of Ansel Adams Wilderness Area
Virtualparks.org: QTVR photos of the Ansel Adams Wilderness Area
Wilderness areas of California
Protected areas of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Inyo National Forest
Sierra National Forest
Protected areas of Fresno County, California
Protected areas of Madera County, California
Protected areas of Mono County, California
Protected areas established in 1964
1964 establishments in California
Ansel Adams | [
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218319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20Bundesrat | German Bundesrat | The German Bundesrat (lit. Federal Council; ) is a legislative body that represents the sixteen Länder (federated states) of Germany at the federal level (German: Bundesebene). The Bundesrat meets at the former Prussian House of Lords in Berlin. Its second seat is located in the former West German capital of Bonn.
The Bundesrat participates in legislation, alongside the Bundestag consisting of directly elected representatives of the German people. Laws that affect state powers, and all constitutional changes, need the consent of both houses. For its somewhat similar function, the Bundesrat is sometimes (controversially) described as an upper house of parliament along the lines of the United States Senate, the Canadian Senate, and the British House of Lords.
Bundesrat was the name of similar bodies in the North German Confederation (1867) and the German Empire (1871). Its predecessor in the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) was the Reichsrat.
The political makeup of the Bundesrat is affected by changes in power in the states of Germany, and thus by elections in each state. Each state delegation in the Bundesrat is essentially a representation of the state government and reflects the political makeup of the ruling majority or plurality of each state legislature (including coalitions). Thus the Bundesrat is a continuous body and has no legislative periods. For organizational reasons, the Bundesrat structures its legislative calendar in years of business (Geschäftsjahre), beginning each year on 1 November. Each year of business is congruous with the one-year-term of the presidium. The sessions have been counted continuously since the first session on 7 September 1949. The Bundesrat's 1000th session, which was opened by a speech held by President of Germany Frank-Walter Steinmeier, took place on 12 February 2021.
History
German Confederation
The historical predecessor of the Bundesrat was the Federal Convention (Confederate Diet) of the German Confederation (1815–1848, 1850/1851–1866). That Federal Convention consisted of the representatives of the member states. The first basic law (Bundesakte) of the German Confederation listed how many votes a member state had, for two different formations of the diet. The diet was the only organ – there was no division of powers. The diet was chaired by the Austrian representative.
In the revolution of 1848 the Bundestag transferred its powers to the Imperial Regent and was reactivated only in 1850/1851. Several other attempts to reform the Confederation involved retaining the Bundestag and adding a parliament and a court. One of these attempts, the proposed Reform Act of 1863, had introduced the term Bundesrath. With the dissolution of the Confederation in August 1866, the diet and the federal law ended.
Bundesrat 1867–1918
On July 1, 1867, the North German Confederation was established as a confederal state. The Reichstag, elected by the North German men, was one legislative body. The other one was the Bundesrath (old spelling). This organ was expressly modelled after the old diet. When the Confederation was transformed and renamed Deutsches Reich (German Empire) in 1871, the Bundesrat kept its name.
Whilst appointed by state governments just as today, the delegates of the original Bundesrat—as those of the Reichsrat—were usually high-ranking civil servants, not cabinet members. The original Bundesrat was very powerful; every bill needed its consent, equaling it to the popularly elected Reichstag. It could also, with the Emperor's agreement, dissolve the Reichstag.
Weimar Republic
In the revolution of 1918, the revolutionary organ ("Council of People's Representatives") limited the power of the Bundesrat to its administrative functions. A (committee of states) accompanied the reform of Germany but had no official role in installing the new constitution. Under that Weimar Constitution, August 1, 1919, it was replaced by the (1919–1934).
The of the Weimar Republic (1919–1934) had considerably less influence, since it could only veto bills—and even then be overruled by the . However, overruling the needed a majority of two-thirds in the , which consisted of many parties differing in opinion. So, in most cases, bills vetoed by the failed due to the lack of unity among the 's constituent parties. The was abolished by a National Socialist law in 1934, roughly a year after Hitler had come to power.
Seat
From 1894 to 1933, the Bundesrat/Reichsrat met in the same building as the Reichstag, today known as Reichstagsgebäude. After 1949, the Bundesrat gathered in the Bundeshaus in Bonn, along with the Bundestag, at least most of the time. A wing of the Bundeshaus was specially built for the Bundesrat.
In 2000, the Bundesrat moved to Berlin, as the Bundestag had done the year before. The Berlin seat of the Bundesrat is the former Prussian House of Lords building. The Bundesrat wing in Bonn is still used as a second seat.
Composition
Historically
For the Federal Diet of 1815, the basic law (Bundesakte) established two different formations. In the Plenary, for the most important decisions, every state had at least one vote. The larger states Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hannover and Württemberg had each four votes, and the lesser states three or two. Of the 39 states, 25 had only one vote.
The North German Confederation was a different entity than the German Confederation. But it can also be regarded as the brain child of a long lasting reform debate within the German Confederation. The new Bundesrat even referred to the old diet in art. 6, when it newly distributed the votes for the single states. Prussia with its original four votes received additionally the votes of the states it had annexed in 1866, i.e. Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Holstein, Nassau and Frankfurt, adding up to 17 votes. The total number of votes in 1867 was 43 votes.
When the South German states joined in 1870/71, the revised federal constitutions allocated new votes for them. Bavaria had 6 votes, Württemberg 4, Baden 3 and (the whole of) Hesse-Darmstadt 3. The total number went up to 58 votes, and in 1911 with the three votes for Alsace-Lorraine to 61 votes. The Prussian votes remained 17.
To put the Prussian votes in context: 80% of the North Germans lived in Prussia, and after 1871, Prussia made up two thirds of the German population and territory. Prussia was always underrepresented in the Bundesrat.
Weimar Republic
The Reichsrat, as a first, had no fixed numbers of votes for the member states. Instead, it introduced the principle that the number depended on the actual number of inhabitants. Originally, for every 1 million of inhabitants the state had one vote. In 1921, this was reduced to 700,000.
No state was allowed to have more than 40 percent of the votes. This was regarded as a clausula antiborussica, counterbalancing the dominant position of Prussia which still provided roughly two thirds of the German population. Also since 1921, half of the Prussian votes were not cast by the Prussian state government but by the administrations of the Prussian provinces.
For example, of the 63 votes in 1919, Prussia had 25 votes, Bavaria seven and Saxony five. 12 states had only 1 vote each.
Today
The composition of the Bundesrat is different from other similar legislative bodies representing states (such as the Russian Federation Council or the U.S. Senate). Bundesrat members are not elected—either by popular vote or by the state parliaments—but are delegated by the respective state government. They do not enjoy a free mandate (for example, most parliamentary privileges in the Bundesrat can only be exercised by a Land, not an individual member) and serve only as long as they are representing their state, not for a fixed period of time. Members of the Bundesrat (suffix "MdBR") do however enjoy the same immunity from prosecution that Members of the German Bundestag have. In addition, Members of the Bundesrat have unlimited access to sessions of the Bundestag (where they have their own benches to the left of the President of the Bundestag) and its committees and can address it at any time. The latter right was most famously used in 2002 by then-Hamburg Senator Ronald Schill, who gave an inflammatory speech that was widely denounced.
Normally, a state delegation consists of the Minister President (called Governing Mayor in Berlin, President of the Senate in Bremen and First Mayor in Hamburg) and other cabinet ministers (called senators in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg). The state cabinet may appoint as many delegates as the state has votes and they usually do (all other ministers/senators are usually appointed as deputy delegates), but may also send just a single delegate to exercise all of the state's votes. In any case, the state has to cast its votes en bloc, i.e., without vote splitting. If Members of the Bundesrat from the same state vote differently, the entire votes of the state are counted as abstention. A famous example of when this happened was in 2002, when in a very close vote on a new immigration law by the Schröder government then-Deputy Minister-President of Brandenburg Jörg Schönbohm (CDU) cast a no vote and then-State Minister Alwin Ziel (SPD) cast a yes vote. As state elections are not coordinated across Germany and can occur at any time, the majority distributions in the Bundesrat can change after any such election.
The number of votes a state is allocated is based on a form of degressive proportionality according to its population. This way, smaller states have more votes than a distribution proportional to the population would grant. The presence of the small city-states of Bremen, Hamburg, and Berlin prevents the Bundesrat from having the rural and conservative bias of other similar legislative bodies with small state bias. The allocation of votes is regulated by the German constitution (Grundgesetz). All of a state's votes are cast en bloc—either for or against or in abstention of a proposal. Each state is allocated at least three votes, and a maximum of six. States with more than
2 million inhabitants have 4 votes,
6 million inhabitants have 5 votes,
7 million inhabitants have 6 votes.
By convention, SPD-led Länder are summarized as A-Länder, while those with governments led by CDU or CSU are called B-Länder.
Voting
In contrast to many other legislative bodies, the delegates to the Bundesrat from any one state are required to cast the votes of the state as a single bloc (since the votes are not those of the respective delegate). The delegates are not independent members of the Bundesrat but instructed representatives of the federated states' governments. If the members of a delegation cast different votes then the entire vote of the respective state is invalid. This tradition stems from the 1867 Bundesrat.
The delegates of a state are equal to each other in the Bundesrat, hence the minister president has no special rights compared to his ministers. But it is possible (and even customary) that one of the delegates (the Stimmführer, "leader of the votes"—normally the minister president) casts all votes of the respective state, even if the other members of the delegation are present.
Because coalition governments are common, states frequently choose to abstain if their coalition cannot agree on a position. As every decision of the Bundesrat requires a majority of the fixed allocated votes (i.e., majority of 69 = 35 votes in favour), not just a majority of votes cast or a majority of delegates present, abstaining has the same effect as voting against a proposal.
Between 1949 and 1990, West Berlin was represented by four members, elected by its Senate, but owing to the city's ambiguous legal status, they did not have voting rights.
Presidency
Originally from 1867 to 1918, the Bundesrat was chaired by the chancellor, although he was not a member and had no vote. This tradition was kept to a degree when since 1919 the Reichsrat still had to be chaired by a member of the imperial government (often the minister of the interior).
Since 1949, the presidency rotates annually among the Ministers President of each of the states. This is fixed by the Königsteiner Abkommen, starting with the federated state with the largest population going down. On the other hand, the office of the vice-president started with the federated state with the smallest population going up. The President of the Bundesrat convenes and chairs plenary sessions of the body and is formally responsible for representing Germany in matters of the Bundesrat. He or she is aided by two Vice Presidents who play an advisory role and deputise in the president's absence; the predecessor of the current President is first, his successor second Vice President. The three together make up the Bundesrat's executive committee.
The President of the Bundesrat ("Bundesratspräsident"), is fourth in the order of precedence after the Federal President, the President of the Bundestag (No 2 just for ceremonies of interior character – otherwise No 3)., the Chancellor (No. 2 for ceremonies of exterior character) and before the President of the Federal Constitutional Court. The President of the Bundesrat becomes acting Federal President of Germany, in case that the office of the Federal President should be vacant.
Organizational structure
Because the Bundesrat is so much smaller than the Bundestag, it does not require the extensive organizational structure of the Bundestag. The Bundesrat typically schedules plenary sessions once a month for the purpose of voting on legislation prepared in committee. In comparison, the Bundestag conducts about fifty plenary sessions a year.
The voting Bundesrat delegates themselves rarely attend committee sessions; instead, they delegate that responsibility to civil servants from their ministries, as allowed for in the Basic Law (art. 52,2). The delegates themselves tend to spend most of their time in their state capitals, rather than in the federal capital. The delegations are supported by the Landesvertretungen, which function basically as embassies of the states in the federal capital.
Tasks
The legislative authority of the Bundesrat is subordinate to that of the Bundestag, but it nonetheless plays a vital legislative role. The federal government must present all its legislative initiatives first to the Bundesrat; only thereafter can a proposal be passed to the Bundestag.
Further, the Bundesrat must approve all legislation affecting policy areas for which the Basic Law grants the Länder concurrent powers and for which the Länder must administer federal regulations. This approval (Zustimmung) requires a majority of actively used "yes" votes, so that a state coalition with a divided opinion on a bill votes—by its abstention—effectively against the bill. The Bundesrat has increased its legislative responsibilities over time by successfully arguing for a broad, rather than a narrow, interpretation of what constitutes the range of legislation affecting Land interests. In 1949, only 10% of all federal laws, namely, those directly affecting the Länder, required Bundesrat approval. In 1993 close to 60% of federal legislation required the Bundesrat's assent. The Basic Law also provides the Bundesrat with an absolute veto of such legislation.
Constitutional changes require an approval with majority of two thirds of all votes in Bundestag and Bundesrat, thus giving the Bundesrat an absolute veto against constitutional change.
Against all other legislation the Bundesrat has a suspensive veto (Einspruch), which can be overridden by passing the law again, but this time with 50% plus one vote of all Bundestag members, not just by majority of votes cast, which is frequent in daily parliamentary business. Because most legislation is passed by a coalition that has such an absolute majority in the Bundestag, this kind of suspensive veto rarely stops legislation. As an added provision, however, a law vetoed with a majority of two thirds must be passed again with a majority of two thirds in the Bundestag. The Einspruch has to be passed with active "no" votes, so that abstentions count as votes against the veto, i.e. to let the law pass.
If the absolute veto is used, the Bundesrat, the Bundestag, or the government can convene a joint committee to negotiate a compromise. That compromise cannot be amended and both chambers (Bundesrat and Bundestag) are required to hold a final vote on the compromise as is.
The political power of the absolute veto is particularly evident when the opposition party or parties in the Bundestag have a majority in the Bundesrat, which was the case almost constantly between 1991 and 2005. Whenever this happens, the opposition can threaten the government's legislative program. Such a division of authority can complicate the process of governing when the major parties disagree, and, unlike the Bundestag, the Bundesrat cannot be dissolved. Such stalemates are not unlike those that may be experienced under cohabitation in other countries.
Criticism
Some observers claim that the opposing majorities lead to an increase in backroom politics, where small groups of high-tier leaders make all the important decisions and the Bundestag representatives have a choice only between agreeing with them or not getting anything done at all. The German "Federalism Commission" was looking into this issue, among others. There have been frequent suggestions of replacing the Bundesrat with a US-style elected Senate, which would be elected at the same date as the Bundestag. This is hoped to increase the institution's popularity, reduce Land bureaucracy influence on legislation, make opposing majorities less likely, make the legislative process more transparent, and generally set a new standard of democratic, rather than bureaucratic leadership.
Other observers emphasize that different majorities in the two legislative bodies ensure that all legislation, when approved, has the support of a broad political spectrum, a particularly valuable attribute in the aftermath of unification, when consensus on critical policy decisions is vital. The formal representation of the states in the federal government, through the Bundesrat, provides an obvious forum for the coordination of policy between the states and the federal government. The need for such coordination, particularly given the specific, crucial needs of the eastern states, has become only more important.
Supporters of the Bundesrat claim that the Bundesrat serves as a control mechanism on the Bundestag in the sense of a system of checks and balances. Since the executive and legislative functions are closely intertwined in any parliamentary system, the Bundesrats ability to revisit and slow down legislative processes is often seen as making up for that loss of separation.
See also
Presidium of the Bundesrat
Federalism in Germany
Politics of Germany
Länderkammer
Composition of the German State Parliaments
Notes
References
External links
Members of the Bundesrat (German Wikipedia)
A- und B-Länder (German Wikipedia)
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|
218320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20catastrophe | Ultraviolet catastrophe | The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe, was the prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium would emit unbound quantity of energy as wavelength decreases, corresponding to ultraviolet light.
The term "ultraviolet catastrophe" was first used in 1911 by Paul Ehrenfest, but the concept originated with the 1900 statistical derivation of the Rayleigh–Jeans law. The phrase refers to the fact that the Rayleigh–Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 105 GHz, but begins to diverge with empirical observations as these frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Since the first use of this term, it has also been used for other predictions of a similar nature, as in quantum electrodynamics and such cases as ultraviolet divergence.
Problem
The Rayleigh-Jeans law is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments. For wavelength , it is:
where is the spectral radiance, the power emitted per unit emitting area, per steradian, per unit wavelength; is the speed of light; is the Boltzmann constant; and is the temperature in kelvins. For frequency , the expression is instead
This formula is obtained from the equipartition theorem of classical statistical mechanics which states that all harmonic oscillator modes (degrees of freedom) of a system at equilibrium have an average energy of .
The "ultraviolet catastrophe" is the expression of the fact that the formula misbehaves at higher frequencies, i.e. as .
An example, from Mason's A History of the Sciences, illustrates multi-mode vibration via a piece of string. As a natural vibrator, the string will oscillate with specific modes (the standing waves of a string in harmonic resonance), dependent on the length of the string. In classical physics, a radiator of energy will act as a natural vibrator. And, since each mode will have the same energy, most of the energy in a natural vibrator will be in the smaller wavelengths and higher frequencies, where most of the modes are.
According to classical electromagnetism, the number of electromagnetic modes in a 3-dimensional cavity, per unit frequency, is proportional to the square of the frequency. This therefore implies that the radiated power per unit frequency should be proportional to frequency squared. Thus, both the power at a given frequency and the total radiated power is unlimited as higher and higher frequencies are considered: this is clearly unphysical as the total radiated power of a cavity is not observed to be infinite, a point that was made independently by Einstein and by Lord Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans in 1905.
Solution
In 1900, Max Planck derived the correct form for the intensity spectral distribution function by making some strange (for the time) assumptions. In particular, Planck assumed that electromagnetic radiation can be emitted or absorbed only in discrete packets, called quanta, of energy: , where h is Planck's constant, is the frequency of light, c is the speed of light and λ is the wavelength of light. Planck's assumptions led to the correct form of the spectral distribution functions:
Albert Einstein (in 1905) and Satyendra Nath Bose (in 1924) solved the problem by postulating that Planck's quanta were real physical particles – what we now call photons, not just a mathematical fiction. They modified statistical mechanics in the style of Boltzmann to an ensemble of photons. Einstein's photon had an energy proportional to its frequency and also explained an unpublished law of Stokes and the photoelectric effect. This published postulate was specifically cited by the Nobel Prize in Physics committee in their decision to award the prize for 1921 to Einstein.
See also
Wien approximation
Vacuum catastrophe
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Foundational quantum physics
Physical paradoxes
Physical phenomena | [
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|
218322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford | William Bradford | William or Bill Bradford may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
William Bradford (painter) (1823–1892), American artist and Arctic explorer
William Bradford (architect) (1845–1919), British architect of breweries
William Bradford (cinematographer) (1905–1959), American cinematographer
Military
William Bradford (Plymouth soldier) (1624–1703), military commander of Plymouth during King Philip's War; son of Governor Bradford
William Bradford (soldier, born 1771) (1771–1826), U.S. Army officer
William Bradford (equestrian) (1896–1965), U.S. Army general and Olympic equestrian
Bill Bradford (British Army officer) (1912–1996), British Army officer in World War II
Politics and law
William Bradford (governor) (1590–1657), English Governor of Plymouth Colony
William Bradford (Rhode Island politician) (1729–1808), U.S. Senator
William Bradford (Attorney General) (1755–1795), American lawyer and judge; second U.S. Attorney General
William G. Bradford (1925–2008), American diplomat
R. W. Bradford (a.k.a, "Bill Bradford", 1947–2005), American political writer
William C. Bradford (born c. 1964), American lawyer and legal scholar
Others
William Bradford (printer, born 1663) (1663–1752), English-born printer in Pennsylvania and New York
William Bradford (printer, born 1719) (1719–1791), American printer, grandson of the above
Bill Bradford (outfielder) (born 1913), American Negro leagues baseball player
Bill Bradford (pitcher) (1921–2000), American baseball player
William R. Bradford (1933–2019), American general authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
William Bradford (murderer) (1948–2008), American convicted murderer and possible serial killer
Other uses
William Bradford Academy, the former name of a secondary school in Leicestershire, England
See also
William Bradford Reed (1806–1876), American lawyer, diplomat, journalist, academic
Bradford, William | [
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|
218326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics%20and%20Statistics%20Administration | Economics and Statistics Administration | The Economics and Statistics Administration (ESA) is an agency within the United States Department of Commerce (DOC) that analyzes, disseminates, and reports on national economic and demographic data.
Its three primary missions are the following:
Release and disseminate U.S. National Economic Indicators.
Oversee the missions of the United States Census Bureau (Census) and the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA).
Analyze and produce economic reports for the Department of Commerce and the Executive Branch.
References
External links
Economics and Statistics Administration in the Federal Register
List of ESA Reports
Economicindicators.gov, the Administration's official compilation of economic indicators
Census.gov
BEA.gov
United States Department of Commerce agencies
Federal Statistical System of the United States | [
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218327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford%20%28governor%29 | William Bradford (governor) | William Bradford ( 19 March 15909 May 1657) was an English Puritan separatist originally from the West Riding of Yorkshire in Northern England. He moved to Leiden in Holland in order to escape persecution from King James I of England, and then emigrated to the Plymouth Colony on the Mayflower in 1620. He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact and went on to serve as Governor of the Plymouth Colony intermittently for about 30 years between 1621 and 1657. His journal Of Plymouth Plantation covered the years from 1620 to 1646 in Plymouth.
Early life
William Bradford was born to Alice Hanson and William Bradford in Austerfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, and was baptized on 19 March 1589/90. The family possessed a large farm and were considered wealthy and influential. Bradford's grandfather was William Bradforthe, who had at least four children, including Bradford's father, and was probably of noble ancestry, according to researcher George J. Hill.
Bradford's childhood was marked by numerous deaths in the family. He was just over a year old when his father died. His mother remarried when he was four years old, and he was sent to live with his grandfather. His grandfather died two years later, and he returned to live with his mother and stepfather. His mother died a year later, in 1597, and Bradford thus became an orphan at the age of seven and was sent to live with two uncles.
His uncles wanted him to help on the farm, and he later noted in his journal that he suffered at that time from a "long sickness" and was unable to work. He instead turned to reading and became familiar with the Bible and classic works of literature. This is seen by some as a key factor in his intellectual curiosity and his eventual attraction to the Separatist branch of Puritan theology.
Separatist congregation
When Bradford was 12 years old, a friend invited him to hear the Rev. Richard Clyfton preach 10 miles away in All Saints' Church, Babworth in Nottinghamshire. Clyfton believed that the Church of England ought to eliminate all vestiges of Roman Catholic practices, and that this would result in a purer Christian church. Bradford was inspired by his preaching and continued to attend his sermons, even though he was forbidden by his uncles. During one meeting, Bradford met William Brewster, a bailiff and postmaster who lived at Scrooby manor, four miles from Austerfield. During frequent visits, Bradford borrowed books from him, and Brewster regaled him with stories of the efforts toward church reform taking place throughout England.
King James I came to the English throne in 1603, declaring that he would put an end to church reform movements and deal harshly with radical critics of the Church of England. By 1607, secret meetings were being held at Scrooby Manor and about 50 reform-minded individuals began to worship together, led by Richard Clyfton and the Rev John Robinson. This group decided that reform of the Church of England was hopeless and they would sever all ties. Their weekly meetings eventually attracted the attention of the Archbishop of York, and many members of the congregation were arrested in 1607. Brewster was found guilty of being "disobedient in matters of religion" and was fined. Some members were imprisoned and others were watched "night and day", according to Bradford, by those loyal to the archbishop. Adding to their concerns, the Scrooby congregation learned that other dissenters in London had been imprisoned and left to starve.
The Scrooby congregation decided in 1607 to leave England unlawfully for the Dutch Republic, where religious freedom was permitted, and Bradford determined to go with them. The group encountered several major setbacks when trying to leave England, most notably their betrayal by an English sea captain who had agreed to carry them to the Netherlands, but instead turned them over to the authorities. Most of the congregation were imprisoned for a short time after this failed attempt, including Bradford. By the summer of 1608, however, they managed to escape England in small groups and relocate to Leiden in the Dutch Republic. Bradford was 18.
In Leiden and London
Bradford arrived in Amsterdam in August 1608. He had no family with him and was taken in by the Brewster household. The Scrooby congregation had to work the lowest of jobs and to live in poor conditions, being foreigners and having spent most of their money in attempts to get to the Dutch Republic. After nine months, the group chose to relocate to the smaller city of Leiden.
Bradford continued to reside with the Brewster family in a poor Leiden neighborhood known as Stink Alley. Conditions changed dramatically for him when he turned 21 and was able to claim his family inheritance in 1611. He bought his own house, set up a workshop as a fustian weaver (weaver of heavy cotton cloth for men's clothing), and earned a reputable standing. In 1613, he married Dorothy May, the daughter of a well-off English couple living in Amsterdam. They were married in a civil service, as they could find no example of a religious service in the Scriptures. In 1617, they had their first child, named John.
In 1619, William Bradford sold his house in Leiden and appears in March 1620 tax records in London being taxed for personal property at the Duke's Place, Aldgate. Aldgate was an area of London known to be the residence of numerous Dutch merchants, as well as many religious dissenters. Some familiar Mayflower names of families living in the area included Allerton, Tilley, Sampson, and Hopkins.
One family in Aldgate played an important part in Bradford's life in America. Edward and Alice (Carpenter) Southworth and their two sons were residing at Heneage House, the Duke's Place, in Aldgate in 1620. Southworth was a highly respected leader of the Leiden group, but he died in 1621/22. His widow Alice emigrated to Plymouth Colony after Bradford's wife died, and they were married.
Founding Plymouth Colony
Departure aboard the Speedwell
By 1617, the Scrooby congregation began to plan the establishment of their own colony in the Americas. The Separatists could practice religion as they pleased in the Dutch Republic, but they were troubled by the fact that their children were being influenced by Dutch customs and language, after nearly ten years in the Netherlands. Therefore, they commenced three years of difficult negotiations in England seeking permission to settle in the northern parts of the Colony of Virginia (which then extended north to the Hudson River). The colonists also struggled to negotiate terms with a group of financial backers in London known as the Merchant Adventurers. By July 1620, Robert Cushman and John Carver had made the necessary arrangements, and approximately fifty Separatists departed Delftshaven on board the Speedwell.
It was an emotional departure. Many families were split, as some Separatists stayed behind in the Netherlands, planning to make the voyage to the New World after the colony had been established. William and Dorothy Bradford left their three-year-old son John with Dorothy's parents in Amsterdam, possibly because he was too frail to make the voyage.
According to the arrangements made by Carver and Cushman, the Speedwell was to meet with the Mayflower off the coast of England and both were destined for the northern part of the Colony of Virginia. The Speedwell, however, proved to be not structurally sound enough to make the voyage, and some of the passengers were transferred aboard the Mayflower, making crowded conditions. Joining the Scrooby congregation were about 50 colonists who had been recruited by the Merchant Adventurers for their vocational skills, which would prove useful in establishing a colony. These passengers of the Mayflower, both Separatist and non-Separatist, are commonly referred to today as "Pilgrims." The term is derived from a passage in Bradford's journal, written years later, describing their departure from the Netherlands (itself an allusion to Hebrews 11:13 in the Bible):
...With mutual embraces and many tears, they took their leaves of one another, which proved to be the last leave to many of them...but they knew they were pilgrims and looked not much on those things, but lifted their eyes to heaven, their dearest country and quieted their spirits...
The Mayflower voyage
The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on 6/16 September 1620. The 100-foot ship had 102 passengers and a crew of 30 – 40 in extremely cramped conditions. By the second month out, the ship was being buffeted by westerly gales, causing the ship's timbers to be badly shaken, with caulking failing to keep out sea water, and with passengers lying wet and ill, even in their berths. There were two deaths on the trip, a crew member and a passenger.
They spotted Cape Cod hook on 9/19 November 1620, after about a month of delays in England and two months at sea. They spent several days trying to get south to their planned destination of the Colony of Virginia, but strong winter seas forced them to return to the harbor at Cape Cod hook, now called Provincetown Harbor, where they anchored on 11/21 November 1620. The Mayflower Compact was signed that day, Bradford being one of the first to sign.
Anchored and first explorations at Plymouth Colony
Bradford had yet to assume any significant leadership role in the colony by the time that he was 30. The Mayflower anchored in Provincetown Harbor and he volunteered to be a member of the exploration parties searching for a place for settlement. In November and December, these parties made three separate ventures from the Mayflower on foot and by boat, finally locating Plymouth Harbor in mid-December and selecting that site for settlement.
During the first expedition on foot, Bradford got caught in a deer trap made by Indians and hauled nearly upside down. The third exploration departed from the Mayflower on 6 December 1620 when a group of men (including Bradford) located Plymouth Bay. A winter storm nearly sank their boat as they approached the bay, but they managed to land on Clark's Island, suffering from severe exposure to the cold and waves. During the ensuing days, they explored the bay and found a suitable place for settlement, now the site of downtown Plymouth, Massachusetts. The location featured a prominent hill ideal for a defensive fort. There were numerous brooks providing fresh water, and it had been the location of an Indian village known as Patuxet; therefore, much of the area had already been cleared for planting crops. The Patuxet tribe had been wiped out by plagues between 1616 and 1619, possibly as a result of contact with English fishermen or from contact with the French to the north. Bradford wrote that bones of the dead were clearly evident in many places.
Loss of first wife
When the exploring party made their way back on board, he learned of the death of his wife Dorothy. Dorothy (May) Bradford from Wisbech, Cambridgeshire fell overboard off the deck of the Mayflower during his absence and drowned. William Bradford recorded her death in his journal. Some historians speculate that she may have committed suicide.
Great sickness
The Mayflower arrived in Plymouth Bay on 20 December 1620. The settlers began building the colony's first house on 25 December (Christmas). Their efforts were slowed, however, when a widespread sickness struck the settlers. The sickness had begun on the ship. On 11 January 1621, Bradford was helping to build houses when he was suddenly struck with great pain in his hipbone and collapsed. He was taken to the "common house" (the only finished house built then) and it was feared that he would not last the night.
Bradford recovered, but many of the other settlers were not so fortunate. During the months of February and March 1621, sometimes two or three people died a day. By the end of the winter, half of the 100 settlers had died. In an attempt to hide their weakness from Native Americans who might be watching them, the settlers buried their dead in unmarked graves on Cole's Hill, often at night, and made efforts to conceal the burials.
During the epidemic, there were only a small number of men who remained healthy and bore the responsibility of caring for the sick. One of these was Captain Myles Standish, a soldier who had been hired by the settlers to coordinate the defense of the colony. Standish cared for Bradford during his illness and this was the beginning of a bond of friendship between the two men. Bradford was elected governor soon after Carver's death and, in that capacity, he worked closely with Standish. Bradford had no military experience and therefore came to rely on and trust the advice of Captain Myles Standish concerning military matters.
Relationship with Massasoit
On 16 March, the settlers had their first meeting with the American Indians in the region when Samoset walked into the village of Plymouth as a representative of Massasoit, the sachem of the Pokanokets. This soon led to a visit by Massasoit himself on 22 March, during which he signed a treaty with John Carver, Governor of Plymouth, which declared an alliance between the Pokanokets and Plymouth, requiring them to aid one another militarily in times of need.
Bradford recorded the language of the brief treaty in his journal. He soon became governor and the clause of the treaty that occupied much of his attention as governor pertained to mutual aid. It read, "If any did unjustly war against [Massasoit], we would aid him; if any did war against us, Massasoit should aid us." This agreement secured the colonists with a faithful ally in New England, though it resulted in tensions between the colonists and Massasoit's rivals, such as the Narragansetts and the Massachusetts.
Governor of Plymouth
In April 1621, Governor Carver collapsed while working in the fields on a hot day. He died a few days later. The settlers of Plymouth then chose Bradford as the new governor, a position which he retained off and on for the rest of his life. The elected leadership of Plymouth Colony at first consisted of a governor and an assistant governor. The assistant governor for the first three years of the colony's history was Isaac Allerton. In 1624, the structure was changed to a governor and five assistants who were referred to as the "court of assistants," "magistrates," or the "governor's council." These men advised the governor and had the right to vote on important matters of governance, helping Bradford in guiding the growth of the colony and its improvised government. Assistants during the early years of the colony included Thomas Prence, Stephen Hopkins, John Alden, and John Howland.
Literary works
William Bradford's most well-known work by far is Of Plymouth Plantation. It is a detailed history in journal form about the founding of the Plymouth Colony and the lives of the colonists from 1621 to 1646, a detailed account of his experiences and observations. The first part of the work was written in 1630; toward the end of his life, he updated it to provide "the account of the colony's struggles and achievements through the year 1646." Bradford drew deep parallels between everyday life and the events of the Bible. As Philip Gould writes, "Bradford hoped to demonstrate the workings of divine providence for the edification of future generations."
In 1888, Charles F. Richardson referred to Bradford as a "forerunner of literature" and "a story-teller of considerable power." Moses Coit Tyler called him "the father of American history." Many American authors have cited his work in their writings; for example, Cotton Mather referred to it in Magnalia Christi Americana and Thomas Prince referred to it in A Chronological History of New-England in the Form of Annals. Even today it is considered a valuable piece of American literature, included in anthologies and studied in literature and history classes. It has been called an American classic and the preeminent work of art in seventeenth-century New England."
The Of Plymouth Plantation manuscript disappeared by 1780, "presumably stolen by a British soldier during the British occupation of Boston"; it reappeared in Fulham, London, in the bishop of London's library at Lambeth Palace. A long debate ensued as to the rightful home for the manuscript. United States Senator George Frisbie Hoar and others made multiple attempts to have it returned, and the British finally relinquished it back to Massachusetts on 26 May 1897.
Bradford's journal also contributed to the book Mourt's Relation, which was written in part by Edward Winslow and published in England in 1622. It was intended to inform Europeans about the conditions surrounding the American colonists at the Plymouth Colony. Bradford's Dialogues are a collection of fictional conversations between the old and new generations, between "younge men" and "Ancient men".
Family
William Bradford married:
Dorothy May in Amsterdam, Netherlands, on 10 December 1613. Their marriage record indicates that she was 16 years old and was from Wisbech in Cambridgeshire. The record also notes a Henry May, who may have been her father. William and Dorothy had one son.
Her death and memorial: On 17 December 1620, Dorothy fell from the deck of the Mayflower into the icy waters of Cape Cod Harbor, where the ship was anchored, and drowned. Her husband was with others on an expedition ashore and only learned of her death on his return to the Mayflower.
She was one of four Mayflower passengers who died between 14 and 18 December 1620, including Edward Thomson, Jasper More (age 7 years), and James Chilton. William Butten was the first to die in Provincetown Harbor, dying on 16 November. They are all commemorated on two cenotaphs in Provincetown, one at Winthrop Street Cemetery and one at the Mayflower Passengers Who Died at Sea Memorial. Their burial places ashore are unknown and may have been unmarked in those very early days after the Mayflower landing.
The death of these five persons was just a precursor of the deaths to come, consuming about half the Mayflower company in that first bitter winter of 1620–1621.
Alice (Carpenter) Southworth, age about 32, in Plymouth on 14 August 1623. She had arrived on the ship Anne some weeks earlier. Alice was the widow of Edward Southworth. She was one of five daughters of Alexander and Priscilla Carpenter of Wrington, co. Somerset in England, all being of Leiden about 1600. Alice brought two sons to the marriage: Constant, born about 1612, and Thomas, born about 1617. Alice and William had three children. She died in Plymouth on 26 March 1670 and was buried on Burial Hill in Plymouth near her husband's stone.
Child of William and Dorothy Bradford:
John was born in Leiden, Holland, about 1617. He married Martha Bourne by 1650 but had no known children. He died in Norwich, Connecticut some time before 21 September 1676.
Children of William and Alice Bradford:
William was born on 17 June 1624 in Plymouth and died there on 20 February 1703/04. He was buried on Burial Hill in Plymouth.
William married:
1. Alice Richard after 23 April 1650 and had ten children. She died in Plymouth on 12 December 1671.
2. Sarah () Griswold about 1674 and had one son.
3. Mary (Atwood) Holmes about 1676 and had four children.
Mercy was born before 22 May 1627 and may have been dead before her father's 1657 will, as she was not mentioned. She married Benjamin Vermayes on 21 December 1648 in Plymouth but had no known children.
Joseph was born about 1630. He married Jael Hobart on 25 May 1664 in Hingham and had three children. He died in Plymouth on 10 July 1715.
Will, death and burial
William Bradford died on 9 May 1657 and was buried on Burial Hill in Plymouth where a cenotaph exists in memory of his life. The estate inventory for William Bradford was taken on 22 May 1657.
See also
List of descendants of William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
Notes
References
Further reading
William Bradford correspondence, 1638–1648 (2 items) are held in the Library of Congress.
External links
History.com Topics – William Bradford
Bradford's History at the Pilgrim Hall Museum
"Writings of William Bradford" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
1590 births
1657 deaths
17th-century English writers
17th-century American writers
17th-century English male writers
English separatists
People from the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster
Mayflower passengers
People from Plymouth, Massachusetts
American diarists
Kingdom of England emigrants to Massachusetts Bay Colony
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
Pequot War
Burials at Burial Hill
Early colonists in America
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|
218330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau%20of%20Economic%20Analysis | Bureau of Economic Analysis | The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) of the United States Department of Commerce is a U.S. government agency that provides official macroeconomic and industry statistics, most notably reports about the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States and its various units—states, cities/towns/townships/villages/counties, and metropolitan areas. They also provide information about personal income, corporate profits, and government spending in their National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs).
The BEA is one of the principal agencies of the U.S. Federal Statistical System. Its stated mission is to "promote a better understanding of the U.S. economy by providing the most timely, relevant, and accurate economic data in an objective and cost-effective manner".
BEA has about 500 employees and an annual budget of approximately $101 million.
National accounts
BEA's national economic statistics (National Economic Accounts) provide a comprehensive view of U.S. production, consumption, investment, exports and imports, and income and saving. These statistics are best known by summary measures such as gross domestic product (GDP), corporate profits, personal income and spending, and personal saving.
The National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs) provide information about personal income, corporate profits, government spending, fixed assets, and changes in the net worth of the U.S. Economy.
The accounts also include other approaches and methods of measuring income and spending, such as the gross domestic income (GDI) and gross national income (GNI).
Industry accounts
The industry economic accounts, presented both in an input-output framework and as annual output by each industry, provide a detailed view of the interrelationships between U.S. producers and users and the contribution to production across industries. These accounts are used extensively by policymakers and businesses to understand industry interactions, productivity trends, and the changing structure of the U.S. economy.
There are quarterly and annual reports for "GDP by Industry Accounts", designed for analysis of a specific industry's contribution to overall economic growth and inflation.
Regional Economic Accounts
The regional economic accounts provide information about the geographic distribution of U.S. economic activity and growth. The estimates of gross domestic product (GDP) by state and state and local area personal income (PI), and the accompanying detail, provide a consistent framework for analyzing and comparing individual state and local area economies.
Uses of the regional program estimates
The Federal government uses regional income and product estimates to distribute funds to states:
BEA Regional Income and Product Account Estimates Used to Distribute $406.8 Billion in Federal Funds
FY2016 Federal Funds Distribution Using BEA Regional Income and Product Account Statistics
Federal Uses of BEA Regional Statistics, FY2016
Twenty-six states have set constitutional or statutory limits on state government revenues or spending that are tied to BEA state personal income or one of its components
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) produces statistics for coastal areas, utilizing BEA regional statistics.
Academic researchers use the estimates for applied economic research.
Businesses, trade associations, and labor organizations use the estimates for market research.
BEA User Group Program
The regional program maintains a partnership with a group of users named the BEA User Group. The members of this group include State agencies, universities, and Census Primary State Data Centers. The BEA User Group disseminates regional data and gives feedback on our estimates and the presentation of the estimates. Distribution in this way encourages State universities and State agencies to use data that are comparable for all States and counties and consistent with national totals, thus enhancing the uniformity of analytic approaches taken in economic development programs and improving the recipients' ability to assess local area economic developments and to service their local clientele.
International
The international transactions accounts provide information on trade in goods and services (including the balance of payments and the balance of trade), investment income, and government and private financial flows. In addition, the accounts measure the value of U.S. international assets and liabilities and direct investment by multinational enterprises. BEA’s data on direct investment— the most detailed data set on the activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) available—are used to assess the role these business enterprises play in the global economy.
History
An earlier Office of Business Economics produced GNP statistics and was renamed to become the BEA in a reorganization of January 1, 1972. An earlier administrative history is available on the site of the U.S. National Archives.
See also
Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Bureau of the Census
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Consumer Leverage Ratio
Bureau of Economic Analysis regions
Survey of Current Business, the monthly publication of the BEA that includes their official statistics
References
External links
Bureau of Economic Analysis in the Federal Register
Brief history of Bureau of Economic Analysis
BEA Data Application Programming Interface (API)
Measuring the Economy from the BEA has information about what GDP is, and brief summaries about the summaries created by the BEA.
Economic research institutes
National statistical services
United States Department of Commerce agencies
1972 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Federal Statistical System of the United States | [
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218332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford%20%28printer%2C%20born%201663%29 | William Bradford (printer, born 1663) | William Bradford (May 20, 1663 – May 23, 1752) was an early American colonial printer and publisher in British America. Bradford is best known for establishing the first printing press in the Middle colonies of the Thirteen Colonies, founding the first press in Pennsylvania in 1685 and the first press in New York in 1693. Bradford operated continuously printing establishments for sixty-two years, heading a family that would include printers and publishers for 140 years. He was also known for controversies regarding freedom of the press. Starting his printing career in London, Bradford emigrated to America in 1685. He established, with others, the first paper mill to appear in the Thirteen American Colonies.
Throughout his career, Bradford printed and published thousands of titles. In addition to his print shops in the province of Pennsylvania, the province of New York, the province of New Jersey, he also had five different locations in New York City. Printing almanacs, newspapers, books, pamphlets, broadsides, blank forms, paper money, legal documents, colonial laws, and religious material, Bradford was also the public printer for the province of New York and province of New Jersey.
Early life
William Bradford was born on May 20, 1663, to William and Ann Bradford in the village of Barwell in Leicestershire, England. His father was a printer and farmer. He was baptized at the local Anglican parish church, as was required by law, and the Barwell Parish Church baptismal records show May 30, 1663. According to historian Alexander James Wall of the New York Historical Society his parents, however, were likely members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). His father died when he was four years old.
Bradford apprenticed outside the family to learn a trade, as was customary at the time. His trainer was Andrew Sowel (some sources spell Sowle or Sorole), the foremost Quaker printer in London, who printed in the Crooked Billet in Holloway Lane at Shoreditch. Bradford started working for Sowel around 1680 and, by December 3, 1684, he had mastered the trade and was freed from his apprenticeship. Bradford married Sowel's eldest daughter, Elizabeth, on April 28, 1685. Sowel arranged for the two to join William Penn in his new colony in North America with a letter of recommendation from George Fox, founder of the Quakers, to become the colonial printer. The couple sailed to America four months after they were married.
Mid life
William and Elizabeth Bradford arrived in America sometime in November 1685 and settled at a location near where Philadelphia was eventually laid out. Bradford then established Pennsylvania's first printing press, likely in the Chester or Burlington area. His first publication was an almanac, Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense compiled by Samuel Atkins, Student in the Mathamaticks and Astrology. Bradford advertised it as available to purchase near Philadelphia in Pennsilvania on December 28, 1685. The almanac was sometimes also known as America's Messenger, Being an Almanack for Year of Grace 1686. It contained both American news and British news.
Bradford wrote an introduction in the almanac of "The Printer to the Readers" describing his new printing business he had just set up. In it he apologized for any printing errors the readers may find in the almanac, as that was caused by his difficult traveling that had produced disorder and confusion in the transporting of his typesetting characters used in his printing press, but hoped that readers would appreciate the hard work he underwent in order to bring printed material to the Middle Colonies. The almanac publication received immediate attention, especially from the Quakers and Pennsylvania Governor William Penn who took offense at a reference to him as "Lord Penn," communicating clearly to Bradford that those words were to be taken out. Atkins was quickly reprimanded for the incident and Bradford was told not to print anything unless it was approved by the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly council.
Bradford later published An Almanack for year of the Christian account 1687 compiled by Daniel Leeds, student of agriculture, the oldest of his publications with a known date. The 1687 sheet almanac that he sold came with twelve sections that began traditionally with March and went to February of the next year. At the bottom of the sheets was an explanation of the pages, an account of the eclipses for the year, and some rules in husbandry. The Monthly Meeting at Philadelphia directed Bradford to collect all copies that he had just printed and destroy them as the publication had paragraphs that were offensive to the Quakers. He did this and was compensated for the copies and his labor. In 1688, he printed Temple of Wisdom, the first full-sized book released in the middle colonies.
Bradford was living in Philadelphia by 1689 and had established a bookstore. He published a booklet in 1689 composed by Quaker missionary George Keith titled The Presbyterian and Independent Visible Churches in New England. Historian Isaiah Thomas owned a copy of the book that he claimed was the oldest known book printed in Philadelphia. According to book dealer historian William S. Reese, it is the one of the first books printed in America. In that year Joseph Growdon, a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly council, hired Bradford to print William Penn's original charter for the province. The new Pennsylvania governor John Blackwell was outraged and reprimanded him. Bradford argued that he printed what he received. He claimed in his account of the incident that he was not liable for publishing as he did not compose it and that he was not bound to testify against himself. This incident was an early test of freedom of the press in the Middle Colonies. In reprimanding the publishing of the original charter, authorities attempted to deny the people of Pennsylvania knowledge of the rights and privileges afforded them under their laws.
In 1690, Bradford, partnered with a newly arrived German paper maker, William Rittenhouse, and several merchants, and established the first paper mill in America along a creek in Roxborough, Pennsylvania. He had his doubts about this undertaking at first and was not a steady customer of the products of the mill because he had not received the newspaper nor book business he thought he would get from the Quakers. He had sent his wife and two infant sons to England and was making preparations to follow, to become the replacement printer for Sowel who had died, with plans to take over his business there. At that time, there was the beginnings of disagreements among the Philadelphia Quakers, which was followed by the Yearly Meeting to grant Bradford a yearly salary and as much business they could throw his way to induce him to remain in the colonies. For further enticement, the 1691 Yearly Meeting agreed that all books printed for the Quakers were to come with a minimum 200 copy order. This, along with other enticements, motivated him to stay and recall his family from England. It wasn't until he had moved to New York later did he have enough business to contract with the managing partners of the paper mill to get preferential terms on products. The mill was the only paper manufacturer in the Thirteen Colonies until 1710. It was followed by hundreds of paper mills constructed in the United States by 1832.
Bradford is best known as the founder of the first printing press in the Middle colonies of the Thirteen Colonies. In 1692, he printed thirteen of Keith's writings, including An Appeal from the Twenty-Eight Judges to Spirit of Truth, which the authorities construed as rebellious against the local government. Bradford was arrested, tried, and jailed for printing without a trade name imprint, a violation of the Licensing Act of 1662. This was America's first trial regarding freedom of the press. His press and type letters were seized and he was imprisoned for a four-month time that ended in an inconclusive trial December 1692 due to Bradford's own persuasive skills in court. He had his equipment and type returned to him through the intervention of New York governor Benjamin Fletcher. He then printed three works over the next few months, all without a printer's name or place of publication. One of note was the first book in New York City, "New-England Persecution Transmitted to Pennsylvania" authored by Keith and with some words in Hebrew type.
Bradford, in April 1693, accepted an invitation of governor Fletcher to become the official public printer for the province of New York, then an Anglo-Dutch village. His first official publication with his trade mark imprint is deemed the broadside Proclamation printed from his press on June 8, 1693. Another broadside he printed in 1693 was Catalogue of Fees was his first protest against keeping slaves. Another was a structured work composed by Fletcher titled A journal of the Late Actions of the French. A book of note was one authored by Keith called Truth Advanced printed in March or April 1694. This was followed that year by The Laws & Acts of the General Assembly for Their Majesties Province of New York, King William and Queen Mary, being first book he published in New York. Bradford said that his printing house was at the sign of the Bible.Bradford first lived on Pearl Street in downtown Manhattan in New York City, then moved to the Stone Street location in 1698 where his offices were located in Hanover Square. He ultimately resided in five different locations in New York City. Bradford's printing office published session laws, almanacs, and religious material. A publication of note that Bradford printed in 1715 was the American Book of Common Prayer in the Mohawk language, which was also known as the Mohawk Prayer Book, that was for the use by missionaries. He was the governor's only printer in the province of New York for three decades until 1723. He began publishing their first newspaper, the New-York Gazette in 1725, which was published weekly.
Bradford was appointed public printer of New Jersey in 1703, which was a post held concurrently with his New York position. He was paid a salary around , which did not include special work that gave him additional money such as printing bills of credit or printing the Votes of Assembly. He became clerk for the New Jersey Assembly in 1710. He was in this post until 1718 and paid a salary of between $3,750 and $5,640 (equivalent 2019 US dollars) progressively through the years. Soon after he had become clerk, he received a temporary appointment with John Johnson and Joseph Billop as commissioners for the office of Treasurer of New Jersey. Another source of income he had was from 1716 to 1721 as a tax collector for New Jersey on alcoholic spirits of beer, rum, brandy, wine, and hard cider.
Later life and death
Bradford published the first number of the New-York Gazette on October 16, 1725, the first newspaper printed in the province of New York. Bradford remained as publisher of the New-York Gazette, printing it until he retired. In 1727, he took James Parker as an apprentice for an eight-year term. In 1731, Bradford's first wife died and afterwards he married a widow named Smith. In 1734, his former apprentice, John Peter Zenger, was brought to court for libel, but Bradford remained out of the case.
Bradford retired at the age of 80 in 1743 as printer of the New York Gazette and lived his last years with his son William. Henry De Foreest, an apprentice Bradford trained, took over his business when he retired. Bradford declined in health and died at the age of 89 at his son's house on May 23, 1752. He is interred in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery on Wall Street in Manhattan where his tombstone still stands reading:
Bradford family printing legacy
Bradford's wife Elizabeth gave birth to their first child, Andrew in 1686, who, along with his wife Cornelia Smith Bradford, were early American printers. Andrew published the first newspaper in colonial Philadelphia. William Jr, the brother of Andrew, was a printer and seaman. Bradford's grandson, William Bradford became a well-known printer during the American Revolution for the Continental Congress. The Bradford Family Papers (1620–1906) are deposited at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Bradford established printing and publishing businesses that operated for 140 years from 1685 until 1825. He trained several apprentices that including John Peter Zenger, James Parker, Henry DeForest, and his son Andrew Bradford. Andrew's family continued working in the printing and publishing industry for four generations.
Bradford published New York City's first law book (1694), the first published proceedings of an American legislature (New York City, 1695), the first province of New York paper currency (1709), the first Book of Common Prayer (1706) in America, the first history of the province of New York (1727), New York City's first newspaper (1725), and the first copperplate plan for New York City (1730).
See also
Early American publishers and printers
Other early American publishers and printers:
David Hall (publisher)
William Goddard (publisher)
John Holt (publisher)
References
Bibliography
Further reading
E. B. Bronner & D.Fraser, William Penn's published writings, 1660–1726: an interpretive bibliography (1986)
H.Amory & D. D.Hall, eds., The colonial book in the Atlantic world (2000)
A. J. DeArmond, Andrew Bradford: colonial journalist (1949)
D. F. McKenzie, ed., Stationers' Company apprentices, [2]: 1641–1700 (1974)
C. W. Miller, Benjamin Franklin's Philadelphia printing, 1728–1766: a descriptive bibliography (1974)
R. S. Mortimer, ‘The first century of Quaker printers’, Journal of the Friends' Historical Society'', 40 (1948), 37–49; 41 (1949), 78–84
-- alternative Google link
Steven J. Shaw. Colonial Newspaper Advertising: A Step toward Freedom of the Press. The Business History Review, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Autumn, 1959), pp. 409–420
Catherine Tourangeau, "It Runs in the Family: The Bradfords, Print, and Liberty(1680-1810)" (Universite de Montreal, M.A. Thesis, 2013)
External links
1663 births
1752 deaths
People from Barwell
English printers
American printers
Kingdom of England emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People of colonial New York
Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery
People of colonial Pennsylvania
18th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
Colonial American printers | [
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|
218335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford%20%28printer%2C%20born%201719%29 | William Bradford (printer, born 1719) | William Bradford (1719 – September 25, 1791) was a printer, soldier, and leader during the American Revolution from Philadelphia.
Bradford was born in New York City in 1719, and was the grandson of the printer William Bradford. He was apprenticed to (and later a partner of) his uncle Andrew Bradford in Philadelphia. This relationship ended in 1741. He visited England that year, returning in 1742 with equipment to open his own printing firm as well as a library.
Bradford was the publisher of The Pennsylvania Journal, the first number of which appeared on December 2, 1742. In later years each issue had the still-recognized image of the snake chopped into segments with the motto "Unite or Die". Variations of this logo were also used by Paul Revere, Benjamin Franklin, and others. In 1754 he also opened the London Coffee House in Philadelphia and began to write marine insurance. As a publisher and writer he attacked many policies of the British government, and was especially vocal in his opposition to the Stamp Act in 1765.
The first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1774, and Bradford was named as the official printer for the Congress. In this role he printed the formal resolutions, broadsides, and documents such as the Declaration of Rights, that the Congress issued.
When the American Revolutionary War started, Bradford left his business in his son's hands and, despite being middle aged, went into active military service with the Pennsylvania militia. He was made a major, and later promoted to colonel. He saw action at Trenton and Princeton, at Fort Billingsport, and at Fort Mifflin. Because the wound he received at the battle of Princeton continued to trouble him, when British forces withdrew from Philadelphia he resigned from the militia and returned to the city.
His son Thomas had continued The Pennsylvania Journal during his absence. Now they became partners, and over the years expanded their publishing house. After William's death on September 25, 1791 Thomas continued their enterprise. A second son, William (sometimes called William, Jr.), joined the Continental Army, became a lawyer and was later Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court and U. S. Attorney General. Thomas's son Samuel Fisher Bradford continued the family tradition and is noted for the American printing of Rees's Cyclopædia.
The following obituary of Bradford was published in the Maryland Herald on October 11, 1791:
References
Further reading
.
External links
The Bradford Family Papers, including correspondence and other materials from 1620 to 1906, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
1719 births
1791 deaths
American people of English descent
Military personnel from New York City
People of colonial New York
American printers
Pennsylvania militiamen in the American Revolution
18th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
18th-century printers
Colonial American printers | [
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|
218336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20Development%20Administration | Economic Development Administration | The U.S. Economic Development Administration (EDA) is an agency in the United States Department of Commerce that provides grants and technical assistance to economically distressed communities in order to generate new employment, help retain existing jobs and stimulate industrial and commercial growth through a variety of investment programs.
History
In 1965, Congress passed the Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965 (PWEDA) (42 U.S.C. § 3121), which authorized the creation of the Economic Development Administration (EDA) to generate jobs, help retain existing jobs, and stimulate industrial and commercial growth in economically troubled areas of the United States. EDA assistance is available to rural and urban areas of the United States experiencing high unemployment, low income, or other severe economic distress.
Mission and investment priorities
The EDA's stated mission is to "lead the federal economic development agenda by promoting innovation and competitiveness, preparing American regions for growth and success in the worldwide economy."
The EDA's investment policy is designed to establish a foundation for sustainable job growth and the building of durable regional economies throughout the United States. This foundation builds upon two key economic drivers - innovation and regional collaboration. Innovation is the key to global competitiveness, new and better jobs, a resilient economy, and the attainment of national economic goals. Regional collaboration is essential for economic recovery because regions are the centers of competition in the new global economy and those that work together to leverage resources and use strengths to overcome weaknesses will fare better than those that do not. EDA encourages its partners around the country to develop initiatives that advance new ideas and creative approaches to address rapidly evolving economic conditions.
Role
The EDA is the only federal government agency solely focused on economic development. EDA works with communities across the country on regional economic development strategies to attract private investment and create jobs in economically distressed areas of the United States.
EDA's economic footprint is wide and its tool box is extensive—including technical assistance, post-disaster recovery assistance, trade adjustment support, strategic planning and research and evaluation capacity, thereby allowing the agency to offer the most effective investment to help communities succeed in the global economy.
Multi-agency initiatives
EDA leads a host of multi-agency initiatives to advance intergovernmental and public-private partnerships across the nation. These initiatives include:
Assistance to Coal Communities
EDA Vista Corps
Americas Competitiveness Exchange
Organization
The EDA is led by an Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development, who is appointed by the President of the United States. The Assistant Secretary is assisted in running the Administration by two Deputy Assistant Secretaries and various other senior career federal employees, and has the following organizational structure:
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development/Chief Operating Officer
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development/Office of Regional Affairs
Office of External Affairs
Office of Information Technology
Office of Innovation and Entrepreneurship
Office of Finance and Management Services
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Regional Affairs
Office of Regional Affairs
Atlanta Regional Office
Austin Regional Office
Chicago Regional Office
Denver Regional Office
Philadelphia Regional Office
Seattle Regional Office
Senior leadership
Alejandra Y. Castillo, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development
Dennis Alvord, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Economic Development and COO
Craig Buerstatte, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Regional Affairs
Michele Chang, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Policy
Molly Ritner, Chief of Staff
Greg Brown, Chief Financial Officer & Chief Administrative Officer
(Vacant), Director of the Office of External Affairs
Jeff Roberson, Chief Counsel
Bryan Borlik, Director of Performance and National Programs, Trade Adjustment Assistance
Angela Ewell-Madison, Director of the Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs
(Vacant), Director of the Office of Public Affairs
Doug Lynott, Director of Economic Development Integration and Disaster Recovery
See also
Title 13 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Federal Trade Commission
United States Commercial Service
United States Chamber of Commerce
Small Business Administration
References
External links
Economic Development Administration in the Federal Register
Investment promotion agencies
United States Department of Commerce agencies
United States economic policy
Government agencies established in 1965
Development in North America | [
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|
218337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Trade%20Administration | International Trade Administration | The International Trade Administration (ITA) is an agency in the United States Department of Commerce that promotes United States exports of nonagricultural U.S. services and goods.
Duties
The ITA's stated goals are to
Provide practical information to help Americans select markets and products.
Ensure that Americans have access to international markets as required by the U.S. trade agreements.
Safeguard Americans from unfair competition from dumped and subsidized imports.
Organization
ITA consists of three sub-units. These are: Industry and Analysis (I&A), Global Markets (GM), and Enforcement and Compliance (E&C).
Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade
Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Global Markets and Director General of the U.S. Commercial Service
Office of Strategic Planning
Deputy Director General of the U.S. Commercial Service
Office of Foreign Service and Human Capital
Office of Budget
Business Information Technology Office
Office of Administrative Services
Deputy Assistant Secretary for Global Markets
Global Knowledge Center
SelectUSA
Office of Domestic Operations
Office of China
Office of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa
Office of Asia
Office of the Western Hemisphere
Advocacy Center
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Industry and Analysis
Office of Manufacturing
Office of Transportation and Machinery
Office of Energy and Environment
Office of Health & Information Technology
Office of Services
Office of Finance & Insurance Industries
Office of Digital Services Industries
Office of Supply Chain, Professional, & Business Services
Office of Trade Policy and Analysis
Office of Trade & Economic Analysis
Office of Trade Negotiations & Analysis
Office of Standards & Investment Policy
Office of Intellectual Property Rights
Office of Textiles, Consumer Goods, and Materials
Office of Consumer Goods
Office of Textiles & Apparel
Office of Materials Industries
National Travel and Tourism Office
Office of Travel and Tourism Industries
Office of Advisory Committees and Industry Outreach
Office of Trade Programs and Strategic Partnerships
Office of Planning, Coordination, and Management
Trade Agreement Secretariat
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Enforcement and Compliance
Office of Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties Operations
Office of Policy and Negotiations
The U.S. Commercial Service, through its Strategic Corporate Partnership program, has Public Private Partnership agreements with 17 private organizations, including several banks, legal and regulatory organizations, transportation and shipping organizations, event organizers, trade risk service companies and the publisher of Commercial News USA, the official export promotion magazine of the U.S. Department of Commerce, The ecommerce partner is the Federation of International Trade Associations under which the USCS contributes market research and other reports on GlobalTrade.net.
Leadership
The ITA was created on January 2, 1980 and is headed by the Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade (USC(IT)), the principal adviser to the Secretary of Commerce on American imports and exports. The Under Secretary is the head of the International Trade Administration within the Commerce Department.
The Under Secretary is appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the United States Senate. The last presidential appointee was Gilbert B. Kaplan, who was nominated by President Trump for the position of Under Secretary for International Trade on April 11, 2017, and confirmed by the Senate on March 13, 2018. Gilbert Kaplan left the position in late 2019. Joseph C. Semsar is currently Acting Under Secretary.
Overview
The Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade is the principal officer of the United States Department of Commerce charged with promoting American exports and assisting general international trade. As the Administrator of the International Trade Administration, the Under Secretary also sits on the Board of Directors of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation, and serves as a member of the Tourism Policy Council and the National Intellectual Property Council. The Under Secretary participates in the development of United States trade policy, identifies and resolves market access and compliance issues, administers American trade laws, and undertakes a range of trade promotion and trade advocacy efforts.
With the rank of Under Secretary, the USC(IT) is a Level III position within the Executive Schedule. Since January 2014, the annual rate of pay for Level III appointees is $167,000.
Reporting officials
Officials reporting to the USC(IT) include:
Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for International Trade
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Global Markets and Director General of the U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Enforcement and Compliance
Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Industry and Analysis
List of Under Secretaries
See also
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Bureau of Industry and Security
Doha Round
Generalized System of Preferences
Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations
International Trade Commission
Office of the United States Trade Representative
United States Commercial Service
United States Trade Representative
World Trade Organization
References
External links
International Trade Administration website
International Trade Administration in the Federal Register
Records of the Office of Export Supply 1949-1959
Records of the Export Control Investigations Staff 1948-1962
Anti-dumping authorities
Government agencies established in 1980
United States Department of Commerce agencies
United States trade policy
1980 establishments in Washington, D.C. | [
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|
218338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority%20Business%20Development%20Agency | Minority Business Development Agency | The Minority Business Development Agency (MBDA) is an agency in the United States Department of Commerce that promotes growth and competitiveness of the United States' minority-owned businesses, including Hispanic and Latino American, Asian Pacific American, African American, and Native American businesses. The current acting National Director is Edith Jett McCloud.
MBDA's stated mission is to promote the growth and competitiveness of minority-owned businesses by providing access to capital, access to contracts and access to market opportunities - both domestic and global. The main feature of the organization and its site is to provide business consulting services to minority business owners.
History
On March 5, 1969, President Richard Nixon issued Executive Order 11458, establishing the Office of Minority Business Enterprise. On October 13, 1971, President Nixon issued Executive Order 11625, which clarified MBDA's authority and expanded the scope of its operations. In 1979, the agency was renamed the Minority Business Development Agency.
The agency was cut in President Trump's FY18 executive budget, but subsequently restored in the President's FY19 budget - the only Federal agency to be restored after its proposed elimination.
On November 15, 2021, President Joe Biden signed the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which established the Minority Business Development Agency as a permanent agency. Prior to this, the agency was operating solely under Executive Order 11458.
National Minority Enterprise Development Week
The Agency holds National Minority Enterprise Development Week in the month of October, observed in the United States to recognize and celebrate the achievements and contributions of the minority business enterprise community.
President Ronald Reagan first recognized National MED Week in 1983. The week is formally celebrated each year by the Minority Business Development Agency, a U.S. government agency housed within the U.S. Department of Commerce.
On October 20, 2017, President Donald Trump issued a proclamation which officially designated October 22 through October 28, 2017 as National Minority Enterprise Development Week.
On October 24, 2017, President Trump recognized minority-owned businesses in the Oval Office during National MED Week, when he welcomed winners of the National MED Week Awards with Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross and MBDA Acting National Director Christopher A. Garcia.
See also
Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Small Business Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce
References
Resources
Alkalimat, Abdul. The African American Experience in Cyberspace. Pluto Press, 1994.
External links
Minority Business Development Agency in the Federal Register
Government agencies established in 1969
Establishments by United States executive order
Investment promotion agencies
United States Department of Commerce agencies
Presidency of Richard Nixon | [
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218339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Indies%20Federation | West Indies Federation | The West Indies Federation, also known as the West Indies, the Federation of the West Indies or the West Indian Federation, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. Various islands in the Caribbean that were part of the British Empire, including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, and those on the Leeward and Windward Islands, came together to form the Federation, with its capital in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. The expressed intention of the Federation was to create a political unit that would become independent from Britain as a single state—possibly similar to the Canadian Confederation, Australian Commonwealth, or Central African Federation. Before that could happen, the Federation collapsed due to internal political conflicts over how it would be governed or function viably. The formation of a West Indian Federation was encouraged by the United Kingdom, but also requested by West Indian nationalists.
The territories that would have become part of the Federation eventually became the nine contemporary sovereign states of Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago; with Anguilla, Montserrat, the Cayman Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands becoming British overseas territories. British Guiana (Guyana) and British Honduras (Belize) held observer status within the West Indies Federation.
Population and geography
The total population of the West Indies Federation was between 3 and 4 million people, with the majority being of black West African descent. Minorities included Indians from the Indian subcontinent (called East Indians), Europeans, Chinese, Arabs, and Caribs. There was also a large population of mixed descent (mainly mulattos, but also Afro-Indian, Euro-Indian and mixed-Chinese). In terms of religion, most of the population was Protestant, with significant numbers of Catholics and some Hindus and Muslims (both almost exclusively from the East Indian population).
The West Indies Federation (or just West Indies) consisted of around 24 main inhabited islands and approximately 220–230 minor offshore islands, islets and cays (some inhabited, some uninhabited). The largest island was Jamaica, located in the far northwest of the Federation. To the southeast lay the second largest island, Trinidad, followed by Barbados (in terms of population), located at the eastern extremity of the Federation.
The Federation spanned all the island groupings in the Caribbean:
The Greater Antilles: Jamaica and the Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands
The Lesser Antilles:
Barbados, east of the Windward Islands
Leeward Islands: Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, and Montserrat
Windward Islands: Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada
Trinidad and Tobago
At its widest (west to east), from the Cayman Islands to Barbados it spanned some (and across approximately 22 degrees of longitude) and from the Turks and Caicos Islands in the north, to the Icacos Point, Trinidad in the south it extended (and across 12 degrees of latitude). However, most of the area along either of these distances was taken up by open water (with the exception of some of the other islands lying in between). By comparison Great Britain stretches across nearly 10 degrees of latitude and Spain extends across almost 20 degrees of longitude. Even though the West Indies was spread across such a vast area, most of its provinces were mostly contiguous and clustered fairly close together in the Eastern Caribbean, with the obvious exceptions of Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands.
Most of the islands have mountainous interiors surrounded by narrow coastal plains. The exceptions were Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands (which are all fairly flat), and Trinidad (which has a large mountain range in the north and a small central mountain range in the interior of the otherwise flat island). The narrow coastal plains as well as historical trade is the main reason why almost all of the major settlements (cities and towns) of the Federation were located on the coast. Chief towns included Kingston, Port of Spain, Chaguaramas, Bridgetown, Spanish Town, Montego Bay, San Fernando, Mandeville, Castries, Roseau, St. George's, Kingstown, St. John's, and Basseterre.
The climate in all the islands is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although inland regions in the larger islands have more temperate climates. Regions falling within the rain shadows (southern coasts of Jamaica and Trinidad and eastern coasts of the Lesser Antilles) are relatively drier. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first six months of the year, and the rainy season (also known as the hurricane season) in the second half of the year. Many of the islands fall within the traditional hurricane belt, with the exception of Trinidad (although it occasionally experiences low latitude hurricanes) and thus are at risk from potential wind and flood damage.
Britain classified the Federation as being part of its "Caribbean and North Atlantic Territories" region which was shared alongside other possessions such as Bermuda.
The Federation today is geographically considered to be part of the North American continent as all of its islands are in and around the Caribbean, even though Trinidad is located just offshore from South America and lies on the same continental shelf. See Transcontinental countries.
Provinces
Several historically "West Indian" British colonies opted not to join the Federation for various reasons. The Bahamas and Bermuda believed that their future lay with association with North America, and the British Virgin Islands similarly looked to a possible future association with the United States Virgin Islands. Belize was involved in a territorial dispute with Guatemala and saw the West Indies Federation as being too weak to defend Belize against its neighbor, instead looking to the UK for potential military assistance against Guatemala. Guyana opted not to join when the Federation was formed due to its own ongoing political and internal struggles for independence from the UK, which had started in the 1950s. At issue was its newly formed political party with socialist leanings, at the height of the Cold War. It had hoped to join the Federation once these issues were resolved.
Belize and Guyana did participate in the Federation to a certain extent as observers. The Bahamas participated in the 1960 West Indies Federation Games, with a future prime minister of the Bahamas, Perry Christie, as an athlete. Guyana would ultimately express interest in a very loose re-attempted Caribbean Federation around 1971.
Government and legal status
The Federation was an internally self-governing, federal state made up of ten provinces, all British colonial possessions. The federation was created by the United Kingdom in 1958 from most of the British West Indies. Britain intended that the Federation would shortly become a fully independent state, thus simultaneously satisfying the demands for independence from all the colonies in the region. However, the project was doomed by political squabbling among the provinces, and the Federation never achieved full sovereignty.
The legal basis for the federation was the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, and the date of formation—3 January 1958—was set by an Order in Council proclaimed in 1957.
As with all British colonies of the period, Queen Elizabeth II was the head of state, and The Crown was vested with the legislative authority for matters concerning executive affairs, defence and the financing of the Federation. Her representative, The 1st Baron Hailes, was given the title of Governor-General rather than that of Governor more typical for a British colony. The title may have reflected the federal nature of the state, or indicated the expectations that the Federation would soon become independent. The Governor-General also had the full power by the British Government to veto any laws passed by the Federation.
The Federal Parliament of the West Indies Federation was bicameral, consisting of a nominated Senate and a popularly elected House of Representatives. The Senate consisted of nineteen members. These members were appointed by the Governor General, after consulting the respective territorial governments. Two members represented each unit (with only one from Montserrat). The House of Representatives had 45 total elected members – Jamaica had seventeen seats, Trinidad and Tobago ten seats, Barbados five seats, Montserrat one seat, and the remaining islands two seats each.
However the government (executive) would be a Council of State, not a Cabinet. It would be presided over by the Governor-General and consist of the Prime Minister and ten other officials.
The West Indies Federation did not have independent sources of revenue (relying instead on a mandatory levy on the islands), and did not establish any agreements on a customs union, free trade and free movement.
Federal Supreme Court
There was also a Federal Supreme Court consisting of a Chief Justice and three (later five) other Justices. The Federal Supreme Court itself was the successor to the West Indian Court of Appeal (established in 1919) and had jurisdiction over the same territories (Barbados, British Guiana, the Leeward Islands (including the British Virgin Islands), Trinidad & Tobago and the Windward Islands) in addition to Jamaica and its dependencies, except for British Honduras, as the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, which empowered the Privy Council to establish it, also repealed the enactment which allowed for appeals from the British Honduras Supreme Court to the Privy Council or the Supreme Court of Jamaica, namely the British Honduras (Court of Appeal) Act 1881. (The arrangement for appeals to the Supreme Court of Jamaica had generally ceased in 1911 anyway.)
Sir Stanley Eugene Gomes, Chief Justice of Trinidad and Tobago, was appointed Chief Justice of the Federation in August 1961.
Proposed and de facto capital
Three member states were proposed as hosts for the capital city of the federation: Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. Earlier in the federal negotiations the general opinion had been that the capital should be one of the smaller islands so that the capital would be in a neutral position to the larger territories and it would be able to inject some buoyancy into one of the (then) poorer economies. To this end, Grenada was tentatively selected as the member state to host the capital but this was abandoned after protests from some of the parties involved, and at the London Conference the smaller islands were ruled out for consideration. Within Trinidad and Tobago the first proposed site was Chaguaramas, a few miles west of Port of Spain, but the site was part of a United States naval base. In practice, Port of Spain served as the de facto federal capital for the duration of the federation's existence.
Elections
In preparation for the first federal elections, two Federation-wide parties were organised as confederations of local political parties. Both were organised by Jamaican politicians: the West Indies Federal Labour Party by Norman Manley, and the Democratic Labour Party by Alexander Bustamante. In broad terms, the WIFLP consisted of the urban-based parties throughout the Federation, while the DLP consisted of the rural-based parties. A small third party, the Federal Democratic Party was founded in November 1957 by a group of Trinidadians, although it did not win any seats.
The platforms for the two major national parties were similar in many respects. Both advocated maintaining and strengthening ties with the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada (countries with which the islands had strong cultural and economic links); encouraging and expanding tourism; working to bring British Guiana and British Honduras into the Federation and to obtain loans, financial aid, and technical assistance. Despite these similarities, there were differences. The WIFLP had advocated the encouragement of agriculture while the DLP had promised a climate favourable to both private industry and labour, development of human and economic resources. The WIFLP promised to encourage the Bahamas (in addition to British Guiana and British Honduras) to join the Federation, whereas the DLP did not. The WIFLP also campaigned to establish a central bank for the extension of credit resources and advocated a democratic socialist society and full internal self-government for all the unit territories, whilst avoiding the issues of freedom of movement and a customs union. The DLP said nothing about full internal self-government, attacked socialism, wished to avoid high taxation (via loans and technical aid) and emphasized West Indian unity, freedom of worship and speech, and encouragement of trade unions.
Federal elections were held on 25 March 1958. The WIFLP won the election, winning 26 seats while the DLP carried 19 seats. The bulk of the WIFLP seats came from the smaller islands while the DLP carried the majority in Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago. The DLP won 11 of the Jamaican seats and 6 of the Trinidadian seats. In appointing the Senate, Governor General Lord Hailes realized that only the St Vincent island government was DLP controlled and as a result the Senate was going to be disproportionately pro WIFLP. In a controversial decision, he contacted the opposition DLP groups in Jamaica and Trinidad, and appointed one DLP senator from each of those islands. Thus the Senate consisted of a total of 15 WIFLP members and 4 DLP members.
WIFLP leader Sir Grantley Adams of Barbados became Prime Minister. The selection of Adams as the Prime Minister was indicative of the problems the Federation would face. The expected leader of the WIFLP was Norman Manley, Premier of Jamaica, and the next logical choice was Dr Eric Williams, Premier of Trinidad and Tobago. However, neither had contested the Federal elections, preferring to remain in control of their respective island power bases. This suggested that the leaders of the two most important provinces did not see the Federation as viable. Similarly, Alexander Bustamante, the Jamaican founder of the DLP, also declined to contest the Federal election, leaving the party leadership to the Trinidadian Ashford Sinanan. The absence of the leading Jamaican politicians from any role at the federal level was to undermine the Federation's unity.
Other members of the Council of State included:
Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Trade and Industry: The Hon. Dr C.G.D. La Corbiniere
Minister of Finance: The Hon. Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw (St. Kitts)
Minister of Communications and Works: The Hon. W. A. Rose
Minister of Natural Resources and Agriculture: The Hon. F. B. Ricketts
Minister of Labour and Social Affairs: The Hon. Mrs Phyllis Byam Shand Allfrey (Dominica)
Ministers without Portfolio: The Hon. N. H. Richards, The Hon. Mr V. B Vaughn, Senator A. G. R. Byfield (Jamaica), Senator J. W. Liburd, and Senator J. L. Charles
Government services
The Federation also had a number of units deemed to be common services for the entire federation, these were:
The Federal Shipping Service
The Federal Supreme Court
The University College of the West Indies
The West Indies Meteorological Service
The West India Regiment
Federal problems
The politics of the embryonic Federation were wrecked by struggles between the federal government and the provincial governments, and between the two largest provinces (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago) and the smaller provinces.
The West Indies Federation had an unusually weak federal structure. For instance, its provinces were not contained in a single customs union. Thus, each province functioned as a separate economy, complete with tariffs, largely because the smaller provinces were afraid of being overwhelmed by the large islands' economies. Also, complete freedom of movement within the Federation was not implemented, as the larger provinces were worried about mass migration from the smaller islands.
Jamaica, the largest member of the West Indies Federation, opposed plans to establish a customs union and to increase the ability of the federal government to levy taxes.
Adom Getachew writes that relations between minority groups, such as the descendants of East Indians (which were a large share of the populations of Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana), and the majority population of Afro-West Indians were a source of tension in the West Indies Federation. For example, Guyana rejected the West Indies Federation in part because it lacked sufficient protections for ethnic minorities.
There were tensions between those who wanted a strong federal state (capable of undertaking major economic development projects and redistribution) and those who wanted a federal structure that gave each member substantial autonomy. Eric Williams was a strong advocate for a strong federal state. Critics in Jamaica were opposed to any redistributive schemes that would primarily lead to Jamaica providing grants to the smaller islands. There were also some concerns about unequal development and its impact on areas with less competitive industries which wanted protectionist measures within the federation.
In addition, the federal government could not take its component states to task. The initial federal budget was quite small, limiting the federal government's ability to use its financial largess as a carrot. It was dependent upon grants from the United Kingdom and from its member states. The provincial budgets of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago were both larger than the federal budget. This led to repeated requests for those states to provide greater financing to the federal government. These requests were not well received, as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago together already contributed 85 percent of the federal revenue, in roughly equal portions.
Furthermore, the office of the Prime Minister was a weak one. Unlike other Westminster systems with Prime Ministers, the West Indian Federation's PM could not dissolve Parliament.
Relationship with Canada
The Federation maintained a particularly close relationship with Canada, which had a similar past as a federation of several former British colonies. In the early years, several Caribbean leaders suggested that the West Indies Federation should investigate the possibility of becoming a Canadian province.
Despite the breakdown in talks, in May 1961, Canada presented the West Indies Federation with two of the region's most important gifts: two merchant ships, named The Federal Palm and The Federal Maple. These two vessels visited every island in the federation twice monthly, providing a crucial sea-link between the islands.
Dissolution
Many reasons have been put forward to explain the demise of the federation. These include the lack of local popular support, competing insular nationalism, the weakness of the federal government, prohibitions on federal taxation and freedom of movement, inadequacies in the Federal constitution, fundamental changes made to the constitution very early in its existence, political feuds between the influential leaders, the decision of the three most influential politicians not to contest Federal elections, friction between these leaders and the Federal government, the overwhelming concentration of population and resources in the two largest units, geographic and cultural distance between the units, the lack of a history of common administration, and the impact of the period of self-government that followed the promotion from Crown Colony system.
However, the immediate catalyst for the dissolution of the Federation was Jamaican discontent. By 1961, there were a number of reasons for Jamaica's dissatisfaction with the state of affairs:
Jamaica's share of the seats in the federal parliament was smaller than its share of the total population of the Federation.
It was believed that the smaller islands would be a drain on Jamaica's wealth – the financial rewards of the island's bauxite were beginning to roll in.
Jamaica was somewhat isolated in distance from the other islands.
Inter-island rivalry.
Many Jamaicans were upset that Kingston had not been chosen as the federal capital.
The most important reason for Jamaican dissatisfaction was the Federation's continuing colonial status. Jamaica had joined the Federation because its leaders had believed that the West Indies would quickly be granted independence. Nearly three years after the formation of the Federation, this had not occurred; meanwhile, smaller British colonies, like Cyprus and Sierra Leone, had gained independence. Thus, many Jamaicans believed that the island could and should seek independence in its own right.
There were also problems with the Federation's proposed capital in Chaguaramas, at that time still in the hands of the United States (having leased it as a naval base from the United Kingdom during World War II). Many of the Caribbean provincial leaders wanted Chaguaramas to be the Federation's capital. Provincial leaders such as Norman Manley of Jamaica and Eric Williams pushed for handing over of Chaguaramas to the Federation from the US. However the US and the UK disagreed and the Federation's Prime Minister Grantley Adams stopped the provincial leaders from obtaining Chaguaramas. For many Jamaicans it appeared that the Federation would then just hamper their development and movement towards independence.
As a result, the Bustamante-led Jamaica Labour Party (the local component of the West Indian DLP) successfully forced Manley to hold a referendum in September 1961 on political secession from the Federation. The result was 54% in favour of leaving the Federation, despite the opposition of Manley, the province's Chief Minister at the time. Manley himself lost the subsequent island elections in April 1962, and Bustamante became the first Prime Minister of an independent Jamaica on 6 August 1962.
After Jamaica left, there was an attempt to salvage a new federation from the wreckage of the old. Much depended on Premier Williams of Trinidad and Tobago, who had stated previously that he wanted a "strong federation". Premier Vere Bird of Antigua responded that his province would only be in a federation with Trinidad as an equal partner, not as "a little Tobago". He did indicate that a strong federation was acceptable provided that no attempt was made to create a unitary state.
Negotiations on this new federation began in September 1961; however, they indicated that Trinidad would have to provide 75 to 80 percent of the new Federation's revenue. Also, even though Trinidad would now represent 60 percent of the new Federation's population, the proposals under consideration would give it less than half of the seats in parliament.
By November, Williams indicated that he was now in favour of the idea of a unitary state. Failing that, he resolved to take Trinidad and Tobago into independence. In this, he was buoyed by his re-election as Trinidadian leader on 4 December 1961. Later that December, Premier Errol Barrow of Barbados met with Williams, but failed to persuade him to keep Trinidad in the Federation.
On January 14, 1962, the People's National Movement (the Williams-led Trinidad component of the WIFLP) passed a resolution rejecting any further involvement with the Federation. Williams himself stated that "one from ten leaves nought"—in other words, without Jamaica, no Federation was possible. Trinidad and Tobago became independent on August 31, 1962.
Without Trinidad and Jamaica, the remaining "Little Eight" attempted to salvage some form of a West Indian Federation, this time centred on Barbados. However, these negotiations ultimately proved fruitless. Without its two largest states, the Federation was doomed to financial insolvency. Barbados now refused to shoulder the financial burden, and Antigua and Grenada began toying with the idea of merging with Jamaica and Trinidad, respectively.
UK/West Indies Associated States (WIAS)
The West Indies Federation was legally dissolved with the Parliament of the United Kingdom's West Indies Act 1962. The remaining "Little Eight" provinces once again became separate colonies supervised directly from London, most of which became independent later on, as follows:
Barbados – 1966
Grenada – 1974
Dominica – 1978
Saint Lucia – 1979
St Vincent and the Grenadines – 1979
Antigua and Barbuda – 1981
Saint Kitts and Nevis – 1983
Montserrat remains an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands had been separated from Jamaica upon the latter's independence in 1962; Anguilla was separated from Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1980. All three remain UK territories as well.
Legacy
The federation's currency was the West Indies dollar (though Jamaica continued to use the pound), which was later succeeded by the East Caribbean dollar, the Barbadian dollar, and the Trinidad and Tobago dollar. Successor organisations included the West Indies Associated States and CARICOM.
The Federal Supreme Court would also be succeed by a British Caribbean Court of Appeal (1962–1966) and then a West Indies Associated States Supreme Court (Court of Appeal and High Court) (1967–1980) and ultimately by an Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court in 1981 for the OECS. More recently a Caribbean Court of Justice has been established which would also fulfil the role of the original Supreme Court if all CSME members accede to the court's appellate jurisdiction (currently Barbados, Belize and Guyana do so).
Some see the West Indies cricket team as a legacy of the Federation, although the side was actually organised thirty years prior to the birth of the federation.
Another lasting regional fixture, officially created before the Federation, is the University of the West Indies. During the Federation, the university pursued a policy of regional expansion beyond the main Jamaica campus. Two other campuses were established: one in Trinidad and Tobago, established in 1960, and one in Barbados, established a short time after the Federation dissolved in 1963. Since 2004, the West Indies Federal Archives Centre has been located on the university's Cave Hill campus in Barbados.
Stamps
During the Federation's existence, each member continued to issue its own postage stamps as before; but on 22 April 1958, each of the members (except for the Cayman Islands) issued a set of three commemorative stamps. All of these stamps used a common design depicting a map of the Caribbean and a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, with an inscription reading "THE WEST INDIES / FEDERATION 1958" at the top and the name of the member state at the bottom. These stamps are quite common in both mint and used condition.
Prior attempts at federation
The Federation of the West Indies was not the first attempt at a British Caribbean federation. The history of the previous attempts at federations and unions, in part, explains the failure of the 1958 Federation.
The initial federal attempts never went so far as to try to encompass all of the British West Indies (BWI), but were more regional in scope. The historical regional groupings included the British Leeward Islands, British Windward Islands and Jamaica with its nearby former dependencies. See: History of the British West Indies.
See also
Governor-General of the West Indies Federation
Prime Minister of the West Indies Federation
1961 Jamaican Federation of the West Indies membership referendum
History of the Caribbean
Canada-Caribbean relations
CARICOM
Cricket in the West Indies
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland - another contemporaneous attempt at federation
East African Federation - a current attempt at federation
Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles (2010)
Footnotes
References
Carmichael, Dr. Trevor A. 2001. Passport to the Heart: Reflections on Canada Caribbean Relations. Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston 6, Jamaica. The book's Forward passage, synopsis
Fraser, Cary. 1994. Ambivalent anti-colonialism : the United States and the genesis of West Indian independence, 1940–1964. Greenwood Press
Ghany, Dr Hamid 1996. Kamal: a Lifetime of Politics Religion and Culture Multimedia Production Centre, University of the West Indies.
Gonsalves, Ralph E. 1994. History and the Future: A Caribbean Perspective. Quik-Print, Kingstown, St. Vincent.
Hoyes, F. A. 1963. The Rise of West Indian Democracy: The Life and Times of Sir Grantley Adams. Advocate Press.
Hurwitz, Samuel J. “The Federation of the West Indies: A Study in Nationalisms.” Journal of British Studies, 6#1 1966, pp. 139–168. online
Mahabir, Dr Winston 1978 In and Out of Politics Inprint Caribbean.
Mordecai, John, Sir. 1968. Federation of the West Indies Evanston, Northwestern University Press
Wickham, P. W. 1997 "Factors in the Integration and Disintegration of the Caribbean" published as part of Issues in the Government and Politics of the West Indies, edited by J. G. LaGuerre, Multimedia Production Centre, University of the West Indies.
Williams, Eric. 1964. British Historians and the West Indies. P.N.M. Publishing Company, Port of Spain.
Nelson, Renee A. (4 July 2020). "The West Indian Press and Public: Concepts of Regionalism and Federation, 1944–1946". Journal of Caribbean History. 54 (1): 82–105.
External links
The British Monarch's website – On the Caribbean region
West Indies Federal Archives Centre, at the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill Campus)
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat, The West Indies Federation
The British Hansard Digitisation Project, British Parliament -- The Caribbean Federation Act 1956
The British Government's Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) -- West Indies Act 1962 (c.19) -- UK Statute Law Database (SLD)
Why 'Federation' really fell apart – Sunday, October 22, 2006: Trinidad and Tobago Express
British West Indies
History of the Caribbean
Island countries
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Former colonies in North America
Former countries in the Caribbean
Former confederations
Former polities of the Cold War
Politics of the Caribbean
Proposed countries
Proposed provinces and territories of Canada
Separatism in the United Kingdom
1950s establishments in the Caribbean
1958 establishments in North America
1962 disestablishments in North America
1958 establishments in the British Empire
1962 disestablishments in the British Empire
20th-century disestablishments in the Caribbean
States and territories established in 1958
States and territories disestablished in 1962 | [
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|
218341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bradford%20%28Attorney%20General%29 | William Bradford (Attorney General) | William Bradford (September 14, 1755 – August 23, 1795) was a lawyer and judge from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the second United States Attorney General in 1794–1795.
He was the son of the printer William Bradford and was born in Philadelphia. He began his education at the Academy of Philadelphia, then attended Princeton University, where he formed a lifelong friendship with Virginian James Madison, before graduating in 1772. When he returned to Philadelphia he read law with Edward Shippen. His progress was delayed by the American Revolutionary War.
In 1776, when the Pennsylvania militia was called out, William volunteered as a private. Later that year, the militia was organized into a "flying camp" with Daniel Roberdeau as the first brigadier general in the states forces. General Roberdeau chose the young man as an aide, and later promoted him to brigade major on his headquarters staff.
When his militia term expired, he joined the Continental Army as a captain and company commander in the 11th Pennsylvania Regiment commanded by Richard Hampton. By the end of the year, he saw action in the Battle of Trenton. While at Morristown, New Jersey, he was named a deputy to the muster master-general on April 10, 1777, and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. During the encampment at Valley Forge in late 1777 and early 1778, his headquarters was at the David Havard House. He resigned after two years due to ill health and returned home in early 1779.
Bradford joined the bar before the Pennsylvania Supreme Court in September 1779. He was named as the state's Attorney General in 1780, and served until 1791. In 1784, he married Susan Vergereau Boudinot, the only daughter of Elias Boudinot. The following year, 1785, Bradford was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. On August 2, 1791 Bradford represented General William West and argued the first recorded case before the U.S. Supreme Court, West v. Barnes losing the decision. On August 22, 1791, Bradford was appointed to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, and served for three years.
In 1793, Governor Thomas Mifflin asked his help to reduce the use of the death penalty. His report to the legislature was in the form of an essay, "An Inquiry how far the Punishment of Death is Necessary in Pennsylvania". In the next reorganization of Pennsylvania's penal code, the use of capital punishment was substantially reduced. Other states followed the Pennsylvania example.
On January 8, 1794, George Washington named him Attorney General for the United States to replace Edmund Randolph. He died while in office in 1795, and is buried with his wife's family in Saint Mary's Episcopal Churchyard in Burlington, New Jersey. A cenotaph for Bradford was built at his family's burial plot in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia.
Bradford County, Pennsylvania, was named in his honor.
References
External links
Biography at the University of Pennsylvania
Attorneys General of the United States: William Bradford, United States Department of Justice.
|-
1755 births
1795 deaths
American people of English descent
Continental Army officers from Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Attorneys General
Lawyers from Philadelphia
Princeton University alumni
United States Attorneys General
Washington administration cabinet members
18th-century American politicians
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law | [
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218360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Telecommunications%20and%20Information%20Administration | National Telecommunications and Information Administration | The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce that serves as the President's principal adviser on telecommunications policies pertaining to the United States' economic and technological advancement and to regulation of the telecommunications industry.
Among its stated goals are:
Working to ensure that all Americans have affordable phone and cable TV service.
Helping to bring the benefits of advanced telecommunications technologies to millions of Americans in rural and underserved urban areas through its information infrastructure grants.
Providing the hardware that enables public radio and television broadcasters to extend and maintain the reach of their programming.
Advocating competition and liberalization of telecommunications policies around the world.
Participating in international government-to-government negotiations to open markets for U.S. companies.
Negotiating with foreign governments to ensure adequate spectrum for national defense, public safety, and U.S. business needs.
Promoting efficient use of federal radio spectrum and encouraging the development and implementation of new and emerging telecommunications technologies.
Performing long-term research to explore uses of higher frequency spectrum.
Working with Federal, state, and local public safety agencies to address future spectrum requirements.
Main offices
Office of Policy Analysis and Development (OPAD)
The Office of Policy Analysis and Development (OPAD) is the domestic policy division of the NTIA. OPAD is responsible for executing and managing research and analysis and preparing policy recommendations for the Executive Branch. The domestic policy office is responsible for creating policies that promote innovation and growth, both politically and economically, that provide for American businesses and consumers, alike.
These policies affect how Americans use and gain access to the wireless services like the Internet, telephone service and video programming. Issues the OPAD deals with include making sure all Americans have access to integrated broadband services, content is regulated to keep children safe on the Internet, competition in the telecommunication and information industries are cooperative and that users privacy is protected.
Additionally, OPAD carries out research, files reports, letters and formal comments, and proposes and responds to federal legislation for the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and other regulatory committees.
Office of International Affairs (OIA)
The Office of International Affairs (OIA) is responsible for developing and the implementation of policies to strengthen U.S. companies' ability to compete worldwide in both the Information Technology and Communications sectors. In consultation with other U.S. agencies and the U.S. private sector, OIA partakes in both international and regional conferences and conventions to advocate for policies that open Information and communications technology (ICT) markets and boost competition.
The two main goals of the OIA are to:
Formulate international ICT policy, goals, and strategies:
By leveraging the knowledge of the Office of Spectrum Management, Office of Policy Analysis and Development, Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications, and the Institute for Telecommunications Sciences, the OIA can provide important policy and technical breakdowns to the U.S. negotiators and interagency consignments.
The OIA also provides long-lasting advice to the Executive Branch contemplating the management of the Internet's domain name and numbering system (DNS), which is critical to the overall infrastructure.
Advocate U.S. policy interests
The goal of the OIA here is to foster pro-competitive and flexible policy environments that:
Carry the profits of ICTs to the global community
Open up foreign market opportunities for U.S. Telecommunications and Information Technology companies
Observe the esteemed role of all stakeholders in the production and facilitation of the Internet as well as telecommunications policy issues occurring in the ICT community
The OIA staff helps to participate in U.S. delegations of many different meetings in which global telecommunications and information policy is discussed and developed by providing the negotiators critical policy and expertise advice.
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS)
The Institute for Telecommunication Sciences (ITS) is the research and engineering laboratory of the NTIA. ITS provides technical support to NTIA by further advancing telecommunications and information infrastructure development, strengthening domestic competition, enhancing U.S. telecommunications trade deals, as well as promoting a more effective use of the radio spectrum. Additionally, ITS serves as a key federal appliance in investigating the current telecommunications’ challenges of other federal agencies, state and local governments, private corporations and associations, and international organizations.
Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications (OTIA)
The Office of Telecommunications and Information Applications (OTIA) collaborates public and non-profit entities in productively using telecommunications and information technologies to complete national goals in addition to adequately providing public services. The OTIA is also currently administering programs that are helping people switch to digital television, the Broadband Technology Opportunity Program (BTOP), and Public Safety Interoperable Communications (PSIC) Grant Program.
Additionally the OTIA is involved with the Public Telecommunications Facilities Program (PTFP), a competitive grant program that assists public broadcasting stations, state and local governments, Indian tribes, and non-profit organizations construct facilities to bring educational and cultural programs to the American public using telecommunication broadcast technologies. Funds are allocated to support the Pan-Pacific Educational and Cultural Experiments by Satellite (PEACESAT) project, which provides satellite-delivered education, medical, and environmental emergency telecommunications to numerous small-island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean area.
The OTIA is also involved with the New York City 9/11 Program and the Technology Opportunities Program (TOP). The NYC 9/11 Program provided the Metropolitan Television Alliance (MTA) with $29.5 million for the creation and classification costs of the temporary digital television broadcast system in the NYC area until a more permanent facility is finished atop the Freedom Tower. The TOP program, which was last awarded grants in 2004, plays a significant role in understanding the vision of an information society by providing logical applications of innovative telecommunications and information technologies in both the public and non-profit sectors.
Office of Spectrum Management (OSM)
The NTIA's Office of Spectrum Management is in charge of regulating use of spectrum allocated to the federal government. It serves in a manner equivalent to the Federal Communications Commission for this purpose.
The OSM carries out the responsibilities of managing the radio frequency spectrum by:
Establishing and issuing policy overlooking allocations and administrations governing the Federal spectrum use
Assigning plans for both peacetime and wartime use of the spectrum
Preparing for, participating in, and establishing the results of international radio conferences
Maintaining spectrum use databases
Participating in all aspects of the federal government’s communications regarding emergency readiness activities and automated information security systems
The NTIA Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management, also known as the "Red Book," is a publication of the United States Office of Spectrum Management of the NTIA, and is the official source for all technical regulations relating to the use of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum. The NTIA is the regulating agency for all Federal spectrum use.
Broadband USA
In February 2009, the United States Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, including a $7.2 billion grant to the NTIA and U.S. Department of Agriculture's Rural Utilities Service to bolster broadband access across the United States. Of the grant, $4.7 billion was allocated to provide for the implementation of broadband infrastructure, develop and amplify public computer centers, encourage reasonable adoption of broadband service, and create and sustain a nationwide map of broadband proficiency and availability.
This project, known as the Broadband Technology Opportunities Program is being administered by the NTIA in three levels. The secondary purpose of this project is to reduce the digital gap between the various generation demographics.
Comprehensive Community Infrastructure is the first of three projects in the BTOP. It aims to develop and unfold new or improved broadband internet facilities as well as to network with schools, libraries, hospitals, public safety facilities and other community anchor institutions.
The BTOP will also focus on Public Computer centers and will create new public computer facilities or enhance existing facilities that already offer broadband services to the general public or specific vulnerable populations.
The third project that the BTOP plans to address is Sustainable Broadband Adoption. This project will center in on increasing broadband internet usage, specifically in areas where broadband technology has been unavailable or underutilized. This includes digital literacy training and outreach campaigns to educate the general public on the importance and relevance of broadband in everyday life.
In 2009, the NTIA also launched the State Broadband Data and Development Program to carry out the missions of both the Recovery Act and the Broadband Data Improvement Act to establish an encompassing project that sustains the integration of broadband technology into the economy.
Since the program commenced, NTIA allocated $293 million to 56 grantees, which include one from each state, five territories and the District of Columbia. Grantees are responsible for funding the creation, expansion and maintenance, as well as supporting and encouraging the use of, broadband technology. These efforts are made to aid small businesses and community institutions in the efficient and effective use of technology as well as to conduct research as to the boundaries in broadband expansion and innovation of broadband technology in the future.
National Broadband Map
These programs collected data used by the NTIA to refurbish a public interactive National Broadband Map that was released in February, 2011. The map was authorized by Congress with the 2008 Broadband Data Improvement Act and was funded through the 2009 economic stimulus bill. The map will continue to be updated every six months with help from grantees and the general public.
The National Broadband Map is the foundation for efforts to expand and improve broadband internet access around the United States in under-equipped communities as well as assisting businesses and consumers to educate them on broadband internet options. The NTIA's findings show that while strides were made in broadband development and implementation, many people and institutions lack the broadband availability and capability needed for full internet engagement. In the last year, broadband access in households has increased nearly five percent and the number of people not using the internet is down over three percent.. Yet, lower demographic groups continue to lack behind in internet capability.
The NTIA also found that many community anchor institutions are generally underserved in broadband connectivity. The data showed that two-thirds of the surveyed schools were signed up for broadband service that provide less than half the speed that educational technology studies recommend and only four percent of libraries subscribe to recommended broadband speeds.
Along with the continuous update of the National Broadband Map, the NTIA will sustain its state-driven efforts to increase broadband implementation and will move to expand its collaboration efforts to serve as an expansive network to empower broadband developers.
2020 data breach
In 2020, the NTIA suffered a data breach following a cyberattack likely conducted by a nation state adversary, possibly Russia.
See also
First Responder Network Authority (FirstNet)
White Spaces
References
External links
National Telecommunications and Information Administration official site
NTIA's BTOP website
National Telecommunications and Information Administration in the Federal Register
NTIA's National Broadband Map
United States communications regulation
United States Department of Commerce agencies
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218361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20pintail | Northern pintail | The pintail or northern pintail (Anas acuta) is a duck species with wide geographic distribution that breeds in the northern areas of Europe and across the Palearctic and North America. It is migratory and winters south of its breeding range to the equator. Unusually for a bird with such a large range, it has no geographical subspecies if the possibly conspecific duck Eaton's pintail is considered to be a separate species.
This is a large duck, and the male's long central tail feathers give rise to the species' English and scientific names. Both sexes have blue-grey bills and grey legs and feet. The drake is more striking, having a thin white stripe running from the back of its chocolate-coloured head down its neck to its mostly white undercarriage. The drake also has attractive grey, brown, and black patterning on its back and sides. The hen's plumage is more subtle and subdued, with drab brown feathers similar to those of other female dabbling ducks. Hens make a coarse quack and the drakes a flute-like whistle.
The northern pintail is a bird of open wetlands which nests on the ground, often some distance from water. It feeds by dabbling for plant food and adds small invertebrates to its diet during the nesting season. It is highly gregarious when not breeding, forming large mixed flocks with other species of duck. This duck's population is affected by predators, parasites and avian diseases. Human activities, such as agriculture, hunting and fishing, have also had a significant impact on numbers. Nevertheless, owing to the huge range and large population of this species, it is not threatened globally.
Taxonomy
This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Anas acuta. The scientific name comes from two Latin words: anas, meaning "duck", and acuta, which comes from the verb acuere, "to sharpen"; the species term, like the English name, refers to the pointed tail of the male in breeding plumage.
Within the large dabbling duck genus Anas, the northern pintail's closest relatives are other pintails, such as the yellow-billed pintail (A. georgica) and Eaton's pintail (A. eatoni). The pintails are sometimes separated in the genus Dafila (described by Stephens, 1824), an arrangement supported by morphological, molecular and behavioural data. The famous British ornithologist Sir Peter Scott gave this name to his daughter, the artist Dafila Scott.
Eaton's pintail has two subspecies, A. e. eatoni (the Kerguelen pintail) of Kerguelen Islands, and A. e. drygalskyi (the Crozet pintail) of Crozet Islands, and was formerly considered conspecific with the Northern Hemisphere's northern pintail. Sexual dimorphism is much less marked in the southern pintails, with the male's breeding appearance being similar to the female plumage. Unusually for a species with such a large range, northern pintail has no geographical subspecies if Eaton's pintail is treated as a separate species.
A claimed extinct subspecies from Manra Island, Tristram's pintail, A. a. modesta, appears to be indistinguishable from the nominate form. The three syntype specimens of Dafila modesta Tristram (Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1886, p.79. pl. VII), the extinct subspecies, are held in the vertebrate zoology collections of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession numbers NML-VZ T11792 (male immature), NML-VZ T11795 (female adult) and NML-VZ T11797 (female adult). The specimens were collected by J. V. Arundel in Sydney Island (Manra Island), Phoenix Islands in 1885 and came to the Liverpool national collection via Canon Henry Baker Tristram's collection which was purchased in 1896.
Description
The northern pintail is a fairly large duck with a wing chord of and wingspan of . The male is in length and weighs , and therefore is considerably larger than the female, which is long and weighs . The northern pintail broadly overlaps in size with the similarly-widespread mallard, but is more slender, elongated and gracile, with a relatively longer neck and (in males) a longer tail. The unmistakable breeding plumaged male has a chocolate-brown head and white breast with a white stripe extending up the side of the neck. Its upperparts and sides are grey, but elongated grey feathers with black central stripes are draped across the back from the shoulder area. The vent area is yellow, contrasting with the black underside of the tail, which has the central feathers elongated to as much as . The bill is bluish and the legs are blue-grey.
The adult female is mainly scalloped and mottled in light brown with a more uniformly grey-brown head, and its pointed tail is shorter than the male's; it is still easily identified by its shape, long neck, and long grey bill. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake pintail looks similar to the female, but retains the male upperwing pattern and long grey shoulder feathers. Juvenile birds resemble the female, but are less neatly scalloped and have a duller brown speculum with a narrower trailing edge.
The pintail walks well on land, and swims well. In water, the swimming posture is forward leaning, with the base of the neck almost flush with the water. It has a very fast flight, with its wings slightly swept-back, rather than straight out from the body like other ducks. In flight, the male shows a black speculum bordered white at the rear and pale rufous at the front, whereas the female's speculum is dark brown bordered with white, narrowly at the front edge but very prominently at the rear, being visible at a distance of .
The male's call is a soft whistle, similar to that of the common teal, whereas the female has a mallard-like descending quack, and a low croak when flushed.
Distribution and habitat
This dabbling duck breeds across northern areas of the Palearctic south to about Poland and Mongolia, and in Canada, Alaska and the Midwestern United States. Mainly in winters south of its breeding range, reaches almost to the equator in Panama, northern sub-Saharan Africa and tropical South Asia. Small numbers migrate to Pacific islands, particularly Hawaii, where a few hundred birds winter on the main islands in shallow wetlands and flooded agricultural habitats. Transoceanic journeys also occur: a bird that was caught and ringed in Labrador, Canada, was shot by a hunter in England nine days later, and Japanese-ringed birds have been recovered from six US states east to Utah and Mississippi. In parts of the range, such as Great Britain and the northwestern United States, the pintail may be present all year.
The northern pintail's breeding habitat is open unwooded wetlands, such as wet grassland, lakesides or tundra. In winter, it will utilise a wider range of open habitats, such as sheltered estuaries, brackish marshes and coastal lagoons. It is highly gregarious outside the breeding season and forms very large mixed flocks with other ducks.
Behaviour
Breeding
Both sexes reach sexual maturity at one year of age. The male mates with the female by swimming close to her with his head lowered and tail raised, continually whistling. If there is a group of males, they will chase the female in flight until only one drake is left. The female prepares for copulation, which takes place in the water, by lowering her body; the male then bobs his head up and down and mounts the female, taking the feathers on the back of her head in his mouth. After mating, he raises his head and back and whistles.
Breeding takes place between April and June, with the nest being constructed on the ground and hidden amongst vegetation in a dry location, often some distance from water. It is a shallow scrape on the ground lined with plant material and down. The female lays seven to nine cream-coloured eggs at the rate of one per day; the eggs are in size and weigh , of which 7% is shell. If predators destroy the first clutch, the female can produce a replacement clutch as late as the end of July.
The hen alone incubates the eggs for 22 to 24 days before they hatch. The precocial downy chicks are then led by the female to the nearest body of water, where they feed on dead insects on the water surface. The chicks fledge in 46 to 47 days after hatching, but stay with the female until she has completed moulting.
Around three-quarters of chicks live long enough to fledge, but not more than half of those survive long enough to reproduce. The maximum recorded age is 27 years and 5 months for a Dutch bird.
Feeding
The pintail feeds by dabbling and upending in shallow water for plant food mainly in the evening or at night, and therefore spends much of the day resting. Its long neck enables it to take food items from the bottom of water bodies up to deep, which are beyond the reach of other dabbling ducks like the mallard.
The winter diet is mainly plant material including seeds and rhizomes of aquatic plants, but the pintail sometimes feeds on roots, grain and other seeds in fields, though less frequently than other Anas ducks. During the nesting season, this bird eats mainly invertebrate animals, including aquatic insects, molluscs and crustaceans.
Health
Pintail nests and chicks are vulnerable to predation by mammals, such as foxes and badgers, and birds like gulls, crows and magpies. The adults can take flight to escape terrestrial predators, but nesting females in particular may be surprised by large carnivores such as bobcats. Large birds of prey, such as northern goshawks, will take ducks from the ground, and some falcons, including the gyrfalcon, have the speed and power to catch flying birds.
It is susceptible to a range of parasites including Cryptosporidium, Giardia, tapeworms, blood parasites and external feather lice, and is also affected by other avian diseases. It is often the dominant species in major mortality events from avian botulism and avian cholera, and can also contract avian influenza, the H5N1 strain of which is highly pathogenic and occasionally infects humans.
The northern pintail is a popular species for game shooting because of its speed, agility, and excellent eating qualities, and is hunted across its range. Although one of the world's most numerous ducks, the combination of hunting with other factors has led to population declines, and local restrictions on hunting have been introduced at times to help conserve numbers.
This species' preferred habitat of shallow water is naturally susceptible to problems such as drought or the encroachment of vegetation, but this duck's habitat might be increasingly threatened by climate change. Populations are also affected by the conversion of wetlands and grassland to arable crops, depriving the duck of feeding and nesting areas. Spring planting means that many nests of this early breeding duck are destroyed by farming activities, and a Canadian study showed that more than half of the surveyed nests were destroyed by agricultural work such as ploughing and harrowing.
Hunting with lead shot, along with the use of lead sinkers in angling, has been identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl, which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands where the shot collects. A Spanish study showed that northern pintail and common pochard were the species with the highest levels of lead shot ingestion, higher than in northern countries of the western Palearctic flyway, where lead shot has been banned. In the United States, Canada, and many western European countries, all shot used for waterfowl must now be non-toxic, and therefore may not contain any lead.
Status
The northern pintail has a large range, estimated at , and a population estimated at 4.8–4.9 million individuals. It is therefore not believed to meet the IUCN Red List threshold criterion of a population decline of more than 30% in ten years or three generations, and is evaluated as of least concern.
In the Palaearctic, breeding populations are declining in much of the range, including its stronghold in Russia. In other regions, populations are stable or fluctuating.
Pintails in North America at least have been badly affected by avian diseases, with the breeding population falling from more than 10 million in 1957 to 3.5 million by 1964. Although the species has recovered from that low point, the breeding population in 1999 was 30% below the long-term average, despite years of major efforts focused on restoring the species. In 1997, an estimated 1.5 million water birds, the majority being northern pintails, died from avian botulism during two outbreaks in Canada and Utah.
The northern pintail is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies, but it has no special status under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulates international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants.
References
External links
northern pintail
Holarctic birds
Birds of Africa
Birds of Hispaniola
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Haiti
northern pintail
northern pintail | [
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|
218362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pintail | Pintail | Pintail may refer to:
Animals
Dabbling ducks
Northern pintail (Anas acuta), sometimes called the pintail, the most common pintail species
White-cheeked pintail (Anas bahamensis), from the Caribbean, South America and the Galápagos
Yellow-billed pintail (Anas georgica), found from southern Colombia to South Georgia
South Georgia pintail (Anas georgica georgica), the nominate race of the yellow-billed pintail
Eaton's pintail (Anas eatoni), from the islands of Kerguelen and Crozet
Other animals
Pin-tailed snipe (Gallinago stenura), a small stocky wader
Acisoma, a genus of dragonflies
Other uses
Fairey Pintail, a British single-engined floatplane fighter
Haynes Pintail canard-configuration ultralight aircraft
Pintail Island, Nunavut, Canada
Pin-tailed longboards, a type of skateboard
USS Pintail (AMc-17), a U.S. Navy minesweeper
Pintail Duck, a Disney character in the Duck family
See also
Pin the tail on the donkey, traditional children's game
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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|
218363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Patent%20and%20Trademark%20Office | United States Patent and Trademark Office | The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) is an agency in the U.S. Department of Commerce that issues patents to inventors and businesses for their inventions, and trademark registration for product and intellectual property identification.
The USPTO is "unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars". Its "operating structure is like a business in that it receives requests for services—applications for patents and trademark registrations—and charges fees projected to cover the cost of performing the services [it] provide[s]".
The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, Virginia. The offices under Patents and the Chief Information Officer that remained just outside the southern end of Crystal City completed moving to Randolph Square, a brand-new building in Shirlington Village, on April 27, 2009.
The Office is headed by the Under Secretary of Commerce for Intellectual Property and Director of the United States Patent and Trademark Office, a position last held by Andrei Iancu until he left office on January 20, 2021. Commissioner of Patents Drew Hirshfeld is performing the functions of the Under Secretary and Director in the absence of an appointment or nomination to the positions.
The USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office (EPO) and the Japan Patent Office (JPO) as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO is also a Receiving Office, an International Searching Authority and an International Preliminary Examination Authority for international patent applications filed in accordance with the Patent Cooperation Treaty.
Mission
The USPTO maintains a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U.S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, wherein the powers of Congress are defined.
It states, in part:
The Congress shall have Power ... To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.
The PTO's mission is to promote "industrial and technological progress in the United States and strengthen the national economy" by:
Administering the laws relating to patents and trademarks;
Advising the Secretary of Commerce, the President of the United States, and the administration on patent, trademark, and copyright protection; and
Providing advice on the trade-related aspects of intellectual property.
Structure
The USPTO is headquartered at the Alexandria Campus, consisting of 11 buildings in a city-like development surrounded by ground floor retail and high rise residential buildings between the Metro stations of King Street station (the main search building is two blocks due south of the King Street station) and Eisenhower Avenue station where the actual Alexandria Campus is located between Duke Street (on the North) to Eisenhower Avenue (on the South), and between John Carlyle Street (on the East) to Elizabeth Lane (on the West) in Alexandria, Virginia. An additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009.
The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, and Silicon Valley to reduce backlog and reflect regional industrial strengths. The first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13, 2012. In 2013, due to the budget sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley, which is home to one of the nation's top patent-producing cities, was put on hold. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location opened in the San Jose City Hall in 2015.
, the end of the U.S. government's fiscal year, the PTO had 9,716 employees, nearly all of whom are based at its five-building headquarters complex in Alexandria. Of those, 6,242 were patent examiners (almost all of whom were assigned to examine utility patents; only 99 were assigned to examine design patents) and 388 were trademark examining attorneys; the rest are support staff. While the agency has noticeably grown in recent years, the rate of growth was far slower in fiscal 2009 than in the recent past; this is borne out by data from fiscal 2005 to the present: As of the end of FY 2018, the USPTO was composed of 12,579 federal employees, including 8,185 patent examiners, 579 trademark examiners, and 3,815 other staff.
Patent examiners make up the bulk of the employees at USPTO. They hold degrees in various scientific disciplines, but do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys.
All examiners work under a strict, "count"-based production system. For every application, "counts" are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, and upon disposal of an application.
The Commissioner for Patents oversees three main bodies, headed by former Deputy Commissioner for Patent Operations, currently Peggy Focarino, the Deputy Commissioner for Patent Examination Policy, currently Andrew Hirshfeld as Acting Deputy, and finally the Commissioner for Patent Resources and Planning, which is currently vacant. The Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts.
Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners could be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, an administrative law body of the USPTO. Decisions of the BPAI could further be appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, or a civil suit could be brought against the Commissioner of Patents in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. The United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or "PTAB".
Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, or a civil action may also be brought.
In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues. To address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006 (year ending September 30, 2006), 1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, and 1,211 in fiscal year 2008. The USPTO expected to continue hiring patent examiners at a rate of approximately 1,200 per year through 2012; however, due to a slowdown in new application filings since the onset of the late-2000s economic crisis, and projections of substantial declines in maintenance fees in coming years, the agency imposed a hiring freeze in early March 2009.
In 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the "Patent Training Academy". It is an eight-month program designed to teach new patent examiners the fundamentals of patent law, practice and examination procedure in a college-style environment. Because of the impending USPTO budget crisis previously alluded to, it had been rumored that the Academy would be closed by the end of 2009. Focarino, then Acting Commissioner for Patents, denied in a May 2009 interview that the Academy was being shut down, but stated that it would be cut back because the hiring goal for new examiners in fiscal 2009 was reduced to 600. Ultimately, 588 new patent examiners were hired in fiscal year 2009.
In 2016, the USPTO partnered with the Girl Scouts of the USA to create an "Intellectual Property Patch" merit badge, which is awarded to Girl Scouts at four different levels.
Management
In October 2021, President Joe Biden nominated attorney Kathi Vidal to serve as the USPTO director.
Fee diversion
For many years, Congress has "diverted" about 10% of the fees that the USPTO collected into the general treasury of the United States. In effect, this took money collected from the patent system to use for the general budget. This fee diversion has been generally opposed by patent practitioners (e.g., patent attorneys and patent agents), inventors, the USPTO, as well as former federal judge Paul R. Michel. These stakeholders would rather use the funds to improve the patent office and patent system, such as by implementing the USPTO's 21st Century Strategic Plan. The last six annual budgets of the George W. Bush administration did not propose to divert any USPTO fees, and the first budget of the Barack Obama administration continues this practice; however, stakeholders continue to press for a permanent end to fee diversion.
The discussion of which party can appropriate the fees is more than a financial question. Patent fees represent a policy lever that influences both the number of applications submitted to the office as well as their quality.
Patents
On July 31, 1790, the first U.S. patent was issued to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement "in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process". This patent was signed by then President George Washington.
The X-Patents (the first 10,280 issued between 1790 and 1836) were destroyed by a fire; fewer than 3,000 of those have been recovered and re-issued with numbers that include an "X". The X generally appears at the end of the numbers hand-written on full-page patent images; however, in patent collections and for search purposes, the X is considered to be the patent type – analogous to the "D" of design patents – and appears at the beginning of the number. The X distinguishes the patents from those issued after the fire, which began again with patent number 1.
Each year, the PTO issues over 150,000 patents to companies and individuals worldwide. , the PTO has granted 8,743,423 patents and has received 16,020,302 applications.
On June 19, 2018, the 10 millionth U.S. patent was issued to Joseph Marron for invention of a "Coherent LADAR [System] Using Intra-Pixel Quadrature Detection" to improve laser detection and ranging (LADAR). The patent was the first to receive the newly redesigned patent cover. It was signed by President Donald Trump during a special ceremony at the Oval Office.
Trademarks
The USPTO examines applications for trademark registration, which can be filed under five different filing bases: use in commerce, intent to use, foreign application, foreign registration, or international registration. If approved, the trademarks are registered on either the Principal Register or the Supplemental Register, depending upon whether the mark meets the appropriate distinctiveness criteria. This federal system governs goods and services distributed via interstate commerce, and operates alongside state level trademark registration systems.
Trademark applications have grown substantially in recent years, jumping from 296,490 new applications in 2000, to 345,000 new applications in 2014, to 458,103 new applications in 2018. Recent growth has been driven partially by growing numbers of trademark applications originating in China; trademark applications from China have grown more than 12-fold since 2013, and in 2017, one in every nine trademark applications reviewed by the U.S. Trademark Office originated in China.
Since 2008, the Trademark Office has hosted a National Trademark Expo every two years, billing it as "a free, family-friendly event designed to educate the public about trademarks and their importance in the global marketplace." The Expo features celebrity speakers such as Anson Williams (of the television show Happy Days) and basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and has numerous trademark-holding companies as exhibitors. Before the 2009 National Trademark Expo, the Trademark Office designed and launched a kid-friendly trademark mascot known as T. Markey, who appears as an anthropomorphized registered trademark symbol. T. Markey is featured prominently on the Kids section of the USPTO website, alongside fellow IP mascots Ms. Pat Pending (with her robot cat GeaRS) and Mark Trademan.
In 2020, trademark applications marked the sharpest declines and inclines in American history. During Spring, COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns led to reduced filings, which then increased in July 2020 to exceed the previous year. August 2020 was subsequently the highest month of trademark filings in the history of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Representation
The USPTO only allows certain qualified persons to practice before the USPTO. Practice includes filing of patent and trademark applications on behalf of individuals and companies, prosecuting the patent and trademark applications, and participating in administrative appeals and other proceedings before the PTO examiners, examining attorneys and boards. The USPTO sets its own standards for who may practice. Any person who practices patent law before the USPTO must become a registered patent attorney or agent. A patent agent is a person who has passed the USPTO registration examination (the "patent bar") but has not passed any state bar exam to become a licensed attorney; a patent attorney is a person who has passed both a state bar and the patent bar and is in good standing as an attorney. A patent agent can only act in a representative capacity in patent matters presented to the USPTO, and may not represent a patent holder or applicant in a court of law. To be eligible for taking the patent bar exam, a candidate must possess a degree in "engineering or physical science or the equivalent of such a degree". Any person who practices trademark law before the USPTO must be an active member in good standing of the highest court of any state.
The United States allows any citizen from any country to sit for the patent bar (if he/she has the requisite technical background). Only Canada has a reciprocity agreement with the United States that confers upon a patent agent similar rights.
An unrepresented inventor may file a patent application and prosecute it on his or her own behalf (pro se). If it appears to a patent examiner that an inventor filing a pro se application is not familiar with the proper procedures of the Patent Office, the examiner may suggest that the filing party obtain representation by a registered patent attorney or patent agent. The patent examiner cannot recommend a specific attorney or agent, but the Patent Office does post a list of those who are registered.
While the inventor of a relatively simple-to-describe invention may well be able to produce an adequate specification and detailed drawings, there remains language complexity in what is claimed, either in the particular claim language of a utility application, or in the manner in which drawings are presented in a design application. There is also skill required when searching for prior art that is used to support the application and to prevent applying for a patent for something that may be unpatentable. A patent examiner will make special efforts to help pro se inventors understand the process but the failure to adequately understand or respond to an Office action from the USPTO can endanger the inventor's rights, and may lead to abandonment of the application.
Electronic filing system
The USPTO accepts patent applications filed in electronic form. Inventors or their patent agents/attorneys can file applications as Adobe PDF documents. Filing fees can be paid by credit card or by a USPTO "deposit account".
Patent search tools
The USPTO web site provides free electronic copies of issued patents and patent applications as multiple-page TIFF (graphic) documents. The site also provides Boolean search and analysis tools.
The USPTO's free distribution service only distributes the patent documents as a set of TIFF files. Numerous free and commercial services provide patent documents in other formats, such as Adobe PDF and CPC.
Criticisms
The USPTO has been criticized for granting patents for impossible or absurd, already known, or arguably obvious inventions. Economists have documented that, although the USPTO makes mistakes when granting patents, these mistakes might be less prominent than some might believe.
Controversial patents
, "Method of exercising a cat", covers having a cat chase the beam from a laser pointer. The patent has been criticized as being obvious.
, "Sealed crustless sandwich", issued in 1999, covers the design of a sandwich with crimped edges. However, all claims of the patent were subsequently canceled by the PTO upon reexamination.
, "Hyper-light-speed antenna", an antenna that sends signals faster than the speed of light. According to the description in the patent, "The present invention takes a transmission of energy, and instead of sending it through normal time and space, it pokes a small hole into another dimension, thus, sending the energy through a place which allows transmission of energy to exceed the speed of light."
, "Method of swinging on a swing", issued April 9, 2002, was granted to a seven-year-old boy, whose father, a patent attorney, wanted to demonstrate how the patent system worked to his son who was five years old at the time of the application. The PTO initially rejected it due to prior art, but eventually issued the patent. However, all claims of the patent were subsequently canceled by the PTO upon reexamination.
, "Space vehicle propelled by the pressure of inflationary vacuum state", describes an anti-gravity device. In November 2005, the USPTO was criticized by physicists for granting it. The journal Nature first highlighted this patent issued for a device that presumably amounts to a perpetual motion machine, defying the laws of physics. The device comprises a particular electrically superconducting shield and electromagnetic generating device. The examiner allowed the claims because the design of the shield and device was novel and not obvious. In situations such as this where a substantial question of patentability is raised after a patent is issued, the Commissioner of the Patent Office can order a reexamination of the patent.
Controversial trademarks
, "Cloud Computing" for Dell, covering "custom manufacture of computer hardware for use in data centers and mega-scale computing environments for others", was allowed by a trademark attorney on July 8, 2008. Cloud computing is a generic term that could define technology infrastructure for years to come, which had been in general use at the time of the application. The application was rejected on August 12, 2008, as descriptive and generic.
, "Netbook" for Psion, covering "laptop computers" was registered on November 21, 2000. Although the company discontinued the netBook line in November 2003 and allowed the trademark to become genericized through use by journalists and vendors (products marketed as 'netbooks' include the Dell Inspiron Mini Series, Asus eeePC, HP Mini 1000, MSI Wind Netbook and others), USPTO subsequently rejected a number of trademarks citing a "likelihood of confusion" under section 2(d), including 'G NETBOOK' ( rejected October 31, 2008), MSI's 'WIND NETBOOK' () and Coby Electronics' 'COBY NETBOOK' () rejected January 13, 2009. Psion also delivered a batch of cease-and-desist letters on December 23, 2008, relating to the genericized trademark.
Slow patent examination and backlog
The USPTO has been criticized for taking an inordinate amount of time in examining patent applications. This is particularly true in the fast-growing area of business method patents. As of 2005, patent examiners in the business method area were still examining patent applications filed in 2001.
The delay was attributed by spokesmen for the Patent Office to a combination of a sudden increase in business method patent filings after the 1998 State Street Bank decision, the unfamiliarity of patent examiners with the business and financial arts (e.g., banking, insurance, stock trading etc.), and the issuance of a number of controversial patents (e.g., "Amazon one click patent") in the business method area.
Effective August 2006, the USPTO introduced an accelerated patent examination procedure in an effort to allow inventors a speedy evaluation of an application with a final disposition within twelve months. The procedure requires additional information to be submitted with the application and also includes an interview with the examiner. The first accelerated patent was granted on March 15, 2007, with a six-month issuance time.
As of the end of 2008, there were 1,208,076 patent applications pending at the Patent Office. At the end of 1997, the number of applications pending was 275,295. Therefore, over those eleven years there was a 439% increase in the number of pending applications.
December 2012 data showed that there was 597,579 unexamined patent applications in the backlog. During the four years since 2009, more than a 50% reduction was achieved. First action pendency was reported as 19.2 months.
Telework program fraud allegations
In 2012, the USPTO initiated an internal investigation into allegations of fraud in the telework program, which allowed employees to work from home. Investigators discovered that some patent examiners had lied about the hours they had worked, but high level officials prevented access to computer records, thus limiting the number of employees who could be punished.
See also
Confederate Patent Office
Criticism of the United States government § Criticism of agencies
Electronic Filing System (USPTO)
Ex Parte Quayle
Google Patents
John Ruggles
Invention Secrecy Act
NASA spinoff
National Inventors Hall of Fame
Old Patent Office Building
Patent Application Information Retrieval (PAIR)
Patent Model
Patent Office
Patent Office Professional Association (POPA)
Science and technology in the United States
Technological history of the United States
Timeline of United States discoveries
Timeline of United States inventions
Yankee ingenuity
1836 U.S. Patent Office fire
1877 U.S. Patent Office fire
References and notes
Further reading
External links
USPTO in the Federal Register
Searches (USPTO)
Trademark Applications and Registrations Retrieval (TARR) search by trademark serial number or registration number (USPTO)
Office of Enrollment & Discipline (OED) (USPTO)
Patent and Trademark Depository Library Program (USPTO)
Stopfakes.gov Small Business Resources (USPTO)
Patent Full-Text and Full-Page Image Databases (USPTO)
Patent offices
Intellectual property organizations
United States trademark law
Agencies of the United States government
Patent and Trademark Office
Patent and Trademark Office
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|
218370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology%20Administration | Technology Administration | The Technology Administration (TA) was an agency in the United States Department of Commerce that worked with United States industries to promote economic competitiveness. The TA used the web domain technology.gov. The TA was most recently led by former Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology Robert Cresanti.
The TA oversaw three agencies:
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
Office of Technology Policy (OTP)
History
The Technology Administration was created by the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, 15 U.S.C. 3704.
The TA was abolished by the America COMPETES Act of 2007. NIST and NTIS continue on as agencies. It appears that the Office of Technology Policy was abolished.
See also
Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations
References
United States Department of Commerce
Defunct agencies of the United States government
2007 disestablishments in the United States | [
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|
218371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Technical%20Information%20Service | National Technical Information Service | The National Technical Information Service (NTIS) is an agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce. The primary mission of NTIS is to collect and organize scientific, technical, engineering, and business information generated by U.S. Government-sponsored research and development, for private industry, government, academia, and the public. The systems, equipment, financial structure, and specialized staff skills that NTIS maintains to undertake its primary mission allow it to provide assistance to other agencies requiring such specialized resources.
Overview
Under the provisions of the National Technical Information Act of 1988 (15 U.S.C. 3704b), NTIS is authorized to establish and maintain a permanent repository of non-classified scientific, technical, and engineering information; cooperate and coordinate its operations with other Government scientific, technical, and engineering information programs; and implement new methods or media for the dissemination of scientific, technical, and engineering information, including producing and disseminating information products in electronic format and to enter into arrangements necessary for the conduct of its business.
NTIS serves the United States as a central repository for government-funded scientific, technical, engineering, and business related information to assure businesses, libraries, academia, and the public timely access to approximately 2.5 million publications covering over 350 subject areas. The stated aim of NTIS is to support the Department of Commerce mission to promote the nation's economic growth by providing access to information that stimulates innovation and discovery. (Public Law 102-245, Section 108 American Technology Preeminence Act of 1991).
Additionally, NTIS acts as the federal government's IT provider and consultant.
Scope
Containing over 3 million bibliographic records, the contents of the collection include research reports, computer products, software, and more. The complete electronic file dates back to 1964. On average, NTIS has added over 30,000 new records per year to the collection over the past ten years. Most records include meta-data. It also contains a comprehensive collection of nuclear research, beginning with the Manhattan project, and the latest government sponsored research. NTIS covers a wide spectrum of subject areas with 39 Major Subject Categories and 375 Sub-categories.
Operations
NTIS operations includes the acquisition and archiving in perpetuity of scientific and technical information. This information is freely available at no charge, by law. The cost of operating the site, however, must also by law be recovered from those using the site for anything beyond raw data access. There is a fee for use of the search tools.
NTIS also provides technical support solutions to other Federal Government Agencies. These Lines of Business include:
Shipping & Fulfillment Services
e-Training Services NTIS is an OPM-approved eTraining Service Provider
Federal Energy Data Management Mandated by the Energy Policy Act of 2005
Government Web Hosting
Scanning, Digitization & Electronic Archive Services NTIS currently working with the Social Security Administration, National Science Foundation, Internal Revenue Service, and other Federal Agencies
Other Support solutions Includes Electronic & Multimedia Services, Email Broadcast & Fax Management, Billing & Collections Services, and more
Initiatives
In 2008, NTIS recognized the need to provide subscription-based access to the collection using an online platform. Incrementally in 2009
and 2012, National Technical Reports Library (NTRS). Federal Science Repository Service (FTRS) followed V3 of NTRL.
NTIS has been working with Public.Resource.Org to digitize videos and to post content on YouTube.
Statutory authorities
NTIS' basic authority to operate a permanent clearinghouse of scientific and technical information is codified as chapter 23 of Title 15 of the United States Code (15 U.S.C. 1151-1157). This chapter also established NTIS' authority to charge fees for its products and services and to recover all costs through such fees "to the extent feasible."
See also
Defense Technical Information Center
Government Printing Office
National Archives and Records Administration
National Technical Reports Library
References
(Dept. of Commerce)
Energy Policy Act of 2005
NTIS Statutory Authorities
National Technical Information Act of 1988
American Preeminence Technology Act
Section 1526 of Title 15 of the U.S. Code
External links
Government databases in the United States
United States Department of Commerce agencies
Government agencies established in 1988
1988 establishments in the United States | [
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|
218373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristic%20equation | Characteristic equation | Characteristic equation may refer to:
Characteristic equation (calculus), used to solve linear differential equations
Characteristic equation, the equation obtained by equating to zero the characteristic polynomial of a matrix or of a linear mapping
Method of characteristics, a technique for solving partial differential equations
See also
Characteristic (disambiguation) | [
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|
218375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office%20of%20Technology%20Policy | Office of Technology Policy | The Office of Technology Policy (OTP) is an office within the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Formerly it was an office of the now defunct Technology Administration of the United States Department of Commerce. The office works with industry to promote competitiveness and advocates integrated policies for maximizing the impact of technology on economic growth.
OTP is the only office in the United States federal government with the explicit mission of developing and advocating national policies and initiatives that use technology to build America's economic strength. OTP's stated goals include the creation of high-wage jobs and improvements in the United States' quality of life.
External links
United States Department of Commerce | [
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|
218377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaci%20Velasquez | Jaci Velasquez | Jacquelyn "Jaci" Davette Velasquez (Spanish Jaci Velásquez, born October 15, 1979) is an American actress and Contemporary Christian and Latin pop singer and songwriter, performing in both English and Spanish.
Velasquez has sold almost three million albums in the US, recorded three Platinum and three Gold albums, and recorded 16 singles that hit No. 1 plus six more that entered the top 10. She received a Latin Billboard Music Award in 2002 for her album "Mi Corazón", eight Dove Awards, including Best New Artist and Female Vocalist of the Year, as well as three Grammy nominations, and an American Music Award nomination in the category of "Favorite Latin Artist" in 2002.
Since late 2010, Velasquez has co-hosted a morning radio show with Doug Griffin.
Biography
Early life
Velasquez was born in Houston, Texas. She is of Mexican descent. She grew up in an evangelical church where her parents were both singers and pastors. Although she had described herself as a "non-denominational", she later stated in an interview with Morris Cerullo that "you're talking to an Assemblies of God's girl".
At the age of nine, she began traveling with her father, who by that time was a full-time singing evangelist. She began by singing backup, then later sang solo, releasing three independent records. It was while on the road that she was discovered by a representative of Myrrh Records.
Music career
Velasquez released her national debut album Heavenly Place on May 13, 1996; five of its songs became No. 1 hits. The album was later certified Platinum. Velasquez has been distinguished as the fastest selling solo debut recording artist in her genre and the first solo artist in Christian music history to reach gold status with a debut album. She has since released seven more English-language albums, two of which were certified Gold. Five Latin albums garnishing amazing success with Llegar A Ti going double-platinum and Mi Corazón going platinum. She has produced sixteen No. 1 Christian radio hits and six other top-10 singles, and has won nine Dove awards, including New Artist of the Year and two Female Vocalist of the Year wins. Velasquez has also done ad campaigns for Pepsi, Target, Doritos, John Freida's Frizz-Ease hair products and Helzberg Diamonds.
In 1998, she signed to Sony Discos for a four-album deal and was introduced to Rudy Pérez, who produced her first Spanish-language crossover album Llegar a Ti which topped the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart, the first Christian track to top that chart of its kind. This album enabled Velasquez to achieve crossover success by building a fan base among Hispanics. Her first single, "Llegar a Ti," topped the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks and became the first Christian song to top that chart. The song also gave her a Latin Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.
In 2001, she released her second Spanish-language album, Mi Corazón. The album's lead single, "Como Se Cura Una Herida," topped the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks and became one of the biggest singles of the year, receiving multiple award nominations and wins. The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album. "Como Se Cura Una Herida" charted at No. 1 simultaneously with the song "Adore" at No. 1 on the CCM (Inspirational) chart giving Velasquez two simultaneous No. 1s in two different markets.
Her Latin music success includes five Spanish-language releases, two No. 1 Latin Billboard Singles, two Platinum albums, a Premio Lo Nuestro Award for New Artist of the Year, two Billboard Latin Music Awards, and four Dove Awards for Spanish Language Album of the Year.
In September 2008, Velasquez was chosen by the State Department's Bureau of International Information Programs as one of the 15 Prominent Hispanic-Americans in the Arts in America.
In August 2011, Velasquez signed with a new label, Inpop Records, and her album, Diamond, was released on February 7, 2012. Velasquez released her first Spanish-language lullaby album, Buenas noches mi sol, in 2012 with Fisher-Price. Velasquez released a new project on March 31, 2017 through Integrity Music, consisting of an English-language album, Trust, and the Spanish-language version, Confío. At the 48th Dove Awards, Confío won Spanish Language Album of the Year
Acting career
Velasquez made her acting debut in the 2003 film Chasing Papi, which also featured Sofia Vergara, Roselyn Sanchez, and Eduardo Verastegui, as well as Nicole Scherzinger in a cameo role. It was released nationwide in the United States in April 2003. The movie reached No. 11 at the box office, and grossed $6 million worldwide. Velasquez also starred in the Christian films The Encounter and Jerusalem Countdown, both released in 2011.
In November 2010, Velasquez began co-hosting the Family Friendly Morning Show with Doug Griffin after being a guest host for several months. The show airs on over 100 U.S. radio stations for four hours each weekday morning.
In 2016, she played the drama teacher Mrs. Diaz in I'm Not Ashamed, a 2016 biographical drama film based on the journals of Rachel Joy Scott.
Personal life
Velasquez married Darren Potuck, of the band AutoVaughn, on August 16, 2003. They were divorced in 2005.
On December 17, 2006, she married Nic Gonzales in a private ceremony in Austin, Texas. Gonzales is a member of Salvador, a Christian group with whom she had been touring. Their first son Zealand was born in 2007 and their second son Soren in 2009.
Velasquez and her husband were featured in an episode of the home remodeling reality TV show Renovation Realities which aired December 6, 2014 on the DIY Network.
Discography
My Favorite Songs (1990)
Help Me (1992)
Keep the Fire Burning (1994)
Heavenly Place (1996)
Jaci Velasquez (1998)
Llegar A Ti (1999)
Crystal Clear (2000)
Mi Corazón (2001)
Christmas (2001)
Navidad (2001)
Unspoken (2003)
Milagro (2003)
Beauty Has Grace (2005)
Love Out Loud (2008)
Diamond (2012)
Buenas Noches mi Sol / Canciones De Cuna (2012)
Trust/Confío (2017)
Filmography
2003: Chasing Papi
2004: Doc (one episode)
2003: Los Reyes Magos (The 3 Wise Men)
2011: The Encounter
2011: Jerusalem Countdown
2014: Rumors of Wars
2015: VeggieTales: Noah's Ark
2016: I'm Not Ashamed
2017: A Question of Faith
2020: Cover Me
2020: Acquitted by Faith
Bibliography
1996: A Heavenly Place (over 10,000 units sold)
2003: Los Evangelios Toman Vida: The Gospels Come to Life
2012: Coffee and Concealer
Awards
Latin Grammy Award Nominations
2000 Best Female Pop Vocal Performance Llegar A Ti
2004 Best Female Pop Vocal Album Milagro.
2017 Best Christian Album Confío.
Dove Awards
1997 New Artist of the Year
1998 Song of the Year, "On My Knees"
1999 Female Vocalist of the Year
2000 Special Event Album of the Year, "Streams"
2000 Spanish-language Album of the Year, "Llegar a Ti"
2000 Female Vocalist of the Year
2002 Spanish-Language Album of the Year "Mi Corazon"
2003 Spanish-Language Album of the Year "Navidad"
2017 Spanish-Language Album of the Year "Confio"
American Music Awards Nominations
2002 Favorite Latin Artist
Billboard Latin Music Awards
2002 Female Pop Album: "Mi Corazon
Premio Lo Nuestro
2000 for New Artist of the Year
Premios Arpa
2018 Best Female Vocal Album of the Year "Confio"
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
American film actresses
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
American women pop singers
American Latin pop singers
Christian music songwriters
American actresses of Mexican descent
American people of Spanish descent
American people of French descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Arab descent
Word Records artists
Musicians from Houston
American performers of Christian music
American evangelicals
American Pentecostals
Assemblies of God people
Actresses from Houston
Spanish-language singers of the United States
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women singers
Women in Latin music | [
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|
218382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI%20MSP430 | TI MSP430 | The MSP430 is a mixed-signal microcontroller family from Texas Instruments, first introduced on 14 February 1992. Built around a CPU, the MSP430 is designed for low cost and, specifically, low power consumption embedded applications.
Applications
The MSP430 can be used for low powered embedded devices. The current drawn in idle mode can be less than 1 µA. The top CPU speed is 25 MHz. It can be throttled back for lower power consumption. The MSP430 also uses six different low-power modes, which can disable unneeded clocks and CPU. Further, the MSP430 can wake-up in times under 1 microsecond, allowing the controller to stay in sleep mode longer, minimizing average current use.
The device comes in a variety of configurations featuring the usual peripherals: internal oscillator, timer including pulse-width modulation (PWM), watchdog timer (watchdog), USART, Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus, Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C), 10/12/14/16/24-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADC), and brownout reset circuitry. Some less usual peripheral options include comparators (that can be used with the timers to do simple ADC), on-chip operational amplifiers (op-amp) for signal conditioning, 12-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC), liquid crystal display (LCD) driver, hardware multiplier, USB, and direct memory access (DMA) for ADC results. Apart from some older erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM, such as MSP430E3xx) and high volume mask ROM (MSP430Cxxx) versions, all of the devices are in-system programming enabled via Joint Test Action Group (JTAG), full four-wire or Spy-Bi-Wire), a built in bootstrapping loader (BSL) using UART such as RS232, or USB on devices with USB support. No BSL is included in F20xx, G2xx0, G2xx1, G2xx2, or I20xx family devices.
There are, however, limits that preclude its use in more complex embedded systems. The MSP430 does not have an external memory bus, so it is limited to on-chip memory, up to 512 KB flash memory and 66 KB random-access memory (RAM), which may be too small for applications needing large buffers or data tables. Also, although it has a DMA controller, it is very difficult to use it to move data off the chip due to a lack of a DMA output strobe.
MSP430 generations
Six general generations of MSP430 processors exist. In order of development, they are: '3xx generation, '1xx generation, '4xx generation, '2xx generation, '5xx generation, and '6xx generation. The digit after the generation identifies the model (generally higher model numbers are larger and more capable), the third digit identifies the amount of memory included, and the fourth, if present, identifies a minor model variant. The most common variation is a different on-chip analog-to-digital converter.
The 3xx and 1xx generations are limited to a 16-bit address space. In the later generations this was expanded to include '430X' instructions that allow a 20-bit address space. As happened with other processor architectures (e.g. the processor of the PDP-11), extending the addressing range beyond the 16-bit word size introduced some peculiarities and inefficiencies for programs larger than 64 kBytes.
In the following list, it helps to think of the typical 200 mA·Hr capacity of a CR2032 lithium coin cell as 200,000 μA·Hr, or 22.8 μA·year. Thus, considering only the CPU draw, such a battery could supply a 0.7 μA current draw for 32 years. (In reality, battery self-discharge would reduce this number.)
The significance of the RAM retention vs the real-time clock mode is that in real time clock mode the CPU can go to sleep with a clock running which will wake it up at a specific future time. In RAM retention mode, some external signal is required to wake it, e.g., input/output (I/O) pin signal or SPI slave receive interrupt.
MSP430x1xx series
The MSP430x1xx Series is the basic generation without an embedded LCD controller. They are generally smaller than the '3xx generation. These flash- or ROM-based ultra-low-power MCUs offer 8 MIPS, 1.8–3.6 V operation, up to 60 KB flash, and a wide range of analog and digital peripherals.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
0.7 μA real-time clock mode
200 μA / MIPS active
Features fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 6 µs.
Device parameters
Flash options: 1–60 KB
ROM options: 1–16 KB
RAM : 128 B–10 KB
GPIO options: 14, 22, 48 pins
ADC options: Slope, 10 & 12-bit SAR
Other integrated peripherals: 12-bit DAC, up to 2 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, brown-out reset, SVS, USART module (UART, SPI), DMA, 16×16 multiplier, Comparator_A, temperature sensor
MSP430F2xx series
The MSP430F2xx Series are similar to the '1xx generation, but operate at even lower power, support up to 16 MHz operation, and have a more accurate (±2%) on-chip clock that makes it easier to operate without an external crystal. These flash-based ultra-low power devices offer 1.8–3.6 V operation. Includes the very-low power oscillator (VLO), internal pull-up/pull-down resistors, and low-pin count options.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
0.3 μA standby mode (VLO)
0.7 μA real-time clock mode
220 μA / MIPS active
Feature ultra-fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 1 μs
Device parameters
Flash options: 1–120 KB
RAM options: 128 B – 8 KB
GPIO options: 10, 11, 16, 24, 32, and 48 pins
ADC options: Slope, 10 & 12-bit SAR, 16 & 24-bit Sigma Delta
Other integrated peripherals: operational amplifiers, 12-bit DAC, up to 2 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, brown-out reset, SVS, USI module (I²C, SPI), USCI module, DMA, 16×16 multiplier, Comparator_A+, temperature sensor
MSP430G2xx series
The MSP430G2xx Value Series features flash-based Ultra-Low Power MCUs up to 16 MIPS with 1.8–3.6 V operation. Includes the Very-Low power Oscillator (VLO), internal pull-up/pull-down resistors, and low-pin count options, at lower prices than the MSP430F2xx series.
Ultra-Low Power, as low as (@2.2 V):
0.1 μA RAM retention
0.4 μA Standby mode (VLO)
0.7 μA real-time clock mode
220 μA / MIPS active
Ultra-Fast Wake-Up From Standby Mode in <1 μs
Device parameters
Flash options: 0.5–56 KB
RAM options: 128 B–4 KB
GPIO options: 10, 16, 24, 32 pins
ADC options: Slope, 10-bit SAR
Other integrated peripherals: Capacitive Touch I/O, up to 3 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, brown-out reset, USI module (I²C, SPI), USCI module, Comparator_A+, Temp sensor
MSP430x3xx series
The MSP430x3xx Series is the oldest generation, designed for portable instrumentation with an embedded LCD controller. This also includes a frequency-locked loop oscillator that can automatically synchronize to a low-speed (32 kHz) crystal. This generation does not support EEPROM memory, only mask ROM and UV-eraseable and one-time programmable EPROM. Later generations provide only flash memory and mask ROM options. These devices offer 2.5–5.5 V operation, up to 32 KB ROM.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
0.9 μA real-time clock mode
160 μA / MIPS active
Features fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 6 µs.
Device parameters:
ROM options: 2–32 KB
RAM options: 512 B–1 KB
GPIO options: 14, 40 pins
ADC options: Slope, 14-bit SAR
Other integrated peripherals: LCD controller, multiplier
MSP430x4xx series
The MSP430x4xx Series are similar to the '3xx generation, but include an integrated LCD controller, and are larger and more capable. These flash or ROM based devices offers 8–16 MIPS at 1.8–3.6 V operation, with FLL, and SVS. Ideal for low power metering and medical applications.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
0.7 μA real-time clock mode
200 μA / MIPS active
Features fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 6 µs.
Device parameters:
Flash/ROM options: 4 – 120 KB
RAM options: 256 B – 8 KB
GPIO options: 14, 32, 48, 56, 68, 72, 80 pins
ADC options: Slope, 10 & 12-bit SAR, 16-bit Sigma Delta
Other integrated peripherals: SCAN_IF, ESP430, 12-bit DAC, Op Amps, RTC, up to 2 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, basic timer, brown-out reset, SVS, USART module (UART, SPI), USCI module, LCD Controller, DMA, 16×16 & 32x32 multiplier, Comparator_A, temperature sensor, 8 MIPS CPU Speed
MSP430x5xx series
The MSP430x5xx Series are able to run up to 25 MHz, have up to 512 KB flash memory and up to 66 KB RAM. This flash-based family features low active power consumption with up to 25 MIPS at 1.8–3.6 V operation (165 uA/MIPS). Includes an innovative power management module for optimal power consumption and integrated USB.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
2.5 μA real-time clock mode
165 μA / MIPS active
Features fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 5 µs.
Device parameters:
Flash options: up to 512 KB
RAM options: up to 66 KB
ADC options: 10 & 12-bit SAR
GPIO options: 29, 31, 47, 48, 63, 67, 74, 87 pins
Other optional integrated peripherals: 12-bit DAC, High resolution PWM, 5 V I/O's, USB, backup battery switch, up to 4 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, Real-Time Clock, brown-out reset, SVS, USCI module, DMA, 32x32 multiplier, Comp B, temperature sensor
MSP430x6xx series
The MSP430x6xx Series are able to run up to 25 MHz, have up to 512 KB flash memory and up to 66 KB RAM. This flash-based family features low active power consumption with up to 25 MIPS at 1.8–3.6 V operation (165 uA/MIPS). Includes an innovative power management module for optimal power consumption and integrated USB.
Power specification overview, as low as:
0.1 μA RAM retention
2.5 μA real-time clock mode
165 μA / MIPS active
Features fast wake-up from standby mode in less than 5 µs.
Device parameters:
Flash options: up to 512 KB
RAM options: up to 66 KB
ADC options: 12-bit SAR
GPIO options: 74 pins
Other integrated peripherals: USB, LCD, DAC, Comparator_B, DMA, 32x32 multiplier, power management module (BOR, SVS, SVM, LDO), watchdog timer, RTC, Temp sensor
RF SoC (CC430) series
The RF SoC (CC430) Series provides tight integration between the microcontroller core, peripherals, software, and RF transceiver. Features <1 GHz RF transceiver, with 1.8 V–3.6 V operation. Programming using Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is possible via the panStamp API.
Power specification overview, as low as:
1 μA RAM retention
1.7 μA real-time clock mode
180 μA / MIPS active
Device parameters:
Speed options: up to 20 MHz
Flash options: up to 32 KB
RAM options: up to 4 KB
ADC options: 12-bit SAR
GPIO options: 30 & 44 pins
Other integrated peripherals: LCD Controller, up to 2 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, RTC, power management module (BOR, SVS, SVM, LDO), USCI module, DMA, 32x32 multiplier, Comp B, temperature sensor
FRAM series
The FRAM Series from Texas Instruments provides unified memory with dynamic partitioning and memory access speeds 100 times faster than flash. FRAM is also capable of zero power state retention in all power modes, which means that writes are guaranteed, even in the event of a power loss. With a write endurance of over 100 trillion cycles, EEPROM is no longer required. Active power consumption at less than 100μA/MHz.
Power specification overview, as low as:
320 nA RAM retention
0.35 μA real-time clock mode
82 μA / MIPS active
Device parameters:
Speed options: 8 to 24 MHz
FRAM options: 4 to 256 KB
RAM options: 0.5 to 8 KB
ADC options: 10 or 12-bit SAR
GPIO options: 17 to 83 GPIO pins
Other possible integrated peripherals: MPU, up to 6 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, RTC, power management module (BOR, SVS, SVM, LDO), USCI module, DMA, multiplier, Comp B, temperature sensor, LCD driver, I2C and UART BSL, Extended Scan Interface, 32 bit multiplier, AES, CRC, signal processing acceleration, capacitive touch, IR modulation
Low voltage series
The Low Voltage Series include the MSP430C09x and MSP430L092 parts. These 2 series of low voltage 16 bit microcontrollers have configurations with two 16-bit timers, an 8-bit analog-to-digital (A/D) converter, an 8-bit digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, and up to 11 I/O pins.
Power specification overview, as low as:
1 μA RAM retention
1.7 μA real-time clock mode
180 μA / MIPS active
Device parameters:
Speed options: 4 MHz
ROM options: 1–2 kB
SRAM options: 2 kB
ADC options: 8-bit SAR
GPIO options: 11 pins
Other integrated peripherals: up to 2 16-bit timers, watchdog timer, brown-out reset, SVS, comparator, temperature sensor
Other MSP430 families
More families within MSP430 include Fixed Function, Automotive, and Extended Temp parts.
Fixed Function:
The MSP430BQ1010 16-bit microcontroller is an advanced fixed-function device that forms the control and communications unit on the receiver side for wireless power transfer in portable applications. MSP430BQ1010 complies with the Wireless Power Consortium (WPC) specification. For more information, see Contactless Power.
Automotive:
Automotive MSP430 microcontrollers (MCUs) from Texas Instruments (TI) are 16-bit, RISC-based, mixed-signal processors that are AEC-Q100 qualified and suitable for automotive applications in environments up to 105 °C ambient temperature. LIN compliant drivers for the MSP430 MCU provided by IHR GmbH.
Extended Temp:
MSP430 devices are very popular in harsh environments such as industrial sensing for their low power consumption and innovative analog integration. Some harsh environment applications include transportation/automotive, renewable energy, military/space/avionics, mineral exploration, industrial, and safety & security.
Device Definitions:
HT: -55 °C to 150 °C
EP: Enhanced products -55 °C to 125 °C
Q1: Automotive Q100 qualified -40 °C to 105 °C
T: Extended temperature -40 °C to 105 °C applications
Note that when the flash size is over 64K words (128 KBytes), instruction addresses can no longer be encoded in just two bytes. This change in pointer size causes some incompatibilities with previous parts.
Peripherals
The MSP430 peripherals are generally easy to use, with (mostly) consistent addresses between models, and no write-only registers (except for the hardware multiplier).
General purpose I/O ports 0–10
If the peripheral is not needed, the pin may be used for general purpose I/O. The pins are divided into 8-bit groups called "ports", each of which is controlled by a number of 8-bit registers. In some cases, the ports are arranged in pairs which can be accessed as 16-bit registers.
The MSP430 family defines 11 I/O ports, P0 through P10, although no chip implements more than 10 of them. P0 is only implemented on the '3xx family. P7 through P10 are only implemented on the largest members (and highest pin count versions) of the '4xx and '2xx families. The newest '5xx and '6xx families has P1 through P11, and the control registers are reassigned to provide more port pairs.
Each port is controlled by the following registers. Ports which do not implement particular features (such as interrupt on state change) do not implement the corresponding registers.
PxIN Port x input. This is a read-only register, and reflects the current state of the port's pins.
PxOUT Port x output. The values written to this read/write register are driven out the corresponding pins when they are configured to output.
PxDIR Port x data direction. Bits written as 1 configure the corresponding pin for output. Bits written as 0 configure the pin for input.
PxSEL Port x function select. Bits written as 1 configure the corresponding pin for use by the specialized peripheral. Bits written as 0 configure the pin for general purpose I/O. Port 0 ('3xx parts only) is not multiplexed with other peripherals and does not have a P0SEL register.
PxREN Port x resistor enable ('2xx & '5xx only). Bits set in this register enable weak pull-up or pull-down resistors on the corresponding I/O pins even when they are configured as inputs. The direction of the pull is set by the bit written to the PxOUT register.
PxDS Port x drive strength ('5xx only). Bits set in this register enable high current outputs. This increases output power, but may cause electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Ports 0–2 can produce interrupts when inputs change. Further registers configure this ability:
PxIES Port x interrupt edge select. Selects the edge which will cause the PxIFG bit to be set. When the input bit changes from matching the PxIES state to not matching it (i.e. whenever a bit in PxIES XOR PxIN changes from clear to set), the corresponding PxIFG bit is set.
PxIE Port x interrupt enable. When this bit and the corresponding PxIFG bit are both set, an interrupt is generated.
PxIFG Port x interrupt flag. Set whenever the corresponding pin makes the state change requested by PxIES. Can be cleared only by software. (Can also be set by software.)
PxIV Port x interrupt vector ('5xx only). This 16-bit register is a priority encoder which can be used to handle pin-change interrupts. If n is the lowest-numbered interrupt bit which is pending in PxIFG and enabled in PxIE, this register reads as 2n+2. If there is no such bit, it reads as 0. The scale factor of 2 allows direct use as an offset into a branch table. Reading this register also clears the reported PxIFG flag.
Some pins have special purposes either as inputs or outputs. (For example, timer pins can be configured as capture inputs or PWM outputs.) In this case, the PxDIR bit controls which of the two functions the pin performs when the PxSEL bit is set. If there is only one special function, then PxDIR is generally ignored.
The PxIN register is still readable if the PxSEL bit is set, but interrupt generation is disabled. If PxSEL is clear, the special function's input is frozen and disconnected from the external pin. Also, configuring a pin for general purpose output does not disable interrupt generation.
Integrated peripherals
Analog
Analog-to-digital converter
The MSP430 line offers two types of analog-to-digital conversion (ADC). 10- and 12-bit successive approximation converters, as well as a 16-bit Sigma-Delta converter. Data transfer controllers and a 16-word conversion-and-control buffer allow the MSP430 to convert and store samples without CPU intervention, minimizing power consumption.
Analog pool
The Analog Pool (A-POOL) module can be configured as an ADC, DAC, comparator, SVS or temperature sensor. It allows flexibility for the user to program a series of analog functions with only one setup.
Comparator A, A+
The MSP430's comparator module provides precision slope analog-to-digital conversions. Monitors external analog signals and provides voltage and resistor value measurement. Capable of selectable power modes.
DAC12
The DAC12 module is a 12-bit, voltage-output DAC featuring internal/external reference selection and programmable settling time for optimal power consumption. It can be configured in 8- or 12-bit mode. When multiple DAC12 modules are present, they may be grouped together for synchronous update operation.
Op Amps
Feature single supply, low current operation with rail-to-rail outputs and programmable settling times. Software selectable configuration options: unity gain mode, comparator mode, inverting PGA, non-inverting PGA, differential and instrumentation amplifier.
Sigma Delta (SD)
The SD16/SD16_A/SD24_A modules each feature 16-/24-bit sigma-delta A/D converters with an internal 1.2-V reference. Each converter has up to eight fully differential multiplexed inputs, including a built-in temperature sensor. The converters are second-order oversampling sigma-delta modulators with selectable oversampling ratios of up to 1024 (SD16_A/SD24_A) or 256 (SD16).
Timers
Basic timer (BT)
The BT has two independent 8-bit timers that can be cascaded to form a 16-bit timer/counter. Both timers can be read and written by software. The BT is extended to provide an integrated RTC. An internal calendar compensates for months with less than 31 days and includes leap-year correction.
Real-Time Clock
RTC_A/B are 32-bit hardware counter modules that provide clock counters with a calendar, a flexible programmable alarm, and calibration. The RTC_B includes a switchable battery backup system that provides the ability for the RTC to operate when the primary supply fails.
16-bit timers
Timer_A, Timer_B and Timer_D are asynchronous 16-bit timers/counters with up to seven capture/compare registers and various operating modes. The timers support multiple capture/compares, PWM outputs, and interval timing. They also have extensive interrupt capabilities. Timer_B introduces added features such as programmable timer lengths (8-, 10-, 12-, or 16-bit) and double-buffered compare register updates, while Timer_D introduces a high-resolution (4 ns) mode.
Watchdog (WDT+)
The WDT+ performs a controlled system restart after a software problem occurs. If the selected time interval expires, a system reset is generated. If the watchdog function is not needed in an application, the module can be configured as an interval timer and can generate interrupts at selected time intervals.
System
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
The AES accelerator module performs encryption and decryption of 128-bit data with 128-bit keys according to the advanced encryption standard in hardware, and can be configured with user software.
Brown-Out Reset (BOR)
The BOR circuit detects low supply voltages and resets the device by triggering a power-on reset (POR) signal when power is applied or removed. The MSP430 MCU’s zero-power BOR circuit is continuously turned on, including in all low-power modes.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) Controller
The DMA controller transfers data from one address to another across the entire address range without CPU intervention. The DMA increases the throughput of peripheral modules and reduces system power consumption. The module features up to three independent transfer channels.
Although the MSP430's DMA subsystem is very capable it has several flaws, the most significant of which is the lack of an external transfer strobe. Although a DMA transfer can be triggered externally, there is no external indication of completion of a transfer. Consequently DMA to and from external sources is limited to external trigger per byte transfers, rather than full blocks automatically via DMA. This can lead to significant complexity (as in requiring extensive hand tweaking of code) when implementing processor to processor or processor to USB communications. The reference cited uses an obscure timer mode to generate high speed strobes for DMA transfers. The timers are not flexible enough to easily make up for the lack of an external DMA transfer strobe.
DMA operations that involve word transfers to byte locations cause truncation to 8 bits rather than conversion to two byte transfers. This makes DMA with A/D or D/A 16 bit values less useful than it could be (although it is possible to DMA these values through port A or B on some versions of the MSP 430 using an externally visible trigger per transfer such as a timer output).
Enhanced Emulation Module (EEM)
The EEM provides different levels of debug features such as 2-8 hardware breakpoints, complex breakpoints, break when read/write occurs at specified address, and more. Embedded into all flash-based MSP430 devices.
Hardware multiplier
Some MSP430 models include a memory-mapped hardware multiplier peripheral which performs various 16×16+32→33-bit multiply-accumulate operations. Unusually for the MSP430, this peripheral does include an implicit 2-bit write-only register, which makes it effectively impossible to context switch. This peripheral does not interfere with CPU activities and can be accessed by the DMA. The MPY on all MSP430F5xx and some MSP430F4xx devices feature up to 32-bit x 32-bit.
The 8 registers used are:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Address || Name || Function
|-
| 0x130 || MPY || Operand1 for unsigned multiply
|-
| 0x132 || MPYS || Operand1 for signed multiply
|-
| 0x134 || MAC || Operand1 for unsigned multiply-accumulate
|-
| 0x136 || MACS || Operand1 for signed multiply-accumulate
|-
| 0x138 || OP2 || Second operand for multiply operation
|-
| 0x13A || ResLo || Low word of multiply result
|-
| 0x13C || ResHi || High word of multiply result
|-
| 0x13E || SumExt || Carry out of multiply-accumulate
|}
The first operand is written to one of four 16-bit registers. The address written determines the operation performed. While the value written can be read back from any of the registers, the register number written to cannot be recovered.
If a multiply-accumulate operation is desired, the ResLo and ResHi registers must also be initialized.
Then, each time a write is performed to the OP2 register, a multiply is performed and the result stored or added to the result registers. The SumExt register is a read-only register that contains the carry out of the addition (0 or 1) in case of an unsigned multiply), or the sign extension of the 32-bit sum (0 or -1) in case of a signed multiply. In the case of a signed multiply-accumulate, the SumExt value must be combined with the most significant bit of the prior SumHi contents to determine the true carry out result (-1, 0, or +1).
The result is available after three clock cycles of delay, which is the time required to fetch a following instruction and a following index word. Thus, the delay is typically invisible. An explicit delay is only required if using an indirect addressing mode to fetch the result.
Memory Protection Unit (MPU)
The FRAM MPU protects against accidental writes to designated read-only memory segments or execution of code from a constant memory. The MPU can set any portioning of memory with bit level addressing, making the complete memory accessible for read, write and execute operations in FRAM devices.
Power management module (PMM)
The PMM generates a supply voltage for the core logic, and provides several mechanisms for the supervision and monitoring of both the voltage applied to the device and the voltage generated for the core. It is integrated with a low-dropout voltage regulator (LDO), brown-out reset (BOR), and a supply voltage supervisor and monitor.
Supply-Voltage Supervisor (SVS)
The SVS is a configurable module used to monitor the AVCC supply voltage or an external voltage. The SVS can be configured to set a flag or generate a power-on reset (POR) when the supply voltage or external voltage drops below a user-selected threshold.
Communication and Interface
Capacitive Touch Sense I/Os
The integrated capacitive touch sense I/O module offers several benefits to touch button and touch slider applications. The system does not require external components to create the self-oscillation (reducing bill of materials) and the capacitor (that defines the frequency of the self-oscillation) can be connected directly. In addition, there is no need for external MUXes to allow multiple pads and each I/O pad can directly serve as a cap sense input. A hysteresis of ~0.7 V ensures robust operation. Control and sequencing is done completely in software.
General Purpose I/Os
MSP430 devices have up to 12 digital I/O ports implemented. Each port has eight I/O pins. Every I/O pin can be configured as either input or output, and can be individually read or written to. Ports P1 and P2 have interrupt capability. MSP430F2xx, F5xx and some F4xx devices feature built-in, individually configurable pull-up or pull-down resistors.
Sub-GHz RF Front End
The flexible CC1101 sub-1 GHz transceiver delivers the sensitivity and blocking performance required to achieve successful communication links in any RF environment. It also features low current consumption and supports flexible data rates and modulation formats.
USART (UART, SPI, I²C)
The universal synchronous/asychrnous receive/transmit (USART) peripheral interface supports asynchronous RS-232 and synchronous SPI communication with one hardware module. The MSP430F15x/16x USART modules also support I²C, programmable baud rate, and independent interrupt capability for receive and transmit.
USB
The USB module is fully compliant with the USB 2.0 specification and supports control, interrupt and bulk transfers at a data rate of 12 Mbps (full speed). The module supports USB suspend, resume and remote wake-up operations and can be configured for up to eight input and eight output endpoints. The module includes an integrated physical interface (PHY); a phase-locked loop (PLL) for USB clock generation; and a flexible power-supply system enabling bus-powered and self-powered devices.
USCI (UART, SPI, I²C, LIN, IrDA)
The universal serial communication interface (USCI) module features two independent channels that can be used simultaneously. The asynchronous channel (USCI_A) supports UART mode; SPI mode; pulse shaping for IrDA; and automatic baud-rate detection for LIN communications. The synchronous channel (USCI_B) supports I²C and SPI modes.
USI (SPI, I²C)
The universal serial interface (USI) module is a synchronous serial communication interface with a data length of up to 16-bits and can support SPI and I²C communication with minimal software.
Infrared Modulation
Available on the MSP430FR4xxx and MSP430FR2xxx series chips, this feature is configured via the SYSCFG register set. This peripheral ties into other peripherals (Timers, eUSCI_A) to generate an IR modulated signal on an output pin. (page 43)
Metering
ESP430 (integrated in FE42xx devices)
The ESP430CE module performs metering calculations independent of the CPU. Module has separate SD16, HW multiplier, and the ESP430 embedded processor engine for single-phase energy-metering applications.
Scan Interface (SIF)
The SIF module, a programmable state machine with an analog front end, is used to automatically measure linear or rotational motion with the lowest possible power consumption. The module features support for different types of LC and resistive sensors and for quadrature encoding.
Display
LCD/LCD_A/LCD_B
The LCD/LCD_A controller directly drives LCDs for up to 196 segments. Supports static, 2-mux, 3-mux, and 4-mux LCDs. LCD_A module has integrated charge pump for contrast control. LCD_B enables blinking of individual segments with separate blinking memory.
LCD_E
The LCD_E controller comes with the newer MSP430FR4xxx series microcontrollers and directly drives LCDs up to 448 segments. Supports static, 2-mux, 3-mux, 4-mux, 5-mux, 6-mux, 7-mux, 8-mux (1/3 bias) LCDs. Segment and Common pins may be reprogrammed to available LCD drive pins. This peripheral may be driven in LPM3.5 (RTC running+Main CPU core shutdown low-power mode).
Software development environment
Texas Instruments provides various hardware experimenter boards that support large (approximately two centimeters square) and small (approximately one millimeter square) MSP430 chips. TI also provides software development tools, both directly, and in conjunction with partners (see the full list of compilers, assemblers, and IDEs). One such toolchain is the IAR C/C++ compiler and Integrated development environment, or IDE. A Kickstart edition can be downloaded for free from TI or IAR; it is limited to 8 KB of C/C++ code in the compiler and debugger (assembly language programs of any size can be developed and debugged with this free toolchain).
TI also combines a version of its own compiler and tools with its Eclipse-based Code Composer Studio IDE (CCS). It sells full-featured versions, and offers a free version for download which has a code size limit of 16 KB. CCS supports in-circuit emulators, and includes a simulator and other tools; it can also work with other processors sold by TI.
For those who are more comfortable with the Arduino, there is also another software Energia Energia, an open source electronics prototyping platform with the goal to bring the Wiring and Arduino framework to the Texas Instruments MSP430 based LaunchPad where Arduino code can be exported for programming MSP430 chips. The latest release of Energia supports the MSP-EXP430G2xxx, MSP-EXP430FR5739, MSP-EXP430FR5969, MSP-EXP430FR5994, MSP-EXP430F5529LP, Stellaris EK-LM4F120XL, Tiva-C EK-TM4C123GXL, Tiva-C EK-TM4C1294XL, CC3200 WiFi LaunchPad.
The open source community produces a freely available software development toolset based on the GNU toolset.
The GNU compiler is currently declined in three versions:
(MSPGCC)
(MSPGCC Uniarch)
TI consulted with RedHat to provide official support for the MSP430 architecture to the GNU Compiler Collection C/C++ compiler. This msp430-elf-gcc compiler is supported by TI's Code Composer Studio version 6.0 and higher.
There is a very early llvm-msp430 project, which may eventually provide better support for MSP430 in LLVM.
Other commercial development tool sets, which include editor, compiler, linker, assembler, debugger and in some cases code wizards, are available. VisSim, a block diagram language for model based development, generates efficient fixed point C-Code directly from the diagram. VisSim generated code for a closed loop ADC+PWM based PID control on the F2013 compiles to less than 1 KB flash and 100 bytes RAM. VisSim has on-chip peripheral blocks for the entire MSP430 family I²C, ADC, SD16, PWM.
Low cost development platforms
The MSP430F2013 and its siblings are set apart by the fact that (except for the MSP430G2 Value Line) it is the only MSP430 part that is available in a dual in-line package (DIP). Other variants in this family are only available in various surface-mount packages. TI has gone to some trouble to support the eZ430 development platform by making the raw chips easy for hobbyists to use in prototypes.
eZ430-F2013
TI has tackled the low-budget problem by offering a very small experimenter board, the eZ430-F2013, on a USB stick. This makes it easy for designers to choose the MSP430 chip for inexpensive development platforms that can be used with a computer. The eZ430-F2013 contains an MSP430F2013 microcontroller on a detachable prototyping board, and accompanying CD with development software. It is helpful for schools, hobbyists and garage inventors. It is also welcomed by engineers in large companies prototyping projects with capital budget problems.
MSP430 LaunchPad
Texas Instruments released the MSP430 LaunchPad in July 2010. The MSP430 LaunchPad has an onboard flash emulator, USB, 2 programmable LEDs, and 1 programmable push button. As an addition to experimentation with the LaunchPad a shield board is available.
TI has since provided several new LaunchPads based on the MSP430 platform:
MSP-EXP430F5529LP features the MSP430F5529 USB device-capable MCU with 128KB flash and 8KB SRAM
MSP-EXP430FR5969 features the MSP430FR5969 FRAM MCU with 64KB FRAM and 2KB SRAM
MSP-EXP430FR4133 features the MSP430FR4133 FRAM MCU with 16KB FRAM, 2KB SRAM and on-board LCD
MSP-EXP430FR6989 features the MSP430FR6989 FRAM MCU with 128KB FRAM, 2KB SRAM, on-board LCD and Extended Scan Interface peripheral
MSP-EXP430FR2311 features the MSP430FR2311 FRAM MCU with 4KB FRAM, 1KB SRAM, OpAmp and Transimpedance Amplifier peripheral
MSP-EXP430FR2433 features the MSP430FR2433 FRAM MCU with 15.5KB FRAM, 4KB SRAM
MSP-EXP430FR2355 features the MSP430FR2355 FRAM MCU with 32KB FRAM, 4KB SRAM, 12-bit ADC, 12-bit DAC, OpAmp/PGA, ICC for nested interrupts
MSP-EXP430FR5994 features the MSP430FR5994 FRAM MCU with 256KB FRAM, 8KB SRAM, 12-bit ADC and LEA DSP peripheral
All three of these LaunchPads include an eZ-FET JTAG debugger with backchannel UART capable of 1Mbit/s speeds. The FRAM LaunchPads (e.g. MSP-EXP430FR5969, MSP-EXP430FR4133) include EnergyTrace, a feature supported by TI's Code Composer Studio IDE for monitoring and analyzing power consumption.
Debugging interface
In common with other microcontroller vendors, TI has developed a two-wire debugging interface found on some of their MSP430 parts that can replace the larger JTAG interface. The eZ430 Development Tool contains a full USB-connected flash emulation tool (FET) for this new two-wire protocol, named Spy-Bi-Wire by TI. Spy-Bi-Wire was initially introduced on only the smallest devices in the 'F2xx family with limited number of I/O pins, such as the MSP430F20xx, MSP430F21x2, and MSP430F22x2. The support for Spy-Bi-Wire has been expanded with the introduction of the latest '5xx family, where all devices have support Spy-Bi-Wire interface in addition to JTAG.
The advantage of the Spy-Bi-Wire protocol is that it uses only two communication lines, one of which is the dedicated _RESET line. The JTAG interface on the lower pin count MSP430 parts is multiplexed with general purpose I/O lines. This makes it relatively difficult to debug circuits built around the small, low-I/O-budget chips, since the full 4-pin JTAG hardware will conflict with anything else connected to those I/O lines. This problem is alleviated with the Spy-Bi-Wire-capable chips, which are still compatible with the normal JTAG interface for backwards compatibility with the old development tools.
JTAG debugging and flash programming tools based on OpenOCD and widely used in the ARM architecture community are not available for the MSP430. Programming tools specially designed for the MSP430 are marginally less expensive than JTAG interfaces that use OpenOCD. However, should it be discovered mid-project that more MIPS, more memory, and more I/O peripherals are needed, those tools will not transfer to a processor from another vendor.
MSP430 CPU
The MSP430 CPU uses a von Neumann architecture, with a single address space for instructions and data. Memory is byte-addressed, and pairs of bytes are combined little-endian to make 16-bit words.
The processor contains 16 16-bit registers, of which four are dedicated to special purposes: R0 is the program counter, R1 is the stack pointer, R2 is the status register, and R3 is a "constant generator" which reads as zero and ignores writes. Added address mode encodings using R3 and R2 allow a total of six commonly used constant values (0, 1, 2, 4, 8 and −1) without needing an immediate operand word. R4 through R15 are available for general use.
The instruction set is very simple: 27 instructions exist in three families. Most instructions occur in .B (8-bit byte) and .W (16-bit word) suffixed versions, depending on the value of a B/W bit: the bit is set to 1 for 8-bit and 0 for 16-bit. A missing suffix is equivalent to .W. Byte operations to memory affect only the addressed byte, while byte operations to registers clear the most significant byte.
Instructions are 16 bits, followed by up to two 16-bit extension words. Addressing modes are specified by the 2-bit As field and the 1-bit Ad field. Some special versions can be constructed using R0, and modes other than register direct using R2 (the status register) and R3 (the constant generator) are interpreted specially. Ad can use only a subset of the addressing modes for As.
Indexed addressing modes add a 16-bit extension word to the instruction. If both source and destination are indexed, the source extension word comes first. x refers to the next extension word in the instruction stream in the table below.
Instructions generally take 1 cycle per word fetched or stored, so instruction times range from 1 cycle for a simple register-register instruction to 6 cycles for an instruction with both source and destination indexed.
The MSP430X extension with 20-bit addressing adds added instructions that can require up to 10 clock cycles. Setting or clearing a peripheral bit takes two clocks. A jump, taken or not takes two clocks. With the 2xx series 2 MCLKs is 125 ns at 16 MHz.
Moves to the program counter are allowed and perform jumps. Return from subroutine, for example, is implemented as MOV @SP+,PC.
When R0 (PC) or R1 (SP) are used with the autoincrement addressing mode, they are always incremented by two. Other registers (R4 through R15) are incremented by the operand size, either 1 or 2 bytes.
The status register contains 4 arithmetic status bits, a global interrupt enable, and 4 bits that disable various clocks to enter low-power mode. When handling an interrupt, the processor saves the status register on the stack and clears the low-power bits. If the interrupt handler does not modify the saved status register, returning from the interrupt will then resume the original low-power mode.
Pseudo-operations
Many added instructions are implemented as aliases for forms of the above. For example, there is no specific "return from subroutine" instruction, but it is implemented as "MOV @SP+,PC". Emulated instructions are:
Note that the immediate constants −1 (0xffff), 0, 1, 2, 4 and 8 can be specified in a single-word instruction without needing a separate immediate operand.
MSP430X 20-bit extension
The basic MSP430 cannot support more memory (ROM + RAM + peripherals) than its 64K address space. In order to support this, an extended form of the MSP430 uses 20-bit registers and a 20-bit address space, allowing up to 1 MB of memory. This uses the same instruction set as the basic form, but with two extensions:
A limited number of 20-bit instructions for common operations, and
A general prefix-word mechanism that can extend any instruction to 20 bits.
The extended instructions include some added abilities, notably multibit shifts and multiregister load/store operations.
20-bit operations use the length suffix "A" (for address) instead of .B or .W. .W is still the default. In general, shorter operations clear the high-order bits of the destination register.
The new instructions are as follows:
All other instructions can have a prefix word added which extends them to 20 bits. The prefix word contains an added operand size bit, which is combined with the existing B/W bit to specify the operand size. One unused size combination exists; indications suggest that it may be used in future for a 32-bit operand size.
The prefix word comes in two formats, and the choice between them depends on the instruction which follows.
If the instruction has any non-register operands, then the simple form is used, which provides 2 4-bit fields to extend any offset or immediate constant in the instruction stream to 20 bits.
If the instruction is register-to-register, a different extension word is used. This includes a "ZC" flag which suppresses carry-in (useful for instructions like DADD which always use the carry bit), and a repeat count. A 4-bit field in the extension word encodes either a repeat count (0–15 repetitions in addition to the initial execution), or a register number which contains a 4-bit repeat count.
MSP430 address space
The general layout of the MSP430 address space is:
0x0000–0x0007 Processor special function registers (interrupt control registers)
0x0008–0x00FF 8-bit peripherals. These must be accessed using 8-bit loads and stores.
0x0100–0x01FF 16-bit peripherals. These must be accessed using 16-bit loads and stores.
0x0200–0x09FF Up to 2048 bytes of RAM.
0x0C00–0x0FFF 1024 bytes of bootstrap loader ROM (flash parts only).
0x1000–0x10FF 256 bytes of data flash ROM (flash parts only).
0x1800-0x19FF 512 bytes of data FRAM (most FRAM MCUs, user-writable containing no calibration data)
0x1100–0x38FF Extended RAM on models with more than 2048 bytes of RAM. (0x1100–0x18FF is a copy of 0x0200–0x09FF)
0x1100–0xFFFF Up to 60 kilobytes of program ROM. Smaller ROMs start at higher addresses. The last 16 or 32 bytes are interrupt vectors.
A few models include more than 2048 bytes of RAM; in that case RAM begins at 0x1100. The first 2048 bytes (0x1100–0x18FF) is mirrored at 0x0200–0x09FF for compatibility. Also, some recent models bend the 8-bit and 16-bit peripheral rules, allowing 16-bit access to peripherals in the 8-bit peripheral address range.
There is a new extended version of the architecture (named MSP430X) which allows a 20-bit address space. It allows added program ROM beginning at 0x10000.
The '5xx series has a greatly redesigned address space, with the first 4K devoted to peripherals, and up to 16K of RAM.
References
External links
Community and information sites
TI MSP430 Homepage
MSP430 TITAN Development Board
TI E2E MSP430 Community forum
MSP430 Community sponsored by Texas Instruments
MSP430 Yahoo!group
MSP430.info
MSP430 English-Japanese forum
43oh.com – MSP430 News, Projects and Forums
TinyOS-MSP430 TinyOS port
MSP430 Egel project pages – About 50 examples with sources, schematics, well documented.
Visual programming C code generators
VisSim MSP430 Model-Based Embedded Development System
Compilers, assemblers and IDEs
Free Compiler and IDEs
Arduino IDE Arduino IDE
Code Composer Studio Eclipse based IDE
Code Composer Studio Cloud
IAR Embedded Workbench Kickstart IDE (size limited to 4/8/16 KB – depends on device used)
GCC toolchain for the MSP430 Microcontrollers
MSP430 Development System
naken_asm Open-Source MSP430 assembler, disassembler, simulator.
Pre-built MSP430 GCC 4.x binaries for Windows
MSP430 16-bit noForth compiler With assembler, disassembler and sources.
FastForth with 5 MBds terminal, assembler, SD_Card driver...
Most popular unrestricted IDEs and compilers
IAR Embedded Workbench for TI MSP430
Rowley CrossWorks for MSP430 (only a 30-day evaluation period)
GCC toolchain for the MSP430 Microcontrollers (Free C-compiler)
MSP430 Development System
A plugin for Visual Studio that supports MSP430 via MSP430-GCC (30-day evaluation)
Miscellaneous IDEs
AQ430 Development Tools for MSP430 Microcontrollers
ImageCraft C Tools
ForthInc Forth-Compiler
MPE Forth IDE & Cross-Compiler for MSP430 currently in Beta
HI-TECH C for MSP430 (Dropped MSP430 Support in 2009)
List of debugging tools (not complete)
Other tools
WSim – a software-driven emulator for full platform estimations and debug
MSPSim – a Java based MSP430 emulator/simulator
MSP430Static – a reverse engineering tool in Perl
GoodFET – an open MSP430 JTAG debugger in C and Python
mspdebug – an opensource MSP430 JTAG debugger
Trace32 MSP430 SIM – Download area with MSP430 Instruction Set Simulator free for evaluation
ERIKA Enterprise – a free of charge, open source RTOS implementation of the ISO 17356 API (derived from the OSEK/VDX API)
Energia is based on Wiring and Arduino and uses the Processing IDE. The hardware platform is based upon TI MSP430 LaunchPad
Microcontrollers
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|
218383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rike | Rike | Rike or Ryke is a given name and a surname. It may refer to:
Rike Boomgaarden (), German singer and songwriter
Ryke Geerd Hamer (1935–2017), German physician whose license was revoked for originating and practicing a system of pseudo-medicine
Kjell Kristian Rike (1944–2008), Norwegian sports commentator
See also
Rike Kumler Co., commonly known as Rike's, a former American department store in Dayton, Ohio
Reich, spelled in Swedish and modern Norwegian and rige in Danish | [
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|
218386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic%20name | Systematic name | A systematic name is a name given in a systematic way to one unique group, organism, object or chemical substance, out of a specific population or collection. Systematic names are usually part of a nomenclature.
A semisystematic name or semitrivial name is a name that has at least one systematic part and at least one trivial part.
Creating systematic names can be as simple as assigning a prefix or a number to each object (in which case they are a type of numbering scheme), or as complex as encoding the complete structure of the object in the name. Many systems combine some information about the named object with an extra sequence number to make it into a unique identifier.
Systematic names often co-exist with earlier common names assigned before the creation of any systematic naming system. For example, many common chemicals are still referred to by their common or trivial names, even by chemists.
In chemistry
In chemistry, a systematic name describes the chemical structure of a chemical substance, thus giving some information about its chemical properties.
The Compendium of Chemical Terminology published by the IUPAC defines systematic name as "a name composed wholly of specially coined or selected syllables, with or without numerical prefixes; e.g. pentane, oxazole." However, when trivial names have become part of chemical nomenclature, they can be the systematic name of a substance or part of it. Examples for some systematic names that have trivial origins are benzene (cyclohexatriene) or glycerol (trihydroxypropane).
Examples
There are standardized systematic or semi-systematic names for:
Chemical elements (following IUPAC guidelines)
Chemical nomenclature (following IUPAC guidelines)
Binomial nomenclature, initiated by Carl Linnaeus
Astronomical objects and entities (administered by the International Astronomical Union)
Genes (following HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee procedures)
Proteins
Minerals (administered by the IMA)
Monoclonal antibodies
See also
Biological classification
Chemical element
Chemical compound
International scientific vocabulary
List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
Name
Namespace
Naming convention
Numbering scheme
Retained name
External links
Naming organic compounds (archived)
Selected pages from IUPAC rules for naming inorganic compounds
References
Naming conventions | [
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|
218396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lynch%20%28judge%29 | Charles Lynch (judge) | Charles Lynch (1736–1796) was a Virginia planter, politician, and American revolutionary who headed an irregular court in Virginia to punish Loyalist supporters of the British during the American Revolutionary War. The terms "lynching" and "lynch law" are believed to be derived from his name.
Early years
He was born in 1736 at an estate known as Chestnut Hill on the banks of the James River in Virginia, a place at which his brother, John Lynch, would later establish the town of Lynchburg.
Lynch's father left his native Ireland and emigrated to the English Colony of Virginia in about 1725 as an indentured servant, called a "redemptioner" in the nomenclature of the day. Upon arrival to the New World, Lynch's contract of indenture was sold to a wealthy planter living in Caroline County. Lynch remained with the planter for his fixed term of servitude, winning in the process not only his freedom but also the hand of the planter's daughter, Sarah Clark, in marriage.
With the financial assistance of the elder Clark, the Lynches themselves became planters of tobacco on a large scale, farming well over 7,000 acres of Virginia land. Sometime between Charles' birth in 1736 and the middle of the decade, Charles' father died, leaving behind his Chestnut Hill estate to his eldest son, John. His mother joined the Quaker religious sect in 1750, bringing her sons with her into that religion.
Lynch married a fellow Quaker, the former Anne Terrell, on January 12, 1755. With Chestnut Hill occupied by his brother, the young couple set out to establish their new home on Virginia's western frontier on a more distant parcel of land granted to his father by King George II, in the newly established Bedford County. Green Level, the Lynch estate where the couple would ultimately raise five children, was located at a place now marked by the town of Altavista.
Lynch was instrumental in organizing a Quaker meeting in Bedford County and raising funds for a building to house it, the first public house of worship in the area. Lynch served for several years as the clerk of the meeting and as trustee of the group's meeting house. He was also a delegate to the Quaker Assembly in Virginia.
Following the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, the danger associated with life at the frontier greatly lessened, and a flood of newcomers began to appear in Bedford County. His position as a landowner and leading citizen was now well-established. His farming of tobacco and raising of cattle had made him a wealthy man, the possessor of property and African slaves. Beginning in 1764 other citizens began to approach Lynch to ask him to become a candidate for the Virginia Assembly. Lynch initially refused the entreaties on the grounds that swearing the necessary oath of office was prohibited behavior for an adherent of the Quaker religion.
Career
In 1767 Charles became a justice of the peace of Bedford County, Virginia but was disowned by the Quakers for taking an oath of office, something they were not permitted to do.
Lynch served in the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Convention from 1769 until 1778, when he became a militia colonel. After the Revolution, he served in the Virginia Senate from 1784 to 1789.
In several incidents in 1780, Lynch and several other militia officers and justices of the peace rounded up suspects who were thought to be a part of a Loyalist uprising in southwestern Virginia. The suspects were given a summary trial at an informal court; sentences handed down included whipping, property seizure, coerced pledges of allegiance, and conscription into the military. Lynch's extralegal actions were legitimized by the Virginia General Assembly in 1782.
"Lynch's Law," referring to organized but unauthorized punishment of criminals, became a common phrase, as it was used by Lynch to describe his actions as early as 1782. The Oxford English Dictionary, however, notes, "The origin of the expression has not been determined."
Variations of the term, such as "lynch law," "judge lynch," and "lynching", were standard entries in American and British English dictionaries by the 1850s. In 1811, a man named Captain William Lynch claimed that the phrase, already famous, actually came from a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County, Virginia, to uphold their own brand of law independent of legal authority. The obscurity of the Pittsylvania County compact compared to the well-known actions of Charles Lynch casts doubt on it being the source of the phrase.
See also
Lynching in the United States
Footnotes
Further reading
Thomas Walker Page, "The Real Judge Lynch", The Atlantic Monthly, vol. 88, whole no. 530 (December 1901), pp. 731–743.
Brent Tarter, "Charles Lynch", American National Biography Online, February 2000.
Fralin, Gordon Godfrey, "Charles Lynch, originator of the term Lynch law (1955)" Master's Theses. Paper 102.
External links
"Avoca's History," Avoca Museum website, Altavista, Virginia — Museum established in a home on the former estate of Charles Lynch.
1736 births
1796 deaths
People disowned by the Quakers
House of Burgesses members
People from Bedford County, Virginia
People from Altavista, Virginia
American vigilantes
Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution
Virginia state court judges
Virginia state senators
American people of Irish descent
American planters
American slave owners
18th-century American politicians | [
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|
218399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abram%20M.%20Scott | Abram M. Scott | Abram Marshall Scott (March 13, 1785June 12, 1833) was a National Republican Mississippi politician born in Edgefield County in the Province of South Carolina.
He was an early settler of Wilkinson County, Mississippi and was instrumental in founding the town of Woodville, Mississippi. He held a number of local political offices there before his election to the senate.
He served in the state senate in 1822 and 1826–1827. In 1832, he was sworn in as seventh Governor of Mississippi. He served until his death on June 12, 1833 due to a cholera epidemic in Jackson. He is buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Jackson, Mississippi.
Charles Lynch succeeded him in office. Scott County, Mississippi is named in his honor.
References
External links
Abram Marshall Scott at National Governors Association
1785 births
1833 deaths
People from Edgefield County, South Carolina
Mississippi National Republicans
Deaths from cholera
Mississippi state senators
Governors of Mississippi
Infectious disease deaths in Mississippi
National Republican Party state governors of the United States | [
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|
218401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformative%20justice | Transformative justice | Transformative justice is a series of practices and philosophies designed to create change in social systems. Mostly, they are alternatives to criminal justice in cases of interpersonal violence, or are used for dealing with socioeconomic issues in societies transitioning away from conflict or repression. Other fields of practice have adopted transformative justice, including to address groups' work on other social issues and climate justice.
Alternative to criminal justice
Transformative justice takes the principles and practices of restorative justice beyond the criminal justice system. It applies to areas such as environmental law, corporate law, labor-management relations, consumer bankruptcy and debt, and family law. Transformative justice uses a systems approach, seeking to see problems, as not only the beginning of the crime but also the causes of crime, and tries to treat an offense as a transformative relational and educational opportunity for victims, offenders and all other members of the affected community. In theory, a transformative justice model can apply even between peoples with no prior contact.
Transformative justice can be seen as a general philosophical strategy for responding to conflicts akin to peacemaking. Transformative justice is concerned with root causes and comprehensive outcomes. It is akin to healing justice more than other alternatives to imprisonment.
In contrast to restorative justice, no quantification or assessment of loss or harms or any assignment of the role of victim is made, and no attempt to compare the past (historical) and future (normative or predicted) conditions is made either. The victim is not normally part of the transformative process, but can choose to be. Participants agree only on what constitutes effective harms reduction, which may include separating or isolating perpetrator and victim.
In contrast to equity-restorative justice, there is no social definition of equity imposed on participants. Each is free to decide on some "new normal" state of being for themselves, and is not pressured to agree on it. A victim may continue to seek revenge or desire punishment, e.g. as in retributive justice systems. A perpetrator may lack remorse and may say that they lack remorse.
As in transformative learning, one works from desired future states back to the present steps required to reach them. The issue is not whether the perpetrator may make a choice to do something similar again, but whether the community is willing to support the victim and perpetrator in some form of contact. It is possible for the community to choose to support the perpetrator and not the victim as defined by the law, but if they do so they may be obligated to support some re-definition of "equity" so that law comes back into line with the social concept of equity. For example, it is possible for the community to support imprisonment as a means of isolation but not punishment.
This model for decarceration may have roots in the work of Samuel Tuke and B. F. Skinner but departs by relying on individual volunteers' caring and supporting capacity, not any socially imposed etiquette derived from civilization. Transformative justice theory has been advanced by Ruth Morris and Giselle Dias of the Canadian Quakers.
Anarchist criminology tends to favour holistic transformative justice approaches over restorative justice, which it tends to argue is too beholden to the existing criminal justice system.
Socioeconomic issues in transitional and post-conflict settings
Transformative justice also refers to policy and practice responses to socioeconomic issues in societies transitioning away from conflict or repression. It is closely associated with the scholarship and practice of transitional justice, and refers to "transformative change that emphasises local agency and resources, the prioritisation of process rather than preconceived outcomes, and the challenging of unequal and intersecting power relationships and structures of exclusion at both local and global levels".
Climate justice
Some climate justice approaches promote transformative justice where advocates focus on how vulnerability to climate change reflects various structural injustices in society, such as the exclusion of marginalized groups from decision-making and from climate resilient livelihoods, and that climate action must explicitly address these structural power imbalances. For these advocates, climate change provide an opportunity to reinforce democratic governance at all scales, and drive the achievement of gender equality and social inclusion. At a minimum, priority is placed on ensuring that responses to climate change do not repeat or reinforce existing injustices, which has both distributive justice and procedural justice dimensions. Other conceptions frame climate justice in terms of the need to curb climate change within certain limits, like the Paris Climate Agreement targets of 1.5C, otherwise the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems will be so severe as to preclude the possibility of justice for many populations
See also
Nonviolence
Prison abolition movement
Psychiatric imprisonment
Restorative justice
Retributive justice
Transformative learning
References
Further reading
External links
TransformHarm.org
Criminology
Justice | [
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|
218404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restorative%20justice | Restorative justice | Restorative justice is an approach to justice where one of the responses to a crime is to organize a meeting between the victim and the offender, sometimes with representatives of the wider community. The goal is for them to share their experience of what happened, to discuss who was harmed by the crime and how, and to create a consensus for what the offender can do to repair the harm from the offense. This may include a payment of money given from the offender to the victim, apologies and other amends, and other actions to compensate those affected and to prevent the offender from causing future harm.
A restorative justice program aims to get offenders to take responsibility for their actions, to understand the harm they have caused, to give them an opportunity to redeem themselves and to discourage them from causing further harm. For victims, its goal is to give them an active role in the process and to reduce feelings of anxiety and powerlessness. Restorative justice is founded on an alternative theory to the traditional methods of justice, which often focus on retribution. However, restorative justice programs can complement traditional methods, and it has been argued that some cases of restorative justice constitute punishment from the perspectives of some positions on what punishment is.
Academic assessment of restorative justice is positive. Most studies suggest it makes offenders less likely to reoffend. A 2007 study also found that it had a higher rate of victim satisfaction and offender accountability than traditional methods of justice delivery. Its use has seen worldwide growth since the 1990s. Restorative justice inspired and is part of the wider study of restorative practices.
Definition
According to John Braithwaite, restorative justice is:
Although law professionals may have secondary roles in facilitating the restorative justice process, it is the citizens who must take up the majority of the responsibility in healing the pains caused by crime. The process of restorative justice thus shifts the responsibility for addressing crime.
In 2014, Carolyn Boyes-Watson from Suffolk University defined restorative justice as:
Difference from other approaches
According to Howard Zehr, restorative justice differs from traditional criminal justice in terms of the guiding questions it asks. In restorative justice, the questions are:
Who has been hurt?
What are their needs?
Whose obligations are these?
What are the causes?
Who has a stake in the situation?
What is the appropriate process to involve stakeholders in an effort to address causes and put things right?
In contrast, traditional criminal justice asks:
What laws have been broken?
Who did it?
What do the deserve?
Others, however, have argued that there are several similarities between restorative justice and traditional criminal justice, and that some cases of restorative justice constitute punishment from the perspectives of some positions on what punishment is.
Restorative justice is also different from the adversarial legal process or that of civil litigation.
As Braithwaite writes, "Court-annexed ADR (alternative dispute resolution) and restorative justice could not be philosophically further apart". While the former seeks to address only legally relevant issues and to protect both parties' rights, restorative justice aims at "expanding the issues beyond those that are legally relevant, especially into underlying relationships".
History
History of the term
The phrase "restorative justice" has appeared in written sources since the first half of the nineteenth century. The modern usage of the term was introduced by Albert Eglash, who in 1977 described three different approaches to justice:
"retributive justice", based on punishment;
"distributive justice", involving therapeutic treatment of offenders;
"restorative justice", based on restitution with input from victims and offenders.
Precursors in indigenous groups
According to Howard Zehr, "Two people have made very specific and profound contributions to practices in the field – the First Nations people of Canada and the U.S., and the Maori of New Zealand... [I]n many ways, restorative justice represents a validation of values and practices that were characteristic of many indigenous groups," whose traditions were "often discounted and repressed by western colonial powers". For example, in New Zealand, prior to European contact, the Maori had a well-developed system called Utu that protected individuals, social stability and the integrity of the group. Restorative justice (sometimes known in these contexts as circle justice) continues to be a feature of indigenous justice systems today.
Development of theory
Howard Zehr's book Changing Lenses–A New Focus for Crime and Justice, first published in 1990, is credited with being "groundbreaking", as well as being one of the first to articulate a theory of restorative justice. The title of this book refers to providing an alternative framework for thinking about – or new lens for viewing – crime and justice. Changing Lenses juxtaposed a "retributive justice" framework, where crime is viewed as an offense against the state, with a restorative justice framework, where crime is viewed as a violation of people and relationships. The book made reference to the positive results of efforts in the late 1970s and 1980s at victim–offender mediation, pioneered in the United States by Howard Zehr, Ron Claassen and Mark Umbreit.
By the second half of the 1990s, the expression "restorative justice" had become popular, evolving to widespread usage by 2006. The restorative justice movement has attracted many segments of society, including "police officers, judges, schoolteachers, politicians, juvenile justice agencies, victim support groups, aboriginal elders, and mums and dads".
"Restorative justice is a fast-growing state, national, and international social movement that seeks to bring together people to address the harm caused by crime," write Mark Umbreit and Marilyn Peterson Armour. "Restorative justice views violence, community decline, and fear-based responses as indicators of broken relationships. It offers a different response, namely the use of restorative solutions to repair the harm related to conflict, crime, and victimization."
Development of practice
In North America, the growth of restorative justice has been facilitated by NGOs dedicated to this approach to justice, such as the Victim Offender Mediation Association, as well as by the establishment of academic centers, such as the Center for Justice and Peacebuilding at Eastern Mennonite University in Virginia, the University of Minnesota's Center for Restorative Justice and Peacemaking, the Community Justice Institute at Florida Atlantic University, the Center for Peacemaking and Conflict Studies at Fresno Pacific University in California, the Center for Restorative Justice at the University of San Diego, and the Centre for Restorative Justice at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada. Members of the Mennonites and the social-action arm of their church-community, Mennonite Central Committee, were among the early proponents. "[T]he antinomian groups advocating and supporting restorative justice, such as the Mennonites (as well as Amish and Quaker groups), subscribe to principled pacifism and also tend to believe that restorative justice is much more humane than the punitive juvenile and criminal justice systems."
The development of restorative justice in continental Europe, especially the German speaking countries, Austria, Germany and Switzerland, is somewhat different from the Anglo-Saxon experience. For example, victim–offender mediation is just one model of restorative justice, but in the present European context it is the most important one. Restorative justice is not just a theory, but a practice-oriented attitude in dealing (not only) with criminal relevant conflicts. Restorative justice may be moving towards restorative practice.
In October 2018, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation to member states which recognised "the potential benefits of using restorative justice with respect to criminal justice systems" and encouraged member states to "develop and use restorative justice".
Internationally, 125 nations collectively endeavored to contribute to the Prison Fellowship International set up by Charles Colson in 1979, which is aimed to help the current and former insiders and their family members beyond America. The Center for Justice & Reconciliation was initiated for information dissemination and education pertaining to justice and reconciliation as of 1996 by the Prison Fellowship International.
Application
In system-wide offenses
The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission shows how restorative justice can be used to address system-wide offenses that affect broad swaths of a group or a society.
In criminal cases
In criminal cases, victims can testify about the crime's impact upon their lives, receive answers to questions about the incident, and participate in holding the offender accountable. Meanwhile, offenders can tell their story of why the crime occurred and how it has affected their lives. They are given an opportunity to compensate the victim directly – to the degree possible. In criminal cases, this can include money, community service in general and/or specific to the offense, education to prevent recidivism, and/or expression of remorse.
A courtroom process might employ pretrial diversion, dismissing charges after restitution. In serious cases, a sentence may precede other restitution.
In the community, concerned individuals meet with all parties to assess the experience and impact of the crime. Offenders listen to victims' experiences, preferably until they are able to empathize with the experience. Then they speak to their own experience: how they decided to commit the offense. A plan is made for prevention of future occurrences, and for the offender to address the damage to the injured parties. All agree. Community members hold the accountable for adherence to the plan.
While restorative justice typically involves an encounter between the offender and the victim, some organizations, such as the Mennonite Central Committee Canada, emphasize a program's values over its participants. This can include programs that only serve victims (or offenders for that matter), but that have a restorative framework. Indigenous groups are using the restorative justice process to try to create more community support for victims and offenders, particularly the young people. For example, different programs are underway at Kahnawake, a Mohawk reserve in Canada, and at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation of the Oglala Lakota nation, within the United States.
In prisons
Besides serving as an alternative to civil or criminal trial, restorative justice is also thought to be applicable to offenders who are currently incarcerated. The purpose of restorative justice in prisons is to assist with the prisoner's rehabilitation, and eventual reintegration into society. By repairing the harm to the relationships between offenders and victims, and offenders and the community that resulted from the crime, restorative justice seeks to understand and address the circumstances which contributed to the crime. This is thought to prevent recidivism (that is, that the offender repeats the undesirable behavior) once the offender is released.
Research of a restorative reentry planning circle process in Hawai‘i showed reduced recidivism that controlled for the self-selection bias that often is difficult to overcome in restorative practices research. The reentry planning circle process was also shown to help children, whose incarcerated parents had one, address the trauma they suffered from losing a parent to prison.
The potential for restorative justice to reduce recidivism is one of the strongest and most promising arguments for its use in prisons. However, there are both theoretical and practical limitations, which can make restorative justice infeasible in a prison environment. These include: difficulty engaging offenders and victims to participate in mediation; the controversial influence of family, friends, and the community; and the prevalence of mental illness among prisoners.
In social work
In social work cases, impoverished victims such as foster children are given the opportunity to describe their future hopes and make concrete plans to transition out of state custody in a group process with their supporters. In social justice cases, restorative justice is used for problem solving.
In schools
Restorative justice has also been implemented in schools. It uses a similar model to programs used by the criminal justice system. Restorative practices can "also include preventive measures designed to build skills and capacity in students as well as adults". Some examples of preventive measures in restorative practices might include teachers and students devising classroom expectations together or setting up community building in the classroom. Restorative justice also focuses on justice as needs and obligations, expands justice as conversations between the offender, victim and school, and recognizes accountability as understanding the impact of actions and repairing the harm. In this approach, teachers, students and the community can reach agreements to meet all stakeholders’ needs. Collectivity is emphasized as the group must create an action plan to heal the harm and find a way to bring the offender back into the community.
While the focus is in making the whole, the added benefit of restorative justice programs are a reduction in disciplinary actions such as suspensions and expulsions, and more effective reformative and/or reconciliatory actions imposed, such as writing apology letters, performing community service or – for example, in cases of bullying – composing a research paper on the negative effects of bullying.
This approach develops and fosters empathy, as participating parties must come to understand the needs of all stakeholders in order for the conflict to be fully rectified. Both the offending party and the wronged/victimized party can address and begin to resolve their obstacles to achieving their education, with the aid of the restorative justice partners. Behavioral problems stemming from grief, for example, may be recognized and acknowledged within restorative justice programs; as a result, the party would be referred to a counselor to receive grief counseling.
By approaching student discipline with restorative justice in the forefront, conflicts may be resolved to meet the funding needs of the school district – by way of reduced student absenteeism, rehabilitate the offending party, and to restore justice and make whole the wronged party. Collectivity and empathy are further developed by having students participate in restorative justice circles in administering roles such as mediators or jurors.
Methods
Restorative justice requires a form of meeting between the offender and the victim. A 2013 Cochrane review stressed the need for the offender to meet the victim face-to-face. In addition, the meeting may include people representing the wider community.
Suggested reasons for why it can be effective include:
The offender has to learn about the harm they have caused to their victim, making it hard for them to justify their behavior.
It offers a chance to discuss moral development to offenders who may have had little of it in their life.
Offenders are more likely to view their punishment as legitimate.
The programs tend to avoid shaming and stigmatizing the offender.
Many restorative justice systems, especially victim–offender mediation and family group conferencing, require participants to sign a confidentiality agreement. These agreements usually state that conference discussions will not be disclosed to nonparticipants. The rationale for confidentiality is that it promotes open and honest communication.
Victim-offender dialogue
Victim–offender dialogue (VOD), (also called victim–offender mediation, victim–offender conferencing, victim–offender reconciliation, or restorative justice dialogue), is usually a meeting, in the presence of one or two trained facilitators, between victim and offender. This system generally involves few participants, and often is the only option available to incarcerated offenders. Victim Offender Dialogue originated in Canada as part of an alternative court sanction in a 1974 Kitchener, Ontario case involving two accused vandals who met face-to-face with their many victims. One of the first victim–offender mediation projects in the United Kingdom was run by South Yorkshire Probation Service from 1983 to 1986.
Family group conferencing
Family group conferencing (FGC) has a wider circle of participants than VOD, adding people connected to the primary parties, such as family, friends and professionals. FGC is most commonly used for juvenile cases, due to the important role of the family in a juvenile offender's life. Examples can be found in New South Wales, Australia, under the 1997 Young Offenders Act, and in New Zealand under the 1989 Children, Young Persons, and their Families Act. The New South Wales scheme has been favorably evaluated by the New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research.
Fiji uses this form of mediation when dealing with cases of child sexual assault. While it may be seen as beneficial to involve the victim's family in the process, there are multiple issues stemming from this. For example, the vast majority of offenders are known to the victims in these cases. In a Fijian context, the notion of family extends wider than that of the normative Western idea. Therefore, involving the family in these cases may become complicated, for the family may not necessarily side with the victim or the process itself could cause rifts within the clan. Furthermore, the process as a whole places much emphasis on the victim forgiving the offender, as opposed to the offender making amends with the victim. Overall, the current process has the potential to cause great trauma and revictimise the victim.
Restorative conferences
Restorative conferences (RC) involves a wider circle of participants than VOD and FGC. There are many different names and procedures of operation for these community-based meetings. They are also referred to as Restorative Circles, Restorative Justice Conferences, Community Restorative Boards or Community Accountability Conferences. Specific programs have their own names, such as Community Justice Committees in Canada and Referral Order Panels in England & Wales. Restorative Circles refers to restorative justice conferences in Brazil and Hawaii, though can have a wider meaning in the field of restorative practices.
A conference will typically include the victim, the offender and members of the local community, who have typically received some training. The family and friends of the offender and victim are frequently invited. RC is explicitly victim-sensitive. The community members discuss the nature and impact of the offense with the offender. The discussion continues until restitution is agreed; they may also see that the agreement is fulfilled.
The largest restorative justice conference in history took place in the course of the 1990 reconciliation campaign that ended the blood feuds among ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, which was attended by between 100,000 and 500,000 participants. The reconciliation campaign was led by Anton Çetta, and over a period of three years (1990–1992) approximately one third of the entire population of Kosovo were documented to be actively involved in restorative justice conferences to end the blood feuds.
Circles of Support and Accountability
Circles of Support and Accountability (CoSA) originated as a project of the "Welcome In", a Mennonite church in Hamilton, Ontario. This approach has demonstrated the capacity to enhance the safe integration of otherwise high-risk sex offenders with their community. Canada judges some sex offenders too dangerous for any form of conditional release, "detaining" them until they serve their entire sentence. A subsequent conviction often leads to designation as a "Dangerous Offender".
Prior to 1994, many such offenders were released without any support or observation beyond police surveillance. Between 1994 and 2007, CoSA assisted with the integration of well over 120 such offenders. Research indicated that surrounding a 'core member' with 5–7 trained volunteer circle members reduced recidivism by nearly 80%. Further, recidivist offences were less invasive and less brutal than without the program. CoSA projects now exist in every Canadian province and every major urban centre. CoSA projects are also operational in several U.S. states (Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Ohio, Colorado, Vermont) as well as in several United Kingdom regions (Cornwall, Devon, Hampshire, Thames Valley, Leicestershire, North Wales, North Yorkshire, and Manchester).
Sentencing circles
Sentencing circles (sometimes called peacemaking circles) use traditional circle ritual and structure to involve all interested parties. The procedure commonly works as follows: the offender applies for the intervention, a healing circle is held for the victim, a healing circle is held for the offender, a sentencing circle is held and finally, follow-up circles to monitor progress.
Other social movements
Positive criminology and positive victimology
Positive criminology and positive victimology are conceptual approaches, developed by the Israeli criminologist Natti Ronel and his research team, that are well connected to restorative justice theories and practice. Positive criminology and victimology both place an emphasis on social inclusion and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people's lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators.
Prison abolition
Prison abolition not only calls for the eradication of cages, but also new perspectives and methodologies for conceptualizing crime, an aim that is shared by restorative justice. In an abolitionist style of restorative justice, participation is voluntary and not limited by the requirements of organizations or professionals, the process includes all relevant stakeholders and is mediated by an independent third party. The emphasis is on meeting the needs of and strengthening the community.
Research
A 2007 meta-study of all research projects concerning restorative justice conferencing published in English between 1986 and 2005 found positive results, specifically for victims:
Greater ability to return to work, to resume normal daily activities, and to sleep.
No cases of offenders verbally or violently abusing victims.
Reduced fear of the offender (especially for violence victims); lower perceived likelihood of another offense; increased sense of security; reduced anger towards the offender; greater sympathy for the offender and the offender's supporters; greater feelings of trust in others; increased feelings of self-confidence; reduced anxiety.
Other findings included:
The only principled basis for selectively allowing, or banning, RJ is harm reduction.
Limited public familiarity and misconceptions about RJ.
Greater availability, together with information about victims' positive views is likely to increase the proportion of victims willing to participate.
In July 2011, the International Center for Transitional Justice published a report entitled "To Live as Other Kenyans do: A Study of the Demands of Kenyan Victims of Human Rights Violations". The findings are based on individual and group interviews of victims of human rights abuses from Kenya's 2007 post-election violence. It highlights the importance of a victim-centered approach to determine the most effective mode of implementation for a comprehensive reparations program. The main finding of the report is that victims demand tangible basic benefits lost as a product of violence, such as food and shelter. It also acknowledges the need for symbolic reparations, such as formal apologies. The provision of reparations will in a sense create a restoration of the way life was before violence, and also signal the moving forward of a society through institutional change.
The COREPOL Project (Conflict Resolution, Mediation and Restorative Justice and the Policing of Ethnic Minorities in Germany, Austria and Hungary) has been researching the effects of restorative justice programs in Germany, Austria and Hungary. Its goal is to establish whether restorative justice can lead to better relations between the police and minority groups. Its first stage is to look at the extent and role of RJ programs within the countries. The second stage is to look at the position of certain minority populations within the societies, with the study focusing on Turks in Germany, Roma in Hungary and Africans in Austria. The involvement of the police in RJ programs for minority populations will be explored. Finally, the proposed research will give examples of when RJ can be used to improve communication and interaction between the police and minority groups. The study deals with countries that use the civil law legal system, in contrast to the common law legal system of English-speaking countries. COREPOL is coordinated by the German Police University and funded through the European Commission's Seventh Framework Program (FP7).
Recidivism
Reduction of recidivism is also a goal of RJ, secondary to the restoration of offenders. Proponents argue that it can prevent reoffending and deter other potential criminals. Critics counter that RJ does not significantly influence crime rates.
While some older studies showed mixed results, as of 2013, studies that compared recidivism rates have become more definitive and in favor of Restorative Justice. Some studies claim modest, relative reductions, but more recent studies are finding significant and meaningful reductions in recidivism rates (see below).
A 1998 meta-analysis by Bonta et al. found that restorative justice programs caused mild reductions in reoffending rates. Latimer, Dowden and Muise carried out a meta-analysis that provided a more precise definition. conducted the second meta-analysis on the effectiveness of RJ. This study is important because it addresses the file-drawer problem. Also, some of the studies analyzed implemented a randomized controlled trial (a gold standard in research methods), although this does not represent the majority of studies included. This meta-analysis lends empirical support for the effectiveness of RJ to lower recidivism rates and increase compliance and satisfaction rates. However, the authors caution that a self-selection bias is rife through most studies of restorative justice. They reference authors from one study who found no evidence that restorative justice has a treatment effect on recidivism beyond a self-selection effect.
The third meta-analysis on the effectiveness of RJ was conducted by Bradshaw, Roseborough, and Umbreit in 2006. The results of this meta-analysis add empirical support for the effectiveness of RJ in reducing juvenile recidivism rates. Since then, studies by Baffour in (2006) and Rodriguez (2007) have also concluded that RJ reduces recidivism rates compared to the traditional justice system. Bergseth (2007) and Bouffard (2012) supported these findings and also concluded that there may be some long-term effects of RJ over the traditional justice system; as well as RJ being more effective with serious crimes, RJ participants are less likely to commit serious crimes if they do re-offend and they go longer without re-offending. All of these studies found that RJ is equally effective regardless of race.
In 2007, Lawrence W. Sherman and Heather Strang published a review of the previous literature and they conclude that in no way can RJ be more harmful than the traditional justice system. It is at least equally as effective as the traditional justice system in all cases. In most cases (especially with more serious offenses and with adult offenders) it is significantly more effective than the traditional justice system at lowering recidivism rates. It also reduced crime victims' post-traumatic stress symptoms and related costs and desires for violent revenge against their offenders. It provided both victims and offenders with more satisfaction with justice than the alternative, and saved money overall.
A recent meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration (2013) on the effect of youth justice conferencing on recidivism in young offenders found that there was no significant effect for restorative justice conferencing over normal court procedures for number re-arrested, nor monthly rate of reoffending. They also noted a lack of high quality evidence regarding the effectiveness of restorative justice conferencing for young offenders.
Criticism
Theoretical
According to Morris, the following are some of the most common criticisms that are used against the practicality or realism of restorative justice:
Another critique of restorative justice suggests that professionals are often left out of the restorative justice conversation. Albert W. Dzur and Susan M. Olson argue that this sector of justice cannot be successful without professionals. They claim that professionals can aid in avoiding problems that come up with informal justice and propose the theory of democratic professionalism, where professionals are not just agents of the state – as traditional understandings would suggest – but as mediums, promoting community involvement while still protecting individuals' rights.
Additionally, some critics like Gregory Shank and Paul Takagi see restorative justice as an incomplete model in that it fails to fix the fundamental, structural inequalities that make certain people more likely to be offenders than others. They and others question the structure of society and the fairness of institutional systems at their very core, pushing for addressing the root causes of many one-on-one offenses as well as for creating a socio-economic system that will be more conducive to harmonious, healthy living in general.
Finally, some researchers agree that more research must be conducted to support the validity of restorative justice in schools, specifically in how its implemented. More exactly, restorative justice practices that are inconsistent, insufficient, or run out of funding tend to have the worst reputations for success. While many research studies support positive findings in restorative justice, continuing studies are still needed.
Limitations and issues in practice
Some judicial systems only recognize monetary restitution agreements. For instance, if victim and offender agree that the offender would pay $100 and mow the victim's lawn five times, the court would only recognize the $100 as restitution. Some agreements specify a larger monetary amount (e.g., $200) to be paid if the non-monetary restitution is not completed.
Many jurisdictions cap the amount which a juvenile offender can be required to pay. Labor regulations typically limit the personal service tasks that can be performed by minors. In addition, personal service usually must be approved by the juvenile's parents.
According to the Victim Offender Mediation Association, victims are not allowed to profit from restitution (the equivalent of punitive damages); only out-of-pocket losses (actual damages) can be recovered. Courts can disallow unreasonable compensation arrangements.
Both victim and offender can be hesitant to engage in victim–offender dialogue later in the criminal justice process. Once an offender starts serving a sentence, they may believe that the sentence is how they take responsibility for their actions rather than conversing with the victim. For victims, the trial and the sentencing of the offender may terminate the possibilities for discussion. For both offender and victim, victim–offender dialogue is limited in the amount of trust between the two parties.
In the media
Studies by Kelly M. Richards have shown that the general public would be open to the idea of alternative forms of justice, though only after the idea has been explicitly explained to them. According to other studies performed by Vicky De Mesmaecker, in order for restorative justice to become publicly accepted, there must be an effective public relations collaboration between the media and the criminologists.
The use of forgiveness as a tool has in the restorative justice programs, run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, has also been documented in film, Beyond Right and Wrong: Stories of Justice and Forgiveness (2012). A tribal form of restorative justice is portrayed in the book Touching Spirit Bear by Ben Mikaelsen.
The 2017 Canadian documentary A Better Man follows a meeting between a woman who is recovering from domestic violence and the ex-partner.
Season 2 episode 5 of the NPR podcast Mindshift compares two schools that use restorative discipline practices, one that has already made the transition and one that is just beginning to use these practices. Peace Alliance hosts a twice weekly discussion forum on restorative justice called Restorative Justice on the Rise. There is public discussion about the restorative justice movement, as well as an archive of past discussions since January 27, 2019.
In July 2020 the BBC Radio 4 series The Punch followed the story of Jacob Dunne who, at the age of 18, threw a single punch in a drunken brawl outside a pub in Nottingham, England. His victim, James Hodgkinson, died in hospital nine days later and Dunne was convicted of manslaughter. Meeting face-to-face with the victim's parents had a profound impact on both parties, and the resulting relationship changed Dunne's life in unexpected ways.
See also
Bullying
Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project
Conflict resolution
Distributive justice
Ho'oponopono
International Institute for Restorative Practices
Therapeutic jurisprudence
Transformative justice
Transitional justice
Victimology
References
External links
A Survey of Doctoral Dissertations in Restorative Justice (1997 - 2018)
BBC story on 2007 Cambridge University report
Conference Facilitator's Script
Restorative justice, homepage
UK Restorative justice, homepage
Instituto Latino Americano de Prácticas Restaurativas
COREPOL project
Why Me? UK charity promoting restorative justice
Thom Brooks, "On Punitive Restoration"
"Restorative Justice FAQ, Victim Offender Mediation Association.
Community Restorative Board, Restorative Justice Fact Sheet, U.S. Department of Justice.
Peacemaking Circle process (Minnesota)
The Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Practices: A Meta-Analysis, Research and Statistics Division Methodological Series, Department of Justice Canada, 2001. (PDF)
Criminal justice
Positive criminology
Mediation
Relational ethics
Theories of law
Crime prevention
Social work | [
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|
218406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intimate%20part | Intimate part | An intimate part, personal part or private part is a place on the human body which is customarily kept covered by clothing in public venues and conventional settings, as a matter of fashion and cultural norms. In several cultures, revealing these parts is seen as a religious offence.
Definitions vary, but usually they are primarily the parts involved in sexual arousal, procreation, and elimination of excreta and related matter, including:
for both sexes: the buttocks, anus, perineum, mons pubis and groin
for males: the penis and scrotum
for females: the vulva (including pudendal cleft), vagina and breasts.
The term intimate parts may be construed to mean only the external body parts that are visible when naked, rather than the body parts more commonly referred to. For example, when naked, a woman's pudendal cleft is predominantly visible rather than the vagina, and a man's scrotum is visible rather than the testes which are contained within.
Female breasts are considered as parts that would be covered in most contexts but with a degree of tolerance for toplessness varying in different regions and cultures. For example, Fischtein, Herold and Desmarais (2005) found that acceptance of toplessness in a sample of Canadians varied depending on both personal factors (such as the respondent's gender, age, and religion) and contextual factors (i.e. toplessness in streets, parks, or beaches).
In some periods of European history, female shoulders and legs may have been considered intimate parts. More conservative viewpoints in the West in some contexts still find it appropriate that females should cover their shoulders, particularly when entering a church or other sacred space.
In Islamic traditions, the definition of awrah is similar to the definition of intimate parts in Western culture. The extent of cover for the female body depends upon the situation, but may include the hair, shoulders, and neck in addition to the aforementioned "intimate parts". A majority of scholars agree that the entire body except the face and hands should be covered in public or in front of unrelated non-Muslim women and in front of unrelated men. The exceptions are the scholars from Hanafi school of thought, which has the largest number of followers, which agree that the feet are not part of the awrah and therefore may be revealed. For males, most scholars regard all parts of body from the navel to the knees as awrah.
The intentional exposure of one's intimate parts is a form of exhibitionism. Such exposure may be subject to strict social rules, social control and even criminal justice, if it is considered to be a form of indecent exposure. The unintentional exposure of intimate parts (as in the case of a "wardrobe malfunction") may be connected with feelings of shame.
Intentionally touching the intimate parts of another person, even through clothing, is often associated with sexual intent. If this is done without the consent of the person being touched, it is considered groping or in some cases sexual harassment or sexual assault.
Naturism is a lifestyle choice that is characterized by the practice of nudity both alone and in groups. Some naturists hold that nakedness is not automatically a sexual state and that covering areas of the body is merely a social construct: they believe that the norms of society can be upheld even when all are nude.
See also
Erogenous zone
Intimate parts in Islam
Public nudity
Secondary sex characteristic
Sex organ
Taboo
References
English-language idioms
Modesty
Sexual anatomy
Social constructionism
Human surface anatomy
Nudity | [
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218407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20assault | Sexual assault | Sexual assault is an act in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence, which includes child sexual abuse, groping, rape (forced vaginal, anal, or oral penetration or a drug facilitated sexual assault), or the torture of the person in a sexual manner.
Definition
Generally, sexual assault is defined as unwanted sexual contact. The National Center for Victims of Crime states:
In the United States, the definition of sexual assault varies widely among the individual states. However, in most states sexual assault occurs when there is lack of consent from one of the individuals involved. Consent must take place between two adults who are not incapacitated and consent may change, by being withdrawn, at any time during the sexual act.
Types
Child sexual abuse
Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure of the genitals to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact against a child, physical contact with the child's genitals, viewing of the child's genitalia without physical contact, or using a child to produce child pornography, including live streaming sexual abuse.
The effects of child sexual abuse include depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, propensity to re-victimization in adulthood, physical injury to the child, and increased risk for future interpersonal violence perpetration among males, among other problems. Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest. It is more common than other forms of sexual assault on a child and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.
Approximately 15 to 25 percent of women and 5 to 15 percent of men were sexually abused when they were children. Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims. Approximately 30 percent of the perpetrators are relatives of the child - most often brothers, sisters, fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts or cousins. Around 60 percent are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbors. Strangers are the offenders in approximately 10 percent of child sexual abuse cases.
Studies have shown that the psychological damage is particularly severe when sexual assault is committed by parents against children due to the incestuous nature of the assault. Incest between a child and a related adult has been identified as the most widespread form of child sexual abuse with a huge capacity for damage to a child. Often, sexual assault on a child is not reported by the child for several of the following reasons:
children are too young to recognize their victimization or put it into words
they were threatened or bribed by the abuser
they feel confused by fearing the abuser
they are afraid no one will believe them
they blame themselves or believe the abuse is a punishment
they feel guilty for consequences to the perpetrator
In addition, many states have criminalized sexual contact between teachers or school administrators and students, even if the student is over the age of consent.
Domestic violence
Domestic violence is violence or other abuse by one person against another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. It is strongly correlated with sexual assault. Not only can domestic abuse be emotional, physical, psychological and financial, but it can be sexual. Some of the signs of sexual abuse are similar to those of domestic violence.
Elderly sexual assault
About 30 percent of people age 65 or older who are sexually assaulted in the U.S. report it to the police. Assailants may include strangers, caretakers, adult children, spouses and fellow facility residents.
Groping
The term groping is used to define the touching or fondling of another person in a sexual way without the person's consent. Groping may occur under or over clothing.
Rape
Outside of law, the term rape (sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without that person's consent) is often used interchangeably with sexual assault. Although closely related, the two terms are technically distinct in most jurisdictions. Sexual assault typically includes rape and other forms of non-consensual sexual activity.
Abbey et al. state that female victims are much more likely to be assaulted by an acquaintance, such as a friend or co-worker, a dating partner, an ex-boyfriend or a husband or other intimate partner than by a complete stranger. In a study of hospital emergency room treatments for rape, Kaufman et al. stated that the male victims as a group sustained more physical trauma and were more likely to have been a victim of multiple assaults from multiple assailants. It was also stated that male victims were more likely to have been held captive longer.
In the U.S., rape is a crime committed primarily against youth. A national telephone survey on violence against women conducted by the National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 18% of women surveyed had experienced a completed or attempted rape at some time in their lives. Of these, 22% were younger than 12 years and 32% were between 12 and 17 years old when they were first raped.
In the U.K., attempted rape under the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 is a 'sexual offence' within section 31(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991.
The removal of a condom during intercourse without the consent of the sex partner, known as stealthing, may be treated as a sexual assault or rape in some jurisdictions.
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment is intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature. It may also be defined as the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. The legal and social definition of what constitutes sexual harassment differ widely by culture. Sexual harassment includes a wide range of behaviors from seemingly mild transgressions to serious forms of abuse. Some forms of sexual harassment overlap with sexual assault.
In the United States, sexual harassment is a form of discrimination which violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): "Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitutes sexual harassment when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual's employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment."
In the United States:
79% of victims are women, 21% are men
51% are harassed by a supervisor
Business, Trade, Banking, and Finance are the biggest industries where sexual harassment occurs
12% received threats of termination if they did not comply with their requests
26,000 people in the armed forces were assaulted in 2012[18]
302 of the 2,558 cases pursued by victims were prosecuted
38% of the cases were committed by someone of a higher rank
Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a federal law that prohibits employers from discriminating against employees on the basis of sex, race, color, national origin, and religion. It generally applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including federal, state, and local governments. Title VII also applies to private and public colleges and universities, employment agencies, and labor organizations.[19]
"It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer … to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin."[20]
Mass sexual assault
Mass sexual assault takes place in public places and in crowds. It involves large groups of men surrounding and assaulting a woman, groping, manual penetration, and frottage, but usually stopping short of penile rape.
Emotional and psychological effects
Aside from physical traumas, rape and other sexual assault often result in long-term emotional effects, particularly in child victims. These can include, but are not limited to: denial, learned helplessness, genophobia, anger, self-blame, anxiety, shame, nightmares, fear, depression, flashbacks, guilt, rationalization, moodswings, numbness, promiscuity, loneliness, social anxiety, difficulty trusting oneself or others, and difficulty concentrating.
Sexual assault increases an individual's risk to developing psychopathology. It is most strongly related to the development of suicidality and trauma-related disorders (including posttraumatic stress disorder), as well as the development of bipolar and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Experiencing sexual assault also increases the risk of developing anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, eating disorders, addiction, or other psychopathologies. Individuals who develop psychological disorders following sexual assault have increased frequency and severity of psychopathology compared with individuals who have not experienced sexual assault.
Family and friends of individuals who have been sexually assaulted experience emotional scarring, including a strong desire for revenge, a desire to "fix" the problem and/or move on, and a rationalization that "it wasn't that bad".
Physical effects
While sexual assault, including rape, can result in physical trauma, many people who experience sexual assault will not suffer any physical injury. Rape myths suggest that the stereotypical victim of sexual violence is a bruised and battered young woman. The central issue in many cases of rape or other sexual assault is whether or not both parties consented to the sexual activity or whether or not both parties had the capacity to do so. Thus, physical force resulting in visible physical injury is not always seen. This stereotype can be damaging because people who have experienced sexual assault but have no physical trauma may be less inclined to report to the authorities or to seek health care. However, women who experienced rape or physical violence by a partner were more likely than people who had not experienced this violence to report frequent headaches, chronic pain, difficulty sleeping, activity limitation, poor physical health, and poor mental health.
Economic effects
Due to rape or sexual assault, or the threat of, there are many resulting impacts on income and commerce at the macro level. Excluding child abuse, each rape or sexual assault costs $5,100 in tangible losses (lost productivity, medical and mental health care, police/fire services, and property damage) and $81,400 in lost quality of life. This issue has been addressed in the Supreme Court. In his dissenting opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court case U.S. v. Morrison, Justice Souter explained that 75% of women never go to the movies alone at night and nearly 50% will not ride public transportation out of fear of rape or sexual assault. It also stated that less than 1% of victims collect damages and 50% of women lose their jobs or quit after the trauma. The court ruled in U.S. v. Morrison that Congress did not have the authority to enact part of the Violence Against Women Act because it did not have a direct impact on commerce. The Commerce Clause of Article I Section VII of the U.S. Constitution gives authority and jurisdiction to the Federal government in matters of interstate commerce. As a result, the victim was unable to sue her attacker in Federal Court.
Sexual assault also has adverse economic effects for survivors on the micro level. For instance, survivors of sexual assault often require time off from work and face increased rates of unemployment. Survivors of rape by an intimate partner lose an average of $69 per day due to unpaid time off from work. Sexual assault is also associated with numerous negative employment consequences, including unpaid time off, diminished work performance, job loss, and inability to work, all of which can lead to lower earnings for survivors.
The ability to test backlogged sexual assault kits and have the results uploaded into CODIS is cost effective in terms of reducing the costs associated with sexual assaults' by spending the money on testing evidence.
Medical and psychological treatment of victims
In the emergency room, emergency contraceptive medications are offered to women raped by men because about 5% of such rapes result in pregnancy. Preventative medication against sexually transmitted infections are given to victims of all types of sexual assault (especially for the most common diseases like chlamydia, gonorhea, trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis) and a blood serum is collected to test for STIs (such as HIV, hepatitis B and syphilis). Any survivor with abrasions are immunized for tetanus if 5 years have elapsed since the last immunization. Short-term treatment with a benzodiazepine may help with acute anxiety and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of PTSD, depression and panic attacks. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has also been proposed as a psychiatric treatment for victims of sexual assault. With regard to long term psychological treatment, prolonged exposure therapy has been tested as a method of long-term PTSD treatment for victims of sexual abuse.
Post-assault mistreatment of victims
After the assault, victims may become the target of slut-shaming to cyberbullying. In addition, their credibility may be challenged. During criminal proceedings, publication bans and rape shield laws may operate to protect victims from excessive public scrutiny. Negative social responses to victims’ disclosures of sexual assault have the potential to lead to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Social isolation, following a sexual assault, can result in the victim experiencing a decrease in their self-esteem and likelihood of rejecting unwanted sexual advances in the future. Victims have already been through a traumatic assault and it can be exacerbated the unwillingness of law enforcement to move their case along in the forensic testing process because law enforcement officials develop preconceived notions about the victims willingness to participate in the investigation.
Prevention
Sexual harassment and assault may be prevented by secondary school, college, workplace and public education programs. At least one program for fraternity men produced "sustained behavioral change". At least one study showed that creative campaigns with attention grabbing slogans and images that market consent are effective tools to raise awareness of campus sexual assault and related issues.
Several research based rape prevention programs have been tested and verified through scientific studies. The rape prevention programs that have the strongest empirical data in the research literature include the following:
The Men's and Women's Programs, also known as the One in Four programs, were written by John Foubert. and is focused on increasing empathy toward rape survivors and motivating people to intervene as bystanders in sexual assault situations. Published data shows that high-risk persons who saw the Men's and Women's Program committed 40% fewer acts of sexually coercive behavior than those who didn't. They also committed acts of sexual coercion that were 8 times less severe than a control group. Further research also shows that people who saw the Men's and Women's Program reported more efficacy in intervening and greater willingness to help as a bystander after seeing the program. Several additional studies are available documenting its efficacy.
Bringing in the Bystander was written by Victoria Banyard. Its focus is on who bystanders are, when they have helped, and how to intervene as a bystander in risky situations. The program includes a brief empathy induction component and a pledge to intervene in the future. Several studies show strong evidence of favorable outcomes including increased bystander efficacy, increased willingness to intervene as a bystander, and decreased rape myth acceptance.
The MVP: Mentors in Violence Prevention was written by Jackson Katz. This program focuses on discussing a male bystander who didn't intervene when woman was in danger. An emphasis is placed on encouraging men to be active bystanders rather than standing by when they notice abuse. The bulk of the presentation is on processing hypothetical scenarios. Outcomes reported in research literature include lower levels of sexism and increased belief that participants could prevent violence against women.
The Green Dot program was written by Dorothy Edwards. This program includes both motivational speeches and peer education focused on bystander intervention. Outcomes show that program participation is associated with reductions in rape myth acceptance and increased bystander intervention.
The city of Edmonton, Canada, initiated a public education campaign aimed at potential perpetrators. Posters in bar bathrooms and public transit centers reminded men that "It's not sex when she's wasted" and "It's not sex when he changes his mind". The campaign was so effective that it spread to other cities. "The number of reported sexual assaults fell by 10 per cent last year in Vancouver, after the ads were featured around the city. It was the first time in several years that there was a drop in sexual assault activity."
President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden introduced in September 2014 a nationwide campaign against sexual assault entitled "It's on us". The campaign includes tips against sexual assault, as well as broad scale of private and public pledges to change to provoke a cultural shift, with a focus on student activism, to achieve awareness and prevention nationwide. UC Berkeley, NCAA and Viacom have publicly announced their partnership.
Additionally, CODIS checks whether the qualifying offense sample, DNA taken from an offender for committing a crime, was also a sexual assault. If a person committed sexual offenses in the past, this system would reveal a pattern of serial sexual offending. Using CODIS to compare backlogged rape kit tests can lead to prevention of future sexual assaults.
Prevalence
A United Nations report compiled from government sources showed that more than 250,000 cases of rape or attempted rape were recorded by police annually. The reported data covered 65 countries.
United States
The U.S. Department of Justice's National Crime Victimization Survey states that on average there are 237,868 victims (age 12 or older) of sexual assault and rape each year. According to RAINN, every 107 seconds someone in America is sexually assaulted. Sexual assault in the United States military also is a salient issue. Some researchers assert that the unique professional and socially-contained context of military service can heighten the destructive nature of sexual assault, and, therefore, improved support is needed for these victims.
The victims of sexual assault:
Age
15% are under the age of 12
29% are age 12–17
44% are under age 18
80% are under age 30
12–34 are the highest risk years
Girls ages 16–19 are 4 times more likely than the general population to be victims of rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault.
By gender
A study from 2011 finds that,
19.3% of women have been victims of attempted (7.8%) or completed (11. 5%) rape during their lifetime.
An estimated 1.7% of men have been victims of attempted or completed rape during their lifetime.
Over 23 million women have been victims of attempted or completed rape during their lifetime.
Almost 2 million men have been victims of attempted or completed rape during their lifetime.
An estimated 7.6 million men have been forced to penetrate during their lifetime, 71% having done so before the age of 25.
The National Crime Victimization Survey conducted by the U.S. Justice Department (Bureau of Justice Statistics) found that from 1995 to 2013, men represented 17% of victims of sexual assault and rape on college campuses, and 4% of non-campus sexual assaults and rapes.
LGBT
LGBT identifying individuals, with the exception of lesbian women, are more likely to experience sexual assault on college campuses than heterosexual individuals.
1 in 8 lesbian women and nearly 50% of bisexual women and men experience sexual assault in their lifetime.
Nearly 4 in 10 gay men experience sexual violence in their lifetime.
64% of transgender people have experienced sexual assault in their lifetime.
Effects
3 times more likely to suffer from depression
6 times more likely to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder
13 times more likely to abuse alcohol
26 times more likely to abuse drugs
4 times more likely to contemplate suicide
The reporting of sexual assault:
on average 68% of sexual assaults go unreported
98% of rapists will not spend time in jail
The assailants:
According to the U.S. Department of Justice 1997 Sex Offenses and Offenders Study,
A rapist's age on average is 31 years old
52% of offenders are white
22% of rapists imprisoned report that they are married
Juveniles accounted for 16% of forcible rape arrestees in 1995 and 17% of those arrested for other sex offenses
In 2001,
11% of rapes involved the use of a weapon
3% used a gun
6% used a knife
2% used another form of weapon
84% of victims reported the use of physical force only
According to the U.S. Department of Justice 2005 National Crime Victimization Study
About 2/3 of rapes were committed by someone known to the victim
73% of sexual assaults were perpetrated by a non-stranger
38% of rapists are a friend or acquaintance
28% are an intimate partner
7% are a relative
College
In the United States, several studies since 1987 have indicated that one in four college women have experienced rape or attempted rape at some point in their lifetime. These studies are based on anonymous surveys of college women, not reports to the police, and the results are disputed.
In 2015, Texas A&M University professor Jason Lindo and his colleagues analyzed over two decades worth of FBI data, noting that reports of rape increased 15-57% around the times of major American Football games at Division 1 schools while attempting to find a link between campus rape and alcohol.
A 2006 report from the U.S. Department of Justice titled "The Sexual Victimization of College Women" reports that 3.1% of undergraduates survived rape or attempted rape during a 6–7 month academic year with an additional 10.1% surviving rape prior to college and an additional 10.9% surviving attempted rape prior to college. With no overlap between these groups, these percentages add to 24.1%, or "One in Four".
Koss, Gidycz & Wisniewski published a study in 1987 where they interviewed approximately 6,000 college students on 32 college campuses nationwide. They asked several questions covering a wide range of behaviors. From this study 15% of college women answered "yes" to questions about whether they experienced something that met the definition of rape. An additional 12% of women answered "yes" to questions about whether they experienced something that met the definition of attempted rape, thus the statistic One in Four.
A point of contention lies in the leading nature of the questions in the study conducted by Koss, Gidycz & Wisniewski. Koss herself later admitted that the question that had garnered the largest "rape" result was flawed and ultimately rendered the study invalid. Most prominently the problem was that many respondents who had answered yes to several questions had their responses treated as having been raped. The issue being that these same respondents did not feel they had been victimized and never sought redress for grievances. The resultant change shows a prevalence of only 1 in 22 college women having been raped or attempted to be raped during their time at college.
In 1995, the CDC replicated part of this study, however they examined rape only, and did not look at attempted rape. They used a two-stage cluster sample design to produce a nationally representative sample of undergraduate college students aged greater than or equal to 18 years. The first-stage sampling frame contained 2,919 primary sampling units (PSUs), consisting of 2- and 4-year colleges and universities. The second sampling stage consisted of a random sample drawn from the primary sample unit frame enrolled in the 136 participating colleges and universities to increase the sample size to 4,609 undergraduate college students aged greater than or equal to 18 years old with a representative sample demographic matching the national demographic. Differential sampling rates of the PSU were used to ensure sufficient numbers of male and female, black and Hispanic students in the total sample population. After differential sample weighting, female students represented 55.5% of the sample; white students represented 72.8% of the sample, black students 10.3%, Hispanic students 7.1%, and 9.9% were other. It was determined that nationwide, 13.1% of college students reported that they had been forced to have sexual intercourse against their will during their lifetime. Female students were significantly more likely than male students to report they had ever been forced to have sexual intercourse; 20% of approximately 2500 females (55% of 4,609 samples) and 3.9% of males reported experiencing rape thus far in the course of their lifetime.
Other studies concerning the annual incidence of rape, some studies conclude an occurrence of 5%. The National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence found that in the 2013–2014 academic year, 4.6% of girls ages 14 – 17 experienced sexual assault or sexual abuse. In another study, Mohler-Kuo, Dowdall, Koss & Weschler (2004) found in a study of approximately 25,000 college women nationwide that 4.7% experienced rape or attempted rape during a single academic year. This study did not measure lifetime incidence of rape or attempted rape. Similarly, Kilpatrick, Resnick, Ruggiero, Conoscenti, & McCauley (2007) found in a study of 2,000 college women nationwide that 5.2% experienced rape every year.
On campuses, it has been found that alcohol is a prevalent issue in regards to sexual assault. It has been estimated that 1 in 5 women experience an assault and of those women 50%-75% have had either the attacker, the woman, or both consuming alcohol prior to the assault. Not only has it been a factor in the rates for sexual assault on campus, but because of the prevalence, assaults are also being affected specifically by the inability to give consent when intoxicated and bystanders not knowing when to intervene due to their own intoxication or the intoxication of the victim.
Children
Other research has found that about 80,000 American children are sexually abused each year.
By jurisdiction
Australia
Within Australia, the term sexual assault is used to describe a variation of sexual offences. This is due to a variety of definitions and use of terminology to describe sexual offences within territories and states as each territory and state have their own legislation to define rape, attempted rape, sexual assault, aggravated sexual assault, sexual penetration or intercourse without consent and sexual violence.
In the State of New South Wales, sexual assault is a statutory offence punishable under s 61I of the Crimes Act 1900. The term "sexual assault" is equivalent to "rape" in ordinary parlance, while all other assaults of a sexual nature are termed "indecent assault".
To be liable for punishment under the Crimes Act 1900, an offender must intend to commit an act of sexual intercourse as defined under s 61H(1) while having one of the states of knowledge of non-consent defined under s 61HA(3). But note that s 61HA(3) is an objective standard which only require the person has no reasonable grounds for believing the other person is consenting. The maximum penalty for sexual assault is 14 years imprisonment.
Aggravated sexual assault is sexual intercourse with another person without the consent of the other person and in circumstances of aggravation. The maximum penalty is imprisonment for 20 years under s 61J of the Crimes Act.
In the state of Victoria, rape is punishable under s 38 of the Crimes Act 1958, with a maximum penalty of 25 years imprisonment.
In the state of South Australia, rape is punishable under s 48 of the Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) with a maximum term of life imprisonment.
In the state of Western Australia, sexual penetration is punishable under s 325 the Criminal Code Act 1913 with a maximum sentence of 14 years imprisonment.
In the Northern Territory, offences of sexual intercourse and gross indecency without consent are punishable under s 192 of the Criminal Code Act 1983 and punishable with a maximum sentence of life imprisonment.
In Queensland, rape and sexual assault are punishable under s 349, Chapter 32 of the Criminal Code Act 1899 with a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.
In Tasmania, rape is punishable under s 185 of the Criminal Code Act 1924 with a maximum punishment of 21 years under s389 of the Criminal Code Act 1924.
In the Australian Capital Territory, sexual assault is punishable under Part 3 of the Crimes Act 1900 with a maximum punishment of 17 years.
Sexual assault is considered a gendered crime which results in 85% of sexual assaults never coming to the attention of the criminal justice system according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. This is due to low reporting rates, treatment of victims and distrust of the criminal justice system, difficulty in obtaining evidence and the belief in sexual assault myths.
However, once a person is charged, the public prosecutor will decide whether the case will proceed to trial based on whether there is sufficient evidence and whether a case is in the public interest. Once the matter has reached trial, the matter will generally be heard in the District Court. This is because sexually violent crimes are mostly categorised as indictable offences (serious offences), as opposed to summary offences (minor offences). Sexual offences can also be heard in the Supreme Court, but more generally if the matter is being heard as an appeal.
Once the matter is being heard, the prosecution must provide evidence which proves "beyond reasonable doubt" that the offence was committed by the defendant. The standard of proof is vital in checking the power of the State. While as previously stated that each jurisdiction (State and Territory) has its own sexual offence legislation, there are many common elements to any criminal offence that advise on how the offence is defined and what must be proven by the prosecution in order to find the defendant guilty. These elements are known as Actus Reus which comprises the physical element (see Ryan v Regina [1967]) and the Mens Rea which comprises the mental element (see He Kaw Teh (1985)).
Notable sexual assault cases which have resulted in convictions are Regina v Bilal Skaf [2005] and Regina v Mohommed Skaf [2005] which were highly visible in New South Wales within the media the 2000s. These cases were closely watched by the media and led to legislative changes such as the passing of the Crimes Amendment (Aggravated Sexual Assault in Company) Act 2001 No 62 which dramatically increased the sentences for ‘gang rapists’ by creating a new category of crime known as Aggravated Sexual Assault in Company. Changes were also made to the Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act 1999. This change is known as the Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Amendment (Victim Impact Statements) Act 2004 No 3 which expands the category of offences in respect of which a Local Court may receive and consider Victim Impact Statements to include some indictable offences which are usually dealt with summarily.
Canada
Sexual assault is defined as sexual contact with another person without that other person's consent. Consent is defined in section 273.1(1) as "the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question".
Section 265 of the Criminal Code defines the offences of assault and sexual assault.
Section 271 criminalizes "Sexual assault", section 272 criminalizes "Sexual assault with a weapon, threats to a third party or causing bodily harm" and section 273 criminalizes "Aggravated sexual assault".
Consent
The absence of consent defines the crime of sexual assault. Section 273.1 (1) defines consent, section 273.1 (2) outlines certain circumstances where "no consent" is obtained, while section 273.1 (3) states that subsection (2) does not limit the circumstances where "no consent" is obtained (i.e. subsection (2) describes some circumstances which deem the act to be non-consensual, but other circumstances, not described in this section, can also deem the act as having been committed without consent). "No consent" to sexual assault is also subject to Section 265 (3), which also outlines several situations where the act is deemed non-consensual. In 2011, the Supreme Court of Canada in R. v. J.A. interpreted the provisions below to find that a person must have an active mind during the sexual activity in order to consent, and that they cannot give consent in advance.
Meaning of "consent"
273.1 (1) Subject to subsection (2) and subsection 265(3), "consent" means, for the purposes of sections 271, 272 and 273, the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question.
Where no consent obtained
(2) No consent is obtained, for the purposes of sections 271, 272 and 273, where
(a) the agreement is expressed by the words or conduct of a person other than the complainant;
(b) the complainant is incapable of consenting to the activity;
(c) the accused induces the complainant to engage in the activity by abusing a position of trust, power or authority;
(d) the complainant expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to engage in the activity; or
(e) the complainant, having consented to engage in sexual activity, expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to continue to engage in the activity.
Subsection (2) not limiting
(3) Nothing in subsection (2) shall be construed as limiting the circumstances in which no consent is obtained.
Section 265(3)
Consent
(3) For the purposes of this section, no consent is obtained where the complainant submits or does not resist by reason of
(a) the application of force to the complainant or to a person other than the complainant;
(b) threats or fear of the application of force to the complainant or to a person other than the complainant;
(c) fraud; or
(d) the exercise of authority.
In accordance with 265 (4) an accused may use the defence that he or she believed that the complainant consented, but such a defence may be used only when "a judge, if satisfied that there is sufficient evidence and that, if believed by the jury, the evidence would constitute a defence, shall instruct the jury when reviewing all the evidence relating to the determination of the honesty of the accused's belief, to consider the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for that belief"; furthermore according to section 273.2(b) the accused must show that he or she took reasonable steps in order to ascertain the complainant's consent, also 273.2(a) states that if the accused's belief steams from self-induced intoxication, or recklessness or wilful blindness than such belief is not a defence.
265 (4)
Accused’s belief as to consent
(4) Where an accused alleges that he or she believed that the complainant consented to the conduct that is the subject-matter of the charge, a judge, if satisfied that there is sufficient evidence and that, if believed by the jury, the evidence would constitute a defence, shall instruct the jury, when reviewing all the evidence relating to the determination of the honesty of the accused's belief, to consider the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for that belief.
Where belief in consent not a defence
273.2 It is not a defence to a charge under section 271, 272 or 273 that the accused believed that the complainant consented to the activity that forms the subject-matter of the charge, where
(a) the accused's belief arose from the accused's
(i) self-induced intoxication, or
(ii) recklessness or wilful blindness; or
(b) the accused did not take reasonable steps, in the circumstances known to the accused at the time, to ascertain that the complainant was consenting.
Supreme Court partial interpretation of "consent"
The Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador jury ruled in favour of a defense that added to the interpretation of the consent laws. The defenses stated and the Jury was reminded by Justice Valerie Marshall:
because a complainant is drunk does not diminish their capacity to consent.
because a complainant cannot remember if they gave consent does not mean they could not have consented.
The coined phrase regarding this defense was "Moral vs. legal consent"
Germany
Before 1997, the definition of rape was: "Whoever compels a woman to have extramarital intercourse with him, or with a third person, by force or the threat of present danger to life or limb, shall be punished by not less than two years’ imprisonment."
In 1997, a broader definition was adopted with the 13th criminal amendment, section 177–179, which deals with sexual abuse. Rape is generally reported to the police, although it is also allowed to be reported to the prosecutor or District Court.
The Strafgesetzbuch reads:
Section 177
Sexual assault by use of force or threats; rape
Whosoever coerces another person
by force;
by threat of imminent danger to life or limb; or
by exploiting a situation in which the victim is unprotected and at the mercy of the offender,
to suffer sexual acts by the offender or a third person on their own person or to engage actively in sexual activity with the offender or a third person, shall be liable to imprisonment of not less than one year.
In especially serious cases the penalty shall be imprisonment of not less than two years. An especially serious case typically occurs if
the offender performs sexual intercourse with the victim or performs similar sexual acts with the victim, or allows them to be performed on himself by the victim, especially if they degrade the victim or if they entail penetration of the body (rape); or
the offence is committed jointly by more than one person.
Subsections (3), (4) and (5) provide additional stipulations on sentencing depending on aggravating or mitigating circumstances.
Section 178 provides that "If the offender through sexual assault or rape (section 177) causes the death of the victim at least by gross negligence the penalty shall be imprisonment for life or not less than ten years."
Republic of Ireland
As in many other jurisdictions, the term sexual assault is generally used to describe non-penetrative sexual offences. Section 2 of the Criminal Law (Rape) Act of 1981 states that a man has committed rape if he has sexual intercourse with a woman who at the time of the intercourse does not consent to it, and at that time he knows that she does not consent to the intercourse or he is reckless as to whether she does or does not consent to it. Under Section 4 of the Criminal Law (Rape Amendment) Act of 1990, rape means a sexual assault that includes penetration (however slight) of the anus or mouth by the penis or penetration (however slight) of the vagina by any object held or manipulated by another person. The maximum penalty for rape in Ireland is imprisonment for life.
South Africa
The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act replaced the common-law offence of indecent assault with a statutory offence of sexual assault, defined in section 5 of the act as follows.
The act's definition of "sexual violation" incorporates a number of sexual acts, including genital contact short of penetration as well as any contact with the mouth designed to cause sexual arousal. Non-consensual acts that involve actual penetration are included in the separate offence of rape rather than sexual assault.
The Act also created the offences of "compelled sexual assault", when a person forces a second person to commit an act of sexual violation with a third person; and "compelled self-sexual assault", when a person forces another person to masturbate or commit various other sexual acts on theirself.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
Sexual assault is a statutory offence in England and Wales. It is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 which defines "sexual assault" as when a person (A)
Whether a belief is reasonable is to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including any steps A has taken to ascertain whether B consents.
Sections 75 and 76 apply to an offence under this section.
A person guilty of an offence under this section is liable—
on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum or both;
on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years.
Offences committed before the 2003 Act came into force are prosecuted under the Sexual Offences Act 1956 (or in theory earlier legislation), in particular indecent assault.
Consent
Section 74 of the Sexual Offenses Act explains that "a person consents if he agrees by choice and has the freedom and capacity to make that choice".
Section 75 provides a rebuttable presumption that there was no consent in case of violence, intimidation, unlawful imprisonment, unconsciousness, or physical disability or drugs that impair the ability to give consent.
Northern Ireland
Sexual assault is a statutory offence. It is created by article 7 of the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008. Sexual assault is defined as follows:
Scotland
Sexual assault is a statutory offence. It is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009.
Sexual assault is defined as follows:
United States
The United States Department of Justice defines sexual assault as "any type of sexual contact or behavior that occurs without the explicit consent of the recipient. Falling under the definition of sexual assault are sexual activities as forced sexual intercourse, forcible sodomy, child molestation, incest, fondling, and attempted rape."
Every U.S. state has its own code of laws, and thus the definition of conduct that constitutes a crime, including a sexual assault, may vary to some degree by state. Some states may refer to sexual assault as "sexual battery" or "criminal sexual conduct".
Texas
The Texas Penal Code, Sec. 22.011(a) defines sexual assault as
See also
Abuse
List of the causes of genital pain
List of anti-sexual assault organizations in the United States
#MeToo
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
Patient abuse
Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims
R v Collins
Raelyn Campbell
Rape kit
Sexual assault in the U.S. military
Sexual assault of migrants from Latin America to the United States
Sexual violence
Statutory rape
References
Further reading
External links
Assault
Sexual violence
Sex crimes
Sexual abuse
Assault
Rape
Torture
Medical emergencies | [
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|
218412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20%28disambiguation%29 | Names (disambiguation) | Names are words or terms used for identification.
Names may also refer to:
Names (EP), by Johnny Foreigner
Names (journal), an academic journal of onomastics
The Names (band), a Belgian post-punk band
The Names (novel), by Don DeLillo
Names Hill, a bluff on the Green River in Wyoming, US
"Names", a song by Cat Power from You Are Free
See also
The infernal names, biblical anti-figures in LaVeyan Satanism
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218423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiversion%20concurrency%20control | Multiversion concurrency control | Multiversion concurrency control (MCC or MVCC), is a concurrency control method commonly used by database management systems to provide concurrent access to the database and in programming languages to implement transactional memory.
Description
Without concurrency control, if someone is reading from a database at the same time as someone else is writing to it, it is possible that the reader will see a half-written or inconsistent piece of data. For instance, when making a wire transfer between two bank accounts if a reader reads the balance at the bank when the money has been withdrawn from the original account and before it was deposited in the destination account, it would seem that money has disappeared from the bank. Isolation is the property that provides guarantees in the concurrent accesses to data. Isolation is implemented by means of a concurrency control protocol. The simplest way is to make all readers wait until the writer is done, which is known as a read-write lock. Locks are known to create contention especially between long read transactions and update transactions. MVCC aims at solving the problem by keeping multiple copies of each data item. In this way, each user connected to the database sees a snapshot of the database at a particular instant in time. Any changes made by a writer will not be seen by other users of the database until the changes have been completed (or, in database terms: until the transaction has been committed.)
When an MVCC database needs to update a piece of data, it will not overwrite the original data item with new data, but instead creates a newer version of the data item. Thus there are multiple versions stored. The version that each transaction sees depends on the isolation level implemented. The most common isolation level implemented with MVCC is snapshot isolation. With snapshot isolation, a transaction observes a state of the data as when the transaction started.
MVCC provides point-in-time consistent views. Read transactions under MVCC typically use a timestamp or transaction ID to determine what state of the DB to read, and read these versions of the data. Read and write transactions are thus isolated from each other without any need for locking. However, despite locks being unnecessary, they are used by some MVCC databases such as Oracle. Writes create a newer version, while concurrent reads access an older version.
MVCC introduces the challenge of how to remove versions that become obsolete and will never be read. In some cases, a process to periodically sweep through and delete the obsolete versions is implemented. This is often a stop-the-world process that traverses a whole table and rewrites it with the last version of each data item. PostgreSQL can use this approach with its VACUUM FREEZE process. Other databases split the storage blocks into two parts: the data part and an undo log. The data part always keeps the last committed version. The undo log enables the recreation of older versions of data. The main inherent limitation of this latter approach is that when there are update-intensive workloads, the undo log part runs out of space and then transactions are aborted as they cannot be given their snapshot. For a document-oriented database it also allows the system to optimize documents by writing entire documents onto contiguous sections of disk—when updated, the entire document can be re-written rather than bits and pieces cut out or maintained in a linked, non-contiguous database structure.
Implementation
MVCC uses timestamps (TS), and incrementing transaction IDs, to achieve transactional consistency. MVCC ensures a transaction (T) never has to wait to Read a database object (P) by maintaining several versions of the object. Each version of object P has both a Read Timestamp (RTS) and a Write Timestamp (WTS) which lets a particular transaction Ti read the most recent version of the object which precedes the transaction's Read Timestamp RTS(Ti).
, for the object Write Operation (WTS) to succeed. A Write cannot complete if there are other outstanding transactions with an earlier Read Timestamp (RTS) to the same object. Like standing in line at the store, you cannot complete your checkout transaction until those in front of you have completed theirs.
To restate; every object (P) has a Timestamp (TS), however if transaction Ti wants to Write to an object, and the transaction has a Timestamp (TS) that is earlier than the object's current Read Timestamp, TS(Ti) < RTS(P), then the transaction is aborted and restarted. (This is because a later transaction already depends on the old value.) Otherwise, Ti creates a new version of object P and sets the read/write timestamp TS of the new version to the timestamp of the transaction TS ← TS(Ti).
The drawback to this system is the cost of storing multiple versions of objects in the database. On the other hand, reads are never blocked, which can be important for workloads mostly involving reading values from the database. MVCC is particularly adept at implementing true snapshot isolation, something which other methods of concurrency control frequently do either incompletely or with high performance costs.
Examples
Concurrent read–write
At Time = 1, the state of a database could be:
T0 wrote Object 1="Foo" and Object 2="Bar". After that T1 wrote Object 1="Hello" leaving Object 2 at its original value. The new value of Object 1 will supersede the value at 0 for all transactions that start after T1 commits at which point version 0 of Object 1 can be garbage collected.
If a long running transaction T2 starts a read operation of Object 2 and Object 1 after T1 committed and there is a concurrent update transaction T3 which deletes Object 2 and adds Object 3="Foo-Bar", the database state will look like this at time 2:
There is a new version as of time 2 of Object 2 which is marked as deleted and a new Object 3. Since T2 and T3 run concurrently T2 sees the version of the database before 2 i.e. before T3 committed writes, as such T2 reads Object 2="Bar" and Object 1="Hello". This is how multiversion concurrency control allows snapshot isolation reads without any locks.
History
Multiversion concurrency control is described in some detail in the 1981 paper "Concurrency Control in Distributed Database Systems" by Phil Bernstein and Nathan Goodman, then employed by the Computer Corporation of America. Bernstein and Goodman's paper cites a 1978 dissertation by David P. Reed which quite clearly describes MVCC and claims it as an original work.
The first shipping, commercial database software product featuring MVCC was VAX Rdb/ELN, released in 1984, and created at Digital Equipment Corporation by Jim Starkey. Starkey went on to create the second commercially successful MVCC database - InterBase.
See also
List of databases using MVCC
Read-copy-update
Timestamp-based concurrency control
Vector clock
Version control system
References
Further reading
Gerhard Weikum, Gottfried Vossen, Transactional information systems: theory, algorithms, and the practice of concurrency control and recovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2002,
Concurrency control
Concurrency control algorithms
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218425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coamo%2C%20Puerto%20Rico | Coamo, Puerto Rico | Coamo () is a town and municipality founded in 1579 in the south-central region of Puerto Rico, located north of Santa Isabel; south of Orocovis and Barranquitas; east of Villalba and Juana Díaz; and west of Aibonito and Salinas. Coamo is spread over 10 barrios and Coamo Pueblo – the downtown area and the administrative center of the city. It is both a principal city of the Coamo Micropolitan Statistical Area and the Ponce-Yauco-Coamo Combined Statistical Area.
Coamo is a small town nestled in a valley about east of Ponce (about 30 minutes by car). It was named San Blas Illescas de Coamo by its first settlers. Saint Blaise (San Blas) was the Catholic saint who remains the town's patron. Illescas is the Spanish town where the town founders originated (nowadays in Toledo province, Castile-La Mancha, Spain).
There are several theories regarding the origin of the word "Coamo". Some think it comes from an indigenous word that means "valley" but it is also plausible that Coamo derives its name from Coamex (or Coamey), who was a celebrated local cacique (or "chieftain" in the Taino language). Archeological digs near the region have produced some of the best examples of the island's pre-Columbian cultural artifacts.
Coamo has a series of natural hot springs, Los Baños de Coamo. The Battle of Coamo was a decisive battle of the Spanish–American War (1898).
History
Founded on July 15, 1579, Coamo is the third-oldest settlement of the island's post-Columbian period (after San Juan in the north and San Germán in the west). By 1582, there were twenty families living in Coamo, in the same area where the Tainos had had their village of Guayama. Coamo officially became a town in 1616, and was given the title of "Villa" by Spanish Royal Decree in 1778.
Coamo was the administrative center that encompassed most of the southern half of the island during the early colonial period. As the agricultural and sugar industries grew and became the mainstays of the colony's economy, the province would eventually subdivide into several distinct municipalities, and the administrative center of the region would later shift west to the coastal town of Ponce.
Coamo is the home of a series of natural hot springs, Los Baños de Coamo, which have attracted visitors since before the Spaniards landed. These springs were once rumored to have been Juan Ponce de León's legendary fountain of youth. In the early nineteenth century, a system of pools of varying depths, sizes and temperatures was constructed at the site of these springs to serve as a spa for the colonials. During the American invasion in the Spanish–American War (1898), this site was the scene of one of the decisive battles of that conflict (the Battle of Coamo). The American troops took possession of the island, and the spa was subsequently abandoned. Though the site lay in ruins for most of the twentieth century, it continued to be a landmark to the Coameños, who would often go to bathe in its healing thermal waters. The pools remain, but the old buildings which once hosted the island's affluent and colonial soldiers are gone, except for the remains of one central wall structure. It has been preserved and incorporated into a fountain courtyard on the grounds of a popular tourist hotel and rest area and has replaced the ancient Spanish ruins.
Hurricane Maria on September 20, 2017 triggered numerous landslides in Coamo with the significant amount of rainfall. As of October 9, no one in Coamo had electrical service, only 15% of Coamo had access to clean drinking water, and several people on dialysis had died. Around 2,000 homes were partially or completely destroyed. The iconic was a total loss.
Geography
Coamo is located in the South Central region of Puerto Rico.
Barrios
Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Coamo is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a small barrio referred to as , near the center of the municipality.
Coamo Arriba
Coamo barrio-pueblo
Cuyón
Hayales
Los Llanos
Palmarejo
Pasto
Pedro García
Pulguillas
San Ildefonso
Santa Catalina
Sectors
Barrios (which are like minor civil divisions) and subbarrios, in turn, are further subdivided into smaller local populated place areas/units called sectores (sectors in English). The types of sectores may vary, from normally sector to urbanización to reparto to barriada to residencial, among others.
Special Communities
(Special Communities of Puerto Rico) are marginalized communities whose citizens are experiencing a certain amount of social exclusion. A map shows these communities occur in nearly every municipality of the commonwealth. Of the 742 places that were on the list in 2014, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Coamo: Zambrana neighborhood, Cuyón, Sector Varsovia in El Cerro, Río Jueyes, and Sector Sabana Hoyo.
Economy
Agriculture
Coamo is an agricultural center where mangoes, corn, guanabanas, tamarindo, quenepas, avocados, oranges and plantains are grown, and where poultry and cattle are raised.
Industry
Coamo is a trading center for machinery, aircraft radio components, and clothing.
Tourism
Landmarks and places of interest
There are eight places in Coamo listed on the US National Register of Historic Places:
Casa Blanca de Coamo
Ermita Nuestra Señora de la Valvanera
Iglesia San Blas de Illescas, construction on the church began in 1661 and it is one of the oldest parishes in Puerto Rico
Puente de las Calabazas
General Méndez Vigo Bridge
Puente Padre Iñigo
Picó Pomar Residence, now a museum
Carretera Central, a highway that runs through several municipalities including Coamo
Some of the landmarks of Coamo are:
Los Baños de Coamo (Coamo Thermal Baths) – near the border with Santa Isabel
Culture
Festivals and events
Coamo celebrates its patron saint festival in February. The is a religious and cultural celebration that generally features parades, games, artisans, amusement rides, regional food, and live entertainment.
Other festivals and events celebrated in Coamo include:
San Blas Half Marathon – February
Crafts festival in honor of the municipal flag – June
Coamo Anniversary – July
Concert and lighting of the Christmas tree – December
Sports
Coamo is famous for being the host of the San Blas Half-Marathon, a yearly world-class professional marathon that attracts the best competitive runners in the world. It was inaugurated in 1963 by Delta Phi Delta fraternity in honor to the founder of the town. World-class international and local runners compete in a half-marathon. It is Puerto Rico's biggest race, and the crowds are always large.
The Maratonistas de Coamo (from the BSN) is the only professional team which the town hosts. The team has played in Coamo with mixed success since joining the league in 1985.
Demographics
Government
All municipalities in Puerto Rico are administered by a mayor, elected every four years. The current mayor of Coamo is Juan Carlos García Padilla, of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). He was elected at the 2000 general elections.
The city belongs to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district VI, which is represented by two Senators. In 2012, Miguel Pereira Castillo and Angel M. Rodríguez were elected as District Senators.
Transportation
There are 31 bridges in Coamo.
Education
Coamo's first school was built in 1901.
Symbols
The has an official flag and coat of arms.
Flag
The flag of Coamo derives its colors from the coat of arms. Its colors are red, yellow, and black.
Coat of arms
The top left and the lower right have a red background with a gold Episcopal hat each. These parts of the coat of arms represent the old seat of San Blas de Illescas. The horse and the bull represent the cattle wealth of the population. The gold color that serves as background in contrast with the black color, recalls the yellowish reddish tone of the fields of Coamo during the droughts. The heavy border of the coat of arms contains the following figures: two flames; three bell towers with gold bells outlined in red; two red crosses with arms ending in three petals; and a circle with a surface divided by horizontal blue and silver-plated stripes.
Notable people
Some of its notable people include:
Lely Burgos, Olympic athlete,
Bobby Capó, singer, composer
Margarita Nolasco, senator and Vice-President of the Senate of Puerto Rico
Antonio García Padilla, former President of the University of Puerto Rico
Jose Garriga Pico, former senator
Willie Rosario, musician, composer and bandleader of salsa music
Alejandro García Padilla, Governor of Puerto Rico
Victor Caratini, Catcher for the Chicago Cubs
Gallery
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
History of Puerto Rico
Did you know-Puerto Rico?
References
Sources
Historia de Coamo, "La Villa Añeja", Ramon Rivera Bermúdez, 1980.
External links
Coamo and its barrios, United States Census Bureau
Historic Places in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Welcome to Puerto Rico! Coamo
Coamo Municipality on Facebook
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
Populated places established in 1579
1579 establishments in the Spanish Empire | [
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|
218431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Day%20of%20Sweden | National Day of Sweden | The National Day of Sweden ( ) is a national holiday observed annually in Sweden on 6 June. Prior to 1983, the day was celebrated as the Swedish Flag Day (). At that time, the day was named the Swedish National Day by the parliament of Sweden.
History
The tradition of celebrating this date began 1916 at the Stockholm Olympic Stadium, in honor of the election of King Gustav Vasa in 1523, as this was considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Some question the validity of this as a national holiday, as it was not observed as a holiday until decades later. However this event does signify the end of the Danish-ruled Kalmar Union, so in a sense it is a marking of Swedish independence, though the event occurred so long ago that it has not as strong a presence in the social consciousness as does, for example, the Norwegian Constitution Day, Syttende mai.
In 2005, it became an official Swedish public holiday, replacing Whit Monday. This change led to fewer days off from work (more working-days) as 6 June will periodically fall on the weekend, unlike Whit Monday, which was always celebrated on a Monday. Among newer traditions that have emerged since National Day turned red day is an invitation from the King to the public to visit large parts of Stockholm Palace all day without the usual entry fees.
Image gallery
See also
"Du gamla, du fria" – national anthem of Sweden
Flag flying days in Sweden – days of the calendar year designated as official Swedish Flag Flying Days
Mother Svea – patriotic emblem of the Swedish nation
Three Crowns – national emblem of Sweden
References
Swedish culture
Swedish society
Sweden
Sweden
Swedish flag flying days
June observances
Public holidays in Sweden
Summer events in Sweden | [
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|
218432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Maronite%20patriarchs%20of%20Antioch | List of Maronite patriarchs of Antioch | This is a list of the Maronite patriarchs of Antioch and all the East, the primate of the Maronite Church, one of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Starting with Paul Peter Massad in 1854, after becoming patriarch of the Maronite Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch, they assume the name "Peter" (Boutros in Arabic, بطرس ), after the traditional first Bishop of Antioch, St. Peter, who was also the head of the Apostles. The official title that the Maronite Patriarch assumes is "Patriarch of Antioch and All the East". To this date 15 patriarchs have been canonized by the Catholic Church, with an extra two being beatified but not yet canonized.
For the Patriarchs of Antioch before John Maron, see List of Patriarchs of Antioch.
List of Patriarchs of Antioch and all the Levant of the Maronite Church
A famous list of Maronite Patriarchs of Antioch was written and published by Giuseppe Simone Assemani, and Simon Awad, which follows the Series of Maronite Patriachs written by Patriarch Estephan El Douaihy in the 17th century, but it is incomplete for the first centuries. Besides the Assemani's list, another more detailed list was written in Bejjeh in 1766 by Georges Saad.
In the list here below the names shifted on the right are not included in the incomplete Assemani's list and derive from the Bejjeh list.
Patriarchs of Antioch before the Maronite-Greek schism, 1st century–686
Patriarchs under Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid rule, 686–1099
Patriarchs during the Crusades 1099–1305
Patriarchs during the Mamluk rule, 1305–1516
Patriarchs during the Ottomans, 1516–1918
Patriarch during modern Lebanon, 1918–present
Gallery
See also
List of Latin Patriarchs of Antioch
List of Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch
List of Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch – 518 to present day
List of Patriarchs of Antioch – beginning to 518
Notes
External links
List of all Maronite Patriarchs by GCatholic.org
[The Maronite Church Roots and Mission] By His Excellency Bishop Antoine Charbel Tarabay, Fr. Antoine Daou, Fr. Hani Mattar, Fr. Boulous Sfeir, Dr. Youssef Kamal El Haje and George Arab
Apostolic sees
Maronite Patriarchs
Maronite
Lebanon religion-related lists | [
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218436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Goring%2C%20Lord%20Goring | George Goring, Lord Goring | George Goring, Lord Goring (14 July 1608 – 1657) was an English Royalist soldier. He was known by the courtesy title Lord Goring as the eldest son of the first Earl of Norwich.
Early life
Goring, the eldest son of George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich, was born on 14 July 1608.
He married Lettice Boyle, the daughter of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork.
Experience before the Civil Wars
His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch Army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by a wound received at the Siege of Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth.
He served in the Bishops' Wars, and already had a considerable reputation when he was involved in the "Army Plot" (1641). Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to march the army on London and overawe the Parliament during Strafford's trial (1641). This proposition being rejected by his fellow-officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, 1st Earl of Newport, who passed on the information indirectly to John Pym in April.
Lieutenant-General of Horse
Colonel Goring was there upon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 after the Siege of Portsmouth and went to the Netherlands to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the Earl of Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange.
At the Battle of Marston Moor, Goring commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Oliver Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognise the creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as "Lord Goring" and the son as "General Goring".
In August Goring had been despatched by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, who recognised his ability, to join Charles I in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieutenant-general of the Royalist horse. He secured some successes in the west, and in January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west.
He had himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March 1645, yet when in the next month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in April 1645 he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford.
Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged by the Earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645 opened.
For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see First English Civil War: Naseby Campaign. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous fight at Langport on 10 July 1645. He made no further serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in frivolous amusements.
Exile and command in Spain
In November 1645 he obtained leave to quit his disorganised forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in the Spanish service. He died in Madrid after converting to Catholicism (in the care of the Jesuits) in July or August 1657.
Character assessment
Clarendon says of Goring that he "would, without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being deceived but twice by him". Clarendon's assessment according to Florene Memegalos is untrustworthy as he appears to have blackened his name at court for personal reasons. Florene Memegalos also asserts from archive material in the Venice State records and other sources, that George Goring's reputation stood mainly on his military abilities as a Royalist general and not just on Clarendon's all too obvious character assassination of him.
Notes
References
This work in turn cites:
Dugdale's Baronage, where there are some doubtful stories of his life in Spain
Clarendon State Papers
Lord Clarendon, History of the Great Rebellion
Samuel Rawson Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War
Memegalos, Florene S. George Goring (1608-1657): Caroline Courtier and Royalist General.
1608 births
1657 deaths
English army officers
English expatriates in Spain
Cavaliers
Heirs apparent who never acceded
British courtesy barons and lords of Parliament
Military personnel of the English Civil War | [
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|
1158060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myra%20Shackley | Myra Shackley | Myra Lesley Shackley (born 5 March 1949) was formerly Professor of Culture Resource Management and Head of the Centre for Tourism and Visitor Management at Nottingham Trent University Business School. She retired in summer 2011 after an academic career spanning more than 40 years, during which she became recognised as a leading international authority on the management of historic sites. She has written 15 books (of which the latest is 'Atlas of Travel and Tourism Development' (Butterworth-Heinemann 2006), a core text for historical geography and tourism studies. Much of her recent research has been concerned with the management of sacred sites as visitor attractions and she wrote the textbook 'Managing Sacred Sites; service provision and visitor experience'.
Career
After gaining a Ph.D. in Archaeology at the University of Southampton she spent four years as head of the laboratory at the Institute of Archaeology at Oxford before becoming a lecturer and later Head of Department of Archaeological Sciences at the University of Leicester before moving to Nottingham in 1986 to develop her work on the management of archaeological and historic sites at Nottingham Business School.
Shackley is also a priest in the Church of England (ordained 1999) and was the Tourism Advisor to Southwell Diocese and priest-vicar at Southwell Minster until 2009. After this, she moved to North Yorkshire as the Parish Priest of Spofforth, Kirk Deighton, Follifoot and Little Ribston, but retired in 2015. She is a Capitular Canon and member of the Chapter of Ripon cathedral.
Research
Her academic output includes reviews, consultancy and more than two hundred academic articles and international conference papers. She has been involved in international research projects in sub-Saharan Africa (mostly Namibia but also Lesotho, Botswana and South Africa), West Africa (Mali), Kingdom of Lo (northern Nepal/Tibet), Rajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh (India), Guyana (consultancy for Esmée Fairbairn Charitable Trust), and Uzbekistan.
Bibliography
Myra Shackley, Archaeological Sediments : A Survey of Analytical Methods (London ; Boston : Butterworths, 1975)
Myra Shackley, Rocks and Man (London: Allen Unwin, 1977)
Myra L Shackley, 'The Hamwih Brickearths' in Philip Holdsworth, CBA Research Report No. 33: Excavations at Melbourne Street, Southampton, 1971-76 (Oxford: Council for British Archaeology, 1980)
Myra Shackley (1980), Neanderthal Man
Myra Shackley, Environmental Archaeology (London: Allen Unwin, 1982)
Myra Shackley, "Wildmen: Yeti, Sasquatch, and the Neanderthal Enigma (London: Thames & Hudson, 1983)
Myra Shackley, 'Palaeolithic archaeology in the Mongolian People's Republic: a report on the state of the art', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 50 (1984)
Myra Shackley, Using Environmental Archaeology (London: Batsford, 1985)
Deanna Swaney, and Myra Shackley. Lonely Planet Survival Kit: Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia (London: Lonely Planet, 1995)
Myra Shackley, WildLife Tourism (London: Thomson Learning, 1996)
Myra Shackley, Visitor Management: Case Studies from World Heritage Sites (London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
Deanna Swaney, and Myra Shackley. Lonely Planet Country Guide: Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia (London: Lonely Planet, 1999)
Myra Shackley, Managing Sacred Sites: Service Provision and Visitor Experience (London: Thomson Learning, 2001)
Deanna Swaney, Myra Shackley, Tione Chinula, and Vincent Talbot. Lonely Planet Country Guide: Zimbabwe (London: Lonely Planet, 2002)
Myra Shackley, 'Management challenges for religion-based attractions' in Alan Fyall, Brian Garrod, and Anna Leask (eds.), Managing Visitor Attractions: New Directions (London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003)
Myra Shackley, Atlas of Travel and Tourism Development (London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
References
Living people
English archaeologists
English anthropologists
British women anthropologists
21st-century English Anglican priests
Academics of Nottingham Trent University
Alumni of the University of Southampton
Academics of the University of Leicester
1949 births
Tourism researchers
British women archaeologists | [
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|
218445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean%20manufacturing | Lean manufacturing | Lean manufacturing (also known as lean production, just-in-time manufacturing and just-in-time production, or JIT) is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.
It is derived from Toyota's 1930 operating model "The Toyota Way" (Toyota Production System, TPS). The term "Lean" was coined in 1988 by John Krafcik, and defined in 1996 by James Womack and Daniel Jones to consist of five key principles: "Precisely specify value by specific product, identify the value stream for each product, make value flow without interruptions, let customer pull value from the producer, and pursue perfection."
Companies employ the strategy to increase efficiency. By receiving goods only as they need them for the production process, it reduces inventory costs and wastage, and increases productivity and profit. The downside is that it requires producers to forecast demand accurately as the benefits can be nullified by minor delays in the supply chain. It may also impact negatively on workers due to added stress and inflexible conditions. A successful operation depends on a company having regular outputs, high-quality processes, and reliable suppliers.
History
Fredrick Taylor and Henry Ford documented their observations relating to these topics, and Shigeo Shingo and Taiichi Ohno applied their enhanced thoughts on the subject at Toyota in the 1930s. The resulting methods were researched from the mid-20th century and dubbed "Lean" by John Krafcik in 1988, and then were defined in The Machine that Changed the World and further detailed by James Womack and Daniel Jones in Lean Thinking (1996).
Evolution in Japan
The exact reasons for adoption of JIT in Japan are unclear, but it has been suggested it started with a requirement to solve the lack of standardization. Plenert offers four reasons, paraphrased here. During Japan's post–World War II rebuilding of industry:
1. Japan's lack of cash made it difficult for industry to finance the big-batch, large inventory production methods common elsewhere
2. Japan lacked space to build big factories loaded with inventory.
3. The Japanese islands lack natural resources with which to build products.
4. Japan had high unemployment, which meant that labor efficiency methods were not an obvious pathway to industrial success.
Thus, the Japanese "leaned out" their processes. "They built smaller factories ... in which the only materials housed in the factory were those on which work was currently being done. In this way, inventory levels were kept low, investment in in-process inventories was at a minimum, and the investment in purchased natural resources was quickly turned around so that additional materials were purchased." Plenert goes on to explain Toyota's key role in developing this lean or JIT production methodology.
American industrialists recognized the threat of cheap offshore labor to American workers during the 1910s, and explicitly stated the goal of what is now called lean manufacturing as a countermeasure. Henry Towne, past President of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, wrote in the foreword to Frederick Winslow Taylor's Shop Management (1911), "We are justly proud of the high wage rates which prevail throughout our country, and jealous of any interference with them by the products of the cheaper labor of other countries. To maintain this condition, to strengthen our control of home markets, and, above all, to broaden our opportunities in foreign markets where we must compete with the products of other industrial nations, we should welcome and encourage every influence tending to increase the efficiency of our productive processes."
Continuous production improvement and incentives for such were documented in Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management (1911):
"... whenever a workman proposes an improvement, it should be the policy of the management to make a careful analysis of the new method, and if necessary conduct a series of experiments to determine accurately the relative merit of the new suggestion and of the old standard. And whenever the new method is found to be markedly superior to the old, it should be adopted as the standard for the whole establishment."
"...after a workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a result of his having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely entirely to lose sight of his employer's side of the case and become imbued with a grim determination to have no more cuts if soldiering [marking time, just doing what he is told] can prevent it."
Shigeo Shingo cites reading Principles of Scientific Management in 1931 and being "greatly impressed to make the study and practice of scientific management his life's work".,
Shingo and Taiichi Ohno were key to the design of Toyota's manufacturing process. Previously a textile company, Toyota moved into building automobiles in 1934. Kiichiro Toyoda, founder of Toyota Motor Corporation, directed the engine casting work and discovered many problems in their manufacturing, with wasted resources on repair of poor-quality castings. Toyota engaged in intense study of each stage of the process. In 1936, when Toyota won its first truck contract with the Japanese government, the processes encountered new problems, to which Toyota responded by developing "Kaizen" improvement teams, into what has become the Toyota Production System (TPS), and subsequently The Toyota Way.
Levels of demand in the postwar economy of Japan were low; as a result, the focus of mass production on lowest cost per item via economies of scale had little application. Having visited and seen supermarkets in the United States, Ohno recognised that scheduling of work should not be driven by sales or production targets but by actual sales. Given the financial situation during this period, over-production had to be avoided, and thus the notion of "pull" (or "build-to-order" rather than target-driven "push") came to underpin production scheduling.
Evolution in the rest of the world
Just-in-time manufacturing was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota. News about JIT/TPS reached other western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after Taiichi Ohno, who was instrumental in its development within Toyota. The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided additional details. Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout industry in the United States and other developed countries. A seminal 1980 event was a conference in Detroit at Ford World Headquarters co-sponsored by the Repetitive Manufacturing Group (RMG), which had been founded 1979 within the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) to seek advances in manufacturing. The principal speaker, Fujio Cho (later, president of Toyota Motor Corp.), in explaining the Toyota system, stirred up the audience, and led to the RMG's shifting gears from things like automation to JIT/TPS.
At least some of audience's stirring had to do with a perceived clash between the new JIT regime and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), a computer software-based system of manufacturing planning and control which had become prominent in industry in the 1960s and 1970s. Debates in professional meetings on JIT vs. MRP II were followed by published articles, one of them titled, "The Rise and Fall of Just-in-Time". Less confrontational was Walt Goddard's, "Kanban Versus MRP II—Which Is Best for You?" in 1982. Four years later, Goddard had answered his own question with a book advocating JIT. Among the best known of MRP II's advocates was George Plossl, who authored two articles questioning JIT's kanban planning method and the "japanning of America". But, as with Goddard, Plossl later wrote that "JIT is a concept whose time has come".
JIT/TPS implementations may be found in many case-study articles from the 1980s and beyond. An article in a 1984 issue of Inc. magazine relates how Omark Industries (chain saws, ammunition, log loaders, etc.) emerged as an extensive JIT implementer under its US home-grown name ZIPS (zero inventory production system). At Omark's mother plant in Portland, Oregon, after the work force had received 40 hours of ZIPS training, they were "turned loose" and things began to happen. A first step was to "arbitrarily eliminate a week's lead time [after which] things ran smoother. 'People asked that we try taking another week's worth out.' After that, ZIPS spread throughout the plant's operations 'like an amoeba.'" The article also notes that Omark's 20 other plants were similarly engaged in ZIPS, beginning with pilot projects. For example, at one of Omark's smaller plants making drill bits in Mesabi, Minnesota, "large-size drill inventory was cut by 92%, productivity increased by 30%, scrap and rework ... dropped 20%, and lead time ... from order to finished product was slashed from three weeks to three days." The Inc. article states that companies using JIT the most extensively include "the Big Four, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola, Westinghouse Electric, General Electric, Deere & Company, and Black and Decker".
By 1986, a case-study book on JIT in the U.S. was able to devote a full chapter to ZIPS at Omark, along with two chapters on JIT at several Hewlett-Packard plants, and single chapters for Harley-Davidson, John Deere, IBM-Raleigh, North Carolina, and California-based Apple Inc., a Toyota truck-bed plant, and New United Motor Manufacturing joint venture between Toyota and General Motors.
Two similar, contemporaneous books from the U.K. are more international in scope. One of the books, with both conceptual articles and case studies, includes three sections on JIT practices: in Japan (e.g., at Toyota, Mazda, and Tokagawa Electric); in Europe (jmg Bostrom, Lucas Electric, Cummins Engine, IBM, 3M, Datasolve Ltd., Renault, Massey-Ferguson); and in the US and Australia (Repco Manufacturing-Australia, Xerox Computer, and two on Hewlett-Packard). The second book, reporting on what was billed as the First International Conference on just-in-time manufacturing, includes case studies in three companies: Repco-Australia, IBM-UK, and 3M-UK. In addition, a day two keynote address discussed JIT as applied "across all disciplines, ... from accounting and systems to design and production".
Rebranding as "lean"
John Krafcik coined the term "Lean" in his 1988 article, "Triumph of the Lean Production System". The article states: (a) Lean manufacturing plants have higher levels of productivity/quality than non-Lean and (b) "The level of plant technology seems to have little effect on operating performance" (page 51). According to the article, risks with implementing Lean can be reduced by: "developing a well-trained, flexible workforce, product designs that are easy to build with high quality, and a supportive, high-performance supplier network" (page 51).
Middle era and to the present
Three more books which include JIT implementations were published in 1993, 1995, and 1996, which are start-up years of the lean manufacturing/lean management movement that was launched in 1990 with publication of the book, The Machine That Changed the World. That one, along with other books, articles, and case studies on lean, were supplanting JIT terminology in the 1990s and beyond. The same period, saw the rise of books and articles with similar concepts and methodologies but with alternative names, including cycle time management, time-based competition, quick-response manufacturing, flow, and pull-based production systems.
There is more to JIT than its usual manufacturing-centered explication. Inasmuch as manufacturing ends with order-fulfillment to distributors, retailers, and end users, and also includes remanufacturing, repair, and warranty claims, JIT's concepts and methods have application downstream from manufacturing itself. A 1993 book on "world-class distribution logistics" discusses kanban links from factories onward. And a manufacturer-to-retailer model developed in the U.S. in the 1980s, referred to as quick response, has morphed over time to what is called fast fashion.
Methodology
The strategic elements of lean can be quite complex, and comprise multiple elements. Four different notions of lean have been identified:
Lean as a fixed state or goal (being lean)
Lean as a continuous change process (becoming lean)
Lean as a set of tools or methods (doing lean/toolbox lean)
Lean as a philosophy (lean thinking)
The other way to avoid market risk and control the supply efficiently is to cut down in stock. P&G has completed their goal to co-operate with Walmart and other wholesales companies by building the response system of stocks directly to the suppliers companies.
In 1999, Spear and Bowen identified four rules which characterize the "Toyota DNA":
All work shall be highly specified as to content, sequence, timing, and outcome.
Every customer-supplier connection must be direct, and there must be an unambiguous yes or no way to send requests and receive responses.
The pathway for every product and service must be simple and direct.
Any improvement must be made in accordance with the scientific method, under the guidance of a teacher, at the lowest possible level in the organization.
This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires more persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of popularity. The implementation of "smooth flow" exposes quality problems that already existed, and waste reduction then happens as a natural consequence, a system-wide perspective rather focusing directly upon the wasteful practices themselves.
Sepheri provides a list of methodologies of JIT manufacturing that "are important but not exhaustive":
Housekeeping: physical organization and discipline.
Make it right the first time: elimination of defects.
Setup reduction: flexible changeover approaches.
Lot sizes of one: the ultimate lot size and flexibility.
Uniform plant load: leveling as a control mechanism.
Balanced flow: organizing flow scheduling throughput.
Skill diversification: multi-functional workers.
Control by visibility: communication media for activity.
Preventive maintenance: flawless running, no defects.
Fitness for use: producibility, design for process.
Compact plant layout: product-oriented design.
Streamlining movements: smoothing materials handling.
Supplier networks: extensions of the factory.
Worker involvement: small group improvement activities.
Cellular manufacturing: production methods for flow.
Pull system: signal [kanban] replenishment/resupply systems.
Key principles and waste
Womack and Jones define Lean as "...a way to do more and more with less and less—less human effort, less equipment, less time, and less space—while coming closer and closer to providing customers exactly what they want" and then translate this into five key principles:
Value: Specify the value desired by the customer. "Form a team for each product to stick with that product during its entire production cycle", "Enter into a dialogue with the customer" (e.g. Voice of the customer)
The Value Stream: Identify the value stream for each product providing that value and challenge all of the wasted steps (generally nine out of ten) currently necessary to provide it
Flow: Make the product flow continuously through the remaining value-added steps
Pull: Introduce pull between all steps where continuous flow is possible
Perfection: Manage toward perfection so that the number of steps and the amount of time and information needed to serve the customer continually falls
Lean is founded on the concept of continuous and incremental improvements on product and process while eliminating redundant activities. "The value of adding activities are simply only those things the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or integrated".
On principle 2, waste, see seven basic waste types under The Toyota Way. Additional waste types are:
Faulty goods (manufacturing of goods or services that do not meet customer demand or specifications, Womack et al., 2003. See Lean services)
Waste of skills (Six Sigma)
Under-utilizing capabilities (Six Sigma)
Delegating tasks with inadequate training (Six Sigma)
Metrics (working to the wrong metrics or no metrics) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)
Participation (not utilizing workers by not allowing them to contribute ideas and suggestions and be part of Participative Management) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)
Computers (improper use of computers: not having the proper software, training on use and time spent surfing, playing games or just wasting time) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)
Implementation
One paper suggests that an organization implementing Lean needs its own Lean plan as developed by the "Lean Leadership". This should enable Lean teams to provide suggestions for their managers who then makes the actual decisions about what to implement. Coaching is recommended when an organization starts off with Lean to impart knowledge and skills to shop-floor staff. Improvement metrics are required for informed decision-making.
Lean philosophy and culture is as important as tools and methodologies. Management should not decide on solutions without understanding the true problem by consulting shop floor personnel.
The solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not have generalised application. The solution must fit the problem.
Value-stream mapping (VSM) and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps to Lean. Lean can be focused on specific processes, or cover the entire supply chain. Front-line workers should be involved in VSM activities. Implementing a series of small improvements incrementally along the supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.
Naming
Alternative terms for JIT manufacturing have been used. Motorola's choice was short-cycle manufacturing (SCM). IBM's was continuous-flow manufacturing (CFM), and demand-flow manufacturing (DFM), a term handed down from consultant John Constanza at his Institute of Technology in Colorado. Still another alternative was mentioned by Goddard, who said that "Toyota Production System is often mistakenly referred to as the 'Kanban System'", and pointed out that kanban is but one element of TPS, as well as JIT production.
The wide use of the term JIT manufacturing throughout the 1980s faded fast in the 1990s, as the new term lean manufacturing became established as "a more recent name for JIT". As just one testament to the commonality of the two terms, Toyota production system (TPS) has been and is widely used as a synonym for both JIT and lean manufacturing.
Objectives and benefits
Objectives and benefits of JIT manufacturing may be stated in two primary ways: first, in specific and quantitative terms, via published case studies; second, general listings and discussion.
A case-study summary from Daman Products in 1999 lists the following benefits: reduced cycle times 97%, setup times 50%, lead times from 4 to 8 weeks to 5 to 10 days, flow distance 90%. This was achieved via four focused (cellular) factories, pull scheduling, kanban, visual management, and employee empowerment.
Another study from NCR (Dundee, Scotland) in 1998, a producer of make-to-order automated teller machines, includes some of the same benefits while also focusing on JIT purchasing: In switching to JIT over a weekend in 1998, eliminated buffer inventories, reducing inventory from 47 days to 5 days, flow time from 15 days to 2 days, with 60% of purchased parts arriving JIT and 77% going dock to line, and suppliers reduced from 480 to 165.
Hewlett-Packard, one of western industry's earliest JIT implementers, provides a set of four case studies from four H-P divisions during the mid-1980s. The four divisions, Greeley, Fort Collins, Computer Systems, and Vancouver, employed some but not all of the same measures. At the time about half of H-P's 52 divisions had adopted JIT.
Use in other sectors
Lean principles have been successfully applied to various sectors and services, such as call centers and healthcare. In the former, lean's waste reduction practices have been used to reduce handle time, within and between agent variation, accent barriers, as well as attain near perfect process adherence. In the latter, several hospitals have adopted the idea of lean hospital, a concept that priorizes the patient, thus increasing the employee commitment and motivation, as well as boosting medical quality and cost effectiveness.
Lean principles also have applications to software development and maintenance as well as other sectors of information technology (IT). More generally, the use of lean in information technology has become known as Lean IT. Lean methods are also applicable to the public sector, but most results have been achieved using a much more restricted range of techniques than lean provides.
The challenge in moving lean to services is the lack of widely available reference implementations to allow people to see how directly applying lean manufacturing tools and practices can work and the impact it does have. This makes it more difficult to build the level of belief seen as necessary for strong implementation. However, some research does relate widely recognized examples of success in retail and even airlines to the underlying principles of lean. Despite this, it remains the case that the direct manufacturing examples of 'techniques' or 'tools' need to be better 'translated' into a service context to support the more prominent approaches of implementation, which has not yet received the level of work or publicity that would give starting points for implementors. The upshot of this is that each implementation often 'feels its way' along as must the early industrial engineering practices of Toyota. This places huge importance upon sponsorship to encourage and protect these experimental developments.
Lean management is nowadays implemented also in non-manufacturing processes and administrative processes. In non-manufacturing processes is still huge potential for optimization and efficiency increase.
Criticism
According to Williams, it becomes necessary to find suppliers that are close by or can supply materials quickly with limited advance notice. When ordering small quantities of materials, suppliers' minimum order policies may pose a problem, though.
Employees are at risk of precarious work when employed by factories that utilize just-in-time and flexible production techniques. A longitudinal study of US workers since 1970 indicates employers seeking to easily adjust their workforce in response to supply and demand conditions respond by creating more nonstandard work arrangements, such as contracting and temporary work.
Natural and man-made disasters will disrupt the flow of energy, goods and services. The down-stream customers of those goods and services will, in turn, not be able to produce their product or render their service because they were counting on incoming deliveries "just in time" and so have little or no inventory to work with. The disruption to the economic system will cascade to some degree depending on the nature and severity of the original disaster. The larger the disaster the worse the effect on just-in-time failures. Electrical power is the ultimate example of just-in-time delivery. A severe geomagnetic storm could disrupt electrical power delivery for hours to years, locally or even globally. Lack of supplies on hand to repair the electrical system would have catastrophic effects.
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused disruption in JIT practices, with various quarantine restrictions on international trade and commercial activity in general interrupting supply while lacking stockpiles to handle the disruption; along with increased demand for medical supplies like personal protective equipment (PPE) and ventilators, and even panic buying, including of various domestically manufactured (and so less vulnerable products) like panic buying of toilet paper, disturbing regular demand. This has led to suggestions that stockpiles and diversification of suppliers should be more heavily focused.
Critics of Lean argue that this management method has significant drawbacks, especially for the employees of companies operating under Lean. Common criticism of Lean is that it fails to take in consideration the employee's safety and well-being. Lean manufacturing is associated with an increased level of stress among employees, who have a small margin of error in their work environment which require perfection. Lean also over-focuses on cutting waste, which may lead management to cut sectors of the company that are not essential to the company's short-term productivity but are nevertheless important to the company's legacy. Lean also over-focuses on the present, which hinders a company's plans for the future.
Critics also make negative comparison of Lean and 19th century scientific management, which had been fought by the labor movement and was considered obsolete by the 1930s. Finally, lean is criticized for lacking a standard methodology: "Lean is more a culture than a method, and there is no standard lean production model."
After years of success of Toyota's Lean Production, the consolidation of supply chain networks has brought Toyota to the position of being the world's biggest carmaker in the rapid expansion. In 2010, the crisis of safety-related problems in Toyota made other carmakers that duplicated Toyota's supply chain system wary that the same recall issue might happen to them.
James Womack had warned Toyota that cooperating with single outsourced suppliers might bring unexpected problems.
Lean manufacturing is different from lean enterprise. Recent research reports the existence of several lean manufacturing processes but of few lean enterprises. One distinguishing feature opposes lean accounting and standard cost accounting. For standard cost accounting, SKUs are difficult to grasp. SKUs include too much hypothesis and variance, i.e., SKUs hold too much indeterminacy. Manufacturing may want to consider moving away from traditional accounting and adopting lean accounting. In using lean accounting, one expected gain is activity-based cost visibility, i.e., measuring the direct and indirect costs at each step of an activity rather than traditional cost accounting that limits itself to labor and supplies.
See also
A3 problem solving
Cellular manufacturing
CONWIP
Efficiency Movement
Just In Case
Production flow analysis
Takt time
Notes
References
Ker, J.I., Wang, Y., Hajli, M.N., Song, J., Ker, C.W. (2014) Deploying Lean in Healthcare: Evaluating Information Technology Effectiveness in US Hospital Pharmacies
MacInnes, Richard L. (2002) The Lean Enterprise Memory Jogger.
Mika, Geoffrey L. (1999) Kaizen Event Implementation Manual
Page, Julian (2003) Implementing Lean Manufacturing Techniques.
Anderson, Barry (ed.) 2012. Building Cars in Australia: Morris, Austin, BMC and Leyland 1950-1976. Sydney: Halstead Press.
Billesbach, Thomas J. 1987. Applicability of Just-in-Time Techniques in the Administrative Area. Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska. Ann Arbor, Mich., University Microfilms International.
Goddard, W.E. 2001. JIT/TQC—identifying and solving problems. Proceedings of the 20th Electrical Electronics Insulation Conference, Boston, October 7–10, 88–91.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. and Fox, Robert E. (1986), The Race, North River Press,
Hall, Robert W. 1983. Zero Inventories. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin.
Hall, Robert W. 1987. Attaining Manufacturing Excellence: Just-in-Time, Total Quality, Total People Involvement. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin.
Hay, Edward J. 1988. The Just-in-Time Breakthrough: Implementing the New Manufacturing Basics. New York: Wiley.
Lubben, R.T. 1988. Just-in-Time Manufacturing: An Aggressive Manufacturing Strategy. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Monden, Yasuhiro. 1982. Toyota Production System. Norcross, Ga: Institute of Industrial Engineers.
Ohno, Taiichi (1988), Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production, Productivity Press,
Ohno, Taiichi (1988), Just-In-Time for Today and Tomorrow, Productivity Press, .
Schonberger, Richard J. 1982. Japanese Manufacturing Techniques: Nine Hidden Lessons in Simplicity. New York: Free Press.
Suri, R. 1986. Getting from 'just in case' to 'just in time': insights from a simple model. 6 (3) 295–304.
Suzaki, Kyoshi. 1993. The New Shop Floor Management: Empowering People for Continuous Improvement. New York: Free Press.
Voss, Chris, and David Clutterbuck. 1989. Just-in-Time: A Global Status Report. UK: IFS Publications.
Wadell, William, and Bodek, Norman (2005), The Rebirth of American Industry, PCS Press,
External links
Lean Enterprise Institute
Manufacturing
Freight transport
Inventory
Working capital management
Inventory optimization | [
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|
218447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphic%20code | Polymorphic code | In computing, polymorphic code is code that uses a polymorphic engine to mutate while keeping the original algorithm intact - that is, the code changes itself every time it runs, but the function of the code (its semantics) will not change at all. For example, the simple math equations 3+1 and 6-2 both achieve the same result, yet run with different machine code in a CPU. This technique is sometimes used by computer viruses, shellcodes and computer worms to hide their presence.
Encryption is the most common method to hide code. With encryption, the main body of the code (also called its payload) is encrypted and will appear meaningless. For the code to function as before, a decryption function is added to the code. When the code is executed this function reads the payload and decrypts it before executing it in turn.
Encryption alone is not polymorphism. To gain polymorphic behavior, the encryptor/decryptor pair is mutated with each copy of the code. This allows different versions of some code which all function the same.
Malicious code
Most anti-virus software and intrusion detection systems (IDS) attempt to locate malicious code by searching through computer files and data packets sent over a computer network. If the security software finds patterns that correspond to known computer viruses or worms, it takes appropriate steps to neutralize the threat. Polymorphic algorithms make it difficult for such software to recognize the offending code because it constantly mutates.
Malicious programmers have sought to protect their encrypted code from this virus-scanning strategy by rewriting the unencrypted decryption engine (and the resulting encrypted payload) each time the virus or worm is propagated. Anti-virus software uses sophisticated pattern analysis to find underlying patterns within the different mutations of the decryption engine, in hopes of reliably detecting such malware.
Emulation may be used to defeat polymorphic obfuscation by letting the malware demangle itself in a virtual environment before utilizing other methods, such as traditional signature scanning. Such a virtual environment is sometimes called a sandbox. Polymorphism does not protect the virus against such emulation if the decrypted payload remains the same regardless of variation in the decryption algorithm. Metamorphic code techniques may be used to complicate detection further, as the virus may execute without ever having identifiable code blocks in memory that remains constant from infection to infection.
The first known polymorphic virus was written by Mark Washburn. The virus, called 1260, was written in 1990. A better-known polymorphic virus was created in 1992 by the hacker Dark Avenger as a means of avoiding pattern recognition from antivirus software. A common and very virulent polymorphic virus is the file infecter Virut.
Example
This example is not really a polymorphic code but will serve as an introduction to the world of encryption via the XOR operator.
For example, in an algorithm using the variables A and B but not the variable C, there could be a large amount of code that changes C, and it would have no effect on the algorithm itself, allowing it to be changed endlessly and without heed as to what the final product will be.
Start:
GOTO Decryption_Code
Encrypted:
...lots of encrypted code...
Decryption_Code:
C = C + 1
A = Encrypted
Loop:
B = *A
C = 3214 * A
B = B XOR CryptoKey
*A = B
C = 1
C = A + B
A = A + 1
GOTO Loop IF NOT A = Decryption_Code
C = C^2
GOTO Encrypted
CryptoKey:
some_random_number
The encrypted code is the payload. To make different versions of the code, in each copy the garbage lines which manipulate C will change. The code inside "Encrypted" ("lots of encrypted code") can search the code between Decryption_Code and CryptoKey and each algorithm for new code that does the same thing. Usually, the coder uses a zero key (for example; A xor 0 = A) for the first generation of the virus, making it easier for the coder because with this key the code is not encrypted. The coder then implements an incremental key algorithm or a random one.
Polymorphic encryption
Polymorphic code can be also used to generate encryption algorithm. This code was generated by the online service StringEncrypt. It takes the string or a file content and encrypts it with random encryption commands and generates polymorphic decryption code in one of the many supported programming languages:
// encrypted with https://www.stringencrypt.com (v1.1.0) [C/C++]
// szLabel = "Wikipedia"
wchar_t szLabel[10] = { 0xB1A8, 0xB12E, 0xB0B4, 0xB03C, 0x33B9, 0xB30C, 0x3295, 0xB260, 0xB5E5, 0x35A2 };
for (unsigned tUTuj = 0, KRspk = 0; tUTuj < 10; tUTuj++) {
KRspk = szLabel[tUTuj];
KRspk ^= 0x2622;
KRspk = ~KRspk;
KRspk --;
KRspk += tUTuj;
KRspk = (((KRspk & 0xFFFF) >> 3) | (KRspk << 13)) & 0xFFFF;
KRspk += tUTuj;
KRspk --;
KRspk = ((KRspk << 8) | ( (KRspk & 0xFFFF) >> 8)) & 0xFFFF;
KRspk ^= 0xE702;
KRspk = ((KRspk << 4) | ( (KRspk & 0xFFFF) >> 12)) & 0xFFFF;
KRspk ^= tUTuj;
KRspk ++;
KRspk = (((KRspk & 0xFFFF) >> 8) | (KRspk << 8)) & 0xFFFF;
KRspk = ~KRspk;
szLabel[tUTuj] = KRspk;
}
wprintf(szLabel);
As you can see in this C++ example, the string was encrypted and each character was stored in encrypted form using UNICODE widechar format. Different encryption commands were used like bitwise XOR, NOT, addition, subtraction, bit rotations. Everything is randomized, encryption keys, bit rotation counters and encryption commands order as well. Output code can be generated in C/C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, Haskell, MASM, FASM and AutoIt. Thanks to the randomization the generated algorithm is different every time. It's not possible to write generic decryption tools and the compiled code with polymorphic encryption code has to be analyzed each time it's re-encrypted.
See also
Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms
Metamorphic code
Self-modifying code
Alphanumeric shellcode
Shellcode
Software cracking
Security cracking
Obfuscated code
Oligomorphic code
References
Types of malware | [
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218449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal%20drug%20trade | Illegal drug trade | The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of prohibited drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. The think tank Global Financial Integrity's Transnational Crime and the Developing World report estimates the size of the global illicit drug market between US$426 and US$652billion in 2014 alone. With a world GDP of US$78 trillion in the same year, the illegal drug trade may be estimated as nearly 1% of total global trade. Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally and it remains very difficult for local authorities to thwart its popularity.
History
Chinese authorities issued edicts against opium smoking in 1730, 1796 and 1800. The West prohibited addictive drugs throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In the early 19th century, an illegal drug trade in China emerged. As a result, by 1838 the number of Chinese opium-addicts had grown to between four and twelve million. The Chinese government responded by enforcing a ban on the import of opium; this led to the First Opium War (1839-1842) between the United Kingdom and Qing-dynasty China. The United Kingdom won and forced China to allow British merchants to sell Indian-grown opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking it had become common for the Chinese in the 19th century, so British merchants increased trade with the Chinese. The Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time by the French. After the two Opium Wars, the British Crown, via the treaties of Nanking (1842), and Tianjin (1858), obligated the Chinese government to pay large sums of money for opium they had seized and destroyed, which were referred to as "reparations".
In 1868, as a result of the increased use of opium, the UK restricted the sale of opium in Britain by implementing the 1868 Pharmacy Act. In the United States, control of opium remained under the control of individual US states until the introduction of the Harrison Act in 1914, after 12 international powers signed the International Opium Convention in 1912.
Between 1920 and around 1933 the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution banned alcohol in the United States. Prohibition proved almost impossible to enforce and resulted in the rise of organized crime, including the modern American Mafia, which identified enormous business opportunities in the manufacturing, smuggling and sale of illicit liquor.
The beginning of the 21st century saw drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime syndicates such as the Sinaloa Cartel and 'Ndrangheta have increased cooperation among each other in order to facilitate trans-Atlantic drug-trafficking. Use of another illicit drug, hashish, has also increased in Europe.
Drug trafficking is widely regarded by lawmakers as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug (and its classification in the country into which it is being trafficked), the quantity trafficked, where the drugs are sold and how they are distributed. If the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be harsher than in other circumstances.
Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries. Sentencing may include lengthy periods of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty (in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and elsewhere). In December 2005, Van Tuong Nguyen, a 25-year-old Australian drug smuggler, was hanged in Singapore after being convicted in March 2004. In 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking of cannabis into the country. Execution is mostly used as a deterrent, and many have called upon much more effective measures to be taken by countries to tackle drug trafficking; for example, targeting specific criminal organisations that are often also active in the smuggling of other goods (i.e. wildlife) and even people. In many cases, links between politicians and the criminal organisations have been proven to exist.
In June 2021, Interpol revealed an operation in 92 countries that shut down 113,000 websites and online marketplaces selling counterfeit or illicit medicines and medical products a month earlier, led to the arrests of 227 people worldwide, recovered pharmaceutical products worth $23 million, and led to the seizure of approximately nine million devices and drugs, including large quantities of fake COVID-19 tests and face masks.
Societal effects
The countries of drug production and transit are some of the most affected by the trade, though countries receiving the illegallyimported substances are also adversely affected. For example, Ecuador has absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries and drug lords. While some applied for asylum, others are still illegal immigrants. The drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic and social problems.
Honduras, through which an estimated 79% of cocaine passes on its way to the United States, had, as of 2011, the highest murder rate in the world. According to the International Crisis Group, the most violent regions in Central America, particularly along the Guatemala–Honduras border, are highly correlated with an abundance of drug trafficking activity.
Violent crime
In many countries, the illegal drug trade is thought to be directly linked to violent crimes such as murder. This is especially true in all developing
countries, such as Honduras, but is also an issue for many developed countries worldwide. In the late 1990s in the United States the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated that 5% of murders were drug-related. In Colombia, drug violence can be caused by factors such as the economy, poor governments, and no authority within law enforcement.
After a crackdown by US and Mexican authorities in the first decade of the 21st century as part of tightened border security in the wake of the September 11 attacks, border violence inside Mexico surged. The Mexican government estimates that 90% of the killings are drug-related.
A report by the UK government's Drug Strategy Unit that was leaked to the press, stated that due to the expensive price of highly addictive drugs heroin and cocaine, drug use was responsible for the great majority of crime, including 85% of shoplifting, 70–80% of burglaries and 54% of robberies. It concluded that "[t]he cost of crime committed to support illegal cocaine and heroin habits amounts to £16 billion a year in the UK"
Drug trafficking routes
South America
Venezuela has been a path to the United States and Europe for illegal drugs originating in Colombia, through Central America, Mexico and Caribbean countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico.
According to the United Nations, there was an increase of cocaine trafficking through Venezuela since 2002. In 2005, the government of Hugo Chávez severed ties with the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), accusing its representatives of spying. Following the departure of the DEA from Venezuela and the expansion of DEA's partnership with Colombia in 2005, Venezuela became more attractive to drug traffickers. Between 2008 and 2012, Venezuela's cocaine seizure ranking among other countries declined, going from being ranked fourth in the world for cocaine seizures in 2008 to sixth in the world in 2012.
On 18 November 2016, following what was known as the Narcosobrinos incident, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro's two nephews were found guilty of trying to ship drugs into the United States so they could "obtain a large amount of cash to help their family stay in power".
According to a research conducted by the Israel-based Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, the main routes that Hezbollah uses for smuggling drugs are from Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil into West Africa and then transported through northern Africa into Europe. This route serves Hezbollah in making a profit in the cocaine smuggling market to leverage it for terrorist activities.
West Africa
Cocaine produced in Colombia and Bolivia increasingly has been shipped via West Africa (especially in Nigeria, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Cameroon, Mali, Benin, Togo, and Ghana). The money is often laundered in countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal.
According to the Africa Economic Institute, the value of illicit drug smuggling in Guinea-Bissau is almost twice the value of the country's GDP. Police officers are often bribed. A police officer's normal monthly wage of $ is less than 2% of the value of of cocaine (€7000 or $). The money can also be laundered using real estate. A house is built using illegal funds, and when the house is sold, legal money is earned. When drugs are sent over land, through the Sahara, the drug traders have been forced to cooperate with terrorist organizations, such as Al Qaida in Islamic Maghreb.
Eastern and Southern Africa
Heroin is increasingly trafficked from Afghanistan to Europe and America through eastern and southern African countries. This path is known as the “southern route” or “smack track.” Repercussions of this trade include burgeoning heroin use and political corruption among intermediary African nations.
Asia
Drugs in Asia traditionally traveled the southern routes – the main caravan axes of Southeast Asia and Southern China – and include the former opium-producing countries of Thailand, Iran, and Pakistan. After the 1990s, particularly after the end of the Cold War (1991), borders were opened and trading and customs agreements were signed so that the routes expanded to include China, Central Asia, and Russia. There are, therefore, diversified drug trafficking routes available today, particularly in the heroin trade and these thrive due to the continuous development of new markets. A large amount of drugs are smuggled into Europe from Asia. The main sources of these drugs are Afghanistan, along with countries that constituted the so-called Golden Crescent. From these producers, drugs are smuggled into the West and Central Asia to its destinations in Europe and the United States. Iran is now the route for smugglers, having been previously a primary trading route, due to its large-scale and costly war against drug trafficking. The Border Police Chief of Iran said that his country "is a strong barrier against the trafficking of illegal drugs to Caucasus, especially the Republic of Azerbaijan." The drugs produced by the Golden Triangle of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand, on the other hand, pass through the southern routes to feed the Australian, U.S., and Asian markets.
Online
Drugs are increasingly traded online on the dark web on darknet markets. The platform Silk Road provided goods and services to 100,000 buyers before being shut down in October 2013. This prompted the creation of new platforms such as Silk Road 2.0, which were also shut down.
Profits
Statistics about profits from the drug trade are largely unknown due to its illicit nature. An online report published by the UK Home Office in 2007 estimated the illicit drug market in the UK at £4–6.6 billion a year
In December 2009 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Executive Director Antonio Maria Costa claimed illegal drug money saved the banking industry from collapse. He claimed he had seen evidence that the proceeds of organized crime were "the only liquid investment capital" available to some banks on the brink of collapse during 2008. He said that a majority of the $352 billion (£216bn) of drug profits was absorbed into the economic system as a result: "In many instances, the money from drugs was the only liquid investment capital. In the second half of 2008, liquidity was the banking system's main problem and hence liquid capital became an important factor...Inter-bank loans were funded by money that originated from the trade and other illegal activities...there were signs that some banks were rescued that way".
Costa declined to identify countries or banks that may have received any drug money, saying that would be inappropriate because his office is supposed to address the problem, not apportion blame.
Though street-level drug sales are widely viewed as lucrative, a study by Sudhir Venkatesh suggested that many low-level employees receive low wages. In a study he made in the 1990s working closely with members of the Black Gangster Disciple Nation in Chicago, he found that one gang (essentially a franchise) consisted of a leader (a college graduate named J.T.), three senior officers, and 25 to 75 street level salesmen ('foot soldiers') depending on season. Selling crack cocaine, they took in approximately $32,000 per month over a six-year period. This was spent as follows: $5,000 to the board of twenty directors of the Black Gangster Disciple Nation, who oversaw 100 such gangs for approximately $500,000 in monthly income. Another $5,000 monthly was paid for cocaine, and $4,000 for other non-wage expenses. J.T. took $8,500 monthly for his own salary. The remaining $9,500 monthly went to pay the employees a $7 per hour wage for officers and a $3.30 per hour wage for foot soldiers. Contrary to a popular image of drug sales as a lucrative profession, many of the employees were living with their mothers by necessity. Despite this, the gang had four times as many unpaid members who dreamed of becoming foot soldiers.
Free trade link
There are several arguments on whether or not free trade has a correlation to an increased activity in the illicit drug trade. Currently, the structure and operation of the illicit drug industry is described mainly in terms of an international division of labor. Free trade can open new markets to domestic producers who would otherwise resort to exporting illicit drugs. Additionally, extensive free trade among states increases cross-border drug enforcement and coordination between law enforcement agencies in different countries. However, free trade also increases the sheer volume of legal cross-border trade and provides cover for drug smuggling—by providing ample opportunity to conceal illicit cargo in legal trade. While international free trade continues to expand the volume of legal trade, the ability to detect and interdict drug trafficking is severely diminished. Towards the late 1990s, the top ten seaports in the world processed 33.6 million containers. Free trade has fostered integration of financial markets and has provided drug traffickers with more opportunities to launder money and invest in other activities. This strengthens the drug industry while weakening the efforts of law enforcement to monitor the flow of drug money into the legitimate economy. Cooperation among cartels expands their scope to distant markets and strengthens their abilities to evade detection by local law enforcement. Additionally, criminal organizations work together to coordinate money-laundering activities by having separate organizations handle specific stages of laundering process. One organization structures the process of how financial transactions will be laundered, while another criminal group provides the “dirty” money to be cleaned. By fostering expansion of trade and global transportation networks, free trade encourages cooperation and formation of alliances among criminal organizations across different countries.
The drug trade in Latin America emerged in the early 1930s. It saw significant growth in the Andean countries, including Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. The underground market in the early half of the 20th century mainly had ties to Europe. After World War II, the Andean countries saw an expansion of trade, specifically with cocaine.
Drug trafficking by country
United States
Background
The effects of the illegal drug trade in the United States can be seen in a range of political, economic and social aspects. Increasing drug related violence can be tied to the racial tension that arose during the late 20th century along with the political upheaval prevalent throughout the 1960s and 70s. The second half of the 20th century was a period when increased wealth, and increased discretionary spending, increased the demand for illicit drugs in certain areas of the United States. Large-scale drug trafficking is one of the few capital crimes, and may result in a death sentence prescribed at the federal level when it involves killing.
Political impact
A large generation, the baby boomers, came of age in the 1960s. Their social tendency to confront the law on specific issues, including illegal drugs, overwhelmed the understaffed judicial system. The federal government attempted to enforce the law, but with meager effect.
Marijuana was a popular drug seen through the Latin American trade route in the 1960s. Cocaine became a major drug product in the later decades. Much of the cocaine is smuggled from Colombia and Mexico via Jamaica. This led to several administrations combating the popularity of these drugs. Due to the influence of this development on the U.S. economy, the Reagan administration began "certifying" countries for their attempts at controlling drug trafficking. This allowed the United States to intervene in activities related to illegal drug transport in Latin America. Continuing into the 1980s, the United States instated stricter policy pertaining to drug transit through sea. As a result, there was an influx in drug-trafficking across the Mexico–U.S. border. This increased the drug cartel activity in Mexico. By the early 1990s, so much as 50% of the cocaine available in the United States market originated from Mexico, and by the 2000s, over 90% of the cocaine in the United States was imported from Mexico. In Colombia, however, there was a fall of the major drug cartels in the mid-1990s. Visible shifts occurred in the drug market in the United States. Between the 1996 and 2000, U.S. cocaine consumption dropped by 11%.
In 2008, the U.S. government initiated another program, known as the Merida Initiative, to help combat drug trafficking in Mexico. This program increased U.S. security assistance to $1.4 billion over several years, which helped supply Mexican forces with "high-end equipment from helicopters to surveillance technology". Despite U.S. aid, Mexican "narcogangs" continue to outnumber and outgun the Mexican Army, allowing for continued activities of drug cartels across the U.S.–Mexico border.
Social impacts
Although narcotics are illegal in the US, they have become integrated into the nation's culture and are seen as a recreational activity by sections of the population. Illicit drugs are considered to be a commodity with strong demand, as they are typically sold at a high value. This high price is caused by a combination of factors that include the potential legal ramifications that exist for suppliers of illicit drugs and their high demand. Despite the constant effort by politicians to win the war on drugs, the US is still the world's largest importer of illegal drugs.
Throughout the 20th century, narcotics other than cocaine also crossed the Mexican border, meeting the US demand for alcohol during the 1920s Prohibition, opiates in the 1940s, marijuana in the 1960s, and heroin in the 1970s. Most of the U.S. imports of drugs come from Mexican drug cartels. In the United States, around 195 cities have been infiltrated by drug trafficking that originated in Mexico. An estimated $10bn of the Mexican drug cartel's profits come from the United States, not only supplying the Mexican drug cartels with the profit necessary for survival, but also furthering America's economic dependence on drugs.
Demographics
With a large wave of immigrants in the 1960s and onwards, the United States saw an increased heterogeneity in its public. In the 1980s and 90s, drug-related homicide was at a record high. This increase in drug violence became increasingly tied to these ethnic minorities. Though the rate of violence varied tremendously among cities in America, it was a common anxiety in communities across urban America. An example of this could be seen in Miami, a city with a host of ethnic enclaves. Between 1985 and 1995, the homicide rate in Miami was one of the highest in the nation—four times the national homicide average. This crime rate was correlated with regions with low employment and was not entirely dependent on ethnicity.
The baby boomer generation also felt the effects of the drug trade in their increased drug use from the 1960s to 80s. Along with substance use, criminal involvement, suicide and murder were also on the rise. Due to the large amount of baby boomers, commercial marijuana use was on the rise. This increased the supply and demand for marijuana during this time period.
Mexico
Political influences
Corruption in Mexico has contributed to the domination of Mexican cartels in the illicit drug trade. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Mexico's political environment allowed the growth of drug-related activity. The loose regulation over the transportation of illegal drugs and the failure to prosecute known drug traffickers and gangs increased the growth of the drug industry. Toleration of drug trafficking has undermined the authority of the Mexican government and has decreased the power of law enforcement officers in regulation over such activities. These policies of tolerance fostered the growing power of drug cartels in the Mexican economy and have made drug traders wealthier. Many states in Mexico lack policies that establish stability in governance. There also is a lack of local stability, as mayors cannot be re-elected. This requires electing a new mayor each term. Drug gangs have manipulated this, using vacuums in local leadership to their own advantage.
In 1929, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was formed to resolve the chaos resulting from the Mexican Revolution. Over time, this party gained political influence and had a major impact on Mexico's social and economic policies. The party created ties with various groups as a power play in order to gain influence, and as a result created more corruption in the government. One such power play was an alliance with drug traffickers. This political corruption obscured justice, making it difficult to identify violence when it related to drugs. By the 1940s, the tie between the drug cartels and the PRI had solidified. This arrangement created immunity for the leaders of the drug cartels and allowed drug trafficking to grow under the protection of the government officials. During the 1990s, the PRI lost some elections to the new National Action Party (PAN). Chaos again emerged as elected government in Mexico changed drastically. As the PAN party took control, drug cartel leaders took advantage of the ensuing confusion and used their existing influence to further gain power. Instead of negotiating with the central government as was done with the PRI party, drug cartels utilized new ways to distribute their supply and continued operating through force and intimidation. As Mexico became more democratized, the corruption fell from a centralized power to the local authorities. Cartels began to bribe local authorities, thus eliminating the structure and rules placed by the government—giving cartels more freedom. As a response, Mexico saw an increase in violence caused by drug trafficking.
The corruption cartels created resulted in distrust of government by the Mexican public. This distrust became more prominent after the collapse of the PRI party. In response, the presidents of Mexico, in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, implemented several different programs relating to law enforcement and regulation. In 1993, President Salinas created the National Institute for the Combat of Drugs in Mexico. From 1995 to 1998, President Zedillo established policies regarding increased punishment of organized crime, allowing "[wire taps], protected witnesses, covert agents and seizures of goods", and increasing the quality of law enforcement at the federal level. From 2001 to 2005, President Vicente Fox created the Federal Agency of Investigation.
These policies resulted in the arrests of major drug-trafficking bosses:
Mexico's economy
Over the past few decades drug cartels have become integrated into Mexico's economy. Approximately 500 cities are directly engaged in drug trafficking and nearly 450,000 people are employed by drug cartels. Additionally, the livelihood of 3.2 million people is dependent on the drug cartels. Between local and international sales, such as to Europe and the United States, drug cartels in Mexico see a $25–30bn yearly profit, a great deal of which circulates through international banks such as HSBC. Drug cartels are fundamental in local economics. A percentage of the profits seen from the trade are invested in the local community. Such profits contribute to the education and healthcare of the community. While these cartels bring violence and hazards into communities, they create jobs and provide income for its many members.
Culture of drug cartels
Major cartels saw growth due to a prominent set culture of Mexican society that created the means for drug capital. One of the sites of origin for drug trafficking within Mexico, was the state of Michoacán. In the past, Michoacán was mainly an agricultural society. This provided an initial growth of trade. Industrialization of rural areas of Mexico facilitated a greater distribution of drugs, expanding the drug market into different provinces. Once towns became industrialized, cartels such as the Sinaloa Cartel started to form and expand. The proliferation of drug cartel culture largely stemmed from the ranchero culture seen in Michoacán. Ranchero culture values the individual as opposed to the society as a whole. This culture fostered the drug culture of valuing the family that is formed within the cartel. This ideal allowed for greater organization within the cartels.
Gangs play a major role in the activity of drug cartels. MS-13 and the 18th Street gang are notorious for their contributions and influence over drug trafficking throughout Latin America. MS-13 has controlled much of the activity in the drug trade spanning from Mexico to Panama. Female involvement is present in the Mexican drug culture. Although females are not treated as equals to males, they typically hold more power than their culture allows and acquire some independence. The increase in power has attracted females from higher social classes. Financial gain has also prompted women to become involved in the illegal drug market. Many women in the lower levels of major drug cartels belong to a low economic class. Drug trafficking offers women an accessible way to earn income. Females from all social classes have become involved in the trade due to outside pressure from their social and economic environments.
Colombia
Political ties
It was common for smugglers in Colombia to import liquor, alcohol, cigarettes and textiles, while exporting cocaine. Personnel with knowledge of the terrain were able to supply the local market while also exporting a large amount of product. The established trade that began in the 1960s involved Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and Cuba. Peasant farmers produced coca paste in Peru and Bolivia, while Colombian smugglers would process the coca paste into cocaine in Colombia, and trafficked product through Cuba. This trade route established ties between Cuban and Colombian organized crime. From Cuba, cocaine would be transported to Miami, Florida; and Union City, New Jersey. Quantities of the drug were then smuggled throughout the US. The international drug trade created political ties between the involved countries, encouraging the governments of the countries involved to collaborate and instate common policies to eradicate drug cartels. Cuba stopped being a center for transport of cocaine following the establishment of a communist government in 1959. As a result, Miami and Union City became the sole locations for trafficking. The relations between Cuban and Colombian organized crime remained strong until the 1970s, when Colombian cartels began to vie for power. In the 1980s and 90s, Colombia emerged as a key contributor of the drug trade industry in the Western Hemisphere. While the smuggling of drugs such as marijuana, poppy, opium and heroin became more ubiquitous during this time period, the activity of cocaine cartels drove the development of the Latin American drug trade. The trade emerged as a multinational effort as supplies (i.e. coca plant substances) were imported from countries such as Bolivia and Peru, were refined in Colombian cocaine labs and smuggled through Colombia, and exported to countries such as the US.
Colombia's economy
Colombia has had a significant role in the illegal drug trade in Latin America. While active in the drug trade since the 1930s, Colombia's role in the drug trade did not truly become dominant until the 1970s. When Mexico eradicated marijuana plantations, demand stayed the same. Colombia met much of the demand by growing more marijuana. Grown in the strategic northeast region of Colombia, marijuana soon became the leading cash crop in Colombia. This success was short-lived due to anti-marijuana campaigns that were enforced by the US military throughout the Caribbean. Instead, drug traffickers in Colombia continued their focus on exporting cocaine. Having been an export of Colombia since the early 1950s, cocaine remained popular for a host of reasons. Colombia's location facilitated its transportation from South America into Central America, and then to its destination of North America. This continued into the 1990s, when Colombia remained the chief exporter of cocaine. The business of drug trafficking can be seen in several stages in Colombia towards the latter half of the 20th century. Colombia served as the dominant force in the distribution and sale of cocaine by the 1980s. As drug producers gained more power, they became more centralized and organized into what became drug cartels. Cartels controlled the major aspects of each stage in the traffic of their product. Their organization allowed cocaine to be distributed in great amounts throughout the United States. By the late 1980s, intra-industry strife arose within the cartels. This stage was marked by increased violence as different cartels fought for control of export markets. Despite this strife, this power struggle led to then having multiple producers of coca leaf farms. This in turn caused an improvement in quality control and reduction of police interdiction in the distribution of cocaine. This also led to cartels attempting to repatriate their earnings which would eventually make up 5.5% of Colombia's GDP. This drive to repatriate earnings led to the pressure of legitimizing their wealth, causing an increase in violence throughout Colombia.
Throughout the 1980s, estimates of illegal drug value in Colombia ranged from $2bn to $4bn. This made up about 7–10% of the $36bn estimated GNP of Colombia during this decade. In the 1990s, the estimates of the illegal drug value remained roughly within the same range (~$2.5bn). As the Colombian GNP rose throughout the 1990s ($68.5bn in 1994 and $96.3bn in 1997), illegal drug values began to comprise a decreasing fraction of the national economy.
By the early 1990s, although Colombia led in the exportation of cocaine, it found increasing confrontations within its state. These confrontations were primarily between cartels and government institutions. This led to a decrease in the drug trade's contribution to the GDP of Colombia; dropping from 5.5% to 2.6%. Though a contributor of wealth, the distribution of cocaine has had negative effects on the socio-political situation of Colombia and has weakened its economy as well.
Social impacts
By the 1980s, Colombian cartels became the dominant cocaine distributors in the US. This led to the spread of increased violence throughout both Latin America and Miami. In the 1980s, two major drug cartels emerged in Colombia: the Medellin and Cali groups. Throughout the 1990s however, several factors led to the decline of these major cartels and to the rise of smaller Colombian cartels. The U.S. demand for cocaine dropped while Colombian production rose, pressuring traffickers to find new drugs and markets. In this time period, there was an increase in activity of Caribbean cartels that led to the rise of an alternate route of smuggling through Mexico. This led to the increased collaboration between major Colombian and Mexican drug traffickers. Such drastic changes in the execution of drug trade in Colombia paired with the political instabilities and rise of drug wars in Medellin and Cali, gave way for the rise of the smaller Colombian drug trafficking organizations (and the rise of heroin trade). As the drug trade's influence over the economy increased, drug lords and their networks grew in their power and influence in society. The occurrences in drug-related violence increased during this time period as drug lords fought to maintain their control in the economy. Typically a drug cartel had support networks that consisted of a number of individuals. These people individuals ranged from those directly involved in the trade (such as suppliers, chemists, transporters, smugglers, etc.) as well as those involved indirectly in the trade (such as politicians, bankers, police, etc.). As these smaller Colombian drug cartels grew in prevalence, several notable aspects of the Colombian society gave way for further development of the Colombian drug industry. For example, until the late 1980s, the long-term effects of the drug industry were not realized by much of society. Additionally, there was a lack of regulation in prisons where captured traffickers were sent. These prisons were under-regulated, under-funded, and under-staffed, which allowed for the formation of prison gangs, for the smuggling of arms/weapons/etc., for feasible escapes, and even for captured drug lords to continue running their businesses from prison.
Trade in specific drugs
Cannabis
While the recreational use of (and consequently the distribution of) cannabis is illegal in most countries throughout the world, recreational distribution is legal in some countries, such as Canada, and medical distribution is permitted in some places, such as 10 of the 50 US states (although importation and distribution is still federally prohibited). Beginning in 2014, Uruguay became the first country to legalize cultivation, sale, and consumption of cannabis for recreational use for adult residents. In 2018, Canada became the second country to legalize use, sale and cultivation of cannabis. The first few weeks were met with extremely high demand, most shops being out of stock after operating for only four days.
Cannabis use is tolerated in some areas, most notably the Netherlands which has legalized the possession and licensed sale (but not cultivation) of the drug. Many nations have decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana. Due to the hardy nature of the cannabis plant, marijuana is grown all across the world and is today the world's most popular illegal drug with the highest level of availability. Cannabis is grown legally in many countries for industrial, non-drug use (known as hemp) as well. Cannabis-hemp may also be planted for other non-drug domestic purposes, such as seasoning that occurs in Aceh.
The demand for cannabis around the world, coupled with the drug's relative ease of cultivation, makes the illicit cannabis trade one of the primary ways in which organized criminal groups finance many of their activities. In Mexico, for example, the illicit trafficking of cannabis is thought to constitute the majority of many of the cartels' earnings, and the main way in which the cartels finance many other illegal activities; including the purchase of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).
Some studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin.
Alcohol
Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a thriving illegal trade in alcohol. The manufacture, sale, transportation, importation and exportation of alcoholic beverage were illegal in the United States during the time known as the Prohibition in the 1920s and early 1930s.
Heroin
In the 1950s and 1960s, most heroin was produced in Turkey and transshipped in France via the French Connection crime ring, with much arriving in the United States. This resulted in the record setting April 26, 1968 seizure of of heroin smuggled in a vehicle on the SS France (1960) ocean liner. By the time of The French Connection (1971 film), this route was being supplanted.
Then, until around 2004, the majority of the world's heroin was produced in an area known as the Golden Triangle. However, by 2007, 93% of the opiates on the world market originated in Afghanistan. This amounted to an export value of about US$4 billion, with a quarter being earned by opium farmers and the rest going to district officials, insurgents, warlords and drug traffickers. Another significant area where poppy fields are grown for the manufacture of heroin is Mexico.
According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the price of heroin is typically valued 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on American streets, making it a high-profit substance for smugglers and dealers. In Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), for example, a purported gram of street heroin, usually consisting of 700–800 mg of a light to dark brown powder containing 5–10% heroin base, costs €30–70, making the effective value per gram of pure heroin €300–700. Heroin is generally a preferred product for smuggling and distribution—over unrefined opium due to the cost-effectiveness and increased efficacy of heroin.
Because of the high cost per volume, heroin is easily smuggled. A US quarter-sized (2.5 cm) cylindrical vial can contain hundreds of doses. From the 1930s to the early 1970s, the so-called French Connection supplied the majority of US demand. Allegedly, during the Vietnam War, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilograms of heroin to the US in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the US than it had been in previous decades, but that does not stop the heroin smugglers from getting their product across US borders. Purity levels vary greatly by region with Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States. On 17 October 2018 police in Genoa Italy, discovered 270 kg of heroin hidden in a ship coming from the Iranian southern port of Bandar Abbas. The ship had already passed and stopped at Hamburg in Germany and Valencia in Spain.
Penalties for smuggling heroin or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence (e.g. Singapore) or life in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both internationally Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
In May 2021, Romania seized 1.4 tonnes of heroin at Constanța port of a shipment from Iran that was headed for Western Europe.
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine is another popular drug among distributors. Three common street names are "meth", "crank", and "ice".
According to the Community Epidemiology Work Group, the number of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory incidents reported to the National Clandestine Laboratory Database decreased from 1999 to 2009. During this period, methamphetamine lab incidents increased in mid-western States (Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio), and in Pennsylvania. In 2004, more lab incidents were reported in Missouri (2,788) and Illinois (1,058) than in California (764). In 2003, methamphetamine lab incidents reached new highs in Georgia (250), Minnesota (309), and Texas (677). There were only seven methamphetamine lab incidents reported in Hawaii in 2004, though nearly 59 percent of substance use treatment admissions (excluding alcohol) were for primary methamphetamine use during the first six months of 2004. As of 2007, Missouri leads the United States in drug-lab seizures, with 1,268 incidents reported. Often canine units are used for detecting rolling meth labs which can be concealed on large vehicles, or transported on something as small as a motorcycle. These labs are more difficult to detect than stationary ones, and can often be obscured among legal cargo in big trucks.
Methamphetamine is sometimes used intravenously, placing users and their partners at risk for transmission of HIV and hepatitis C. "Meth" can also be inhaled, most commonly vaporized on aluminum foil or in a glass pipe. This method is reported to give "an unnatural high" and a "brief intense rush".
In South Africa methamphetamine is called "tik" or "tik-tik"."Known locally as "tik," the substance was virtually unknown as late as 2003. Now, it is the country's main addictive substance, even when alcohol is included. " Children as young as eight are abusing the substance, smoking it in crude glass vials made from light bulbs. Since methamphetamine is easy to produce, the substance is manufactured locally in staggering quantities.
The government of North Korea currently operates methamphetamine production facilities. There, the drug is used as medicine because no alternatives are available; it also is smuggled across the Chinese border.
The Australian Crime Commission's illicit drug data report for 2011–2012 stated that the average strength of crystal methamphetamine doubled in most Australian jurisdictions within a 12-month period, and the majority of domestic laboratory closures involved small "addict-based" operations.
Temazepam
Temazepam, a strong hypnotic benzodiazepine, is illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories (called jellie labs) to supply the increasingly high demand for the drug internationally. Many clandestine temazepam labs are in Eastern Europe. The labs manufacture temazepam by chemically altering diazepam, oxazepam or lorazepam. "Jellie labs" have been identified and shut down in Russia, Ukraine, Latvia and Belarus.
Surveys in many countries show that temazepam, MDMA, nimetazepam, and methamphetamine rank among the top illegal addictive substances used.
Cocaine
Cocaine is a highly prominent drug among many drug dealers and manufacturers. The cocaine black market distribution industry is worth more than 85 billion dollars. It has been a heavily fought over and massively produced. Around 1.1 million kilograms of cocaine were made in 2009 and it is believed to have been consumed by around 17 million people worldwide. This drug's mass trade is believed to have been possible by notorious drug dealing kingpin Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán who ran the Sinaloa Cartel.
See also
Allegations of CIA drug trafficking
Arguments for and against drug prohibition
Counterfeit medications
Drug liberalization
Drug trafficking organizations
Illegal drug trade in the Indian Ocean region
List of media portraying drug smuggling
Maritime drug smuggling into Australia
Narco-capitalism
Operation Show Me How
International coordination
Interpol
United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
References
External links
Official website of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
Illicit drug issues by country, by the CIA
Drug trade
Smuggling
Organized crime | [
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|
218450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoJa | DoJa | DoJa profile is a Java application environment specification for DoCoMo's i-mode mobile phone.
DoJa is based on the Java ME CLDC API that is defined in the Java Community Process (JCP). DoJa is a profile defined by NTT DoCoMo to provide communications and other input-output processing, user interface (GUI) and other application features/functions unique to i-mode, and extension libraries defined by individual phone terminal makers to add original functions. However, in contrast with other Java ME profiles like Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP) or Information Module Profile (IMP), DoJa is not defined as a Java Specification Request (JSR), hence it is often called a "proprietary" Java ME profile.
DoJa allows i-mode to offer more dynamic and interactive content than conventional HTML-based i-mode content. Java for i-mode consists of support for a version of CLDC and a version of the DoJa profile. CLDC support can be 1.0 or 1.1 depending on the handset. The DoJa profile was originally created for the local Japanese market with version 1.0 and version 2.0 more or less corresponding to MIDP 1.0 and MIDP 2.0. For the market outside Japan a new API has been created, which is referred to as the Overseas Edition. Currently DoJa 1.5oe and DoJa 2.5oe are implemented on handsets sold in Europe. (The first DoJa handset with DoJa1.5oe is N341i launched in 2003 from NEC, and the first DoJa 2.5 handset is M430i launched in the beginning of 2005 from Mitsubishi.) The DoJa Profile provides for use with i-mode extension library (Java for i-mode profiles), including user interfaces and HTTP communications.
DoJa Profiles
"Star" is the successor to DoJa, rather than being part of it, with access to modern hardware and services such as the accelerometer.
References
External links
NTT Docomo i-appli Development Page
DoJa developers mailing list archive
Java device platform | [
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|
218455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashing | Flashing | Flashing may refer to:
Technology
Firmware#Flashing, overwriting an EEPROM module in a device
BIOS flashing, overwriting a BIOS image
Flashing (cinematography), a technique that desaturates the color so that one sees more in shadowed areas
Flashing (weatherproofing), construction material used to prevent the passage of water around objects
Flash evaporation, causing evaporation by lowering a fluid's pressure below its vapour pressure
Flashing light, such as a light bulb or computer's cursor
Flash (manufacturing), excess material attached to a moulded product which must usually be removed
Other
Flashing (horse)
Exhibitionism, sexual body exposure
Indecent exposure, inappropriate public nudity
Facing (retail), moving shelved products to the front
Headlight flashing, to alert other drivers
See also
Flash (disambiguation) | [
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|
218456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug%20paraphernalia | Drug paraphernalia | "Drug paraphernalia" is a term to denote any equipment, product or accessory that is intended or modified for making, using or concealing drugs, typically for recreational purposes. Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine are related to a wide range of paraphernalia. Paraphernalia generally fall into two categories: user-specific products and dealer-specific products.
Overview
User-specific products include glass hashish pipes, crack cocaine pipes, smoking masks, hashish bongs, cocaine freebase kits, syringes, roach clips for holding the burning end of a marijuana joint. Some stores sell items for growing hydroponic marijuana, such as guidebooks, fertilizer, and fluorescent grow-lights. The term "paraphernalia" also refers to items such as hollowed-out cosmetic cases or fake pagers when used to conceal illegal drugs, or products purported to cleanse an individual's system of drug residues to increase the individual's chance of passing a urine analysis for drug use.
Dealer-specific products are used by the drug sellers or traffickers for preparing drugs for distribution. Items such as digital scales, vials, and small zipper storage bags that can be used to sell crack, heroin, or marijuana fall into this category.
Legality
United States
In the US, enterprising individuals would sell items openly in the street, until anti-paraphernalia laws in the 1980s eventually ended the practice. With the growth of the Internet, drug paraphernalia sellers have greatly expanded their sales to a worldwide market.
According to the Federal Drug Paraphernalia Statute, 21 USC 863, which is part of the Controlled Substances Act, in the US it is illegal to sell, transport through the mail, transport across state lines, import, or export drug paraphernalia as defined. Possession is usually illegal under State law. The law gives specific guidance on determining what constitutes drug paraphernalia. Many states have also enacted their own laws prohibiting drug paraphernalia. In the 1982 case Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., the US Supreme Court found a municipal ordinance requiring licensing for paraphernalia sales to have sufficiently distinguished marketing for illegal use to be constitutional. Government crackdowns have resulted in the arrest of sellers of recreational drug paraphernalia, such as actor Maxwell Parker Hahn, who spent time in prison in 2003 for having his name used on bongs for sale via the internet.
The American drug paraphernalia laws can also apply to many items that have more legitimate uses than for illegal drugs. Small mirrors and other glass products (such as Pyrex test tubes and "glass crack pipes"), lighters, rolled up currency, razor blades, aluminum/tin foil, credit cards, and spoons have all been used to prosecute people under paraphernalia laws, whether or not they contain residue of illegal drugs. While United States federal statute defines paraphernalia with the concept of primary use, in practice this can be interpreted to be what the individual was currently primarily using the item for, allowing for common items to be treated as paraphernalia only in cases where more clear evidence allows such determination of primary use.
Head shops are very much alive and well in the US, however. Generally, though, they have signs near presumable paraphernalia saying "For tobacco use only" or "Not for use with illicit drugs." Many also ban customers for referencing use of illegal drugs when buying items. Similar policies are used in online head shops, where customers are often made to verify detailed disclaimers of their non-use of illegal substances before buying items.
United Kingdom
In the UK, while cannabis is illegal, owning drug paraphernalia is not illegal, but under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the individual may be committing a criminal offense if the items contain traces of drugs.
Under Section 9A of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, It is a criminal offense "to supply or offer to supply an object for providing or preparing a controlled drug if a person believes that the article will be used in circumstances where the administration is unlawful. If convicted in a magistrates' court, the penalty is a maximum of six months in prison and/or a £5,000 fine.
See also
Drug checking
Harm reduction
One hitter (smoking)
Philadelphia blunt ban
Paraphernalia
Recreational drug use
References
Cannabis culture
Cannabis smoking | [
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|
218457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCtzen | Lützen | is a town in the Burgenlandkreis district of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany.
Geography
Lützen is situated in the Leipzig Bay, approximately southwest of the Leipzig city limits and northeast of Weißenfels. The town has access to the Bundesstraße 87 road from Leipzig to Weißenfels as well as to the Bundesautobahn 9 (at the Bad Dürrenberg junction) and the Bundesautobahn 38.
The municipal area comprises the following Ortschaften or municipal divisions:
Lützen
Meuchen, incorporated in 1973
Röcken, incorporated in 2009
Großgörschen, Muschwitz, Poserna, Rippach and Starsiedel, incorporated in 2010
Dehlitz, Sössen and Zorbau, incorporated in 2011
History
Held by the Prince-Bishops of Merseburg, Lützen Castle from the 13th century onwards was the seat of the local administration (Amt). After the 1485 Treaty of Leipzig, the town increasingly fell under the Wettin electors of Saxony, until the episcopal lands were finally secularised in 1547; from 1656/57 until 1738 it was held by the secundogeniture of Saxe-Merseburg.
The town was the scene of two famous battles:
The Battle of Lützen (1632) in the Thirty Years' War, in which the Swedish forces under King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden defeated an Imperial army led by Albrecht von Wallenstein. However, Gustavus Adolphus himself died on the battlefield, resulting in the battle being a Pyrrhic victory for Sweden. There is a statue in Lützen in his memory. Also, there is a stone, called Schwedenstein (Swedenstone), covered by a Neo-Gothic style monument designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1837 on the spot on the battlefield where he died. Close to this there is a memorial chapel in his honour.
The Battle of Lützen (1813), in which Napoleon launched the German Campaign. He defeated the combined Russian and Prussian forces near the village of Großgörschen, although with heavy losses. In the night before the battle, he had ostentatiously camped at the Gustavus Adolphus memorial stone.
By 1815 resolution of the Vienna Congress, Lützen fell to the Prussian province of Saxony. Part of the Soviet occupation zone after World War II, the town belonged to the East German district of Halle from 1952 to 1990.
In 2017 a mass grave with 47 bodies from the Battle of Lützen (1632) were found near the town.
Politics
Seats in the town's assembly (Stadtrat) as of 2014 local elections:
Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU): 6
Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD): 3
The Left: 2
Alliance '90/The Greens: 1
Bürger für Ehrlichkeit und Gerechtigkeit Lützen (independent): 1
Offene Wählergemeinschaft Starsiedel (independent): 1
Bürgerbewegung Großgörschen (independent): 1
Heimatverein Kreischau-Pobles (independent): 1
Bürgerinitiative Meuchen (independent): 1
National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD): 1
Free Democratic Party (FDP): 1
Freie Wählergemeinschaft Röcken (independent): 1
Notable people
Johann Gottfried Seume (1763–1810), author
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), philosopher, cultural critic, poet and scholar
References
External links
Municipal website
Burgenlandkreis
Province of Saxony
Bezirk Halle | [
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|
218463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bare | Bare | Bare literally means fully or partially naked,
or figuratively used it means minimal.
Bare may also refer to:
People
Bare (surname)
Jader Volnei Spindler (born 1982), Brazilian football player nicknamed "Bare"
Places
Bare Island (disambiguation)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bare, Busovača
Bare (Hadžići)
Bare (Jajce)
Bare (Konjic)
Bare (Posušje)
Bare (Rudo), in Rudo
Bare, Visoko, in Visoko, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bare cemetery, in Sarajevo
Cameroon
Baré, Cameroon
Ethiopia
Bare (woreda)
Kosovo
Bare, Kosovo, a village in Mitrovica district
Iran
Bare, East Azerbaijan
Bare, West Azerbaijan
Italy
Bàre
Montenegro
Bare, Kolašin
Bare, Šavnik
Romania
Báré, the Hungarian name for Bărăi village, Căianu Commune, Cluj County, Romania
Serbia
Bare, Knić
Bare, Kraljevo
Bare, Požarevac
Bare, Prijepolje
Bare, Rekovac
Bare, Sjenica
United Kingdom
Bare, Morecambe, Lancashire, England
United States
Bare Butte, a summit in Texas
Music
Bare (Annie Lennox album), 2003
Bare (Barb Jungr album), 1999
Bare (Wayne Hussey album), 2008
Bare (EP), by Little Nobody
Bare: A Pop Opera, a musical story of two gay high school students
"Bare", a song by Anthrax from Stomp 442
B.A.R.E in the Woods, a music festival held in Portarlington, County Laois, Ireland
Other uses
Bare (magazine), 1999-2001 UK women's lifestyle magazine
Bare (film), a 2015 drama film
Bare, a 1991 autobiography of singer George Michael, co-written by Tony Parsons
See also
Bear (disambiguation)
Baer (disambiguation) | [
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218464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Austria | President of Austria | The president of Austria () is the head of state of the Austrian Republic. Though theoretically entrusted with great power by the Constitution, in practice the president is largely a ceremonial and symbolic figurehead.
The office of the president was established in 1920 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy in 1918. As head of state, the president succeeded the chair of the Constituent Assembly, the post-monarchic provisional legislature. Originally intended to be chosen directly by the Austrian people through universal suffrage every six years, the president was instead appointed by the legislative Federal Assembly until 1951, when Theodor Körner became the first popularly-elected president. Since the institution of the popular vote, only nominees of the Social Democratic Party and the People's Party had been elected to the presidency, with the exception of the Green-endorsed incumbent Alexander Van der Bellen.
The president appoints the chancellor, the vice chancellor, the ministers, the secretaries of state, and the justices of the Supreme Courts. The president can also remove the chancellor and the Cabinet at any time. Additionally, the president signs bills into law and is empowered to dissolve the National Council and the state legislatures, sign treaties with foreign countries, rule by emergency decree, and command the Armed Forces. However, most of these presidential powers have never been applied. Furthermore, the president ranks first in Austria's order of precedence, ahead of the presidium of the National Council and the chancellor.
The principal residence and workplace of the president is the Leopoldine Wing of the Hofburg Imperial Palace, situated in Vienna.
History
Prior to the collapse of the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire towards the end of World War I, what now is the Republic of Austria had been part of a monarchy with an emperor as its head of state and chief executive. The empire noticeably began to fracture in late 1917 and manifestly disintegrated into a number of independent states over the course of the following year.
Effective 21 October 1918, the members of the Imperial Council representing the empire's ethnically German provinces formed a Provisional National Assembly for their paralyzed rump state and appointed veteran party leader Karl Seitz as one of their three largely coequal chairmen (21 October 1918 – 16 February 1919). As chairman, he became an ex officio member of the State Council (Deutschösterreichischer Staatsrat). On 12 November 1918, the State Council collectively assumed the functions of head of state according to a resolution of the National Assembly.
On 11 November, Emperor Charles I announced "I relinquish my participation in the administration of the State. Likewise I have relieved the members of the Austrian Government from their offices". The next day, parliament proclaimed the Republic of German-Austria. The assembly presidents (Seitz, Franz Dinghofer and Johann Nepomuk Hauser) continued to serve as acting heads of state until 4 March 1919, when the Constituent National Assembly collectively assumed these functions. Seitz (5 March 1919 – 10 November 1920) was the only President of the Constituent National Assembly.
Karl Seitz performed the duties of head of state according to a law of 1 October 1920, which transferred these duties to the "former president of the National Constituent Assembly" for the period from 10 November 1920, to the day of inaugurating the first president (9 December 1920). Since Austria had not finalized its decision to structure itself as a federation prior to the formal promulgation of the Constitution of Austria on 1 October 1920, referring to Seitz as president would have been inaccurate. Austria's first Bundespräsident proper thus was Michael Hainisch, Karl Seitz' immediate successor. In a related note, many popular sources quote some more or less random date between October 1918 and March 1919 as the beginning of Seitz' term. While most of them are merely misleading, others are plainly wrong: even though Seitz was appointed president of the Provisional National Assembly in October 1918, it would have been impossible for him to serve as Bundespräsident, since the republic had not yet been proclaimed at the time.
The constitution originally defined Austria to be a parliamentary republic. Originally, the constitution was radically parliamentarian in character. The bicameral parliament, called the Federal Assembly, not only possessed legislative power, but also a good deal of executive power as well. The president was elected by both houses of the Federal Assembly for a term of four years. He was answerable to the Federal Assembly, and his role was almost entirely ceremonial. In particular, he did not have the power to appoint the cabinet, a power reserved to the National Council, and had no authority to dissolve the National Council. He did not even have much actual influence on the appointment of Constitutional Court justices.
The role and nature of the president was the result of a compromise reached during the drafting of the constitution. The Christian Socials wanted a president with executive powers similar to those of the president of Germany. However, the Social Democrats, fearing that such a president would become a "substitute emperor," would have preferred that the president of the National Council double as head of state. In the end, the framers created a separate presidency in accordance with the wishes of the Christian Socials. However, to appease the Social Democrats, he lacked even nominal executive authority. It was under this constitutional framework that Michael Hainisch and Wilhelm Miklas assumed office on 9 December 1920 and 10 December 1928, respectively.
The parliamentary system prescribed by the constitution was highly unpopular, however, with the authoritarian Heimwehr movement evolving during the 1920s. The Heimwehr was in favor of a system granting more powers to the president. On 7 December 1929, under growing pressure from the Heimwehr, the constitution was amended to give the president sweeping executive and legislative powers. Although most of these powers were to be exercised through the ministers, on paper the president now had powers equivalent to those of presidents in presidential systems. It also called for the office to be filled by popular vote for a term of six years. He also had the power to appoint the Cabinet. The first election was scheduled for 1934. However, owing to the growing worldwide financial crisis, all parties agreed to suspend the election in favour of having Miklas reelected by parliament.
Only three years later, however, the Fatherland Front – an alliance of the Heimwehr and the Christian Social Party – tore down Austrian parliamentarism altogether, formally annulling the constitution on 1 May 1934. It was replaced by an authoritarian/corporatist document that concentrated power in the hands of the Chancellor, not those of the president. Wilhelm Miklas was stripped of the powers he had gained in 1929, but agreed to act as a figurehead of institutional continuity anyway. He was not entirely powerless, however; during the Anschluss crisis, he provided some of the stiffest resistance to the Nazi demands. He technically remained in office until 13 March 1938, the day Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany and thus lost sovereignty.
When Austria re-established itself as an independent state on 27 April 1945, the party leaders forming the provisional government decided not to frame a new constitution, reverting instead to that of 1920, as amended in 1929. Even though this revision was still somewhat controversial at that point, it was part of Austria's most recent constitutional framework, giving it at least some much-needed form of democratic legitimacy. The party leaders were also afraid that lengthy discussion might provoke the Red Army then in control of Vienna to barge in and impose Communist rule. The constitution thus reenacted effective 1 May therefore still included the provision calling for popular election of the president. Following the November 1945 National Council elections, however, the National Assembly temporarily suspended this provision and installed Karl Renner as the president of Austria as of 20 December. The suspension in question seems to have been motivated mainly by a lack of money: no attempt was ever made to prolong it, and the benign septuagenarian Renner had been the universally respected provisional head of state anyway. Starting with the 1951 election of Renner's successor Theodor Körner, all presidents have in fact been elected by the people.
Election
Procedure
The president of Austria is elected by popular vote for a term of six years and is limited to two consecutive terms of office. Voting is open to all people entitled to vote in general parliamentary elections, which in practice means that suffrage is universal for all Austrian citizens over the age of sixteen that have not been convicted of a jail term of more than one year of imprisonment. (Even so, they regain the right to vote six months after their release from prison.)
Until 1 October 2011, with the exception of members of any ruling or formerly ruling dynastic houses (a measure of precaution against monarchist subversion, and primarily aimed at members of the House of Habsburg), anyone entitled to vote in elections to the National Council who is at least 35 years of age is eligible for the office of president. The exception of ruling or formerly ruling dynasties has been abolished meanwhile within the Wahlrechtsänderungsgesetz 2011 (Amendment of the law on the right to vote 2011) due to an initiative by Ulrich Habsburg-Lothringen.
The president is elected under the two-round system. This means that if no candidate receives an absolute majority (i.e. more than 50%) of valid votes cast in the first round, then a second ballot occurs in which only those two candidates who received the greatest number of votes in the first round may stand. However, the constitution also provides that the group that nominates one of these two candidates may instead nominate an alternative candidate in the second round. If there is only one candidate standing in a presidential election then the electorate is granted the opportunity to either accept or reject the candidate in a referendum.
While in office the president cannot belong to an elected body or hold any other position.
Oath of office
Article 62 of the Austrian Constitution provides that the president must take the following oath or affirmation of office in the presence of the Federal Assembly (although the addition of a religious asseveration is admissible):
Latest elections
Powers and duties
Presidential powers and responsibilities are chiefly established by the Federal Constitutional Law, additional powers may be defined by federal statute, judicial interpretations and legal precedents. While the Austrian political system as a whole can often be compared with that of Germany, the Austrian presidency can hardly be compared with the German one, but rather much more with the British monarchy; since both are head of state, appoint the head of government and their Cabinet, can dismiss the head of government and their Cabinet, appoint the highest-ranking government officials, sign bills into law, and are the military commanders-in-chief of their country.
Executive role
Appointing the Cabinet
The president appoints the chancellor, the vice chancellor, and the ministers, which collectively form the Cabinet of Austria.
The people of Austria elect a new National Council at least every five years. The National Council is the lower chamber of the Parliament and substantially more powerful than its indirectly elected, upper counterpart, the Federal Council. Following such an election the president, by convention, asks the top candidate of the party that won the most seats with the formation of a new Cabinet. Theoretically, the president could charge any citizen of Austria who is eligible for election to the National Council with the formation of a new Cabinet. However, the National Council has the right to vote no confidence in a minister or the entire cabinet at any time, and the president is constitutionally required to dismiss the minister(s) named in the motion. Thus, the president is de facto obliged to abide by convention. Once the victor of the election is charged with the Cabinet formation, they are required to draft a "ministers' list", which comprises all Cabinet members. When drafting such a list, the person charged with the formation commonly claims the chancellorship. Since a party rarely has an absolute majority within the National Council (no party has done so since 1983), they must find a coalition partner to establish a politically stable Cabinet; the leader of the junior coalition party commonly claims the vice chancellorship. The nominees for the ministerial offices, and the positions of secretaries of state (which are, however, not formally part of the Cabinet), are assigned by the coalition partners ensuing comprehensive negotiations. Once the drafting of the ministers' list is completed, it is handed to the president. The president can accept the list, decline it, decline individual nominees, or decline it and charge someone else with the Cabinet formation. If the list is accepted, the president will officially swear in the chancellor, the vice chancellor, the ministers, and the secretaries of state at an inauguration ceremony, commonly taking place several days after having accepted the list.
So far, there have been only three cases in which a president declined to appoint a Cabinet nominee. Karl Renner denied to re-appoint a minister suspected of corruption. Theodor Körner rejected the demand of Chancellor Leopold Figl to appoint a Cabinet in which the Federation of Independents would have been a coalition partner. Thomas Klestil declined to appoint two ministers; one of them was involved in a criminal case and the other had been frequently noticed for extremist and xenophobic statements before the election.
Dismissing the Cabinet
The president can dismiss the chancellor or the entire Cabinet at any time, such at will. However, individual Cabinet members can only be dismissed by the president on the advice of the chancellor. So far, the dismissal of an entire Cabinet against its will has never occurred. President Wilhelm Miklas did not make use of this power when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuß absolished the Constitution to establish the dictatorial Federal State of Austria.
The removal of a minister against their will occurred only once, when Chancellor Sebastian Kurz asked President Alexander Van der Bellen to remove Interior Minister Herbert Kickl. Ensuing the Ibiza affair and a likely collapse of the Cabinet, Kickl swiftly appointed Peter Goldgruber – with whom he had close ties – to the office of director general for the Public Security, which would have indefinitely granted him direct operational control over the vast majority of Austrian law enforcement agencies. President Alexander Van der Bellen refused to assent Goldgruber's appointment – following a convention to avoid high-level appointments during transition periods – thus preventing him from taking office.
Appointing federal and state officials
From the official and legal point of view, the president appoints all officers of the federal government, not just the members of Cabinet and the justices of the supreme courts. This includes all military officers and soldiers, all judges, as well as all ordinary functionaries and bureaucrats. In practice however, this power of appointment is delegated to the ministers and their subordinates, although the highest-ranking officers of government are always personally appointed by the president.
Because the governors of the states do not only serve as the chief executives of their respective state but also as the chief representatives of the federal government within that state, the president swears in all governors, following their election by the state diet.
Legislative role
Signing bills into law
As state notary of Austria, the president signs bills into law. Signing bills into law is a constitutionally mandated duty of the president and not a discretionary power; it is not comparable with the presidential veto in the United States or the Royal Assent in the United Kingdom. In their capacity as state notary, the president scrutinises the constitutionality of the lawmaking process undertaken to enact a piece of legislation. If the president finds the bill to have been crafted in an unconstitutional way, the president is compelled to deny their signature, which strikes down the piece of legislation. All bills on federal level, no matter if they affect statutory or even constitutional law, must be signed by the president to take effect.
The president generally does not verify if an enacted statute complies with constitutional law; that is subject to the Constitutional Court, once the statute becomes effective and is legally challenged. Judicial interpretations regarding the scrutiny extent of this presidential responsibility have varied, with some arguing that the president may deny signature if provisions of an enacted statute are undoubtedly unconstitutional. President Heinz Fischer established a precedent for that, by refusing to sign a statute – containing retrospective criminal provisions – into law; this remains the only time a president has denied signature.
Once a bill is introduced in Parliament, it must pass the National Council with the requisite quorums and be approved by the Federal Council to become 'enacted'. After its enactment the bill is forwarded to the chancellor, who submits it to the president. The president then signs the bill into law (if it has been enacted in accordance with constitutional requirements). The chancellor subsequently countersigns and then promulgates the bill in the federal law gazette, ultimately rendering it effective.
If the president refuses to sign any or particular bills into law – that are not in obvious or direct violation of the Constitution – the president may be impeached by the Federal Assembly before the Constitutional Court and subsequently removed from office through conviction for failing their constitutional responsibilities.
Dissolving the National Council
The president may dissolve the National Council at the request of Cabinet, but only once for the same reason. The legal consequences of a dissolution of the National Council by the president differ from those of a parliamentary self-dissolution. If the president terminates the legislative period, the National Council is immediately dissolved and thereby incapacitated. However, the Standing Subcommittee of the National Council's Principal Committee remains as an emergency body until the newly-elected National Council convenes. Prior to that, the president may issue emergency decrees on the request of the Cabinet and with the consent of the Standing Subcommittee of the Principal Committee. In the case of self-dissolution, the old National Council keeps meeting until a new one is elected.
So far, only President Wilhelm Miklas has made use of this power, after the Christian Social Party had lost its coalition partner and thus a majority in Parliament.
Dissolving state diets
The president can dissolve every State Diet at the request of Cabinet and with the consent of the Federal Council. However, the president may only do so once for the same reason; as with the dissolution of the National Council. The Federal Council must agree to the dissolution by a two-thirds majority. The delegation of the state whose Diet is to be dissolved, may not partake in the vote.
The dissolution of a State Diet is viewed as an encroachment on federalism, as the national government directly intervenes into state affairs. Like with the presidential dissolution of the National Council, a dissolved State Diet is considered incapacitated until after a new election. This power has never been applied by any president yet.
Rule by decree
The president is authorized to rule by emergency decree in times of crisis. The Constitution states as follow:
Such emergency decrees do not affect the Constitution – which chiefly consists of the Federal Constitutional Law and the Basic Human Rights – as well as any other important legal provision. As soon as the National Council is in session again, it is ought to immediately approve or invalidate active emergency decrees. The power to rule by decree has never been applied yet.
Judicial role
Enforcer of the Constitutional Court
The president is entrusted with the enforcement of findings of fact of the Constitutional Court, when such enforcement is not subject to ordinary courts. The request for enforcement is submitted to the president by the Court itself. The Constitution provides the president with extensive enforcement powers. Enforcement jurisdiction can comprise state and federal authorities (this includes the Armed Forces and law enforcement) as well as a state or the republic in its entirety. When wielding enforcement rights, the president obtains direct operational control over the authorities concerned. If a federal authority or the republic as a whole are affected, the president does not require countersignature.
Appointing justices
The president appoints the president, the vice president, the six further justices, and the three substitute justices of the Constitutional Court on the nomination of Cabinet; additionally, the president appoints three justices and two substitute justices on the nomination of the National Council and three justices and one substitute justice on the nomination of the Federal Council. The president also appoints the president, the two vice presidents, the 14 presiding justices, and the 43 further justices of the Supreme Court of Justice; as well as the president, the vice president, the presiding justices, and the further justices of the Supreme Administrative Court on the nomination of Cabinet, of which all members expect the president and vice president are recommended to Cabinet by the Court itself.
Diplomatic role
The president is the chief diplomat of Austria and may negotiate and sign treaties with foreign countries; some treaties require the assent of the National Council.
When Austria joined the European Union, President Thomas Klestil and Chancellor Franz Vranitzky had a disagreement on who would represent Austria in the European Council. Ultimately, the chancellor's point of view prevailed, mainly due to legal and practical reasons. However, President Klestil argued that he had only delegated this power of representation to the chancellor.
Military role
The president is the commander-in-chief of the Austrian Armed Forces. While there is no clear juridical or scholarly consensus on the exact constitutional meaning and extent of this power, the majority of legal scholars believe that the president may, in this capacity, exercise ultimate operational direction over the Armed Forces.
Article 80 of the Constitution establishes how the military is to be governed. Clause 1 of that article states "the President shall have Supreme Authority over the Armed Forces", Clause 2 that "if not the President bears disposal authority, the [Minister of Defense] shall have disposal authority within a scope of responsibility defined by the Cabinet", and Clause 3 that "command authority over the military shall be vested in the [Minister of Defense]".
The Constitution hence distinguishes between three different types of military authority: "command authority" (Befehlsgewalt), the power to issue verbal or written directives; "disposal authority" (Verfügungsgewalt), the power to define the organization, tasks, and missions of the Armed Forces or individual military units; and "supreme authority" (Oberbefehl). The latter one – which Clause 1 vests in the presidency – has particularly been ambiguous and inconclusive.
As no president has ever made use of this power, precedents were never established. Day-to-day military operations are administered by the minister of defense, who is widely seen as de facto commander-in-chief, while defense policy and key decisions are made by the Cabinet as a whole.
As commander-in-chief, the president succeeds the emperor of Austria in his capacity as supreme commander of the Austro-Hungarian military. Following the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy, the Principal Committee of the newly established National Council began serving as the main decision-making body of the Armed Forces. In 1929, the Christian Social Party transferred supreme military authority from the Principal Committee to the president.
Ceremonial role
The president has various additional powers and duties, which are typically vested in a head of state. These include, for example, the creation and conferment of honorary and professional titles, and the basically meaningless right to declare "illegitimate children" to "legitimate children" at the request of their parents. Another power is the bestowal of the Promotio sub auspiciis Praesidentis rei publicae, a golden ring serving as the highest possible distinction and decoration for doctoral students with the most extraordinary credentials. Furthermore, the president is empowered strike down criminal cases ("right of abolition") and to grant pardons and commutations. According to case law of the Constitutional Court, presidential pardons do not only void the sentence but also undo the conviction.
Incumbency
Immunity
The president enjoys full sovereign immunity from any type of official prosecution, including civil suit and criminal prosecution. The president may only be prosecuted with the explicit consent of the Federal Assembly. If a government authority intends to prosecute the president, it must refer a request for extradition to the National Council. If the National Council approves, the chancellor must convene the Federal Assembly, which will then decide over the request for extradition.
Removal
Popular deposition
The ordinary way of removing a sitting president from office would be through popular deposition. Since the president is elected by the people, the people also have the power to remove the president again through a plebiscite.
Popular deposition commences with an act of the National Council requesting the convocation of the Federal Assembly. Such a resolution of the National Council is passed with a supermajority, meaning it requires the same quorums as when amending constitutional law; the attendance of at least half of the members of the National Council and a successful two-thirds vote. If passed, the president is automatically unable to "further exercise the powers and duties of the presidency" and thereby deprived of all authority, the chancellor in turn, is required to immediately call a session of the Federal Assembly. Once convened, the Federal Assembly then considers and decides over the National Council's request of administering a plebiscite.
If a plebiscite is conducted and turns out successful, the president is removed from office. However, if the plebiscite fails the Constitution treats it as a new legislative election, which triggers the immediate and automatic dissolution of the National Council; even in such a case, the president's term of office may not exceed twelve years in total.
Impeachment
The president can be impeached before the Constitutional Court by the Federal Assembly for violating constitutional law. This process is triggered by either a resolution of the National Council or the Federal Council. Upon the passage of such a resolution, the chancellor is required to call a session of the Federal Assembly, which then considers the impeachment of the president. A supermajority is needed to impeach the president, meaning the attendance of at least half of the members of the National Council and the Federal Council as well as a successful two-thirds vote are required.
If the Federal Assembly decides to impeach the president, it acts as the plaintiff before the Constitutional Court. If the Court convicts the president of having breached constitutional law, the president is automatically removed from office. Conversely, if the Court finds the president to have committed a minor offense, the president remains in office and is merely reprimanded.
Succession
The Constitution of Austria makes no provisions for an office of vice president. Should the president become temporarily incapacitated – undergoes surgery, becomes severely ill, or visits a foreign country (excluding EU member states) – presidential powers and duties devolve upon the chancellor for a period of twenty days, although the chancellor does not become "acting president" during that time.
The powers and duties of the presidency devolve upon the Presidium of the National Council in the following three cases:
The aforementioned period of twenty days expires, in which case the Presidium assumes presidential powers and duties on the twenty-first day.
The office is vacated because the president dies, resigns, or is removed from office, in which case the Presidium assumes presidential powers and duties immediately.
The president is prevented from "further exercising the powers and duties of the presidency" because the National Council has requested the convocation of the Federal Assembly to consider the popular deposition of the president, in which case the Presidium also assumes presidential powers and duties immediately.
When exercising the powers and duties of the presidency, the three presiding officers of the National Council – forming the Presidium – act collectively as a collegiate body. If votes are divided equally, the higher-ranking presiding officer's vote takes precedence.
Compensation
The president is compensated for his or her service with €349,398 annually, the chancellor in turn is compensated with 311,962 EUR annually. This amount is particularly high when considering that the chancellor of Germany (€251,448), the president of France (€179,000), the prime minister of the United Kingdom (€169,284), and the president of Russia (€125,973) receive a significantly lesser salary, although they are the chief executives of substantially larger countries; the Austrian president's salary is topped only by that of the president of the United States (€370,511).
Residence
The principal residence and workplace of the president is the Leopoldine Wing in the Hofburg Imperial Palace, which is located in the Innere Stadt of Vienna. The Leopoldine Wing is sometimes ambiguously referred to as the "Presidential Chancellery". In practice, the president does not actually reside in the Hofburg but retains their personal home.
As its full name already divulges, the Hofburg is an edifice stemming from the times of the monarchy; it was built under Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in the 13th century. Ensuing the fall of the monarchy and the formation of the republic, democratic institutions intentionally kept their distance from monarchic establishments and so the original residence of the president became the chancellery building. However, following a severe bombardment during World War II, the chancellery building became uninhabitable and the president had to find new lodging. The first president of the Second Republic, Karl Renner, deliberately chose the Leopoldine Wing; as its creation and history – in particular the interior design – was majorly influenced by Empress Maria Theresia, whose profile was generally favorable among the people at the time. The chancellery building was later renovated and now serves as the residence and workplace of the chancellor.
Today, the Leopoldine Wing harbours the offices of the Presidential Chancellery on its second and third floor. Additionally to the Hofburg, the president has a summer residence at their disposal, the Mürzsteg Hunting Lodge. However, the lodge hasn't been utilised for decades; former President Heinz Fischer even fruitlessly pledged to sell the building while campaigning for the presidency.
Protection
The president is legally protected by multiple special criminal law provisions; of which the most important is § 249 of the statutory Criminal Code:
Furthermore, the title "Bundespräsident" (=president) may – even with additions or in connection with other titles – not be used by anyone other than the incumbent president.
Chancellery
The president heads the Presidential Chancellery, a small executive branch body with the purpose of aiding the president in exercising and carrying out their powers and duties. The Presidential Chancellery shouldn't be confused with the Federal Chancellery, a substantially larger executive branch organization reporting to the chancellor. The Presidential Chancellery is the only government body the president actually directs without being constrained by the requirement for advise and countersignature. The term "Presidential Chancellery" is sometimes interchangeably used with "Leopoldine Wing", the seat of the president and the Presidential Chancellery.
List of presidents
This section lists all presidents of Austria, which excludes the chancellors and colleges that provisionally exercised presidential powers and duties.
See also
History of Austria
Politics of Austria
Chancellor of Austria
List of chancellors of Austria
Vice-Chancellor of Austria
Emperor of Austria
Notes
References
External links
Official website of the Presidential Chancellery
Austria: Heads of State: 1918–1938
Government of Austria
Austria
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|
218470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftenposten | Aftenposten | Aftenposten (; Norwegian for "The Evening Post") is Norway's largest printed newspaper by circulation. It is based in Oslo. It sold 211,769 copies in 2015 (172,029 printed copies according to University of Bergen) and estimated 1.2 million readers. It converted from broadsheet to compact format in March 2005. Aftenpostens online edition is at Aftenposten.no.
Aftenposten is a private company wholly owned by the public company Schibsted ASA. Norway's second largest newspaper, VG, is also owned by Schibsted. Norwegian owners held a mere 42% of the shares in Schibsted at the end of 2015; Aftenposten is thus foreign-owned.
The paper has around 740 employees. Trine Eilertsen is editor-in-chief and CEO as of 2016.
History and profile
Aftenposten was founded by Christian Schibsted on 14 May 1860 under the name Christiania Adresseblad. The following year, it was renamed Aftenposten. Since 1885, the paper has printed two daily editions. A Sunday edition was published until 1919, and was reintroduced in 1990. The Friday-morning edition carries the A-magasinet supplement, featuring articles on science, politics, and the arts. In 1886, Aftenposten bought a rotary press, being the first Norwegian newspaper in this regard.
Historically, Aftenposten labelled itself as "independent, conservative", most closely aligning their editorial platform with the Norwegian Conservative Party. This manifested itself in blunt anticommunism during the interwar era. During World War II, Aftenposten, due to its large circulation, was put under the directives of the German occupational authorities, and a Nazi editorial management was imposed. Its editor-in-chief was H. Nesse at that time, and he was arrested and imprisoned in Grini concentration camp.
Aftenposten is based in Oslo. In the late 1980s, Egil Sundar served as the editor-in-chief and attempted to transform the paper into a nationally distributed newspaper. However, he was forced to resign from his post due to his attempt.
Editions
In addition to the morning edition, Aftenposten published a separate evening edition called Aften (previously Aftenposten Aften). This edition was published on weekdays and Saturdays until the Sunday morning edition was reintroduced in 1990. The evening edition was only circulated in the central eastern part of Norway, i.e. Oslo and Akershus counties. Thus, it focused on news related to this area, in contrast with the morning edition, which focuses on national and international news. The evening edition was converted to tabloid format in 1997. From April 2006, the Thursday edition of Aften also included a special edition with news specific to a part of Oslo or Akershus, called Lokal Aften ("Local Evening"). This edition had eight versions, with each subscriber receiving the version which is most relevant to the area in which he or she lives. In areas not covered by any of the eight versions (for example Romerike and Follo), the version for central Oslo was distributed. From May 2009, Aften was only printed and distributed Tuesday through Thursday. The publication of Aften ended on 20 December 2012.
Aftenposten started its online edition in 1995.
Controversies
Aftenposten opposed the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to German pacifist Carl von Ossietzky in 1935.
In 1945, Aftenposten published an obituary of Adolf Hitler in which the 86-year-old Nobel-laureate novelist Knut Hamsun referred to Hitler as "a warrior for humankind and a preacher of the gospel of justice for all nations". At that time, Aftenposten was under the censorship of the German occupying forces.
Historically, Aftenposten has not received the same number of lawsuits or as much attention from the Norwegian Press Complaints Commission as some of the larger tabloids. However, there are exceptions. In 2007, Aftenposten alleged that Julia Svetlichnaya, the last person to interview the murdered Russian national Alexander Litvinenko, was a Kremlin agent. London correspondent Hilde Harbo admitted having allowed herself to be fed disinformation emanating from the Russian emigrant community without investigating the matter properly. Aftenposten eventually had to apologize and pay Svetlichnaya's legal costs.
Editorial line
Aftenposten had a conservative stance and supported the political party Høyre until the breakdown of party press system in the country. Following this, the paper positioned itself as an independent centre-right newspaper.
Language
From its establishment in 1860 until 1923, Aftenposten was published in the common Dano-Norwegian written language used in both Norway and Denmark, which was generally known as Danish in Denmark and as Norwegian in Norway, and which only occasionally included minor differences from each other in vocabulary or idiom. In 1923 Aftenposten adopted the Norwegian spelling standard of 1907, which mainly replaced the "soft" consonants (e.g. d, b) characteristic of Danish pronunciation (but also used in some Norwegian dialects) with "hard" consonants (e.g. t, p) characteristic of Eastern Central Norwegian pronunciation, but which was otherwise mostly identical with Danish. In 1928 Aftenposten adopted the most conservative variant of the spelling standard of 1917, which is largely similar to the "moderate Bokmål" or "Riksmål" standard used today.
During the Norwegian language struggle from the early 1950s, Aftenposten was the main newspaper of the Riksmål variety of Norwegian, and maintained close ties to the Riksmål movement's institutions, recognising the Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature as the sole authoritative body for regulating the Norwegian language as used by the newspaper. Due to its status as the country's largest and most influential newspaper, Aftenposten therefore had a significant influence on the developments that took place during the Norwegian language struggle. The "moderate" or "conservative" Riksmål language used by Aftenposten was mainly associated with a conservative stance in Norwegian politics, and was contrasted with the "radical" Samnorsk language, an attempt to merge Bokmål with Nynorsk which was promoted by socialist governments in the 1950s. By 1960 it had become apparent that the Samnorsk attempt had failed, and as a result, Aftenposten's Riksmål standard and the government-promoted Bokmål standard have in the following decades become almost identical as the Bokmål standard has incorporated nearly all of Riksmål. As a consequence, Aftenposten decided to describe its language as "Moderate Bokmål" from 2006, and published its own dictionary, based on Riksmål and Moderate Bokmål, but excluding "radical" (i.e. similar to Nynorsk) variants of Bokmål.
The online version of the paper for some years during the early 2000s had an English section. To cut costs, Aftenposten stopped publishing English-language articles in early November 2008. Archives of past material are still available online.
Circulation
Aftenposten (morning paper)
Numbers from the Norwegian Media Businesses' Association, Mediebedriftenes Landsforening 1980–2009:
1980: 223,925
1981: 227,122
1982: 230,205
1983: 232,459
1984: 233,998
1985: 240,600
1986: 252,093
1987: 260,915
1988: 264,469
1989: 267,278
1990: 265,558
1991: 269,278
1992: 274,870
1993: 278,669
1994: 279,965
1995: 282,018
1996: 283,915
1997: 286,163
1998: 288,078
1999: 284,251
2000: 276,429
2001: 262,632
2002: 263,026
2003: 256,639
2004: 249,861
2005: 252,716
2006: 248,503
2007: 250,179
2008: 247,556
2009: 243,188
2010: 239,831
2011: 235,795
2012: 225,981
2013: 214,026
2014: 221,659
2015: 211,769
Aften (evening paper) - now defunct
Numbers from the Norwegian Media Businesses' Association, Mediebedriftenes Landsforening: 1989–2009:
1939: 78,700
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1989: 193,932
1990: 192,896
1991: 195,022
1992: 197,738
1993: 198,647
1994: 188,544
1995: 186,003
1996: 188,635
1997: 191,269
1998: 186,417
1999: 180,497
2000: 175,783
2001: 167,671
2002: 163,924
2003: 155,366
2004: 148,067
2005: 141,612
2006: 137,141
2007: 131,089
2008: 124,807
2009: 111,566
Aftenposten.no, online newspaper
The online newspaper Aftenposten.no had an average of 827,000 daily readers in 2015, an increase from 620.000 in 2010.
See also
List of Norwegian newspapers
List of non-English newspapers with English language subsections
Radio Gaga
References
Further reading
Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 37–43
External links
1860 establishments in Norway
Newspapers published in Oslo
Norwegian-language newspapers
Newspapers established in 1860
Daily newspapers published in Norway
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218471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagbladet | Dagbladet | Dagbladet (lit.: The Daily Magazine) is one of Norway's largest tabloids and has 1,400,000 daily readers on mobile, web and paper.
The paper edition had a circulation of 46,250 copies in 2016, down from a peak of 228,834 in 1994. The editor in chief is Alexandra Beverfjord.
Dagbladet is published six days a week and includes the additional feature magazine Magasinet every Saturday. Part of the daily tabloid is available at Dagbladet.no, and more articles can be accessed through a paywall. The daily readership of Dagbladets online tabloid was 1.24 million in 2016.
History
Dagbladet was founded in 1869 by Anthon Bang. Hagbard Emanuel Berner served as its first editor in chief and the first issue was published on 2 January 1869. From 1884 to 1977, the newspaper was affiliated to the Liberal party (Venstre). Since 1977, it has officially been politically neutral, though it has kept its position as a liberal newspaper, also incorporating some culturally radical stands in issues like the language struggle, church policies, feminism, intimate relationship, criminal care, etc. The newspaper was in 1972 against Norway joining the EU, but had changed to pro in 1994. During the German occupation of Norway the editor of Dagbladet, Einar Skavlan, was arrested in April 1942 due to the paper's liberal stance and loyalty to the King.
Dagbladet has played an important role in development of new editorial products in Norway. In 1990, the newspaper was the first in Norway to publish a Sunday edition in more than 70 years, and in 1995, it became the first of the major Norwegian newspapers with an online edition. In 2007 it had a circulation of 204,850 copies. The actual first newspaper was a regional paper called Brønnøysunds Avis. Over the past few years, Dagbladet has had success with the Saturday supplement Magasinet, which reaches 25.3% of the adult population of Norway.
Due to the declining of daily circulation, the newspaper has reduced the number of workers the last couple of years by a few hundred. Because of this, the newspaper focused more on "simpler news", but recent years, the newspaper has chosen an editorial direction on hard news.
Dagbladet was previously owned by the privately held company Berner Gruppen. Jens P. Heyerdahl was the largest owner and had effective control through several different companies. DB Medialab AS also owned 50% of the Norwegian web portal and ISP start.no and ran the online community Blink from 2002 to 2011.
In June 2013, Dagbladet with online products was sold from Berner Gruppen to Aller Media for reportedly about 300 million Norwegian kroner. As of 2016, 99% of the shares of Dagbladet AS are formally owned by Berner Media Holding AS, which in turn is 100% owned by Aller Media. The remaining 1% of Dagbladet AS is owned by the foundation Dagbladets Stiftelse.
Online edition
The online edition of Dagbladet was launched on 8 March 1995 following Brønnøysunds Avis, a local newspaper. Dagbladet.no has a readership of nearly 1,2 million per day, which makes it amongst Europe's most successful web newspapers when measured against both population and readership of mother newspaper.
Criticism
In 1988, Dagbladet was criticised for the aggressive use of photographs of grieving next-of-kin in the aftermath of the Flight 710 air-disaster. This led to a self-imposed change of practice within the Norwegian press regarding the handling of such incidents.
On 10 November 1989, the day after the fall of the Berlin wall, Dagbladet made no reference to the fall on its front page and instead featured the headline "Let the children swear", a quote from child psychologist Magne Raundalen. This caused criticism and ridicule of the newspaper for being overly tabloid.
Former Minister of Health, Tore Tønne, committed suicide allegedly following Dagbladet'''s investigations over alleged economic improprieties committed after the conclusion of his term in the Norwegian cabinet. Dagbladet was criticized by the Norwegian Press Association. The paper reprinted the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten's 12 Muhammad Cartoons in 2005.
In May 2011, Dagbladet lost a libel case in Oslo District Court against ambulance driver Erik Schjenken for printing factual errors about the Paramedics incident in Oslo 2007, and was ordered to pay a compensation of 1 million Nkr. In 2013, Dagbladet lost the appeal case in Borgarting Court of Appeal, but the legal ruling was slightly changed and the compensation reduced to 200,000 Nkr. In May 2013, Dagbladet appealed the case to the Supreme Court of Norway.
The newspaper encountered criticism over a cartoon published in November 2011 that equated the Holocaust with the situation in the Gaza Strip. In 2013, Abraham Cooper of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, Jewish communities, and human rights organizations claimed that a cartoon depicting the Jewish tradition of circumcision as barbaric was anti-semitic. Editor of the culture-and-opinion sections in Dagbladet Geir Ramnefjell dismissed the criticism of the 2013 drawing, stating that it was an "innocent ridicule of religious practice and nothing more than that". Dagbladet also defended the caricature in an editorial 3 June 2013. The Norwegian Centre Against Racism and the Mosaic community in Norway filed a complaint about the caricature to the Norwegian Press Complaints Commission, which did not find Dagbladet'' at fault.
Circulation
Numbers from the Norwegian Media Businesses' Association, Mediebedriftenes Landsforening:
1980: 132295
1981: 140429
1982: 138674
1983: 155337
1984: 169317
1985: 175685
1986: 187942
1987: 198937
1988: 206092
1989: 214637
1990: 219757
1991: 214925
1992: 224490
1993: 227796
1994: 228834
1995: 209421
1996: 205740
1997: 204850
1998: 206357
1999: 206969
2000: 192555
2001: 193637
2002: 191164
2003: 186136
2004: 183092
2005: 162069
2006: 146512
2007: 135611
2008: 123383
2009: 105255
2010: 98130
2011: 98989
2012: 88539
2013: 80028
2014: 73647
2015: 56932
2016: 46250
See also
List of Norwegian newspapers
References
External links
Dagbladet.no
1869 establishments in Norway
Newspapers published in Oslo
Norwegian-language newspapers
Publications established in 1869
Daily newspapers published in Norway | [
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|
218475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underpants | Underpants | Underpants (often abbreviated to pants in Britain) is a term that in British English refers to men's underwear worn on the lower body. The term is gender neutral in American English.
Types of underpants
Boxer shorts
Boxer shorts, boxers, or trunks (Britain) have an elasticated waistband that is at or near the wearer's waist, while the leg sections are fairly loose and extend to the mid-thigh. There is usually a fly, either with or without buttons. The waistbands of boxers are usually wider than those of the various types of briefs, and often bear the brand name of the manufacturer.
Boxer briefs
Boxer briefs are similar in style to boxer shorts, but are form-fitting like classic briefs. Like briefs they often utilize a fly.
Sometimes boxer briefs are called trunks (Britain), but see next section.
Midway briefs
Midway briefs are similar in style to boxer briefs, but are longer in the leg, at the longest being up to the knees.
Trunk briefs
Trunk briefs are shorter than boxer briefs but still have leg sections, unlike briefs.
Briefs
Classic briefs have an elasticated waistband at or near the wearer's waist, and leg bands that end at or near the groin. Many briefs feature a fly. They also come in ultra-absorbent varieties.
Bikini briefs
Bikini briefs are a variation on briefs that have less coverage; though typically full coverage of the derrière. Conventionally, they have no fly.
Thong
Thongs are like bikini briefs, except the backside is very narrow and goes between the buttocks.
Panties
“Panties” is a general term for female underpants. The UK English equivalent is “knickers.”
Diapers
Diapers are a type of underwear worn by young children and those suffering from incontinence. Unlike other briefs diapers allow the wearer to urinate or defecate without soiling their surroundings. These can be either reusable or disposable.
History
See also
Leggings
References
Undergarments | [
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|
218476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Assembly%20of%20Unitarian%20and%20Free%20Christian%20Churches | General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches | The General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches (GAUFCC or colloquially British Unitarians) is the umbrella organisation for Unitarian, Free Christians and other liberal religious congregations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was formed in 1928, with denominational roots going back to the Great Ejection of 1662. Its headquarters building is Essex Hall in central London, on the site of the first avowedly Unitarian chapel in England, set up in 1774.
The GAUFCC brought together various strands and traditions besides Unitarianism. These included English Presbyterianism, General Baptist, Methodism, Liberal Christianity, Christian Universalism, Religious Humanism and Unitarian Universalism. Unitarians are now an open faith community celebrating diverse beliefs; some of its members would describe themselves as Buddhist, Pagan, or Jewish, while many others are humanist, agnostic, or atheist.
History
Early Modern Britain
Christopher Hill states that ideas such as anti-Trinitarianism, which scholars solemnly trace back to ancient times, were an integral part of "the lower-class heretical culture which burst into the open in the 16th century". The cornerstones of this culture were anti-clericalism (opposition to the power of the Church) and a strong emphasis on biblical study, but there were specific heretical doctrines that had "an uncanny persistence". In addition to anti-Trinitarianism, there was a rejection of predestination and an embrace of millenarianism, mortalism and hermeticism. Such ideas became "commonplace to 17th century Baptists, Levellers, Diggers, Seekers, … early Quakers and other radical groupings which took part in the free-for-all discussions of the English Revolution".
After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy and the resulting Act of Uniformity 1662, around 2,000 ministers left the established Church of England (the Great Ejection). Following the Act of Toleration 1689, many of these ministers preached in 'non-conforming' congregations. The modern Unitarian denomination's origins lay within this group of respectable Protestants, the English Presbyterians, who were reluctant to ever become Dissenters. However, by the late 18th century, the influx of General Baptist congregations to the denomination established a direct lineage to this radical milieu—although by now, much of the 'heretical culture' baggage had been jettisoned.
19th century
Until the passing of the Unitarian Relief Act in 1813, it was a criminal offence to deny the doctrine of the Trinity. By 1825 a new body, the British and Foreign Unitarian Association, itself an amalgamation of three previous societies, was set up to co-ordinate denominational activities. However, there was a setback in 1837 when "the Presbyterian / Unitarian members were forced to withdraw from the General Body of Protestant Ministers which, for over a century, had represented the joint interests of the old established nonconformist groups in and around London".
Around this time Presbyterian / Unitarian opinion was once again divided about how far the denomination should be associated with the label 'Unitarian'. James Martineau, a Presbyterian minister formerly based in Liverpool, pleaded for a 'warmer' religion than the 'critical, cold and untrusting' Unitarianism of his day. In 1881 he helped to found the National Conference of Unitarian, Liberal Christian, Free Christian, Presbyterian and other Non-Subscribing or Kindred Congregations—"a triumph, one might say, of Victorian verbosity. But the length of the name reflected the breadth of Martineau's vision".
Thus, from 1881 to the establishment of the GAUFCC, the denomination consisted of "two overlapping circles, one labelled 'Unitarian' and eager for organisation and propaganda, the other rejecting labels and treasuring comprehensiveness. Each side had its own college, its own newspaper and its own hymn book".
Present day
By 1928 these two "overlapping circles" had been reconciled in the same organisation: the GAUFCC. Over time the organisation has come to embrace a wider theological and philosophical diversity. "At one extreme are the 'Free Christians' who wish to remain part of the Church Universal; at the other are those who wish to move beyond Christianity.
The congregations of GAUFCC contain members who hold diverse opinions. Indeed, Unitarians are able to embrace and gain insights from the great world religions, philosophies, arts and modern sciences. The Unitarian Church does not follow one particular set of rules; owing to this, most Protestant denominations and Catholic dioceses do not recognise the baptisms or marriages it performs.
The official name is used on formal occasions, but in general use the organisation refers to itself and its members simply as Unitarian; the website URL is unitarian.org.uk, and the BBC religion page reflects this.
Member churches
Many churches are architecturally significant and are listed buildings, often in the style known as Dissenting Gothic. Other churches have made a mark on public life, with historically significant members of the congregation or ministers. Either of these types may have a Wikipedia article.
Current churches
The General Assembly counts about 182 churches as members, including:
Bank Street Unitarian Chapel, Bolton, Greater Manchester
Billingshurst Unitarian Chapel, 1754, West Sussex
Brighton Unitarian Church, 1820, built by Amon Henry Wilds
Brook Street Chapel, Knutsford, Cheshire
Brookfield Unitarian Church, Gorton, Manchester
Bury Unitarian Church, in Bury, Lancashire
Chowbent Chapel, in Atherton, Greater Manchester
Cross Street Chapel, Manchester
Cambridge Memorial Church, Cambridgeshire
Croydon Unitarian Church
Dean Row Chapel, Wilmslow, Cheshire
Essex Church, the first Unitarian church in England, moved in 1880s from central London to Kensington
Frenchay Chapel,Frenchay Common, Frenchay Bristol
Fulwood Old Chapel, in Sheffield
Gellionnen Chapel, near Swansea
Great Meeting Unitarian Chapel, Leicester
Hastings Unitarian Church
Horsham Unitarian Church
Kendal Unitarian Chapel, Cumbria
King Edward Street Chapel, Macclesfield, Cheshire
Meadrow Unitarian Chapel, Godalming
Mill Hill Chapel, on Leeds City Square
New Chapel, Denton
Newington Green Unitarian Church, North London
Norcliffe Chapel, Styal, Cheshire
Nottage General Baptist & Unitarian Church near Porthcawl
Octagon Chapel, Norwich
Richmond and Putney Unitarian Church
Rivington Unitarian Chapel, in Lancashire
Rosslyn Hill Unitarian Chapel, Hampstead, North London; one of the biggest congregations nationally
Shrewsbury Unitarian Church
Taunton Unitarian Chapel
Todmorden Unitarian Church, in West Yorkshire
Toxteth Unitarian Chapel, in Liverpool
UMB (Unitarian Meeting Bristol) Brunswick Square, Cabot Circus, Bristol City Centre, Bristol
Underbank Chapel, Sheffield
Ullet Road Unitarian Church, Liverpool
Unitarian Meeting House, Ipswich
Upper Chapel, Sheffield
York Unitarian Chapel
Previous churches
Some Unitarian church buildings are now used for other purposes:
Wallasey Memorial Unitarian Church, on the Wirral Peninsula, now under the care of the Historic Chapels Trust
Upper Brook Street Chapel, Manchester, as of 2017 student accommodation
Lewin's Mead Unitarian meeting house in Bristol, converted to offices in 1987
New Meeting House, Moor Street, Birmingham, (rebuilt after the Priestley Riots burned down the old one), since 1862 St Michael's Catholic Church
High Pavement Chapel, Nottingham, now a pub
Platt Chapel, in Fallowfield, Manchester
Other church buildings have gone, but their congregations moved or merged with neighbours:
Church of the Saviour, Birmingham, which launched the political career of Joseph Chamberlain
Church of the Messiah, Birmingham, built over a canal
Hope Street Unitarian Chapel, halfway between the Anglican and Catholic Cathedrals of Liverpool; demolished 1962
Octagon Chapel, Liverpool
Renshaw Street Unitarian Chapel, Liverpool
Those mentioned in articles
The following place articles mention the presence of their Unitarian churches:
Belper, Derbyshire (1788)
Bessels Green, in Sevenoaks, Kent
Crewkerne, in Somerset
Gateacre, Liverpool (1700)
Little Horton, in Bradford
Monton Unitarian Church in Eccles, Greater Manchester
Grade II* listed buildings in Greater Manchester lists Brookfield, Monton, and Chowbent
Stalybridge, near Manchester
Trim Street, Bath, 1795
Westgate Chapel, in Lewes, East Sussex
Affiliations
The British Unitarians are a member of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists and of the European Liberal Protestant Network. The Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland maintains an Accord with the GAUFCC.
In addition to the approximately 170 congregations that are affiliated with the General Assembly, there are also groups within it. Some of these represent interests (history, music, international development, etc.), while others are of religious beliefs, most notably the Unitarian Christian Association and the Unitarian Earth Spirit Network.
Officers
The national structure of British Unitarians is headed by an elected president, who holds office for one year. This officer is the figurehead leader of the organisation. Day-to-day administration is in the hands of an Executive Committee, which is led by a Convenor, assisted by an Honorary Treasurer, a General Secretary (sometimes called Chief Officer), and other Executive Committee members.
At the regional level, British Unitarianism is grouped into Districts. There are currently 13 Districts in England, two in Wales, and one in Scotland. Each District has a similar structure to that at national level, with a President and a District Executive Committee. Some Districts appoint a District Minister.
Local congregations vary in size, structure, and practice, but there is a requirement for each congregation to have some form of established and formal leadership. In most cases this will include a local Council and usually also a Unitarian minister.
Notable British Unitarians
Sir Tim Berners Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web
Sir John Brunner, businessman (ICI), politician and great-grandfather of the Duchess of Kent
Austen Chamberlain, Nobel peace prize winner
Joe Chamberlain, businessman (GKN), politician and statesman
Neville Chamberlain, prime minister
Sir Philip Colfox, politician
James Chuter Ede, politician, Home Secretary
Elizabeth Gaskell, novelist
the Lupton family of Leeds, prosperous merchants and civic leaders
John Sutton Nettlefold, industrialist
Sir Isaac Newton, physicist
Joseph Priestley, chemist and Unitarian clergyman
Andrew Pritchard, microscope maker
Cyril Smith, member of parliament and alleged serial sex offender
Mary Wollstonecraft, feminist
See also
Religion in the United Kingdom
List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches
Bartholomew Legate, the inspiration behind the Seekers
Edward Wightman, early General Baptist
Rev. Joseph Cooke, the inspiration behind Methodist Unitarianism
References
Further reading
Ditchfield, Grayson M. "Anti-trinitarianism and Toleration in Late Eighteenth Century British Politics: the Unitarian Petition of 1792". Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42.1 (1991): 39–67.
Haakonssen, Knud, ed. Enlightenment and religion: rational dissent in eighteenth-century Britain (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Rowell, Geoffrey. "The origins and history of Universalist societies in Britain, 1750–1850". Journal of Ecclesiastical History 22.1 (1971): 35–56.
Ruston, Alan. "British Unitarianism in the Twentieth Century–A Survey". Transactions of the Unitarian Historical Society (2012): 76–89. online
Smith, Leonard. The Unitarians: A Short History. (2nd ed. 2008)
Stange, Douglas C. British Unitarians Against American Slavery, 1833–65 (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1984).
Watts, Ruth. Gender, Power and the Unitarians in England, 1760–1860 (1998)
Watts, Ruth. "Harriet Martineau and the Unitarian tradition in education". Oxford Review of Education'' 37.5 (2011): 637–651.
External links
Official website
Christian organisations based in the United Kingdom
Christian denominations in the United Kingdom
English Reformation
Unitarianism in the United Kingdom
Christian organizations established in 1928
1928 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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|
218478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Klaw | Irving Klaw | Irving Klaw (November 9, 1910 – September 3, 1966), self-named the "Pin-up King", was an influential American merchant of sexploitation, fetish, and Hollywood glamour pin-up photographs and films. Like his predecessor, Charles Guyette, who was also a merchant of fetish-themed photographs, Klaw was not a photographer, but a merchandiser of fetish art imagery and films. His great contribution to the world was to commission fetish art (with models like Bettie Page, June King, Joan Rydell, Jackie Miller, et al.) and sponsor illustrative artists (like Eric Stanton, Gene Bilbrew, and many others), and to indirectly promote the legacy of Charles Guyette and John Willie. Irving Klaw is a central figure in what fetish art historian Richard Pérez Seves has designated as the "Bizarre Underground," the pre-1970 fetish art years.
Movie Star News
Klaw was born Isadore Klaw in Brooklyn, New York. His business, which eventually became Movie Star News, began in 1938 when he and his sister Paula opened a struggling basement level used bookstore at 209 E. 14th St. in Manhattan.
After he discovered teenagers were frequently tearing out photos from his movie magazines, he switched to selling movie star stills and lobby photo cards which sold so well he stopped selling books and moved the store from the basement to the street-level storefront. Business thrived, and the self-named "Pin-Up King" moved to 212 E. 14th St., eventually taking the name Movie Star News. Klaw also had a brisk international mail-order business selling cheesecake photos and Hollywood glamour pin-ups.
Fetish art
In 1948, a collector/enthusiast known as Little John "inspired/sponsored Klaw's full-blown entry into the fetish art business." Irving Klaw was also influenced by magazine publisher Robert Harrison. Early Klaw fetish models included Harrison models Barbara Leslie, Vicky Hayes, Joan "Eve" Rydell, Lili Dawn, Shirley "Cici" Maitland, Kevin Daley, Roz Greenwood, and finally Bettie Page.
Inspired by John Willie, Klaw also commissioned and distributed illustrated adventure/bondage chapter serials by fetish artists Eric Stanton, Gene Bilbrew, Adolfo Ruiz, and others.
Burlesque features and bondage film-loops
After the surprise success of the B-movie Striporama, a 1953 burlesque revue with famous striptease artists and model Bettie Page, Klaw quickly duplicated the formula and directed his own burlesque features. Using a professional camera crew and richly saturated Eastman color filmstock, Varietease (1954) and Teaserama (1955) featured Lili St. Cyr, Tempest Storm, and Bettie Page (and were released on DVD in the U.S. in 2000). He produced and directed a third film in 1956, Buxom Beautease, without Page.
Also during this period Klaw set up weekend home-movie sessions where he produced scores of silent 8 mm and 16 mm black-and-white film loops. These featured striptease acts and an assortment of fetishistic subjects based on special requests from his clientele. Titles such as Riding the Human Pony Girl, Bondage in Leather Harness, and Booted Amazon Fights Again depicted women in skimpy lingerie and high heels engaging in elaborate bondage, cat-fights, spanking and slave training. Nearly all of these featurettes were shot on a single, sparsely decorated set, either in the studio above Movie Star News or at a nearby loft space. At least two films with Bettie Page (Rumble Seat Bondage and Jungle Girl Tied to Trees) were shot outdoors at secluded locations.
Still photos taken during the sessions were also sold at the store and in the bi-annual mail-order catalog Cartoon and Model Parade.
Censorship and early retirement
The Kefauver Hearings of the Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency in 1957 marked the beginning of the end of Irving Klaw's mail-order fetish art business in New York. The investigation tried to link pornography to juvenile delinquency. The McCarthy-style hearings branded Klaw as a degenerate pornographer and ushered in a new wave of media censorship. Bettie Page was also summoned to the hearings but was never called to testify (parts of the hearings are recreated in the film The Notorious Bettie Page). She retired from modeling soon afterwards.
Because of the political, social and legal pressures he faced, Klaw closed his storefront business and burned many of his negatives. It is estimated that more than 80% of the negatives were destroyed. However, his sister Paula secretly kept some of the better images, which can be seen today.
Final years
After the Senate hearings and the ensuing legal difficulties with state authorities, Klaw was barred from continuing his business in New York. Shortly thereafter he moved his Nutrix Publishing Company, along with the associated Satellite Publications (Stanley Malkin & Pat Martini), to an office building in Jersey City, New Jersey. Both companies sold similar fetish-oriented photos and magazines.
To further avoid prosecution, Klaw's Nutrix publishing imprint was restricted to a mail-order-only business. For several years he published a number of small illustrated bondage/fetish photo-booklets. Titles such as Girl Psycho Handled with Restraint (1960), which includes old photos of Bettie Page, Girls Punishment at School of Discipline (1962), Tortured Models in the Wax Exhibit (1962), and Paddled Severely During Sorority Initiation (1963) are typical examples. Eventually he sold this business to Ed Mishkin, who changed the company name from Nutrix to Mutrix, adding the first initial of his last name.
Klaw relocated to Florida where he briefly returned to filmmaking in 1963, producing two films: Larry Wolk's Intimate Diary of an Artist's Model and Nature's Sweethearts, co-directing the latter. Photographer Bunny Yeager worked closely with him during this period. She had multiple duties on these films, including casting, writing dialog, etc. Unlike his previous movies, both pictures were exploitation "nudie cuties" that featured a number of topless women. Irving continued to photograph bondage in Miami as well, with models like Maria Stinger.
Irving Klaw died on September 3, 1966, from complications of untreated appendicitis. He was survived by two sons, Arthur and Jeffrey. His nephew Ira Kramer, son of Paula and Jack Kramer, took over the family business, Movie Star News, which was located on 18th Street but closed in 2012, and relocated to Las Vegas, Nevada.
Klaw was portrayed by Dukey Flyswatter in the 2004 biographical film Bettie Page: Dark Angel and by Chris Bauer in the 2005 film The Notorious Bettie Page.
Klaw was mentioned in Archer, Season 11, Episode 4, Robot Factory.
Legacy
Due to the revival of interest in Bettie Page that began in the 1980s, various compilations of Klaw's films have been released on video and DVD. Background music and narration were added to the silent fetish loops for the two-volume video Irving Klaw Bondage Classics (1984) by London Enterprises.
In 2005, Cult Epics released both volumes on one DVD under the title Bettie Page: Bondage Queen. Also in 2005, Cult Epics put out Bettie Page: Pin Up Queen, a DVD compilation of her burlesque performances from Striporama, Varietease and Teaserama, plus six black-and-white film loops of dancing and a cat-fight.
More of Klaw's bondage film reels, including one with Bettie Page, are in DVD format in Bizarro Sex Loops (Volumes 4 and 20). These are compilations of vintage fetish films released by Something Weird Video (2008).
In 2012 Klaw was inducted into the Leather Hall of Fame.
Further reading
Eric Stanton & the History of the Bizarre Underground by Richard Pérez Seves. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing, 2018.
Charles Guyette: Godfather of American Fetish Art [*Expanded Photo Edition*] by Richard Pérez Seves. New York: FetHistory, 2018.
Filmography
Striporama (1953)
Varietease (1954)
Teaserama (1955)
Buxom Beautease (1956)
Intimate Diary of an Artist's Model (1963) – producer
Nature's Sweethearts (1963) – producer
Irving Klaw Bondage Classics Volume I & II (London Enterprises 1984)
Bettie Page: Bondage Queen (Cult Epics 2005)
Bettie Page: Pin Up Queen (Cult Epics 2005)
Bizarro Sex Loops Volume 4 (Something Weird Video 2007)
Bizarro Sex Loops Volume 20 (Something Weird Video 2008)
References
External links
Movie Star News – Preserving Hollywood Since 1938 archived October 26, 2016
Irving Klaw's Antique Erotica, Vintage Erotica archived August 2, 2014
American erotic photographers
20th-century American Jews
BDSM people
Bondage riggers
Deaths from appendicitis
Fetish photographers
People from Brooklyn
Place of death missing
1910 births
1966 deaths | [
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|
218479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Max%20Nicholson | Edward Max Nicholson | Edward Max Nicholson (12 July 1904 – 26 April 2003) was a pioneering environmentalist, ornithologist and internationalist, and a founder of the World Wildlife Fund.
Early life
Max Nicholson, as he was known to all, was born in Kilternan, Ireland, to English parents. His family moved to England in 1910, settling in Staines. He became interested in natural history after a visit to the natural history museum and later took to birdwatching, beginning to maintain a list of birds seen from 1913.
He was educated at Sedbergh School in Cumbria and then Hertford College, Oxford from 1926, winning scholarships to both. At Oxford he read history, and visited Greenland and British Guiana as a founder member of the Oxford University Exploration Club. At Oxford he organized bird counts and censuses on the University's farm at Sanford. In 1928, Nicholson created and managed the first national birdwatch survey, a survey of the grey heron.
Ornithology and conservation
Nicholson already had published his first work in 1926, Birds in England, and had three similar books published soon after. In
The Art of Bird-Watching (1931), he discussed the potential of co-operative birdwatching to inform the conservation debate. This led, in 1932, to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology, of which he was the first treasurer and later chairman (1947–1949). In 1947–1948, with the then director general of the United Nations' scientific and education organisation UNESCO, Julian Huxley, he was involved in forming the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN) (now International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)).
In 1949 he oversaw Part 3 of The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 which established the Nature Conservancy, a British state research council for natural sciences and 'biological service', and allowed for the legal protection of national nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). He replaced Captain Cyril Diver as Director General of the Nature Conservancy in 1952, serving until 1966, just after the Conservancy lost its independent status. During his leadership, the Conservancy established itself as a research and management body that promoted ecology as having broad relevance and application to land use decision-making and management. Monks Wood Experimental Station, which helped set up, was perhaps the first to examine the effect of toxic chemicals on wildlife.
In 1952, while in Baluchistan, he contracted polio, which left him with a limp. In 1961 Nicholson, together with Victor Stolan, Sir Peter Scott and Guy Mountfort, formed the organising group that created the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (now the World Wide Fund for Nature). He was also a founder of the International Institute for Environment and Development. In 1966 he set up and headed environmental firm Land Use Consultants (LUC), remaining with them until 1989. One of LUC's first reports was 'Parkways in principle and Practice' (1967), in which Nicholson urged that "the problems of recreation, traffic, environmental quality and conservation should be studied together . .", to form a category of parkways in Britain.
From 1951 to 1960 he was the senior editor of "British Birds" and was the chief editor of The Birds of the Western Palearctic ("BWP", 1977–1994, OUP) from 1965 to 1992. He was the only author to stay with the project from start to end, personally writing the habitat sections of all species in the nine volumes. In 1976 he was an instrumental part of the setting up of Britain's first urban ecology park and the Trust for Urban Ecology. In 1978 Nicholson was instrumental in founding the ENDS Report which became a highly influential journal for environmental policy specialists. He was President of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds from 1980 to 1985, helped set up the New Renaissance Group and was a trustee of Earthwatch Europe. In 1995 he appeared as a guest on Desert Island Discs.
Other activities
Nicholson's 1931 essay A National Plan for Britain led to the formation of the influential policy think tank Political and Economic Planning (PEP), now the Policy Studies Institute. Nicholson had strong ideas on how a country should be run and wrote a book "The System".
Nicholson joined the civil service in 1940, during World War II working for the Ministry of Shipping, then the Ministry of War Transport, attending conferences at Quebec and Cairo, and was with Winston Churchill at the post-war peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam. From 1945 until 1952 he was private secretary to Herbert Morrison, the Deputy Prime Minister. He also chaired the committee for 1951's Festival of Britain. During the war years he was in charge of organizing shipping operations and convoys across the Atlantic. He was involved in the planning of "Operation Overlord", the invasion of Europe. For his services he was awarded the CVO and CB.
Personal life
Nicholson married Mary Crawford in 1932 and they had two children, Piers and Tom. The marriage was dissolved in 1964 and Crawford died in 1995. Nicholson then married Marie Mauerhofer (known as Toni) in 1965; they had one child, a son, David. She died in 2002. Max Nicholson died in 2003, aged 98.
Legacy
Every year on Nicholson's birthday, 12 July, a group of people walk a section of the Jubilee Walkway in London to celebrate his work in establishing the route. Two memorial sundials have been put in place in memory of Nicholson - one by the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust at the WWT London Wetland Centre in Barnes, London, and another at Sedbergh School in Cumbria, where Nicholson went to school.
Selected publications
Birds in England (1926)
How Birds Live (1927)
The Art of Bird-Watching (1931)
The Humanist Frame (1961) (contribution)
The System: The Misgovernment of Modern Britain (1967)
The Environmental Revolution : A Guide for the New Masters of the World (1970)
References
External links
Max Nicholson and Julian Huxley papers(Woodson Research Center, Fondren Library, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA)
Tribute site
Guardian Obituary
English ornithologists
English science writers
Alumni of Hertford College, Oxford
People educated at Sedbergh School
People from Staines-upon-Thames
1904 births
2003 deaths
British Trust for Ornithology people
New Naturalist writers
20th-century British zoologists | [
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|
218484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitterfeld%20%28district%29 | Bitterfeld (district) | Bitterfeld was a district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It was bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the city of Dessau, the district of Wittenberg, Delitzsch (Saxony) and the districts of Saalkreis and Köthen.
History
The district was a swampy and unpopulated area in the early Middle Ages. In the 12th century Flemish settlers helped to drain the swamps. In that time Bitterfeld was known as "the Flemish town" in the region. The present district is roughly identical with the old county of Brehna, which ruled the area from the 10th to the 13th century. Later the region became a part of Saxony.
When Prussia gained the northern parts of Saxony (including the lands around Bitterfeld), the district of Bitterfeld was established. After the dissolution of Anhalt some places in the north were added to the district.
The East German government tried to establish a socialistic industrial centre in the Bitterfeld region. The city of Bitterfeld and the entire district were infamous for polluted air, poisoned rivers and devastated landscape. After the German reunification there have been measures to change these conditions. Today the power plants work with modern filters, and sewage works greatly improve the water conditions.
During the Kreisreform 2007 the district was merged with Köthen and a large part of Anhalt-Zerbst into the new district Anhalt-Bitterfeld.
Geography
The Mulde River crossed the district from south to north.
Coat of arms
Towns and municipalities
External links
(German)
Unofficial website (German)
Website from the Level-Tower (German) | [
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218489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolstoyan%20movement | Tolstoyan movement | The Tolstoyan movement is a social movement based on the philosophical and religious views of Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). Tolstoy's views were formed by rigorous study of the ministry of Jesus, particularly the Sermon on the Mount.
Tolstoy expressed "great joy" that groups of people "have been springing up, not only in Russia but in various parts of Europe, who are in complete agreement with our views." However, the author also thought it was a mistake to create a specific movement or doctrine after him, urging individuals to listen to their own conscience rather than blindly follow his. In regard to a letter he received from an adherent, he wrote:
Beliefs and practices
Tolstoyans (Russian:Толстовцы, Tolstovtsy) identify themselves as Christians, but do not generally belong to an institutional Church. Tolstoy was a harsh critic of the Russian Orthodox Church, leading to his excommunication in 1901. Tolstoyans tend to focus more on following the teachings of Jesus, rather than on his miracles or divinity.
They attempt to live an ascetic and simple life, preferring to be vegetarian, non-smoking, teetotal and chaste. Tolstoyans are considered Christian pacifists and advocate nonresistance in all circumstances. Tolstoy's understanding of what it means to be Christian was defined by the Sermon on the Mount and summed up in five simple propositions:
Love your enemies
Do not be angry
Do not fight evil with evil, but return evil with good (an interpretation of turning the other cheek)
Do not lust
Do not take oaths.
They do not support or participate in the government which they consider immoral, violent and corrupt. Tolstoy rejected the state (as it only exists on the basis of physical force) and all institutions that are derived from it – the police, law courts and army. Thus, many now regard them as Christian anarchists. Historically, Tolstoy's ideas have had some influence on anarchist thought, specifically on anarcho-pacifism. They were also cited as an inspiration by Mahatma Gandhi in the formation of his own philosophy of nonviolence from both Jainism and Hinduism.
Vegetarianism
The vegetarian movement started in Europe in the 19th century. The first Vegetarian Society was founded in Manchester in 1847. Tolstoy became a prominent influence on the movement. He became vegetarian, along with his two daughters in 1885. His relevant essay The First Step (1891), and others were promoted by vegetarian societies internationally.
His vegetarianism was part of a Christian philosophy of non-violence that he developed. At that time, vegetarian restaurants were few, and they often served as meeting spaces for Tolstoyans, and other social reformers. The movement was mostly ovo-lacto vegetarian at the time.
According to the medical science at the time, mostly influenced by German medicine, vegetarianism was seen as unhealthy. On the other hand, the vegetarians usually highlighted the physical strength and sporting abilities of vegetarians.
Groups and colonies
Africa
Mohandas Karamchand (later Mahatma) Gandhi set up a cooperative colony called Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg, South Africa, having been inspired by Tolstoy's ideas. The colony comprising was funded by the Gandhian Hermann Kallenbach and placed at the disposal of the satyagrahis from 1910.
America
Ernest Howard Crosby was a notable Tolstoyan in the United States. He was a supporter of the Christian Commonwealth Colony in Columbus, Georgia, which was established in 1896 by a number of Christian socialists and comprised . The residents were also influenced by the views of Henry George and Edward Bellamy.
Europe
In Russia censorship meant that many of Tolstoy’s non-fiction works in the 1880s and 1890s were published abroad first, either in Russian or in translation, delaying the author's influence in his country of birth. However, with Vladimir Chertkov (1854–1936) as a key promoter of Tolstoy's ideas, a movement started over the 1890s. The movement continued to grow after the writer’s death and was at its strongest in the years immediately following the revolutions of 1917 with agricultural communities established in the provinces of Smolensk, Tver, Samara, Kursk, Perm and Kiev. The Tolstoyan communities that proliferated between 1917 and 1921 were eventually wiped out or stripped of their independence as collectivisation and ideological purges got under way in the late 1920s. Colonies, such as the Life and Labor Commune, relocated to Siberia to avoid being liquidated. Several Tolstoyan leaders, including Yakov Dragunovsky (1886-1937), were put on trial and then sent to the Gulags.
In England John Coleman Kenworthy of the Brotherhood Church established a colony at Purleigh, Essex in 1896. This community closed a few years later but its residents spawned the Whiteway Colony in Gloucestershire and Stapleton Colony in Yorkshire, both of which are still going today. Although given Whiteway soon abandoned Tolstoy's principles, it has been regarded by many, including Gandhi who visited in 1909, as a failed Tolstoyan experiment.
Johannes van der Veer was the key figure in the Dutch Tolstoyan movement, and Tolstoy directly addressed van der Veer's anti-war stances in an 1896 essay. In the Netherlands two colonies were started, a short-lived one at Bussum in North Holland and a more successful one at nearby Blaricum. The reasons attributed to the failure of Tolstoyan communities across Europe have included the personal incompatibility of the participants and a general lack of practical agricultural experience.
Prominent followers
One of the prominent followers of Tolstoy was the celebrated philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His interest in Tolstoy began in the First World War after he read his book, The Gospel in Brief. He carried this book with him everywhere and recommended it to others.
In particular, the pacifism of Tolstoy was very influential. Alexander Fodor wrote:
We know that [Tolstoy's] pacificism, his advocacy of passive resistance to evil through nonviolent means, has had incalculable influence on pacificist movements in general and on the philosophical and social views and programs of Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Cesar Chavez.
Another prominent follower of Tolstoy's teachings was Dorothy Day, an American social activist, and a founder of the pacifist Catholic Worker Movement.
See also
Christian anarchism
Doukhobor
Gandhism
Jesuism
New Monasticism
Purleigh Colony
The Kingdom of God Is Within You, an 1894 non-fiction book by Leo Tolstoy
Whiteway Colony
Leo Tolstoy bibliography
References
External links
Collection of works on the Tolstoyan movement at Internet Archive
Review of Memoirs of Peasant Tolstoyans in Soviet Russia., William Edgerton, ed.
Tolstoy's Legacy for Mankind: A Manifesto for Nonviolence, Part 1
Tolstoy's Legacy for Mankind: A Manifesto for Nonviolence, Part 2
Political repression in the Soviet Union
Russian culture
Anarcho-pacifism
Christian theological movements
Christian anarchism
Simple living | [
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|
218492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farthing%20%28British%20coin%29 | Farthing (British coin) | The British farthing (d) coin, from Old English fēorðing, from fēorða, a fourth, was a unit of currency of one quarter of a penny, equivalent to of a pound sterling, or of a shilling. It was minted in copper and later in bronze, and replaced the earlier English farthings.
The coin was in use during the reigns of eleven monarchs: George I, George II, George III, George IV, William IV, Victoria, Edward VII, George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II, and in Britain and Northern Ireland ceased to be legal tender on 1 January 1961. However, in the Falkland Islands, the Falkland Islands Dependencies, and the British Antarctic Territory, the farthing remained legal tender until 31 October 1970.
The coin featured two main designs on its reverse during its 250 years in circulation: from the 18th century until 1936, the figure of Britannia; and from 1937 onwards, the image of a wren. Like all British coinage, it bore the portrait of the monarch on the obverse.
Before Decimal Day in 1971, there were 240 pence in one pound sterling. There were four farthings in a penny, twelve pence in a shilling, and twenty shillings in a pound; so 960 farthings in a pound.
The purchasing power of a farthing from 1860 to its demise at the beginning of 1961 ranged between 12p to 0.2p in 2017 values.
History
A British copper farthing succeeded the English farthing after England and Scotland were combined into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, although not immediately. Under Queen Anne, a small number of pattern farthings were struck, but none for circulation, as so many English farthings from previous reigns were still available. Some British copper farthings were struck in the reigns of George I and George II. By the accession of George III, in 1760, many counterfeits were in circulation, and the Royal Mint stopped minting copper coins in 1775. The next farthings were the first struck by steam power, in 1799 by Matthew Boulton at his Soho Mint, under licence. Boulton coined more in 1806, and the Royal Mint resumed production in 1821. The farthing was struck regularly under George IV and William IV, by then with a design very like a smaller version of the penny.
Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. three shillings and six pence (3/6), pronounced "three and six" or "three and sixpence". Values of less than a shilling were simply written in pence, e.g. (8d), pronounced "eightpence". A price with a farthing in it would be written like this: (d), pronounced "twopence [or tuppence] farthing", or (1/), pronounced "one and threepence [or thruppence] farthing" or (19/), pronounced "nineteen and eleven three farthing(s)". 19/ was a value used to make goods seem "significantly" cheaper than £1, usage similar to the modern £19.99, which is also the approximate value in 2021 of 19/ in 1961, the year when the farthing was withdrawn from circulation.
The first bronze farthings were struck in 1860, in the reign of Queen Victoria, with a new reverse designed by Leonard Charles Wyon. This shows a seated Britannia, holding a trident, with the word above. Between 1860 and 1895 there is a lighthouse to Britannia's left and a ship to her right. Various minor adjustments were made over the years to the level of the sea around Britannia and the angle of her trident. Some issues feature toothed edges to the coin, while others feature beading.
After 1860, seven different obverses were used. Edward VII, George V, George VI and Elizabeth II each had a single obverse for the farthings produced during their respective reigns. Over the long reign of Queen Victoria, two different obverses were used. The farthing of 1860 carried the so-called "bun head", or "draped bust" of Queen Victoria on the obverse. The inscription around the bust read (abbreviated Latin: Victoria by the grace of God queen of Britain defender of the faith). This was replaced in 1895 by the "old head", or "veiled bust". The inscription on these coins read (Victoria by the grace of God queen of Britain defender of the faith empress of India).
Farthings issued during the reign of Edward VII feature his likeness and bear the inscription (Edward VII by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India). Similarly, those issued during the reign of George V feature his likeness and bear the inscription (George V by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India).
A farthing of King Edward VIII (reigned 1936) does exist, dated 1937, but technically it is a pattern coin, one produced for official approval, which it was due to receive at about the time that the King abdicated, and in the event no farthings bearing his likeness were ever issued. The pattern has a left-facing portrait of the king, who considered this to be his best side, and consequently broke the tradition of alternating the direction in which the monarch faces on coins — some viewed this as indicating bad luck for the reign; the inscription on the obverse is (Edward VIII by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India).
One feature of the pattern farthing of Edward VIII was a redesigned reverse displaying the wren, one of Britain's smallest birds. From 1937 this appeared on the regular-issue farthings of George VI and was continued in the 1950s on the farthings of Elizabeth II.
George VI coins feature the inscription (George VI by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith emperor of India) before 1949, and (George VI by the grace of God king of all Britons defender of the faith) thereafter. Unlike the penny, farthings were minted throughout the early reign of Elizabeth II, bearing the inscription (Elizabeth II by the grace of God queen of all Britons defender of the faith) in 1953, and (Elizabeth II by the grace of God queen defender of the faith) thereafter.
Obverse designs
Mintages
See also
Pound sterling
Mill (currency)
References
External links
British Coins – information about British coins (from 1656 to 1952)
Collection of copper & bronze pennies of Great Britain
About Farthings A photographic collection of farthings
My Farthing Collection A private collection of farthings dating from 1799–1956
Coins of Great Britain
Pre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom
Coins of the United Kingdom | [
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|
218495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shop | Shop | Shop or shopping refers to:
Business and commerce
A casual word for a commercial establishment or for a place of business
Machine shop, a workshop for machining
"In the shop", referring to a car being at an automotive repair shop
A wood shop
Retail shop, possibly within a marketplace
Shopping, e.g.:
Christmas shopping
Comparison shopping
Grocery shopping
Online shopping
Window shopping
Arts, entertainment, and media
The Shop, an American television talk show
"Shops", an essay by the Hong Kong writer Xi Xi
The Shop, a fictional government agency which appears in various works by Stephen King, including Firestarter and Golden Years
The Shoppe, an American country music group
The Shopping Channel, a Canadian home shopping channel
"Shop", a track from the soundtrack of the 2015 video game Undertale by Toby Fox
Brands and enterprises
SHoP Architects, a New York-based architectural firm
Shop.ca, a Canadian online e-commerce website
Shopify (NYSE: SHOP)
Science and technology
.shop, a top-level domain
Shell higher olefin process, or SHOP, a chemical process for the production of α-olefins
Other uses
Shop, Rajasthan, a town in Tonk district, Rajasthan, India
"Shop class", an industrial arts educational program
Workshop
See also | [
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|
218511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Piefke | Johann Gottfried Piefke | Johann Gottfried Piefke (9 September 1817 – 25 January 1884) was a German band leader, (Kapellmeister) and composer of military music.
Piefke was born in Schwerin an der Warthe, Prussia (now Skwierzyna, Poland). In the 1850s, he was band leader for the 8th Infantry Regiment in Berlin. His famous marches include Preußens Gloria, Düppeler Schanzen-Marsch and the Königgrätzer Marsch – the latter composed after the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War). He arranged Franz Liszt's symphonic poem - Tasso for military band and may also have similarly arranged some of Liszt's marches. He died in Frankfurt an der Oder.
Piefke also wrote:
Pochhammer Marsch
Siegesmarsch
Gitana Marsch
Margarethen Marsch
Kaiser WilhelmV (I) Siegesmarsch
Der Alsenströmer, a march commemorating the Battle of Als during the Second Schleswig War.
Der Lymfjordströmer, another march commemorating the Danish War.
Honors
Piefke received the following medals:
Düppeler-Sturmkreuz, 1864
Golden Medal of the Emperor of Austria-Hungary, 1865
Royal Order of the House of Hohenzollern, 1869
Iron Cross Second Class, 1870
Prussian Crown Order, 1880
In popular culture
"Piefke" persists as a derogatory nickname for Germans in Austria.
Piefke's Königgrätzer Marsch can be heard playing during the book burning scene in the film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. It was one of Adolf Hitler's favorite marches and was often played during his public appearances.
References
Naxos Records: Johann Gottfried Piefke
1817 births
1884 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century German composers
19th-century male conductors (music)
19th-century conductors (music)
German Romantic composers
German male classical composers
German conductors (music)
German male conductors (music)
German military musicians
Military music composers
People from Skwierzyna
People from the Grand Duchy of Posen | [
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|
218516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles%20Archambault | Gilles Archambault | Gilles Archambault (born September 19, 1933 in Montreal, Quebec) is a francophone novelist from Quebec, Canada.
He studied at the Université de Montréal in 1957, and then worked at Radio-Canada, while working as a journalist. From 1988 to 1997, he broadcast a column on the "CBF Bonjour" program.
His work appeared in La Presse, Le Devoir, L'Actualité, and Le Livre d'ici.
He won the Prix Athanase-David in 1981 for his body of work, and a Governor General's Award in 1987 for L'obsédante obèse et autres aggressions, a collection of short prose pieces.
He has also written extensively about jazz.
His papers are held at the Library of Canada.
Novels and Short Story Collections
Une suprême discrétion (1963)
La vie à trois (1965)
Le tendre matin (1969)
Parlons de moi (1970)
La fleur aux dents (1971)
Enfances lointaines (1972), stories
La fuite immobile (1974)
Les Pins parasols (1976)
Stupeurs et autres écrits (1979), stories
Le voyageur distrait (1981)
À voix basse (1983)
L'obsédante obèse et autres aggressions (1987) (winner of the 1987 Governor General's Award for fiction)
Les choses d'un jour (1991)
Un après-midi de septembre (1993)
Un homme plein d'enfance (1996)
Les Maladresses du cœur (1998)
Courir à sa perte (2000)
De si douce dérives (2003), stories
De l'autre côté du pont (2004)
Les Rives prochaines (2007)
Nous étions jeunes encore (2009)
Qui de nous deux?, Montréal, Boréal (2011)
Lorsque le cœur est sombre, Montréal, Boréal (2013)
Doux Dément, Montréal, Boréal (2015)
Il se fait tard, Montréal, Boréal (2021)
Anthologies
Autobiographical works
Un après-midi de septembre (concerning his mother's disappearance)
Qui de nous deux? (2011)
References
External links
Archives of Filles Archambault (Fonds Gilles Archambault, R11700) are held at Library and Archives Canada
1933 births
Living people
Canadian male novelists
French Quebecers
Writers from Montreal
Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers
Prix Athanase-David winners
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
Canadian novelists in French
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers | [
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|
218518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley%20Crane | Stanley Crane | L[eo] Stanley Crane (September 7, 1915 – July 15, 2003) was a railroad executive who served as CEO of Southern Railway. Trained as a chemical engineer, Crane was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1978. After retiring from Southern Railway, he worked for Conrail where he later endowed the L. Stanley Crane Chair of engineering in applied sciences at his alma mater, George Washington University.
Career
He graduated from The George Washington University with a chemical engineering degree in 1938. He began his career with Southern Railway, and worked for the railroad, except for a stint from 1959 to 1961 with the Pennsylvania Railroad, until reaching the company's mandatory retirement age in 1980. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1978.
Crane went to Conrail in 1981 after a distinguished career that had seen him rise to the position of CEO at the Southern Railway.
With Conrail
Crane went to Conrail in 1981, where he presided over the turnaround of the deficit-plagued railroad, which began turning a profit as a result of Staggers Act freedoms and its own managerial improvements under his leadership. While the Staggers Act helped immensely in allowing all railroads to more easily abandon unprofitable rail lines and set their own freight rates, it was under Crane's leadership that Conrail truly became a profitable operation. In the two years after he took office in 1981 he shed 4,400 miles from the Conrail system, which accounted for only 1% of the railroad's overall traffic and 2% of its profits while saving it millions of dollars in maintenance costs.
In 1983, Crane began a five-year battle with Transportation Secretary Elizabeth H. Dole to hold onto Conrail. Crane was an outspoken critic of Dole's proposal to sell the rail system to Norfolk Southern Corporation, and fought for a public stock offering to return the railroad to the private sector. In November 1986, Crane delivered a check for $200 million to President Ronald Reagan. By that spring, Conrail paid an additional $100 million to the government. In March 1987, the government sold Conrail in a public stock offering. Investors on the New York Stock Exchange quickly snapped up 58,750,000 shares of Conrail; the sale netted $1.58 billion. Crane later saw Conrail sold to two rival bidders, Norfolk Southern and CSX, for more than $10 billion (five times the price for which the Reagan Administration had been willing to sell the railroad).
In 1989, Conrail established the L. Stanley Crane chair professorship in the College of Engineering at The George Washington University. The endowed L. Stanley Crane professorship of engineering in applied science was first held by GWU's former engineering dean Harold Liebowitz (1989-1991) and then by the chair of Computer Science Roger H. Lang (1991–present).
was amongst the first three fellows elected to the Society of Engineering Science in 1975 together with Ahmed Cemal Eringen and Warren P. Mason.
Personal life
In 1962, Mr. Crane married Jean Eward. They had twins, Pamela and Penelope. That marriage ended in divorce in 1976. Jean Crane died in 1998. Mr. Crane was married to Joan McCoy from 1976 to 1999. He died of pneumonia on July 15, 2003 at a hospice in Boynton Beach, Fla. He was 87. Mr. Crane is buried in the Fort Lincoln Cemetery, MD.
See also
List of members of the National Academy of Engineering (Industrial, manufacturing, and operational systems)
Walkway over the Hudson
References
1915 births
2003 deaths
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
George Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Businesspeople from Cincinnati
American railroad executives
20th-century American railroad executives
American people in rail transportation
American railroaders
Southern Railway (U.S.)
Conrail
Deaths from pneumonia in Florida | [
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|
218529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection%20Eternal | Reflection Eternal | Reflection Eternal is an American hip hop duo composed of emcee Talib Kweli and producer Hi-Tek. They released their first album, Train of Thought, in 2000. They have since released a mixtape, The RE: Union, in late December 2009, and their second album Revolutions Per Minute was released May 18, 2010.
History
The duo of Talib Kweli and Hi-Tek met in Tek's native Cincinnati, Ohio, following the release of the Hi-Tek/Mood collaboration "Hustle on the Side". Kweli and Hi-Tek made their first official collaboration in 1997 on Mood's debut album, Doom, on the track "Industry Lies". That same year, the two formed as Reflection Eternal, and signed to upstart underground hip hop label Rawkus Records. The tracks from their debut single, "Fortified Live" b/w "2000 Seasons", were included on the Rawkus Records compilation Soundbombing in October 1997. In 1998, Kweli and his high school friend, fellow Rawkus Records artist Mos Def, formed the duo Black Star, and released their first, and only album, Black Star, to rave reviews. Hi-Tek provided production for a number of songs on the album, including the singles "Definition" and "Respiration". The album put the three at the forefront of an underground hip hop scene that appeared at the time to be flagging against the influence of the "Jiggy" era of hip-hop, and was followed by a number of acclaimed collaborations and albums. Kweli and Hi-Tek reconnected in 2000 for the release of their debut album, Train of Thought. Though highly acclaimed, the release did not receive a significant amount of commercial attention, despite the success of the rap hits "Move Somethin'" and "The Blast".
Following the Train of Thought album, the duo split for solo projects, beginning with Hi-Tek's Hi-Teknology, released in 2001, on which Kweli appeared. The album didn't receive as much attention or as many sales as Train of Thought, though the single "Round & Round" became a crossover hit in 2002. Kweli released his first solo album, Quality, in late 2002. In a 2002 interview he also stated that another Reflection Eternal and Black Star album would be released. Hi-Tek was not involved with the project's production, instead featuring beats from artists like Kanye West, DJ Scratch, DJ Quik, Ayatollah and J Dilla. The Kanye West-produced single "Get By" became Kweli's biggest success, charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in 2003. Kweli's second solo album, 2004's The Beautiful Struggle, saw the duo working together once again, with three tracks produced by Hi-Tek. Kweli released his next album, Ear Drum, in 2007, featuring production from Tek; Hi-Tek released the follow-up to his debut, Hi-Teknology 2: The Chip, in 2006 and his third album, Hi-Teknology 3: The Underground, in 2007, both on Babygrande Records and both featuring appearances by Kweli.
The duo announced that another Reflection Eternal album was in the works in 2008. They named their second album Revolutions Per Minute.
They played a live reunion gig in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on September 20, 2009. In the same year Bootsy Collins collaborated with Talib Kweli and Hi-Tek on the track "Internet Connection". also a track "Back Again" has been released along with video. They also collaborated with J. Cole, Mos Def, and Jay Electronica on the track "Just Begun". These three songs were released in a mixtape on January 1, 2010, called The Re:Union which received positive fanbase feedback. Their second album Revolutions Per Minute was released on May 18, 2010, with similar praise as their debut album. It spawned 3 singles: "In This World", "Strangers (Paranoid)" featuring former UGK member Bun B, and Midnight Hour featuring Atlantic recording artist Estelle.
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Appearances as Reflection Eternal
"Fortified Live" (appears on the Soundbombing compilation, 1997)
"2000 Seasons" (also appears on the Soundbombing compilation, 1997)
"The Manifesto" (appears on Lyricist Lounge, Volume One compilation, 1998)
"Chaos" (appears on the Soundbombing 2 compilation, 1999)
"On Mission" (also appears on the Soundbombing 2 compilation, 1999)
"The Express" (from "The Express" single, 2000)
"Train of Thought" (from "The Blast" single, 2000)
"Down for the Count (Solo Version)" (from "The Blast" single, 2000)
"The Human Element" (from the Unbound Project, Volume 1 compilation, 2000)
"Sharp Shooters" (from the Lyricist Lounge 2 compilation, 2000)
"Bridge to 'Bama (Remix)" (from the Soulive single "Bridge to 'Bama", 2001)
"Let Me See (Remix)" (by Morcheeba)
Other Collaborations
"Industry Lies" (from the Mood album Doom, 1997)
Songs from the Mos Def & Talib Kweli Black Star album, 1998
"Halfway" (from the Brixx album Everything Happens For A Reason), 1999
"Transmorgify" & "Empty Pages" (from the compilation Mission Control Presents, 2000; both songs are by Mood)
Songs from the Hi-Tek album Hi-Teknology, 2001
Songs from the Talib Kweli album The Beautiful Struggle, 2004
Songs from the Hi-Tek album Hi-Teknology 2: The Chip, 2006
Songs from the Talib Kweli album Eardrum, 2006
Songs from the Rawkus Records album Soundbombing II'', 1999
References
American hip hop groups
Hip hop duos
American musical duos
African-American musical groups
Musical groups established in 1997 | [
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|
218541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daurian%20jackdaw | Daurian jackdaw | The Daurian jackdaw (Coloeus dauuricus) is a bird in the crow family, Corvidae, native to eastern Asia. It is closely related to the western jackdaw. The name derives from the Dauria region of eastern Russia.
Description
At in length, the Daurian jackdaw is about the same size as or slightly smaller than the western jackdaw, with the same proportions and identical habits. The principal difference lies in the plumage; many but not all adults have large areas of creamy white on the lower parts extending up around the neck as a broad collar. The head, throat, wings, and tail are glossy black and the ear coverts are grizzled grey. Darker adults and young birds resemble western jackdaws, though Daurian jackdaws have black irises, unlike the distinctive grey-white irises of the Eurasian jackdaw. The only other pied corvid species inhabiting the same region is the Chinese collared crow (Corvus torquatus) but as this is a much larger bird (about the same size or slightly larger than the carrion crow) confusion is unlikely to occur.
Distribution and habitat
The Daurian jackdaw ranges from the southern part of eastern Siberia, south to Mongolia and throughout much of China. In the north of its range it migrates further south during the winter. It is a scarce winter visitor to Korea, a rare annual winter visitor to Japan, and a vagrant to Taiwan. There are a few records from Western Europe. It inhabits open woodland, river valleys, and open hills and mountains.
Behaviour
It is a sociable species often found in association with rooks.
Feeding
The food is similar to that of the western jackdaw and includes cultivated grains, insects, berries, eggs, carrion, and faeces.
Breeding
The species will nest in trees where suitable cavities cannot be found, though tree hollows, rock openings and ruined buildings are still favoured. The eggs are similar to those of the western jackdaw.
References
Daurian jackdaw
Birds of China
Birds of Manchuria
Birds of Mongolia
Daurian jackdaw
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|
218558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Falls | Canadian Falls | Canadian Falls may refer to:
Horseshoe Falls
Niagara Falls | [
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|
218560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon%20%28genus%29 | Procyon (genus) | Procyon is a genus of nocturnal mammals comprising three species commonly known as raccoons in the family Procyonidae. The most familiar species, the common raccoon (P. lotor), is often known simply as "the" raccoon, as the two other raccoon species in the genus are native only to the tropics and less well known. Genetic studies have shown that the closest relatives of raccoons are the ring-tailed cats and cacomistles of genus Bassariscus, from which they diverged about 10 million years ago.
General attributes
Raccoons are unusual, for their thumbs (though not opposable) enable them to open many closed containers (such as garbage cans and doors). They are omnivores with a reputation for being clever and mischievous; their intelligence and dexterity equip them to survive in a wide range of environments and are one of the few medium-to-large-sized animals that have enlarged their range since human encroachment began (another is the coyote). Raccoon hindfeet are plantigrade similar to those of humans and bears. Raccoons are sometimes considered vermin or a nuisance. They have readily adapted to urban environments (compare urban opossums, skunks and foxes), scavenging garbage bins and other food sources.
Although there is some variation depending on species, raccoons range from in length (including the tail) and weigh between . The raccoon's tail ranges from in length. Male raccoons are generally larger than females. A baby raccoon is called a kit.
Raccoons can live up to 16 years in the wild, though most do not make it through their second year. A raccoon that survives past its youth will live an average of five years. Primary causes of mortality include humans (hunting, trapping, cars) and malnutrition.
Species
There are three extant species of raccoon:
Some raccoons once considered as separate species are now thought to be the same as or subspecies of the common raccoon, including the Barbados raccoon (P. gloveralleni), Nassau raccoon (P. maynardi), Guadeloupe raccoon (P. minor), and Tres Marias raccoon (P. insularis) (Helgen and Wilson 2005). Procyon brachyurus was described from captive specimens; its identity is undeterminable as the remains of the two animals assigned to this taxon cannot be located and may have been lost.
Nomenclature
The word "raccoon" is derived from the Algonquian word , "he who scratches with his hands". Spanish-speaking colonists similarly adopted their term, , from the Nahuatl word for the animal, meaning roughly "that which has hands".
The genus name, Procyon, comes from the Greek for "before the dog"; this term is also used for the star Procyon of the constellation Canis Minor.
Raccoons are today understood to have a relatively loose evolutionary relationship with bears, which was nonetheless seen as significant by the early taxonomists; Carl Linnaeus initially placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus. In many languages, the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that language's term for "bear": in German, in Hungarian, in Danish and Norwegian, in Swedish, in Dutch, in Estonian and in Finnish, () in Japanese, in Italian, () in Chinese and () in Bulgarian all mean "washing bear". One exception is Russian, where raccoon is named () due to similarity between raccoon and genet furs. However, the full name of the common raccoon in Russian is also water-related: it is called (), which means "rinsing raccoon".
In some cases, the "washing" descriptor is applied only to the common raccoon species: for example, in French the common raccoon is called or "washing rat", while its Linnaean binomial is Procyon lotor or, roughly, "washing pre-dog". In contrast, the crab-eating raccoon is "little crab-catching rat" () and "crab-eating pre-dog" (Procyon cancrivorus) in French and Latin, respectively.
Literature
Helgen, K.M. & Wilson, D.E. 2005. A systematic and zoogeographic overview of the raccoons of Mexico and Central America. Pp. 219–234 in Sanchez-Cordero, V. & Medellin, R.A. (eds.). Contribuciones Mastozoologicas: en Homenaje a Bernardo Villa. Mexico City: Instituto de Biologia e Instituto de Ecologia, UNAM.
See also
List of procyonids - all species in the parent family Procyonidae
Raccoon dog - an unrelated animal sometimes confused with raccoons
Red panda
References
External links
Raccoons on Bear Tracker
World Wide Raccoon Web Gallery
Procyonidae
Mammal genera
Extant Pliocene first appearances
Taxa named by Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr
Fur trade | [
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|
218561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racoon%20%28band%29 | Racoon (band) | Racoon are a Dutch rock band, formed in 1997. Their first big appearance was at the 1999 Noorderslagfestival. The first album, Till Monkeys Fly, appeared in January 2000, produced by Michael Schoots (Urban Dance Squad). The first single, "Feel Like Flying", became a hit and got a lot of airplay on the Dutch radio station 3FM. The band's biggest hit so far came in 2005, when its single "Love You More" reached number three on the Dutch music charts.
Members
Bart van der Weide - Lead vocals
Maarten van Damme - Bass (2017-present)
Dennis Huige - Guitars
Paul Bukkens - Drums
Live member since 2007:
Manu van Os - Keyboards
Previous member(s)
Stefan de Kroon - Bass (1997-2017)
History
Racoon started in 1997 as an acoustic duo made up of singer Bart van der Weide and guitarist Dennis Huige. The duo released three songs on the singer/songwriter compilation album Characters, released by the Dutch Rock & Pop Institute. In 1998, they were joined by bass player Stefan de Kroon and drummer Paul Bukkens and the band moved to Utrecht. That year, Racoon played at the Heineken X-pl'oor-festival in the Melkweg and in Rotterdam. Their self-released demo It's an Ice Cream Day earned them the attention of several record companies and many positive reviews from the Dutch press. In 1999, Racoon served as the opening act at the annual Noorderslag festival. They were signed to Sony's S.M.A.R.T. label and at the end of this year they went into the studio to record their full-length debut.
In January 2000, Racoon played at the Eurosonic festival in Groningen, also releasing their debut album Till Monkeys Fly, which was recorded at the ICP-studios in Brussels. The album was produced by Michel "Magic Stick" Schoots from Urban Dance Squad; the end mix was done by Phil Nicolo and Bob Ludwig was responsible for the mastering of the album. The band was being touted as "the next big thing" and their single "Feel Like Flying" was a power play on Radio 3 FM. Racoon also played at the Parkpop and Lowlands festivals. This was followed in 2001 with singles "Smoothly" and "Eric's Bar" and a new album in 2001 titled new album Here We Go, Stereo also touring the country and performing Faith No More songs for the Marlboro Flashback Tour.
In 2003, Racoon took part in the Europe Day festival in Kyiv, an international event organized by the European Union. Other bands on the bill included Alphaville from Germany, The Blueberries from Denmark, K-System from Finland amongst many. 2004 saw Racoon signing a record deal with PIAS. The popular "Feel Like Flying" was runner up in the Top 100 Best Dutch Pop Songs voted for by the listeners of public Radio 3FM just behind winner, Van Dik Hout's "Stil in mij". Snippets of a Racoon track called "Reach" was also used in two Calvé TV ads.
In 2005, Racoon released their third album called Another Day, a major hit with highly successful singles such as "Love You More", "Laugh About It" and "Brother". In 2006, Racoon collaborated with Armin van Buuren to create a trance version of their hit tune "Love You More". The collaboration proved popular in the trance scene and was soon being played by many top name DJs.
In 2008, the band released its fourth album, Before You Leave with the band being present at many Dutch Festivals and playing in front of thousands of visitors during Pinkpop, Rockin Park and Parkpop events. In the fall of the same year, they had a successful tour in Dutch theaters that continued into the following year. In May 2011, Racoon released their fifth album, called Liverpool Rain. It was produced by Wouter Van Belle and recorded in Powertone Studios near Mechelen (Belgium) and in Abbey Road Studios in London where they played together with the London Chamber Orchestra, arranged by Andrew Powell. Some of the vocal takes from those London sessions made it onto the album. Their biggest hit so far came from the album called "No Mercy".
Discography
Albums
2000: Till Monkeys Fly (Sony Records)
2001: Here We Go Stereo (Sony)
2005: Another Day (Sony)
2008: Before You Leave (Sony)
2009: Live at Chasse Theatre, Breda (live)
2011: Liverpool Rain
2013: The Singles Collection (compilation)
2015: All in Good Time
2016: Live at HML, Amsterdam (live)
2017: Look Ahead and See the Distance
2021:
Singles
2000: "Feel Like Flying"
2000: "Blue Days"
2001: "Eric's Bar"
2005: "Happy Family"
2005: "Love You More"
2005: "Laugh About It"
2006: "Brother"
2007: "Close Your Eyes"
2008: "Lucky All My Life"
2008: "Clean Again"
2011: "No Mercy"
2011: "Took a Hit"
2011: "Don't Give Up the Fight"
2012: "Liverpool Rain"
2012: "Freedom"
2012: "Oceaan"
2013: "Shoes of Lightning"
2014: "Brick by Brick"
2015: "Guilty"
2017: "Bring it on"
2018: "Soon"
2020: "Het is Al Laat Toch"
2020: "De Echte Vent"
2021: "Hee Joh Jip"
2021: "Geef Je Hart Niet Zomaar Weg"
Featured in
2006: "Love You More" (Armin van Buuren featuring Racoon)
Dutch alternative rock groups
Roadrunner Records artists
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups from Zeeland
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|
218567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument%20from%20silence | Argument from silence | To make an argument from silence (Latin: argumentum ex silentio) is to express a conclusion that is based on the absence of statements in historical documents, rather than their presence. In the field of classical studies, it often refers to the assertion that an author is ignorant of a subject, based on the lack of references to it in the author's available writings.
Thus in historical analysis with an argument from silence, the absence of a reference to an event or a document is used to cast doubt on the event not mentioned. While most historical approaches rely on what an author's works contain, an argument from silence relies on what the book or document does not contain. This approach thus uses what an author "should have said" rather than what is available in the author's extant writings.
An argument from silence may apply to a document only if the author was expected to have the information, was intending to give a complete account of the situation, and the item was important enough and interesting enough to deserve to be mentioned at the time.
Arguments from silence, based on a writer's failure to mention an event, are distinct from arguments from ignorance which rely on a total "absence of evidence" and are widely considered unreliable; however arguments from silence themselves are also generally viewed as rather weak in many cases; or considered as fallacies.
The aphorism "no news is good news" might be considered an argument from silence.
Historical analysis
Structure of the argument
John Lange provided the basic structure for the analysis of arguments from silence based on three components:
An extant document D in which no reference to an event E appears.
It is known that the intention of the author of document D was to provide an exhaustive list of all the events in the class of events to which E belongs
Event E is assumed to be a type of event which the author of D would not have overlooked, had the event taken place.
The applicability of these three conditions is decided on a case-by-case basis, and there are no general dialectical rules for them, except the historian's expertise in evaluating the situation. In Lange's analysis, an argument from silence is only suggestive and never logically conclusive.
Professors of history Martha Howell and Walter Prevenier thus state that an argument from silence can act as presumptive evidence only if the person failing to mention the information was in a position to have the information, and was purporting to be giving a complete account of the story in question. Howell and Prevenier state that arguments from silence face the difficulty that a historian can not just assume that an author would have recorded the fact in question; for if the fact did not seem important enough to an author it would have been excluded.
Professor of English Michael Duncan states that there are very few scholarly analyses of arguments from silence; but these typically view it as fallacious. Duncan adds that arguments from silence are not mentioned in Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations or Hamblin's book Fallacies, but both of these texts discuss the somewhat similar case of argument from ignorance. Errietta Bissa, professor of Classics at University of Wales, flatly states that arguments from silence are not valid. David Henige states that, although risky, such arguments can at times shed light on historical events.
Author's interest
The importance of an event to contemporary author plays a role in the decision to mention it, and historian Krishnaji Chitnis states that for an argument from silence to apply, it must be of interest and significance to the person expected to be recording it, else it may be ignored; e.g. while later historians have lauded the Magna Carta as a great national document, contemporary authors did not even record a word about its greatness; to them it was a feudal document of low significance, among several other seemingly similar items.
Classicist Timothy Barnes notes that the low level of interest in and awareness of Christians within the Roman Empire at the turn of the first century resulted in the lack of any discernible mention of them by Roman authors such as Martial and Juvenal, although Christians had been present in Rome since the reign of Claudius (41 to 54 AD) and both authors referred to Judaism. Theologian Peter Lampe states that during the first two centuries, the silence of Roman sources on Christians in Rome may be partly due to the fact that Christians often kept to themselves and did not reveal their identities.
Examples
Convincing applications
An example of a convincing application is that while the editors of the Yerushalmi and Bavli talmuds mention the other community, most scholars believe these documents were written independently; and Louis Jacobs writes, "If the editors of either had had access to an actual text of the other, it is inconceivable that they would not have mentioned this. Here the argument from silence is very convincing."
Sometimes the silence of multiple sources may have a probative value that sheds light on the historical circumstance, for instance Jacob Neusner states that an argument from silence regarding the absence of an Exilarch sheds light on the relationship between Jews and the Parthian administration in Babylonia.
An example of a convincing application is the silence of Cicero on works of oratory by Cato; the argument gaining its strength from the fact that Cato was such an important figure in Cicero's Brutus and he would have likely been cited if possible. Although Cicero's silence on Cato is a convincing argument from silence, the same strength does not apply to Cicero's silence on the questorship of Caelius, Michael Alexander stating that a number of factors may have precluded Cicero from mentioning it.
Failed applications
Yifa has pointed out the perils of arguments from silence, in that the lack of references to a compilation of a set of monastic codes by contemporaries or even by disciples does not mean that it never existed. This is well illustrated by the case of Changlu Zongze's "Rules of purity" which he wrote for the Chan monastery in 1103. One of his contemporaries wrote a preface to a collection of his writings neglecting to mention his code. And none of his biographies nor the documents of the Transmission of the Lamp, nor the Pure Land documents (which exalt him) refer to Zongze's collection of a monastic code. However a copy of the code in which the author identifies himself
exists.
Historian Pierre Briant points out that the recent discovery of a customs memorandum from Egypt which dates to the time of Xerxes and records the registration and taxation of ships overrides previous reasonings about the type of commercial prosperity associated with Sidon based on the relative silence in texts about roads and is a reminder of the dangers of any argument from silence.
Frances Wood based her controversial book Did Marco Polo go to China? on arguments from silence. Woods argued that Marco Polo never went to China and fabricated his accounts because he failed to mention elements from the visual landscape such as tea, did not record the Great Wall and neglected to record practices such as foot-binding. She argued that no outsider could spend 15 years in China and not observe and record these elements. Most historians disagree with Wood's reasoning.
Professors of philosophy Sven Bernecker and Duncan Pritchard state that arguments from silence are generally weak and can go astray in many cases, and point to examples such as Marco Polo's neglect of the Wall of China, and Pliny the Younger's silence on the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum when he discusses the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius in detail in his letters.
Use with caution
Some historians note the general dangers of arguing from silence, but use them in specific cases as indications of levels of professional activity within medieval communities, e.g. historian John E. Law states that while arguing from silence is always dangerous, one may use it as an indication of the low level of local military employment in Camerino for the Da Varano in the Middle Ages. Similarly, historian Patricia Skinner states that after accounting for the dangers of arguments from silence they may provide an indication of the scarcity of females within the medical profession in medieval southern Italy. Historian James Amelang has pointed out that although the autobiographies of early medieval artisans are surprisingly silent on issues regarding their trade and craft, arguing from silence includes hazards in that historians may be assigning weight to past significance in view of modern emphasis.
Barrie J. Cook, the British Museum European coin curator, notes the risks of arguing from silence, yet states that they may shed light on the medieval propensity of the usage of the French denier from Le Mans versus the Angevine.
Greg Walker, professor of rhetoric and English, states that during the reign of Henry VIII, the lack of references to named plays by Nicholas Udall (e.g. the Respublica) do not necessarily support their not having been performed at court; given other evidence such as payment warrants issued to Udall for performance masks.
Legal aspects
Jed Rubenfeld, professor of Law at Yale Law School, has shown an example of the difficulty in applying arguments from silence in constitutional law, stating that although arguments from silence can be used to draw conclusions about the intent of the Framers of the US Constitution, their application can lead to two different conclusions and hence they can not be used to settle the issues.
In the context of Morocco's Truth Commission of 1999 regarding torture and secret detentions, Wu and Livescu state that the fact that someone remained silent is no proof of their ignorance about a specific piece of information. They point out that the absence of records about the torture of prisoners under the secret detention program is no proof that such detentions did not involve torture, or that some detentions did not take place.
See also
Argument from ignorance
Evidence of absence
Philosophic burden of proof
References
Relevance fallacies
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|
218575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat%2067 | Habitat 67 | HABITAT 67, or simply Habitat, is a model community and housing complex in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, designed by Israeli-Canadian architect Moshe Safdie. It was originally conceived as his master's thesis at the School of Architecture at McGill University and then built as a pavilion for Expo 67, the World's Fair held from April to October 1967. It is at 2600 Avenue Pierre-Dupuy on the Marc-Drouin Quay next to the Saint Lawrence River. Habitat 67 is widely considered an architectural landmark and one of the most recognizable buildings in both Montreal and Canada.
History
Safdie's design for Habitat 67 began as a thesis project for his architecture program at McGill University. It was "highly recognized" at the institution, though Safdie cites its failure to win the Pilkington Prize, an award for the best thesis at Canadian schools of architecture, as early evidence of its controversial nature. After leaving to work with Louis Kahn in Philadelphia, Safdie was approached by Sandy van Ginkel, his former thesis advisor, to develop the master plan for Expo 67, the world's fair that was set to take place in Montreal during 1967. Safdie decided to propose his thesis as one of the pavilions and began developing his plan. After the plans were approved in Ottawa by Mitchell Sharp, the federal cabinet minister responsible for the exhibition, and Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, Safdie was given the blessing of the Expo 67 Director of Installations, Edward Churchill, to leave the planning committee in order to work on the building project as an independent architect. Safdie was awarded the project in spite of his relative youth and inexperience, an opportunity he later described as "a fairy tale, an amazing fairy tale."
The development was financed by the federal government, but is now owned by its tenants, who formed a limited partnership that purchased the building from the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation in 1985. Safdie still owns a penthouse apartment in the building.
Concept and design
Habitat 67 comprises 354 identical, prefabricated concrete forms arranged in various combinations, reaching up to 12 stories in height. Together these units create 146 residences of varying sizes and configurations, each formed from one to eight linked concrete units. The complex originally contained 158 apartments, but several apartments have since been joined to create larger units, reducing the total number. Each unit is connected to at least one private terrace, which can range from approximately in size.
The development was designed to integrate the benefits of suburban homes—namely gardens, fresh air, privacy, and multilevelled environments—with the economics and density of a modern urban apartment building. It was believed to illustrate the new lifestyle people would live in increasingly crowded cities around the world. Safdie's goal for the project to be affordable housing largely failed: demand for the building's units has made them more expensive than originally envisioned. In addition, the existing structure was originally meant to only be the first phase of a much larger complex, but the high per-unit cost of approximately C$140,000 (C$22,120,000 for all 158) prevented that possibility.
The structural engineer for the project was August Eduard Komendant, an Estonian-American structural engineer and a pioneer in the field of prestressed concrete.
The theme of Expo 67 was "Man and his World", taken from Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's memoir Terre des hommes (literally, 'world of man', though it was published under the title Wind, Sand and Stars). Housing was also one of the main themes of Expo 67. Habitat 67 then became a thematic pavilion visited by thousands of visitors who came from around the world, and during the expo also served as the temporary residence of the many dignitaries visiting Montreal.
In March 2012, Habitat 67 won an online Lego Architecture poll and is a candidate to be added to the list of famous buildings that inspire a special replica Lego set. Lego bricks were actually used in the initial planning for Habitat; according to Safdie's firm, "initial models of the project were built using Lego bricks and subsequent iterations were also built with Lego bricks".
Legacy
As one of the major symbols of Expo 67, which was attended by over 50 million people during the six months it was open, Habitat 67 gained worldwide acclaim as a "fantastic experiment" and "architectural wonder". This experiment was and is regarded as both a success and failure—it "redefined urban living" and has since become "a very successful co-op", but at the same time ultimately failed to revolutionize affordable housing or launch a wave of prefabricated, modular development as Safdie had envisioned. Despite its problems, however, Habitat's fame and success "made [Safdie's] reputation" and helped launch his career; Safdie has now designed over 75 buildings and master plans around the world.
It appears on the album cover of the 2003 album Velocity : Design : Comfort by Sweet Trip and on the cover of 2012's The North (Stars album).
The building's covered walkways and exterior appear in several scenes in 1977's The Disappearance, starring Donald Sutherland, where the main character shares an apartment in the building with his wife.
Decades after Habitat, much of Safdie's work still holds to the concepts that were so fundamental to its design, especially the themes of reimagining high-density housing and improving social integration through architecture that have become "synonymous" with his work. However, The Guardian quoted The Walrus assessment of it as a "failed dream".
Habitat 67 appears in the background matte painting of the Scalosian City, from the remastered episode "Wink of an Eye" from Star Trek: The Original Series.
In 2017, Canada Post issued a commemorative stamp for the 50th anniversary of Expo 67 featuring the structure.
Panorama
See also
Architecture of Canada
Brutalism
Dyson Institute Village
Metabolism (architecture)
Structuralism (architecture)
References
External links
Official website of Habitat 67
Official website of Moshe Safdie and Associates
Habitat 67 at the Moshe Safdie Hypermedia Archive of McGill University
Habitat 67: Then and Now
Habitat 67 at Great Buildings Online
Brutalist architecture in Canada
Buildings and structures in Montreal
Expo 67
Heritage immovables of Quebec
Moshe Safdie buildings
Residential buildings completed in 1967
Residential condominiums in Canada
Ville-Marie, Montreal
Visionary environments
World's fair architecture in Montreal | [
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|
218576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20in%20sports | 2002 in sports | 2002 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Women's overall season champion: Michaela Dorfmeister, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXXVI – the New England Patriots (AFC) won 20–17 over the heavily favored St. Louis Rams (NFC)
Location: Superdome
Attendance: 72,922
MVP: Tom Brady, QB (New England)
Rose Bowl (2001 season):
The Miami Hurricanes won 37-14 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the college football national championship
ArenaBowl XVI – San Jose SaberCats win 52-14 over the Arizona Rattlers
The Houston Texans become the NFL's 32nd active franchise.
Association football
2002 FIFA World Cup is held from May 31 to June 30 in South Korea and Japan, the first time a World Cup is held in Asia and by two countries simultaneously. Brazil wins its fifth title, defeating Germany 2-0 in the final. Surprisingly, Turkey and host nation South Korea take 3rd and 4th.
Champions' League – Real Madrid beats Bayer Leverkusen 2-1 in the final. This was Real Madrid's 9th European Cup.
UEFA Cup – Feyenoord wins 3-2 in the final against Borussia Dortmund, winning the cup for the second time.
European Super Cup – Real Madrid wins 3-1 over Feyenoord, winning the cup for the first time.
Intercontinental Cup – Real Madrid beats Olimpia Asunción 2-0, winning the cup for the third time.
Athletics
July – 2002 Commonwealth Games held in Manchester
August – 2002 European Championships in Athletics held in Munich
October – 2002 Asian Games held in Busan, South Korea
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The Brisbane Lions win the 106th AFL premiership (Brisbane Lions 10.15 (75) d Collingwood 9.12 (66))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Simon Black (Brisbane Lions)
See also Australian Football League season 2002
Inaugural Australian Football International Cup, the 2002 International Cup won by Ireland
Baseball
World Series – Anaheim Angels win 4 games to 3 over the San Francisco Giants
Basketball
NBA Finals –
Los Angeles Lakers sweep the New Jersey Nets to win their third straight NBA title. Shaquille O'Neal wins his third straight NBA Finals MVP award, and coach Phil Jackson wins his ninth title, and his third three-peat.
NBA's Charlotte Hornets moved to New Orleans.
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Maryland Terrapins win 64-52 over the Indiana Hoosiers
WNBA finals
Los Angeles Sparks win 2 games to 0 over the New York Liberty
FIBA World Championship won by Yugoslavia
FIBA World Championship for Women won by USA
Chinese Basketball Association finals:
Yao Ming and his Shanghai Sharks teammates defeat Bayi Rockets, 3 games to 1, snapping a string of six consecutive Bayi championships.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Adelaide 36ers defeated the West Sydney Razorbacks 2-1 in the best-of-three final series.
October 5 – University Athletic Association of the Philippines men's division finals: The Ateneo Blue Eagles defeat the De La Salle Green Archers to end their 4-year title streak and win the school their first title in 14 years.
Boxing
June 21 – Lennox Lewis retains boxing's WBC world Heavyweight crown with an eight-round knockout over Mike Tyson
April – The Ring Magazine released its new championship policy, "The Ring's Championship Policy"
July 12 to July 21 – 34th European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Perm, Russia
Canadian football
November 24 – the Montreal Alouettes win the 90th Grey Cup game, defeating the Edmonton Eskimos 25–16 at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton.
November 23 – Saint Mary's Huskies win the Vanier Cup game, defeating the Saskatchewan Huskies 39–23.
Cricket
March 23 – death of Ben Hollioake, Surrey and England player, in a car crash
June 1 – death of Hansie Cronje, South African player still involved in match-fixing controversy, in an air crash
New Zealand are forced to abandon their tour of Pakistan after a bomb explodes outside their hotel in Karachi
County Championship (England and Wales) – Surrey CCC
Cycle racing
Road bicycle racing
Giro d'Italia won by Paolo Savoldelli of Italy
Tour de France – Lance Armstrong of the United States (Rescinded)
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Mario Cipollini, of Italy
Cyclo-cross
2–3 February – UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships held in Zolder, Belgium
men's competition won by Mario De Clercq
women's competition won by Laurence Leboucher
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
Martin Buser wins with lead dog Bronson
Field hockey
2002 Men's Hockey World Cup: Germany
2002 Women's Hockey World Cup: Argentina
Men's Hockey at the 2002 Commonwealth Games: Australia
Hockey at the 2002 Commonwealth Games – Women's tournament: India
Men's Champions Trophy: Netherlands
Women's Champions Trophy: China
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Irina Slutskaya, Russia
Pair skating champions: Shen Xue & Zhao Hongbo, China
Ice dancing champions: Irina Lobacheva & Ilia Averbukh, Russia
2002 Winter Olympics –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Sarah Hughes, United States
Pair skating champions: Yelena Berezhnaya & Anton Sikharulidze, Russia and Jamie Salé & David Pelletier, Canada
Ice dancing champions: Marina Anissina & Gwendal Peizerat, France
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Galway
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Armagh 1-12 died Kerry 0-14
National Football League – Tyrone 0-15 died Cavan 0-7
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Mayo
National Football League: Waterford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 2-20 died Clare 0-19
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
– Masters Tournament – Tiger Woods becomes the third golfer to win The Masters in two consecutive years
– U.S. Open – Tiger Woods is the only golfer under par for the tournament.
– British Open – Ernie Els wins his third major and first British Open.
– PGA Championship – Rich Beem wins by one shot over Tiger Woods.
PGA Tour money leader – Tiger Woods – $6,912,625
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour rookie of the year – Jonathan Byrd
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Hale Irwin – $3,028,304
Ryder Cup – Europe defeats the United States 15.5-12.5.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Alejandro Larrazabal
U.S. Amateur – Ricky Barnes
European Amateur – Raphaël Pellicioli
Women's professional
Kraft Nabisco Championship – Annika Sörenstam
LPGA Championship – Se Ri Pak
U.S. Women's Open – Juli Inkster
Women's British Open – Karrie Webb
LPGA Tour money leader – Annika Sörenstam – $2,863,904
LPGA Tour Player of the Year – Annika Sörenstam
The United States team defeats the European team 15 ½ – 12 ½ to regain the Solheim Cup.
Handball
Men's European Championship: Sweden
Women's European Championship: Denmark
Asian Games (Men): Korea
Asian Games (Women): Korea
Harness racing
North America Cup – Red River Hanover
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace won by Art Major
Little Brown Jug won by Million Dollar Cam
Messenger Stakes won by Allamerican Ingot
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian won by Chip Chip Hooray
Yonkers Trot won by Bubba Dunn
Kentucky Futurity won by Like a Prayer
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Best Mate
Grand National – Bindaree
Hurdle races
Champion Hurdle – Hors La Loi III
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Media Puzzle
Canada – Queen's Plate won by T J's Lucky Moon
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Street Cry
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Marienbard
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by High Chaparral
Japan – Japan Cup won by Falbrav
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Rock of Gibraltar
The Derby – High Chaparral
St. Leger Stakes – Bollin Eric
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – War Emblem
Preakness Stakes – War Emblem
Belmont Stakes – Sarava
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Volponi
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Azeri
Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Starine
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Vindication
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Storm Flag Flying
Breeders' Cup Mile – Domedriver
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Orientate
Breeders' Cup Turf – High Chaparral
Ice hockey
Canada defeats the United States 5-2 to win the men's Olympic Gold Medal.
Canada defeats the United States 3-2 to win the women's Olympic Gold Medal.
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Slovakia defeats Russia.
Junior Men's champion: Russia defeats Canada.
Women's champion: no tournament.
Stanley Cup – Detroit Red Wings win 4 games to 1 over the Carolina Hurricanes.
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jarome Iginla, Calgary Flames.
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player:
José Théodore, Montreal Canadiens.
Lacrosse
The Baltimore Bayhawks win the Steinfeld Cup over the Long Island Lizards.
The Toronto Rock beat the Albany Attack, 13-12 to win the Champion's Cup.
The 9th World Lacrosse Championship is held in Perth, Australia. The United States beat Canada 18-15 in the final.
The Coquitlam Adanacs win the Mann Cup.
The St. Catharines Athletics win the Minto Cup.
The Wallaceburg Red Devils win the Founders Cup.
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 2002 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|January 11
|UFC 35: Throwdown
|
| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States
|9,600
|35,000
|
|-align=center
|February 22
|Pride The Best Vol. 1
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|February 24
|Pride 19: Bad Blood
|
| Saitama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|March 22
|UFC 36: Worlds Collide
|
| Las Vegas, United States
|10,000
|55,000
|
|-align=center
|April 28
|Pride 20: Armed and Ready
|
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 10
|UFC 37: High Impact
|
| Bossier City, Louisiana, United States
|7,200
|50,000
|
|-align=center
|June 22
|UFC 37.5: As Real As It Gets
|
| Las Vegas, United States
|3,700
|
|
|-align=center
|June 23
|Pride 21: Demolition
|
| Saitama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|July 13
|UFC 38: Brawl at the Hall
|
| Saitama, Japan
|3,800
|45,000
|
|-align=center
|July 20
|Pride The Best Vol. 2
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|August 28
|Pride Shockwave
|Dynamite!
| Tokyo, Japan
|91,108
|
|
|-align=center
|September 27
|UFC 39: The Warriors Return
|
| Uncasville, Connecticut, United States
|7,800
|45,000
|
|-align=center
|September 29
|Pride 22: Beasts From The East 2
|
| Nagoya, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|November 22
|UFC 40: Vendetta
|
| Las Vegas, United States
|13,265
|150,000
|
|-align=center
|November 24
|Pride 23: Championship Chaos 2
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|December 23
|Pride 24: Cold Fury 3
|
| Fukuoka, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Orienteering
First Mountain Bike Orienteering World Championships are held July 2–7 in Fontainebleau, France.
Radiosport
The fourth World Radiosport Team Championship held in Helsinki, Finland. Gold medals go to Jeff Steinman N5TJ and Dan Street K1TO of the United States, the team's third victory in a row.
Eleventh Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Tatranske Matliare, Slovakia.
Rugby league
The Australian Rugby League Hall of Fame is established.
2002 New Zealand rugby league tour
2002 NRL season
2002 State of Origin series
Super League VII
2002 World Club Challenge
Rugby union
108th Six Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam
Tri Nations – New Zealand
Heineken Cup – Leicester Tigers 15–9 Munster
Ski mountaineering
Inaugural World Championship of Skimountaineering sanctioned by the International Council for Ski Mountaineering Competitions (ICSM) was held in Serre Chevalier in France from January 24 to January 27.
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Peter Ebdon beats Stephen Hendry 18-17
World rankings – Ronnie O'Sullivan becomes world number one for 2002–03
Swimming
26 January – in Berlin, Slovakian swimmer Martina Moravcová betters Jenny Thompson's world record in the women's 100m butterfly (short course) from 56:56 to 56:55
April – 6th World Short Course Championships held at Moscow
United States wins the most medals (26) Australia the most gold medals (10)
July–August – 26th European LC Championships held at Berlin
Germany wins the most medals (23) and the most gold medals (10)
August – 9th Pan Pacific Championships held at Yokohama
United States wins the most medals (52) and the most gold medals (21)
22 November – US swimmer Natalie Coughlin betters Martina Moravcová's world record in the women's 100m butterfly (short course) from 56:55 to 56:39
December – 6th European SC Championships held at Riesa, Germany
Germany wins the most medals (22) and the most gold medals (7)
Tennis
See also 2002 ATP Tour, 2002 WTA Tour
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Thomas Johansson
French Open – Albert Costa
Wimbledon championships – Lleyton Hewitt
US Open – Pete Sampras
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Jennifer Capriati
French Open – Serena Williams
Wimbledon championships – Serena Williams
US Open – Serena Williams
Davis Cup – in the final, Russia defeats France 3-2 at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy in Paris
Fed Cup – Slovakia defeats Spain 3-1 in the final at Palacio de Congresos de Maspalomas in Gran Canaria, Spain
Volleyball
2002 FIVB Men's World Championship: Brazil
2002 FIVB Women's World Championship: Italy
2002 Men's World League: Russia
2002 Women's World Grand Prix: Russia
Men's volleyball at the 2002 Asian Games: South Korea
Women's volleyball at the 2002 Asian Games: China
Water polo
2002 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup: Russia
2002 FINA Men's Water Polo World League: Russia
2002 FINA Women's Water Polo World Cup: Hungary
Winter Olympics
2002 Winter Olympics takes place in Salt Lake City, United States
Norway wins the most medals (25) and the most gold medals (13)
Top performers include Janica Kostelić, Ole Einar Bjørndalen and Simon Ammann
A scandal in figure skating dominates the news.
Also on the short track, Steven Bradbury of Australia becomes the first Winter Olympic gold medalist from the Southern Hemisphere when a crash on the final corner of the men's 1000 m final leaves him the "last man standing".
Multi-sport events
2002 Commonwealth Games held in Manchester, England
2002 Asian Games held in Busan, South Korea
2002 Gay Games held in Sydney, Australia
2002 South American Games held in Sao Paulo, Brazil
2002 Central American and Caribbean Games held in San Salvador, El Salvador
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Lance Armstrong, Cycling
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Serena Williams, Tennis
References
Sports by year | [
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218580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelitis | Myelitis | Myelitis is inflammation of the spinal cord which can disrupt the normal responses from the brain to the rest of the body, and from the rest of the body to the brain. Inflammation in the spinal cord, can cause the myelin and axon to be damaged resulting in symptoms such as paralysis and sensory loss. Myelitis is classified to several categories depending on the area or the cause of the lesion; however, any inflammatory attack on the spinal cord is often referred to as transverse myelitis.
Types of myelitis
Myelitis lesions usually occur in a narrow region but can be spread and affect many areas.
Acute flaccid myelitis: a polio-like syndrome that causes muscle weakness and paralysis.
Poliomyelitis: disease caused by viral infection in the gray matter with symptoms of muscle paralysis or weakness
Transverse myelitis: caused by axonal demyelination encompassing both sides of the spinal cord
Leukomyelitis: lesions in the white matter
Meningococcal myelitis (or meningomyelitis): lesions occurring in the region of meninges and the spinal cord
Osteomyelitis of the vertebral bone surrounding the spinal cord (that is, vertebral osteomyelitis) is a separate condition, although some infections (for example, Staphylococcus aureus infection) can occasionally cause both at once. The similarity of the words reflects that the combining form myel(o)- has multiple (homonymous) senses referring to bone marrow or the spinal cord.
Symptoms
Depending on the cause of the disease, such clinical conditions manifest different speed in progression of symptoms in a matter of hours to days. Most myelitis manifests fast progression in muscle weakness or paralysis starting with the legs and then arms with varying degrees of severity. Sometimes the dysfunction of arms or legs cause instability of posture and difficulty in walking or any movement. Also symptoms generally include paresthesia which is a sensation of tickling, tingling, burning, pricking, or numbness of a person's skin with no apparent long-term physical effect. Adult patients often report pain in the back, extremities, or abdomen. Patients also present increased urinary urgency, bowel or bladder dysfunctions such as bladder incontinence, difficulty or inability to void, and incomplete evacuation of bowel or constipation. Others also report fever, respiratory problems and intractable vomiting.
Diseases associated with myelitis
Conditions associated with myelitis include:
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: autoimmune demyelination of the brain causing severe neurological signs and symptoms
Multiple sclerosis: demyelination of the brain and spinal cord
Neuromyelitis optica or Devic's disease: immune attack on optic nerve and spinal cord
Sjögren's syndrome: destruction of the exocrine system of the body
Systemic lupus erythematosus: a systemic autoimmune disease featuring a wide variety of neurological signs and symptoms
Sarcoidosis: chronic inflammatory cells form as nodules in multiple organs
Atopy: an immune disorder of children manifesting as eczema or other allergic conditions. It can include atopic myelitis, which causes weakness.
Immune-mediated myelopathies, heterogeneous group of inflammatory spinal cord disorders including autoimmune disorders with known antibodies
Cause
Myelitis occurs due to various reasons such as infections. Direct infection by viruses, bacteria, mold, or parasites such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human T-lymphotropic virus types I and II (HTLV-I/II), syphilis, lyme disease, and tuberculosis can cause myelitis but it can also be caused due to non-infectious or inflammatory pathway. Myelitis often follows after the infections or after vaccination. These phenomena can be explained by a theory of autoimmune attack which states that the autoimmune bodies attack its spinal cord in response to immune reaction.
Mechanism of myelitis
The theory of autoimmune attack claims that a person with neuroimmunologic disorders have genetic predisposition to auto-immune disorder, and the environmental factors would trigger the disease. The specific genetics in myelitis is not completely understood. It is believed that the immune system response could be to viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection; however, it is not known why the immune system attacks itself. Especially, for the immune system to cause inflammatory response anywhere in the central nervous system, the cells from the immune system must pass through the blood brain barrier. In the case of myelitis, not only is the immune system dysfunctional, but the dysfunction also crosses this protective blood brain barrier to affect the spinal cord.
Infectious myelitis
Viral myelitis
Most viral myelitis is acute, but the retroviruses (such as HIV and HTLV) can cause chronic myelitis. Poliomyelitis, or gray matter myelitis, is usually caused by infection of anterior horn of the spinal cord by the enteroviruses (polioviruses, enteroviruses (EV) 70 and 71, echoviruses, coxsackieviruses A and B) and the flaviviruses (West Nile, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis). On the other hand, transverse myelitis or leukomyelitis, or white matter myelitis, are often caused by the herpesviruses and influenza virus. It can be due to direct viral invasion or via immune mediated mechanisms.
Bacterial myelitis
Bacterial myelitis includes Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which is a common agent for respiratory tract. Studies have shown respiratory tract infections within 4–39 days prior to the onset of transverse myelitis. Or, tuberculosis, syphilis, and brucellosis are also known to cause myelitis in immune-compromised individuals. Myelitis is a rare manifestation of bacterial infection.
Fungal myelitis
Fungi have been reported to cause spinal cord disease either by forming abscesses inside the bone or by granuloma. In general, there are two groups of fungi that may infect the CNS and cause myelitis - primary and secondary pathogens. Primary pathogens include the following: Cryptococcus neoformans, Coccidioides immitis, Blastomyces dermatitides, and Hystoplasma capsulatum. Secondary pathogens are opportunistic agents that primarily infect immunocompromised hosts such as Candida species, Aspergillus species, and zygomycetes.
Parasitic myelitis
Parasitic species infect human hosts through larvae that penetrate the skin. Then they enter the lymphatic and circulatory system, and migrate to liver and lung. Some reach the spinal cord. Parasitic infections have been reported with Schistosoma species, Toxocara canis, Echinococcus species, Taenia solium, Trichinella spiralis, and Plasmodium species.
Autoimmune myelitis
In 2016, it was identified in Mayo clinic an autoimmune form of myelitis due to the presence of anti-GFAP autoantibodies. Immunoglobulins directed against the α-isoform of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP-IgG) predicted a special meningoencephalomyelitis termed autoimmune GFAP Astrocytopathy that later was found also to be able to appear as a myelitis.
Diagnosis
Myelitis has an extensive differential diagnosis. The type of onset (acute versus subacute/chronic) along with associated symptoms such as the presence of pain, constitutional symptoms that encompass fever, malaise, weight loss or a cutaneous rash may help identify the cause of myelitis. In order to establish a diagnosis of myelitis, one has to localize the spinal cord level, and exclude cerebral and neuromuscular diseases. Also a detailed medical history, a careful neurologic examination, and imaging studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are needed. In respect to the cause of the process, further work-up would help identify the cause and guide treatment. Full spine MRI is warranted, especially with acute onset myelitis, to evaluate for structural lesions that may require surgical intervention, or disseminated disease. Adding gadolinium further increases diagnostic sensitivity. A brain MRI may be needed to identify the extent of central nervous system (CNS) involvement. Lumbar puncture is important for the diagnosis of acute myelitis when a tumoral process, inflammatory or infectious cause are suspected, or the MRI is normal or non-specific. Complementary blood tests are also of value in establishing a firm diagnosis. Rarely, a biopsy of a mass lesion may become necessary when the cause is uncertain. However, in 15–30% of people with subacute or chronic myelitis, a clear cause is never uncovered.
Treatment
Since each case is different, the following are possible treatments that patients might receive in the management of myelitis.
Intravenous steroids
High-dose intravenous methyl-prednisolone for 3–5 days is considered as a standard of care for patients suspected to have acute myelitis, unless there are compelling reasons otherwise. The decision to offer continued steroids or add a new treatment is often based on the clinical course and MRI appearance at the end of five days of steroids.
Plasma exchange (PLEX)
Patients with moderate to aggressive forms of disease who do not show much improvement after being treated with intravenous and oral steroids will be treated with PLEX. Retrospective studies of patients with TM treated with IV steroids followed by PLEX showed a positive outcome. It also has been shown to be effective with other autoimmune or inflammatory central nervous system disorders. Particular benefit has been shown with patients who are in the acute or subacute stage of the myelitis showing active inflammation on MRI. However, because of the risks implied by the lumbar puncture procedure, this intervention is determined by the treating physician on a case-by-case basis.
Immunosuppressants/Immunomodulatory agents
Myelitis with no definite cause seldom recurs, but for others, myelitis may be a manifestation of other diseases that are mentioned above. In these cases, ongoing treatment with medications that modulate or suppress the immune system may be necessary. Sometimes there is no specific treatment. Either way, aggressive rehabilitation and long-term symptom management are an integral part of the healthcare plan.
Prospective research direction
Central nervous system nerve regeneration would be able to repair or regenerate the damage caused to the spinal cord. It would restore functions lost due to the disease.
Engineering endogenous repair
Currently, there exists a hydrogel based scaffold which acts as a channel to deliver nerve growth-enhancing substrates while providing structural support. These factors would promote nerve repairs to the target area. Hydrogels' macroporous properties would enable attachment of cells and enhance ion and nutrient exchange. In addition, hydrogels' biodegradability or bioresolvability would prevent the need for surgical removal of the hydrogel after drug delivery. It means that it would be dissolved naturally by the body's enzymatic reaction.
Biochemical repair
Neurotropic factor therapy and gene therapy
Neurotropic growth factors regulate growth, survival, and plasticity of the axon. They benefit nerve regeneration after injury to the nervous system. They are a potent initiator of sensory axon growth and are up-regulated at the lesion site. The continuous delivery of neurotropic growth factor (NGF) would increase the nerve regeneration in the spinal cord. However, the excessive dosing of NGF often leads to undesired plasticity and sprouting of uninjured sensory nerves. Gene therapy would be able to increase the NGF efficacy by the controlled and sustained delivery in a site-specific manner.
Stem cell-based therapies
The possibility for nerve regeneration after injury to the spinal cord was considered to be limited because of the absence of major neurogenesis. However, Joseph Altman showed that cell division does occur in the brain which allowed potential for stem cell therapy for nerve regeneration. The stem cell-based therapies are used in order to replace cells lost and injured due to inflammation, to modulate the immune system, and to enhance regeneration and remyelination of axons. Neural stem cells (NSC) have the potential to integrate with the spinal cord because in the recent past investigations have demonstrated their potential for differentiation into multiple cell types that are crucial to the spinal cord. Studies show that NSCs that were transplanted into a demyelinating spinal cord lesion were found to regenerate oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, and completely remyelinated axons.
See also
Encephalomyelitis
Myalgic encephalomyelitis – also known as chronic fatigue syndrome
Transverse myelitis
References
External links
Inflammations
Central nervous system disorders | [
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|
218582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severino%20Gazzelloni | Severino Gazzelloni | Severino Gazzelloni, born Severino Gazzellone, (January 5, 1919 – November 21, 1992), was an Italian flutist.
Biography
He was born in Roccasecca and died in Cassino. Gazzelloni was the principal flautist with the RAI National Symphony Orchestra in Turin for 30 years and dedicatee of many works. Composers including Luciano Berio (Sequenza I for solo flute, 1958), Pierre Boulez, Bruno Maderna and Igor Stravinsky wrote pieces for him.
Gazzelloni was also a flute teacher. Some of his notable pupils include jazz player Eric Dolphy, classical flautist Abbie de Quant, flautists Ann Cherry and Carol Wincenc, composer Norma Beecroft, and audio engineer Marina Bosi. Dolphy honored Gazzelloni by naming a composition for him which he included in his 1964 Out to Lunch! album.
In summer 1976 he toured through Italy, performing with classical pianist Bruno Canino and a jazz combo that included Enrico Intra (piano), Giancarlo Barigozzi (tenor saxophone), Pino Presti (electric bass), Tullio De Piscopo (drums), and Sergio Farina
(electric guitar).
Filmography
1980: "FF.SS." – Cioè: "...che mi hai portato a fare sopra a Posillipo se non mi vuoi più bene?"
References
Bibliography
Alessandra Vaccarone, Riflessi d'un flauto d'oro. Severino Gazzelloni e la letteratura flautistica contemporanea (1952-1980), Rome, Riverberi Sonori, 2002.
Italian flautists
1919 births
1992 deaths
20th-century Italian musicians
Italian jazz musicians
Italian classical musicians | [
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|
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