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218583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safeco | Safeco | Safeco Insurance, a member of Liberty Mutual Group, is an American insurance company. It held the naming rights to the Seattle Mariners' baseball stadium Safeco Field from its opening in 1999 through the end of the 2018 season.
History
Safeco was founded in Seattle, Washington, in 1923 by Hawthorne K. Dent as the General Insurance Company of America, a property and casualty insurer. This name is still used by Safeco on some of its insurance products. Thirty years later the company founded the Selective Auto and Fire Ensurance Company of America, or SAFECO (i.e., S.A.F.E. Co.).
General Insurance's first headquarters were in downtown Seattle at the corner of University Street and Fourth Avenue.
In 1936, it moved to the eight-story Brooklyn Building at the corner of N.E. 45th Street and Brooklyn Avenue N.E. in the University District.
General Insurance began to sell life insurance in 1957. Eleven years later the corporate name changed from the General Insurance Company of America to Safeco Corporation. (The company would end up changing the capitalization of its name from SAFECO to Safeco at the turn of the century.) Around the same time the company began to offer mutual funds and commercial credit (though precursors to the Safeco Funds had been around since the 1930s).
Safeco replaced the Brooklyn Building with the 22-story Safeco Plaza building in 1973. It remains the tallest building in the city outside Downtown.
Acquisitions
In 1997, Safeco bought American States Financial Corporation to expand beyond the West Coast. Washington Mutual's WM Life Insurance Company was purchased the same year. Two years later, Safeco bought R.F. Bailey (Underwriting Agencies) Limited of London.
Restructuring
In 2001, new management was brought in to restructure the company. Commercial credit operations were sold to General Electric in 2001, and on March 15, 2004, the company announced the sale of its most profitable division, the life insurance and investments business, to a group of private investors led by Safeco board members and Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway Inc. and White Mountains Insurance Group, Ltd., incorporating as Symetra Financial Corporation. The same day, it was announced that Hub International Ltd. was buying Safeco's insurance brokerage operations. Less than a month later, on April 12, it was announced that Mellon Financial Corporation would buy Safeco Trust Company, whose business is providing financial and estate planning services to individuals with over $1 million in assets. On August 2, the closure of Safeco Asset Management, the mutual-fund business, was announced.
On April 6, 2005, CEO Mike McGavick announced that Safeco would be consolidating operations at either the University District "home office" campus or the newer Eastside campus in Redmond, pending a competition between Microsoft and the University of Washington for the sale of one or the other location. On January 19, 2006, it was announced that Microsoft would purchase the Redmond campus for $209.5 million. Plans were announced for a new office tower across the street from Safeco Plaza to house the approximately 1,300 Redmond employees. However, McGavick subsequently stepped down as CEO to run for the U.S. Senate. In a surprise move, his replacement Paula Rosput Reynolds announced on August 30, 2006, that the entire University District complex would be sold as well, to the University of Washington for $130 million. Employees were told they would be moved to leased space in downtown Seattle. Some speculated this signalled the imminent sale of the company, although Safeco denied this. Safeco moved back downtown in 2007; its new headquarters at 1001 Fourth Avenue became the new Safeco Plaza, and the old Safeco Plaza was renamed UW Tower.
Liberty Mutual Insurance
On April 23, 2008, Safeco announced an agreement to be acquired by Liberty Mutual for $68.25 per share. Safeco continues to offer personal lines insurance (including auto, home, motorcycle, recreational vehicle, watercraft and more) through independent agents
Philanthropy
On February 12, 2010, Safeco announced its donation of more than 800 pieces of its Safeco Art Collection to the Washington Art Consortium. This move was hailed by members of the local arts community as being a significant and rare gift.
Notes
References
External links
Official site
Historical Annual Reports for Safeco
Insurance companies of the United States
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Companies based in Seattle
Financial services companies established in 1923
1923 establishments in Washington (state)
American companies established in 1923
2008 mergers and acquisitions
Liberty Mutual
American corporate subsidiaries | [
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218585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Powell | Jane Powell | Jane Powell (born Suzanne Lorraine Burce; April 1, 1929 – September 16, 2021) was an American actress, singer, and dancer who first appeared in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer musicals in the 1940s. With her soprano voice and girl-next-door image, Powell appeared in films, television and on the stage. She was notable for her performances in A Date with Judy (1948), Royal Wedding (1951), Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), and Hit the Deck (1955).
Powell also made appearances on stage such as in My Fair Lady and The Sound of Music. She also appeared occasionally on television, including recurring guest roles on The Love Boat (1981–1982), as well as the sitcom Growing Pains (1988–1992). She was a veteran of the Golden Age of Hollywood.
Life and career
Early years
Powell was born Suzanne Lorraine Burce, the only child of Paul Emerson Burce and Eileen Baker Burce, on April 1, 1929, in Portland, Oregon. Powell began dance lessons when she was 2 years old. By age 5, Powell had appeared on the Portland children's radio program Stars of Tomorrow. She took dance lessons at the Agnes Peters School of Dance, where the Burce family met a talent scout and dance instructor who convinced the family to move to Oakland, California, to attract Hollywood talent agents. After 3 months of living in a hotel room, the family returned to Portland, and her father took a job managing a Banbury Cross apartment building. While living in Banbury Cross, Powell took singing lessons.
As a child, Powell was sexually abused by tenants in the apartment building, but did not disclose the assault to her parents for fear of aggravating her mother, who was an alcoholic and had a volatile temper.
When Powell was 12 years old, a talent promoter helped her get selected as the Oregon Victory Girl. She began singing on Portland radio station KOIN and traveled Oregon for 2 years, singing and selling victory bonds. While vacationing in California in 1943, Powell won a Hollywood talent show and signed a contract with MGM Theaters in Hollywood the next day at the age of 14.
She wanted to go back to high school and to university, but her mother forbade this as she was the only one making good money.
1943–1950: Contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
After signing with MGM, Powell was lent to United Artists for her first film, Song of the Open Road (1944), where she played the character of Jane Powell and took that as her professional name. In 1945, Powell sang "Because" at the wedding of Esther Williams and Ben Gage.
Powell's second feature film was Delightfully Dangerous(1945), then she appeared in Holiday in Mexico (1946), where she met Roddy McDowall, who became a life-long friend.
More films followed, including Three Daring Daughters (1948), A Date with Judy (1948), Luxury Liner (1948), Nancy Goes to Rio (1950), and Two Weeks With Love (1950).
Powell lamented that she only ever got to play the parts of teenage girls. She had got to the age of 25, with children of her own, and still found herself typecast in these roles. Though she accepted that this was the way that she needed to support her family.
In 1949, Powell sang at Harry S. Truman’s inaugural ball, and she sang for five U.S. presidents and the queen of England.
1951–1958: Royal Wedding and Seven Brides for Seven Brothers
In 1951, Powell starred in the musical comedy Royal Wedding and in Rich, Young and Pretty.
She starred in Small Town Girl and Three Sailors and a Girl in 1953. Powell starred in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers in 1954. In 2006, Seven Brides for Seven Brothers was named one of the greatest American musicals of all time by the American Film Institute. Powell starred in Athena and Deep in My Heart in 1954.
In 1955, Powell starred opposite Tony Martin, Debbie Reynolds, Ann Miller, and Russ Tamblyn in Hit the Deck, which was a commercial failure, underperforming at the box office. The following year, she recorded the song "True Love", which rose to number 15 on the Billboard charts and number 107 on the pop charts for that year, according to the Joel Whitburn compilation. This was her only single to make the charts. Also in 1956, Powell performed the song "I'll Never Stop Loving You" at the 28th Academy Awards. Next, Powell appeared in RKO Pictures' musical comedy The Girl Most Likely, playing a woman who becomes engaged to three men simultaneously. Though shot in 1956, the film was not released until 1958, after RKO went out of business.
Known mainly for her roles in musical comedies, Powell appeared in a rare dramatic role in the film noir The Female Animal (1958) from Universal Pictures, which marked the final film of co-star Hedy Lamarr.
1959–1980: Theater and television
By the late 1950s, after Powell's contract with MGM expired and her film offers began to slow, she turned to theater. Her first summer stock role was in a production of Oklahoma! in Dallas, Texas, in 1958. The following year, she co-starred with Tab Hunter, Patty Duke, and Myrna Loy in a television remake of the musical Meet Me in St. Louis. She starred in a stage production of The Most Happy Fella (1962). In 1962, Powell made her debut appearance on the television series The Red Skelton Show, in which she appeared in numerous episodes until 1972.
In 1964, Powell starred as Eliza Doolittle in a production of My Fair Lady at Los Angeles' Valley West Theatre, which established a record gross for West Coast-based productions of the play. She also toured in 1964 in a musical review titled Just 20 Plus Me! It was done to a recorded track and featured Powell with 20 handsome "chorus boys". Asked after the performance if the production was going to be made available on a commercial recording, she said simply "No."
She had the title role in The Unsinkable Molly Brown in 1966, as well as the female lead in an Atlanta-based production of Carousel, followed by The Boy Friend at the Carousel Theater in Los Angeles in 1967. Also in 1967, she starred in a touring production of Brigadoon. Next, she portrayed Maria von Trapp in a production of The Sound of Music in 1968. In addition to her stage work, Powell appeared in three television films: Wheeler and Murdoch (1972), The Letters (1973), and Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976).
In 1972, Powell appeared in a Cincinnati-based stage production of Meet Me In St. Louis. The following year, Powell made her Broadway debut playing the title character in Irene, following Debbie Reynolds' performance in the title role. Mel Gussow of The New York Times praised Powell's performance, writing: "The two stars are an equal match for peppiness. Miss Reynolds may score a point for clowning, but Miss Powell wins two for softness."
Howard Keel and she appeared on stage together in a revival of Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, I Do! I Do! and South Pacific.
1981–2021: Later years; return to theater
In the early 1980s, Powell toured in the comedies Same Time, Next Year; The Marriage-Go-Round, and Chapter Two.
Between 1981 and 1982, Powell had guest-starring role on The Love Boat and Fantasy Island. In 1985, she started a 9-month run in the daytime soap opera Loving, playing a tough mother and businesswoman, followed by another guest-starring part on Murder, She Wrote in 1985. In 1988, Powell was cast in a recurring guest role on the popular sitcom Growing Pains, in which she played Irma Seaver, the mother of Dr. Jason Roland Seaver (Alan Thicke). The same year, in May 1988, Powell married her longtime companion, former child actor Dickie Moore. The couple had met while Moore was performing research for his autobiography Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, but Don't Have Sex or Take the Car.
In the early 1990s, Powell was a temporary replacement on the soap opera As the World Turns for Eileen Fulton as Lisa Grimaldi. In 1996 and 1997, she appeared in the off-Broadway production After-Play. She also performed the role of the Queen in Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella at New York City Opera. In 2000, Powell appeared in the Off-Broadway production Avow, in which she portrayed a devout Catholic woman whose gay son wishes to marry his partner in the church. This was followed by a stage production of 70, Girls, 70, the same year. In 2002, she guest-starred on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, followed by a role in the Showtime film The Sandy Bottom Orchestra (2003).
In 2003, she made a return to the stage as Mama Mizner in the Stephen Sondheim musical Bounce, which held performances in Chicago and Washington, DC. "I auditioned just to meet Sondheim, who was nice and a very funny man,” Powell admitted. "But I was disappointed when I got the part. I didn't really want to be away from home, but I had never done a new show and that seemed exciting at first. But I didn't have much to do and the part wasn't too jovial."
On New Year's Eve 2007, Powell returned to her hometown of Portland, Oregon, to narrate Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf with the Portland-based musical group Pink Martini. She also appeared on March 9, 2008, with Pink Martini at Avery Fisher Hall in New York City, singing a duet of "Aba Daba Honeymoon" with lead singer China Forbes.
In March 2009, she appeared and sang "Love Is Where You Find It" in a show in which Michael Feinstein celebrated movie musicals and MGM musicals in particular. She performed again with Pink Martini at the Hollywood Bowl on September 10, 2010. Powell filled in as guest host on Turner Classic Movies for Robert Osborne when he was on medical leave from July 17–23, 2011.
Personal life
On November 5, 1949, Powell married former figure skater Gearhardt Anthony Steffen. Her first child, Gearhardt Steffen III, was born July 21, 1951. Powell's second child, Suzanne Ilene Steffen, was born on November 21, 1952. Powell began an affair with Gene Nelson, her co-star in Three Sailors and a Girl. Powell and Nelson divorced their spouses with plans to wed, but Nelson backed out after his divorce. Powell and Steffen divorced in August 1953.
Powell married automobile executive Patrick W. Nerney on November 8, 1954, in Ojai, California. Their daughter, Lindsey Averill Nerney, was born on February 1, 1956. Powell and Nerney divorced In May 1963.
Powell married and divorced twice more before falling for former child-star Dickie Moore in 1982 and marrying him six years later. Following the death of her husband in 2015, Powell sold their Manhattan apartment and relocated permanently to their second home in Wilton, Connecticut. Powell died of natural causes in Wilton on September 16, 2021, at the age of 92.
Legacy
Powell was referred to as one of the last surviving stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood. She secured her place in history with her performance in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers.
Despite bouts with severe depression, anxiety and insecurity, Powell retained a public image of the all-American girl-next-door and was a symbol of simpler times. Powell's role in Song of the Open Road in 1944, a film that presented Powell as a wholesome girl next door, was suspected to have pigeon-holed her in future musicals.
In 1960, Powell was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Filmography
Features
Short subjects
Screen Snapshots: Motion Picture Mothers, Inc. (1949)
1955 Motion Picture Theatre Celebration (1955)
Stage work
Allegro (1951)
Oklahoma! (1958)
The Most Happy Fella (1962)
The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1963; 1966; 1981)
Carousel (1966)
The Boy Friend (1967)
The Sound of Music (1968; 1972)
My Fair Lady (1969; 1971)
I Do! I Do! (1970)
Meet Me in St. Louis (1972)
Brigadoon (1973)
Irene (1974; 1975–76)
Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1978)
South Pacific (1978)
The Marriage-Go-Round (1981)
Sweethearts (1983)
Cinderella (1995)
After-Play (1996)
Ancestral Voices (2000)
Avow (2000)
Nothing Like a Dame (2000)
70, Girls, 70 (2000)
Bounce (2003; 2004)
Radio
1944 — Powell played the title role in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs on Screen Guild Theatre on CBS.
1947 — Powell co-starred with Frank Sinatra in Songs by Sinatra.
1952 — Lux Radio Theatre (episode Royal Wedding)
Recordings
1949: Romance — Columbia Masterworks LP (ML 2034)
1949: A Date with Jane Powell — Columbia Masterworks LP (ML 2045)
1956: Can't We Be Friends? — Verve Records LP (MGV 2023), re-released as a Limited Edition Japanese import CD in a mini-LP slip case in 2004.
1956: Something Wonderful (with David Rose and His Orchestra) — MGM Records (E3451)
2000: Hansel and Gretel/Alice in Wonderland — Collectables Records CD
2001: Romance/A Date with Jane Powell — Collectables Records CD (COL-CD-6670 / Sony A-50271)
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Jane Powell at Virtual History
1929 births
2021 deaths
Actresses from Portland, Oregon
American film actresses
American female dancers
American women singers
American musical theatre actresses
American sopranos
American television actresses
Dancers from Oregon
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
Musicians from Portland, Oregon
Singers from Oregon
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American women | [
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218590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado%2C%20Puerto%20Rico | Dorado, Puerto Rico | Dorado () is a town and municipality in the northern coast of Puerto Rico, west of San Juan and is located in the northern region of the island, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of Toa Alta, east of Vega Alta, and west of Toa Baja. Dorado is subdivided into five barrios and Dorado Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the city). It is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area. During the early 18th century, there were already mentions of a "Sitio de Dorado" (meaning a golden place) in some San Juan registers. Since the beginning of the Spanish colonial period and until 1831, Dorado existed as a barrio (or ward) of the town of Toa Baja. Over several years, the ward grew and established its own town center called the "new pueblo" to differentiate itself from Toa Baja, which became known as the "old pueblo." Over several years, the barrios that currently make up Dorado grew and the people of the "new pueblo" wanted to separate themselves from Toa Baja.
On November 22, 1842, Jacinto López Martínez, the Sergeant at Arms for the ward of Dorado, petitioned the Spanish Governor of Puerto Rico, Santiago Méndez Vigo, to establish the municipality of Dorado. The governor authorized the founding of the town pending the construction of public works, including an administrative building and a church near the town square. In 1848, the construction of the public works were completed and López Martínez became the first mayor of Dorado. Puerto Rico was ceded by Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 and became a territory of the United States. In 1899, the United States conducted its first census of Puerto Rico finding that the population of Dorado was 3,804. In 1902, four years after the Spanish–American War, Dorado was again appended to Toa Baja. However, in 1905 it regained its status as a separate town. Nowadays, Dorado has upscale neighborhoods and a small downtown area with a plaza (main town square), as other Puerto Rican municipalities. The town's patron saint is Anthony of Padua, and patron saint celebrations are held at the plaza every year on June 13.
History
Pre-Columbian period and colonization
The region adjacent Toa river (modern day La Plata river) was inhabited by several indigenous groups that left behind physical proof of their presence in the region. The area surrounding the Toa river was scouted by Juan Ponce de León during his initial reconnaissance of the geography of the main island. Near it, the Conquistadores built some huts in which to rest. However, citing "difficulties" with the region, the Spaniards opted to move to the region that would eventually become Caparra, the colonial Spanish capital of San Juan Bautista (the original Spanish name for Puerto Rico). During the beginning of the Spanish colonization, the area known as Toa was ruled by Taíno cacique (a title akin to Chief) Aramaná, who controlled the regions comprising Punta Salinas to Cibuco river (modern day Toa Baja through Vega Baja). After Agüeybana I (a title akin to High Chief or king) entered in association with the Spanish conquistadors through the guaytiao he became known as Francisco de Aramaná, also being recognized as a Don. Now technically as politically influential as Agüeybana due to the ceremony, the Spanish were able to include the lower ranking caciques, including Aramaná, in the encomiendas system and placed several in charge of royal farms and mining operations near Toa river. The region proved production both in agriculture and mining and an assimilation process began between both cultures. Ponce de León himself created Hacienda del Rey and requested the creation of a new conuco near Toa river, which was later sold to Pedro Ortiz. The conquistador also built other properties that he later sold to other Spaniards. Around 500 Taínos worked under the caciques in the area.
Oral tradition claims that a Spaniard named Juan González somehow survived long enough after being severely injured in the initial Taíno offensive of the Spanish-Taíno War of San Juan-Borikén to reach the region of Toa and warn the conquistadores. Ten years after the beginning if the colonization, more than 17 estates were built in the region, with harvests being transported trough the Toa river to Palo Seco and to the Capital from there. After Ponce de León transferred Hacienda del Rey to other Spaniards, the estate steadily declined and by 1524 denounces were made about its state. As more Spanish families settled, problems between neighbors arose, prompting Francisco de Negrete to request that a mayor was assigned to the region in 1611. However, it is not until 1731 that ra mayor, Juan Dávila, appears in the records. During the following decades, more than 24 mayors would serve office, with military officers taking prominence beginning in the 1740s.
Existence as part of Toa Baja
On September 11, 1627, San Juan's council ordered the creation of a ship route between Bayamón and Toa, giving control of the rent to the council of the first city. From here, the rest of the route was traversed on horseback. On the way from the Capital to the central north coast, two passages were encountered, the Palo Seco and the Boca Hababa river. After crossing the second, a rest area was built in modern day Barrio Mameyal. With an increase in traffic, the inhabitants of the town of Toa saw business opportunities and began joining the local fishermen, steadily creating a small settlement. By the first half of the 18th century, the locale was already known as "Dorado", "Boca del Dorado" or "Alto del Dorado" and referred to as such in official documentation. The municipality of Toa Baja was founded either in 1745. Other sources place the foundation taking place in 1747. With this development, the region became part of it. The Santa Hermandad mayor would then become municipal mayor. By 1748, the Settler Captain was George García Páes. In February 1761, there was a conflict between the overseer of the Boca Havana passage, Cayetano Quiñones, and the local fishermen in which the location became relevant. The control and lent of these passages remained in contention during the following century, with the San Juan council refereeing similar issues.
Towards the 18th century's end and entering the 19th century, the municipality had become a hub for sugar plantations lead by Spanish hacendados and slavers, who exploited an international need for sugar caused by the Haitian revolution to export it and derivatives like rum while also meeting local demands. Other crops were also grown, but no priority was given to them. The end of the Napoleonic wars and the elimination of some taxes allowed a new generation of hacendados from the capital of San Juan to benefit from the booming industry, among the mayors Jacinto López Martínez and José Canales. However, the roads that lead to Western Puerto Rico crossed trough el Dorado and this, combined with flooding concerns, did not allow the municipality to develop a proper urban center, with Palo Seco being its main commerce epicenter. By 1820, Dorado itself was as big as the municipal town and the crisis lead to a proposal of relocating the municipal town there being presented to colonial governor Miguel de la Torre by hacendados with ties to him during a visit. On October 20, 1824, the move was authorized, but it stalled due to opposition from the settlers. However, this same year a hurricane named Santa Ana ravaged and flooded the municipal town, causing the death of people and cattle, accelerating the process. The following years, the construction of a royal house and a church had begun at Dorado. During this time, Toa Baja's mayor José Marí Ramírez de Arellano requested moving the boat access point near the entry of Dorado to a more accessible location, avoiding dangerous body of waters in the process, which was later conceded by the council of San Juan. However, the free transit to Dorado for the neighbors of the municipal town of Toa Baja was attended afterwards, despite being part of the initial request. By 1829, the local militias and the justice offices were relocated as well. However, entering the following decades the dissidents of the move lead by mayor José Manuel de Córdova extra officially forced the return of the municipal institutions and returned them to Toa Baja, claiming lack of proper maintenance. Despite this, Dorado continued growing as the traffic of people traversing trough the royal road rose. By 1832, a teacher named José Viada was teaching the local children. The settlement eventually earned the nickname of "Pueblo Nuevo" to differentiate it from Toa Baja ("Pueblo Viejo").
Secession disputes with Toa Baja
With the plantations lead by administrators, the flourish in the sugar industry continued until 1840, when the market entered in a crisis and the price if products crashed, leaving the region with a declining industry. In 1839, Palo Seco opted to become a separate municipality. On March 10, 1841, colonial governor Santiago de Méndez Vigo authorized moving all the administrative offices from Dorado to Toa Baja, faced by pressure from the settlers. Consequently, former mayor and hacendado Jacinto López Martínez, who had employed his friendship with De la Torre to acquire local terrains between 1813 and 1835, proposed creating a separate municipality by the name of El Dorado in order to secure his wealth by acquiring the title of Settlement Captain. In a reunion with friends and family, he formalized this request. The justification was based in the population growth in Dorado and adjacent barrios and possessing enough resources to sustain itself separately. In arrangements that took place on July 27, 1841, in San Juan, López was joined by José de Folgueras as prospective beneficiaries if the move and his proposal was supported by Manuel Canales, Celedonio Nevárez, Juan P. Nevárez, Domingo López, Andrés Martínez, Florencio Sánchez, José M. López, Ignacio Arrazaín and Ignacio Cordero, who offered to build the buildings necessary to sustain the town. The official request took place shortly afterwards, with the governor requesting feedback from the municipality of Toa Baja after being counseled to do so. After more than a month, the reply contained strong opposition to the separation, heavily criticizing the capacities of those involved in the request citing personal ambitions as a motive and claiming that the lands were unproductive, that the area was plagued with environmental factors that "resulted in the early death" of its residents and that the water was unclean. The rebuttal also claimed that the barrios pushing for separation were unable too poor to sustain the public workings of a town, despite being the ones that contributed most to the fisco up to this point, the purported lack of personnel and a workforce or that the proximity of the settlements would be unlawful. After being given copies of Toa Baja's opposition, López and Folgueras requested that the complaints were dismissed and questioned the accuracy of any of the counterarguments, also opting to criticize that some of the proponents were being targeted for being poor, which should not prevent them from entering association. The group also labelled Toa Baja as a failed municipality by using its iwn criteria, responding that the criticism for lack of a workforce was unfair since despite its age the town faced similar problems.
Public hearings were then proposed and accepted by the colonial governor. The process was assigned to Commander Miguel Delgado, who left to Toa Baja accompanied by witnesses Plácido de Cabrera and Juan M. Feijoó. The following day, March 10, 1842, the preliminary preparations began. Only 14 of the 120 available testified in the hearings, which were interviewed about their residence in Dorado and expressed favor for the creation of a municipality. Delgado also supervised the status of progression in the construction of a Catholic church. On March 13, 1842, a process to interview the opponents at Toa Baja, who had since stepped our from authority, began and extended for three days. Afterwards, Delgado returned to San Juan with a report for the governor favoring the establishment of a new municipality due to favorable conditions and military potential and discarding proximity as a factor, since Camuy and Hatillo were already proximate. Méndez Vigo delegated the issue to an aid, Anacleto Buelta, who suggested interviewing the current Toa Baja administration and argued inconsistencies in witness selection. Delgado died suddenly shortly afterwards. Buelta then recommended beginning a new process again in Toa Baja, which the colonial governor conceded and assigned the task to councilor Domingo García. On May 28, 1842, he left the capital accompanied by witnesses Plácido de Cabrera and Eusebio de Cabrera. The second set of hearings began on June 1, 1842, in the town hall of Toa Baja, which assigned a commission to oversee the process, with several of the previous deponents ratifying their previous statements and 23 inhabitants of Dorado supporting the request for separation, with the remainder being forced to attend subsequent hearings by the local court. All ratified their previous support except five, who felt that they would be forced to work in the church, a job that they had left at Toa Baja. The only exceptions, according to the rural mayors of Dorado and Maguayo, were either sick or absent. The Toa Baja Commission, represented by mayor Juan Landrón an overseer and the municipal secretary, proposed that only proprietors, those that paid subsidies, should be consulted, considering the declarations of those that didn't useless and potentially damaging to those that did. The municipal government also opposed the declarations of no -resident proponents, those that weren't family heads or that had any connection with the main proponents, accompanied by a list of people that they considered ineligible.
Founding of Dorado
On June 4, 1842, Landrón submitted a list of people that were considered eligible by his administration, including residents from barrios that were not initially interested in the action. This same day, opposition hearings were held where the administration if Toa Baja presented its case, with López and Folgueras serving as witnesses. A total of 91 neighbors from these barrios attended, with the opinions regarding the foundation of Dorado being in favor of the opposition 125-8, without counting a number of indifferent attendees. Hearing concluded on June 9, 1842, with a relevant report being completed the same day. Like the first, it was delegated to an aide. Two days later, López addressed the colonial governor requesting a copy of the aide's conclusion, citing the suspicion that the municipality of Toa Baja had used ineligible witnesses to dilate the process. Shortly afterwards, López impugned the declarations of opposing witnesses, noting that most did not live near the proposed municipality and that others simply wanted to avoid paying more to the government, requesting statistics of paying inhabitants of Dorado with which to argue that they were capable of sustaining a new town. On August 12, 1842, the proponents sent a recount of the process and requested that the colonial governor authorized the founding of Dorado, printing the aid to request the opinion of the Toa Baja administration. On September 8, 1842, the municipal government once again opposed the separation. After receiving it, aide Melitón Belanzathegui recommended proceeding with the foundation of a new municipality, with Méndez Vigo authorizing the creation of San Antonio del Dorado on November 22, 1842. The government made demands guaranteeing the construction of several building, towards which López placed his own properties as collateral. The founders also requested to begin the process to assign or elect relevant authority figures, all of which were granted. The colonial governor also named López Settler Captain and ordered that all buildings were completed within a year and a half. The demarcation process was initially overseen by Pedro García with the help of Julio O'Neill of the Bayamón Department with Carlos Vuagneaux taking charge following a suspención due to weather, and began on January 10, 1843, extending for six days. The cost of establishing the new municipality ascended 4,196 pesos with 20 cents. Despite the founding of a number of schools, the education in the new municipality was troubled by the instability in the permanency of teachers appointed by the Catholic Church.
During this time, there were around 17 high class residences in the municipality, while the working class lived in wood huts. Depending on an agricultural economy, there were several hundred African slaves working in the Spanish haciendas of Dorado. On March 6, 1843, there was a slave uprising in the hacienda of Francisco Cantero, who after being received by gunfire in the Catholic Church in Toa Baja, fled to the sugar plantations of Dorado, where the government captured them and sentenced several to death. Despite royal decrees prohibiting the traffic of African slaves, the Spaniards continued illegally importing them, with Dorado mayor José Carreras actively participating in the trade. However, the salve population was severely hit by a cholera epidemic, and two years later the colonial government confiscated a ship property of Carreras was confiscated due to its suspected links with the activity. Consternation in the colonial authorities lead to the slaves being permitted to file complaints before the Municipal Sindico Receiver. A predominantly Catholic culture also brought another phenomenon, in which repentant slave owners set them free as part if their last will. Other work sources, like corral fishing, required permission first from the council of San Juan and later from the municipal administration.
By 1848, the municipality of Dorado was running all of its functions under López, now mayor and War Lieutenant and in charge of filling several reports related to the population, wealth and agricultural production. Afterwards, the mayor would be elected by the governor from a pool of three candidates selected by the municipality's elite and only served a maximum of two years. During this time, the economy was dependent on 9 sugar haciendas and 54 cattle estates. The industry in question was dominated by López himself, Manuel Skerrett, Francisco Cantero, José Marrero, Carlos Vassallo, Miguel Torrens, Juan P. Nevárez, Florencio Salgado, and the inheritors of María E. Martínez. Being located in the Camino Real (Royal Highway) grocery and other types of stores were run by people like Antonio Solé, Benito Carreras, and Juana Sánchez and brothers. These types of businesses continued flourishing for the following decades. By 1859, there were 179 farms in Dorado. López, Salgado and others also created brick and lime powder factories. At the First Public Exposition of Industry, Agriculture and Arts, Lechet demonstrated his advances in processing white sugar, which earned him a silver commendation from the Secretary of the Royal Commerce Board, Andrés Viña. In the third edition of this event, a Dorado factory won the gold award for a variety if products.
Abolition of slavery and Spanish-American War
On March 19, 1850, the municipality was reclassified as a Second Class Mayorship. On August 4, 1860, Toa Baja mayor Manuel Aguayo proposed the merger of Dorado into Toa Baja, which was opposed by Dirado mayor Pablo A. Dueño and his administration. A month later the proposal was dropped by the colonial governor. Upon his death in 1862, López himself left money for his slaves. His inheritors failed to preserve the terrains that were received from him. In 1870, a group of four slaves -named Manuel Díaz, Juan Pedro, Juan D. Epifanio and Benito- killed the butler of hacienda La Monserrate, Manuel M. Sampayo Saldaña, who had developed a reputation for the eating the violently. For this act, the colonial government executed them on September 26, 1870. The event would become part of Dorado's oral tradition. Despite drop in the local price of slaves, some residents of Cuba would buy slaves and export them to that island where the price was rising. In 1872, an incident involving a Frenchman named José Beaupied lead to the slaver being intervened and losing the four children of a slave that he had bought, but she was transferred to Dorado and with the help of a fellow Frenchman and later committed suicide. The event was controversial and lead to the local British ambassador, H. August Cowper, protesting the moving if slaves between the islands before the Spanish crown. Telegraph lines were placed in 1870, connecting Dirado to several municipalities and remaining in service for more than a century.
As abolition became impending, several entities including Sucesión de Torrens, Sobrinos de Arrazaín and Skerret y Hermanos joined individuals such as Ambrosio Martorell and released their slaves pro bono. For thus action, they were commended by the Spanish Crown on April 26, 1873. In total, the abolition granted freedom to 402 slaves in Dorado. Oral tradition claims that the freed celebrated until midnight, when a thunderstorm suddenly appeared and during which the tomb of Sampayo was struck by lightning. A series of earthquakes in late 1867 damaged buildings in Dorado, particularly the Catholic Church. In 1872, local instruction was placed in charge of José Iglesias and six years later the situation began improving. In 1884, José D. Félix and Pedro M. Agüeeo founded private schools, which attended an interest of the higher classes to educate their children. Entering the next decade, there were six public schools and several hundred children being educated. However, the elementary system was troubled, with only two schools classified as Second Class by the government. By this time there were more than 200 houses in the urban area of Dorado and over 270 families.
Dorado remained a poor municipality throughout the 19th century and the 1873 agricultural crisis exacerbated its issues to the point that towards 1897 was unable to pay debts that had been accumulating for nearly 30 years. During this crisis, several of the hacendados were forced to mortgage their haciendas, incurring in large debts that lead to some losing them. On July 20, 1870, the annexation to Toa Baja was proposed by conservatives, but failed to proceed. Early during this decade, there were seven businesses that paid subsidies, while during the second half there were some 14 businesses. On June 10, 1873, the municipality of Dorado requested permission to widen and deepen the La Plata river mouth to allow larger ships to enter in an attempt to reinvigorate the sugar industry. However, a prolonged draught seriously affected the crops and combined with the payment that was now given to former slaves, the situation quickly declined.
Jacinto López II became mayor in 1875, holding the office until the year of his death nine years later, but despite this influence debt made him lose the terrains that once belonged to his father to the colonial government. The budgets were not satisfactory, but Dorado received the control of the passage of La Plata, which it rented. However, the passage soon became a point of contention between those that wanted to oversee it and the municipality, including a failed 1878 litigation presented to the colonial governor himself during a visit. By this year, there were only 7 steam powered sugar mills working in the municipality.
On March 8, 1891, the train track connecting Dorado to Manatí and Martín Peña were inaugurated. The passenger train would operate until the 1940s. A sales tax was imposed to try and counter the crisis in 1895, but within a year the abolition of Dorado as a municipality was considered. The final decade of the century borough forth a sugar renaissance, growing to 11 haciendas which where complemented by a coffee estate. By 1893, there were 229 farms, with seven totaling more than half of the terrains with Pablo Ubarri being the dominant owner. As consequence of the Spanish-American War, Dorado was placed in charge of the colonial American government on October 11, 1898.
American military administration
This change in sovereignty resulted in several of the local haciendas being systematically redistributed between Americans such as R.S. Brown, William W. Miner and corporations like Y.P.R. Fruit Land Co. and Finlay Waymouth and Lee, Inc. during the following decade. Ubarri's terrains were fragmented and part of it ended being owned by Afred Livingston and his daughter Clara. The Parraoquial House was seized by the colonial government and in 1922 the municipality turned it into an emergency building.
Elections for municipal offices began being held on January 16, 1900. The results were certified by representative of the colonial government, Lt. Woodson Hocker. By 1902, there were six schools in Dorado. These institutions would later be staffed by Doradeños that graduated from the University of Puerto Rico, completed by other locals. With time, some families would dedicate to instruction. By the second decade of the century, Escuela Jacinto López Martínez and Segunda Unidad de Maguayo were built to accommodate the increasing school age population, with the first being created at the behest of mayor Heraclio López Canino.
Alfredo López would take the office of mayor from his father and begin a series of urban development projects. The following two decades, Pedro López Canino and two rural schools were built. Near it, the Escuela Ricardo Arroyo Laracuente served as middle school. In 1952, Manuel Morales García was elected as mayor. In 1964, a local high school was built so that local children did not have to travel to Toa Baja, the following decade it was renamed after local attorney José S. Alegría.
Pedro López Canino served as mayor taking over the municipal administration when Dorado's budget was merely $3,000, with this sum ascending to $18,000 by the 1920s. The first telephone lines were placed in 1910 and operators were employed until the 1960s. That same year, the Puerto Rico Power and Light Co. installed electrical lines.
New stores were founded early in this century, including El Siglo XX and Salgado y Pérez, both of which ceased to exist during the first half of the century. The first gas station in Dorado was founded by Ramón Pérez, who also created the Dorada Bus Line. Milk and ice were also distributed. Maritime and fresh water fishers were responsible for providing fresh fish and several would later become part of Dorado's oral tradition. During the 1950s, the Dorado Fishing Club introduced sport fishing to the municipality.
Ultimately, Dorado was annexed to Toa Alta in 1902, when the Puerto Rico legislature ordered the move due to its economic woes. In March 1905, the same entity reversed the move. By 1920, 177 farms remained, with a sharp decline in mid-sized and small properties. Three years after the death of Alfred Livingston in 1923, the government reclaimed Mata Redonda farm since it had been acquired illegally, but after being repelled with armed resistance during the impending, the case was seen by the colonial Federal Court, which failed in favor of Clara Livingston. With the foreign interests, cultivation of sugar rose and reached 400 square meters (a unit known in Spanish as "cuerda") of land, but coffee stopped being produced. Other fruits began increasing production during the 1940s. Most of the population was dependent on the opportunities offered by the agricultural entities, which lead to a pronounced unemployment rate. To counter this, the worker's union donated the building where the Dorado Hand Craft factory was established, operating for two decades. New aqueducts and a sewer system replaced a well based system during 1948-50. In 1936, a new bridge crossing La Plata river was inaugurated.
During the 1940s, there was widespread construction of public and private housing in order to accommodate a series of government reforms. Among these was El Pueblo del Niño, a refuge for children. In 1947, the municipal assembly adopted the official map of Dorado that was proposed with the barrios of Higuillar, Maguayo, Espinosa, Mameyal and Río Lajas.
Commonwealth
In 1953, a widespread fire destroyed 11 houses, with its residents being relocated to new homes provided by charity. This precipitated the creation of a local fire station in 1956. The end of the Korean War lead to another urbanization wave. The construction of private project Urbanización Martorell resulted in several Doradeños returning to settle the houses. This tendency continued during the following three decades, with middle and high class projects being built. In 1957, a road was built between Dorado and Palo Seco.
By the mid-20th century, Dorado continued producing sugar, fruits and cattle, but there was a continued decline in the presence of small and mid-sized properties. However, by this time Finlay Waymouth and Lee, Inc. disappeared. Wealthy families, both local and American, continued acquiring the terrains of Dorado. During the 1950s, an economic shift lead to the virtual disappearance of the sugar industry and the terrains were repurposed for cattle. Clara Livingston sold her terrains to the Rickefelker family, who turned them into two hotels, Dorado Beach and Cerromar. Late in the decade, Dorado created a Municipal Library, located in the old emergency building.
Stores such as La Vencedora and La Favorita were founded during this time, operating during the following decades. In 1972, Alfonso López Chaar was elected mayor with a platform based on sports and culture. Dorado became the first municipality to adopt the landfill system. The 2nd G7 summit was held at the Dorado Beach Resort between June 27 and 28, 1976.
Casa del Rey, which after being acquired from the government by López had served as the house of several people and a political center, was restored by the municipality and the ICP during the second half of the 20th Century. In 1985, the municipal administration began a restoration and redevelopment project named Dorado 2000 prior to the celebration of Dorado's 150th Anniversary. When Alfonso López Chaar left the office of mayor to become Secretary of State in 1987, his successor Carlos López became the youngest mayor in Puerto Rico at that point at the age of 29. In 1988 the Committee on the Quality of Life of a Puerto Rico recognized the municipality as first in their life quality rankings. The municipality revalidated and was included into the entity's hall of fame. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo made landfall in Puerto Rico and caused heavy damages to the municipality. By the 1990s, Dorado del Mar had closed, with Cerromar and Dorado Beach continuing their function. In 1991, a reforestation initiative named Dorado Siembra was implanted. That same year the ICP named the town's cultural program a "cultural model".
On January 6, 1992, floods destroyed the La Plata bridge. That same year, the administration of Dorado held concurrent Fifth Centenary and municipal anniversary events. The Dorado Airport was operated from 1942 to 1996. The airport began as a military landing strip, then became a civilian airport in the 1960s with Caribair and Dorado Wings flights operating until 1980 and 1982 respectively. The airport operated as a private landing strip throughout the 1980s and then fell into disrepair. In 1996, the airport was rezoned as residential land and redeveloped.
Hurricane Maria (2017)
Like the rest of the island, homes in Dorado were damaged by the rain and winds of Hurricane Maria on September 20, 2017.
Flood control project
In mid 2018, the United States Army Corps of Engineers announced it would be undertaking a major flood control project of a river that often causes flooding in Dorado, Río de la Plata.
Geography
Dorado is located in Puerto Rico's Northern Karst region. Much of its geology consists of alluvial and coastal/estuarine sediments of Quaternary age and limestones of Tertiary age. The limestones are mostly in the south part of the municipality, in Espinosa, Maguayo and Rio Lajas barrios. These limestones exhibit mature karst topography of great beauty. It has been subjected to extensive quarrying, which have left unsightly scars in the landscape. Some local communities have gathered efforts to minimize quarrying and improve land management to protect the remaining karst topography and the fauna and flora that lives in it. Around 95% of Dorado's terrain are flood plains while the rest is part of a limestone region. The terrains are naturally fertilized when the Dorado, Plata and Lajas rivers go out of their limits. The rock formation known as Ojo de Buey is tourist attraction, also being associated with legends of ghosts and the claim that the pirate captain Roberto Cofresí's treasure is buried near it.
Hydrography
Some of the rivers of Dorado are:
Rivers: Río Cocal, Río Lajas, Río de la Plata, and Río Nuevo.
Mata Redonda Lagoon
Punta Fraile marsh
Barrios
Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Dorado is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a barrio referred to as .
Dorado barrio-pueblo
Espinosa
Higuillar
Maguayo
Mameyal
Río Lajas
Some of the municipality's barrios are named after the name of its inhabitants or taíno names, even the region itself may have been taken from the last name of an early Spanish settler. Examples of this are Espinosa and Maguayo Others such as Higuilar, Mameyal, Marismillas and Río Lajas are named after flora or geographical features.
Sectors
Barrios (which are like minor civil divisions) in turn are further subdivided into smaller local populated place areas/units called sectores (which means sectors in English). The types of sectores may vary, from normally sector to urbanización to reparto to barriada to residencial, among others.
Special Communities
(Special Communities of Puerto Rico) are marginalized communities whose citizens are experiencing a certain amount of social exclusion. A map shows these communities occur in nearly every municipality of the commonwealth. Of the 742 places that were on the list in 2014, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Dorado: El Caño, Kuilan Barrio Espinosa, La Hormiga, Sector Calondrias, Sector El Cotto, Villa 2000, Villa Iriarte, and Villa Plata.
Climate
Dorado's climate is very hot in the summer months and warm in the winter. Temperatures range around to in the winter and to in the summer.
Culture
Tourism
Dorado's cultural activities feature all of the traditional Puerto Rican elements, but focus on African and Spanish elements. Taíno elements are more conspicuous and mostly influence the food. Popular culture is promoted, which is represented by a number of interpreters such as Juan Boria, Joe Valle and Horacio Olivo. Local painters include José Bernandino and Marcos J. Alegría. In the early 20th century the Rockefeller family purchased plots of land in the northwest region of the municipality of Dorado where they built a huge private vacation compound. Laurance Rockefeller would later use this land to create Dorado Beach Hotel and Golf Club, which later became the Dorado Beach Hyatt Hotel which closed in 2007. Dorado Beach Hotel became a Ritz Carlton hotel in 2012, which got the top spot in the 2019 Conde Naste Readers' Choice.
Dorado has long been known as a golf haven. Its tourist industry includes the Dorado Beach Resort (Ritz-Carlton Reserve & Plantation), the Hyatt Hacienda del Mar, and Embassy Suites in the Dorado Del Mar neighborhood. As of 2014 there are three operating golf courses in the municipality, the Dorado Beach East Course, the Plantation Sugarcane Course and the Plantation Pineapple Course. The Dorado del Mar course closed in 2014.
Landmarks and places of interest
Dorado has 24 beaches, including .
Some of the places to visit in Dorado are located downtown. For example, the Museum Casa del Rey is the house built in most towns controlled by Spain during their colonization, which was intended for the King and Queen to stay if they visited. The museum includes several artifacts from the era. There's also the Distinguished Doradeños Square, and the Juan Boria Theater. The last one was recently reopened after a long period of restoration.
Some of the most visited beaches in Dorado are Sardinera, Kikita and El Unico are other beaches frequented by surfers. The Ojo del Buey Park is a park located at the base level of the La Plata River. The name comes from a rock formation that has the shape of an ox. The Dorado Pterocarpus Forest is also located in the municipality.
Dorado also has a church called the Sanctuary of Christ of the Reconciliation, that has the third largest statue of Jesus Christ in the Caribbean, inside its temple. Christmas celebrations extend throughout the season and into epiphany, prior to them the Strenna Mass is held and on Christmas Eve, the Misa de Gallo takes place. Folk traditions tied to these events include the sprinkling of sugar in houses to receive the new year, a practice where a man dresses as a representation of the old year with which residents have fun or release their frustrations for the fading year and trulla parties in which people dressed as the Three Wise Men and a vigil where music is played to celebrate the epiphany. As in the rest of Puerto Rico, this is followed by another period of celebration due to the octavas and octavitas.
Festivals and events
According to oral tradition, the Fiestas a la Santa Cruz have been celebrated since the municipality's foundation. Dorado also celebrates fiestas patronales to honor Antonio de Padua, which retain their religious origins but have included cultural activities such as trova contests, the coronation of a queen and La Alborada. During these, the municipality also celebrates a Day of the Absent Doradeños, in which those abroad visit and join a celebration in their name. Other days are dedicated to exemplary mothers and adopted citizens (the official title of "Adoptive Son" is given during these). General recreation activities include horse races, carny attractions, sack races, climbing competitions and eating contests among others. A variety of traditional food and sweets are also served. Prior to Lent, a carnival is hosted, although the religious significance of the date has since been phased out beyond the interaction of the Vejigantes, La Muerte en Cueros and the Negritos (a Christian allegory with pagan elements depicting tormenting demons and death as the great equalizer in relation to sinners represented by the Negritos, taking away the enjoyment of the demons) and now host other cultural elements. The Catholic practices attributed to Lent are widely practiced, along local ones such as preserving palm branches from Palm Sunday as a practice to ward off ill wishes and bad luck. Processions are celebrated during Easter week. Dorado celebrates its patron saint festival in June. The is a religious and cultural celebration that generally features parades, games, artisans, amusement rides, regional food, and live entertainment.
Other festivals and events celebrated in Dorado include:
Three Kings’ Day Festival – January
Del Plata Carnival – February
Minin Kuilan Gold Cup – April
Cocolía Crab Festival– August
Town and Country Festival – September
Discovery of Puerto Rico / Puerto Rican Culture Festival – November
Christmas Festival – December
Academics and arts
As a historically industrial town, the academic culture is mostly centered around writer José S. Alegría and poet Ferdinand R. Cestero is honored for employing the municipality as part of his pseudonym. A Cultural Center supported by the ICP was founded in 1967, with the municipal Office of Cultural Affairs promoting these aspects begging during the 1980s.The first local poet was Société D'Emulation award winner Camille Schwingrouber. Former president of the Ateneo Puertorriqueño Ferdinand R. Cestero wrote Dorado, pueblito áureo y ensiñador... to honor the municipality. Son of former mayor Cruz Alegría, José S. Alegría was born in Dorado on July 17, 1886, and went on to direct Puerto Rico Illustrado magazine and write several books. He was also a painter, being instructed by Francisco Oller. His son, Ricardo Alegría, later became one of the most influential cultural figures in Puerto Rico. Beginning in the 1970s, Pablo Maysonet began publishing several books. The Dorado Writers and Friends of Literature Circle was founded to promote literature, but ceased functioning by 1989. A local newspaper was first published in 1903, when El Hijo del Combate circulated. The Dorado Society of Archeological a Investigations was founded in 1983 and is tasked with the archeological material at Museo Casa del Rey.
Until the 1930s, weekly bomba dances were held in Calle Norte and Calle Sur. These were later preserved by the plena groups of Dorado. Other folkloric arts groups included Los Batá, Ballet Folklórico Arawak, Ballet Folklórico Amaná and other municipal and community groups. During the 1950s the municipal band and a Luteran band were created. A school band combined the high school and middle school students during the 1970s. The Meléndez brothers, Manuel and Eleuterio, were Dorado's first professional musicians. Carmen Meléndez, daughter of the second later taught piano in the municipality. Pedro, Andrés and Manuel, Jr., sons of Manuel, Sr. went on to play several instruments. Pianist Lidia Morales, an alumnus of Arístiles Chavier, was also born in Dorado. During the 1960s, Germán Jímenez composed a number of vals and danzas. Marcos J. Alegría was the municipality's first career painter. During the 1970s, the José S. Alegría school began teaching dramatic arts at the behest of Laura Iglesias. During the 1980s, a theatre named Teatro Juan Boria and an arts school named Academia de Arte Dramático Aramaná were created, along a municipal theatre group. Other plastic artists that followed in his footsteps were Jaime Rivera, Marco A. Alegría, Jesús Cardona, Luis R. Nieves, Salvador Rivera and Basilio Cardona. In 1919, Cine Juana de Arco was founded.
Sports
Despite producing some athletes, sports were not widely promoted until the foundation of the intermunicipal Olimpiadas del Plata during the 1970s. The formal events include a marathon held in November. Paso Fino, an indigenous sport, has been among the most practiced, with the Kuilan family gaining prominence due to it. Francisco Kuilan is a second generation rider and won competitions held locally and internationally in places like Paris, where he won a non-Paso Fino competition with a horse named Dulce Sueño in a tour sponsored by Félix Benítez Rexach. He served as namesake for the Minín Kuilan Cup, held by the municipality of Dorado since 1988.
Local athletes include Manolín Maldonado and Angel Maysonet, baseball players Toño Cardona, Nolín Valderrama, Arturito de Jesús, Germán Lanzó, Pedro Díaz, Pito Álvarez, Peoe Carbia, Tomás Palmeras, Mampostial Sánchez, Fabián Cardona and Talí Maldonado and chess player Cucü Alegría, runners Juan Cruz and Millo Lorenzana, and boxers Tony Villa, Carmelo Vázquez and Rafael Santana. Dorado has its own Double A baseball team called Los Guardianes (The Guardians) and it's still one of the main places in the island to play golf or tennis.
Economy
Agriculture
In 2007, there were ten farms in Dorado, producing plantains, coffee, vegetables or melons, bananas, root crops or tubers, grains, grasses and other crops, poultry and eggs, cattle and calves, milk products, hogs and pigs, aquaculture, other livestock, and other livestock products. The top livestock produced in Dorado are cattle and calves, horses, hogs and pigs. The top crop items were lawn grass (sod), coffee, pigeon peas, cassava, and other vegetables.
Business
Commerce
Tourism and pharmaceuticals.
Industry
Dorado is the site of several industries dedicated to the manufacturing of clothing and medical equipment, among others. Companies like Boston Scientific, Pfizer and Heraeus are among some of the ones located in the city.
Housing developments
In recent years, Dorado has been known for its development of upscale neighborhoods. Several known politicians and artists (e.g. Ricky Martin, Carlos Romero Barceló) live or own properties in the city.
Demographics
Dorado's population has steadily increased during the past century. According to the 2000 census, the population consist of 34,017 with a population density of 1,479.0 people per square mile (568.8/km2) more than doubling the town's population of 17,388 in 1970. The 2020 census indicated the first decline (6%) since the U.S. census has been carried out on the island. According to the 2020 census the town has a population of 35,879.
As a whole, Puerto Rico is populated mainly by people from a Criollo (born on the island of Spanish descent) or European descent, with small groups of African and Asian descent. Statistics taken from the 2000 census shows that 74.1% of Doradeños identify with Spanish or White origin, 12.2% identify as black, and 0.5% as Amerindian.
Religious affiliation
Due to the influence of Spanish culture, a majority of Dorado's population still practices Catholicism. There are two religious patrons, the Virgen del Rosario and Antonio Abad. Esteban Mariani was placed in charge of the Dorado Parish on June 29, 1848. Since then, several priests served the function until Salvador Carratala was charged in 1925. Afterwards, the Dominican Fathers took over in 1927 and held the office until Salvador Pujolas' one-year stint in 1930. The following year, the Augustinian Fathers took over until handling it to the Congregation of the Mission in 1937. The following year, José Delgado was tasked with the parish until the Holy Spirit Fathers took over in 1943.
The Getsemaní Lutheran Church was founded on July 25, 1911. Initially ran by foreign ministers, until Demetrio Texidor consecrated a temple in August 1924. On December 30, 1945, Carlos Torres became the first officially installed reverend serving the office for 5 years, after years of the office being distributed between locals and foreigners. During the following years, the entity continued its expansion plans under Miguel Sevilla. In 1954, Victor Astacio took over and under him the Church hosted its first synod of the Caribbean event. In 1961, Gilberto Falcón took over and began a project to construct a new temple with the old one hosting its last service on July 19, 1964. Rafael Malpica Padilla, a Doradeño, also served as reverend. During the 1950s, the Lutheran Church created a club for performing arts, where they enacted plays that were mostly centered around nativity.
During the 1920s, Leonor Martínez of Centro Espiritista Caridad bajo Gloria organized several dramatic works in order to gather funds for the spiritist organization.
Government
All municipalities in Puerto Rico are administered by a mayor, elected every four years. The current mayor of Dorado is Carlos López Rivera, of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). He was elected at the 1988 general elections.
The city belongs to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district III, which is represented by two Senators. In 2012, José "Joito" Pérez and Angel Martínez were elected as District Senators.
Symbols
The has an official flag and coat of arms.
Flag
The official flag of the Municipality of Dorado is made up of three stripes of equal width and the symbols from the coat of arms are within the brown stripe, in a sideways position. A first stripe of gold is followed by a stripe of brown which is followed by a final stripe of gold. The gold or golden stripes symbolize the town's name, Dorado; and the brown stripe represents the patron Saint of Dorado, Saint Anthony of Padua. A brown, equal-sided triangle is placed with its base at the hoist and leads to the second stripe, inside of which are the disks in the shape of a T and with the lily flowers represented with the Fleur-de-lis.
Coat of arms
The Dorado coat of arms was officially adopted on March 27, 1978. Its colors are gold, silver and brown. The three towers at the top are enameled in gold with brown background for windows. The triple tower represents that Dorado is a town, and a municipality.
Below the mural crown, are five disks which form a letter "T", called Tau. This represents Saint Anthony of Padua, who is associated with the lily flower. Saint Anthony of Padua is depicted with a lily, heraldically with the Fleur-de-lis. They have a brown background and the lily flowers are silver because they represent the majestic Río La Plata ("plata" is Spanish for silver), which borders the town of Dorado to the east.
The golden background with the brown disks are like speaking souls (). The shield directly represents the name of the town "Dorado" which means "gold" in Spanish and the brown relates to the Patron Saint Anthony of Padua, whose habit is brown.
Education
Dorado has several public and private schools distributed through several regions. Including TASIS, Dorado Academy, New Testament Christian Academy of Dorado, and Public education is handled by the Puerto Rico Department of Education.
José S. Alegría is the public High School, located in the town center. Ricardo Arroyo Laracuente is the Middle School 7th through 9th Grade. In the town next to the town square is the elementary School named Jacinto López Martínez.
Schools and academies
Dorado Academy
TASIS Dorado
José S. Alegría High School
Pedro López Canino Elementary and Middle School
Luis Muñoz Marín Elementary School
Ricardo Arroyo Middle School
Marcelino Canino Canino – Middle School
Jacinto López Martínez – Elementary school and first school building to be founded in Dorado. It is over a hundred years old and still in use and one of the biggest schools.
Luisa Valderrama Martínez – Elementary school
The Jane Stern Dorado Community Library, founded in 1974, is Puerto Rico's first public bilingual library. Recipient of a 2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service.
Health care
Dorado's main health facility is a Center for Diagnostic and Treatment located at Road 698. The facility is able to handle emergency cases, but severe cases are transferred to bigger hospitals in nearby towns such as Bayamón or Manatí.
Transportation
Puerto Rico Highway 22 provides access to Dorado from the far away city of Mayagüez, or from San Juan. Road 165 also provides access from Cataño and Bayamón bordering the shore to the Atlantic Ocean. It takes approximately 30 minutes to reach the town from San Juan.
Like most other towns in the island, it has a public transportation system consisting of public cars. Taxis are also available around the town. There's also a public trolley system around town and a shuttle service for handicapped people.
There are 19 bridges in Dorado.
Dorado Airport was a commercial airport that served the city with flights to San Juan and to the United States, but it has since been closed.
Notable people
Damian Priest, WWE wrestler (Born in New York City, raised in Dorado Puerto Rico)
See also
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
List of communities in Puerto Rico
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Puerto Rico Government Directory - Dorado
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
Populated places established in 1831
San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area | [
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218593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%27nai%20B%27rith | B'nai B'rith | B'nai B'rith International (, from ) is a Jewish service organization. B'nai B'rith states that it is committed to the security and continuity of the Jewish people and the State of Israel and combating antisemitism and other forms of bigotry.
Although the organization's historic roots stem from a system of fraternal lodges and units in the late 19th century, as fraternal organizations declined throughout the United States, the organization evolved into a dual system of both lodges and units. The membership pattern became more common to other contemporary organizations of members affiliated by contribution in addition to formal dues paying members. B'nai B'rith has members, donors and supporters around the world.
History
B'nai B'rith was founded in Aaron Sinsheimer's café in New York City's Lower East Side on October 13, 1843, by 12 recent German Jewish immigrants led by Henry Jones. The new organization represented an attempt to organize Jews of the local community to confront what Isaac Rosenbourg, one of the founders, called "the deplorable condition of Jews in this, our newly adopted country". The new group's purpose, as described in its constitution, called for the traditional functions performed by Jewish societies in Europe: "Visiting and attending the sick" and "protecting and assisting the widow and the orphan." Its founders had hoped that it soon would encompass all Jews in the United States, but this did not happen, since other Jewish organizations also were forming around the same time.
The German-speaking founders originally named the organization Bundes-Brüder (German for "Brothers of the Covenant") to reflect their goal of a fraternal order that could provide comfort to the entire spectrum of Jewish Americans. Although early meetings were conducted in German, after a short time English emerged as the language of choice and the name was changed to B'nai B'rith. In the late 20th century, the translation was changed to the more contemporary and inclusive Children of the Covenant.
Despite its fraternal and local beginnings, B'nai B'rith spoke out for Jewish rights early in its history and used its growing national chain of lodges as a way to exercise political influence on behalf of world Jewry. In 1851, for example, it circulated petitions urging Secretary of State Daniel Webster to demand the end of Jewish disabilities in Switzerland, during on-going trade negotiations. Into the 1920s the B'nai B'rith continued in its political work by joining in Jewish delegations and lobbying efforts through which American Jews sought to influence public policy, both domestic and foreign. B'nai B'rith also played a crucial role in transnational Jewish politics. The later spread of the organization around the world made it a nerve center of intra-Jewish communication and mutual endeavor.
1843 to early 1900s
The organization's activities during the 19th and 20th centuries were dominated by mutual aid, social service and philanthropy. In keeping with their concerns for protecting their families, the organization's first concrete action was the establishment of an insurance policy awarding widows of deceased members $30 toward funeral expenses and a stipend of $1 a week for the rest of their life. To aid their children, each child would also receive a stipend and, for male children, the assurance he would be taught a trade.
In 1851, Covenant Hall was erected in New York City as the first Jewish community center in the United States, and also what is widely considered to be the first Jewish public library in the United States. One year later, B'nai B'rith established the Maimonides Library. Immediately following the Civil War—when Jews on both sides of the battle were left homeless—B'nai B'rith founded the 200-bed Cleveland Jewish Orphan Home. Over the next several years, the organization would establish numerous hospitals, orphanages and homes for the aged.
In 1868, when a devastating flood crippled Baltimore, B'nai B'rith responded with a disaster relief campaign. This act preceded the founding of the American Red Cross by 13 years and was to be the first of many domestic relief programs. That same year, B'nai B'rith sponsored its first overseas philanthropic project raising $4,522 to aid the victims of a cholera epidemic in Ottoman Palestine.
In 1875, a lodge was established in Toronto, followed soon after by another in Montreal and in 1882 by a lodge in Berlin. Membership outside of the United States grew rapidly. Soon, lodges were formed in Cairo (1887) and in Jerusalem (1888—nine years before Theodor Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland). The Jerusalem lodge became the first public organization to hold all of its meetings in Hebrew.
After 1881, with the mass immigration of Eastern European Jews to the United States, B'nai B'rith sponsored Americanization classes, trade schools and relief programs. This began a period of rapid membership growth, a change in the system of representation and questioning of the secret rituals common to fraternal organizations. In 1897, when the organization's U.S. membership numbered slightly more than 18,000, B'nai B'rith formed a ladies' auxiliary chapter in San Francisco. This was to become B'nai B'rith Women, which in 1988 broke away as an independent organization, Jewish Women International.
Early 20th century
In response to the Kishinev pogrom in 1903 President Theodore Roosevelt and Secretary of State John Hay met with B'nai B'rith's executive committee in Washington, D.C. B'nai B'rith President Simon Wolf presented the draft of a petition to be sent to the Russian government protesting the lack of opposition to the massacre. Roosevelt readily agreed to transmit it and B'nai B'rith lodges began gathering signatures around the country.
In the first two decades of the 20th century B'nai B'rith launched three of today's major Jewish organizations: The Anti-Defamation League (ADL), Hillel and BBYO (originally B'nai B'rith Youth Organization). Later they would take on a life of their own with varying degrees of autonomy.
A growing concern in the 1920s was the preservation of Jewish values as immigration slowed and a native Jewish population of Eastern European ancestry came to maturity. In 1923, Rabbi Benjamin Frankel of Illinois established Hillel - an organization on the campus of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to provide both Reform and Orthodox Sabbath services, classes in Judaism and social events for Jewish college students. Two years later, he approached B'nai B'rith about adopting this new campus organization. B'nai B'rith sponsorship of the Hillel Foundations enabled it to extend throughout the United States, eventually become international and to grow into a network of more than 500 campus student organizations.
At virtually the same time as Hillel was being established, Sam Beber of Omaha, Neb., presented a plan in 1924 to B'nai B'rith for a fraternity for Jewish men in high school. The new organization was called Aleph Zadik Aleph in imitation of the Greek-letter fraternities from which Jewish youth were excluded. In 1925, AZA became the junior auxiliary of B'nai B'rith.
In 1940, B'nai B'rith Women adopted its own junior auxiliary for young women, B'nai B'rith Girls (BBG, then a loose-knit group of organizations) and, in 1944, the two organizations became the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization (BBYO).
B'nai B'rith has also been involved in Jewish camping for more than a half century. In 1953, B'nai B'rith acquired a 300-acre camp in Pennsylvania's Pocono Mountains. Originally named Camp B'nai B'rith, the facility would later be named B'nai B'rith Perlman Camp in honor of the early BBYO leader Anita Perlman and her husband, Louis. In 1976, a second camp was added near Madison, Wis. Named after the founder of AZA, the camp became known as B'nai B'rith Beber Camp. In 2010, Beber Camp became independent of B'nai B'rith. Perlman Camp functions as both a Jewish children's camp and as a leadership training facility.
In 1938 B'nai B'rith established the Vocational Service Bureau to guide young people into careers. This evolved into the B'nai B'rith Career and Counseling Service, an agency that provided vocational testing and counseling, and published career guides. In the mid-1980s, the program was dissolved or merged into other community agencies.
1977 Hanafi siege
On March 9–11, 1977, three buildings in Washington, D.C. were seized by 12 African American Muslim gunmen, led by Hamaas Abdul Khaalis, who took 149 hostages and killed a radio journalist and a police officer. After a 39-hour standoff, all other hostages were released from the District Building (the city hall; now called the John A. Wilson Building), B'nai B'rith headquarters, and the Islamic Center of Washington.
The gunmen had several demands. They "wanted the government to hand over a group of men who had been convicted of killing seven relatives – mostly children – of takeover leader Hamaas Khaalis. They also demanded that the movie Mohammad, Messenger of God be destroyed because they considered it sacrilegious."
Time magazine noted: "That the toll was not higher was in part a tribute to the primary tactic U.S. law enforcement officials are now using to thwart terrorists—patience. But most of all, perhaps, it was due to the courageous intervention of three Muslim ambassadors, Egypt's Ashraf Ghorbal, Pakistan's Sahabzada Yaqub-Khan and Iran's Ardeshir Zahedi."
Community service
From its earliest days, a hallmark of the organization's local efforts was service to the communities in which members reside. In 1852, that meant raising money for the first Jewish hospital in Philadelphia. In the 21st century, these community service efforts range from delivering Jewish holiday packages of meals and clothing to the elderly and infirm, and distributing food and medicine to the Jewish community of Cuba.
With the graying of the American Jewish population, service to seniors became a major focus with the first of what was to become a network of 36 senior residence buildings in more than 27 communities across the United States and more internationally—making B'nai B'rith the largest national Jewish sponsor of housing for seniors. The U.S. facilities—built in partnership with the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)—provide quality housing to more than 6,000 men and women of limited income, age 62 and over, of all races and religions. Residents pay a federally mandated rent based upon income.
The beginning of the 21st century also saw the senior service program expand and become the Center for Senior Services, providing advocacy, publications and other services to address financial, legal, health, religious, social and family concerns for those over 50.
In recent years, B'nai B'rith has advocated for health care reform, Social Security and Medicare protection.
B'nai B'rith also includes, on its domestic agenda, tolerance issues such as advocating for hate crimes legislation as well as sponsoring a youth writing challenge, Diverse Minds. This annual writing contest asks high school students to create a children's book dedicated to the message of ending intolerance and bigotry. Winners earn college scholarships and the publication and distribution of their books to schools and libraries in their communities.
B'nai B'rith also sponsors the Enlighten America program, the centerpiece of which is a pledge that individuals can take to refrain from using slang expressions or telling jokes based on race, sexual orientation, gender, nationality or physical or mental challenges that would serve to demean another.
B'nai B'rith also produces and distributes "Smarter Kids – Safer Kids", a booklet in both English and Spanish meant to guide parents through discussions with their children about potential dangers.
Anti-defamation activities
The American-based international B'nai B'rith organization founded the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (ADL) as a response to attacks on Jews in the United States. The announcement of the creation of the ADL mentioned the Leo Frank lynching in particular. The ADL is now an independent organization.
In Australia and New Zealand, the local B'nai B'rith has its own human rights arm, called the B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation Commission (ADC). It is dedicated to eliminating the defamation of Jewish people, combating racism, intolerance, and prejudice. It seeks to secure justice and fair treatment for all citizens alike.
Educational programs and publications
Since 1886, B'nai B'rith has published B'nai B'rith Magazine, the oldest continually published Jewish periodical in the United States.
B'nai B'rith also publishes program guides for local Jewish education programs and each year sponsors "Unto Every Person There is a Name". This program includes community recitations of the names of Holocaust victims, usually on Yom Hashoah, Holocaust Remembrance Day.
In 1973, the organization turned what had formerly been an exhibit hall at its Washington, D.C. headquarters into the B'nai B'rith Klutznick National Jewish Museum. The museum featured an extensive collection of Jewish ceremonial objects and art and, for decades featured the 1790 correspondence between President George Washington and Moses Seixas, sexton of the Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island. Although the organization's move from its own building to rented offices necessitated closing of the museum to public view, select pieces of the collection are still on display at B'nai B'rith's current headquarters and are available for viewing by appointment.
Scholarships
B'nai B'rith International awards scholarships for emerging scholars. The first B'nai B'rith recipient to the University of Miami was Dagmar R. Henney, who later became known for her research in theoretical mathematics.
Every year, B'nai B'rith awards the Sally R. Schneider scholarship to a deserving Jewish female graduate student who is studying in a field that will benefit humankind. The scholarship, which is worth $1,000, is named for Sally Schneider, a longtime B'nai B'rith member who was passionate about pro-Israel advocacy and women's education.
Local B'nai B'rith lodges also award scholarships. B'nai B'rith Great Lakes holds an annual golf classic, the proceeds of which fund several college scholarships each year.
Philatelic services
In affiliation with the United States Postal Service, the B'nai B'rith Philatelic Service was involved in releasing a series of first day of issue stamps relating to prominent Jewish entrepreneurs, philanthropists, entertainers, and various Jewish organizations throughout the country.
Disaster relief
B'nai B'rith has responded to natural and manmade disasters since 1865, when it assisted victims of a cholera epidemic in what was then Palestine. B'nai B'rith later raised funds and distributed them to those affected by the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the Galveston, Texas, flood of 1900 and the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906.
In recent years, the B'nai B'rith Disaster Relief Fund responded to the 2010 earthquakes in Haiti and Chile, the 2011 Japan tsunami and the multiple tornadoes and subsequent flooding that hit six states in the South and Midwest in 2011. B'nai B'rith also opened a disaster relief fund following the fires that raged through Mount Carmel in northern Israel and another fund to help victims of the worst drought to hit East Africa in more than 50 years.
Much of the money B'nai B'rith raises for disaster relief is focused on long-term rebuilding, meeting needs beyond what the initial responders provide. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in the U.S. Gulf Coast-region in 2005, B'nai B'rith raised more than $1 million, distributing the money among various projects over a five-year span. The projects included rebuilding homes, houses of worship and restoring parks.
In Haiti, B'nai B'rith raised $250,000 for shoes, medicine, health supplies and other needs immediately following the January 2010 earthquake that struck the island nation. The year following the disaster, B'nai B'rith and IsraAID initiated "Haiti Grows," a program that trained farmers in theory and in practice over a six-month period. The farmers learned new agricultural techniques that allowed them to increase the number of crops they could grow as well as the yield of those crops.
Following Hurricane Sandy in the fall of 2012, B'nai B'rith's Young Professional Network in New York immediately began assisting in the cleanup. Members descended upon the Rockaways, and over the course of several days helped remove debris and sand from buildings, extract moldy drywall and insulation, and pull out water damaged furniture and appliances from area homes. B'nai B'rith has also held and planned several fundraisers for future rebuilding projects.
Working with IsraAid, a Zionist humanitarian organization which brings together Israeli and Jewish organizations to form coordinated responses in the wake of humanitarian crises, the B'nai B'rith Disaster Relief Fund allocated funds to survivors of the 2018 flooding in Japan.
The B'nai B'rith Disaster Relief Fund also helped with two domestic disasters, one in California and the other in Hawaii, in the fall of 2018. Wildfires struck communities in Southern California that summer and fall, and B'nai B'rith contributed to the much-needed disaster recovery by assisting with the costs of food, utility bills and medical supplies for the Idyllwild HELP Center. Normally, the HELP Center is a charity and thrift store that helps needy individuals and families with the costs of food, utilities, housing and other basic needs. In the aftermath of the wildfires, the center stepped up to help fire victims. In Hawaii, B'nai B'rith provided assistance to the Ahava 'Aina Synagogue after the eruption of the Kilauea Volcano and damage from a tropical storm.
In May 2019, the B'nai B'rith Center for Senior Services (CSS) held its annual B'nai B'rith Managers and Service Coordinators Training meeting in Puerto Rico, which is still recovering from damage caused by 2017's Hurricane Maria. In choosing to hold the meeting in Puerto Rico, the CSS team wanted to contribute to both Puerto Rico's short-term recovery, by volunteering for a day of service with local nonprofits during their trip, and its long-term economic recovery, by bringing business to the island.
International affairs
B'nai B'rith was present at the founding of the United Nations in San Francisco and has taken an active role in the world body ever since. In 1947, the organization was granted non-governmental organizational (NGO) status and, for many years, was the only Jewish organization with full-time representation at the United Nations. It is credited with a leading role in the U.N. reversal of its 1975 resolution equating Zionism with racism.
B'nai B'rith's NGO role is not limited to the United Nations and its agencies. B'nai B'rith also has worked extensively with officials in the State Department, in Congress, and in foreign governments to support the efforts of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) to combat antisemitism. With members in more than 20 Latin American countries, the organization was the first Jewish group to be accorded civil society status at the Organization of American States (OAS), where it has advocated for democracy and human rights throughout the region. B'nai B'rith's role in Latin America dates to the turn of the 20th century and grew considerably with the influx of Jewish refugees from Nazi Europe.
In addition to its advocacy efforts, B'nai B'rith maintains a program of community service throughout Latin America. In 2002, in cooperation with the Brother's Brother Foundation, B'nai B'rith distributed more than $31 million worth of critically needed medicine, books and supplies to Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela following the economic disaster that struck much of Latin America. Through 2011 the program had distributed more than $100 million in medicine and supplies.
Europe
By the 1920s, B'nai B'rith membership in Europe had grown to 17,500—nearly half of the U.S. membership—and by the next decade, the formation of a lodge in Shanghai (number 1102) represented the organization's entry into the Far East. The Shanghai lodge established the B'nai B'rith Foundation Polyclinic in 1934, later renamed the Shanghai Jewish Hospital. This international expansion was to come to a close with the rise of Nazism. At the beginning of the Nazi era, there were six B'nai B'rith districts in Europe. Eventually, the Nazis seized nearly all B'nai B'rith property in Europe.
B'nai B'rith Europe was re-founded in 1948. Members of the Basel and Zurich lodges and representatives from lodges in France and Holland who had survived the Holocaust attended the inaugural meeting. In 2000, the new European B'nai B'rith district merged with the United Kingdom district to become a consolidated B'nai B'rith Europe with active involvement in all institutions of the European Union. By 2005 B'nai B'rith Europe comprised lodges in more than 20 countries including the former Communist Eastern Europe.
In 1943, in response to what would later become known as the Holocaust, B'nai B'rith President Henry Monsky convened a conference in Pittsburgh of all major Jewish organizations to "find a common platform for the presentation of our case before the civilized nations of the world". During the next four years, the conference established the machinery that saved untold numbers of lives, assisted in the post-war reconstruction of European Jewish life and helped spur public opinion to support the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which recommended the partition of Mandate Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state.
Israel and the Middle East
Just prior to the creation of the State of Israel, President Harry S. Truman, resisting pressure by various organizations, declined meetings with Jewish leaders. B'nai B'rith President Frank Goldman convinced fellow B'nai B'rith member Eddie Jacobson, long-time friend and business partner of the president, to appeal to Truman for a favor. Jacobson convinced Truman to meet secretly with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann in a meeting said to have resulted in turning White House support back in favor of partition, and ultimately to de facto recognition of Israeli statehood.
In addition to founding the Jerusalem Lodge in 1888, life in Israel has been a prime focus for the organization. Among the Jerusalem lodge's most noted contributions was the city's first free public library, Midrash Abarbanel.
In 1959, B'nai B'rith became the first major American Jewish organization to hold a convention in Israel. Only six weeks after the signing of the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt in 1978, B'nai B'rith was the first Jewish group to visit Egypt at the invitation of President Anwar Sadat.
In 1980, nearly all nations removed their embassies from Jerusalem in response to the passage by the Knesset of the Jerusalem Law extending Israeli sovereignty over the entire city. B'nai B'rith responded with the establishment of the B'nai B'rith World Center in Jerusalem to serve as "the permanent and official presence of B'nai B'rith in Jerusalem".
Awards
The Presidential Gold Medal is awarded by B'nai B'rith every few years to honor the recipient's commitment to the Jewish people and the State of Israel. Recipients have included David Ben-Gurion, John F. Kennedy, George H. W. Bush, Stephen Harper and Golda Meir. The Gold Medal has been given to former Austrian chancellor Franz Vranitzky, Australian Prime Minister John Howard, former German Chancellor Willy Brandt and former U.S. presidents Harry S. Truman, Gerald R. Ford and Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1969 Edwin Palmer "EP" Hoyt, as Editor and Publisher of the Denver Post for 25 years, was given the B'nai B'rith Man of the Year award for his tireless humanitarian work against bigotry in defense of Jewish people.
The B'nai B'rith book award was established in 1970. The first recipient was Ronald Sanders for his work The Downtown Jews.
Other awards include the "Jewish Heritage Award" and "Award for Outstanding Contribution to Relations with the Jewish People".
See also
BBYO
B'nai Brith Canada
World Jewish Congress
References
Further reading
Wilhelm, Cornelia (2011). The Independent Orders of B'nai B'rith and True Sisters: Pioneers of a New Jewish Identity, 1843–1914. Wayne State University Press.
External links
Jewish-American political organizations
Jewish refugee aid organizations
Organizations established in 1843 | [
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218596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffer%20sequence | Sheffer sequence | In mathematics, a Sheffer sequence or poweroid is a polynomial sequence, i.e., a sequence of polynomials in which the index of each polynomial equals its degree, satisfying conditions related to the umbral calculus in combinatorics. They are named for Isador M. Sheffer.
Definition
Fix a polynomial sequence (pn). Define a linear operator Q on polynomials in x by
This determines Q on all polynomials. The polynomial sequence pn is a Sheffer sequence if the linear operator Q just defined is shift-equivariant; such a Q is then a delta operator. Here, we define a linear operator Q on polynomials to be shift-equivariant if, whenever f(x) = g(x + a) = Ta g(x) is a "shift" of g(x), then (Qf)(x) = (Qg)(x + a); i.e., Q commutes with every shift operator: TaQ = QTa.
Properties
The set of all Sheffer sequences is a group under the operation of umbral composition of polynomial sequences, defined as follows. Suppose ( pn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ) and ( qn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ) are polynomial sequences, given by
Then the umbral composition is the polynomial sequence whose nth term is
(the subscript n appears in pn, since this is the n term of that sequence, but not in q, since this refers to the sequence as a whole rather than one of its terms).
The identity element of this group is the standard monomial basis
Two important subgroups are the group of Appell sequences, which are those sequences for which the operator Q is mere differentiation, and the group of sequences of binomial type, which are those that satisfy the identity
A Sheffer sequence ( pn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, ... ) is of binomial type if and only if both
and
The group of Appell sequences is abelian; the group of sequences of binomial type is not. The group of Appell sequences is a normal subgroup; the group of sequences of binomial type is not. The group of Sheffer sequences is a semidirect product of the group of Appell sequences and the group of sequences of binomial type. It follows that each coset of the group of Appell sequences contains exactly one sequence of binomial type. Two Sheffer sequences are in the same such coset if and only if the operator Q described above – called the "delta operator" of that sequence – is the same linear operator in both cases. (Generally, a delta operator is a shift-equivariant linear operator on polynomials that reduces degree by one. The term is due to F. Hildebrandt.)
If sn(x) is a Sheffer sequence and pn(x) is the one sequence of binomial type that shares the same delta operator, then
Sometimes the term Sheffer sequence is defined to mean a sequence that bears this relation to some sequence of binomial type. In particular, if ( sn(x) ) is an Appell sequence, then
The sequence of Hermite polynomials, the sequence of Bernoulli polynomials, and the monomials ( xn : n = 0, 1, 2, ... ) are examples of Appell sequences.
A Sheffer sequence pn is characterised by its exponential generating function
where A and B are (formal) power series in t. Sheffer sequences are thus examples of generalized Appell polynomials and hence have an associated recurrence relation.
Examples
Examples of polynomial sequences which are Sheffer sequences include:
The Abel polynomials;
The Bernoulli polynomials;
The central factorial polynomials;
The Hermite polynomials;
The Laguerre polynomials;
The Mahler polynomials;
The monomials ( xn : n = 0, 1, 2, ... );
The Mott polynomials;
References
Reprinted in the next reference.
Reprinted by Dover, 2005.
External links
Polynomials
Factorial and binomial topics | [
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218597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado%20Airport | Dorado Airport | Dorado Airport or Dorado Beach Airport was a small single runway airport in Dorado, Puerto Rico.
Clara Livingston, the owner of the property at the time, ordered the strip be built, and her friend, Amelia Earhart, may have used the facility as well. Later on, the United States military, during World War II, paved the runway.
Much later on, a large airline named Caribair (later overtaken by Eastern Air Lines), began flights there. When Caribair became part of Eastern, flights to Dorado Airport were suspended.
During the mid 1960s, Dorado was served by Dorado Wings (later renamed Crown Air), a small airline that operated charter flights between Dorado Airport and Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan. The airline operated propeller airplanes.
In the early 1990s, the airport was officially closed. In 1996, the parcel was rezoned and construction commenced of a master planned community: Dorado Beach East. In memory of Dorado Airport and its founder, Ms. Clara Livingston, the developers built a children's playground themed with unique play airplanes, a hangar for activities, and a runway plaza.
References
External links
MSR Maps: Dorado Airport (USGS aerial photo dated 24 November 1994 showing closed runway with X's).
World Airport Codes: Dorado Beach Airport (DDP).
Dorado, Puerto Rico
Airports in Puerto Rico
Defunct airports in Puerto Rico | [
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218599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jive%20Records | Jive Records | Jive Records was an American independent record label founded by Clive Calder in 1981 as a subsidiary to the Zomba Group. Formerly headquartered in New York City, Jive was best known for its string of successes with hip hop artists in the 1980s and 1990s, along with teen pop and boy bands during the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Jive was acquired by Bertelsmann Music Group in 2002. In 2008, BMG itself was bought out by Sony Music Entertainment. Jive Records thereupon remained a unit wholly owned by Sony up until the label’s dissolution in 2011, when Jive was absorbed into RCA Records.
History
1970s: Beginnings
In 1971, South African businessmen Clive Calder and Ralph Simon began a publishing and management company. It was named Zomba Records and relocated to London, England, four years later; their first client was a young Robert "Mutt" Lange. Zomba originally wanted to avoid record labels to instead focus on their songwriters and producers while allowing other established labels to release the material. Later that decade, the company opened offices in the US, where Calder began a business relationship with Clive Davis, whose Arista Records began releasing material by Zomba artists.
1980s: Formation and early distribution at Arista and RCA
In 1981, Zomba formed Jive Records, whose operations began with the release of British dance and pop music from groups such as Q-Feel, A Flock of Seagulls, and Tight Fit. Its name was inspired by township Jive, a type of music that originated in South Africa. Clive Davis had hoped that Zomba's connection with Mutt Lange would help alleviate the difficulties Arista was having with launching rock acts to success.
By 1982, Calder was introduced to Barry Weiss, a young college graduate who took Calder out to hip-hop clubs in New York City for his job interview with Zomba. Weiss and Calder began grooming musicians for what would eventually become the hip hop group Whodini. After two days, the group created and recorded its hit single "Magic's Wand." While the group would eventually leave Jive, the early success allowed the label to focus on hip-hop artists throughout the 1980s. In 1987, Jive cut distribution ties with Arista, effectively separating them from Davis, who eschewed hip hop music at his label. As the 1980s drew to a close, the label entered a distribution deal with Arista's sister label RCA Records, and it continued to sign hip hop acts including DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, Too $hort, Schoolly D, in addition to white rap act Kid Rock.
1990s: Hip hop and teen pop
In 1990, Calder bought Simon’s stake in Zomba and became the sole owner of Jive Records. Jive's distribution deal with RCA expired in 1991. At this time, Bertelsmann Music Group acquired a minority share of the label and began to distribute its records directly. Weiss became chief executive of Jive Records that year. Jive opened branches in Chicago and had also become a premier label in the genres of hip hop and R&B with the success of acts like D-Nice, E-40, UGK, A Tribe Called Quest, Hi-Five, KRS-One/Boogie Down Productions, R. Kelly and Aaliyah. In 1996, BMG deepened their relationship with the label by purchasing a 20 percent stake of Jive. By the late 1990s, Jive began signing pop acts Backstreet Boys, NSYNC and Britney Spears. All three acts achieved massive success as the 2000s dawned, becoming the three best-selling acts in the label's history.
2000s: Acquisition by BMG and Sony
In 2002, Calder sold Zomba to BMG for US$2.74 billion, which at the time was the largest-ever acquisition of an independent label with major-label distribution. Calder then announced his resignation from Zomba, but continued to stay on at Jive in a temporary advisory role as Zomba was integrated into BMG. Weiss succeeded Calder as the new head of Zomba. In 2004, BMG merged with Sony Music Entertainment to form Sony BMG. During this time, Jive's management and distribution were restructured under the newly formed Zomba Label Group. Artists who had previously been on LaFace and Arista Records were subsequently absorbed under the Zomba group and placed under the purview of Jive Records’ staff. Thus, artists such as Pink, Usher, and Outkast became de facto Jive artists. Though both physical record sales and teen pop had steadily declined since the early 2000s, the output from Jive’s newer artists — particularly Usher’s Confessions album and Outkast’s Speakerboxxx/The Love Below — would prove to be profitable successes for Jive. In addition to releasing Spears’ 2007 album Blackout, Jive was now also the home of a solo Justin Timberlake, whose FutureSex/LoveSounds also saw high sales. Other Jive artists at that time included Ciara and Chris Brown.
By early 2008, the BMG Label Group was said to include RCA Records, J Records, LaFace, Arista, Volcano Entertainment, Verity, GospoCentric and Fo Yo Soul — all overseen by Weiss. Later that year, Sony and BMG dissolved its merger, with the former buying out shares of the latter. As a result of Sony's buyout, Jive (along with its BMG sisters RCA and Arista) became a wholly owned unit of a refreshed Sony Music Entertainment.
2010s: Dormancy
After two decades as president of Jive, Barry Weiss left for Universal Music Group in March 2011. On October 7, 2011, it was announced that Jive, along with Arista and J Records, would be retired to refresh and re-brand RCA Records by not confusing or diluting it with other labels. All retained artists on those labels were then moved to RCA Records.
The label is currently in hibernation, with the distribution of its back catalog handled by Sony Music's Legacy Recordings. Previously, the Jive brand was being exclusively used under the Sony Music France division under the name Jive Epic in France until 2019, when it was absorbed into RCA Records France.
Criticism and controversies
On September 27, 2021, singer R. Kelly was found guilty by a federal jury of acts including bribery and sexual exploitation of a child. Allegations of Kelly’s sexual misconduct had long followed the singer since his early career with Jive in the early 1990s, as well as throughout the 2000s when a video tape surfaced allegedly showing Kelly engaging in sexual acts with a minor and when Kelly was arrested for possession of child pornography. Despite the scandals, Kelly remained signed to Jive’s roster and continued to release albums with the label up to 2010. In 2018, the Washington Post ran a lengthy article alleging industry executives at Jive had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior towards young women for years, but did nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. Though the article reported Clive Calder had been warned about Kelly’s behavior as early as 1994, Calder retrospectively told the Post he regretted not having done more at the time, saying "Clearly, we missed something”. Former Jive president Barry Weiss told the newspaper that during his 20 years with the label, he never concerned himself with Kelly's private life, and was unaware of two lawsuits filed against Kelly and the label by women alleging sexual misconduct, suits in which the label had successfully argued it was not liable. Larry Khan, another Jive executive who worked closely with the singer even after viewing the sex tape, similarly implied Kelly’s misconduct was not the label's responsibility.
Discography
Artists
List of current Jive Records artists (artists at time of Jive’s 2011 disestablishment)
List of former Jive Records artists (artists previously signed to Jive)
See also
Zomba Group of Companies
RCA/Jive Label Group
List of record labels
References
Bibliography
Knopper, Steve (2009). Appetite for Self-Destruction: The Spectacular Crash of the Record Industry in the Digital Age. New York: Free Press. pp. 80-104. ISBN 978-1-4165-5215-4.
External links
Zomba Label Group (Archived)
Sony BMG Music Entertainment (Archived)
Video interview with Jeff Fenster (Senior Vice President of A&R at Jive Records)
Record labels established in 1981
Record labels disestablished in 2011
American record labels
Pop record labels
Hip hop record labels
Rock record labels
RCA Records
Electronic dance music record labels
Sony Music
Zomba Group of Companies subsidiaries
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218601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa%20Lefton | Melissa Lefton | Melissa Janis Lefton (born August 13, 1975) is a singer and songwriter.
Lefton began playing keyboards at the age of 10. After finishing high-school she moved to New York to study communications at New York University, though decided to also focus on a career in music while studying. Melissa joined the punk rock band "Product" answering an ad in The Village Voice seeking a "theatrical female frontperson" who "wanted to be a star." Product played at venues including CBGB. They were signed and recorded an album though its release was cancelled.
Her debut solo album, Melicious, signed to Jive Records, was slated for release on August 21, 2001 but was also never released. Melicious took on topics like pollution, date-rape, occultism and murder, with tongue in cheek. Stylus Magazine gave Melicious a positive review and referred to Lefton as the "queen of shelved teenpop". AllMusic also spoke highly of the album, saying it "matches the pop sassiness of the Go-Go's and Cyndi Lauper". Lefton was also once referred to as the "anti-Britney." Seattle Weekly called her "cute, perky and evil incarnate."
Three of Lefton's songs from 2001 were commercially released. "I Love Life" appeared on the soundtrack to The Princess Diaries. "My Hit Song" appeared on the soundtrack to On the Line and also appeared on the compilation album Cool Traxx! 3. Her cover of "He Blinded Me with Science" appeared on the soundtrack to Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius. Her track "Radio Rainbow" appears in the film Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge, though the film did not release an accompanying soundtrack.
In an attempt to salvage her career, the label set her up with a manager who sent her to Los Angeles to become an actress. Discouraged with the roles she was offered she returned to New York City. She spent several years working professionally as a commercial jingle writer; Lefton's vocals can be heard in the famous commercial for Pepsi by Britney Spears as well as ads for T.J. Maxx and Chevrolet. By 2006, Lefton was in a sunshine pop band named Hello. That year they released an album on the record label Frisbie.
Discography
Studio albums
2001: Melicious (Unreleased)
Videos
2001: Behind The Muse: A Mockumentary
References
External links
[ Melissa Lefton] at AllMusic
Melissa Lefton at Discogs
McDonnell, Evelyn, "Melissa Lefton - musician - Brief Article - Interview", Gale Group at FindArticles.com. April 2001.
1975 births
Living people
Jive Records artists
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers | [
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218610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melicious | Melicious | Melicious is the debut and only solo album by singer Melissa Lefton. On many promotional copies it was simply titled "Melissa Lefton". The album was originally stated to be due for release on August 21, 2001 on Jive Records. It was later said to be due for release in Spring 2002, but was eventually suspended indefinitely. The album was produced by The Matrix.
The only copies of the album that exist are full length promotional copies, none of which include the publicized album cover. There are two variations: one is an acetate promo which has a stick-on label and comes in an orange jewel case. The other comes in a cardboard sleeve and features Lefton in a T-shirt with a jolly roger on it. A three song sampler also exists which plays the songs "My Hit Song," "Ozone" and "Sugar Daddy".
Melicious took on topics like pollution, sugar daddies, occultism and murder, with tongue in cheek lyrics. The month before it was due for release, the Seattle Weekly gave a favourable review of the album, as did the Autumn 2001 edition of Elle Girl. MacKenzie Wilson from AllMusic also spoke highly of the album, saying it "matches the pop sassiness of the Go-Go's and Cyndi Lauper". Jimmy Draper from AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five, concluding "This isn't your typical Top 40 fodder because, thankfully, there isn't anything typical about Lefton's surprisingly enjoyable and energetic debut." Five years after it was cancelled, Stylus Magazine gave the album a positive review and referred to Lefton as the "queen of shelved teenpop".
Two songs on this album were commercially released on other albums. "I Love Life" appeared on the soundtrack to The Princess Diaries. Commenting on the soundtrack Heather Phares from AllMusic spoke favourably of the track. "My Hit Song" appeared on the soundtrack to On the Line and also appeared on the compilation album Cool Traxx! 3. Heather Phares said the track was "sending up and relishing teen pop's plastic sound and mindless appeal". The track "Radio Rainbow" appears in the film Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge, though the film did not release an accompanying soundtrack.
A promotional short film was created to promote the album. Called Behind the Muse, it was a mockumentary spoofing the Behind the Music program and format. In it, Lefton is depicted as an already-famous musician who rose to fame as a pop star only to succumb to an IV addiction to SunnyD. After a nearly fatal car crash she records a critically panned album titled "Ouch!", and then revitalizes her career as a Las Vegas lounge singer. The humor in the film is decidedly not for young people; for example, regarding her addiction, Lefton states: "I was making love to sweaty bums just to score a hit of SunnyD, and it didn't feel good on my vagina." The film was promotionally distributed on VHS and MiniDV tapes.
Track listing
References
External links
Official Melissa Lefton Myspace page with 2 songs from the album
Behind the Muse full mockumentary including interviews
Melissa Lefton albums
Jive Records albums
Unreleased albums | [
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218616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Bohusl%C3%A4n | History of Bohuslän | These are lists of the chartered cities or städer and the historical districts or härader of the historical province of Bohuslän in Sweden, until 1658 part of Norway.
Cities
Kungälv (city since 12th century)
Lysekil (town charter 1836, city charter 1903)
Marstrand (city since 13th century)
Strömstad (town charter 1667, city charter 1672)
Uddevalla (city charter 1498)
Districts
Bullarens
Hisings Västra (named Norska Hisingen, until 1681)
Inlands Fräkne
Inlands Torpe
Inlands Nordre
Inlands Södre
Kville
Lane
Orust Västra
Orust Östra
Sotenäs
Stångenäs
Sörbygdens
Tanums
Tjörns
Tunge
Vette
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218618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken%20%28district%29 | Saarbrücken (district) | The Regionalverband Saarbrücken is a Kommunalverband besonderer Art, an integration of a district (Kreis) and a district-free town. It is located in the south of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are Saarlouis, Neunkirchen, Saar-Pfalz, and Forbach-Boulay-Moselle and Sarreguemines in the French département Moselle.
History
The district Saarbrücken was originally created in 1816.
In 1974, the district and the district-free city Saarbrücken were merged, and the new administrative body was named Stadtverband Saarbrücken. Although it's not a district like others, most of its administrative tasks are the same as those of a district.
On November 21, 2007, the governing majority of the CDU in the parliament of Saarland passed a law which transformed the Stadtverband Saarbrücken into the Regionalverband Saarbrücken on January 1, 2008. The most striking change by this transformation was the introduction of the Kooperationsrat, a council of officials of the towns and municipalities which exercises some of the powers of Municipal corporation alongside the district council (Regionalversammlung, the local equivalent of the Kreistag). As the directly elected Regionalversammlung represents the population, while the members of the Kooperationsrat are picked by the towns or municipalities which they represent, there is a debate whether the competences of the not-directly-elected Kooperationsrat infringe on the constitutional right of the directly elected Regionalversammlung to exert all powers of Municipal corporation.
Geography
The river Saar flows through the district, through the city Saarbrücken in the center of the district.
Coat of arms
The original district had no coat of arms, the Regionalverband uses a coat derived from the one of the Counts of Nassau-Saarbrücken. The silver lion is taken from the County of Saarbrücken, the golden lion is the lion of Nassau.
Towns and municipalities
Politics
The bodies of the district Regionalverband are the administrator Regionalverbandsdirektor, the district council Regionalversammlung and the additional council Kooperationsrat, which is mainly composed of officials of the towns and municipalities.
District administration
On January 1, 2008, Ulf Huppert (FDP) became Beauftragter für das Amt des Regionalverbandsdirektors, temporarily acting as Regionalverbandsdirektor.
The first ever election of the Regionalverbandsdirektor was held on June 7, 2009. As no candidate gained an absolute majority in the first round, run-off elections were held On June 21, 2009, which were won by Peter Gillo (SPD) with 60.22%, with Rainer Grün (CDU) taking 39.78% of the votes. Gillo beat Grün in all towns and municipalities except Püttlingen. The turnout rate of the run-off elections was just 21.2%.
District council (Regionalversammlung)
(Result of the elections of 2014)
International relations
Saarbrücken is a fellow member of the Eurodistrict SaarMoselle.
International partnerships
Saarbrücken has a partnership with:
References
Notes
Non-English Wikipedia links
External links
Districts of the Saarland | [
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218622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Steel | David Steel | David Martin Scott Steel, Baron Steel of Aikwood, (born 31 March 1938) is a British politician. Elected as Member of Parliament for Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles, followed by Tweeddale, Ettrick, and Lauderdale, he served as the final leader of the Liberal Party, from 1976 to 1988. His tenure spanned the duration of the alliance with the Social Democratic Party, which began in 1981 and concluded with the formation of the Liberal Democrats in 1988.
Steel served as a Member of the UK Parliament for 32 years, from 1965 to 1997, and as a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) from 1999 to 2003, during which time he was the parliament's Presiding Officer. He was a member of the House of Lords as a life peer from 1997 to 2020. Steel resigned from the House of Lords after the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse accused him of an "abdication of responsibility" over his failure to investigate allegations of child sex abuse against Liberal MP, Cyril Smith.
Early life and education
Steel was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife, the son of a Church of Scotland minister also called David Steel, who would later serve as Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. He was brought up in Scotland and Kenya, and educated at Dumbarton Academy; James Gillespies Boys' School, Edinburgh; the Prince of Wales School, Nairobi; and George Watson's College, Edinburgh, followed by the University of Edinburgh, where he first took an active part in Liberal politics, and was elected Senior President of the Students' Representative Council, and graduated in Law. Steel was president of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement campaign from 1966 to 1970.
Political career
After university, Steel worked for the Scottish Liberal Party, and then the BBC, before being elected to the House of Commons as the MP for Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles at the 1965 by-election, just before his 27th birthday, becoming the "Baby of the House". He represented this seat until 1983, when he was elected in Tweeddale, Ettrick, and Lauderdale, a new constituency covering much of the same territory.
From 1966 to 1970, Steel was president of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement campaign.
As an MP, he was responsible for introducing, as a Private Member's Bill, the Abortion Act 1967, and has argued for greater liberalisation of this legislation in recent years (see Abortion in the United Kingdom). He also became the Liberal Party's spokesman on employment, and, in 1970, its Chief Whip.
Leader of Liberal Party
In 1976, after the downfall of Jeremy Thorpe, and a short period in which Jo Grimond acted as caretaker leader, he won the Liberal leadership by a wide margin over John Pardoe. At only 38 years old, he was one of the youngest party leaders in British history. In March 1977, he led the Liberals into the "Lib–Lab pact". The Liberals agreed to support the Labour government, whose narrow majority since the general election in October 1974 had been gradually eroded and left them as a minority government, in power, in return for a degree of prior consultation on policy. This pact lasted until August 1978.
Steel has been criticised both then and since for not driving a harder bargain. However, Steel's defenders contend that the continuing scandal surrounding Thorpe left the party in a very weak state to face an early general election, and Steel was wise to buy himself some time from Prime Minister James Callaghan. At the same time, the growing unpopularity of the Labour government impaired the Liberals' performance, and Steel's first election as leader, the 1979 general election, saw a net two-seat loss for the Liberals.
SDP–Liberal Alliance
In 1981, a group of Labour moderates left their party to form the Social Democratic Party. They were joined by the former Labour deputy leader, Chancellor and Home Secretary Roy Jenkins, who had previously had discussions with Steel about joining the Liberals. Under Jenkins' leadership, the SDP joined the Liberals in the SDP–Liberal Alliance. In its early days, the Alliance showed so much promise that for a time, it looked like the Liberals would be part of a government for the first time since 1945. Opinion polls were showing Alliance support as high as 50% by late 1981. Steel was so confident that he felt able to tell delegates at the Liberal Assembly that year: "Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!" In the wake of the 1981 Croydon North West by-election, where Liberal candidate Bill Pitt came from third position to easily gain the Alliance's first by-election victory, Steel's reaction to the result was to state that his belief "that we are now unstoppable."
Steel had genuine hopes at that stage that the Alliance would win the next general election and form a coalition government. However, the beginning of the Falklands War the following spring radically shifted the attitude of the electorate, and the Conservatives regained the lead in polls from the Alliance by a wide margin. The Alliance secured more than 25% of the vote at the 1983 general election, almost as many votes as Labour. However, its support was spread out across the country, and was not concentrated in enough areas to translate into seats under the first past the post system. This left the Alliance with only 23 seats — 17 for the Liberals, and six for the SDP. Steel's dreams of a big political breakthrough were left unfulfilled.
Shortly afterwards, the former Labour Foreign Secretary David Owen replaced Jenkins as leader of the SDP, and the troubled leadership of the "Two Davids" was inaugurated. It was never an easy relationship—Steel's political sympathies were well to the left of Owen's. Owen had a marked antipathy towards the Liberals, though he respected Steel's prior loyalty to his own party contrasting it with Jenkins' lack of interest in preserving the SDP's independence. The relationship was also mercilessly satirised by Spitting Image which portrayed Steel as a squeaky voiced midget, literally in the pocket of Owen. Steel has often stated that he feels this portrayal seriously damaged his image. This portrayal of Steel as weaker than Owen was also present in other satires, such as Private Eyes Battle for Britain strip. The relationship finally fell apart during the 1987 general election when the two contradicted each other, both on defence policy and on which party they would do a deal with in the event of a hung parliament.
Two parties merge
Steel was convinced the answer to these difficulties was a single party with a single leader, and was the chief proponent of the 1988 merger between the Liberals and the SDP. He emerged victorious in persuading both parties to accept merger in the teeth of opposition from Owen and radical Liberals such as Michael Meadowcroft, but badly mishandled the issuing of a joint policy document. Steel had often been criticised for a lack of interest in policy, and it appeared he had agreed to the document – drawn up by politically naive SDP advisers – without reading it. His colleagues rejected it immediately and demanded a redraft, fatally wounding his authority.
Steel was briefly joint interim leader of the Social and Liberal Democrats (as the new party was at first called) in the run-up to elections in which he did not stand, before becoming the party's foreign affairs spokesman. In 1989, he accepted an invitation from Italian Liberals to stand for the European Parliament in the 1989 election as a Pan-European gesture. Although not elected, he polled very well.
He became President of the Liberal International in 1994, holding the office until 1996.
Life peerage and Scottish Parliament
Steel retired from the House of Commons at the 1997 general election and was made a life peer as Baron Steel of Aikwood, of Ettrick Forest in the Scottish Borders, on 6 June 1997. He campaigned for Scottish devolution, and in 1999 was elected to the Scottish Parliament as a Liberal Democrat MSP for Lothians. He became the first Presiding Officer (speaker) of the Scottish Parliament on 12 May 1999. In this role, he used the style "Sir David Steel", despite his peerage. He suspended his Lib Dem membership for the duration of his tenure as Presiding Officer; that post, like the Speaker of the UK House of Commons, is strictly nonpartisan. He stepped down as an MSP when the parliament was dissolved for the 2003 election, but remained as Presiding Officer until he had supervised the election of his successor George Reid on 7 May of that year. He was appointed Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in both 2003 and 2004.
Cyril Smith child sex abuse scandal
On 14 March 2019, Steel was suspended by the Liberal Democrats after an admission that discussions he had conducted in 1979 with the then Liberal MP for Rochdale Cyril Smith, at a time when Steel was leader of the Liberal Party, had led him to conclude that Smith had been a sexual abuser of children in the 1960s and that Steel nonetheless failed to instigate any assessment by the party of whether Smith was an on-going risk to children. Richard Scorer, representing victims at the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse, called for him to be stripped of his peerage. On 14 May 2019, the Liberal Democrats ruled that there were "no grounds for action" against Steel and reinstated him to party membership.
On 25 February 2020, Steel announced his resignation from the Liberal Democrats and subsequently his position as a member of the House of Lords, after admitting that during his leadership of the Liberal Party he "assumed" that Smith had been a child abuser, and failed to investigate claims made by Private Eye against Smith, dating from before Smith was a party member. This came about after the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse accused Steel of an "abdication of responsibility" over allegations against Smith. He retired officially from the House of Lords on 27 March 2020.
Honours and awards
Steel was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1990. On 30 November 2004, Queen Elizabeth created Lord Steel a Knight of the Order of the Thistle, the highest honour in Scotland.
He has also received numerous foreign honours, including: Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit (Germany) in 1992;
Chevalier in the Légion d'Honneur (France) in 2003; and Honorary Knight of the Order of St. George (Habsburg-Lorraine) in 2016.
Steel has received a number of Honorary Doctorates from many universities including Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Stirling.
Personal life
Steel married fellow law graduate Judith Mary MacGregor in October 1962. They resided at Aikwood Tower in the Borders of Scotland for twenty years, but now live in Selkirk. They have two sons and a daughter, and nine grandchildren. In 1995, his eldest son Graeme was convicted for growing cannabis at his house, and sent to prison for nine months.
His recreations are angling and classic car rallying: he won the bronze medallion in 1998 for London to Cape Town. He is a member of the National Liberal and Royal Over-Seas League clubs.
Further reading
Peter Bartram, David Steel: His Life and Politics (W.H. Allen, 1981)
David Steel, A House Divided (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980)
David Steel, Against Goliath: David Steel's Story (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989)
David Torrance, David Steel – rising hope to elder statesman (Biteback, 2015)
References
External links
Catalogue of the Steel papers at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics.
Lord Steel of Aikwood profile at the site of Liberal Democrats
Prince of Wales School:Old Cambrians Society, Nairobi
We need to rethink my abortion law Steel's thoughts on the abortion debate, as of 2004.
|-
1938 births
People from Kirkcaldy
Politics of the Scottish Borders
Scottish Liberal Party MPs
Scottish Liberal Democrat MPs
Knights of the Thistle
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
Steel of Aikwood
Living people
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Presiding Officers of the Scottish Parliament
Presidents of the Liberal International
Leaders of the Liberal Democrats (UK)
People educated at George Watson's College
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
Rectors of the University of Edinburgh
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Liberal Democrat MSPs
Members of the Scottish Parliament 1999–2003
Alumni of Nairobi School
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh School of Law
People educated at Dumbarton Academy | [
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218625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush%20School%20%28Washington%29 | Bush School (Washington) | The Bush School is the only independent private K–12 school in Seattle, Washington. Founded in 1924 by Helen Taylor Bush, The Bush School today enrolls 580 students. As of 2020, school review website Niche ranks the Bush School as the best private K-12 school in Washington state and the 4th best private prep and high school in the Washington state.
History
In 1924, Helen Taylor Bush, a supporter of John Dewey's philosophy of progressive education, opened a preschool and kindergarten in her home to six students. In 1929, the school, having grown to six grades, the school was organized as a nonprofit corporation with a board of trustees. The Helen Bush School for Girls formally began in 1930.
In 1941, Bush helped organize the Pacific Northwest Association of Independent Schools, now called NWAIS.
Gracemont became part of the Bush School campus in 1944. The house itself, plus the carriage house and the grounds, were transferred to Mrs. Bush by Grace Heffernan Arnold. Gracemont continues to serve as a classroom and administrative building for the Upper School.
In 1968 the boarding program was phased out.
The school was formally renamed the Bush School in 1970 and began enrolling boys in the Upper School, making it Seattle's only K–12 coeducational independent school.
In 1986, the Bush School completed two capital campaigns that dated back to 1972 resulting in a faculty endowment, renovations to its Gracemont building, and construction of the Commons, a new gym, an art building, administrative offices, Benaroya, and the urban courtyard.
Construction of the Lower Campus including the Lower School classrooms, Community Room, library, Mag Gym, turf field, play structure, and the parking structure was completed in 2006.
In 2016, The Bush School acquired a second campus, called the Bush Methow Campus, in Mazama, WA. The twenty-acre campus and educational facility, formerly known as the North Cascades Basecamp, integrates wilderness, cultural, and academic experiential learning.
School traditions
Inquiry-based and experiential learning is a longstanding tradition of the Bush School, which is manifested in field trips for students in each of the school's divisions, as well as international travel and wilderness outings for older students. Winter sports also are a focus of its experiential learning program, and the school holds a mountaineering class at Snoqualmie Pass and also a winter sports wilderness program including snowshoeing, ice skating, cross-country skiing, snow hiking and learning about winter wildlife. The school also encourages students to explore cultural, natural and historical sites.
Notable alumni
Chris Ballew (1983), member of the band the Presidents of the United States of America
Dave Dederer (1982), member of the band the Presidents of the United States of America
Meg Greenfield, political editorial writer
Risa Lavizzo-Mourey, president and CEO of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
Bonnie McKee (2002), songwriter
Sweet Water, American rock band
References
Educational institutions established in 1924
High schools in King County, Washington
Private elementary schools in Washington (state)
Private high schools in Washington (state)
Private middle schools in Washington (state)
Schools in Seattle
1924 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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218627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spritzer | Spritzer | A spritzer is a tall, chilled drink, usually made with white wine and carbonated water or sparkling mineral water. Fermented simple syrup can be used instead of white wine to keep it sweet but flavor neutral.
Origin
Spritzer is derived from the variant of the German language spoken in Austria, where the drink is very popular. It is used alongside the equally common form Gespritzter (mostly pronounced G'spritzter, a noun derived from the past participle of spritzen, i.e. squirt), a term also found in some German regions, such as Hessen (e.g. Süssgespritzter, i.e. a "sweet spritzer" using fizzy lemonade instead of soda water (Sauergespritzter)). In most of Germany, the word "Schorle" is used to denote a Spritzer.
Alcoholic spritzers
Alcoholic spritzers are increasingly available ready-mixed in cans; their relatively low alcohol and calorific content means they are often marketed at women.
In Hesse, "gespritzt" usually refers to a mixture of soda water or lemonade and Apfelwein (in Central Hessian dialect, Ebblwoi), an alcoholic drink from fermented apple juice somewhat similar to dry hard cider.
In Hungary spritzer, called 'fröccs', is very popular. There are dozens of different types of spritzer. They are distinguished by the proportion of wine and carbonated water or the type of other liquids added. Examples (the list is not exhaustive) include:
Kisfröccs or Fütty ('short spritzer' or whistle), made with 1dl of wine and 1dl of carbonated soda water;
Nagyfröccs ('full spritzer'), made with 2dl of wine and 1dl of carbonated soda water;
Hosszúlépés ('long step'), made with 1dl of wine and 2dl of carbonated soda water;
Házmester ('concierge'), made with 3dl of wine and 2dl of carbonated soda water;
Háziúr ('landlord spritzer'), made with 4dl of wine and 1dl of carbonated soda water;
Viceházmester ('vice concierge'), made with 2dl of wine and 3dl of carbonated soda water;
Sportfröccs ('sport spritzer'), made with 1dl of wine and 4dl of carbonated soda water;
Újházy fröcss ('Ujhazy spritzer'), made with 2dl of wine and a special pickle juice; and,
Macifröccs ('teddy bear spritzer'), made with red wine, soda and raspberry syrup;
Krúdy-fröccs (Krudy spritzer), made with 9dl of wine and 1dl of carbonated soda water.
Other variations include: şpriţ de vară (or "summer spritzer") in Romania (1 part white wine to 2 parts sparkling water), Brizganec or ‘’Špricar’’in Slovenia (wine and the popular domestic mineral water Radenska), "špricer" in Serbia (white wine or rosé, mixed with sparkling water, half of glass of each). In Croatia, a popular drink called gemišt is mixed with white wine and sparkling water to taste.
In north-eastern regions of Italy, especially Venice and surroundings, a spritz is a popular light cocktail, a mix of sparkling white wine (e.g., Prosecco), sparkling water, and Aperol, Bitter Campari, or other colored alcohols. Actually, Austrian spritzer likely gave origin to Venetian spritz: spritzer is still popular, but called spritz bianco ("white spritz).
Non-alcoholic spritzer
In the United States, some non-alcoholic carbonated juices are sold as spritzers. The same type of carbonated juice (actually made with juice and carbonated mineral water) is known in Germany as Saftschorle or Fruchtschorle. (Both short for rarely used Fruchtsaftschorle.) Particularly Apfelschorle (apple juice spritzer) is one of the most popular soft drinks in Germany. In Austria Apfelschorle is called Apfelsaft g'spritzt. ... g'spritzt can be combined with every juice, e.g. Orangensaft g'spritzt or Pago/Cappy g'spritzt (producers of juices).
See also
Alcoholic beverage
Shandy
Wine cooler
External links
Cocktails with wine
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218628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20potential | Chemical potential | In thermodynamics, the chemical potential of a species is the energy that can be absorbed or released due to a change of the particle number of the given species, e.g. in a chemical reaction or phase transition. The chemical potential of a species in a mixture is defined as the rate of change of free energy of a thermodynamic system with respect to the change in the number of atoms or molecules of the species that are added to the system. Thus, it is the partial derivative of the free energy with respect to the amount of the species, all other species' concentrations in the mixture remaining constant. When both temperature and pressure are held constant, and the number of particles is expressed in moles, the chemical potential is the partial molar Gibbs free energy. At chemical equilibrium or in phase equilibrium, the total sum of the product of chemical potentials and stoichiometric coefficients is zero, as the free energy is at a minimum. In a system in diffusion equilibrium, the chemical potential of any chemical species is uniformly the same everywhere throughout the system.
In semiconductor physics, the chemical potential of a system of electrons at zero absolute temperature is known as the Fermi energy.
Overview
Particles tend to move from higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential because this reduces the free energy. In this way, chemical potential is a generalization of "potentials" in physics such as gravitational potential. When a ball rolls down a hill, it is moving from a higher gravitational potential (higher internal energy thus higher potential for work) to a lower gravitational potential (lower internal energy). In the same way, as molecules move, react, dissolve, melt, etc., they will always tend naturally to go from a higher chemical potential to a lower one, changing the particle number, which is conjugate variable to chemical potential.
A simple example is a system of dilute molecules diffusing in a homogeneous environment. In this system, the molecules tend to move from areas with high concentration to low concentration, until eventually, the concentration is the same everywhere. The microscopic explanation for this is based on kinetic theory and the random motion of molecules. However, it is simpler to describe the process in terms of chemical potentials: For a given temperature, a molecule has a higher chemical potential in a higher-concentration area and a lower chemical potential in a low concentration area. Movement of molecules from higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential is accompanied by a release of free energy. Therefore, it is a spontaneous process.
Another example, not based on concentration but on phase, is an ice cube on a plate above 0 °C. An H2O molecule that is in the solid phase (ice) has a higher chemical potential than a water molecule that is in the liquid phase (water) above 0 °C. When some of the ice melts, H2O molecules convert from solid to the warmer liquid where their chemical potential is lower, so the ice cube shrinks. At the temperature of the melting point, 0 °C, the chemical potentials in water and ice are the same; the ice cube neither grows nor shrinks, and the system is in equilibrium.
A third example is illustrated by the chemical reaction of dissociation of a weak acid HA (such as acetic acid, A = CH3COO−):
HA H+ + A−
Vinegar contains acetic acid. When acid molecules dissociate, the concentration of the undissociated acid molecules (HA) decreases and the concentrations of the product ions (H+ and A−) increase. Thus the chemical potential of HA decreases and the sum of the chemical potentials of H+ and A− increases. When the sums of chemical potential of reactants and products are equal the system is at equilibrium and there is no tendency for the reaction to proceed in either the forward or backward direction. This explains why vinegar is acidic, because acetic acid dissociates to some extent, releasing hydrogen ions into the solution.
Chemical potentials are important in many aspects of multi-phase equilibrium chemistry, including melting, boiling, evaporation, solubility, osmosis, partition coefficient, liquid-liquid extraction and chromatography. In each case the chemical potential of a given species at equilibrium is the same in all phases of the system.
In electrochemistry, ions do not always tend to go from higher to lower chemical potential, but they do always go from higher to lower electrochemical potential. The electrochemical potential completely characterizes all of the influences on an ion's motion, while the chemical potential includes everything except the electric force. (See below for more on this terminology.)
Thermodynamic definition
The chemical potential μi of species i (atomic, molecular or nuclear) is defined, as all intensive quantities are, by the phenomenological fundamental equation of thermodynamics expressed in the form, which holds for both reversible and irreversible infinitesimal processes:
where dU is the infinitesimal change of internal energy U, dS the infinitesimal change of entropy S, and dV is the infinitesimal change of volume V for a thermodynamic system in thermal equilibrium, and dNi is the infinitesimal change of particle number Ni of species i as particles are added or subtracted. T is absolute temperature, S is entropy, P is pressure, and V is volume. Other work terms, such as those involving electric, magnetic or gravitational fields may be added.
From the above equation, the chemical potential is given by
This is an inconvenient expression for condensed-matter systems, such as chemical solutions, as it is hard to control the volume and entropy to be constant while particles are added. A more convenient expression may be obtained by making a Legendre transformation to another thermodynamic potential: the Gibbs free energy . From the differential and using the above expression for , a differential relation for is obtained:
As a consequence, another expression for results:
and the change in Gibbs free energy of a system that is held at constant temperature and pressure is simply
In thermodynamic equilibrium, when the system concerned is at constant temperature and pressure but can exchange particles with its external environment, the Gibbs free energy is at its minimum for the system, that is . It follows that
Use of this equality provides the means to establish the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction.
By making further Legendre transformations from U to other thermodynamic potentials like the enthalpy and Helmholtz free energy , expressions for the chemical potential may be obtained in terms of these:
These different forms for the chemical potential are all equivalent, meaning that they have the same physical content and may be useful in different physical situations.
Applications
The Gibbs–Duhem equation is useful because it relates individual chemical potentials. For example, in a binary mixture, at constant temperature and pressure, the chemical potentials of the two participants A and B are related by
where is the number of moles of A and is the number of moles of B. Every instance of phase or chemical equilibrium is characterized by a constant. For instance, the melting of ice is characterized by a temperature, known as the melting point at which solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium with each other. Chemical potentials can be used to explain the slopes of lines on a phase diagram by using the Clapeyron equation, which in turn can be derived from the Gibbs–Duhem equation. They are used to explain colligative properties such as melting-point depression by the application of pressure. Henry's law for the solute can be derived from Raoult's law for the solvent using chemical potentials.
History
Chemical potential was first described by the American engineer, chemist and mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs. He defined it as follows:
Gibbs later noted also that for the purposes of this definition, any chemical element or combination of elements in given proportions may be considered a substance, whether capable or not of existing by itself as a homogeneous body. This freedom to choose the boundary of the system allows the chemical potential to be applied to a huge range of systems. The term can be used in thermodynamics and physics for any system undergoing change. Chemical potential is also referred to as partial molar Gibbs energy (see also partial molar property). Chemical potential is measured in units of energy/particle or, equivalently, energy/mole.
In his 1873 paper A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces, Gibbs introduced the preliminary outline of the principles of his new equation able to predict or estimate the tendencies of various natural processes to ensue when bodies or systems are brought into contact. By studying the interactions of homogeneous substances in contact, i.e. bodies, being in composition part solid, part liquid, and part vapor, and by using a three-dimensional volume–entropy–internal energy graph, Gibbs was able to determine three states of equilibrium, i.e. "necessarily stable", "neutral", and "unstable", and whether or not changes will ensue. In 1876, Gibbs built on this framework by introducing the concept of chemical potential so to take into account chemical reactions and states of bodies that are chemically different from each other. In his own words from the aforementioned paper, Gibbs states:
In this description, as used by Gibbs, ε refers to the internal energy of the body, η refers to the entropy of the body, and ν is the volume of the body.
Electrochemical, internal, external, and total chemical potential
The abstract definition of chemical potential given above—total change in free energy per extra mole of substance—is more specifically called total chemical potential. If two locations have different total chemical potentials for a species, some of it may be due to potentials associated with "external" force fields (electric potential energy, gravitational potential energy, etc.), while the rest would be due to "internal" factors (density, temperature, etc.) Therefore, the total chemical potential can be split into internal chemical potential and external chemical potential:
where
i.e., the external potential is the sum of electric potential, gravitational potential, etc. (where q and m are the charge and mass of the species, Vele and h are the electric potential and height of the container, respectively, and g is the acceleration due to gravity). The internal chemical potential includes everything else besides the external potentials, such as density, temperature, and enthalpy. This formalism can be understood by assuming that the total energy of a system, , is the sum of two parts: an internal energy, , and an external energy due to the interaction of each particle with an external field, . The definition of chemical potential applied to yields the above expression for .
The phrase "chemical potential" sometimes means "total chemical potential", but that is not universal. In some fields, in particular electrochemistry, semiconductor physics, and solid-state physics, the term "chemical potential" means internal chemical potential, while the term electrochemical potential is used to mean total chemical potential.
Systems of particles
Electrons in solids
Electrons in solids have a chemical potential, defined the same way as the chemical potential of a chemical species: The change in free energy when electrons are added or removed from the system. In the case of electrons, the chemical potential is usually expressed in energy per particle rather than energy per mole, and the energy per particle is conventionally given in units of electronvolt (eV).
Chemical potential plays an especially important role in solid-state physics and is closely related to the concepts of work function, Fermi energy, and Fermi level. For example, n-type silicon has a higher internal chemical potential of electrons than p-type silicon. In a p–n junction diode at equilibrium the chemical potential (internal chemical potential) varies from the p-type to the n-type side, while the total chemical potential (electrochemical potential, or, Fermi level) is constant throughout the diode.
As described above, when describing chemical potential, one has to say "relative to what". In the case of electrons in semiconductors, internal chemical potential is often specified relative to some convenient point in the band structure, e.g., to the bottom of the conduction band. It may also be specified "relative to vacuum", to yield a quantity known as work function, however, work function varies from surface to surface even on a completely homogeneous material. Total chemical potential, on the other hand, is usually specified relative to electrical ground.
In atomic physics, the chemical potential of the electrons in an atom is sometimes said to be the negative of the atom's electronegativity. Likewise, the process of chemical potential equalization is sometimes referred to as the process of electronegativity equalization. This connection comes from the Mulliken electronegativity scale. By inserting the energetic definitions of the ionization potential and electron affinity into the Mulliken electronegativity, it is seen that the Mulliken chemical potential is a finite difference approximation of the electronic energy with respect to the number of electrons., i.e.,
Sub-nuclear particles
In recent years, thermal physics has applied the definition of chemical potential to systems in particle physics and its associated processes. For example, in a quark–gluon plasma or other QCD matter, at every point in space there is a chemical potential for photons, a chemical potential for electrons, a chemical potential for baryon number, electric charge, and so forth.
In the case of photons, photons are bosons and can very easily and rapidly appear or disappear. Therefore, at thermodynamic equilibrium, the chemical potential of photons is always and everywhere zero. The reason is, if the chemical potential somewhere was higher than zero, photons would spontaneously disappear from that area until the chemical potential went back to zero; likewise, if the chemical potential somewhere was less than zero, photons would spontaneously appear until the chemical potential went back to zero. Since this process occurs extremely rapidly (at least, it occurs rapidly in the presence of dense charged matter), it is safe to assume that the photon chemical potential is never different from zero.
Electric charge is different because it is conserved, i.e. it can be neither created nor destroyed. It can, however, diffuse. The "chemical potential of electric charge" controls this diffusion: Electric charge, like anything else, will tend to diffuse from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential. Other conserved quantities like baryon number are the same. In fact, each conserved quantity is associated with a chemical potential and a corresponding tendency to diffuse to equalize it out.
In the case of electrons, the behaviour depends on temperature and context. At low temperatures, with no positrons present, electrons cannot be created or destroyed. Therefore, there is an electron chemical potential that might vary in space, causing diffusion. At very high temperatures, however, electrons and positrons can spontaneously appear out of the vacuum (pair production), so the chemical potential of electrons by themselves becomes a less useful quantity than the chemical potential of the conserved quantities like (electrons minus positrons).
The chemical potentials of bosons and fermions is related to the number of particles and the temperature by Bose–Einstein statistics and Fermi–Dirac statistics respectively.
Ideal vs. non-ideal solutions
Generally the chemical potential is given as a sum of an ideal contribution and an excess contribution:
In an ideal solution, the chemical potential of species i (μi) is dependent on temperature and pressure. μi0(T, P) is defined as the chemical potential of pure species i. Given this definition, the chemical potential of species i in an ideal solution is
where R is the gas constant, and is the mole fraction of species i contained in the solution. The chemical potential becomes negative infinity when , but this does not lead to unphysical results because means that species i is not present in the system.
This equation assumes that only depends on the mole fraction () contained in the solution. This neglects intermolecular interaction between species i with itself and other species [i–(j≠i)]. This can be corrected for by factoring in the coefficient of activity of species i, defined as γi. This correction yields
The plots above give a very rough picture of the ideal and non-ideal situation.
See also
Chemical equilibrium
Electrochemical potential
Equilibrium chemistry
Excess chemical potential
Fugacity
Partial molar property
Thermodynamic activity
Thermodynamic equilibrium
References
External links
G. Cook and R. H. Dickerson "Understanding the chemical potential", American Journal of Physics 63 pp. 737-742 (1995)
T. A. Kaplan "The Chemical Potential", Journal of Statistical Physics 122 pp. 1237-1260 (2006)
Values of the chemical potential of 1300 substances
Physical chemistry
Potentials
Chemical thermodynamics
Thermodynamic properties
Chemical engineering thermodynamics | [
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218630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume%20Delisle | Guillaume Delisle | Guillaume Delisle, also spelled Guillaume de l'Isle, (; 28 February 1675, Paris – 25 January 1726, Paris) was a French cartographer known for his popular and accurate maps of Europe and the newly explored Americas.
Childhood and education
Deslile was the son of Marie Malaine and Claude Delisle (1644–1720). His mother died after childbirth and his father married again, to Charlotte Millet de la Croyère. Delisle and his second wife had as many as 12 children, but many of them died at a young age. Although the senior Delisle had studied law, he also taught history and geography. He had an excellent reputation in Paris’ intellectual circles and served as a tutor to lords. Among them was the duke Philippe d’Orléans, who later became regent for the crown of France, and collaborated with Nicolas Sanson, a well-known cartographer. Guillaume and two of his half-brothers, Joseph Nicolas and Louis, ended up pursuing similar careers in science.
While his father has to be given credit for educating Guillaume, the boy showed early signs of being an exceptional talent. He soon contributed to the family workshop by drawing maps for his father's historical works. Some have questioned the authorship of these first maps, saying that Delisle only copied what his father had done before him. In order to perfect his skills, Guillaume Delisle became the student of the astronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini. Early on he produced high-quality maps, the first being his Carte de la Nouvelle-France et des Pays Voisins in 1696.
Career
At 27, Delisle was admitted into the French Académie Royale des Sciences, an institution financed by the French state. After that date, he signed his maps with the title of "Géographe de l’Académie". Five years later, he moved to the Quai de l’Horloge in Paris, a true publishing hub where his business prospered. Delisle's progress culminated in 1718 when he received the title of Premier Géographe du Roi. He was appointed to teach geography to the Dauphin, King Louis XIV’s son, a task for which he received a salary. Again, his father's reputation as a man of science probably helped the younger Delisle. Historian Mary Sponberg Pedley says, "once authority was established, a geographer's name might retain enough value to support two or three generations of mapmakers". In Delisle's case, it could be said that his accomplishments surpassed his father's. Up to that point, he had drawn maps not only of European countries, such as Italy, Spain, Germany, Great Britain, Poland, and regions such as the Duchy of Burgundy, but he had also contributed to the empire's claims to recently explored continents of Africa and the Americas.
Like many cartographers of his day, Delisle did not travel with the explorers. He drew maps mostly in his office, relying on a variety of data. The quality of his maps depended on a solid network to provide him first-hand information. Given his family's and his own reputation, Delisle had access to fairly recent accounts of travellers who were returning from the New World, which gave him an advantage over his competitors. Being a member of the Académie, he also kept current with recent discoveries, especially in astronomy and measurement. When he could not confirm the accuracy of a source, he would indicate it clearly on his maps. For instance, his Carte de la Louisiane shows a river that the baron of Lahontan claimed he discovered. As no one else could validate it, Delisle noted a warning to the viewer that it might not exist.
Delisle's search for exactitude and intellectual honesty entangled him in a legal dispute in 1700 with Jean-Baptiste Nolin, a fellow cartographer. Noticing Nolin had used details that were considered original from his Map of the World, Delisle took Nolin to court to prove his plagiarism. In the end, Delisle convinced the jury of scientists that Nolin knew only the old methods of cartography and must have stolen the information from Delisle's own manuscript. Nolin's maps were confiscated and he was forced to pay the court costs of the case. The high scientific quality of the work produced by the Delisle family contrasted with the workshop of Sanson. While Sanson knowingly published outdated facts and mistakes, Delisle worked to present up-to-date knowledge.
Legacy
After Guillaume Delisle's death in 1726, his widow tried to preserve the workshop and protect the family. She appealed to the king with the help of the abbot Bignon, the king's librarian and president of the academies. By that time, Guillaume's brothers Joseph-Nicolas and Louis had already left France to serve Peter the Great in Russia. The youngest Delisle, Simon Claude, lacked practical knowledge in cartography; he asked for the king's help in finding him an associate. The Delisle workshop was bequeathed to Philippe Buache.
Dutch cartographer Jan Barend Elwe reissued maps by Delisle in the late 18th century.
Maps
Louisiana
Delisle's 1718 Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississippi is an example of French cartography at its height. It was widely circulated in Europe and remained in print for years, either copied exactly or used as a base map. As a result of its accurate representation of the lower Mississippi and the surrounding areas, Delisle's map became a source map for all succeeding maps of the Mississippi River. It is particularly notable for its relatively accurate depiction of the Gulf area, as well as for its wealth of detail and information. The map is centered on the Mississippi River and the interior of what would later become the continental United States. It spans the area from the bottom of Lake Superior in the north to the point at which the Rio Grande meets the Gulf of Mexico in the south; the map also extends from the Atlantic coast, where numerous European settlements had been made, and westward to the Rocky Mountains.
The map is very detailed, including information on both known Indian territories (identified by tribes) and English colonies. The hundreds of labels on the map name lakes, rivers, colonies, cities, forts, mountains, and Indian tribes. It is ornamented with animals, ships, and cities, marked by small squares, circles, or rectangles with crosses on the top. These symbols are defined in the legend, which is located at the bottom of the map. It notes Indian habitations and includes an undulating line to mark the routes of Fernando de Soto and Louis de Moscoso in the area of the Mississippi where they were chased by Indian tribes. Next to the legend is a 16-point compass, placed in the center of the Gulf of Mexico. A fleur-de-lis indicates the geographic north; the magnetic north is omitted from the compass, suggesting that the map was not created as for navigational purposes.
The map does not have much detail for the Carolina region, shown as extending into present-day Tennessee and Kentucky. For example, there is a flawed conception of the Appalachians as reaching into the Michigan peninsula, an error potentially borrowed from earlier maps by Morden Brown or Sanson. The largest area of the map by far was "La Louisiane", or Louisiana. This was a France-centric version of the continent, intended to convey that the colony was firmly established colony by 1718. The colony consisted of between four hundred to seven hundred men, women, and children clustered around the mouth of the Mississippi. The map labeled major waterways and copper mines which could serve to boost the nation's commerce. It was considered to be a politically charged document that also depicted explorers’ routes and controversial territorial claims in the New World.
The British and Spanish areas of the map appear small compared to those of the French, even though the French presence in the interior of the continent was minimal at the time. The map extended the territories under French control by pushing the British colonial border further east than the Appalachian frontier. The British were incensed to see the claim that the Province of Carolina was named for the French king, Charles IX, and not for England's Charles II.
Because of the perceived territorial offenses against the British colonies on the map, there was a political controversy between England and France that lasted for at least fifteen years. The English Board of Trade filed several complaints. In 1720 a rival map was published and distributed by Englishman Herman Moll. Delisle's map is part of the complex relationship between Europe and the Americas known as the Trans-Atlantic Exchange. Delisle extended the French territorial claims to the Rio Grande and Pecos River, causing outrage in turn in Spain. Spanish cartographers reacted by producing their own maps of their territories; this information had previously been protected as "virtual state secrets." Months after Delisle's map of Louisiana was published, Louis XV awarded him the unique title of premier geographe du roi, with a pension of 1200 livres.
The Delisle map of 1718 is significant as a major shift in cartographic authority in the Western cartographic tradition, from the classical Greek traditions to one based more strongly on science. Delisle based this and other maps on astrologically determined latitudes and longitudes, as well as on critical examinations of primary and secondary source material. In this way, this map is a precursor to the cartography of the later 18th century, which relied on science and expressed imperial ambitions.
New France
Delisle's 1703 Carte du Canada ou de la Nouvelle France is praised as the first map to correctly depict the latitude and longitude of Canada. To accomplish this feat, Delisle – while never having personally visited the New World – devoted seven years to in-depth research. He made several earlier sketches drawn from information extracted from the Jesuit Relations, and personal relationships with many missionaries and explorers enhanced his ability to gain a rather extensive knowledge of the landscape. He also used calculations of the eclipse to find the precise longitude of Quebec which had, up until that point, only been guessed at. The research behind this map, in addition to its mathematical nature, made it a standard for maps to come. It had a large impact when it was published, underscoring the French strength in New France in the early 18th century, and it stood out as an early example of a more dispassionate, scientific type of map relative to the impressionistic ones of centuries before.
The map itself is quite detailed, covering such vast areas as New France, Greenland, Labrador, Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, and the Great Lakes and Arctic regions. Delisle did not attempt to fill in areas of white space where his knowledge was insufficient, rather he let these spaces remain, a decision indicative of cartographical renewal in France in that period. In despite of these holes and the scientific nature of his map, Delisle's 1703 Carte still contains a large amount of information from Indians and considerations on imperial influence. In at least one instance, Delisle employed information from Indians that was not necessarily confirmed by a European authority. For example, on the map, Lake Winnipeg – marked as Lac des Assenipoils – is shown with its water communication down to the Hudson Bay, information taken from an Indian report rather than one of European discovery. Furthermore, although hundreds of Indian tribes were identified in Delisle's earlier sketches, he consolidated a number of related bands under one heading in his final map. In other instances, information about certain traditional grounds provided in earlier maps, such as those of the Mistassini Cree, was omitted in Delisle's 1703 map either due to famine, disease, or collapse of hunting grounds.
The map provides a large cartouche in the upper left corner, which includes scenes from the New World implying imperial claims. The cartouche was done by the artist N. Guerard and carried the symbol of French royalty. Other parts of the cartouche included a Jesuit missionary performing a baptism of an Indian and a Recollects missionary guiding Indians toward the road to heaven. There is also the image of an Iroquois brandishing a scalp of a Frenchman, and Iroquois on a bed of thistles, a Huron holding rosary beads, and beaver. In this way, the map – which is otherwise relatively scientific – is not entirely depoliticized.
Persia
The map of Iran at the end of the Safavid period is depicted in 1724 (late Safavid dynasty). In French this is named Carte de Perse. Starting from the Sea of Azov and the Crimea from the West, it extends to Kashmir and Kabul in the east. In the north, the map goes to the highest point of the Caspian Sea and to the south the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. The name of Persian Gulf in the map is explicitly included as the Golfe Persique.
This map covers areas which today are countries including Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, and the republic of Azerbaijan. The map also contains parts of today’s Russia, Pakistan, Turkey, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and the Arabian Peninsula. In the map Delisle has drawn mountains and connecting roads between cities.
Gallery
International
From Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississippi, 1718
Legacy
Delisle Inlet in Antarctica is named after Guillaume Delisle.
Bayou DeLisle and DeLisle, Mississippi are both named for Delisle.
References
Further reading
D'Alembert, Denis Diderot and Jean-Pierre Mouchon. Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers: Tome vingt-unième. Paris: Briasson, 1751.
L'Italien, Raymonde. Mapping a Continent: Historical Atlas of North America, 1492–1814. Sillery: Éditions Septentrion, 2007.
18th-century French cartographers
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
1675 births
1726 deaths
People of the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans
People of the Ancien Régime
17th-century French cartographers
Historic maps
Historical geography of Iran | [
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218632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Law%20Institute | American Law Institute | The American Law Institute (ALI) is a research and advocacy group of judges, lawyers, and legal scholars established in 1923 to promote the clarification and simplification of United States common law and its adaptation to changing social needs. Members of ALI include law professors, practicing attorneys, judges and other professionals in the legal industry. ALI writes documents known as "treatises", which are summaries of state common law (legal principles that come out of state court decisions). Many courts and legislatures look to ALI's treatises as authoritative reference material concerning many legal issues. However, some legal experts and the late Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, along with some conservative commentators, have voiced concern about ALI rewriting the law as they want it to be instead of as it is.
The ALI drafts, approves, and publishes Restatements of the Law, Principles of the Law, model acts, and other proposals for law reform. The ALI is headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
At any time, ALI is engaged in up to 20 projects examining the law. Some current projects have been watched closely by the media, particularly the revision of the Model Penal Code Sexual Assault provisions.
History
The American Law Institute was founded in 1923 on the initiative of William Draper Lewis, Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School, following a study by a group of prominent American judges, lawyers, and teachers who sought to address the uncertain and complex nature of early 20th century American law. According to the "Committee on the Establishment of a Permanent Organization for the Improvement of the Law," part of the law's uncertainty stemmed from the lack of agreement on fundamental principles of the common-law system, while the law's complexity was attributed to the numerous variations within different jurisdictions. The Committee recommended that a perpetual society be formed to improve the law and the administration of justice in a scholarly and scientific manner.
The organization was incorporated on February 23, 1923, at a meeting called by the Committee in the auditorium of Memorial Continental Hall in Washington, D.C. According to ALI's Certificate of Incorporation, its purpose is "to promote the clarification and simplification of the law and its better adaptation to social needs, to secure the better administration of justice, and to encourage and carry on scholarly and scientific legal work".
Publications
The basic approach and format of all American Law Institute publications is similar:
An expert in the field of law, usually a legal scholar, is designated as Reporter. With the help of assistants, the Reporter does the basic research and prepares material.
An initial draft is submitted for suggestions and revisions to a small group of Advisers—judges, lawyers, and law teachers—with special knowledge of the subject. In most projects, the draft is also reviewed by a group of ALI members with a particular interest in the topic.
The revised draft is next submitted for additional analysis and consideration to the ALI Council, a body of some 70 prominent judges, practicing lawyers, and law teachers. The draft can then be referred either to the Reporter and Advisers for further review or to the general ALI membership.
When approved by the Council, the draft is presented as a Tentative Draft to an Annual Meeting of the entire membership for debate and discussion. The membership may approve the draft, subject to revisions, or refer it back to the Reporter and Advisers. A series of Tentative Drafts is produced in this way over a number of years.
A Proposed Final Draft consisting of all prior Tentative Drafts as modified by membership action may then be submitted to the Council and the membership. When the project has been approved by both, an official text is published.
The final product thus reflects the review and criticism of experienced members of the bench, bar, and academia. The process may take many years, and it is not unusual for a single Restatement of the law project to take over twenty years to complete.
Restatements of the Law
Restatements are essentially codifications of case law, common law judge-made doctrines that develop gradually over time because of the principle of stare decisis. Although Restatements are not binding authority in and of themselves, they are highly persuasive because they are formulated over several years with extensive input from law professors, practicing attorneys, and judges. They are meant to reflect the consensus of the American legal community as to what the law is (and in some areas, what it should become). All told, the Restatement of the Law is one of the most respected and well-used sources of secondary authority, covering nearly every area of common law.
Restatements are primarily addressed to courts and aim at clear formulations of common law and its statutory elements, and reflect the law as it presently stands or might appropriately be stated by a court. Although Restatements aspire toward the precision of statutory language, they are also intended to reflect the flexibility and capacity for development and growth of the common law. That is why they are phrased in the descriptive terms of a judge announcing the law to be applied in a given case rather than in the mandatory terms of a statute.
ALI recently completed the Fourth Restatement of U.S. Foreign Relations Law and the Principles of Election Administration.
Principles of the law
Beginning with the Principles of Corporate Governance (issued in 1994), the American Law Institute has more recently undertaken intensive studies of areas of law thought to need reform. This type of analysis typically results in a publication that recommends changes in the law. Principles of the Law issued so far include volumes on Aggregate Litigation (2010), Family Dissolution (2002), Intellectual Property (2008), Software Contracts (2010), Transnational Civil Procedure (2006; cosponsored by UNIDROIT), and Transnational Insolvency: Cooperation Among the NAFTA Countries (2003). Work in the Principles of the Law series continues with projects covering Corporate Compliance, Data Privacy, Election Law, and Government Ethics.
Model acts
ALI has also produces model acts on topics ranging from air flight, criminal procedure, evidence, federal securities law, land development, pre-arraignment procedure, to property. Some of these projects were undertaken jointly with the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL).
The chief joint ALI-NCCUSL project is the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), which the Institute has been developing and revising with the National Conference since the 1940s. First published in 1952, the UCC is one of a number of uniform acts that have been promulgated in conjunction with efforts to harmonize the law of sales and other commercial transactions in all 50 states within the United States. The Uniform Commercial Code is generally viewed as one of the most important developments in American law, having been enacted (with local adaptations) in almost every jurisdiction.
The Model Penal Code (MPC) is another ALI statutory formulation that has been widely accepted throughout the United States. Adopted by the Institute membership in 1962 after twelve years of drafting and development, the Code's purpose was to stimulate and assist legislatures in making an effort to update and standardize the penal law of the United States. Primary responsibility for criminal law lies with the individual states, and such national efforts work to produce similar laws in different jurisdictions. The standard they used to make a determination of what the penal code should be was one of "contemporary reasoned judgment"—meaning what a reasoned person at the time of the development of the MPC would judge the penal law to do. The Chief Reporter for this undertaking was Herbert Wechsler, who later became a Director of the Institute.
ALI recently completed the Sentencing revision, and is still working on the sexual assault and related offenses project that is re-examining Article 213 of the Model Penal Code.
Other work
The American Law Institute has also worked over the years on studies and other proposals dealing with complex litigation, criminal law, enterprise responsibility, federal estate and gift taxation, federal income taxation, federal judicial code revision, and the division of jurisdiction between federal and state courts.
In response to reports of human rights atrocities during World War II, the Institute in 1942 appointed a committee of lawyers and political scientists, supposedly representing the principal cultures of the world, to compile a list of agreed-upon individual rights: an international bill of rights. The drafting committee for the Statement of Essential Human Rights included representatives from Britain, Canada, China, France, pre-Nazi Germany, India, Italy, Latin America, Poland, Soviet Russia, Spain, and Syria. The committee reported to the ALI Council in February 1944. Although the project was never presented for a vote by the ALI membership, the Statement of Essential Human Rights was published in 1945 by the Americans United for World Organizations, Inc., independently of the Institute. Along with other sources, the Statement was then used to prepare the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which the General Assembly adopted on December 10, 1948.
Membership
Membership in the American Law Institute is limited to 3,000 elected members who are judges, lawyers, and legal scholars from a wide range of practice areas, from all areas of the United States and from many foreign countries. The total membership of more than 4,200 includes ex officio members and life members who, after 25 years as an elected member, are no longer required to pay dues. New members must be proposed by an existing member, who writes a letter of recommendation, and seconded by two others. Proposals are evaluated by a Membership Committee that selects members based on several factors, including professional achievement, personal character, and demonstrated interest in improving the law.
ALI members support the work of the institute, including attending Annual Meetings and other project conferences, joining Members Consultative Groups for Institute projects, and submitting comments on project drafts.
Governance
The Institute is governed by its Council, a volunteer board of directors that oversees the management of ALI's business and projects. Having no fewer than 42 and no more than 65 members, the Council consists of lawyers, judges, and academics, and reflects a broad range of specialties and experiences.
Presidents
George W. Wickersham (1923–1936)
George Wharton Pepper (1936–1947)
Harrison Tweed (1947–1961)
Norris Darrell (1961–1976)
R. Ammi Cutter (1976–1980)
Roswell B. Perkins (1980–1993)
Charles Alan Wright (1993–2000)
Michael Traynor (2000–2008)
Roberta Cooper Ramo (2008–2017)
David F. Levi (2017–present)
Directors
William Draper Lewis (1923–1947)
Herbert Funk Goodrich (1947–1962)
Herbert Wechsler (1963–1984)
Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. (1984–1999)
Lance Liebman (1999–2014)
Richard Revesz (2014–present)
See also
Arthur Linton Corbin
References
External links
ALI CLE American Law Institute Continuing Legal Education
"ALI's Proposed Insurance Law Restatement: A Trojan Horse?", Law360, Feb. 9, 2017
American Bar Association
The American Law Institute
The American Law Institute Archives at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
Congressional Record (Senate) from July 29, 2003
"Insurance officials, business defense urge delay in vote of liability insurance Restatement", Legal NewsLine, May 22, 2017
"Legal experts battle over proposal to clarify law covering liability insurance for ALI", Legal NewsLine, March 9, 2017
National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws
"Proposed Restatement of consumer contract law could give trial bar new weapon", Legal NewsLine, Feb. 23, 2017
Advocacy groups in the United States
Legal organizations based in the United States
Legal education
Legal research institutes
Organizations established in 1923
Organizations based in Philadelphia | [
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218636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus%20Juris%20Secundum | Corpus Juris Secundum | Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS; Latin for 'Second Body of the Law') is an encyclopedia of United States law at the federal and state levels. It is arranged alphabetically, into over 430 topics, which in turn are arranged into subheadings. , CJS consisted of 164 bound volumes, 5 index volumes and 11 table of cases volumes.
CJS is named after the 6th century Corpus Juris Civilis of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, the first codification of Roman law and civil law. The name Corpus Juris literally means 'body of the law'; Secundum denotes the second edition of the encyclopedia, which was originally issued as Corpus Juris by the American Law Book Company (from 1914 to 1937). CJS is published by West in print form and on Westlaw. The print edition is updated annually with pocket supplements and revised editions of bound volumes. Before Thomson's acquisition of West, CJS competed against the American Jurisprudence legal encyclopedia.
While legal encyclopedias like CJS were at one time heavily used by the courts, the growth of statutory and regulatory governance has had the effect of eroding this reliance. As such, rather than being used as sources of authoritative statements of law, legal encyclopedias are now more often used as tools for finding relevant case law.
Volumes 82, 97, and 98 of Corpus Juris Secundum appeared behind the closing credits of the Perry Mason television series.
CJS discusses more than 400 topics of the law.
See also
Secondary authority
References
External links
West (publisher)
United States law
Legal research
Encyclopedias of law | [
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218638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Crystal%20Method | The Crystal Method | The Crystal Method is an American electronic music act formed in Las Vegas, Nevada, by Ken Jordan and Scott Kirkland in the early 1990s. They were pioneers of the big beat genre and their music has appeared in numerous TV shows, films, video games, and advertisements. Their debut studio album Vegas was certified platinum in 2007, and saw follow-ups Tweekend, Legion of Boom, Divided by Night, and The Crystal Method. In 2017, Ken Jordan retired from music and left the group, with Scott Kirkland adopting The Crystal Method as a solo moniker.
History
The Crystal Method originally had two members, Ken Jordan and Scott Kirkland. Before The Crystal Method was formed, Jordan and Kirkland started working on music while working at a grocery store. Jordan was also a local DJ in Las Vegas as well as the college radio program director at UNLV. Jordan taught Kirkland how to DJ, and when Jordan moved to Los Angeles to work for a producer, Kirkland took over his job DJing at the local club. Kirkland also moved out to Los Angeles, and they formed The Crystal Method in 1993.
While working as a production duo for a rapper, a person named Crystal would handle transportation needs. The rapper repeatedly referred to her method of transportation as "The Crystal Method." The pair adopted the name based on the layout of the three words and the sound of the name.
Early days (1993–1995)
By the early '90s, both Ken Jordan and Scott Kirkland had moved from Las Vegas to Los Angeles. Jordan and Kirkland bought a house together, in La Crescenta, Glendale, California, which had a small underground shelter beneath the front lawn. Originally intending to turn the shelter into a studio, it proved to be an unrealistic idea and the duo set up a studio in their house which was located near a 210 Freeway overpass. They subsequently named their studio The Bomb Shelter. They were interviewed on the front lawn of the house in the documentary Better Living Through Circuitry.
After The Bomb Shelter was built, a tape of The Crystal Method's music found its way to British DJ Justin King. King was interested in starting a record label that would showcase American electronic dance acts. Together with Steve Melrose, King formed the record label City of Angels Record Label. The first official release from the City of Angels label was The Crystal Method's "Now is the Time". The Crystal Method were signed to Outpost Recordings in 1996.
Vegas (1996–1998)
After the band signed with Outpost, they began working on their debut album. The group's final single on the City of Angels Record Label was "Keep Hope Alive". Their next single was "Come2gether", from the Mortal Kombat: More Kombat soundtrack.
On September 8, 1997, The Crystal Method released their debut studio album, Vegas. Vegas peaked at number 92 on the Billboard 200. It was certified gold by the RIAA in 1998, then platinum in 2007.
The album's release was supported by its four singles; "Keep Hope Alive", "Trip Like I Do", "Busy Child", and "Comin' Back".
A reworking of "Trip Like I Do", called "(Can't You) Trip Like I Do", was also included as a collaborative effort with Filter on soundtrack to the film adaptation of Spawn in 1997 and on the soundtrack of Michael Benveniste's Tedd Can chronicles.
Tweekend (1999–2002)
In 1999, the band recorded their second studio album, Tweekend, which featured more guest artists than Vegas. The album was released in July 2001, and peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200, which remains the group's highest album chart position to date.
Featured guests from the album include Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello, Stone Temple Pilots vocalist Scott Weiland, and others, like Doug Grean, DJ Swamp, Ryan "Ryu" Maginn, and Julie Gallios. Four singles were released from Tweekend: "Wild, Sweet and Cool", "Murder", "Blowout", "Name of the Game".
Jordan and Kirkland formerly ran a radio show called Community Service which aired Friday nights on radio station Indie 103.1, in California. They played music and hosted guests including Death in Vegas and Unkle.
A year after the release of Tweekend, The Crystal Method released a continuous mix album based on their radio show, titled Community Service. The album does not feature any new studio material from The Crystal Method, but is composed of remixes of bands like P.O.D., Rage Against the Machine, and Garbage, plus remixes of songs from Tweekend. Their remix of P.O.D.'s "Boom" from this album, also appeared in the video game Amplitude.
Community Service peaked at number 160 on the Billboard 200, number five on the Top Electronic Albums chart, and number 15 on the Top Independent Albums chart.
Legion of Boom (2003–2005)
After the release of Community Service, The Crystal Method went back into the studio to record their third album, Legion of Boom. During the recording, they used the house as their recording studio instead of The Bomb Shelter.
In December 2003, the single "Born Too Slow", with vocals from John Garcia and guitar by Wes Borland was released. Legion of Boom was released on January 13, 2004, and peaked at number 36 on the Billboard 200. It sold over 25,000 copies in its first week. The track was also part of the soundtrack of the 2003 video game Need for Speed: Underground, used prominently in its demo.
The other single released from Legion of Boom, "Starting Over", featured vocals from Rahzel. No other singles were released but other songs, including "Weapons of Mass Distortion", "Bound Too Long" and "Realizer", appeared in various movies and TV shows. "I Know It's You" appeared in the trailer for the film Resident Evil: Extinction, and includes vocals from Milla Jovovich.
In 2005, the album was nominated for the Best Electronic/Dance Album Grammy, the first year that category existed. It lost to Kish Kash by Basement Jaxx.
Around this time, Jordan and Kirkland formed their own record label, called Tiny E Records. Also in 2005, Jordan and Kirkland composed an original theme for the TV series Bones, which remained in use for seven seasons before Jordan and Kirkland remixed the theme which has been in use since the beginning of season 8.
In 2004, The Crystal Method collaborated with Alan Parsons, on his fourth solo album since the demise of the Alan Parsons Project, A Valid Path, on the song "We Play The Game".
On April 5, 2005, The Crystal Method released their sequel to Community Service, titled Community Service II, another continuous mix of electronica songs and remixes of music by artists including The Doors, Unkle, New Order and Smashing Pumpkins. The album peaked at number 31 on the Top Independent Albums chart and number 8 on the Top Electronic albums chart.
A 5 track EP, Community Service II Exclusives, was released through the iTunes Store. It included one new track, "Badass", and full versions of four tracks from Community Service II. It was removed from the iTunes store not long after it was released.
Drive, London, and Vegas re-release (2006–2008)
The group composed and performed the score for the film London, which was released in February 2006. The soundtrack album included excerpts from the score, two Crystal Method vocal tracks—"Smoked" and "Glass Breaker", which were also released as a single—and songs by artists like Evil Nine, The Out Crowd, and The Perishers.
Shortly after the release of the London soundtrack, The Crystal Method was approached by Nike to take part in a series of music releases specifically designed to be listened to while running. The group's contribution, Drive: Nike + Original Run—the first in the series—was initially released digitally, in June 2006, with the physical release following a year later. Drive peaked at number 23 on the Top Electronic Albums chart. The album, a 45-minute continuous mix, starts off slow, increases in tempo, and slows at the end, following the arc of a typical distance run. In 2006 the track "Robogirl" released by the duo appeared on Dance Dance Revolution: SuperNOVA.
In 2007, ten years after its original release, the group's debut album, Vegas was certified platinum by the RIAA. One month later, a special edition of the album was released, with a second disc including remixes and video.
In late 2008, the group remixed their song "Now Is the Time". Where the original version featured samples of Jesse Jackson, this "Vote '08 Remix" used samples of Barack Obama, marking the presidential election.
Divided by Night (2009–2012)
Following the release of Legion of Boom, The Crystal Method began construction of a new, full-sized recording studio in Los Angeles—Crystalwerks. When it was finished, they began work on their fourth studio album, Divided by Night.
On April 14, 2009, The Crystal Method released the digital single "Drown in the Now". A second single, "Black Rainbows", was released via Beatport two weeks later.
The Divided by Night tour started in Boston on May 6, and the album was released the following week. It peaked at number 38 on the Billboard 200, number two on the Top Electronic Albums chart, and number four on the Top Independent Albums chart, and also granted the duo another Grammy nomination. The album features guest artists including LMFAO, Peter Hook (of New Order), Matisyahu, Meiko, Justin Warfield, Emily Haines (of Metric), and Jason Lytle.
X Games 3D: The Movie, released in August 2009, included a number of Crystal Method songs and remixes, including "Drown in the Now" and "Now Is the Time".
The Crystal Method and Ken Jordan's departure (2013–2017)
Originally scheduled for a June, 2013, release, their eponymous fifth studio album The Crystal Method was delayed by a surgery to remove a cyst in Scott Kirkland's brain. The album was released on January 14, 2014.
When approximately halfway creating the next album process, Scott Kirkland received news that he had developed "what's called a benign posterior fossa arachnoid cyst that needed to be removed from my head." He explains, "It's a simple procedure as far as brain surgery goes, but they still had to cut into my skull and noodle around in there. The surgery wasn't as bad as the infection afterwards, which landed me in the ICU for ten days. Thankfully, I made it out okay. In hindsight, as weird as it sounds, I think we were able to make a better record because we came through this." Following his 2013 recovery, Scott regrouped with Ken Jordan and continued working on the album.
In late 2013, the duo were asked to compose the score and opening theme of Almost Human, a science fiction crime drama airing on Fox. The same year, two of the Crystal Method's songs, "Play for Real" and "Over It", were featured in the 2013 racing game Asphalt 8: Airborne.
In 2014, TCM's song "Single Barrel (Sling the Decks)" was featured in the film Lucy.
In early 2017, Ken Jordan decided to retire from music, and left The Crystal Method, however Scott Kirkland continues to produce and play shows under the moniker as a solo project.
In 2017, Scott as The Crystal Method went on tour with Tool, and collaborated with Tool bass player, Justin Chancellor, on a side project called Bandwidth.
The Trip Home (2018)
On July 17, 2018, Scott Kirkland announced the next Crystal Method album was titled The Trip Home and would be released on September 28, 2018. Kirkland also announced the first single, "Holy Arp", would be released on July 27, 2018.
On July 20, 2018, Kirkland announced a North American tour to support the new album.
On September 7, 2018, Kirkland announced the second single "There's a Difference" featuring Franky Perez, which released the same day.
On November 26, 2018, Kirkland and Jean-Michel Jarre announced that they would be collaborating on a track on Jean-Michel Jarre's next Electronica album.
Discography
Studio albums
Vegas (1997)
Tweekend (2001)
Legion of Boom (2004)
Divided by Night (2009)
The Crystal Method (2014)
The Trip Home (2018)
The Trip Out (2022)
References
External links
Electronic music groups from California
American techno music groups
Club DJs
Remixers
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Ableton Live users
Breakbeat musicians
Electronic music duos
American electronic rock musical groups
Big beat musicians
Musical groups established in 1993
1993 establishments in Nevada
Geffen Records artists
V2 Records artists
Ultra Records artists
Epic Records artists | [
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218639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an%20Makavejev | Dušan Makavejev | Dušan Makavejev (, ; 13 October 1932 – 25 January 2019) was a Serbian film director and screenwriter, famous for his groundbreaking films of Yugoslav cinema in the late 1960s and early 1970s—many of which belong to the Black Wave. Makavejev's most internationally successful film was the 1971 political satire W.R.: Mysteries of the Organism, which he both directed and wrote.
Career
Makavejev's first three feature films, Man Is Not a Bird (1965, starring actress and icon of the "black wave" period in film, Milena Dravić), Love Affair, or the Case of the Missing Switchboard Operator (1967, starring actress and icon of the "black wave" period in film, Eva Ras) and Innocence Unprotected (1968), all won him international acclaim. The last-mentioned won the Silver Bear Extraordinary Prize of the Jury at the 18th Berlin International Film Festival. In 1970 he was a member of the jury at the 20th Berlin International Film Festival. In 1991 he was a member of the jury at the 17th Moscow International Film Festival.
His 1971 movie W.R.: Mysteries of the Organism (starring Milena Dravić, Jagoda Kaloper, and Ivica Vidović) was banned in Yugoslavia due to its sexual and political content. He described authoritarian figures in the film as people who are not in control of themselves striving to control others. The political scandal surrounding Makavejev's film was symptomatic of an increasingly oppressive political climate in Yugoslavia that effectively ended the director's domestic career and resulted in his leaving Yugoslavia to live and work abroad in Europe and North America. Makavejev's next film, Sweet Movie (1974), was the first feature work that the director produced entirely outside of Yugoslavia (the film was made in Canada). Sweet Movie's explicit depiction of sex together with its bold treatment of the more taboo dimensions of sexuality reduced the size of the film's audience (i.e. it was largely confined to the art house context) and also resulted in the film's being censored in several countries.
After a seven-year hiatus in feature film production, Makavejev released the comparatively more conventional black comedy entitled Montenegro (1981). The director's next feature film, The Coca-Cola Kid (1985), which was based on short stories by Frank Moorhouse and featured performances by Eric Roberts and Greta Scacchi, is arguably his most accessible picture.
Makavejev appears as one of the narrators in the 2007 Serbian documentary film Zabranjeni bez zabrane (Banned without being banned), which gives profound insight into the history and the nature of Yugoslav film censorship through its investigation of the country's distinctive political-cultural mechanisms for unofficially banning politically controversial films. The film contains original interviews with key filmmakers from the communist era.
He published two books of selected articles: Poljubac za drugaricu parolu (1960) and 24 sličice u sekundi (1965).
Views
In 1993 Makavejev wrote and appeared in a half hour televised Opinions lecture in Britain, produced by Open Media for Channel 4 and subsequently published in The Times. Makavejev speaks of himself as a citizen of the world but "of the leftovers of Yugoslavia too". He cites Jacques Tourneur's Hollywood horror classic Cat People as one of the rare films in the history of the cinema that mention Serbs, "a people from an obscure region who were haunted by evil; when hurt they turn into ferocious cats, like panthers, and killed those whom they thought to be the source of hurt of rejection". He comments on the division of Bosnia on ethnic lines:
"Creators of nationalist myths, both Serbs and Croats, came from the same mountainous region that was probably the source of this Hollywood story. Before the armed conflict, these people were whipping up nationalist fever and indoctrination until conflict became inevitable and both nations were trapped in a bloody embrace...How long will it take for an ethnically "clean" state for every single person who miraculously stays alive? A state for each family, a state for the father in case he is a Croat, a state for the mother in case she is a Muslim, a state for the daughter in case she is a Yugoslav, a state for the son in case he is a Serb, a specific flag for the dog, a currency for the cat."
Filmography
Feature films
Short films
Jatgan mala (1953)
Pečat (1955)
Antonijevo razbijeno ogledalo (1957)
Spomenicima ne treba verovati (1958)
Osmjeh '61 (1961)
Eci peci pec (1961)
Parada (1962)
Nova domaća životinja (1964)
References
Sources
Article on Man Is Not a Bird in Senses of Cinema: Gleaming Faces, Dark Realities: Dušan Makavejev's Man Is Not a Bird and the Representation of the Working Class after Socialist Realism.
Gleaming Faces, Dark Realities: Dušan Makavejev's Man Is Not a Bird and the Representation of the Working Class after Socialist Realism by Constantin Parvulescu
Betrayed Promises: Politics and Sexual Revolution in the Films of Márta Mészáros, Miloš Forman, and Dušan Makavejev by Constantin Parvulescu
External links
.
Dušan Makavejev biography.
Interview - a Hungarian interview.
English-language interview (2000).
Goran Markovic Горан Марковиќ "Dušan Makavejev or a Free Man".
Critical Review.
A photograph of Dušan Makavejev: .
Man Is Not a Bird (TCM Movie Morlocks).
Literature on Dusan Makavejev.
Senses of Cinema interview of Dusan Makavejev.
1932 births
2019 deaths
Film people from Belgrade
Serbian film directors
Yugoslav film directors
Serbian satirists
English-language film directors
French-language film directors | [
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218655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alemannic | Alemannic | Alemannic (Alamannic) or Alamanni may refer to:
Alemannic German, a dialect family in the Upper German branch of the German languages and its speakers
Alemanni, a confederation of Suebian Germanic tribes in the Roman period
Alamanni (surname)
See also
Alemannia (disambiguation)
Alemannic separatism
Allemand (disambiguation) | [
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] |
218657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal | Pharyngeal | Pharyngeal may refer to:
Anatomy
Pharynx, for pharyngeal anatomy
Pharyngeal muscles
Superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle
Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle
Pharyngeal artery
Pharyngeal slit
Pharyngeal tonsil, a mass of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx
Other
Pharyngeal consonant, for pharyngeal sounds in phonetics
See also | [
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218663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover%20Beach | Dover Beach | "Dover Beach" is a lyric poem by the English poet Matthew Arnold. It was first published in 1867 in the collection New Poems; however, surviving notes indicate its composition may have begun as early as 1849. The most likely date is 1851.
The title, locale and subject of the poem's descriptive opening lines is the shore of the English ferry port of Dover, in Kent, facing Calais, in France, at the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part () of the English Channel, where Arnold spent his honeymoon in 1851. Many of the beaches in this part of England are made up of small stones or pebbles rather than sand, and Arnold describes the sea ebbing over the stones as a "grating roar".
Analysis
In Stefan Collini's opinion, "Dover Beach" is a difficult poem to analyze, and some of its passages and metaphors have become so well known that they are hard to see with "fresh eyes". Arnold begins with a naturalistic and detailed nightscape of the beach at Dover in which auditory imagery plays a significant role ("Listen! you hear the grating roar"). The beach, however, is bare, with only a hint of humanity in a light that "gleams and is gone". Reflecting the traditional notion that the poem was written during Arnold's honeymoon (see composition section), one critic notes that "the speaker might be talking to his bride". Because Arnold was known for his discontent with the current state of society during his time, this poem is coming from the point of view of a man who feels as though society is not as beautiful as it once was. However, he sees a glimmer of hope through his lover.
Arnold looks at two aspects of this scene, its soundscape (in the first and second stanzas) and the retreating action of the tide (in the third stanza). He hears the sound of the sea as "the eternal note of sadness". Sophocles, a 5th-century BC Greek playwright who wrote tragedies on fate and the will of the gods, also heard this sound as he stood upon the shore of the Aegean Sea. Critics differ widely on how to interpret this image of the Greek classical age. One sees a difference between Sophocles interpreting the "note of sadness" humanistically, while Arnold, in the industrial nineteenth century, hears in this sound the retreat of religion and faith. A more recent critic connects the two as artists, Sophocles the tragedian, Arnold the lyric poet, each attempting to transform this note of sadness into "a higher order of experience".
Having examined the soundscape, Arnold turns to the action of the water wave itself and sees in its retreat a metaphor for the loss of faith in the modern age, once again expressed in an auditory image ("But now I only hear / Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar"). This fourth stanza begins with an image not of sadness, but of "joyous fulness" similar in beauty to the image with which the poem opens.
The final stanza begins with an appeal to love, then moves on to the famous ending metaphor. Critics have varied in their interpretation of the first two lines; one calls them a "perfunctory gesture ... swallowed up by the poem's powerfully dark picture", while another sees in them "a stand against a world of broken faith". Midway between these is one of Arnold's biographers, who describes being "true / To one another" as "a precarious notion" in a world that has become "a maze of confusion".
The metaphor with which the poem ends is most likely an allusion to a passage in Thucydides's account of the Peloponnesian War (Book 7, 44). He describes an ancient battle that occurred on a similar beach during the Athenian invasion of Sicily. The battle took place at night; the attacking army became disoriented while fighting in the darkness and many of their soldiers inadvertently killed each other. This final image has also been variously interpreted by the critics. Culler calls the "darkling plain" Arnold's "central statement" of the human condition. Pratt sees the final line as "only metaphor" and thus susceptible to the "uncertainty" of poetic language.
"The poem's discourse", Honan tells us, "shifts literally and symbolically from the present, to Sophocles on the Aegean, from Medieval Europe back to the present—and the auditory and visual images are dramatic and mimetic and didactic. Exploring the dark terror that lies beneath his happiness in love, the speaker resolves to love—and exigencies of history and the nexus between lovers are the poem's real issues. That lovers may be 'true / To one another' is a precarious notion: love in the modern city momentarily gives peace, but nothing else in a post-medieval society reflects or confirms the faithfulness of lovers. Devoid of love and light the world is a maze of confusion left by 'retreating' faith."
Critics have questioned the unity of the poem, noting that the sea of the opening stanza does not appear in the final stanza, while the "darkling plain" of the final line is not apparent in the opening. Various solutions to this problem have been proffered. One critic saw the "darkling plain" with which the poem ends as comparable to the "naked shingles of the world". "Shingles" here means flat beach cobbles, characteristic of some wave-swept coasts. Another found the poem "emotionally convincing" even if its logic may be questionable. The same critic notes that "the poem upends our expectations of metaphor" and sees in this the central power of the poem. The poem's historicism creates another complicating dynamic. Beginning in the present it shifts to the classical age of Greece, then (with its concerns for the sea of faith) it turns to Medieval Europe, before finally returning to the present. The form of the poem itself has drawn considerable comment. Critics have noted the careful diction in the opening description, the overall, spell-binding rhythm and cadence of the poem and its dramatic character. One commentator sees the strophe-antistrophe of the ode at work in the poem, with an ending that contains something of the "cata-strophe" of tragedy. Finally, one critic sees the complexity of the poem's structure resulting in "the first major 'free-verse' poem in the language".
Composition
According to Tinker and Lowry, "a draft of the first twenty-eight lines of the poem" was written in pencil "on the back of a folded sheet of paper containing notes on the career of Empedocles". Allott concludes that the notes are probably from around 1849–50. "Empedocles on Etna", again according to Allott, was probably written 1849–52; the notes on Empedocles are likely to be contemporary with the writing of that poem.
The final line of this draft is:
Tinker and Lowry conclude that this "seem[s] to indicate that the last nine lines of the poem as we know it were already in existence when the portion regarding the ebb and flow of the sea at Dover was composed." This would make the manuscript "a prelude to the concluding paragraph" of the poem in which "there is no reference to the sea or tides".
Arnold's visits to Dover may also provide some clue to the date of composition. Allott has Arnold in Dover in June 1851 and again in October of that year "on his return from his delayed continental honeymoon". To critics who conclude that ll. 1–28 were written at Dover and ll. 29–37 "were rescued from some discarded poem" Allott suggests the contrary, i.e., that the final lines "were written at Dover in late June," while "ll. 29–37 were written in London shortly afterwards".
Influence
William Butler Yeats responds directly to Arnold's pessimism in his four-line poem "The Nineteenth Century and After" (1929):
Anthony Hecht, United States Poet Laureate in the early 1980s, replied to "Dover Beach" in his poem "The Dover Bitch".
The anonymous figure to whom Arnold addresses his poem becomes the subject of Hecht's poem. In Hecht's poem she "caught the bitter allusion to the sea", imagined "what his whiskers would feel like / On the back of her neck", and felt sad as she looked out across the channel. "And then she got really angry" at the thought that she had become "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort". After which she says "one or two unprintable things".
Kenneth and Miriam Allott, referring to "Dover Bitch" as "an irreverent jeu d'esprit", nonetheless see, particularly in the line "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort", an extension of the original poem's main theme.
"Dover Beach" has been mentioned in a number of novels, plays, poems, films and songs:
In Dodie Smith's novel, I Capture the Castle (1940), the book's protagonist remarks that Debussy's Clair de Lune reminds her of "Dover Beach" (in the film adaptation of the novel, the character quotes (or, rather, misquotes) a line from the poem).
In Fahrenheit 451 (1953), author Ray Bradbury has his protagonist Guy Montag read part of "Dover Beach" to his wife Mildred and her friends after attempts at intellectual conversation fail and Montag discovers just how shallow and uncaring they are about their families and the world around them. One of Mildred's friends cries over the poem while the other chastises Montag for exposing them to something she deems obscene and the two break off their friendship with Mildred in disgust as they leave the house.
Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 (1961) alludes to the poem in the chapter "Havermyer": "the open-air movie theater in which—for the daily amusement of the dying—ignorant armies clashed by night on a collapsible screen."
Charles M. Fair in The Dying Self (1969) speaks of "the coming of this unhappy epoch, in which men are a danger to themselves roughly in proportion to their own triviality, announced in the Victorian Age" and exemplified by "the only first-rate poem Arnold ever wrote: 'Dover Beach'."
Ian McEwan quotes part of the poem in his novel Saturday (2005), where the effects of its beauty and language are so strong and impressive that it moves a brutal criminal to tears and remorse. He also seems to have borrowed the main setting of his novella On Chesil Beach (2005) from "Dover Beach", additionally playing with the fact that Arnold's poem was composed on his honeymoon (see above).
Sam Wharton quotes the final stanza in his Jonathan Hare novel Ignorant Armies, set in 1954, and one of his characters uses it as a commentary on the failure of senior people to maintain appropriate standards of conduct.
In the musical Cabaret (1966), the American aspiring novelist Cliff Bradshaw recites parts of the poem to the singer Sally Bowles because she wants to hear proper English after having been in Berlin for some time.
In P. D. James's novel Devices and Desires (1989) her character Adam Dalgliesh, thinking about his response to a police officer after having discovered a murder on a beach on the north-east coast of Norfolk, about "walking and thinking" on the beach notes: "I was thinking about the clash of ignorant armies by night, since no poet walks by the sea at moonlight without silently reciting Matthew Arnold's marvellous poem."
In a short story by Robert Aickman, "The View", part of his 1964 Dark Entries book.
"Jakarta", short story by Alice Munro.
The Last Gentleman by Walker Percy.
A Song For Lya by George R. R. Martin.
Portnoy's Complaint by Philip Roth.
Rush's song "Armour and Sword", from the 2007 album Snakes and Arrows (lyrics by Neil Peart).
The Bangles' song "Dover Beach", from the 1984 album All Over the Place (lyrics by Susanna Hoffs and Vicki Peterson).
Nora's Lost, a short drama by Alan Haehnel.
Daljit Nagra's prize-winning poem "Look We Have Coming to Dover!" quotes as its epigraph the line: "So various, so beautiful, so new".
The poem "Moon" by Billy Collins.
The travel narrative A Summer in Gascony (2008) by Martin Calder.
The Flying Dutchman character quotes the last 12 lines as he looks towards the sea in the 1951 movie Pandora and the Flying Dutchman.
Kevin Kline's character, Cal Gold, in the film 2001 The Anniversary Party recites part of "Dover Beach" as a toast.
Samuel Barber composed a setting of "Dover Beach" for string quartet and baritone.
Jeffrey Eugenides, The Marriage Plot, p. 201 (bottom), Farrar Straus and Giroux paperback edn 2011.
Jo Baker, A Country Road, A Tree (2015), p. 24, when protagonist Samuel Beckett recalls lines 9–10 when walking by the sea at Greystones, Co. Wicklow.
The Man Without a Shadow, a 2016 novel by Joyce Carol Oates.
The poem has also provided a ready source for titles:
On a Darkling Plain by Clifford Irving, A Darkling Plain by Philip Reeve, As on a Darkling Plain by Ben Bova (the title refers to the plain of a Saturnian moon covered with strange unexplained artefacts), A Tour of the Darkling Plain (the Finnegans Wake correspondence of Adaline Glasheen and Thornton Wilder), Clash by Night, a play by Clifford Odets (later made into a film noir by Fritz Lang), Clash by Night, a science fiction novel by Lewis Padgett (Henry Kuttner & CL Moore), Ignorant Armies by Sam Wharton, and Norman Mailer's National Book Award winner The Armies of the Night, about the 1967 March on the Pentagon.
The Sea of Faith movement is so called as the name is taken from this poem, as the poet expresses regret that belief in a supernatural world is slowly slipping away; the "sea of faith" is withdrawing like the ebbing tide.
Sea of Faith by John Brehm, a collection of poems [The University of Wisconsin Press, 2004] (and the title of the eponymous poem, which begins "Once when I was teaching 'Dover Beach'".
Dover Beach by Billy Collins.
In the Richard Condon novel Arigato (1972), the protagonist Captain Huntingdon ponders leaving his innocence behind and recites the following lines:
Ah, love, let us be true
To one another! for the world, which seems
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
So various, so beautiful, so new,
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
— Lines 29 to 37Even in the U. S. Supreme Court the poem has had its influence: Justice William Rehnquist, in his concurring opinion in Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 US 50 (1982), called judicial decisions regarding Congress's power to create legislative courts "landmarks on a judicial 'darkling plain' where ignorant armies have clashed by night."
Notes
References
For a more thorough bibliography see Matthew Arnold.
Professors Chauncey Brewster Tinker and Howard Foster Lowry, The Poetry of Matthew Arnold: A Commentary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940), Alibris ID 8235403151
Kenneth Allott (editor), The Poems of Matthew Arnold (London and New York: Longman Norton, 1965),
Park Honan, Matthew Arnold, a life (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981),
A. Dwight Culler, Imaginative Reason: The Poetry of Matthew Arnold (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966).
Stefan Collini, Arnold (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988),
Linda Ray Pratt, Matthew Arnold Revisited, (New York: Twayne Publishers, 2000),
The text of the poem is as in Poetry and Criticism of Matthew Arnold, edited by Dwight Culler, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1961; and Matthew Arnold's Poems ed. Kenneth Allott (pub. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1965). The editors of this page have opted for the elided spellings on several words ("blanch'd," "furl'd") consistent with these texts.
Melvyn Bragg, In Our Time – Victorian Pessimism, BBC Radio 4, Thu 10 May 2007
External links
Poem text
British poems
Poetry by Matthew Arnold
Victorian poetry | [
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218664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry%20Canal | Coventry Canal | The Coventry Canal is a navigable narrow canal in the Midlands of England.
It starts in Coventry and ends to the north at Fradley Junction, just north of Lichfield, where it joins the Trent and Mersey Canal. It also has connections with the Ashby Canal, the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal and the Oxford Canal.
Some maps show the canal as a northern and a southern section, connected by a stretch of the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal, but others, including the Canal and River Trust show the through route as the Coventry Canal. This reflects a complicated period of ownership and re-leasing when the Coventry Canal company was in financial difficulties during construction.
It runs through or past the towns of Bedworth, Nuneaton, Atherstone, Polesworth and Tamworth. It is navigable for boats up to length, beam and headroom. It forms part of the Warwickshire ring.
Route in detail
The canal starts at Coventry Canal Basin. The basin was opened in 1769 and expanded in 1788. It is situated just north of Coventry City Centre and just outside the city's inner ring road. Many of the buildings and the site were restored between 1993 and 1995. The Canal Bridge, Canal House and the warehouses are grade II listed buildings. All boats going in and out of Coventry Canal Basin have to pass through the Canal Bridge.
From the canal basin, the canal meanders north through Coventry passing under many road bridges including prominent hump-back bridges under the Foleshill Road, Foleshill through Little Heath and the Longford Road, Longford.
Five miles north of Coventry, at Hawkesbury Junction, a superbly preserved iron bridge crosses the start of the Oxford Canal, which journeys southwards to join the River Thames at Oxford. At Hawkesbury Junction there are buildings from the working days of the canal, and the Greyhound pub is a traditional stop for boaters. Hawkesbury Junction is also known to regular boaters as Sutton Stop, though strictly this refers to the stop lock, a short distance along the Oxford Canal.
A few miles north of Hawkesbury, just outside Bedworth, is Marston Junction, where the Ashby-de-la-Zouch Canal starts its meandering, rural and lock-free journey towards the former coal mines at Moira; although it is now navigable only for to Snarestone.
From Marston Junction, the Coventry canal runs north-west through Nuneaton, Atherstone and Polesworth, to Tamworth. At Atherstone a set of 11 locks (Top Lock No. 1 to Atherstone Bottom Lock No. 11) lower the level of the canal towards Polesworth. The only other locks on the Coventry canal are the two Glascote locks which lower the level of the canal a further about before Fazeley Junction.
In a suburb of Tamworth, at Fazeley Junction, boaters can turn south towards Birmingham along the Birmingham & Fazeley Canal.
The Coventry Canal continues northwards to end at Fradley Junction where it joins the Trent and Mersey Canal. From Fazeley to a point halfway to Fradley, some maps show the canal as the "Birmingham and Fazeley Canal" (see History).
History
The Coventry Canal Company was formed in 1768. James Brindley was commissioned to build the canal, and work started on it in December that year. Due to the high standards of construction demanded by Brindley, the canal company ran out of money by the time the canal had reached Atherstone in 1769, and Brindley was replaced by Thomas Yeoman.
Thomas Dadford advised on the Canal's aqueduct over the River Tame (now known as Tame Aqueduct) in 1784, and in June 1785 Thomas Sheasby was awarded the contract to connect the Coventry Canal to the Trent and Mersey Canal.
Although the canal reached the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal at Fazeley, the final Parliament-approved stretch to the Trent and Mersey at Fradley was not finished until 1789.
The Trent and Mersey company, and the Birmingham and Fazeley company, anxious to allow through traffic between Birmingham and the Trent and Mersey Canal, gained permission to complete and operate the approved but unbuilt section from Fazeley to Fradley. The B&F worked north from Fazeley, and the T&M worked south from Fradley. The full length from Coventry to Fradley was opened in 1789.
The Coventry Canal company later bought the northern section, nowadays sometimes referred to as Coventry Canal (detached portion), while the middle section remained under the ownership of the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal, and thus some maps show this middle section as the Birmingham and Fazeley Canal, but others describe the complete route as the Coventry Canal. The Canal and River Trust who manage the canal describe the whole route from Coventry to the Trent and Mersey Canal as the Coventry Canal.
Operation
The Coventry canal was a vital trade artery for many years. In particular, it was part of a Birmingham–London route via the B&F Canal, Coventry Canal, Oxford Canal, and the Thames.
When the Grand Junction Canal and some smaller companies (which much later merged to form the Grand Union Canal company) opened a direct rival route from Birmingham to London, via Warwick, Napton, Braunston, and Bletchley, trade still remained high on the Coventry. This was partly because of the work done by the Oxford company to shorten its route north of Braunston, and because Grand Junction traffic using the Braunston–Fazeley route avoided the high tolls charged by the Oxford Canal company on its Braunston–Napton section (which was also part of the new route).
The Coventry paid a dividend right up to 1947 and remained navigable to the present day. Today, the canal is also a popular route for narrowboat trips. Many tourists hire narrowboats to explore Coventry's industrial heritage.
It was nationalised in 1948 being operated first by the British Transport Board and then by the British Waterways Board, the forerunners of British Waterways.
In 1957, Coventry Canal Society was established to promote the proper use and maintenance of the canal, and to protect its interests. The canal acts as a base to Mercia Canoe Club, which is part of Coventry Canal Society.
Features
See also
Arbury Canals
Gallery
References
External links
Coventry Canal Society
Coventry Canal map on canalmap.net, using OpenStreetMap data
Mercia Canoe Club
Guide to Coventry Canal from waterscape.com
images & map of mile markers seen along the Coventry canal
Canals in England
Transport in Staffordshire
Tourist attractions in Staffordshire
Canals in Warwickshire
Coventry
Buildings and structures in Coventry
Canals opened in 1789
1789 establishments in England | [
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218667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ontarian | Franco-Ontarian | Franco-Ontarians ( or if female, sometimes known as Ontarois and Ontaroises) are francophone Canadians that reside in the province of Ontario. Most are French Canadians from Ontario. In 2016, the Government of Ontario calculated that there are approximately 622,415 francophones residing in the province. The majority of Franco-Ontarians in the province reside in Eastern Ontario, Northeastern Ontario, and Central Ontario, although small francophone communities may be found in other regions of the province.
The first francophones to settle in Ontario did so during the early 17th century, when most of it was part of the Pays d'en Haut region of New France. However, French settlement into the area remained limited until the 19th century. The late 19th century and early 20th century saw attempts by the provincial government to assimilate the Franco-Ontarian population into the anglophone majority with the introduction of regulations that promoted the use of English over French, for example Regulation 17. During the late 1960s and 1970s, because of the Quiet Revolution, Franco-Ontarians established themselves as a distinct cultural identity - having only identified as French Canadians before. Francophone rights were furthered in the 1970s as a result of C'est l'temps, a Franco-Ontarian civil disobedience movement that pressured several provincial departments to adopt bilingual policies.
The provincial government passed the French Language Services Act in 1986 which recognized the French language as a "historic language of Ontario," and as an official language of the province's education system, judiciary, and legislature. However, the Act did not make the French language an official language in its entirety; with other provincial services only made available in French in designated communities and regions with a significant Franco-Ontarian population.
Definition
The term Franco-Ontarian has two related usages, which overlap closely but are not identical: it may refer to francophone residents of Ontario, regardless of their ethnicity or place of birth, or to people of French Canadian ancestry born in Ontario, regardless of their primary language or current place of residence. In June 2009, the provincial government expanded the definition of a francophone as a person whose mother tongue is French, or a person that has a different mother tongue but still uses French as the primary language at home. The term Ontarois is used sometimes to distinguish French-speaking Ontarians, while the general term for Ontarian in French is Ontarien. The use of the term Ontarois follows the convention that a francophone minority is referred to with endings of -ois.
In popular usage, the first meaning predominates and the second is poorly understood. Although most Franco-Ontarians meet both definitions, there are notable exceptions. For example, although Louise Charron was the first native-born Franco-Ontarian appointed to the bench of the Supreme Court of Canada, she was preceded as a francophone judge from Ontario by Louise Arbour, a Quebecer who worked in Ontario for much of her professional career as a lawyer and judge. As a result, both women have been referred to as "the first Franco-Ontarian Supreme Court justice", although the technically correct practice is to credit Charron, Franco-Ontarian in both senses, with that distinction.
Conversely, two of the most famous rock musicians from Ontario, Avril Lavigne and Alanis Morissette, are Franco-Ontarian by the second definition but not by the first, since they were born to Franco-Ontarian parents but currently live outside Ontario and work primarily in English. Former Prime Minister Paul Martin was born in Windsor to a Franco-Ontarian father from Pembroke and an anglophone mother, although many Canadians consider him a Quebecer as he represented a Montreal riding in Parliament.
Both meanings can be politically charged. Using the second to the exclusion of the first may be considered offensive to some in that it excludes francophones born in or with ethnic origins from other francophone countries from the Franco-Ontarian community. Using the first to the exclusion of the second obscures the very real ethno-cultural distinctions that exist between Franco-Ontarians, Québécois, Acadians, Métis and other Canadian francophone communities, and the pressures toward assimilation into the English Canadian majority that the community faces. As a result, the complex political and sociological context of Franco-Ontarian can only be fully understood by recognizing both meanings and understanding the distinctions between the two.
Demographics
Franco-Ontarians constitute the largest French-speaking community in Canada outside Quebec. According to the province of Ontario, there are 622,415 francophones in Ontario, making up 4.7 per cent of the province's population. However, the figure is derived from the province's "Inclusive Definition of Francophones" (IDF), which includes respondents from the 2016 Canadian Census who reported French as their mother tongue and respondents whose mother tongue was not French but have proficiency in the language and use it as their primary language at home. Prior to the introduction of IDF in 2009, a respondent's mother tongue was the main measure used by the government to determined the number of francophones in the province. There were 568,345 Ontarians, or 4.3 per cent of the population, that reported having French as a mother tongue in the 2016 census, making it the most common mother tongue in the province after English.
The majority of Franco-Ontarians are bilingual in both French and English; a minority (40,045 respondents) reported having proficiency in only the French language and limited or no knowledge of English. In the same census, more than 1.52 million Ontarians, or 11.49 per cent of the province's population, reported having proficiency in the French language; while 11.2 per cent of the population reported to be bilingual in French and English. However, that figure includes both Franco-Ontarians and Ontarians who speak French as a second language.
Approximately 16.1 per cent of francophone Ontarians identified as a visible minority. More than half of Ontario's francophone visible minority population reside within Central Ontario (including the Greater Toronto Area), with 37.8 per cent residing in Eastern Ontario, and the remaining 5.7 per cent in other areas of the province.
In 2016, 59.5 per cent of francophones in Ontario were born in province, while 19.6 per cent originated from Quebec, and 16.4 per cent came from all other provinces or territories in Canada. However, the percentage of those born in the province varies between region, with 85.3 per cent of francophones in Northeastern Ontario being born in Ontario; whereas only 39.6 per cent of francophones in Central Ontario were born in the province. Approximately 4.5 per cent of francophones in Ontario were born outside Canada. Around 35 per cent of francophones born outside Canada were born in Africa, while 28 per cent were from Europe, 20 per cent were from Asia, and 17 per cent were from other countries in the Americas. Francophone immigrants account for 15 per cent of all immigrants into Ontario, and nearly a third of all immigrants into Central Ontario. Approximately 17.4 per cent of immigrants to the province between 2011 and 2016 were francophone.
Communities
Franco-Ontarians may be found in all areas of Ontario. Approximately 43.1 per cent of francophones in province reside in Eastern Ontario, with 268,070 francophones living in that region. Francophones comprise approximately 15.4 per cent of Eastern Ontario's total population. More than 68 per cent of francophones that live in Eastern Ontario reside in its Champlain region, an area that encompasses Cornwall, Hawkesbury, Ottawa and Pembroke (all of which are adjacent to or near the Ontario-Quebec border).
However, Northeastern Ontario is the region that has the highest proportion of francophones, with the 122,360 francophone residents of the region making up 22.6 per cent of the region's population. Central Ontario (including the Greater Toronto Area) also has a large population of Franco-Ontarians, with 191,375 francophones residing in that region. The remaining regions' Franco-Ontarian populations are 33,555 in Southwestern Ontario and 7,055 in Northwestern Ontario.
History
Early history
Étienne Brûlé is often considered the first francophone and European to have arrived in the region in 1610. During this time, most of Ontario formed a part of New France's Pays d'en Haut region; with most of the European inhabitants in the region at the time being coureurs de bois and voyageurs, or Jesuit missionaries in Huronia; most notably the settlements of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons (in present-day Midland) in 1649, and another settlement in Sault Sainte Marie in 1668. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the military of New France established a number of fortifications and garrisons in the region, including Fort Frontenac (in present-day Kingston) in 1673, and Fort Rouillé (in present-day Toronto) in 1750. The development of Fort Pontchartrain in Detroit, led to the development of Petite Côte, a permanent settlement south of the Detroit River. The settlement was the first permanent settlement in Ontario, and eventually became Windsor. However, European settlement into the region remained largely limited during this period.
After the Treaty of Paris was negotiated in 1763, New France was ceded to the British. Present day Ontario was governed as a part of the Province of Quebec until 1791, when Ontario was severed from the colony, forming Upper Canada. In 1797, the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada passed the Upper Canada School Act, which provided for schools that used English and French and instructional languages. In 1798, during the final years of the French Revolution, French nobleman Joseph-Geneviève de Puisaye led a small group of royalists from France to settle lands north of York (present day Toronto).
French migration into Canada West/Ontario did not accelerate until the second half of the 19th century, farmers from Canada East/Quebec began to migrate in search of fertile land in Eastern Ontario, and along the Canadian Pacific Railway north of Lake Nipissing and Lake Huron. A large number of French Canadians were also drawn to Northern Ontario during this period, with the discovery of nickel in Sudbury, and gold in Timmins.
In an attempt to alleviate anti-French sentiments, in 1885 George William Ross, the provincial Minister of Education, mandated the requirement of English to be taught in francophone schools for two hours in the first four years of elementary school, and for four hours in its final four years.
20th century
1901–1950
The late 19th century, and early 20th century saw the Ontario government much less supportive of, and often openly hostile toward the Franco-Ontarian community. In an attempt to protect Franco-Ontarian language rights, the Association canadienne-française d'Éducation de l'Ontario (ACFÉO) was formed in 1910, who typically opposed the English-only initiatives launched by the Orange Order of Canada, and Irish Catholics led by Michael Fallon, the Bishop of London, Ontario. However, French Canadian migration throughout Ontario continued, with sawmills and papermills in Kapuskasing, and Hearst; and automotive plants in Oshawa and Windsor attracting French Canadian laborers during the 1920s.
In 1912, the provincial government passed Regulation 17, forbidding French-language instruction in Ontario schools. However, enforcement of the regulation was abandoned in 1927, when it became apparent to the provincial government that the regulation perpetuated inferior schooling of pupils in the province. Instead, a new policy permitting French-language schools instruction was introduced, with French given legal status in Ontario's education system, and the bilingual University of Ottawa Normal School was officially recognized. The regulation formally remained in the statutes of Ontario until 1944, when the regulations were revised.
Although the regulation itself was rescinded in 1927, the government did not fund French language high schools. As a result, francophones had to pursue high school education in English, pay tuition to private high schools (which few Franco-Ontarian families could afford), or simply stop attending school after Grade 9. Due to the lack of funding, several generations of Franco-Ontarians grew up without formal education, with the dropout rate for francophones high during this period. Franco-Ontarians thus opted for jobs which did not require reading and mathematical skills, such as mining and forestry, and were virtually absent from white collar jobs. Sociologically, it meant that education was not a value transmitted to younger Franco-Ontarians. Further, those that did have higher levels of education often pursue job opportunities in larger cities, particularly Ottawa or even Montreal, which can create a barrier to economic development in their home communities. As well, even today many students of Franco-Ontarian background are still educated in anglophone schools. This has the effect of reducing the use of French as a first language in the province, and thereby limiting the growth of the Franco-Ontarian community.
Quebec writer Yves Beauchemin once controversially referred to the Franco-Ontarian community as "warm corpses" (« cadavres encore chauds ») who had no chance of surviving as a community. In a similar vein, former Quebec Premier René Lévesque referred to them as "dead ducks".
1951–2000
The late 1960s saw a schism form between the francophones in Quebec, and the other francophone communities of Canada, notably the francophones in Ontario. The emergence of a separate québécois identity during the Quiet Revolution; also resulted in the development of a unique Franco-Ontarian identity, with francophones in Ontario forced to re-conceptualize their identities without relying on francophones in Quebec.
Recommendations from the Provincial Committee on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario, and the Bériault Report led to the provincial government passing the Schools Administration Act, and the Secondary Schools and Boards Act in 1968. The following acts introduced public funding for French-language secondary schools, and laid the foundation for the province's present elementary and secondary francophone school system. In 1969, the provincial government established its French-language public educational broadcaster, TFO.
Following the advice of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Ontario's premier John Robarts made French an official language of the provincial legislature in 1970. While the Victoria Charter was being negotiated between the provincial premiers and the federal government, Robarts agreed that the province would recognize Franco-Ontarians rights to access provincial public service in the French language, and for French-speakers to receive the services of an interpreter, if needed, in Ontario's courts. However, plans to adopt these measures were abandoned after negotiations for the Victoria Charter collapsed. His successor, Bill Davis instead opted to simply provide legal services in French, with the issuance of bilingual drivers licenses and government documents.
A civil disobedience movement made up of Franco-Ontarian wanting to further accessibility rights for French-speakers emerged in 1975, known as C'est l'temps. Members of C'est l'temps refused to pay tickets issued in only in English, pressuring the provincial judiciary to act in a bilingual manner. As a result of the protest, the Ontario's Attorney General, Roy McMurtry authorized the first French-language provincial court proceeding in 1976.
Other departments in the government of Ontario also began to adopt policies of bilingualism, and policies for French services, such as the Ministry of Health in 1979, and the Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services in 1980. French was formally made an official language of the provincial judiciary in 1984. In 1986, the provincial French Language Services Act was passed by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, where it recognized French as a "historic language in Ontario," an official language in its courts and in education, as well as the "desirable use" of French in its provincial institutions including the Legislature. However, the Act itself did not make the province bilingual, instead designating a number of communities where French-speakers constitute a majority or significant minority, as an area where provincial services are required to be provided in French and English.
The following legislation saw pushback from several anglophone Ontario towns and cities, most notably Sault Ste. Marie, which was persuaded by the Alliance for the Preservation of English in Canada to declare themselves "English-only" in the wake of the French Language Services Act and the Meech Lake Accord debate. This was considered by many observers to be a direct contributor to the resurgence of the Quebec sovereignty movement in the 1990s, and consequently to the 1995 Quebec referendum.
21st century
On October 19, 2004, a Toronto lawyer successfully challenged a "no left turn" traffic ticket on the basis that the sign was not bilingual in accordance with the 1986 French Language Services Act. The judge in R. v. Myers ruled that the traffic sign was not a municipal service, but instead was regulated under the provincial Highway Traffic Act and therefore subject to the bilingual requirements of the French Language Services Act. As this was a lower court ruling, it did not affect any other court. However the implication of the decision was that many traffic signs in bilingually designated areas of Ontario would be invalid. It was feared that the ruling would have a similar effect as the Manitoba Language Rights ruling of the Supreme Court of Canada, in this case forcing municipalities to erect new bilingual road signs at great expense and invalidating millions of dollars in existing tickets before the courts. The City of Toronto appealed the ruling. At the appeal hearing both parties asked the court to enter a plea of guilty. A guilty verdict was entered even though no arguments were made by either side on the merits of the case. The situation created a legal vacuum for several years, during which numerous defendants used the bilingual signage argument to fight traffic tickets. The precedent was overturned by the Ontario Court of Appeal in a 2011 case, R. v. Petruzzo, on the grounds that the French Language Services Act specifically states that municipalities are not required to offer services in French, even in provincially regulated areas such as traffic signage, if the municipality has not specifically passed its own bylaw governing its own provision of bilingual services.
Ontario's Minister of Francophone Affairs, Madeleine Meilleur, became the province's first cabinet minister to attend a Francophonie summit in 2004, travelling to Ouagadougou with counterparts from Quebec, New Brunswick and the federal government. Meilleur also expressed the hope that Ontario would someday become a permanent member of the organization. On November 26, 2016, Ontario was granted observer status by La Francophonie.
On January 10, 2005, Clarence-Rockland became the first Ontario city to pass a bylaw requiring all new businesses to post signs in both official languages. Clarence-Rockland is 60 per cent francophone, and the city council noted that the bylaw was intended to address the existence of both English-only and French-only commercial signage in the municipality.
In 2008, the provincial government officially introduced a French licence plate, with the French slogan "Tant à découvrir" in place of "Yours to Discover", as an optional feature for drivers who wished to use it.
In 2009, the government faced controversy during the H1N1 flu pandemic, when it sent out a health information flyer in English only, with no French version published or distributed for the province's francophone residents. In response, MPP France Gélinas introduced a private member's bill in May 2011 to have the provincial Commissioner of French Language Services report to the full Legislative Assembly of Ontario rather than exclusively to the Minister of Francophone Affairs.
2010s
On April 26, 2010, the Ontario government designated September 25 as Franco-Ontarian Day. This date was chosen as it represented the anniversary of the official raising of the Franco-Ontarian flag in 1975. On 22 February 2016, premier of Ontario Kathleen Wynne formally issued an apology on behalf of the government of Ontario to Franco-Ontarians for the passage of Regulation 17, and its harmful impact on its communities. The motion for the government to present an official apology to the Franco-Ontarian community was first presented by Glenn Thibeault.
In 2015, MPP France Gélinas introduced a private member's bill to mandate the creation of a fully independent French-language university. Although her bill did not pass, the government of Kathleen Wynne announced the creation of a French-language university in 2017.
In 2018, the provincial government of Doug Ford announced several government cutbacks that impacted the Franco-Ontarian community, including ending the position of the French Language Services Commissioner and transferring its responsibilities to the office of the Ontario Ombudsman, reducing the status of the Ministry of Francophone Affairs from a full ministry to a government office, and cancelling funding announced by the prior government of Kathleen Wynne for the creation of the French-language university. After extensive backlash to the announcement, Ford reversed course, announcing that the commissioner position would be retained and that the office of francophone affairs would be restored to a full government ministry. The actions led to one Franco-Ontarian MPP, Amanda Simard, leaving his caucus to sit as an independent. During this period, governments in Quebec began to fly the Franco-Ontarian flag as a gesture of solidarity. The flag was hoisted at Montreal City Hall on November 23, and at the National Assembly of Quebec on December 1.
Ford later cancelled funding for the new Francophone university, created by the previous government. However, in September 2019 the provincial and federal governments announced a new funding plan for the creation of the French first language university in the province. The province's first publicly-funded university that operates solely as a French-language institution was incorporated in April 2018 as the Université de l'Ontario français, expecting to accept its first cohort of full-time students in 2021.
2020s
On September 21, 2020, Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed an amendment to the Franco-Ontarian Emblem Act, 2001, first proposed by Progressive Conservative MPP, Natalia Kusendova, to designate Franco-Ontarian flag as an official emblem of Ontario. It received royal assent and became law on September 24, 2020.
On September 25, 2020, the government under Doug Ford, through Minister of Francophone Affairs, Caroline Mulroney, announced that Franco-Ontarians will be able to request a free replacement driver's licence or Ontario photo card displaying their name using French-language characters.
The Université de Hearst, which teaches entirely in French and for decades operated as a federated college of Laurentian University using Laurentian's degree-granting authority, was chartered as a fully independent university in 2021.
Politics
The Ministry of Francophone Affairs is a department of the government of Ontario responsible for the provision of provincial services to the Franco-Ontarian community. Caroline Mulroney is the provincial cabinet minister responsible for the Francophone Affairs portfolio. The French language has been recognized as an official language of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario since 1970. In 2016, the government of Ontario was granted observer status to the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, permitting the provinvicial government to submit requests to the organization's ministerial conferences, and participate in certain meetings held by the organization. Ontario is one of four governments in Canada that participates in the Francophonie, with the federal government of Canada and the provincial governments of New Brunswick and Quebec being full-fledged members of the organization.
Access to services
Although French is an official language in Ontario's education system, legislature, and judiciary, the province as a whole is not officially bilingual and its other provincial services do not provide English/French bilingual service throughout the entirety of the province. However, the provincial French Language Services Act requires all provincial ministries and agencies to provide French-language services within 26 designated municipalities and regions.
An area is designated as a French service area if the francophone population is greater than 5,000 people or 10 per cent of the community's total population. Due to the 5,000 population threshold, large cities that are actually overwhelmingly anglophone with virtually no francophone population proportional for the size of the city, are nevertheless still subject to the Act. Francophones who live in non-designated areas can also receive French language services by directly contacting the Office of Francophone Affairs in Toronto, or in the nearest designated community. The most recent addition to the list of designated areas is the city of Markham. It was named in June 2015, and after the three-year implementation period provided for by the French Language Services Act, officially became a bilingual service centre in 2018. Enforcement of the French Language Services Act is conducted through the office of the provincial French Language Services Commissioner.
The following census divisions (denoted in dark blue on the map) are designated areas in their entirety:
Algoma District
Cochrane District
Greater Sudbury
City of Hamilton
Nipissing District
City of Ottawa
Prescott and Russell United Counties
Sudbury District
Timiskaming District
City of Toronto
The following census divisions (denoted in light blue on the map) are not fully designated areas, but have communities within their borders which are designated for bilingual services:
Municipality of Chatham-Kent: Tilbury, Dover Township, Tilbury East Township
Essex County: Lakeshore, Tecumseh, Windsor
Frontenac County: Kingston
Kenora District: Ignace
Middlesex County: London
Niagara Region: Port Colborne, Welland
Peel Region: Mississauga, Brampton
Renfrew County: Laurentian Valley, Pembroke, Whitewater Region
Thunder Bay District: Greenstone, Manitouwadge, Marathon, Terrace Bay
Simcoe County: Essa, Penetanguishene, Tiny
United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry: Cornwall, North Glengarry, North Stormont, South Glengarry, South Stormont, Winchester
York Region: Markham
The French Language Services Act only applies to provincial government services, and does not require services operated by the municipal government to provide bilingual services, although several municipalities have done so at their own discretion. There are presently 44 communities in Ontario whose municipal government and services are bilingual in English and French. Most of these are communities are members of the Francophone Association of Municipalities of Ontario, or AFMO.
Judicial access
The provincial judicial system is officially bilingual in English and French, with access to a French-speaking justice viewed as a quasi-constitutional right in Ontario. The official languages of the provincial courts was set in s. 125 of the Courts of Justice Act, with s. 126 of the same act outlining the specific rights afforded to a French-speaking party. French-language access within Ontario's judicial administrative offices is also required in designated communities under the French Language Services Act. Francophone linguistic rights are further reinforced for criminal cases as those tried under the Criminal Code, a federal statute, have the right to be tried in either English or French as specified in section 530 of the Code.
However, in practice the courts function primarily in English. Francophones in some parts of the province have noted some difficulty in actually accessing French language services, especially in civil litigation matters; for example, francophones in the justice system have sometimes faced unnecessary and expensive delays in their judicial proceedings, or been forced to proceed in English even if they were merely functional but not fluent in the language, due to gaps in the system's ability to actually provide full French services. Acting upon a number of complaints received from the French Language Service Commissioner, the Attorney General of Ontario launched a committee in 2009 to address French language rights in the judicial system.
Education
Elementary and secondary
Legislation on educational instruction in the French language was first passed in Upper Canada under the Upper Canada School Act, 1797, which provided for schools that used English or French as an instructional languages. French-language instruction was banned in Ontario from 1912 to 1927. In 1927, its enforcement was dropped with the province again permitting French-language schools. The present public French-language elementary and secondary school system originates from education reforms implemented by the province 1968. French-language rights for resident elementary and secondary school students in Ontario are afforded through the provincial Education Act and Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Public education in the Ontario is managed by the provincial Ministry of Education, which sets the guidelines and curriculum for both its English and French language public school systems. There were 103,490 students enrolled in Ontario's public francophone elementary and secondary schools during the 2015–16 academic year.
In addition to language, public education in Ontario is also split between a secularized, and separate school school systems. As a result, twelve public francophone school boards operate within the province; with four secularized public school boards forming a part of the Association des conseils scolaires des écoles publiques de l'Ontario, and eight separate school boards forming a part of Association franco-ontarienne des conseils scolaires catholiques. In 2016, Ontario's public francophone school boards operated 351 elementary schools, and 104 secondary schools.
These school boards were formed after the passage of the Fewer School Boards Act in 1997, with a number of secularized and separate school boards being split and re-consolidated into larger school districts based on language. The re-consolidated French school boards served a significantly larger catchment area than an English-language school board in the province due to the smaller francophone population.
In addition to public elementary and secondary school, a number of private schools also operate with French as the primary instructional language.
Post-secondary
Ontario is home to several public post-secondary institutions that operate either as francophone, or as bilingual English and French institutions. There were approximately 21,300 students enrolled in a post-secondary francophone program/institution in Ontario during the 2015–16 academic year.
Ontario has two francophone post-secondary colleges, Collège Boréal, and Collège La Cité. The former is based in Sudbury, and operates satellite campuses throughout Ontario; while the latter is based in Ottawa, with a satellite campus in Hawkesbury. A third French-language college, Collège des Grands-Lacs, formerly operated in Toronto from 1995 to 2002. After the college ceased operations, its programs were taken over by Collège Boréal.
There are four publicly-funded universities in Ontario where French is an official instructional language, although the Toronto-based Université de l'Ontario français (UoF) is the only university in the province that operates solely as a francophone university. Three other Ontario-based universities are officially bilingual institutions, offering instruction in both English and French. They include the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston; Laurentian University in Sudbury; and the University of Ottawa. Two of the aforementioned universities also operate affiliated institutions where French is used as an instructional language; the Université de Hearst being a francophone institution federated to Laurentian University, and Saint Paul University being a bilingual institution federated to the University of Ottawa.
Two other universities in Ontario also maintain bilingual affiliated institutions, providing instruction in English and French. They include Dominican University College, an institution affiliated to Carleton University in Ottawa; and Glendon College, an institution affiliated to York University in Toronto. Additionally, the University of Toronto also operates the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, a functionally bilingual graduate school. Although these affiliated institutions and schools are bilingual, their parent universities are otherwise considered anglophone institutions.
Franco-Ontarian French
The dialects of French spoken in Ontario are similar to, but distinct from, Quebec French and constitute part of the greater Canadian French dialect. According to Michel Laurier (1989), the semantic and stylistic value of the use of the subjunctive is progressively disappearing. In the article "Le français canadien parlé hors Québec : aperçu sociolinguistique " (1989), Edward Berniak and Raymond Mougeon underline some characteristics:
the use of the possessive à
the transfer of rules from English to French, e.g., "J’ai vu un film sur/à la télévision" which comes from "I saw a film on television", or " Je vais à la maison/chez moi " coming from "I'm going home".
the loaning of English conjunctions, for instance, "so" for ça fait que or alors.
Due to the large English majority in the province, English loanwords are sometimes used in the informal or slang registers of Franco-Ontarian French. While English loanwords occur to a large extent in many varieties of French in Canada and Europe, there has been more of a conscious effort in Quebec to eliminate anglicisms. In addition, the majority of Franco-Ontarians are, out of necessity, functionally or fluently bilingual in English, a fact that encourages borrowing, as does the fact that the English language has a greater prestige in the province from its being a majority language. Franco-Ontarian communities with a small francophone population tend to have more English-influenced French, and some younger speakers there may feel more comfortable using English than French. On the other hand, the French spoken in French-dominant Ontarian communities (such as Hearst and Hawkesbury), or in those communities near the Quebec border (such as Ottawa), is virtually indistinguishable from Quebec French.
Furthermore, improved access to publicly funded French-language schools and the establishment of bilingual universities and French language community colleges has improved French-language proficiency in younger populations.
Culture
The primary cultural organization of the Franco-Ontarian community is the Assemblée de la francophonie de l'Ontario, or AFO, which coordinates many of the community's cultural and political activities.
Franco-Ontarians retain many cultural traditions from their French Canadian ancestry. For example, unmarried elder siblings dansent sur leurs bas (dance on their socks) when their younger siblings get married. Catholic Franco-Ontarians attend messe de minuit (midnight mass) on Christmas Eve. Many Franco-Ontarians also enjoy late night feasts/parties on Christmas Eve, called réveillon, at which tourtière is a common dish. They also celebrate Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day on June 24th as the national holiday for French Canadians.
Franco-Ontarian identity
The concept of Franco-Ontarians as a distinct cultural identity emerged during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Prior to this time, virtually all French Canadians were understood as a single unified cultural group regardless of which province they lived in, with Quebec serving as the "citadel" of French Canada.
However, the Estates General of French Canada of 1966 to 1969 radically reshaped the landscape of French Canadian identity. During the Estates General of Canada the Quebec delegation, influenced by the Quiet Revolution, had pushed forward a new concept of a uniquely québécois identity, believing that the French Canadian population risked assimilation unless they focused their efforts on saving "the body of the nation," namely Quebec. However, many Franco-Ontarians perceived the refocus in priorities by the Quebec delegation as an abandonment of the other French Canadian communities, and their shared French Canadian identity. This resulted in what is sometimes described as a "rupture" between the francophones of Quebec, and the Franco-Ontarian community, who were then forced to re-conceptualize their own cultural identities while being reliant on the federal government, as opposed to Quebec.
The actual depth of this "rupture" has been questioned by academics, as Quebec continues to exert strong cultural influence on francophone minority communities in the rest of Canada. However, it remains a prominent theme in contemporary cultural analysis of French Canadian identities,
It is also evident that by the early 1970s, a uniquely Franco-Ontarian cultural space had emerged with the creation of new institutions and symbols.
Franco-Ontarian Flag
The Franco-Ontarian flag consists of two bands of green and white. The left portion has a solid light green background with a white fleur-de-lys in the middle, while the right portion has a solid white background with a stylized green trillium in the middle. The green represents the summer months, while the white represents the winter months. The trillium is the floral symbol of Ontario, while the fleur-de-lys represents the French-Canadian heritage of the Franco-Ontarian community. The green color on the flag is Pantone 349.
The flag was created in 1975 by Gaétan Gervais, history professor and Michel Dupuis, first year political science student, both from Laurentian University. It was officially recognized by the Ontario PC government as the emblem of the Franco-Ontarian community in the Franco-Ontarian Emblem Act of 2001. In September 2020, the flag was made an official emblem of the province.
Franco-Ontarian Day
Franco-Ontarian Day is celebrated on September 25, the anniversary of the first raising of the Franco-Ontarian flag in Sudbury in 1975.
In 2010, the Minister Responsible for Francophone Affairs Madeleine Meilleur introduced Bill 24 to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario to have Franco-Ontarian Day officially recognised by the province. The bill, the Franco-Ontarian Day Act, 2010, passed unanimously and received royal assent in May 2010.
Monuments
Seven monuments known as Les Monuments de la francophonie d'Ottawa, were erected in Ottawa by the francophone community to commemorate francophone contribution to the development and well-being of the city. The first of the series of monuments, Monuments de la francophonie d'Ottawa was designed by Edward J. Cuhaci, and represents the first homes and the founding of Bytown. The next five monuments, each progressing uphill, highlight business achievements that were crucial to the prosperity of Ottawa economy. The seventh monument, an unfinished granite block, symbolizes future developments.
A monument to Franco-Ontarians also exists at Queen's Park in Toronto. The Notre Place monument commemorates the Franco-Ontarian community as well as the contributions the francophone community made to Ontario. The monument was first proposed in 2015. Work on the monument began on 25 September 2017, on Franco-Ontarian day, and was unveiled on the same day the following year. The stainless steel columns were designed to commemorate Franco-Ontarian contributions in the province's forestry industry, while the surrounding public square was intended to be used as a gathering space. The name of the monument, Notre Place, is a reference to song from Paul Demers and François Dubé. The name of the monument, and the Franco-Ontarian flag is also present on the stoned wall bench that surrounds most of the square. Designed by the architectural firm Brooke McIlroy, the cost to construct the monument was approximate C$900,000.
Arts
Film
Through their proximity to Gatineau or Montreal, Ottawa and the communities east of it toward Montreal are the only regions in Ontario which have consistent access throughout the year to French-language theatrical films. However, Cinéfest in Sudbury and the Toronto International Film Festival include francophone films in their annual festival programs, the Toronto-based Cinéfranco festival programs a lineup consisting entirely of francophone films, and community groups in many smaller communities offer French film screenings from time to time. Francophone films also air on TFO, Radio-Canada and cable channels such as Unis and Super Écran. Franco-Ontarian actors and actresses includes Ryan Gosling and Sophie Nélisse.
Literature
Ontario has seven francophone publishing companies, including Sudbury's Prise de parole, Ottawa's Editions Le Nordir and Les Éditions David.
Notable Franco-Ontarian writers include Lola Lemire Tostevin, Daniel Poliquin, Robert Dickson, Jean-Marc Dalpé, François Paré, Gaston Tremblay, Michel Bock, Doric Germain, Fernand Dorais and Hédi Bouraoui. The French-language scholar Joseph Médard Carrière was Franco-Ontarian.
Music and theatre
Nine professional theatre companies offer French language theatrical productions, including five companies in Ottawa (Théâtre du Trillium, Théâtre de la Vieille 17, Vox Théâtre, Théâtre la Catapulte and Créations In Vivo), one in Sudbury (Théâtre du Nouvel-Ontario) and three in Toronto (Théâtre Corpus, Théâtre La Tangente and Théâtre français de Toronto). There are also numerous community theatre groups and school theatre groups.
Annual music festivals include La Nuit sur l'étang in Sudbury and the Festival Franco-Ontarien in Ottawa. Notable figures in Franco-Ontarian music include Robert Paquette, Marcel Aymar, En Bref, Chuck Labelle, Les Chaizes Muzikales, Brasse-Camarade, Swing, Konflit Dramatik, Stéphane Paquette, Damien Robitaille and CANO.
The song "Notre Place" by Paul Demers and François Dubé, long considered an unofficial anthem of the Franco-Ontarian community after it was written for a gala to celebrate the passage of the French Language Services Act in 1986, was legally designated as the community's official anthem by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 2017.
Place des Arts, a multidisciplinary arts centre bringing together many of the francophone arts and culture organizations in Sudbury, is slated to open in 2022.
Visual arts
La Galerie du Nouvel-Ontario is an art museum whose collections and exhibitions are centred around Franco-Ontarian artists.
Media
Print
Ontario has one francophone daily newspaper, Le Droit in Ottawa. However, several other communities in Ontario are served by francophone community weekly papers, including L'Express and Le Métropolitain in Toronto, Le Voyageur in Sudbury, L'Action in London/Sarnia, Le Rempart in Windsor, Le Régional in Hamilton-Niagara and Le Journal de Cornwall in Cornwall. Important historical publications include Ottawa's Le Progrès, which was launched in 1858 as the province's first francophone newspaper, and Sudbury's L'Ami du peuple, which was published from 1942 to 1968.
Radio
On radio, the Franco-Ontarian community is served primarily by Radio-Canada's Ici Radio-Canada Première network, which has originating stations in Ottawa (CBOF), Toronto (CJBC), Sudbury (CBON) and Windsor (CBEF), with rebroadcasters throughout Ontario. Ici Musique, Radio-Canada's arts and culture network, currently broadcasts only in Ottawa (CBOX), Toronto (CJBC-FM), Sudbury (CBBX), Kitchener-Waterloo (CJBC-FM-1) and Windsor (CJBC-FM-2), with an additional transmitter licensed but not yet launched in Timmins.
Non-profit francophone community stations exist in several communities, including Penetanguishene (CFRH), Hearst (CINN), Kapuskasing (CKGN), Cornwall (CHOD), Ottawa (CJFO) and Toronto (CHOQ). Many campus radio stations air one or two hours per week of French-language programming as well, although only CHUO at the University of Ottawa and CKLU at Laurentian University are officially bilingual stations.
Francophone commercial radio stations exist in Sudbury (CHYC), Timmins (CHYK) and Sturgeon Falls/North Bay (CHYQ); all three stations are owned and operated by Le5 Communications, and air distinct locally targeted morning shows while operating for the remainder of the day as a shared region-wide simulcast with each station originating some of the common programming. Ottawa francophones are served by the commercial radio stations licensed to Gatineau, and many other Eastern Ontario communities are within the broadcast range of the Gatineau and Montreal media markets. One station in Hawkesbury (CHPR) airs a few hours per week of locally oriented programming, but otherwise simulcasts a commercial station from Montreal.
Television
The province has two Ici Radio-Canada Télé stations, CBOFT-DT in Ottawa and CBLFT-DT in Toronto, which previously had rebroadcast transmitters throughout the province but remain available provincewide on basic cable. Both stations carry identical programming directed from Radio-Canada's master control in Montreal, except for local news and advertisements. CBOFT produces a newscast for broadcast only in the Ottawa area, while CBLFT produces another serving the rest of the province. The network formerly also operated CBEFT in Windsor, which was shut down in 2012.
The provincial government operates TFO, a sister channel to TVOntario, which is available provincewide via mandatory carriage on basic cable or satellite packages and via online streaming; it formerly also transmitted over the air in selected communities with significant francophone populations, but this was discontinued in 2012. In 2003, TFO produced and aired Francoeur, the first Franco-Ontarian téléroman. In 2008, TFO also began airing the first Franco-Ontarian sitcom, Météo+ — itself, in part, a satire of the Franco-Ontarian community's relative lack of access to local French-language media. In 2012, the production team behind Météo+ launched Les Bleus de Ramville.
The Quebec-based francophone network TVA as well as specialty channels TV5 Québec Canada and Ici RDI are available on all Ontario cable systems, as these channels are mandated by the CRTC for carriage by all Canadian cable operators. Where there is sufficient local demand for French-language television, Ontario cable systems may also offer French-language channels such as Noovo, Ici ARTV, Elle Fictions and RDS, although these channels only have discretionary status outside Quebec and are typically offered only on a digital cable tier rather than in basic cable packages.
Notable Franco-Ontarians
See also
French Canadians
Quebecer
Acadians
Franco-Albertan, Franco-Columbian, Franco-Manitoban, Franco-Newfoundlander, Franco-Nunavois, Fransaskois, Franco-Ténois, Franco-Yukonnais
Notes
References
External links
Government of Ontario, Office of Francophone Affairs
Ontario | [
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218670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing%20card%20suit | Playing card suit | In playing cards, a suit is one of the categories into which the cards of a deck are divided. Most often, each card bears one of several pips (symbols) showing to which suit it belongs; the suit may alternatively or additionally be indicated by the color printed on the card. The rank for each card is determined by the number of pips on it, except on face cards. Ranking indicates which cards within a suit are better, higher or more valuable than others, whereas there is no order between the suits unless defined in the rules of a specific card game. In a single deck, there is exactly one card of any given rank in any given suit. A deck may include special cards that belong to no suit, often called jokers.
History
Various languages have different terminology for suits such as colors, signs, or seeds.
Modern Western playing cards are generally divided into two or three general suit-systems. The older Latin suits are subdivided into the Italian and Spanish suit-systems. The younger Germanic suits are subdivided into the German and Swiss suit-systems. The French suits are a derivative of the German suits but are generally considered a separate system.
Origin and development of the Latin suits
The earliest card games were trick-taking games and the invention of suits increased the level of strategy and depth in these games. A card of one suit cannot beat a card from another regardless of its rank. The concept of suits predate playing cards and can be found in Chinese dice and domino games such as Tien Gow.
Chinese money-suited cards are believed to be the oldest ancestor to the Latin suit-system. The money-suit system is based on denominations of currency: Coins, Strings of Coins, Myriads of Strings (or of coins), and Tens of Myriads. Old Chinese coins had holes in the middle to allow them to be strung together. A string of coins could easily be misinterpreted as a stick to those unfamiliar with them.
By then the Islamic world had spread into Central Asia and had contacted China, and had adopted playing cards. The Muslims renamed the suit of myriads as cups; this may have been due to seeing a Chinese character for "myriad" () upside-down. The Chinese numeral character for Ten () on the Tens of Myriads suit may have inspired the Muslim suit of swords. Another clue linking these Chinese, Muslim, and European cards are the ranking of certain suits. In many early Chinese games like Madiao, the suit of coins was in reverse order so that the lower ones beat the higher ones. In the Indo-Persian game of Ganjifa, half the suits were also inverted, including a suit of coins. This was also true for the European games of Tarot and Ombre. The inverting of suits had no purpose in terms of play but was an artifact from the earliest games.
These Turko-Arabic cards, called Kanjifa, used the suits coins, clubs, cups, and swords, but the clubs represented polo sticks; Europeans changed that suit, as polo was an obscure sport to them.
The Latin suits are coins, clubs, cups, and swords. They are the earliest suit-system in Europe, and were adopted from the cards imported from Mamluk Egypt and Moorish Granada in the 1370s.
There are four types of Latin suits: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and an extinct archaic type. The systems can be distinguished by the pips of their long suits: swords and clubs.
Northern Italian swords are curved outward and the clubs appear to be batons. They intersect one another.
Southern Italian and Spanish swords are straight, and the clubs appear to be knobbly cudgels. They do not cross each other (The common exception being the three of clubs).
Portuguese pips are like the Spanish, but they intersect like Northern Italian ones. They sometimes have dragons on the aces. This system lingers on only in the Tarocco Siciliano and the Unsun Karuta of Japan.
The archaic system is like the Northern Italian one, but the swords are curved inward so they touch each other without intersecting.
Minchiate (a game that used a 97-card deck) used a mixed system of Italian clubs and Portuguese swords.
Despite a long history of trade with China, Japan was introduced to playing cards with the arrival of the Portuguese in the 1540s. Early locally made cards, Karuta, were very similar to Portuguese decks. Increasing restrictions by the Tokugawa shogunate on gambling, card playing, and general foreign influence, resulted in the Hanafuda card deck that today is used most often for fishing-type games. The role of rank and suit in organizing cards became switched, so the hanafuda deck has 12 suits, each representing a month of the year, and each suit has 4 cards, most often two normal, one Ribbon and one Special (though August, November and December each differ uniquely from this convention).
Invention of German and French suits
During the 15th-century, manufacturers in German speaking lands experimented with various new suit systems to replace the Latin suits. One early deck had five suits, the Latin ones with an extra suit of shields. The Swiss-Germans developed their own suits of shields, roses, acorns, and bells around 1450. Instead of roses and shields, the Germans settled with hearts and leaves around 1460. The French derived their suits of trèfles (clovers or clubs ), carreaux (tiles or diamonds ), cœurs (hearts ), and piques (pikes or spades ) from the German suits around 1480. French suits correspond closely with German suits with the exception of the tiles with the bells but there is one early French deck that had crescents instead of tiles. The English names for the French suits of clubs and spades may simply have been carried over from the older Latin suits.
Tarot
Beginning around 1440 in northern Italy, some decks started to include an extra suit of (usually) 21 numbered cards known as trionfi or trumps, to play tarot card games. Always included in tarot decks is one card, the Fool or Excuse, which may be part of the trump suit depending on the game or region. These cards do not have pips or face cards like the other suits. Most tarot decks used for games come with French suits but Italian suits are still used in Piedmont, Bologna, and pockets of Switzerland. A few Sicilian towns use the Portuguese-suited Tarocco Siciliano, the only deck of its kind left in Europe.
Tarot decks intended for divination typically have the suits cups, pentacles (or coins), wands, and swords, along with the Major Arcana trump cards.
Suits in games with traditional decks
Trumps
In a large and popular category of trick-taking games, one suit may be designated in each deal to be trump and all cards of the trump suit rank above all non-trump cards, and automatically prevail over them, losing only to a higher trump if one is played to the same trick. Non-trump suits are called plain suits.
Special suits
Some games treat one or more suits as being special or different from the others. A simple example is Spades, which uses spades as a permanent trump suit. A less simple example is Hearts, which is a kind of point trick game in which the object is to avoid taking tricks containing hearts. With typical rules for Hearts (rules vary slightly) the queen of spades and the two of clubs (sometimes also the jack of diamonds) have special effects, with the result that all four suits have different strategic value. Tarot decks have a dedicated trump suit.
Chosen suits
Games of the Karnöffel Group have between one and four chosen suits, sometimes called selected suits, which are typified by having a disrupted ranking and cards with varying privileges which may range from full to none and which may depend on the order they are played to the trick. For example, chosen Sevens may be unbeatable when led, but otherwise worthless. In Swedish Bräus some cards are even unplayable. In games where the number of chosen suits is less than four, the others are called unchosen suits and rank in their natural order.
Ranking of suits
Whist-style rules generally preclude the necessity of determining which of two cards of different suits has higher rank, because a card played on a card of a different suit either automatically wins or automatically loses depending on whether the new card is a trump. However, some card games also need to define relative suit rank. An example of this is in auction games such as bridge, where if one player wishes to bid to make some number of heart tricks and another to make the same number of diamond tricks, there must be a mechanism to determine which takes precedence in the bidding order.
There is no standard order for the four suits and so there are differing conventions among games that need a suit hierarchy. Examples of suit order are (from highest to lowest):
Bridge (for bidding and scoring) and occasionally poker: spades, hearts, diamonds, clubs.
Preferans: hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades. Only used for bidding.
Five Hundred: hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades (for bidding and scoring)
Ninety-nine: clubs, hearts, spades, diamonds (supposedly mnemonic as they have respectively 3, 2, 1, 0 lobes; see article for how this scoring is used)
Skat: clubs, spades, hearts, diamonds; or acorns, leaves, hearts, bells (for bidding and to determine which Jack beats which in play)
Cego: clubs, spades, hearts, diamonds (for determining highest card in certain situations)
Big Two: spades, hearts, clubs, diamonds (Presidents reverses suit strength: hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs)
Thirteen: hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades.
Pairing or ignoring suits
The pairing of suits is a vestigial remnant of Ganjifa, a game where half the suits were in reverse order, the lower cards beating the higher. In Ganjifa, progressive suits were called "strong" while inverted suits were called "weak". In Latin decks, the traditional division is between the long suits of swords and clubs and the round suits of cups and coins. This pairing can be seen in Ombre and Tarot card games. German and Swiss suits lack pairing but French suits maintained them and this can be seen in the game of Spoil Five.
In some games, such as blackjack, suits are ignored. In other games, such as Canasta, only the color (red or black) is relevant. In yet others, such as bridge, each of the suit pairings are distinguished.
In contract bridge, there are three ways to divide four suits into pairs: by color, by rank and by shape resulting in six possible suit combinations.
Color is used to denote the red suits (hearts and diamonds) and the black suits (spades and clubs).
Rank is used to indicate the major (spades and hearts) versus minor (diamonds and clubs) suits.
Shape is used to denote the pointed (diamonds and spades, which visually have a sharp point uppermost) versus rounded (hearts and clubs) suits. This is used in bridge as a mnemonic.
Four-color suits
Some decks, while using the French suits, give each suit a different color to make the suits more distinct from each other. In bridge, such decks are known as no-revoke decks, and the most common colors are black spades, red hearts, blue diamonds and green clubs, although in the past the diamond suit usually appeared in a golden yellow-orange. A pack occasionally used in Germany uses green spades (comparable to leaves), red hearts, yellow diamonds (comparable to bells) and black clubs (comparable to acorns). This is a compromise deck devised to allow players from East Germany (who used German suits) and West Germany (who adopted the French suits) to be comfortable with the same deck when playing tournament Skat after the German reunification.
Other suited decks
Suited-and-ranked decks
A large number of games are based around a deck in which each card has a rank and a suit (usually represented by a color), and for each suit there is exactly one card having each rank, though in many cases the deck has various special cards as well. Examples include Mü und Mehr, Lost Cities, DUO, Sticheln, Rage, Schotten Totten, UNO, Phase 10, Oh-No!, Skip-Bo, Roodles, and Rook.
Other modern decks
Decks for some games are divided into suits, but otherwise bear little relation to traditional games. An example would be the board game Taj Mahal, in which each card has one of four background colors, the rule being that all the cards played by a single player in a single round must be the same color. The selection of cards in the deck of each color is approximately the same and the player's choice of which color to use is guided by the contents of their particular hand.
In the trick-taking card game Flaschenteufel ("The Bottle Imp"), all cards are part of a single sequence ranked from 1 to 37 but split into three suits depending on its rank. players must follow the suit led, but if they are void in that suit they may play a card of another suit and this can still win the trick if its rank is high enough. For this reason every card in the deck has a different number to prevent ties. A further strategic element is introduced since one suit contains mostly low-ranking cards and another, mostly high-ranking cards.
Whereas cards in a traditional deck have two classifications—suit and rank—and each combination is represented by one card, giving for example 4 suits × 13 ranks = 52 cards, each card in a Set deck has four classifications each into one of three categories, giving a total of 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81 cards. Any one of these four classifications could be considered a suit, but this is not really enlightening in terms of the structure of the game.
Uses of playing card suit symbols
Card suit symbols occur in places outside card playing:
The four suits were famously employed by the United States' 101st Airborne Division during World War II to distinguish its four constituent regiments:
Clubs (♣) identified the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment; currently worn by the 1st Brigade Combat Team.
Diamonds (♦) identified the 501st PIR. 1st Battalion, 501st Infantry Regiment is now part of the 4th Brigade (ABN), 25th Infantry Division in Alaska; the Diamond is currently used by the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade.
Hearts (♥) identified the 502nd PIR; currently worn by the 2nd Brigade Combat Team.
Spades (♠) identified the 506th PIR; currently worn by the 4th Brigade Combat Team.
Character encodings
In computer and other digital media, suit symbols can be represented with character encoding, notably in the ISO and Unicode standards, or with Web standard (SGML's named entity syntax):
Unicode is the most frequently used encoding standard, and suits are in the Miscellaneous Symbols Block (2600–26FF) of the Unicode.
Metaphorical uses
In some card games the card suits have a dominance order, for example: club (lowest) - diamond - heart - spade (highest). That led to in spades being used to mean more than expected, in abundance, very much.
In European games, the order is often different: diamond or bell (lowest) - heart - spade or leaf - club or acorn (highest). See, for example, the game of Bruus.
Other expressions drawn from bridge and similar games include strong suit (any area of personal strength) and to follow suit (to imitate another's actions).
See also
Hearts (card game)
Spades (card game)
Stripped deck
Five-suit bridge
Notes
References
Playing cards
Contract bridge | [
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218672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest | ProQuest | ProQuest LLC was an Ann Arbor, Michigan-based global information-content and technology company, founded in 1938 as University Microfilms by Eugene B. Power. ProQuest was known for its applications and information services for libraries, providing access to dissertations, theses, ebooks, newspapers, periodicals, historical collections, governmental archives, cultural archives, and other aggregated databases. This content was estimated to be around 125 billion digital pages, and had commonly been accessed through library Internet gateways. This included tools for discovery and citation management, and platforms that allow library users to search, manage, use, and share research.
The company began operations as a producer of microfilm products, subsequently shifting to electronic publishing, and later grew through acquisitions. On December 1, 2021, Clarivate bought ProQuest from Cambridge Information Group for $5.3 billion in what was described as "huge deal in the library and information publishing world". Clarivate said that the operational concept behind the acquisition was integrating ProQuest's products and applications with Web of Science.
Businesses
ProQuest was founded as a microfilm publisher. It began publishing doctoral dissertations in 1939, has published more than 3 million searchable dissertations and theses, and is designated as an offsite digital archive for the United States Library of Congress. The company's scholarly content includes dissertations and theses, primary source material, ebooks, scholarly journals, historical and current newspapers and periodicals, data sources, and other content of interest to researchers. ProQuest Video Preservation and Discovery Service, allows libraries to preserve and provide access to their proprietary audio and video collections.
In May 2014, ProQuest LLC also operated businesses under the following names:
Bowker provides bibliographic information management solutions to publishers, libraries and booksellers, and is the ISBN Agency for the United States.
Dialog is an online information service with more than 1.4 billion unique records curated for corporate, business and government researchers, with a focus on pharmaceutical, engineering and patent research.
EBL (Ebook Library), an ebook aggregator with a catalog of titles from academic publishers, serves academic, corporate and research libraries while supporting emerging collection development models such as patron-driven acquisition.
ebrary offers access to ebook collections, by subscription or a perpetual archive model, in subject packages tailored for academic, corporate, government, public and high school libraries.
History
Eugene Power, a 1930 MBA graduate of the University of Michigan, founded the company as University Microfilms in 1938, preserving works from the British Museum on microfilm. By June 1938, Power worked in two rented rooms from a downtown Ann Arbor funeral parlor, specializing in microphotography to preserve library collections. In his autobiography Edition of One, Power details the development of the company, including how University Microfilms assisted the OSS during World War II. This work mainly involved filming maps and European newspapers so they could be shipped back and forth overseas more cheaply and discreetly.
Power also noticed a niche market in dissertations publishing. Students were often forced to publish their own works in order to finish their doctoral degree. Dissertations could be published more cheaply as microfilm than as books. ProQuest still publishes so many dissertations that its Dissertations and Theses collection (formerly called Digital Dissertations) has been declared the official U.S. off-site repository of the Library of Congress.
The idea of universal adoption of microfilm publication of doctoral dissertations was furthered considerably by two articles researched and written by a then recent recipient of the doctorate in History at Stanford University. Vaughn Davis Bornet seized on the idea and published "Doctoral Dissertations and the Stream of Scholarship" and "Microfilm Publication of Doctoral Dissertations".
As the dissertations market grew, the company expanded into filming newspapers and periodicals. The company's main newspaper database is ProQuest Newsstand.
In 1962, Xerox acquired the company for 51,750 shares of Xerox common stock, worth about $7.9 million. Under Xerox's ownership, the name of the company changed several times, from University Microfilms to Xerox University Microfilms, to University Microfilms International, then shortened to UMI. In 1985 it was purchased from Xerox by Bell & Howell. In 1986, UMI acquired Data Courier, owner of ABI/INFORM, from the Bingham family.
In the 1980s, UMI began producing CD-ROMs that stored databases of periodicals abstracts and indexes. At a time when modem connections were slow and expensive, it was more efficient to mail database CD-ROMs regularly to subscribing libraries, who installed the discs on dedicated PCs. The ProQuest brand name was first used for databases on CD-ROM. An online service called ProQuest Direct was launched in 1995; its name was later shortened to just ProQuest. The bibliographic databases are mainly sold to schools, universities and libraries.
In 1998, the company announced the "Digital Vault Initiative", purported to include 5.5 billion images digitized from UMI microfilm, including some of the best existing copies of major newspapers dating back 100 to 150 years, and Early English books dating back to the 15th century. While work continues to digitize the contents of the microfilm vault, ProQuest is already providing navigation of 125 billion digital pages, including nearly 20 million pages of newspaper content dating from pre-Revolutionary War America.
In 1999, the company name changed to Bell & Howell Information and Learning, and then in 2001 to ProQuest Information and Learning; Bell & Howell renamed itself the ProQuest Company.
Also in 1999, the company acquired Chadwyck-Healey, a one-time microfilm publishing company that was one of the first to produce full-text CD-ROM databases. This acquisition gave Proquest ownership of a 100+ person publishing operation based in Cambridge, England and became the basis for a substantial overseas expansion.
During the 2000–2004 fiscal years, as well as the first three quarters of the 2005 fiscal year, ProQuest systematically overstated its net income. Cumulatively, pre-tax profits were overstated by 129.9 million dollars (or about 31 percent). In 2008, Voyager Learning Company and ProQuest's CFO (from the time of the earnings overstatements) settled SEC "charges without admitting or denying the allegations of the SEC's complaint".
In 2001 ProQuest acquired Norman Ross Publishing, a small New York based microfilm publisher.
In 2002 ProQuest acquired bigchalk.com, a company founded in 1999 with the combined assets of ProQuest's K-12 division and Infonautics Inc.'s K-12 business..
In 2004, ProQuest Information and Learning acquired Seattle start-up Serials Solutions, a venture providing access management and search services for content hosted by other companies.
Also in 2004, the company acquired Copley Publishing Group.
In 2006, ProQuest Company, then the parent company of ProQuest Information and Learning, sold it to Cambridge Information Group, owner of R. R. Bowker. From the time of this sale, this article follows the history of ProQuest Information and Learning, not ProQuest Company. (ProQuest Company subsequently renamed itself to Voyager Learning Company, and later became part of Cambium Learning Group.)
In 2007, ProQuest Information and Learning was merged with CSA to form ProQuest CSA. Later that year it was renamed ProQuest LLC.
In 2008, ProQuest LLC acquired complete ownership of RefWorks, a web-based citation manager of which it had been part owner since 2001. RefWorks was merged with ProQuest's existing COS business to form RefWorks/COS.
Also in 2008, ProQuest acquired Dialog, a major online database firm, from Thomson Reuters.
In 2010, ProQuest acquired two properties from LexisNexis, Congressional Information Service (CIS) and University Publications of America (UPA). CIS produced one of the world's most exhaustive online collections of legislative content and highly respected statistical works, while UPA included deep historical content sets. The acquisition included digital products and an expansive microfilm vault that would leverage ProQuest's strength in conversion from film to searchable electronic formats.
In 2011, ProQuest acquired Ebrary, an online digital library of full texts of over 170,000 scholarly e-books. In 2013, ProQuest acquired Ebook Library (EBL), with plans to combine ebrary and EBL into a single e-book platform.
In 2014, ProQuest acquired Pi2 Solutions, a privately owned company specializing in Drug Safety Triager (DST) & Product Literature Database (PLD) systems for the biopharmaceutical industry. The company aligned Pi2 Solutions with its ProQuest Dialog corporate information service.
In 2015, ProQuest acquired SiPX and Coutts Information Services, including the MyiLibrary platform and the Online Acquisitions and Selection Information System (OASIS).
In October 2015, ProQuest acquired Ex Libris. It was to merge the Workflow Solutions division of ProQuest, which included the former Serials Solutions, into Ex Libris, with the enlarged entity to be named "Ex Libris, a ProQuest Company".
In June 2016, ProQuest acquired Alexander Street Press, a provider of streaming videos and ebooks.
In January 2020, ProQuest acquired Innovative Interfaces, Inc., a provider of technology solutions to academic and public libraries.
On 17 May 2021, it was announced that Clarivate would acquire ProQuest. On July 28, 2021, Clarivate announced that the acquisition was delayed due to a Federal Trade Commission antitrust probe. On December 1, 2021, Clarivate successfully completed the acquisition of ProQuest.
Products
Among the products the company sells to clients such as public and research libraries are:
See also
References
External links
Educational publishing companies of the United States
Publishing companies based in Michigan
1938 establishments in Michigan
Bibliographic database providers
Companies based in Ann Arbor, Michigan
Publishing companies established in 1938
Xerox
2006 mergers and acquisitions
2021 mergers and acquisitions | [
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218675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20in%20the%20Clouds | Death in the Clouds | Death in the Clouds is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company on 10 March 1935 under the title of Death in the Air and in the UK by the Collins Crime Club in July of the same year under Christie's original title. The US edition retailed at $2.00 and the UK edition at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6). The book features the Belgian detective Hercule Poirot and Chief Inspector Japp.
Plot summary
Hercule Poirot travels back to England on the midday flight from Le Bourget Airfield in Paris to Croydon Airport in London. He is one of eleven passengers in the plane's rear compartment. The others include mystery writer Daniel Clancy, French archaeologist Armand Dupont and his son Jean; dentist Norman Gale; Doctor Bryant; French moneylender Madame Giselle; businessman James Ryder; Cicely, Countess of Horbury, and her friend Venetia Kerr; and Jane Grey. As the plane is close to landing, a wasp is spotted flying around the rear compartment before a steward finds that Giselle is dead. Poirot, who has slept through most of the flight, dismisses the belief she died from a wasp sting. Instead, he points out a dart on the floor, which is found to have a poisoned tip: Giselle was stung in the neck with it. The question remains how she was murdered without anyone noticing.
The police find a small blowpipe in the side of Poirot's seat. Annoyed at being identified as a suspect, he vows to clear his name and solve the case. Requesting a list of the passengers' possessions, he notes something that intrigues him but doesn't say what. Aided by Jane in the investigation, Poirot works with Inspector Japp in England and Inspector Fournier in France. Clues gradually emerge: the victim had two coffee spoons with her cup and saucer; the blowpipe was bought in Paris by an American man; Lady Horbury is one of Giselle's debtors, and had been cut off from her husband's money; Giselle employed blackmail to ensure that her debtors didn't miss their repayments; only the stewards and Clancy passed by the victim on the flight; Lady Horbury's maid was on the flight after asking to be on it at the last moment.
Poirot pursues his enquiries in both London and Paris. On a flight to Paris, he conducts an experiment that shows that the use of the blowpipe, or anything similar, would have been noticed by the other passengers. It subsequently emerges that Giselle has an estranged daughter, Anne Morisot, who now stands to inherit her fortune. Poirot meets Anne and learns that she has an American or Canadian husband, whom she married a month earlier. Poirot afterwards comments that he feels that he has seen Anne before. When Jane makes a remark about needing to file a nail, he realises that Anne was Lady Horbury's maid Madeleine – he had seen her come into the rear compartment during the flight when Lady Horbury summoned her to fetch a dressing-case. He immediately instructs Fournier to find Anne. French police discover her body on the boat-train to Boulogne, with a bottle beside it; she appears to have poisoned herself.
Poirot makes his dénouement of the case in the presence of Japp, Gale, and Clancy. Giselle's killer was Norman Gale, who sought her fortune. The murder was carefully planned: Gale had brought his dentist's coat on the flight, which he changed into after some time to pose as a steward, knowing no-one would pay attention to such a person. Under the guise of delivering a spoon to Giselle, he stabbed her with the dart, then removed his coat and returned to his seat before the body was found. Anne's murder was part of the plan – Gale married her when he learned she was Giselle's daughter and intended to kill her in Canada after inheriting her mother's fortune, making certain he inherited everything from his wife. However, he had to kill her earlier than planned because she claimed her inheritance on the same day that Poirot met her.
The wasp that buzzed around in the rear compartment was released from a matchbox that Gale brought with him; both this and his coat had aroused Poirot's suspicions when he read the list of passenger possessions. Both the wasp and the blowpipe, which he planted in the cabin, were intended to mislead. Gale denies Poirot's theory, but after Poirot lies to him about the police finding his fingerprints on the bottle that contained the poison, he inadvertently lets slip that he wore gloves in Anne's murder. Gale is arrested. Afterward, Poirot pairs off Jane with Jean Dupont, who had fallen in love with her during the case.
Reception
The Times Literary Supplement of 4 July 1935 summarized thus: "Any of the other nine passengers and two stewards could be suspected. And all of them were, including Clancy, the writer of detective stories, whom the author evidently enjoys making absurd. It will be a very acute reader who does not receive a complete surprise at the end."
The Times in its main paper gave the book a second review in its issue of 2 July 1935 when they described its plot as "ingenious" and commented on the fact that Christie had evolved a method of presenting a crime in a confined space (with reference to The Mystery of the Blue Train and Murder on the Orient Express) which "however often employed, never loses its originality."
Isaac Anderson in The New York Times Book Review of 24 March 1935 began his column:
In The Observer'''s issue of 30 June 1935, "Torquemada" (Edward Powys Mathers) started his review, "My admiration for Mrs. Christie is such that with each new book of hers I strain every mental nerve to prove that she has failed, at last, to hypnotize me. On finishing Death in the Clouds, I found that she had succeeded even more triumphantly than usual." He concluded, "I hope that some readers of this baffling case will foresee at least the false denouement. I did not even do that. Agatha Christie has recently developed two further tricks: one is, as of the juggler who keeps on dropping things, to leave a clue hanging out for several chapters, apparently unremarked by her little detective though seized on by us, and then to tuck it back again as unimportant. Another is to give us some, but by no means all, of the hidden thoughts of her characters. We readers must guard against these new dexterities. As for Poirot, it is only to him and to Cleopatra that a certain remark about age and custom is strictly applicable. But might not Inspector Japp be allowed to mellow a little, with the years, beyond the moron stage?"
An admirer of Christie, Milward Kennedy of The Guardian began his review of 30 July 1935, "Very few authors achieve the ideal blend of puzzle and entertainment as often does Agatha Christie." He did admit that, "Death in the Clouds may not rank with her greatest achievements, but it is far above the average detective story." He finished by saying, "Mrs Christie provides a little gallery of thumb-nail sketches of plausible characters; she gives us all the clues and even tells us where to look for them; we ought to find the murderer by reason, but are not likely to succeed except by guesswork."
A review in the Daily Mirror of 20 July 1935 concluded, "We leave Poirot to figure it all out. He is at it and in it, with his usual brilliance, till the end."
Robert Barnard: "Exceptionally lively specimen, with wider than usual class and type-range of suspects. Scrupulously fair, with each clue presented openly and discussed. Note Clancy the crime writer, and the superiority of French police to British (no signs of insularity here)."
References or allusions
References to other works
In Chapter 6, Monsieur Fournier makes reference to Monsieur Giraud, the French detective whom Poirot meets in Murder on the Links.
In Chapter 7, Poirot refers to a case of poisoning in which the killer uses a "psychological" moment to his advantage, an allusion to Three Act Tragedy.
In Chapter 21, Poirot refers to a case in which all the suspects were lying, an allusion to Murder on the Orient Express.
References in other works
In Chapter 12 of a later Poirot novel, Mrs McGinty's Dead (1952), Christie's alter ego, Ariadne Oliver, refers to a novel of hers in which she made a blowpipe one foot long, only to be told later that they were six feet long. This was an admission of a fundamental error in the plot of Death in the Clouds.
Allusions to real life
An event experienced by Christie herself, shortly after her second marriage (to Max Mallowan), and described in her Autobiography, is alluded to in Chapter 13. "Imagine, in a little hotel in Syria was an Englishman whose wife had been taken ill. He himself had to be somewhere in Iraq by a certain date. Eh bien, would you believe it, he left his wife and went on so as to be on duty in time? And both he and his wife thought that quite natural; they thought him noble, unselfish. But the doctor, who was not English, thought him a barbarian."
Adaptations
Television
British live-action adaptation
The novel was adapted as an episode for the series Agatha Christie's Poirot, in 1992. It starred David Suchet as Hercule Poirot, and Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector James Japp. Although the adaptation remained largely faithful to most of the novel's plot, it featured a number of changes:
The characters of Dr Bryant, James Ryder and Armand Dupont are omitted from the adaptation; Jean Dupont is the only archaeologist on the flight.
The aircraft is a slightly anachronistic Douglas DC-3, instead of a Handley Page H.P.42 as described in the novel. The DC3 first flew in December 1935, the novel is set in June 1935 (Poirot watches Fred Perry winning the French Championships). All H.P.42s had been destroyed by 1941, and the still-flying DC3 used in the production, registration G-AMRA, was built in 1944.
Poirot is assisted by Japp throughout the investigation; he comes with him to investigate the case in France. Inspector Fournier is given a lesser role as a result.
The details of some of the characters are modified:
Jane Grey is an air stewardess on the flight. Although she works with Poirot on the case, she is not matched up with anyone at its conclusion.
Daniel Clancy suffers from a mental malady, in which he believe his fictional detective has a control on his life. He attends the denouement mainly to learn who the killer is, rather than witnessing a real-life detective at work.
Venetia Kerr and Poirot do not change seats on the flight.
Anne Morisot (a.k.a. Madeleine) has married Gale in Paris, not Rotterdam.
Armand Dupont is dead for two years.
Poirot meets some of the suspects at a tennis match he attends in Paris, by invitation of Jane.
Japanese animated adaptation
It was later adapted as the final 4 episodes of the Japanese animated television series Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, airing in 2005.
Radio
The novel was adapted for radio by BBC Radio 4 in 2003, featuring John Moffatt as Poirot, Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector Japp (as in the Agatha Christie's Poirot adaptation), Geoffrey Whitehead as Monsieur Fournier, and Teresa Gallagher as Jane Grey.
In popular culture
The novel is referenced notably in the Doctor Who episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp", which featured both the Doctor and Donna meeting Agatha Christie in the year 1926, and investigating a series of murders alongside her that were inspired by her novels to that date, committed by a giant, alien wasp. The Doctor notably remarks towards the end of the episode, that although Christie's memories of the events were erased after the wasp's death, she recalled them in such a way, that they later inspired her to write Death in the Clouds with the inclusion of a wasp as part of its plot.
Publication history
, 304 pp.
, 256 pp.
, 259 pp.
, 188 pp.
, 189 pp.
, 188 pp.
, 219 pp.
, 256 pp.
, along with and , 601 pp.
, 256 pp
(facsimile of 1935 UK first edition).
The book was first serialised in the US in The Saturday Evening Post in six instalments from 9 February (Volume 207, Number 32) to 16 March 1935 (Volume 207, Number 37) under the title Death in the Air with illustrations by Frederick Mizen.
In the UK, the novel was serialised as an abridged version in the weekly Women's Pictorial magazine in six instalments from 16 February (Volume 29, Number 736) to 23 March 1935 (Volume 29, Number 741) under the title Mystery in the Air''. There were no chapter divisions and all of the instalments carried illustrations by Clive Uptton.
References
External links
.
.
1935 British novels
Hercule Poirot novels
Works originally published in The Saturday Evening Post
Novels first published in serial form
Dodd, Mead & Co. books
British novels adapted into television shows
Croydon Airport
Aviation novels
Novels set in London
Novels set in Paris | [
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218676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Asinius%20Quadratus | Gaius Asinius Quadratus | Gaius Asinius Quadratus () (fl. AD 248) was a Greek historian of Rome and Parthia of the third century. He was a senator who wrote a 15-book history of Rome, Chilieteris ("The Millennium"), which, according to the Suda, covered the period from the founding of Rome until the rule of Alexander Severus. He also wrote a Parthika in nine books, presumably a narrative of the Parthian campaigns of the preceding century. Some scholars attribute to him a Germanika, based on an excerpt preserved by Agathias, although this is debated.
Asinius is the nomen of the gens Asinia of ancient Rome. He was the son of Gaius Julius Asinius Quadratus, who was brother of Gaius Asinius Rufus (born circa 160). These brothers were sons of Gaius Asinius Nicomachus (born circa 135) and his wife and cousin Julia Quadratilla (born circa 145) (or perhaps Asinia Marcellina, descendant of the family of Gaius Asinius Pollio), and grandchildren of Gaius Asinius Rufus (circa 110 - after 136), a notable in Lydia in 134 and 135 who became a Roman senator in 136, and wife Julia.
It has been suggested that Quadratus is identical with a suffect consul of the Severan period, Gaius Asinius Protimus Quadratus.
The "thousand years" of Quadratus' title has been explained in various ways. Felix Jacoby argues that Quadratus unusually dated the founding of Rome to the first Olympiad in 776. Giuseppe Zecchini, though, claims that Quadratus used the traditional dating of the founding of Rome and intended the work to extend to 248, when Philip the Arab celebrated the first millennium, but that he died before its completion. Thirty fragments of his work remain, which have been published by Jacoby in the Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Most of these derive from the dictionary of Stephanus of Byzantium.
References
Further reading
Hartwin Brandt, "Die Historia Augusta, Philostrat und Asinius Quadratus", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 104 (1994), pp. 78–80.
E. Manni, Asinio Quadrato e l'arcaismo erodoteo nel III secolo d.C., in: L. Ferrero, ed, Studi di storiografia antica in memoria di Leonardo Ferrero (Torino, 1971), 191–201.
Roman-era Greek historians
3rd-century Romans
3rd-century historians
Quadratus, Gaius
Year of death unknown
Year of birth unknown
3rd-century Greek people | [
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218677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasunori%20Mitsuda | Yasunori Mitsuda | is a Japanese composer, musician, and sound producer. He is best known for his work in video games, primarily for the Chrono, Xeno, Shadow Hearts, and Inazuma Eleven franchises, among various others. Mitsuda began composing music for his own games in high school, later attending a music college in Tokyo. While still a student, he was granted an intern position at the game development studio Wolf Team. Upon graduation in 1992, he joined Square after seeing a magazine advertisement in an office he was visiting with his professor.
Despite his job title as a composer, Mitsuda worked as a sound effects designer for two years. In 1994, after threatening to quit to Square's vice president, Hironobu Sakaguchi, he was assigned to write the soundtrack to Chrono Trigger. After the game's success, he went on to compose several others for Square, including Xenogears and Chrono Cross. Mitsuda left Square in 1998 to work as a freelance composer and founded his own music production studio and record company, respectively Procyon Studio and Sleigh Bells, in 2001. While Mitsuda continues to compose for video games, he began to write music for other media in the 2010s, including for anime series, films, television specials, and independent albums.
Biography
Early life
Mitsuda was born in Tokuyama, Japan, on January 21, 1972, and was raised in the Kumage District of Yamaguchi Prefecture. He took piano lessons beginning at the age of five, but was more interested in sports at the time and did not take music seriously, quitting by the age of six. For a while, he wanted to become a professional golfer. While in high school, Mitsuda rediscovered music, inspired by Vangelis' Blade Runner and Henry Mancini's The Pink Panther film scores. After watching Railman, he decided to become a music composer. He became interested in PCs after his father bought him one, which was a rare item at the time. He started to program computer games and compose music for them, as well as take more technically oriented classes.
After high school, Mitsuda decided to leave town and become independent. With encouragement from his father and sister, he moved to Tokyo and enrolled in the Junior College of Music. Despite the school's low prestige, Mitsuda received solid instruction from his professors, most of them practicing musicians who would take Mitsuda to gigs with them to help carry and set up equipment. At the cost of being used for free physical labor, Mitsuda got a first-hand view of the Japanese music world and valuable training both in and out of the classroom. As part of his college course, he was granted an intern position at the game development studio Wolf Team, studying under composer and musician Motoi Sakuraba, whom Mitsuda would work with together on game projects decades later.
During this work experience, with his school term ending, Mitsuda saw an advertisement for a sound producer at Square in a copy of Famitsu magazine at a game company he was visiting. With no clear plans as to what he wanted to do after school, he applied for the position. Mitsuda sent a demo which won him an interview at the game studio. Despite the self-described "disastrous" interview with composer Nobuo Uematsu and sound programmer Minoru Akao, in which he claimed to only want the job as a "stepping stone" in his career and admitted that he had never played many of Square's biggest games, such as the Final Fantasy series, Mitsuda was offered a position on the company's sound team in April 1992.
Career
Although his official job title was as a composer, Mitsuda found himself working more as a sound engineer. Over the next two years, he created sound effects for Hanjuku Hero, Final Fantasy V, The 7th Saga, Secret of Mana, and Romancing SaGa 2. In 1994, realizing that he would never get a chance to move up to a real composition duty without some drastic action and feeling concerned about his low pay, he gave Square's vice president, Hironobu Sakaguchi, an ultimatum: let him compose, or he would quit. Sakaguchi assigned the young musician to the team working on Chrono Trigger, telling him that "after you finish it, maybe your salary will go up". Mitsuda was assigned as the sole composer for the game, in the end creating 54 tracks for the final release. Mitsuda drove himself to work hard on the score, frequently working until he passed out, and would awake with ideas for songs such as the ending theme for the game. He worked himself so hard that he developed stomach ulcers and had to be hospitalized, which led Uematsu to finish the remaining tracks for him.
Chrono Trigger proved a great success, and the soundtrack proved popular with fans. Mitsuda claims that it is his "landmark" title, which "matured" him. He attributes its success with fans to his use of folk and jazz styling, rather than the "semi-orchestral" style popular in game music at the time. Following Chrono Trigger, Mitsuda composed the soundtrack for Front Mission: Gun Hazard, again with Uematsu. According to Uematsu, Mitsuda again worked so much that he eventually defecated blood out of stress and physical problems. Mitsuda worked on three more titles for Square: Tobal No. 1 and Radical Dreamers: Nusumenai Hōseki both in 1996, and Xenogears in 1998, which featured the first ballad in a Square game, the Celtic ending theme "Small Two of Pieces" sung by Joanne Hogg. Mitsuda also during this period produced albums of arranged music of his original scores, creating acid jazz remixes in Chrono Trigger Arranged Version: The Brink of Time and a Celtic arrangement album of Xenogears music, Creid. In July 1998, following up on what he had said in his original interview with the company, Mitsuda left Square to work as a freelance composer, the first of several of Square's composers to do so.
Following his leaving, Mitsuda has only worked on one more original game with Square, composing for 1999's Chrono Cross, the sequel to Chrono Trigger. He has worked on over a dozen games since then, including the spiritual sequel to Xenogears, Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht, and major games such as Shadow Hearts and Luminous Arc. In addition to video games, Mitsuda has composed music for the anime Inazuma Eleven and for the independent album Kirite. On November 22, 2001, Mitsuda formed Procyon Studio as a company to produce his music, along with a record label, Sleigh Bells. The company consisted of only Mitsuda as composer along with a few sound producers for several years, but has since expanded to include six employees. Mitsuda and Procyon Studio have also produced more arranged albums, such as Sailing to the World and 2009's Colours of Light, a compilation album of vocal pieces Mitsuda has composed. The studio was also involved in co-designing the KORG DS-10 synthesizer program for the Nintendo DS, and its successor for the Nintendo 3DS, KORG M01D. Mitsuda claims that, for the projects Procyon had been working on in the late 2000s, he was focusing more on working as a music producer for a team of artists rather than just as a composer. Despite that, Mitsuda continued to compose for several notable games in the 2010s, such as the Inazuma Eleven series, Soul Sacrifice, and Valkyria Revolution, with the latter marking his first fully solo game soundtrack in eight years. Around the same time, Mitsuda also began to compose for non-video game media, including several NHK-produced television shows, as well as anime series such as Black Butler and adaptions of Inazuma Eleven. In addition to serving as the lead composer for 2017's Xenoblade Chronicles 2, Mitsuda also was in charge of the game's audio budget, musician booking, schedule management, and music sheet proofreading, for which he claimed was the largest project he ever worked on. He also composed for its expansion pack, Torna – The Golden Country.
Musical style and influences
Mitsuda claims to compose by "just fool[ing] around on my keyboard" and letting the melodies come to him. He also sometimes comes up with songs while asleep, including the ending theme to Chrono Trigger and "Bonds of Sea and Fire" from Xenogears, though his main inspiration is visual items, "paintings or other things". His music is frequently minimalistic, and he has cited Minimalism as an influence. His final battle themes for Chrono Trigger and Xenogears are based on only a few chords each, with the latter containing only two. Mitsuda has listened to a great number of musical genres throughout his life, which he learned from his father, and is especially inspired by jazz music. He is also inspired by Celtic music, and has created two albums of music in that style. His soundtrack for Chrono Trigger also shows the influence of Asian music, including the sounds of Japanese shakuhachi flutes, Indian tabla drums and the sitar. He has cited Maurice Ravel, J.S. Bach, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Claude Debussy, Robert Schumann, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Holst as his favorite Classical composers, claiming that his modern influences are too numerous to name as he listens to so much music.
Mitsuda names his favorite works as the soundtracks to the Chrono series, Xenogears, Xenosaga Episode I, and the original album Kirite, though he also says that all of his soundtracks are "representational works", as they represent who he was as a composer when he made them. His favorite pieces overall are "The Girl Who Closed Her Heart" and "Pain" from Xenosaga Episode I and pieces from Kirite. When he starts to compose a soundtrack, he first takes one month to gather information and artwork about the game world and scenario, so that his music will fit in with the game. He also finds it easier to be inspired if he has a visual representation. Mitsuda claims that he does not save his best work for more popular games, as he tries to compose each piece to correspond to how it is going to be used in a specific game. He also tries to compose good pieces even for games he feels do not live up to them, so that they will be a redeeming point about the game for the players. The majority of his video game soundtracks are for role-playing games, but he likes projects that are different from what he has done before and is interested in working in other genres.
Legacy
Mitsuda's music from Chrono Trigger was first performed live by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra in 1996 at the Orchestral Game Concert in Tokyo, Japan, and released on an accompanying album. The first symphonic performance of his music outside Japan took place in 2005 at the Symphonic Game Music Concert in Leipzig, Germany when music from Chrono Cross was presented. Mitsuda has arranged versions of music from Trigger and Cross for Play! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006. Music from the two games has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra. Music written by Yasunori Mitsuda for Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth. "Scars of Time" from Chrono Cross was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30, 2010.
Mitsuda's music for Xenogears has also sparked fan-made albums; an officially licensed tribute album titled Xenogears Light: An Arranged Album, was published in limited quantities by the fan group OneUp Studios in 2005. The album features 20 tracks arranged from the Xenogears score and performed with acoustic instruments, such as piano, flute, guitar and violin. Another, unofficial album of remixes titled Humans + Gears was produced as a digital album by OverClocked Remix on October 19, 2009, consisting of 33 tracks. Selections of remixes of Mitsuda's work also appear on Japanese remix albums, called Dōjin, and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix. Music from the Chrono Trigger soundtrack has been arranged for the piano and published as sheet music by DOREMI Music Publishing. Sheet music for Chrono Cross tracks arranged for both solo guitar and guitar duets has been released by Procyon Studio.
For the 20th anniversary of Chrono Trigger in 2015, Mitsuda, along with his performing group Millennial Fair, performed songs from the game at the Tokyo Globe in Tokyo, Japan on July 25 and 26. The event, titled "The Brink of Time", included Mitsuda performing on the piano, guitar, and Irish bouzouki. During the event, Mitsuda also announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album, entitled To Far Away Times: Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album, would be released by Square Enix Music on October 14, 2015.
Works
Video games
Composition
Chrono Trigger (1995) – with Nobuo Uematsu and Noriko Matsueda
Radical Dreamers (1996)
Front Mission: Gun Hazard (1996) – with Nobuo Uematsu, Masashi Hamauzu, and Junya Nakano
Tobal No. 1 (1996) – with several others
Xenogears (1998)
Mario Party (1998)
Chrono Cross (1999)
Bomberman 64: The Second Attack (1999) – with several others
Tsugunai: Atonement (2001)
Shadow Hearts (2001) – with Yoshitaka Hirota
Legaia 2: Duel Saga (2001) – with Hitoshi Sakimoto and Michiru Oshima
Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht (2002)
The Seventh Seal (2002) – with Chia Ai Kuo and Tsai Chih-Chan
Shadow Hearts: Covenant (2004) – with Yoshitaka Hirota, Kenji Ito, and Tomoko Kobayashi
Graffiti Kingdom (2004)
10,000 Bullets (2005) – with Miki Higashino
Tantei Kibukawa Ryosuke Jiken Dan (2005) – with Takanari Ishiyama and Kazumi Mitome
Monster Kingdom: Jewel Summoner (2006) – with several others
Deep Labyrinth (2006)
Luminous Arc (2007) – with Kazumi Mitome, Akari Kaida, and Shota Kageyama
Soukou Kihei Armodyne (2007)
Soma Bringer (2008)
Inazuma Eleven (2008)
Sands of Destruction (2008) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Kazumi Mitome
Arc Rise Fantasia (2009) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Yuki Harada
Lime Odyssey (2009) – with Dong-Hyuc Shin, Jun-Su Park, and Sa-Yin Jeong
bQLSI Star Laser (2009) – main fanfare
Inazuma Eleven 2 (2009)
Xenoblade Chronicles (2010) – ending theme "Beyond the Sky"
Inazuma Eleven 3 (2010) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Inazuma Eleven Strikers (2011) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Half-Minute Hero: The Second Coming (2011) – with several others
pop'n music 20 fantasia (2011) – "Tradria"
Inazuma Eleven Strikers 2012 Xtreme (2011) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Tokyo Yamanote Boys: Dark Cherry Disc (2011) – opening theme "Overture"
Kid Icarus: Uprising (2012) – with several others
Black Wolves Saga: Bloody Nightmare (2012) – main theme "Dear Despair"
Inazuma Eleven GO 2: Chrono Stone (2012) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Inazuma Eleven GO Strikers 2013 (2012) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Soul Sacrifice (2013) – with Wataru Hokoyama
Soukyuu no Sky Galleon (2013) – main theme
DoDoDo! Dragon (2013) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Maki Kirioka
Ken ga Kimi (2013) – ending theme "Forever, and One"
Inazuma Eleven GO 3: Galaxy (2013)
Soul Sacrifice Delta (2014) – with Wataru Hokoyama
Terra Battle (2014) – "Beyond the Light"
Ten to Daichi Megami no Mahou (2014) – main theme
Chunithm: Seelisch Tact (2015) – "Alma"
Stella Glow (2015) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya
Seventh Rebirth (2016)
Valkyria Revolution (2017)
Another Eden (2017) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Mariam Abounnasr
Xenoblade Chronicles 2 (2017) – with ACE, Kenji Hiramatsu, and Manami Kiyota
Final Fantasy XV: Episode Ignis (2017) – with Tadayoshi Makino and Yoko Shimomura
Winning Hand (2017) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Mariam Abounnasr
Xenoblade Chronicles 2: Torna – The Golden Country (2018) – with ACE, Kenji Hiramatsu, and Manami Kiyota
Revolve8 (2018) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya and Mariam Abounnasr
Renshin Astral (2019) – with several others
Edge of Eternity (2021) – with Cedric Menendez
Sin Chronicle (2021) – with several others
Xenoblade Chronicles 3 (2022) – with ACE, Kenji Hiramatsu, Manami Kiyota, and Mariam Abounnasr
Sea of Stars (2022) – with Eric W. Brown
Inazuma Eleven: Great Road of Heroes (2023)
Arrangement
Mega Man Legends 2 (2000) – "It's OK to Cry" and "The Place Where Wishes Come True"
Super Smash Bros. Brawl (2008) – "Vs. Marx" and "World Map (Pikmin 2)"
Hundred Years' War: Euro Historia (2013) – with Shunsuke Tsuchiya, Maki Kirioka and Natsumi Kameoka
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U (2014) – "Forest/Nature Area" and "Mii Channel"
Sound design (sound effects and programming)
Hanjuku Hero: Aa, Sekaiyo Hanjukunare...! (1992)
Final Fantasy V (1992)
The 7th Saga (1993)
Secret of Mana (1993)
Romancing SaGa 2 (1993)
Korg M01 (2010)
Sound production (supervisor/director/producer)
Breath of Fire: Dragon Quarter (2002) – sound director
Fist Groove (2005) – sound producer
Fist Groove 2 (2006) – sound producer
Minna de Puzzleloop (2008) – sound producer
Luminous Arc 2 (2008) – sound producer and mixer
Infinite Loop: Kojjou ga Miseta Yume (2008) – sound producer
Magnetica Twist (2009) – sound producer
Luminous Arc 3 (2009) – sound producer
Thexder Neo (2009) – sound director
KORG M01 (2010) – product manager
Tokyo Yamanote Boys (2011) – sound producer
Treasure Report: Kikai Jikake no Isan (2011) – sound producer
Wizardry Online (2011) – sound producer
Black Wolves Saga: Last Hope (2012) – sound producer
Ken ga Kimi (2013) – sound producer
KORG M01D (2013) – product manager
Handy Harp (2013) – planner and producer
Anime
Pugyuru (2004)
Inazuma Eleven (2008)
Inazuma Eleven: Saikyō Gundan Ōga Shūrai (2010)
Inazuma Eleven GO Chrono Stone (2012) – with Shiho Terada and Natsumi Kameoka
Chouyaku Hyakuninisshu: Uta Koi (2012) – with Maki Kirioka
Inazuma Eleven GO vs. Danbōru Senki W (2012) – with Natsumi Kameoka and Rei Kondoh
Inazuma Eleven GO Galaxy (2013) – with Natsumi Kameoka
Inazuma Eleven: Chou Jigen Dream Match (2014)
Black Butler: Book of Circus (2014)
Black Butler: Book of Murder (2014)
Black Butler: Book of the Atlantic (2017)
Inazuma Eleven: Ares (2018)
Inazuma Eleven: Orion no Kokuin (2018)
Irina: The Vampire Cosmonaut (2021)
Other projects
Chrono Trigger Arranged Version: The Brink of Time (1995)
Creid (1998)
Street Fighter Zero 3 Drama Album (1999) – with Yoshitaka Hirota
Iizuka Mayumi no MEGA-TON Smile (1999) – with Yoshitaka Hirota
Biohazard 2 Drama Album: Chiisana Toubousha Sherry (1999) – with Yoshitaka Hirota
Biohazard 2 Drama Album: Ikiteita Onna Spy Ada (1999) – with Yoshitaka Hirota
2197 (1999) – with several others
Ten Plants 2 Childrens Songs (1999) – with several others
Hopeful Weeds (2000)
Square Vocal Collection (2001) – with several others
Hopeful Weeds original sound vol. 002 (2001)
Hopeful Weeds original sound vol. 003 (2002)
Sailing to the World (2002)
Hopeful Weeds original sound vol. 004 (2003)
Hopeful Weeds original sound vol. 005 (2004)
Hopeful Weeds original sound vol. 006 (2004)
Kirite (2005)
Specter (2005) – with Kazumi Mitome
Colours of Light (2009)
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 Voice Actor Single 7 (2010)
Myth: The Xenogears Orchestral Album (2011) – with Youki Yamamoto, Sachiko Miyano, and Natsumi Kameoka
Play for Japan: The Album (2011) – with several others
NHK-FM Radio Drama "Sabaku no Utahime" (2011)
INNOCENCE / lasah (2013)
Kakumeiteki Broadway Shugisha Doumei / Sumire Uesaka (2014) – with several others
NHK Special "Uchuu Nama Chuukei Suisei Bakuhatsu Taiyoukei no Nazo" (2014)
NHK Drama "Ride, Ride, Ride" (2014)
SARAH / Sarah Àlainn (2014) – producer
Kaji Yuki no Hitorigoto (2015) – opening theme
MOTHER / lasah (2018) – with several others
Yasunori Mitsuda & Millennial Fair: Chrono Cross 20th Anniversary Live Tour 2019 Radical Dreamers (2020)
References
External links
Procyon Studio's official website
1972 births
20th-century Japanese composers
20th-century Japanese male musicians
20th-century Japanese pianists
21st-century Japanese composers
21st-century Japanese male musicians
21st-century Japanese pianists
Anime composers
Freelance musicians
Japanese composers
Japanese male composers
Japanese male pianists
Japanese music arrangers
Japanese pianists
Living people
Musicians from Yamaguchi Prefecture
People from Yamaguchi Prefecture
Sound designers
Square Enix people
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218684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Arden | Elizabeth Arden | Florence Nightingale Graham (December 31, 1881 – October 18, 1966), who went by the business name Elizabeth Arden, was a Canadian-American businesswoman who founded what is now Elizabeth Arden, Inc., and built a cosmetics empire in the United States. By 1929, she owned 150 salons in Europe and the United States. Her 1,000 products were being sold in 22 countries. She was the sole owner, and at the peak of her career, she was one of the wealthiest women in the world.
Background
Arden was born on New Year's Eve, 1881, in Woodbridge, Ontario, Canada. Her parents had emigrated to Canada from Cornwall, United Kingdom, in the 1870s. Her father, William Graham, was Scottish, and her mother, Susan (Tadd), was Cornish and had arranged for a wealthy aunt in Cornwall to pay for her children's education. Arden dropped out of nursing school in Toronto.
She then joined her elder brother in Manhattan, working briefly as a bookkeeper for the E. R. Squibb Pharmaceuticals Company. While there, Arden spent hours in their lab, learning about skincare. She then worked—again briefly—for Eleanor Adair, an early beauty culturist, as a "treatment girl".
In her salons and through her marketing campaigns, Elizabeth Arden stressed teaching women how to apply makeup and pioneered such concepts as scientific formulation of cosmetics, beauty makeovers, and coordinating colors of eye, lip and facial makeup.
Elizabeth Arden was largely responsible for establishing makeup as proper and appropriate, even necessary, for a ladylike image, when before makeup had often been associated with lower classes and prostitutes. She targeted middle age and plain women for whom beauty products promised a youthful, beautiful image.
Arden was allegedly a dedicated suffragette, and there is a story that she marched for women's rights in 1912. It is a popular fiction that she supplied the marchers with red lipstick as a sign of solidarity, but there is little contemporary evidence supporting this. Women taking part in the 1912 march were advised to wear the same $7 straw hat, wear white, and to bring their children, to demonstrate their responsibility and simplicity. The use of cosmetics was never mentioned, which is hardly surprising: bold red lipstick still had tawdry associations with the theatre. Even as late as 1920 Arden herself was dismissive of "powder and rouge..so obvious in their artifice that their use was considered in questionable taste".
Career
In 1909, Arden formed a partnership with Elizabeth Hubbard, another culturist. The business relationship dissolved in 1910. Graham, who desired a trade name, used "Elizabeth" to save money on her salon signs. She chose the last name, "Arden", from a nearby farm. So the trade name "Elizabeth Arden" was formed. From there, Arden founded, in 1910, the Red Door salon in New York, which has remained synonymous with her name ever since (see under Elizabeth Arden, Inc.).
In 1912, Arden traveled to France to learn beauty and facial massage techniques used in the Paris beauty salons. She returned with a collection of rouges and tinted powders she had created. She began expanding her international operations in 1915 and started opening salons across the world. In 1934, she opened the Maine Chance residential spa in Rome, Maine, the first destination beauty spa in the United States. It operated until 1970.
In 1962, the French government awarded Arden the Légion d'Honneur, in recognition of her contribution to the cosmetics industry.
Arden died at Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan on October 18, 1966. She was interred in the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York, under the name Elizabeth N. Graham.
In popular culture
The musical War Paint dramatizes her rivalry with competitor Helena Rubinstein. After a successful tryout at Chicago's Goodman Theater, the show opened on Broadway at the Nederlander Theatre on April 6, 2017, earning four Tony Award nominations, including Best Actress in a Leading Role for Christine Ebersole's portrayal of Arden as well as for Patti Lupone for her role as rival, Rubinstein. and closed on November 5, 2017.
The comedy Lip Service by the Australian dramatist John Misto chronicles the life and career of Helena Rubinstein and her rivalry with Elizabeth Arden and Revlon. Lip Service premiered April 26, 2017, at the Park Theatre in London, under the title Madame Rubinstein, before opening at Sydney's Ensemble Theatre in August of the same year.
Elizabeth Arden, as student nurse Florence Nightingale Graham, appeared in the Season 12 Episode 2 of the CBC period drama Murdoch Mysteries, (premiered on October 1, 2018), portrayed by Kathryn Alexandre.
A contract dispute that Arden faced with a former employee led the 1953 court cause Crabtree v. Elizabeth Arden Sales Corp, which is now considered a seminal case on the application of the statute of frauds. Most law schools include this case in their required contract law course.
References
General references
Further reading
External links
Elizabeth Arden at Elizabeth Arden, Inc.
Elizabeth Arden at Elizabeth Arden, Inc. corporate
FBI dossier on Elizabeth Arden
1881 births
1966 deaths
American cosmetics businesspeople
American people of Cornish descent
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
American racehorse owners and breeders
American women in business
Burials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery
Businesspeople from Ontario
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian people of Cornish descent
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Cosmetics people
History of cosmetics
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
People from Vaughan | [
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218686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Moxon | Edward Moxon | Edward Moxon (12 December 1801 – 3 June 1858) was a British poet and publisher, significant in Victorian literature.
Biography
Moxon was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire, where his father Michael worked in the wool trade. In 1817 he left for London, joining Longman in 1821. In 1826, encouraged by his friend Charles Lamb, he published a volume of verse, entitled The Prospect, and other Poems, which was received favourably.
In 1830 Moxon started his own publishing firm in New Bond Street, aided by a £500 loan from Samuel Rogers. The first volume he produced was Charles Lamb's Album Verses. Moxon also published an illustrated edition of Rogers's Italy in 1830, £10,000 being spent upon the illustrations. Moving to 44 Dover Street, Piccadilly in 1833, Moxon married Emma Isola, the orphan adopted by Charles and Mary Lamb, in the same year. William Wordsworth entrusted him with the publication of his works from 1835 onwards, and in 1839 he issued the first complete edition of Percy Bysshe Shelley's poems, edited by Mary Shelley.
Atheistic passages in Shelley's Queen Mab and unusual circumstances resulted in the Chartist Henry Hetherington prosecuting Moxon for blasphemous libel as a test of the law. The case was tried before Lord Denman, and Moxon was defended by his friend Serjeant Talfourd. The jury returned a guilty verdict, but the prosecution declined to seek any punishment.
Moxon continued to publish: in 1840 he published Robert Browning's Sordello, and in succeeding years works by Richard Monckton Milnes, Tom Hood, Barry Cornwall, Lord Lytton, Browning, John Keats and Alfred Tennyson appeared. Both Tennyson and Wordsworth were to become personal friends of Moxon.
On Moxon's death, his business was continued by the printer Frederick Evans and later James Bertrand Payne, with input from Moxon's widow Emma and his son Arthur. In 1865 the firm published Algernon Charles Swinburne's Atalanta in Calydon; in 1871 it was taken over by Ward, Lock & Tyler.
References
Biography of Edward Moxon by his great great grandson.
Hans Ostrom, "Edward Moxon," Dictionary of Literary Biography: British Publishers I (DLB, volume 106) (Detroit and London: Gale Research Series, 1991).
1801 births
1858 deaths
People convicted of blasphemy
British publishers (people)
People from Wakefield
English male poets
19th-century English poets
19th-century English male writers
19th-century British businesspeople | [
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] |
218689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennyson%20%28disambiguation%29 | Tennyson (disambiguation) | Alfred, Lord Tennyson, the first Baron Tennyson, was an English poet.
Tennyson may also refer to:
People
Baron Tennyson, the barony itself
Alfred, Lord Tennyson (Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson), poet
Emily Tennyson, Baroness Tennyson, wife of Alfred Tennyson
Frederick Tennyson, brother of Alfred Tennyson
Charles Tennyson Turner, brother of Alfred Tennyson
Emilia Tennyson, sister of Alfred Tennyson
Sir Charles Tennyson, British civil servant and industrialist, grandson of Alfred Tennyson
Pen Tennyson, British film director, great-grandson of Alfred Tennyson
Julian Tennyson, British writer and historian, great-grandson of Alfred Tennyson
Hallam Tennyson, British radio producer, great-grandson of Alfred Tennyson
Jonathan Tennyson (car designer), American solar-powered car designer
Jonathan Tennyson (physicist), British physicist, great-great-grandson of Alfred Tennyson
Charles Tennyson d'Eyncourt, British politician, uncle of Alfred Tennyson
Edwin Tennyson d'Eyncourt, British naval officer, first cousin of Alfred Tennyson
Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, British naval architect and engineer, first cousin once removed of Alfred Tennyson
Sir Gervais Tennyson d'Eyncourt, Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, first cousin twice removed of Alfred Tennyson
Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson, Governor-General of Australia
Lionel Tennyson, 3rd Baron Tennyson, English cricketer
Harold Tennyson, 4th Baron Tennyson
Mark Tennyson, 5th Baron Tennyson
David Tennyson, 6th Baron Tennyson
John Tennyson, Irish hurler
McKinley Tennyson, American soccer forward
Matt Tennyson, American professional ice hockey defenceman
Matthew Tennyson, English actor of stage and screen
Nick Tennyson, former mayor of Durham, North Carolina
Walter Tennyson, British actor and film director of the silent era
William J. Tennyson, Jr., American jazz musician
Tennyson Bardwell, American film and TV commercial director and screenwriter
Tennyson Cooray (1952-2020), Sri Lankan actor and comedian
Tennyson Guyer, member of the United States House of Representatives
Frederick Tennyson Congdon, Canadian politician and lawyer
Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens, son of Charles Dickens
Steve Dick Tennyson Matenje, Malawian civil servant and permanent representative
Horace Tennyson O'Rourke, Dublin city architect for 88 Corporation
B. Tennyson Sebastian II, American sound engineer
Walter Tennyson Swingle, American agricultural botanist
Places
Australia
Tennyson, Queensland
Tennyson railway station, Brisbane
Tennyson, New South Wales
Tennyson, South Australia
Tennyson, Victoria
Tennyson Point, New South Wales
New Zealand
Tennyson Inlet
United Kingdom
Tennyson Down
United States of America
Tennyson, Indiana
Tennyson, Texas
Tennyson, Wisconsin
Ships
Fictional Characters
Ambrose Tennyson, a character in the novel The Mating Season by PG Wodehouse. He is mistaken for the poet by Ivor ICKY Llewellyn of Superba-Llewellyn motion picture studio.
Ben Tennyson, the primary protagonist of Cartoon Network's popular media franchise, Ben 10.
See also
Tenison | [
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218690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Tolbiac | Battle of Tolbiac | The Battle of Tolbiac was fought between the Franks, who were fighting under Clovis I, and the Alamanni, whose leader is not known. The date of the battle has traditionally been given as 496, though other accounts suggest it may either have been fought earlier, in the 480s or early 490s, or later, in 506. The site of "Tolbiac", or "Tolbiacum", is usually given as Zülpich, North Rhine-Westphalia, about 60 km east of what is now the German-Belgian frontier. The Franks were successful at Tolbiac and established their dominance over the Alamanni.
Background
The Franks were two neighboring peoples, and allies: the Salian Franks, whose king was Clovis, and the Ripuarian Franks, whose capital was Cologne and whose king was Sigebert the Lame. Bordering on Sigebert's kingdom were the Alemanni, a confederation of Germanic tribes. Border incidents, looting, and punitive raids multiplied between the Alemanni and Ripuarian Franks, but in 496 Sigebert suffered a real invasion and called on Clovis for help. Clovis responded favorably to his ally and raised an army. It is generally accepted that in defending Tolbiac, Sigebert and his army suffered heavy losses. There may have been two battles of Tolbiac.
The battle
Little is known about the battle, except that the Ripuarian Franks were probably of no help after the first battle. Clovis saw his warriors being killed and felt the battle was getting out of hand. Moved to tears, he called upon the God of his wife Clotilde, the God that she had preached to him since their marriage in 493, asking for his help.
Gregory of Tours records Clovis's prayer in chapter II of the History of the Franks: "O Jesus Christ, you who as Clotilde tells me are the son of the Living God, you who give succor to those who are in danger, and victory to those accorded who hope in Thee, I seek the glory of devotion with your assistance: If you give me victory over these enemies, and if I experience the miracles that the people committed to your name say they have had, I believe in you, and I will be baptized in your name. Indeed, I invoked my gods, and, as I am experiencing, they failed to help me, which makes me believe that they are endowed with no powers, that they do not come to the aid of those who serve. It's to you I cry now, I want to believe in you if only I may be saved from my opponents." At these words, the Alemanni began to flee, as their leader had been killed with an axe. The Franks subdued or killed the remaining Alemanni.
Account by Gregory of Tours
Gregory of Tours was the first to have mentioned the element that has shaped subsequent interpretations of Tolbiac as climactic in European history: Clovis is said to have attributed his success to a vow that he had made: if he won, he would convert to the religion of the Christian God who had aided him. He became a Christian in a ceremony at Reims on Christmas 496. The traditional date of the battle of Tolbiac has been established to accord with this firmly attested baptismal date, by accepting Gregory's account. A surviving letter from Avitus of Vienne, congratulating Clovis on his baptism, makes no mention of the supposed recent battlefield conversion.
Historia Francorum ii.30-31 directly affirms a parallel Gregory establishes with the conversion of Constantine the Great before the Battle of Milvian Bridge:
Consequences
The Alemanni abandoned the Lower Rhine and left the Ripuarian Franks alone. Clovis, who profited only a little, allowed his ally to retain the territory. Clovis later relied on Sigebert's assistance during the conquest of the northern part of the Visigothic kingdom.
Another consequence was the conversion of Clovis to Arianism as he was baptized by the Arian Bishop Remigius of Rheins, who wrote him a letter regarding his conversion. He was later baptized into Catholicism around 508 CE as indicated by the letter written by Avitus of Vienne after a long period of reflection (most historians believe his conversion dates to 498 or 499), which brought him the support of neighbouring Christians, along with that of the influential clergy. In addition, it allowed Clovis to undertake conquests and crusades to Christianise his new territories or expunge Arianism, considered heretics by the clergy.
Date
The traditional date of the battle in 496 was challenged by Augustine Van de Vyver, whose revised chronology placed the battle in 506. This was extensively debated and is followed in some modern accounts. The date of 506 also follows Gregory's chronology, which places the death of Clovis' father, Childeric I, around the same time as that of St. Perpetuus, who died in 491. Hence 15 years from 491 would be 506. Childeric's grave contained coins of Emperor Zeno, who died in 491, but none after.
Battle of Strasbourg (506)
The Battle of Strasbourg in 506 CE is a battle that several researchers have postulated was the third battle presumed to have taken place between the Alamanni and the Franks and which resulted in the defeat and incorporation of the northern Alamanni into the Frankish Empire, whilst the southern Alamanni placed themselves under the protection of the Ostrogothic king, Theodoric the Great.
Historical sources
The historical sources only make indirect references to a possible third battle between the Alamanni and the Franks. A letter by Theodoric the Great dating to 506/7 to the Merovingian king, Clovis I, speaks of battles in which Clovis had engaged the Alamanni. In this letter, Theodoric calls upon his brother-in-law to moderate his anger against the Alamanni, to punish only those who were disloyal and to cease from fighting the rest of the Alamanni. Theodoric placed the latter under his personal protection. A panegyric by Ennodius about Theodoric the Great speaks exaggeratedly of a victory by Theodoric over the Alamanni.
Historical background
At the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 CE the Alamanni suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Clovis. As a consequence, some of the Alamanni appear to have come under the protection of the Merovingians. From Theodoric's letter it may be assumed that these Alamanni subsequently broke their treaty with Clovis and for that reason they were persecuted and there were further battles between Clovis and the Alamanni. Several researchers believe that in 506 CE a third battle took place between the Alamanni and the Franks. What is certain is that between 496 and 506 there were further clashes. The location of the battle is not mentioned anywhere; that it was explicitly near Strasbourg, remains a theory held by a number of scholars. As a result of Clovis' victory, the northern half of the Alammanian lands went to the Franks while the southern half sought protection under Theoderic.
Outcome
Loss of territory
A consequence of losing the conflict between 496 and 506 against the Franks was that the territory that had been settled by the northern Alamanni, probably up to the present dialect boundary between the Alemannic and South Franconian dialects, finally came under Frankish rule.
Escape to Theoderic
Some of the Alamanni apparently fled southwards to Rhaetia and placed themselves under the protection of the King of the Ostrogoths, Theoderic. He went to his brother-in-law, Clovis I and interceded for the Alamanni, but acknowledged the anger of Clovis as justified. He therefore asked for the leaders to be punished but recommended clemency in sentencing. Theoderic promised that he would see to it that the Alamanni, who were in Rhaetia, also remained peaceful. Between the lines, Theoderic made it clear that he would thereby lay claim to the disputed area of Rhaetia and would use the Alamanni as a means of exerting pressure against Clovis if he did not recognize his supremacy there.
Bibliography
Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus, Senator, Variae epistolae (537), Theoderic's state papers. Editio princeps by M. Accurius (1533). English translations by Thomas Hodgkin The Letters of Cassiodorus (1886); S.J.B. Barnish Cassiodorus: Variae (Liverpool: University Press, 1992)
Julius Cramer, Die Geschichte der Alamannen als Gaugeschichte, Breslau: M&H Marcus, 1899.
Eugen Ewig. Die Merowinger und das Frankenreich, 5th updated edition, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 2006.
Michael Fertig, Ennodius und seine Zeit, 1855-1860.
Geuenich, Dieter. "Chlodwigs Alemannenschlacht(en) und Taufe", pp. 423–37. In D. Geuenich, ed., Die Franken und die Alemannen bis zur "Schlacht bei Zülpich" (496/497). Berlin: de Gruyter, 1998. .
Hoops, Johannes. Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, Vol. 9, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995. .
Hessisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, Volumes 44-45, State of Hesse: 1994.
Karl J. Trübner, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, Volume 3, Part 4, Hermann Paul: 1900.
Ian Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, Woodbridge: Boydell, 1988.
André van de Vyver, "La victoire contre les Alamans et la conversion de Clovis", Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, Vol. 15, No. 3 (1936), pp. 859–914.
André van de Vyver, "La victoire contre les Alamans et la conversion de CIovis (suite)", Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, Vol. 16, No. 1 (1937), pp. 35–94.
André van de Vyver, "L'unique victoire contre les Alamans et la conversion de Clovis en 506", Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, Vol. 17, No. 3 (1938), pp. 793–813.
Notes
Tolbiac
Tolbiac 496
Tolbiac 496
Tolbiac 496
Tolbiac
496
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218694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz | Battle of Königgrätz | The Battle of Königgrätz (or Sadowa) was the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War in which the Kingdom of Prussia defeated the Austrian Empire. It took place on 3 July 1866, near the Bohemian towns of Königgrätz, (now Hradec Králové, Czech Republic) and Sadowa (now Sadová, Czech Republic).
The outnumbered Prussian infantry used their superior training and tactical doctrine and the Dreyse needle gun to win the battle and the entire war at Königgrätz on their own. Prussian artillery was ineffective and almost all of the fighting on the Prussian side was done by the First Army under Prince Friedrich Karl and one division from the Second Army. The Prussian 7th Infantry Division and 1st Guards Infantry Division attacked and destroyed 38 out of 49 infantry battalions of four Austrian corps at the Swiepwald and Chlum at the center of the battlefield, deciding the outcome of the struggle and forcing an Austrian retreat at 15:00, before any Prussian reinforcements could even seriously engage the Austrian flanks.
Background
At the outset of the war in June, the Prussian armies were gathered along the Prussian border: the Army of the Elbe under Karl Herwarth von Bittenfeld at Torgau, the First Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia between Senftenberg and Görlitz, and the Second Army under Crown Prince Frederick William in Silesia west of Neiße (Nysa). The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek was concentrated at Olmütz (Olomouc). The campaign began with Herwarth von Bittenfeld's advance to Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony, where he easily defeated the Saxon army of 23,000 and joined with the First Army.
The reluctant Austrian commander Benedek had only moved his troops out of their staging point at Olmütz on 18 June, moving north in three parallel columns with the I Corps protecting the right flank. The Austrians took up positions at the fortress Josefstadt and the mountain passes from Saxony and Silesia.
On 22 June, Prussia's Chief of the General Staff, Helmuth von Moltke, ordered both armies under his command to Jitschin (Jičín) near the Austrian positions, a daring maneuver undertaken to limit the war's duration despite the risk of one army being overtaken en route.
However, Benedek was indecisive and failed to use his superior numbers to eliminate the Prussian armies individually. Initially, the Austrians were pressed back everywhere except at Trautenau (Trutnov), where they bested the Prussians despite great losses to their own forces. By 29 June, Prince Friedrich Karl had reached Jitschin and inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrian I Corps under General Clam-Gallas. The Crown Prince had reached Königinhof (Dvůr Králové) despite stiff resistance.
On 30 June, Friedrich Karl's First Army advanced to within one day's march of the Second Army. However, for the next two days the Prussian cavalry lost sight of the Austrians entirely, although Moltke's guess as to their actions—a retreat to the Elbe River—proved correct.
Prelude
Dismayed by his losses, Benedek had ordered a withdrawal and urgently requested that Emperor Franz Josef make peace as the only way to save the army from a "catastrophe". When this was refused, and an ambiguous last sentence of the imperial telegram was interpreted as ordering a final stand, Benedek drew his Austrians up against the Elbe between Sadowa and Königgrätz.
The Prussians finally sighted the Austrians on the eve of 2 July near Sadowa, and Friedrich Karl planned to attack the next morning. Moltke ordered the Crown Prince Frederick William to join forces with the other two armies at the point where the Austrians were assembled, but the telegraph lines to the Second Army's positions were out, necessitating the dispatch of two mounted officers at midnight to ride the twenty miles' distance in time. They arrived at 4 a.m. The Crown Prince's Chief of Staff, Leonhard von Blumenthal, an able logistician, immediately reorganised Second Army's route plan.
Battle
The Austrian army of 215,000 faced the Prussian Army of the Elbe (39,000) and First Army (85,000) on 3 July. The Austrian infantry was partially fortified and supported by cavalry in the rear and artillery units with firing range across hilly, wooded terrain. The battle began at dawn in subsiding rain and mist as Prussia took its position west of the Bystřice River. Shortly before 8 a.m., the Austrian artillery opened fire, pinning down the Prussian right flank under Herwarth von Bittenfeld. The Saxons on the Austrian left fell back in good order, and proceeded to rain down fire on the advancing Prussian right from higher ground. Herwarth von Bittenfeld hesitated to order a full attack, and instead the advance guard of seven battalions, under Brig. General von Schöler pulled back to the river around 10:00 and took a defensive stance.
The Prussian center, with the Prussian 7th Division under General Edward Frederick Charles von Fransecky, having secured the Prussian rear earlier, led the advance into Swiep Forest, where it was met by two Austrian corps. The 7th Division had to both clear out the forest, and cover the Prussian left until the Second Army, under the crown prince, arrived. The Prussians methodically cleared the villages of Austrian defenders. King Wilhelm I of Prussia ordered the First Army across the river to support Fransecky. Sadowa was captured, but a fierce battle ensued in a nearby forest. The Austrian artillery held off the Prussians by firing into the smoke of the Prussian advance. The Prussians were slowed, and although the river was easy to wade, transporting artillery across it was extremely difficult. The Prussian attack was halted as the advancing Prussian 8th and 4th Divisions were cut down by the Austrian artillery as soon as they emerged from the smoke. However, the Austrian leader, Benedek, refused to call for a cavalry charge which later commentators have argued might have won the battle. Reserve units were deployed at noon, but the outcome of the battle was still uncertain and Prussian commanders anxiously waited for the crown prince.
To this point the Austrian superiority in numbers and position had held the day. Their weapons had longer range, which meant that the outnumbered Prussians could neither advance against the artillery barrage, nor effectively engage the Austrian infantry. The Prussians had attempted to bring three armies together for the battle, but problems with sending orders by telegraph and moving men by railroad had meant that only two of the three armies had arrived in time. The Prussian center, in the cover of the forest, was able to hold its position, and discourage a mounted charge by the Austrians, who were thought to have superior cavalry. However the close contact of the fight in the forest began to negate the Austrian advantages, the Austrians could not train their artillery on the close fighting, the damp weather made a cavalry charge risky, and the Austrian IV Corps was committed piecemeal to the fighting. At this point the relative strengths of the two armies were beginning to reverse. The shorter range of the Prussian artillery as compared to the Austrian was moot, while the vastly higher rate of fire from the Prussian breechloading needle gun, compared to the Austrian muzzleloading small arms and cannon, were paramount. In addition the needle gun could be operated while prone in defense, and while moving quickly on the advance, while the Austrians had to stand up after each shot to reload their Lorenz rifles.
At 11:00 came the deciding moment of the battle; the Austrian center began a maneuver to flank the Prussian 7th Division, which had pushed back and held off nearly a quarter of the Austrian army. Colonel Carl von Pöckh was sent to drive the Prussians back, and with a fierce infantry charge managed to force the 7th Division back to the outskirts of the forest. Benedek's corps commanders pleaded with him to launch a counterattack to destroy the Prussian First and Elbe armies before the Second army arrived, but Benedek declined to act, letting the opportune moment slip by. However, the tide of battle was about to turn, as flanking fire raked Pöckh's battalion, annihilating it as a fighting force and killing its commander. The fire came from the first elements of the crown prince's army as they arrived, and the 8th Division stiffened the Prussian center to hold off the Austrian thrusts. While divisions from the Austrian II and IV Corps were committed to the fighting, there was no decisive infantry charge, nor did the Prussians present a flank that could be attacked with cavalry. The Austrians were caught having moved from their defensive position to attack, and their right flank was exposed to the arriving Prussian infantry.
However, neither cavalry nor artillery gave direct help to the Prussian Infantry. Prussian Artillery in Lubno hill reinforced the Prussian, making many forces to go there. Around 12:30 two rifled batteries of 2nd Division arrived, and around 13:00, Oberst von Bülow, part of Army of the Elbe, brought the corps artillery, two regiments, to the battlefield. After 1 o'clock, Oberst von Rozynski commanded 66 guns in this area. However they were too far to the rear to be used effectively. This kept Karl Eberhard Herwarth von Bittenfeld from ordering a major attack against the Austrians.
At 14:30 Crown Prince Frederick William finally arrived with the main bulk of his almost 100,000 men, having marched with all possible haste all morning, and hit the Austrian right flank retiring from Swiep Forest while the Prussian artillery pounded the Austrian center. By 16:00 the last individual counter-attacks by the Austrian I and VI Corps were broken, even as Benedek ordered a withdrawal. Lt. General Frederick Hiller von Gärtringen's 1st Prussian Guard reached the Austrian artillery, forcing them to stop reforming an artillery line and pull back. He had attacked because he saw the artillery as holding together the Austrian position, and his attack destroyed the lone cavalry battery that stayed to fight, and forced the others to flee, along with their reserves.
At this point, having taken severe casualties, lacking artillery and cavalry cover, the high ground in enemy hands and the center being rolled up, the position for the Austrians deteriorated rapidly. The Second Prussian Army completely broke through the Austrian lines and took Chlum behind the center. The Army of the Elbe, which had merely held position after the early morning bloodying by the Austrian artillery and the Saxon infantry, attacked and broke through the Austrian left flank. It seized Probluz, and proceeded to destroy the Austrian flank. The Prussian king ordered all remaining forces into the attack all along the line, which had been slowed by the final counter-attack from the battalions of Brigadier General Ferdinand Rosenzweig von Dreuwehr's Austrian brigade. The arriving reinforcements joined the fight just as the Austrians had forced the 1st Prussian Guard back to Chlum. The result was a decisive shock of firepower which collapsed the Austrian line. The Prussian advance was so rapid that Benedek ordered a series of cavalry countercharges to back up his artillery and cover the general retreat he ordered at 15:00. These were successful at covering the Austrian rear, keeping the bridges over the Elbe open for retreating Austrian soldiers, and preventing pursuit by the Prussians, but at a terrible cost: 2,000 men and almost as many horses were killed, wounded or captured in the action. Benedek himself crossed the Elbe near 18:00 and several hours later informed the emperor that the catastrophe of which he had warned had indeed occurred.
The battle ended with heavy casualties for the Austrians. The Prussians had some 9,000 men killed, wounded or missing. The Austrians and allies had more than 44,000 men killed, wounded or missing, with 22,170 captured. Compounding the Austrians' losses was Austria's earlier refusal to sign the First Geneva Convention. As a result, Austrian medical personnel were regarded as combatants, and withdrew from the field with the main bulk of the forces, leaving the wounded to die on the field.
Aftermath
Königgrätz was the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War. The Prussians then continued to pursue the defeated Austrian Nord-Armee and fought a series of minor clashes, with the last skirmish being fought at Blumenau on 22 July, just as the Peace of Prague to put a halt to the fighting was being signed. It provided a great opportunity for Prussian statesmen, by clearing a path toward German unification, in particular with the Little Germany (Germany without Austria) solution, with the subsequent foundation of the North German Confederation. The outcome also ensured that Prussia would have a free hand when a war with France came to pass in 1871.
After this Prussian victory, France attempted to extract territorial concessions in the Palatinate and Luxembourg. In his speech to the Reichstag on 2 May 1871, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck stated:
The Königgrätzer Marsch was written to commemorate the battle.
The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded "Revanche pour Sadova" or "Revenge for Sadowa", which formed part of the background to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.
See also
Cannoneer Jabůrek, a satirical song about a fictional Czech participant in the battle
Königsberger Paukenhund, traditional kettle drum dog of the Prussian infantry, originating from this battle
Königgrätzer Marsch, a German military march commemorating the battle
Citations
Bibliography
.
Further reading
External links
A map and timeline of the Battle of Königgrätz
Bellum.cz – Battle of Königgrätz 3rd July 1866
Koniggratz
Koniggratz
Koniggratz
Koniggratz
Hradec Králové
1866 in the Austrian Empire
19th century in Bohemia
July 1866 events
1866 in Germany | [
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218695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Russell | John Russell | John Russell may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
John Russell (English painter) (1745–1806), English painter
John Russell (Australian painter) (1858–1930), Australian painter
John Russell (screenwriter) (1885–1956), author and screenwriter
John L. Russell (cinematographer) (1905–1967), American cinematographer
Johnny Russell (saxophonist) (1909–1991), American jazz saxophonist
John Russell (art critic) (1919–2008), British American art critic
John Russell (actor) (1921–1991), American actor in the TV series Lawman
Johnny Russell (singer) (1940–2001), American country singer
John Russell (musician) (1954–2021), acoustic guitarist
John Morris Russell (born 1960), American conductor
John C. Russell (1963–1994), playwright
John Russell of Bluffdale, American novelist, writer and Baptist preacher
John Wentworth Russell, Canadian painter
Johnnie Russell (born 1933), stage name of John R. Countryman, American diplomat and former child actor
Military
John Russell (Royalist) (1620–1687), English MP and soldier
John Henry Russell (1827–1897), officer of the United States Navy
John Russell (Medal of Honor) (1852–?), United States Navy sailor and recipient of the Medal of Honor
John H. Russell Jr. (1872–1947), major general and 16th Commandant of the Marine Corps
John Tinsley Russell (1904–1942), New Zealand soldier
John Russell (VC) (1893–1917), British Army officer who was awarded the Victoria Cross
John Russell (aviator) (1894–1960), flying ace
John Russell, 3rd Baron Ampthill (1896–1973), British peer and Royal Navy officer
John M. Russell, U.S. Army sergeant, perpetrator of the Camp Liberty killings (2009)
Politics
United States
John Russell (New York politician) (1772–1842), United States Representative from New York
John Russell (prohibitionist) (1822–1912), first National Committee Chairman of the Prohibition Party
John Russell (Ohio politician) (1827–1869), Ohio Secretary of State, 1868–1869
John Russell (Virginia politician) (1923-2012), American politician
John E. Russell (1834–1903), U.S. Representative from Massachusetts
John W. Russell Jr. (1923–2015), member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives from 1947 to 1951 and the Oklahoma Senate between 1952 and 1956
John Russell (Missouri politician) (born 1931), Missouri state senator
United Kingdom
Sir John Russell (knight) (died 1224), English household knight of King John
Sir John Russell (died 1270), Anglo-Scottish noble
John Russell (MP for Coventry), MP for Coventry in 1302
John Russell (died 1405) (1350s–1405), MP for Worcestershire
John Russell (fl. 1410), MP for Wells
John Russell (speaker) (died 1437), MP for Herefordshire and Speaker of the House of Commons
John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford (1485–1555), English royal minister
John Russell (Westminster MP), MP for Westminster, London, 1545–1547
Sir John Russell, 3rd Baronet (1632?–1669), of Chippenham
John Russell (Royalist) (died 1687), English MP and soldier
John Russell (colonial administrator) (1670–1735), administrator of the English East India Company
John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford (1710–1771), British statesman
John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford (1766–1839), Knight of the Garter
John Russell, 1st Earl Russell (1792–1878), known as Lord John Russell before 1861, British prime minister
John Russell, Viscount Amberley (1842–1876), progressive Liberal MP
John Russell (diplomat) (1914–1984), British diplomat and ambassador
John Russell, 13th Duke of Bedford (1917–2002), British peer and writer
John Russell, 4th Earl Russell (1921–1987), eldest son of Bertrand Russell
John Russell, 27th Baron de Clifford (1928–2018), Peer of England
John Russell, 7th Earl Russell (born 1971), English politician
Elsewhere
John Watts-Russell (1825–1875), New Zealand politician
Religion
John Russell (bishop) (died 1494), bishop of Lincoln and Lord High Chancellor of England, 1483–1485
John Russell (clergyman) (1626–1692), Puritan minister
John Russell (headmaster) (1787–1863), English clergyman and headmaster of Charterhouse School
John Russell (parson) (1795–1883), hunter, dog breeder, and cleric
John Lewis Russell (1808–1854), American botanist and Unitarian minister
John Fuller Russell (1814–1888), Church of England priest, writer, and art collector
John Russell (priest, born 1868) (1868–1949), Archdeacon of Oamaru / North Otago in New Zealand
John Russell (priest, born 1792) (1792–1865), Archdeacon of Clogher, Ireland
John Joyce Russell (1897–1993), American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church
Sports
Association football
John Russell (footballer, born 1872) (1872–1905), Scottish footballer
John Russell (Cambuslang footballer) (fl. 1890), Scottish footballer for Cambuslang and the national team
John Russell (Dumbarton footballer) (fl. 1922–1928), Scottish footballer for Airdrie and Dumbarton
John Russell (footballer, born 1923) (1923–2005), Scottish footballer (Motherwell FC, Kilmarnock FC)
John Russell (Queen's Park footballer) (fl. 1924–1933), Scottish footballer
John Russell (Irish footballer) (born 1985), Irish footballer for Sligo Rovers FC
Johnny Russell (footballer) (born 1990), Scottish footballer (Dundee United, Derby County, Sporting KC, national team)
Jon Russell (footballer) (born 2000), English footballer for Chelsea and Accrington Stanley
Baseball
John Russell (pitcher) (1895–1930), for the Brooklyn Robins and Chicago White Sox
John Henry Russell (baseball) (1898–1972), American Negro leagues baseball player
John Russell (catcher) (born 1961), manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates
Other sports
John Russell (cricketer) (1883–1965), English cricketer
Honey Russell (John David Russell, 1902–1973), American basketball player and coach
John Russell (equestrian) (1920–2020), American Olympic bronze medal-winning equestrian
John Russell (athlete) (born 1932), Australian long-distance runner
John A. Russell (born 1933), British Olympic rower
John Russell (rower) (1935–2019), British Olympic rower
John Russell (horse trainer) (1936-2004), American horse trainer
Others
John Russell (pirate) (fl. 1722–1723), possible alias of Portugal's Juan Lopez
John Russell (collier) (1788–1873), British industrialist and colliery owner
John Russell (1796–1846), Scottish lawyer and travel writer, brother of James Russell
John Scott Russell (1808–1882), Scottish naval engineer
John Russell (developer) (1821–1896), Irish-American industrialist and developer of Ashland, Kentucky
John Benjamin Russell (1834–1894), New Zealand lawyer, businessman, and landscape gardener
E. John Russell (1872–1965), British agriculturalist
See also
Jack Russell (disambiguation)
Johnny Russell (disambiguation)
Jonathan Russell (disambiguation)
Jon Russell (One Life to Live), fictional character in the soap opera
Jon Russell, a candidate in the United States House of Representatives elections in Washington, 2010 | [
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] |
218696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNP | SNP | SNP may refer to:
Computing
SNP (complexity), a complexity class
SNP file format, a Microsoft Access file format
Scalable Networking Pack, additions to Windows Server 2003
Secure Network Programming
SnP file or Touchstone file
Places
Six Nations Polytechnic, post-secondary institution in Ontario, Canada
State Nature Preserves of the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission
SNP Stadium, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
Politics
Scottish National Party
Seychelles National Party
Socialist People's Party of Montenegro or
Serbian People's Party or
Science
Single-nucleotide polymorphism, a DNA sequence variation
Sodium nitroprusside, a peripheral vasodilator
Other uses
Sinopec's NYSE ticker symbol
Social networking potential in marketing research
Special needs plan, a Medicare Advantage plan
The Sunday Night Project, a British television show
"SNP (Shining Nature Purity)", a 2020 song by W24
See also | [
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218699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando%20Luis%20Ribas%20Dominicci%20Airport | Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport | Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport , also commonly known as Isla Grande Airport, is an airport in Isla Grande, a district in the municipality of San Juan, Puerto Rico. It is owned by the Puerto Rico Ports Authority and is adjacent to the Puerto Rico Convention Center, the San Juan Bay, and the Pan American Cruise Ship Terminal, and overlooks Cataño. While Isla Grande's main activity is general aviation, it is still a commercial airport, handling domestic and international commercial flights.
It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a primary commercial service airport (more than 10,000 enplanements per year).
History
Originally constructed by the U.S. Navy as Naval Air Station Isla Grande just prior to World War II, the facility also served as Puerto Rico's main international airport until 1954, when Isla Verde International Airport (renamed Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in 1985) was built. Until that year, all international airlines, such as Deutsche Luft Hansa, Iberia Airlines, Delta and Pan Am, flew to Isla Grande.
Until 1971, the airport also hosted Coast Guard Air Station San Juan. That year, the Coast Guard relocated its air station to Ramey Air Force Base on Puerto Rico's northwest coast.
Isla Grande was renamed in honor of United States Air Force Major Fernando Luis Ribas-Dominicci, an F-111 pilot who was killed in action during Operation El Dorado Canyon (the 1986 airstrike of Libya).
A controversy regarding Isla Grande and Dorado Airport surfaced in 2003. Dorado Airport wanted to expand and attract the private aviation sector that has been Isla Grande's main business for so long. Dorado airport eventually became a victim of urban development in Dorado and no longer exists.
On October 26, 2003, the airport made history by becoming the first Puerto Rican site of a SCCA Grand Prix race.
In 2006, after a detailed impact study and many rumors about the future of the airport, the Puerto Rico Ports Authority announced that Isla Grande airport would remain open for the foreseeable future, mostly because of its key function as the primary reliever for the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport.
On August 4, 2011 the FAA announced that they were planning to close the airport's control tower due to budget cuts, since they operate it instead of the Puerto Rico Ports Authority.
On July 8, 2012 airport officials denied via written communication to a local newspaper of "any plans to eliminate or privatize the airport, since the airport is one of the most important airports for general aviation on Puerto Rico, taking into account that its operation approximates around 300 daily operations." On that same newspaper it was published that Seaborne Airlines would transition its operations to the neighboring Luis Muñoz Marin Intl Airport with complete pullout on January 16, 2013.
For a short period of time between 2007 and 2009, the airport became the flight hub of Puerto Rico's unofficial flag carrier, Prinair, when that airline briefly returned to operating.
Facilities and aircraft
Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport covers an area of at an elevation of above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 9/27 with an asphalt surface measuring .
For the 12-month period ending September 30, 2013, the airport had 116,447 aircraft operations, an average of 319 per day: 92% general aviation, 6% air taxi, and 2% military. At that time there were 232 aircraft based at this airport: 33% single-engine, 37% multi-engine, 1% jet, 24% helicopter, and 6% military.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Statistics
Puerto Rico Army National Guard Aviation Support Facility
The Puerto Rico National Guard Aviation Support Facility is the only military site on Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport. Its mission is to support the Puerto Rico Army National Guard and the following units:
Company A, 1st Battalion, 111th Aviation Regiment
Company D, 1st Battalion, 114th Aviation Regiment
Detachment 1, Company B, 1st Battalion, 114th Aviation Regiment
The military aircraft at this facility are UH-72 Lakota and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters and the Beechcraft C-12 Huron.
Incidents and accidents
On October 1, 1942, a Douglas C-39 (DC-2) of the U.S. Army Air Forces flying from Juana Diaz Air Base in southern Puerto Rico to Isla Grande crashed into a hill in Coamo instead, killing all 22 people on board.
On April 11, 1952, Pan Am Flight 526A crashed into the sea just after takeoff due to engine failure, killing 52 out of 69 passengers and crew.
On December 21, 1991, a United Airlines Boeing 757 flight en route to San Juan's Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport mistakenly landed at Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport.
June 7, 1992: An Executive Air (for American Eagle) CASA 212 flying from Dominicci Airport crashed short of the runway in Mayagüez, killing both crew members and all three passengers.
In December 2002, a helicopter that had been rented from a company that operates out of this airport was hijacked and taken to a jail in Ponce, where six inmates boarded the helicopter, forcing the pilot to drop them off at a farm. The pilot was able to fly back after he lied to the prisoners about their whereabouts, making them jump off the helicopter and zig-zagging the helicopter to prevent them from shooting at him. Soon after, all escapees were found by the police.
On January 10, 2015, a Robinson R22 collided with the ocean (near Cataño Ferry terminal, San Juan bay) shortly after takeoff due to unknown reasons (as of 9/14/15), killing 1 (student performing a solo flight) and leaving the helicopter damaged beyond repair.
On July 4, 2017, an aircraft that had taken off Ribas Dominicci Airport crashed nearby at a bay. The crash resulted in four injuries.
See also
Transport in Puerto Rico
List of airports in Puerto Rico
References
External links
Isla Grande Airport at OpenStreetMap
Isla Grande Flying School
Accident Robinson R22 Beta N348VH, 10 Jan 2015
Buildings and structures in San Juan, Puerto Rico
Airports in Puerto Rico
Miramar (Santurce)
Closed installations of the United States Navy | [
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218701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Rogers | Samuel Rogers | Samuel Rogers (30 July 1763 – 18 December 1855) was an English poet, during his lifetime one of the most celebrated, although his fame has long since been eclipsed by his Romantic colleagues and friends Wordsworth, Coleridge and Byron. His recollections of these and other friends such as Charles James Fox are key sources for information about London artistic and literary life, with which he was intimate, and which he used his wealth to support. He made his money as a banker and was also a discriminating art collector.
Early life and family
Rogers was born at Newington Green, then a village north of Islington, and now in Inner London. His father, Thomas Rogers, a banker and briefly MP for Coventry, was the son of a Stourbridge glass manufacturer, who was also a merchant in Cheapside. Thomas married Mary, the only daughter of his father's partner, Daniel Radford, becoming himself a partner shortly afterwards. On his mother's side Samuel Rogers was connected with the well-known Welsh Dissenting clergymen Philip Henry and his son Matthew, was brought up in Nonconformist circles, and became a long-standing member of the Unitarian congregation at Newington Green, then led by the remarkable Dr Richard Price. He was educated in Hackney and Stoke Newington.
Two nephews, orphaned young and for whom he assumed responsibility, were Samuel Sharpe, the Egyptologist and translator of the Bible, and his younger brother Daniel, the early geologist.
The young man
Samuel Rogers wished to enter the Presbyterian ministry, but his father persuaded him to join the banking business in Cornhill. In long holidays, necessitated by delicate health, Rogers became interested in English literature, particularly the work of Samuel Johnson, Thomas Gray and Oliver Goldsmith. He learned Gray's poems by heart, and his family wealth allowed him to leisure to try writing poetry himself. He began with contributions to the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1786 he published a volume containing some imitations of Goldsmith and an "Ode to Superstition" in the style of Gray.
In 1788 his elder brother Thomas died, and Samuel's business responsibilities were increased. In the next year he paid a visit to Scotland, where he met Adam Smith, Henry Mackenzie, Hester Thrale and others. In 1791 he was in Paris, and enjoyed the Orleans Collection of art at the Palais Royal, many of the treasures of which were later to pass into his possession. With Gray as his model, Rogers took great pains in polishing his verses, and six years elapsed after the publication of his first volume before he printed his elaborate poem on The Pleasures of Memory (1792) – regarded by some as the last embodiment of the poetic diction of the 18th century. The theory of elevating and refining familiar themes by abstract treatment and lofty imagery is taken to extremes. In this art of "raising a subject", as the 18th century phrase was, the Pleasures of Memory is much more perfect than Thomas Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, published a few years later in imitation. Byron said of it, "There is not a vulgar line in the poem."
Middle life and friendships
In 1793 his father's death gave Rogers the principal share in the banking house in Cornhill, and a considerable income. He left Newington Green and established himself in chambers in the Temple. Within his intimate circle at this time were his best friend, Richard Sharp (Conversation Sharp), and the artists John Flaxman, John Opie, Martin Shee and John Henry Fuseli. He also made the acquaintance of Charles James Fox, with whom he visited the galleries in Paris in 1802, and whose friendship introduced him to Holland House. In 1803 he moved to 22 St James's Place, where for fifty years he entertained all the celebrities of London. Flaxman and Charles Alfred Stothard had a share in the decoration of the house, which Rogers virtually rebuilt, and proceeded to fill with works of art. His collections at his death realised £50,000.
In the mid-nineteenth century, social breakfasts were in vogue in London. Rogers hosted social breakfasts with guests such as Thomas Macaulay, Henry Hallam, Sydney Smith, George Howard, 7th Earl of Carlisle, Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Henry Hart Milman, Anthony Panizzi, George Cornewall Lewis, and Sylvain Van de Weyer. An invitation to one of Rogers's breakfasts was a formal entry into literary society, and his dinners were even more select. His social success was due less to his literary position than to his powers as a conversationalist, his educated taste in all matters of art, and no doubt to his sarcastic and bitter wit, for which he excused himself by saying that he had such a small voice that no one listened if he said pleasant things. "He certainly had the kindest heart and unkindest tongue of any one I ever knew," said Fanny Kemble. He helped the poet Robert Bloomfield, he reconciled Thomas Moore with Francis Jeffrey and with Byron, and he relieved Sheridan's difficulties in the last days of his life. Moore, who refused help from all his friends, and would only owe debts to his publishers, found it possible to accept help from Rogers. He procured a pension for HF Cary, the translator of Dante, and obtained Wordsworth his sinecure as distributor of stamps. John Mitford, while maintaining his country livings, rented permanent lodgings in Sloane Street, where he enjoyed "the most perfect intimacy with Samuel Rogers for more than twenty years".
Rogers was in effect a literary dictator in England. He made his reputation by The Pleasures of Memory when William Cowper's fame was still in the making. He became the friend of Wordsworth, Walter Scott and Byron, and lived long enough to give an opinion as to the fitness of Alfred Tennyson for the post of Poet Laureate. Alexander Dyce, from the time of his first introduction to Rogers, was in the habit of writing down the anecdotes with which his conversation abounded. In 1856 he arranged and published selections as Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, to which is added Porsoniana. Rogers himself kept a notebook in which he entered impressions of the conversation of many of his distinguished friends—Fox, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, Richard Porson, John Horne Tooke, Talleyrand, Lord Erskine, Scott, Lord Grenville and the Duke of Wellington. They were published by his nephew William Sharpe in 1859 as Recollections by Samuel Rogers; Reminiscences and Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, Banker, poet, and Patron of the Arts, 1763–1855 (1903), by GH Powell, is an amalgamation of these two authorities.
Rogers held various honorary positions: he was one of the trustees of the National Gallery; and he served on a commission to inquire into the management of the British Museum, and on another for the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in November 1796.
Later life
His literary production remained slow. An Epistle to a Friend (the above-mentioned Conversation Sharp), published in 1798, describes Rogers's ideal of a happy life. This was followed by The Voyage of Columbus (1810), and by Jacqueline (1814), a narrative poem, written in the iambic tetrameter of the newer writers, and published in the same volume with Byron's Lara. His reflective poem on Human Life (1819), on which he had been engaged for twelve years, is written in his earlier manner.
In 1814 Rogers made a tour on the Continent with his sister Sarah. He travelled through Switzerland to Italy, keeping a full diary of events and impressions, and had made his way to Naples when the news of Napoleon's escape from Elba obliged him to hurry home. Seven years later he returned to Italy, paying a visit to Byron and Shelley at Pisa. Out of the earlier of these tours arose his last and longest work, Italy. The first part was published anonymously in 1822; the second, with his name attached, in 1828. It was at first a failure, but Rogers was determined to make it a success. He enlarged and revised the poem, and commissioned illustrations from J.M.W. Turner, Thomas Stothard and Samuel Prout. These were engraved on steel in the sumptuous edition of 1830. The book then proved a great success, and Rogers followed it up with an equally sumptuous edition of his Poems (1834). In 1850, on Wordsworth's death, Rogers was asked to succeed him as poet laureate, but declined the honour on account of his age. For the last five years of his life he was confined to his chair in consequence of a fall in the street. He died in London at 92, a remarkable age for the time, and is buried in the family tomb in the churchyard of St Mary's Church, Hornsey High Street, Haringey.
Notes
References
A full account of Rogers is given in two works by P. W. Clayden, The Early Life of Samuel Rogers (1887) and Rogers and his Contemporaries (2 vols., 1889). One of the best accounts of Rogers, containing many examples of his caustic wit, is by Abraham Hayward in the Edinburgh Review for July 1856.
See also the Aldine edition (1857) of his Poetical Works, and the Journals of Byron and of Moore.
Further reading
Martin Blocksidge: The banker poet : the rise and fall of Samuel Rogers, 1763-1855, Brighton [u.a.] : Sussex Academic Press, 2013,
External links
Finding aid to Alan H. Kempner papers with Samuel Rogers correspondence at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
1763 births
1855 deaths
People from Islington (district)
English poets
English art collectors
Fellows of the Royal Society
English male poets
19th-century English poets
People from Hornsey
Conversationalists | [
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218705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20String%20Cheese%20Incident | The String Cheese Incident | The String Cheese Incident (SCI) is an American band from Crested Butte and Telluride, Colorado, formed in 1993. The band is composed of Michael Kang (acoustic/electric mandolin, electric guitar, and violin), Michael Travis (drums and percussion), Bill Nershi (acoustic guitar, lap steel guitar, and electric slide guitar), Kyle Hollingsworth (piano, organ, Rhodes, and accordion), and Keith Moseley (bass guitar), and, since 2004, Jason Hann (auxiliary percussion).
Their music has elements of bluegrass sounds, as well as rock, electronica, calypso, country, funk, jazz, Latin, progressive rock, reggae, and psychedelia. All members write original compositions and sing.
History
1996–2001
After a few years of playing local ski resorts and private functions, the band formed the independent record label SCI Fidelity, on which they released their first album, Born on the Wrong Planet, an album split between originals and covers. The album featured melody-driven music with room for improvisation. Instrumentals and covers constituted half of the album. Many songs from the first album are still frequently played by the band, including "Black Clouds", "Land's End", "Texas", and "Jellyfish."
Less than a year later, SCI released a compilation of ten songs, including "Land's End", on their self-titled live album A String Cheese Incident, which chronicles a single concert from the Fox Theatre in Boulder, Colorado and adds pianist Hollingsworth to the ensemble (he was not in the band during the recording of Born on the Wrong Planet). Despite spanning only one disc and containing only ten tracks, the album clocks in at 72 minutes even (thus, with an average track length of 7:12, displaying their propensity for extended jams).
'Round the Wheel, released in 1998, refined the band's sound and displayed a marked increase in both musical and lyrical maturity, and added Paul McCandless as a guest player on soprano and tenor saxophone and Tony Furtado on banjo, but did not earn them quite the level of fame that they would achieve in the next millennium. From 1998 through 2001 SCI toured the country extensively and steadily, playing over 500 "Incidents" in hundreds of cities, including an appearance at Woodstock '99.
In 2001, with the help of guest producer and Los Lobos member Steve Berlin, they released their third studio effort, Outside Inside. This album marked a shift from the band's traditional bluegrass leanings to a more standard rock sound, thus making it the most accessible album to a mainstream audience to that point. The band did not completely abandon its bluegrass roots, however, sneaking in the short three-minute track "Up the Canyon" at the end of the disc, which has become one of many live favorites along with "Rollover", "Close Your Eyes", and others.
2002–2004
In August 2003, SCI's in-house ticket selling service, SCI Ticketing (now Baseline Ticketing), sued Ticketmaster, which controlled nearly all of the larger venues the band was playing. SCI alleged that by restricting bands from selling directly to fans more than 8% of a venue's tickets violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The suit followed an unsuccessful petitioning by SCI, R.E.M., Pearl Jam and other bands calling for the U.S. Department of Justice to investigate Ticketmaster's high service fees and anti-competitive practices. The parties settled in 2008, and the band gained a larger allotment of tickets to sell and agreed to not publicize the settlement.
In October 2003, SCI released their fourth studio album, Untying the Not, produced by Martin "Youth" Glover, formerly of the band the Killing Joke. The release continued SCI's use of electronic music and trance elements. Both Travis and Kang got into electronic music around the same time and started pushing the group in that direction.
In the summer of 2004, SCI booked to play the touring festival Lollapalooza; thereby becoming the caravan's first jam band. But poor ticket sales led to the festival's cancellation and the band re-routed its summer tour.
2005–2006
In June 2005, the band released their fifth studio album, titled One Step Closer, containing thirteen original tracks with guest songwriting collaborations, including Jim Lauderdale. In 2005, the band also welcomed percussionist Jason Hann. The album was produced by Malcolm Burn at a studio in Boulder, Colorado, where the band is based. One Step Closer was a return to the more roots-based music of earlier String Cheese Incident fare, while still retaining some of the pop sensibility of previous studio albums.
Through Madison House Inc., the company that manages and books SCI, the band organized 'Big Summer Classic', a 2005 traveling festival tour across the United States. Seven-person ensemble New Monsoon opened the festival's shows, which included acts such as Umphrey's McGee, Yonder Mountain String Band, Michael Franti & Spearhead, and Keller Williams. The band played in medium-size outdoor venues, such as minor-league baseball parks.
In 2005 the band returned to their roots: playing shows at the base of ski resorts, summer festivals, smaller venues, and touring throughout the U.S. Band members announced to their fans that the band would take a break from touring in early 2006. They recommenced in the summer of the same year to play several co-headlining shows with Bob Weir's RatDog including a sold-out two-night run at Red Rocks in Morrison, Colorado and a set at the 10,000 Lakes Music Festival in Minnesota with well-known acoustic artist Keller Williams.
2007
The band announced a few shows for 2007, including their annual Winter Carnival (sans 2006), which stopped in Denver and Vail, Colorado, and an appearance at the Bonnaroo Music Festival as well as the 10,000 Lakes Festival. The band concluded their reign among the jamband leadership circuit and rode out into the sunset with a series of shows at their favorite places (New York, San Francisco, Oregon), as well as a revival of the Big Summer Classic festival at Camp Zoe, culminating with a last blowout at Red Rocks Amphitheatre during August 9–12.
The band had re-recorded their song "Close Your Eyes" in Simlish, the native language of The Sims, that was included in the 5th Expansion Pack – Seasons.
2008
All members were present at the Rothbury Music Festival in Rothbury, Michigan, performing with their respective solo projects. The Kyle Hollingsworth Band and EOTO performed on Thursday, Panjea with Michael Kang and Keller Williams featuring Keith Moseley performed on Friday, and the Emmitt-Nershi Band performed on Saturday. Also, at Yarmony Grass Music Festival all members except for Keith got together and played Will it Go 'Round in Circles together, as well as Pretty Polly.
2009
On March 16, 2009, it was announced that the String Cheese Incident would reunite for the second annual Rothbury Festival. The band played an unannounced, invitation-only, "soundcheck" show at the Ogden Theatre in Denver on June 24.
In October 2009, Michael Travis told the Colorado Daily newspaper in Boulder: "We are going to be playing some shows next summer and fall. We're not sure about the dates, but we're definitely going to be playing. We're excited to put all we can into this incredible meeting of music, hearts and minds. It's going to be exciting to reunite for those shows."
2010
On February 2, 2010, it was announced that String Cheese Incident would reunite for seven shows in the summer — the first three being a weekend concert at Red Rocks Amphitheatre, then a four-night "Incident" at Horning's Hideout. The final stop on their 2010 calendar: a "Hulaween" weekend of Incidents on Friday, October 29, with The Disco Biscuits, and a three set night on October 30 at the Hampton Coliseum in Hampton, Virginia.
On October 20, 2010, Billy Nershi announced that, "[They're] also planning on doing something next summer at the Rothbury site. That will be a weekend festival with a lot of String Cheese sets. It'll be different from Rothbury in that it will be more like our thing at Horning's, where String Cheese plays every night, and it will include bands in [The] String Cheese family with art installations and that kind of thing"
2011
In Spring 2011, String Cheese Incident played a three-night run March 10–12 at the 1st Bank Center in Broomfield, Colorado, which they called the "Winter Carnival 2011." The show featured live acrobatics and a costume contest for the attendees, as well as a Conscious Alliance food drive which offered a special edition 3-panel poster to anyone who donated 25 cans of food.
In Summer 2011, String Cheese played the Which Stage at Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester, Tennessee on June 11.
Later that summer, String Cheese was featured as a headliner for three out of four nights (July 1–3) of the opening year for the Electric Forest Festival, an event which the band hosted in Rothbury, Michigan.
On September 19, 2011, the band announced that they would be making a tour along America's East Coast (as well as two cities in the Midwest) entitled the Roots Run Deep 2011 Tour.
2014
In 2014 the String Cheese Incident released "A Song In My Head", their first studio album since 2005. The album was produced by Talking Heads keyboard player Jerry Harrison.
The band toured briefly in support of its album, including a free concert in Boulder and an appearance at Delfest in Cumberland, Maryland.
2015
In June 2015, the String Cheese Incident invited Skrillex, a well-known American electronic music artist, to jam with them at the Electric Forest festival.
2016–2017
The String Cheese Incident continued to tour, and released the "Believe" recording in 2017.
Stage productions and effects
As the band's popularity grew, so did the stage show and spectacle elements of many of their live shows. An organization called Peak Experience Productions was hired to add various eye psychedelia, and audience participatory activities, to larger "Incidents" such as New Year's Eve and Halloween (dubbed "Hulaween" due to the band's early connection to the modern hooping movement). Themed events such as "Full Moon Dream Dance, Evolution", "Dancing Around the Wheel of Time", a "Subway Ride Through New York City", and a "Time Traveler's Ball" are some examples.
During the 2000s, the band also established an annual summer event at Horning's Hideout in Oregon, bringing Peak Experience out into the woods to add to the circular energy and rapport between the band and its audience. At the same time, as the band's popularity grew, so did the sizes of the crowds coming to see them; SCI headlined festivals such as Bonnaroo, Austin City Limits and the Wakarusa Music and Camping Festival, and began playing in some larger venues to accommodate their growing fanbase.
SCI released live three-CD sets of all 19 shows that they played in April 2002 on their spring tour. In this regard, they are believed to have taken a cue from Phish's Live Phish series and stepped up the formula a notch by releasing every show instead of just select concerts. Not stopping with the spring tour, SCI has released nearly every song from every concert from every tour through the present, barring those where technical difficulties or contractual guest artist complications are involved. Christening the series On the Road, the shows are released on the SCI Fidelity label for fans who do not have the time or means to engage in active tape trading.
Side projects
Michael Travis founded the acoustic trio, Zuvuya, with Jamie Janover and Xander Greene in 2001 and started the trance music band Zilla during 2003.
Bill Nershi and his wife Jillian started a bluegrass/acoustic band called Honkytonk Homeslice, which has toured across the US, especially in the West, and is scheduled to tour with Drew Emmitt of Leftover Salmon, Billed as The Emmitt-Nershi Band. Bill Nershi also fronts a side project called Billy Nershi's Blue Planet.
Kyle Hollingsworth plays with various side projects around Colorado including his own band, Kyle Hollingsworth, that plays SCI songs Kyle has written over the years as well as some of his other original pieces. His band features members of the Boulder-based group, The Motet.
Michael Kang plays occasionally with Pangaea (African rooted band), and spends much of his off time travelling the world.
Jason Hann and Michael Travis recently started a live looping project called EOTO. One time throughout their 2008 tour they were joined by Kyle Hollingsworth and Michael Kang making it everyone from SCI except Bill Nershi and Keith Moseley. These four played together on August 6, 2011 at Yarmony Grass Music Festival 2011 in Rancho del Rio, Colorado under the moniker "The Trancident." The group went on tour in 2012 with a psychedelic "Lotus Flower" stage designed by Zebbler.
Keith Moseley is currently touring with Keller Williams in Keller's newly formed band: Keller Williams with Moseley, Droll and Sipe (formerly the WMDs). He also performed with Keller as part of Grateful Grass, a project performing bluegrass covers of songs by The Grateful Dead and releasing a live album in support of the Rex Foundation.
Personnel
Members
Current members
Bill Nershi — acoustic guitar, lap steel guitar, and electric slide guitar
Michael Kang — acoustic/electric mandolin, electric guitar, and violin
Michael Travis — drums and percussion
Keith Moseley — bass guitar
Kyle Hollingsworth — piano, organ, Rhodes, and accordion
Jason Hann — auxiliary percussion (2006—present)
Timeline
Discography
Albums
Born on the Wrong Planet, (1997)
A String Cheese Incident, (1997)
'Round the Wheel, (1998)
Breathe, with Keller Williams (1999)
Carnival '99, (2000)
Outside Inside, (2001)
Untying the Not, (2003)
One Step Closer, (2005)
A Song In My Head, (2014)
Believe, (April 14, 2017)
Live series
On the Road, (2002–2007)
Rhythm of the Road: Vol. 1, Incident in Atlanta – 11.17.00, (2010)
Rhythm of the Road, Vol. 2: Live in Las Vegas – July 2001, (2015)
Videos
Pura Vida (2001, VHS)
Evolution (2001, VHS & DVD)
Bonnaroo Live (2002, DVD)
Waiting For the Snow to Fall (2003, DVD)
Live at the Fillmore Auditorium, Denver: March 23, 2002 (2003, two-disc DVD)
The Big Compromise (2005 bonus DVD, the making of "One Step Closer", 30 minute preview)
Live from Austin, Texas (2006, DVD)
Live from Rothbury Music Festival 2009 (2009, [live stream])
Other contributions
107.1 KGSR Radio Austin – Broadcasts Vol.10 (2002) – "Up the Canyon"
References
External links
Official website – contains individual biographies, sample MP3s, tour dates, and details on SCI's various charitable causes (known as Gouda Causes, in keeping with the band's cheese theme).
Bill Nershi Interview on Guitar.com – Guitar.com, February, 2015
Kyle Hollingsworth' Sense of Adventure – KyndMusic/RightAction, June 25, 2006
American bluegrass music groups
Jam bands
Musical groups from Colorado
Culture of Boulder, Colorado
Musical groups established in 1993
Musical groups disestablished in 2007
Musical groups reestablished in 2009 | [
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218706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic%20block | Basic block | In compiler construction, a basic block is a straight-line code sequence with no branches in except to the entry and no branches out except at the exit. This restricted form makes a basic block highly amenable to analysis. Compilers usually decompose programs into their basic blocks as a first step in the analysis process. Basic blocks form the vertices or nodes in a control-flow graph.
Definition
The code in a basic block has:
One entry point, meaning that no code within it is the destination of a jump instruction anywhere in the program.
One exit point, meaning that only the last instruction can cause the program to begin executing code in a different basic block.
Under these circumstances, whenever the first instruction in a basic block is executed, the rest of the instructions are necessarily executed exactly once and in order.
The code may be source code, assembly code, or some other sequence of instructions.
More formally, a sequence of instructions forms a basic block if:
The instruction in each position dominates, or always executes before, all those in later positions.
No other instruction executes between two instructions in the sequence.
This definition is more general than the intuitive one in some ways. For example, it allows unconditional jumps to labels not targeted by other jumps. This definition embodies the properties that make basic blocks easy to work with when constructing an algorithm.
The blocks to which control may transfer after reaching the end of a block are called that block's successors, while the blocks from which control may have come when entering a block are called that block's predecessors. The start of a basic block may be jumped to from more than one location.
Creation algorithm
The algorithm for generating basic blocks from a listing of code is simple: the analyser scans over the code, marking block boundaries, which are instructions that may either begin or end a block because they either transfer control or accept control from another point. Then, the listing is simply "cut" at each of these points, and basic blocks remain.
Note that this method does not always generate maximal basic blocks, by the formal definition, but they are usually sufficient (maximal basic blocks are basic blocks that cannot be extended by including adjacent blocks without violating the definition of a basic block).
Input: A sequence of instructions (mostly three-address code).
Output: A list of basic blocks with each three-address statement in exactly one block.
Identify the leaders in the code. Leaders are instructions that come under any of the following 3 categories:
It is the first instruction. The first instruction is a leader.
The target of a conditional or an unconditional goto/jump instruction is a leader.
The instruction that immediately follows a conditional or an unconditional goto/jump instruction is a leader.
Starting from a leader, the set of all following instructions until and not including the next leader is the basic block corresponding to the starting leader. Thus every basic block has a leader.
Instructions that end a basic block include the following:
unconditional and conditional branches, both direct and indirect;
returns to a calling procedure;
instructions that may throw an exception;
function calls can be at the end of a basic block if they can not return, such as functions that throw exceptions or special calls like C's longjmp and exit;
the return instruction itself.
Instructions that begin a new basic block include the following:
procedure and function entry points;
targets of jumps or branches;
"fall-through" instructions following some conditional branches;
instructions following ones that throw exceptions;
exception handlers.
Note that, because control can never pass through the end of a basic block, some block boundaries may have to be modified after finding the basic blocks. In particular, fall-through conditional branches must be changed to two-way branches, and function calls throwing exceptions must have unconditional jumps added after them. Doing these may require adding labels to the beginning of other blocks.
See also
Block (programming)
Control-flow graph
Decision-to-decision path
Extended basic block
Linear code sequence and jump
References
External links
Basic Blocks - GNU Compiler Collection
Extended Basic Block - Wiktionary
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218708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20translation | Binary translation | In computing, binary translation is a form of binary recompilation where sequences of instructions are translated from a source instruction set to the target instruction set. In some cases such as instruction set simulation, the target instruction set may be the same as the source instruction set, providing testing and debugging features such as instruction trace, conditional breakpoints and hot spot detection.
The two main types are static and dynamic binary translation. Translation can be done in hardware (for example, by circuits in a CPU) or in software (e.g. run-time engines, static recompiler, emulators).
Motivation
Binary translation is motivated by a lack of a binary for a target platform, the lack of source code to compile for the target platform, or otherwise difficulty in compiling the source for the target platform.
Statically-recompiled binaries run potentially faster than their respective emulated binaries, as the emulation overhead is removed. This is similar to the difference in performance between interpreted and compiled programs in general.
Static binary translation
A translator using static binary translation aims to convert all of the code of an executable file into code that runs on the target architecture without having to run the code first, as is done in dynamic binary translation. This is very difficult to do correctly, since not all the code can be discovered by the translator. For example, some parts of the executable may be reachable only through indirect branches, whose value is known only at run-time.
One such static binary translator uses universal superoptimizer peephole technology (developed by Sorav Bansal, and Alex Aiken from Stanford University) to perform efficient translation between possibly many source and target pairs, with considerably low development costs and high performance of the target binary. In experiments of PowerPC-to-x86 translations, some binaries even outperformed native versions, but on average they ran at two-thirds of native speed.
Examples for static binary translations
Honeywell provided a program called the Liberator for their Honeywell 200 series of computers; it could translate programs for the IBM 1400 series of computers into programs for the Honeywell 200 series.
In 2014, an ARM architecture version of the 1998 video game StarCraft was generated by static recompilation and additional reverse engineering of the original x86 version.
The Pandora handheld community was capable of developing the required tools on their own and achieving such translations successfully several times.
For instance, a successful x86-to-x64 static recompilation was generated for the procedural terrain generator of the video game Cube World in 2014.
Another example is the NES-to-x86 statically recompiled version of the videogame Super Mario Bros. which was generated under usage of LLVM in 2013.
In 2004 Scott Elliott and Phillip R. Hutchinson at Nintendo developed a tool to generate "C" code from Game Boy binary that could then be compiled for a new platform and linked against a hardware library for use in airline entertainment systems.
In 1995 Norman Ramsey at Bell Communications Research and Mary F. Fernandez at Department of Computer Science, Princeton University developed The New Jersey Machine-Code Toolkit that had the basic tools for static assembly translation.
Dynamic binary translation
Dynamic binary translation (DBT) looks at a short sequence of code—typically on the order of a single basic block—then translates it and caches the resulting sequence. Code is only translated as it is discovered and when possible, and branch instructions are made to point to already translated and saved code (memoization).
Dynamic binary translation differs from simple emulation (eliminating the emulator's main read-decode-execute loop—a major performance bottleneck), paying for this by large overhead during translation time. This overhead is hopefully amortized as translated code sequences are executed multiple times.
More advanced dynamic translators employ dynamic recompilation where the translated code is instrumented to find out what portions are executed a large number of times, and these portions are optimized aggressively. This technique is reminiscent of a JIT compiler, and in fact such compilers (e.g. Sun's HotSpot technology) can be viewed as dynamic translators from a virtual instruction set (the bytecode) to a real one.
Examples for dynamic binary translations in software
Apple Computer implemented a dynamic translating emulator for M68K code in their PowerPC line of Macintoshes, which achieved a very high level of reliability, performance and compatibility (see Mac 68K emulator). This allowed Apple to bring the machines to market with only a partially native operating system, and end users could adopt the new, faster architecture without risking their investment in software. Partly because the emulator was so successful, many parts of the operating system remained emulated. A full transition to a PowerPC native operating system (OS) was not made until the release of Mac OS X (10.0) in 2001. (The Mac OS X "Classic" runtime environment continued to offer this emulation capability on PowerPC Macs until Mac OS X 10.5.)
Mac OS X 10.4.4 for Intel-based Macs introduced the Rosetta dynamic translation layer to ease Apple's transition from PPC-based hardware to x86. Developed for Apple by Transitive Corporation, the Rosetta software is an implementation of Transitive's QuickTransit solution.
QuickTransit during its product lifespan also provided SPARC→x86, x86→PowerPC and MIPS→Itanium 2 translation support.
DEC achieved similar success with its translation tools to help users migrate from the CISC VAX architecture to the Alpha RISC architecture.
HP ARIES (Automatic Re-translation and Integrated Environment Simulation) is a software dynamic binary translation system that combines fast code interpretation with two phase dynamic translation to transparently and accurately execute HP 9000 HP-UX applications on HP-UX 11i for HPE Integrity Servers. The ARIES fast interpreter emulates a complete set of non-privileged PA-RISC instructions with no user intervention. During interpretation, it monitors the application's execution pattern and translates only the frequently executed code into native Itanium code at runtime. ARIES implements two phase dynamic translation, a technique in which translated code in first phase collects runtime profile information which is used during second phase translation to further optimize the translated code. ARIES stores the dynamically translated code in memory buffer called code cache. Further references to translated basic blocks execute directly in the code cache and do not require additional interpretation or translation. The targets of translated code blocks are back-patched to ensure execution takes place in code cache most of the time. At the end of the emulation, ARIES discards all the translated code without modifying the original application. The ARIES emulation engine also implements Environment Emulation which emulates an HP 9000 HP-UX application's system calls, signal delivery, exception management, threads management, emulation of HP GDB for debugging, and core file creation for the application.
DEC created the FX!32 binary translator for converting x86 applications to Alpha applications.
Sun Microsystems' Wabi software included dynamic translation from x86 to SPARC instructions.
In January 2000, Transmeta Corporation announced a novel processor design named Crusoe. From the FAQ on their web site,
Intel Corporation developed and implemented an IA-32 Execution Layer - a dynamic binary translator designed to support IA-32 applications on Itanium-based systems, which was included in Microsoft Windows Server for Itanium architecture, as well as in several flavors of Linux, including Red Hat and Suse. It allowed IA-32 applications to run faster than they would using the native IA-32 mode on Itanium processors.
Dolphin (an emulator for the GameCube/Wii) performs JIT recompilation of PowerPC code to x86 and AArch64.
Examples for dynamic binary translations in hardware
x86 Intel CPUs since the Pentium Pro translate complex CISC x86 instructions to more RISC-like internal micro-operations.
Nvidia Tegra K1 Denver translates ARM instructions over a slow hardware decoder to its native microcode instructions and uses a software binary translator for hot code.
See also
Binary optimization
Binary recompilation
Dynamic recompilation
Just-in-time compilation
Instruction set simulator
Emulator
Virtual machine
Comparison of platform virtualization software
Shadow memory
References
Further reading
Emulation software
Interpreters (computing)
Virtualization software | [
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218709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmuth%20von%20Moltke | Helmuth von Moltke | Helmuth von Moltke may refer to:
Helmuth von Moltke the Elder (1800–1891), German military officer
Helmuth von Moltke the Younger (1848–1916), German military officer
Helmuth James Graf von Moltke (1907–1945), German jurist | [
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218713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magister%20militum | Magister militum | (Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as strategos or as stratelates.
Establishment and development of the command
The title of magister militum was created in the 4th century, when the emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the infantry, as the magister peditum ("master of foot"), and one for the more prestigious cavalry, the magister equitum ("master of horse"). The latter title had existed since republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman dictator.
Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: magistri peditum and magistri equitum were appointed for every praetorian prefecture (per Gallias, per Italiam, per Illyricum, per Orientem), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled magister equitum et peditum or magister utriusque militiae ("master of both forces").
As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the comitatenses, composed mostly of cavalry, which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other magistri remained at the immediate disposal of the emperors, and were termed in praesenti ("in the presence" of the emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply magister militum.
In the Western Roman Empire, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of magister utriusque militiae often abbreviated MVM. This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the east, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of magister militum praesentalis.
During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the magister militum per Armeniam in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdiction of the magister militum per Orientem, the magister militum per Africam in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate magister peditum, and the magister militum Spaniae (c. 562).
In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the magister militum. In the establishment of the exarchates of Ravenna and Carthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first themata.
Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in Venice, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna.
List of magistri militum
Unspecified commands
383–385/8: Flavius Bauto, magister militum under Valentinian II
385/8–394: Arbogast, magister militum under Valentinian II and Eugenius
383–388: Andragathius
?–480: Ovida
Comes et magister utriusque militiae
392–408: Flavius Stilicho
411–421: Flavius Constantius
422–425: Castinus
425–430: Flavius Constantius Felix
431–432: Bonifacius
432–433: Sebastianus
433–454: Flavius Aetius
455–456: Avitus and Remistus
456: Messianus
456–472: Ricimer
472–473: Gundobad
475: Ecdicius Avitus
475–476: Orestes
Per Gallias
352–355: Claudius Silvanus
362–364: Jovinus, magister equitum under Julian and Jovian
?–419: Gaudentius
425–430: Flavius Aetius
435–439: Litorius
452–458: Agrippinus
458–461: Aegidius
461/462: Agrippinus
?–472: Bilimer
Per Hispanias
441–442: Astyrius
443: Merobaudes
446: Vitus
Per Illyricum
?–350: Vetranio, magister peditum under Constans
361: Iovinus, magister equitum under Julian
365–375: Equitius, magister utriusquae militiae under Valentinian I
395–? Alaric I
448/9 Agintheus (known from Priscus of Panium to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila).
468–474: Julius Nepos
477–479: Onoulphus
479–481: Sabinianus Magnus
528: Ascum
529–530/1: Mundus (1st time)
532–536: Mundus (2nd time)
c. 538: Justin
c. 544: Vitalius
c. 550: John
568–569/70: Bonus
581–582: Theognis
Per Orientem
c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, magister utriusquae militiae
349–359: Ursicinus, magister equitum under Constantius
359–360: Sabinianus, magister equitum under Constantius II
363–367: Lupicinus, magister equitum under Jovian and Valens
371–378: Iulius, magister equitum et Peditum under Valens
383: Richomeres, magister equitum et peditum
383–388: Ellebichus, magister equitum et peditum
392: Eutherius, magister equitum et peditum
393–396: Addaeus, magister equitum et peditum
395/400: Fravitta
433–446: Anatolius
447–451: Zeno
460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar
–469: Flavius Iordanes
469–471: Zeno
483–498: Ioannes Scytha
c. 503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus
505–506: Pharesmanes
?516–?518: Hypatius
?518–529: Diogenianus
520–525/526: Hypatius
527: Libelarius
527–529: Hypatius
529–531: Belisarius
531: Mundus
532–533: Belisarius
540: Buzes
542: Belisarius
543–544: Martinus
549–551: Belisarius
555: Amantius
556: Valerianus
569: Zemarchus
572–573: Marcian
573: Theodorus
574: Eusebius
574/574–577: Justinian
577–582: Maurice
582–583: John Mystacon
584–587/588: Philippicus
588: Priscus
588–589: Philippicus
589–591: Comentiolus
591–603: Narses
603–604 Germanus
604–605 Leontius
605–610 Domentziolus
Per Armeniam
Sittas
Peter, direct predecessor of John Tzibus
John Tzibus (?–541)
Valerian
Dagisthaeus (?–550)
Bessas (550–554)
Martin
Justin
Heraclius the Elder (c. 595)
Per Thracias
377–378: Saturninus, magister equitum under Valens
377–378: Traianus, magister peditum under Valens
378: Sebastianus, magister peditum under Valens
380–383: Flavius Saturninus, magister peditum under Theodosius I
392–393: Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum
412–414: Constans
441: Ioannes the Vandal, magister utriusque militiae
464–467/468: Basiliscus
468–474: Armatus
474: Heraclius of Edessa
511: Hypatius
512: Cyril
514: Vitalian
525-c. 530: Germanus
530–533: Chilbudius
550–c. 554: Artabanes
588: Priscus (1st time)
593: Priscus (2nd time)
593–594: Peter (1st time)
594–c. 598: Priscus (2nd time)
598–601: Comentiolus
601–602: Peter (2nd time)
Praesentalis
351–361: Arbitio, magister equitum under Constantius II
361–363: Nevitta, magister equitum under Julian
363–379: Victor, magister equitum under Valens
366–378: Flavius Arinthaeus, magister peditum under Valens
364–369: Flavius Iovinus, magister equitum under Valentinian I
364–366: Dagalaifus, magister peditum under Valentinian I
367–372: Severus, magister peditum under Valentinian I
369–373: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum under Valentinian I
375–388: Merobaudes, magister peditum under Valentinian I, Gratian and Magnus Maximus
388–395: Timasius
394–408: Stilicho, magister equitum et peditum
399–400: Gainas
400: Fravitta
409: Varanes and Arsacius
419–: Plinta
434–449: Areobindus?
443–451: Apollonius
450–451: Anatolius
475–477/478: Armatus
485–: Longinus
492–499: John the Hunchback
518–520: Vitalian
520–?: Justinian
528: Leontius
528–529: Phocas
520–538/9: Sittas
536: Germanus
536: Maxentianus
546–548: Artabanes
548/9–552: Suartuas
562: Constantinianus (uncertain)
582: Germanus (uncertain)
585–c. 586: Comentiolus
626: Bonus (uncertain)
Per Africam
Western Empire
373–375: Flavius Theodosius, magister equitum
386–398: Gildo, magister equitum et peditum
Eastern Empire
534–536: Solomon
536–539: Germanus
539–544: Solomon
544–546: Sergius
545–546: Areobindus
546: Artabanes
546–552: John Troglita
578–590: Gennadius
Magister militae in Byzantine and medieval Italy
Venice
8th century: Marcellus
737: Domenico Leoni under Leo III the Isaurian
738: Felice Cornicola under Leo III the Isaurian
739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian
741: Ioannes Fabriacius under Leo III the Isaurian
764–787: Mauricius Galba
Later, less formal use of the term
By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the Gesta Herwardi, the hero is several times described as magister militum by the man who translated the original Old English account into Medieval Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the hereward' ( and ) – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical concept seems clear.
See also
Structural history of the Roman military
References
Citations
Sources
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (PLRE), Vols. I-III
Ancient Roman titles
Positions of authority
Byzantine military offices
Late Roman military ranks
Military ranks | [
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218717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collared%20crow | Collared crow | The collared crow (Corvus torquatus), also known as the ring-necked crow or white-collared crow, is a member of the family Corvidae native to China and north of Vietnam.
Description
It is about 52–55 cm in length—the same size or slightly larger than the carrion crow (C. corone), with proportionately slightly longer wings, tail and bill. A sleek and handsome bird, it has glossy black plumage except for the back of the neck, upper back (mantle), and a broad band around the lower breast that is white. The bill, legs and feet are black.
It sometimes flies with its feet hanging down below the body in a characteristically "lazy" way.
The voice is a loud "kaaar" repeated several times with other slight variations on it to suit the occasion. It also like many other corvids, utters strange clipping and clicking sounds during its head bowing display to another bird.
Distribution and ecology
The range of this species is essentially China, covering large areas of the country though not further north than Beijing. It occurs in plains and low lying river valleys in fairly open country and cultivated regions and is a common sight in paddy fields. It tends to avoid large towns and cities and is predominantly a rural species.
Food is sought mainly on the ground where a large range of items are taken, such as insects, mollusks and other invertebrates (even from shallow water), grains, especially rice and it also searches among refuse for suitable food items left by humans. It appears to take less carrion than other species but will if the opportunity arises, and will also take eggs and nestlings.
The nest is usually in a tree and is plastered with mud. There are usually 3–4 eggs laid.
It was formerly classified as a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN. But new research has shown it to be rarer than it was believed. It was uplisted to Near Threatened status in 2008 and Vulnerable in 2018.
References
External links
Collared Crow with fish
Different shot of above bird
Fine profile shot
collared crow
collared crow
Birds of China
collared crow
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN | [
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218722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapel%20Royal%2C%20Dublin | Chapel Royal, Dublin | The Chapel Royal in Dublin Castle was the official Church of Ireland chapel of the Household of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1814 until the creation of the Irish Free State in December 1922, which terminated the office of Lord Lieutenant and ended British rule in most of Ireland (Northern Ireland remained within the United Kingdom). In 1943, the chapel was reconsecrated as a Catholic place of worship, being rededicated as the Church of the Most Holy Trinity, but has not been used for worship since 1983.
Construction
Designed by Francis Johnston (1760–1829), the foremost architect working in Ireland in the early 19th century, and architect to the Board of Works, the chapel contains one of the finest Gothic revival interiors in Ireland. Replacing an earlier undistinguished 18th-century church that suffered structural problems through being built on soft ground close to the site of the original castle moat, the new Chapel Royal was built using a timber frame to make it as light as possible. Indeed, so difficult was the nature of the site that the chapel took seven years to build, though a contributory factor in both time and budget was the "sheer opulence" of its interior.
The foundation stone was laid by The 6th Duke of Bedford, the then Lord Lieutenant, on 15 February 1807. It was completed behind schedule (the budget also substantially overran) and opened on Christmas Day, 1814, when The 1st Viscount Whitworth (later created The 1st Earl Whitworth) was Lord Lieutenant. Lord Whitworth contributed the centre portion of the large stained-glass window above the altar, which he had purchased while in Paris, and which reputedly had come from Russia (he had been plenipotentiary in St. Petersburg in the 1790s). The surroundings are painted glass, executed by a Mr. Bradley in Dublin. At the apex of the window are the arms of Lord Whitworth.
The decoration of the ceiling of the interior was done by George Stapleton (son of Michael Stapleton), a leading stuccodore of the time, while sculptor Edward Smyth (responsible for the "river heads" on the Custom House) and his son John Smyth (responsible for the statues on the GPO) carved the larger figures. Over the chancel window are three life-size figures representing Faith, Hope and Charity. Over the galleries are heads representing Piety and Devotion. All the interior vaulting and columns are cast in timber and feature a paint wash (faux pierre) to give the effect of stone. It was described as having "the most flamboyant and luxurious Dublin interior of its era."
The exterior was clad in a thin layer of "fine limestone from Tullamore quarry", and famously features over 90 carved heads, including those of Brian Boru, St. Patrick, Archbishop Ussher and Jonathan Swift, done by Edward and John Smyth.
Historical features
This was the third chapel in the castle, and the second on this spot, since medieval times. Before the completion of the Chapel Royal, the Lords Lieutenant their entourage and hangers-on sometimes attended St. Werburgh's Church at the rear of the Castle to the west. The enormous pulpit that used to dominate the Chapel Royal has now been removed to St. Werburgh's.
Behind one of the galleries is a passage that leads to the bedrooms in the State Apartments. This was used by the Lord Lieutenant and his entourage when they were staying at the Castle. His pew (or throne) was in the centre of the right-hand gallery. Directly facing him was the place for the bishop. Lord Whitworth's arms appear directly at the Lord Lieutenant's position, a most prominent spot.
The organ case was constructed in 1857 to house a new organ by William Telford of Dublin, which replaced an earlier instrument by William Gray of London installed in 1815. A new organ was built by the firm Gray and Davison in 1900 into the same case. Although the case was restored in 2008, the organ is no longer playable as the pipework and mechanisms have been removed.
As each Lord Lieutenant left office, their coat of arms was carved on the gallery, and then, when space ran out, placed in a window of the chapel. It was noted by Irish nationalists that the last window available was taken up by the man who proved to be the last Lord Lieutenant, The 1st Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent (himself a Catholic).
Present day
In 1943, the Chapel was consecrated by Archbishop of Dublin John Charles McQuaid as a Roman Catholic military church, and in 1944 was renamed the Church of the Most Holy Trinity. The Stations of the Cross were carved by the monks in Glenstal Abbey and presented to the church in 1946. Increasing structural problems caused its closure in the early 1980s. The building was restored and reopened in the early 1990s, although it has not since been used for worship. It is occasionally used for concerts and other events.
The Chapel was used in the television series The Tudors for scenes including the trial of Thomas More.
See also
Dean of the Chapel Royal
References and sources
Notes
Sources
External links
Ireland.archiseek.com, entry on Chapel Royal (including pictures)
Chapels in the Republic of Ireland
Church of Ireland churches in Dublin (city)
Churches of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dublin
Gothic Revival church buildings in the Republic of Ireland
Dublin
Former churches in the Republic of Ireland | [
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218723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion%20Pictures | Orion Pictures | Orion Pictures (legal name Orion Releasing LLC) is an American motion picture producer owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In its original operating period, the company produced and released films from 1978 until 1999 and was also involved in television production and syndication throughout the 1980s until the early 1990s. It was formed in 1978 as a joint venture between Warner Bros. and three former senior executives at United Artists. During this early period, Orion was considered a mini-major studio.
Woody Allen, James Cameron, Jonathan Demme, Oliver Stone, and several other prominent directors worked with Orion during its most successful years from 1978 to 1992. Of the films distributed by Orion, four won Academy Awards for Best Picture: Amadeus (1984), Platoon (1986), Dances with Wolves (1990), and The Silence of the Lambs (1991). Two other Orion films, Hannah and Her Sisters (1986) and Mississippi Burning (1988), were nominated for that same category.
Since 1997, Orion has been owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In 2013, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer revived the Orion name for television; a year later, Orion Pictures was relaunched by the studio.
History
1978–1981: Beginnings
In January 1978, three executives of Transamerica (TA)-owned studio United Artists (UA)—Arthur B. Krim (chairman), Eric Pleskow (president and chief executive officer), and Robert S. Benjamin (chairman of the finance committee)—quit their jobs. Krim and Benjamin had headed UA since 1951 and subsequently turned around the then-flailing studio with a number of critical and commercial successes. Change had begun once Transamerica purchased UA in 1967 and, within a decade, a rift formed between Krim and Transamerica chairman John R. Beckett concerning the studio's operations. Krim suggested spinning off United Artists into a separate company which was rejected by Beckett.
The last straw came for Pleskow when he refused to collect and deliver the medical records of UA department heads to Transamerica's offices in San Francisco for the sake of confidentiality. The tensions only worsened when Fortune magazine reported an article on the clash between UA and TA in which Beckett had stated that, if the executives disliked the parent company's treatment of them, they should resign. Krim, Benjamin and Pleskow quit United Artists on January 13, 1978, followed by the exits of senior vice presidents William Bernstein and Mike Medavoy three days later. The week following the resignations, according to the website Reference for Business, 63 important Hollywood figures took out an advertisement in a trade paper warning UA that it had made a fatal mistake in letting the five men leave. The 'fatal mistake' came true following the box-office disaster of Heaven's Gate in 1980 which led to Transamerica selling UA to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
In February 1978, the five men forged a deal with Warner Bros. The executives formed Orion Pictures Company, named after the constellation which they claimed had five main stars (it actually has seven or eight). The new company intended only to finance projects, giving the filmmakers complete creative autonomy; this ideal had been successfully implemented at United Artists. Orion held a $100 million line of credit and its films would be distributed by the Warner Bros. studio. Orion, however, was contractually given free rein over distribution and advertising as well as the number and type of films the executives chose to invest in.
In late March 1978, Orion signed its first contract, a two-picture deal with John Travolta's production company. Contracts with actress and director Barbra Streisand; actors James Caan, Jane Fonda, Peter Sellers, Jon Voight, and Burt Reynolds; directors Francis Ford Coppola and Blake Edwards; writer/director John Milius; singer Peter Frampton; and producer Ray Stark soon materialized. Orion also developed a co-financing and distribution deal with EMI Films. In its first year, Orion had fifteen films in production and had a dozen more actors, directors and producers lining up to sign with them.
In 1979, Benjamin died. Orion's first film, A Little Romance, was released in April that year. Later that year, Orion released Blake Edwards' 10 which became a commercial success, the first for Edwards in over a decade (aside from installments of The Pink Panther franchise). Other films released by Orion over the next two years included a few successes such as Caddyshack (1980) and Arthur (1981); critically praised but underperforming films such as The Great Santini (1979), an adaptation of a Pat Conroy novel, and Sidney Lumet's Prince of the City (1981); and pictures by young writer-directors such as Philip Kaufman's The Wanderers (1979) and Nicholas Meyer's debut Time After Time (1979); plus Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979) which Orion only distributed in the United States. Out of the 23 films Orion released between April 1979 and December 1981, only a third of them made a profit. Orion executives were conflicted over financing big-budgeted films and passed on Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) for that reason.
1982–1986: Split from Warner Bros.
By early 1982, Orion had severed its distribution ties with Warner. As part of the deal, the rights to Orion's films made up to that point were sold to Warner. Orion was now looking to have its own distribution network by acquiring another company with such capabilities. The four partners looked into Allied Artists and Embassy Pictures before settling on Filmways. Orion subsequently purchased Filmways and reorganized the flailing company. New employees were hired and all of Filmways' non-entertainment assets (Grosset & Dunlap and Broadcast Electronics) were sold off.
Another result of the merger was that Orion entered television production. Orion's biggest TV hit was Cagney & Lacey which lasted seven seasons on CBS. In 1983, Orion Pictures introduced art-house division Orion Classics with executives who had previously run United Artists Classics.
According to Reference for Business: "Of the first 18 movies the company had released as Orion Pictures Corporation, ten had been profitable, five had broken even, and three had losses of less than $2 million." One such film, Francis Ford Coppola's The Cotton Club, was mired in legal troubles and Orion lost $3 million of its investment. "We've had some singles and doubles [but haven't] had any home runs," lamented Krim. In September 1984, Orion distributed Amadeus, which garnered many accolades, winning eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture. That year, on April 3, 1984, Orion Pictures launched Orion Entertainment Group, that would consist of four groups, Orion Television, Orion Home Video, Orion Pay Television and Orion Television Syndication, and the new organization would produce and distribute product for television, home video, pay and syndicated markets, with Jamie Kellner serving as president.
For Orion, 1985 was a dismal year. All but two films, Desperately Seeking Susan and Code of Silence, made less than $10 million in the United States box office, including an unsuccessful attempt at a James Bond–type franchise, Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins. Orion's haphazard distribution channels and unsuccessful advertising campaigns made it impossible to achieve a hit. Another factor was that Orion was about to venture into the video business and stopped selling off home use rights to its films. Furthermore, production of the Rodney Dangerfield comedy Back to School was put on hold when a co-producer died, taking the film off of its Christmas 1985 release slate.
In January 1986, Mario Kassar and Andrew Vajna, producers of the Rambo films (the first film, First Blood, was distributed by Orion) attempted to buy $55 million worth of the studio's stock through the duo's company, Anabasis. Had they succeeded, Kassar and Vajna would have controlled the board and laid off every executive save for Krim. Warburg Pincus subsequently limited its 20% stake in Orion to 5%; the remaining stock was acquired by Viacom International. Viacom hoped to use Orion's product for its pay-TV channel Showtime. Orion expanded into home video distribution with the formation of Orion Home Entertainment Corporation in 1985, which began distributing videos under the Orion Home Video label in 1987 (prior to OHV's formation, HBO Video and their predecessors, as well as Vestron Video and Embassy Home Entertainment, had been responsible for home media releases of Orion product).
1986–1991: Metromedia era
On May 22, 1986, Metromedia, a television and communications company controlled by billionaire (and a friend of Krim's) John Kluge, which had just divested of its television station group to Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation (which would form what is now the Fox network), purchased a 6.5% stake in Orion. Kluge's investment in the company came at the right time- Back to School was a success and ultimately earned $90 million at the box office. By March 1987, the studio's fortunes increased dramatically with a succession of critical and commercial hits, including Platoon (which ultimately won a Best Picture Oscar), Woody Allen's Hannah and Her Sisters, and the sports film Hoosiers. Orion's 1986 offerings totaled 18 Academy Award nominations, more than any other studio. In 1987, Orion achieved further success with RoboCop and No Way Out. By this time, Orion's television division had expanded into the lucrative syndicated game show market under the name Century Towers Productions, in reference to Orion's street address at the time. It produced revivals of format inherited from Heatter-Quigley Productions after the Filmways merger (as Filmways had previously acquired HQ in the late 1960s); this included The New Hollywood Squares, which ran from 1986 to 1989, and a revival of High Rollers which aired in the 1987–88 season. That year, former CBS/Fox Video executive Len White is joining Orion Home Video, in order to become president and CEO of the home video division, in order to oversee home video technology, and Orion had excepted to release its first home video titles to be out in the third or fourth quarter of that year, and reported to Larry Hilford, who joined the home video division two years earlier.
In January 1987, Kluge faced big competition with the arrival of Sumner Redstone. His theater chain, National Amusements, purchased 6.42 percent of the company's stock. National Amusements later acquired Viacom, increasing their Orion stake at 21%, then 26%. Soon Kluge started buying more Orion stock, leading to his and Redstone's battling it out to take over the company. Kluge ultimately succeeded when Metromedia took over approximately 67% of Orion on May 20, 1988, effectively giving him control of the studio. One analyst commented on the takeover to The Wall Street Journal: "This amount is probably so small to Kluge it doesn't matter. He probably burns that up in a weekend."
In 1989, Orion suffered from a disastrous slate of films, placing themselves dead last among the larger Hollywood studios in terms of box office revenue. Among its biggest flops that year were Great Balls of Fire!, the biography of Jerry Lee Lewis starring Dennis Quaid and Winona Ryder; She-Devil, a dark comedy starring Meryl Streep and Roseanne Barr; Speed Zone, an action comedy vehicle for SCTV alumni John Candy, Joe Flaherty, and Eugene Levy; and Miloš Forman's adaptation of Les Liaisons dangereuses, Valmont, which competed with Dangerous Liaisons, also based on the same source material. Test screenings of the "Weird Al" Yankovic comedy UHF were so strong that Orion had high expectations for it. It flopped at first, but it has since attained a strong cult following. Also that year, it inked a deal with Nelson Entertainment to distribute titles on videocassette and theatrically.
In February 1990, Orion signed a deal with Columbia Pictures Entertainment in which the much larger studio would pay Orion $175 million to distribute Orion's movies and television programs overseas. Orion had previously licensed its films to individual distributors territory by territory. That same month, Mike Medavoy left Orion and became head of Tri-Star Pictures.
The box-office returns for Orion's 1990 releases were just as dismal as the previous year, with such failures as The Hot Spot and State of Grace. The only bright spot that year was Kevin Costner's western epic Dances with Wolves. It won seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and grossed $400 million worldwide. A few months later, Orion garnered another winner with The Silence of the Lambs, but these two films could not make up for years of losses. Only Kluge's continued infusions of cash were enough to keep the company afloat, but soon he had enough.
1991–1995: Bankruptcy
After failing to sell Orion to businessman (and former 20th Century Fox owner) Marvin Davis (Sony, which had recently purchased Columbia Pictures, was also interested), Kluge took drastic steps. First, Orion shut down production. Second, Kluge ordered the sale of several projects, such as The Addams Family (which went to Paramount, though the international rights to the film were retained by Orion), in order to accumulate much-needed cash. Finally, in the spring of 1991, Kluge's people took over the company, leading to the departure of Arthur Krim. Orion's financial problems were so severe, that at the 63rd Annual Academy Awards in March 1991, host Billy Crystal made reference to the studio's debt in his opening monologue, joking that "Reversal of Fortune [is] about a woman in a coma, Awakenings [is] about a man in a coma; and Dances with Wolves [was] released by Orion, a studio in a coma."
It was during this time that ABC stepped in to co-finance and assume production over many of Orion TV's shows it had in production, such as American Detective and Equal Justice. After Orion had to shut the television division down, this resulted in projects like The Chuck Woolery Show, which was planned to be produced by Orion, instead having to find new production companies (such as Group W Productions in the case of Woolery). Gary Nardino, former employee of Orion Television Entertainment, moved on to producing for Lorimar Television, taking some of Orion's projects with him, including Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventures on Fox, and Hearts are Wild, a co-production with Spelling Television, for CBS; talent deals Orion Television had at the time (with Thomas Carter, Robert Townsend, Paul Stajonovich, Clifton Campbell and Deborah Joy Levine) were also taken by Nardino to Lorimar. On November 25, 1991, Orion sold its Hollywood Squares format rights to King World Productions after Orion closed down its television division. On December 11, 1991, Orion filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.
In December 1991, Orion was in talks with New Line Cinema, a successful independent film company, to acquire the bankrupt studio. By the following April, Orion and New Line Cinema cancelled their plans on the issue of price. Republic Pictures and the then-new Savoy Pictures also attempted to buy Orion, but no deal materialized.
At the Academy Awards ceremony, broadcast on March 30, 1992, Crystal made another reference to Orion, this time about its demise:
The Silence of the Lambs swept all five major Academy Awards; however, a majority of key executives, as well as the talent they had deals with, had left the studio. Hollywood observers had doubts that Orion would be resurrected to its former glory.
On November 5, 1992, Orion reemerged from bankruptcy. Its reorganization plan would allow for Orion to continue producing and releasing films, but financing for the features would be provided by outside sources, with the studio purchasing the distribution rights to them after their completion.
Orion's bankruptcy also delayed the release of many films the studio had produced or acquired, among them: Love Field (1992), RoboCop 3 (1993), The Dark Half (1993), Blue Sky (1994), Car 54, Where Are You? (1994), Clifford (1994), The Favor (1994), and There Goes My Baby (1994). Orion started releasing these films after their reorganization. Blue Sky won star Jessica Lange an Academy Award for Best Actress in 1995.
1995–1997: Metromedia International Group
In November 1995, Orion, two other companies controlled by Kluge, and film and TV house MCEG Sterling (producer of the Look Who's Talking series) were merged to form the Metromedia International Group. Few of the films released during the four years after bankruptcy protection were successful either critically or commercially.
In 1996, Metromedia acquired production company Motion Picture Corporation of America, and installed its heads, Brad Krevoy and Steve Stabler, as co-presidents of Orion. Both received a six picture put picture distribution deal as a part of their contracts.
In the years ahead, Orion produced very few films, and primarily released films from other producers, including LIVE Entertainment. Orion Classics, minus its founders (who had moved to Sony Pictures Entertainment and founded Sony Pictures Classics), continued to acquire popular art-house films, such as Boxing Helena (1993), before Metromedia merged the subsidiary with Samuel Goldwyn Entertainment in 1996.
1997–1999: Acquisition by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
In July 1997, Metromedia shareholders approved the sale of Orion (as well as Samuel Goldwyn Entertainment and Motion Picture Corporation of America) to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. This led to the withdrawal of 85 employees, including Krevoy and Stabler, while 111 other employees were to be laid off within nine months, leaving 25 of them to work at MGM. Orion also brought with it a two-thousand film library, ten completed movies and five direct-to-video features for future release and the Krevoy and Stabler movie put picture distribution deal. Krevoy and Stabler retained the right to the Motion Picture Corporation of America name and their three top movies. Metromedia retained Goldwyn Entertainment's Landmark Theatre Group. One Man's Hero (1999) was the last film released by Orion for 15 years.
MGM kept Orion intact as a corporation, mostly to avoid its video distribution agreement with Warner Home Video and began distributing Orion Pictures films under the Orion Home Video label. MGM acquired the 2/3 of pre-1996 PolyGram Filmed Entertainment library (which included the Epic film library) from Seagram in 1999 for $250 million, increasing their library holdings to 4,000. The PolyGram libraries were purchased by its Orion Pictures subsidiary so as to avoid its 1990 video distribution agreement with Warner. In March 1999, MGM bought out its distribution contract with Warner Bros. for $225 million, effectively ending the distribution problem.
2013–present: Revival
In 2013, Orion returned to television production (after its original TV unit was shut down during its bankruptcy era) with a new syndicated series, Paternity Court.
The Orion Pictures name, also as Orion Releasing, was extended in fourth quarter 2014 for smaller multi-platform video on demand and limited theatrical distribution. Its name was first seen again on September 10, 2014, in front of the trailer for The Town That Dreaded Sundown that was released in October. The label's first release was the Brazilian film Vestido pra Casar.
In September 2015, Entertainment One Films relaunched the Momentum Pictures banner with an announced deal with Orion Pictures to co-acquire and co-distribute films in the United States and Canada, and selected foreign markets, such as the United Kingdom (Momentum's country of origin). The initial films under the deal were The Wannabe, Fort Tilden and Balls Out. Other films released by Orion Pictures and Momentum Pictures include Pocket Listing and Diablo.
Starting in September 2016 with Burn Country, Orion Pictures and Samuel Goldwyn Films paired in acquiring several films.
In 2017, Orion TV added another court series, Couples Court, to its syndicated line up. The show is presided over by a husband-wife team and deals with marital issues primarily cheating.
On September 6, 2017, MGM officially revitalized the Orion Pictures brand as a standalone, US theatrical marketing and distribution arm with the hiring of John Hegeman, who joined from Blumhouse Tilt (distributor of Orion's The Town That Dreaded Sundown and The Belko Experiment) and incidentally got his start at the original Orion in the 1980s. Hegeman would serve as president of the expanded label and report to Jonathan Glickman, president of MGM's motion picture group. Under his leadership, the "new" Orion will produce, market and distribute four to six modestly budgeted films a year across genres and platforms, and both wide and limited releases for targeted audiences. Its first release, the young adult romance drama Every Day, was released on February 23, 2018.
In May 2018, it was announced that Orion Classics would be revived as a multiplatform distribution label, with 8 to 10 films being released per year.
On February 5, 2019, MGM and Annapurna Pictures expanded their US joint distribution venture Mirror, rebranding it as United Artists Releasing. Beginning in April 2019, Orion Pictures' upcoming titles would be distributed through the UAR banner and Orion's theatrical distribution staff will move to UAR. The first Orion film to do so was the remake of Child's Play, which was released on June 21, 2019.
On August 20, 2020, it was announced that Orion would be relaunched again, with its focus shifting to films made by underrepresented filmmakers (including people of color, women, the LGBT community and people with disabilities) as part of the efforts to increase inclusivity in the film industry, both in front of and behind the camera, with the hiring of Alana Mayo as the president, replacing Hegeman by October. The first film to be released with this new focus will be What If?, a coming-of-age drama which will be directed by actor Billy Porter in his directorial debut. This effort continued in 2021 when they, along with Annapurna, acquired the US distribution rights to On the Count of Three two weeks after it premiered at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival.
On May 17, 2021, online shopping company Amazon entered negotiations to acquire MGM and even made a bid for about $9 billion, with the intention to own the studio's library, including Orion's films, to grow the Amazon Prime Video catalog. The negotiations are made with Anchorage Capital Kevin Ulrich. On May 26, 2021, it was officially announced that the studio will be acquired by Amazon for $8.45 billion.
Film library
Notable films
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Orion's output included Woody Allen films, Hollywood blockbusters such as the first Terminator and the RoboCop films, comedies such as Throw Momma from the Train, This Is Spinal Tap, Dirty Rotten Scoundrels, Caddyshack, Something Wild, UHF, and the Bill & Ted films, and Best Picture Academy Award winners Amadeus, Platoon, Dances with Wolves, and The Silence of the Lambs.
Following is a list of the major Academy Awards (Picture, Director, two Screenplay and four Acting awards) for which Orion films were nominated.
Highest-grossing films
Orion's library today
Almost all of Orion's post-1982 releases, as well as most of the AIP and Filmways backlogs and all of the television output originally produced and distributed by Orion Television, now bear the MGM name. However, in most cases, the 1980s Orion logo has been retained or added, in the case of the Filmways and AIP libraries.
Most ancillary rights to Orion's back catalog from the 1978–1982 joint venture period remain with Warner Bros., including such films as 10 (1979), Caddyshack (1980), Arthur (1981), Excalibur (1981), and Prince of the City (1981). Some post-1982 films originally released by Orion — Lionheart (1987), The Unbearable Lightness of Being (1988), and Amadeus (1984) (the latter two being Saul Zaentz productions) — are currently distributed by Warner Bros. as well. HBO also owns video distribution rights to Three Amigos (1986), as they co-produced the film and owns pay-TV rights. However, MGM owns all other rights and the film's copyright. The Wanderers is owned by the film's producers; however, the copyright is held by MGM/Orion. Orion also retains a controlling interest in The Cotton Club, although major rights are now with Lionsgate, which owns the library of presenting studio Zoetrope Corporation.
Woody Allen's films A Midsummer Night's Sex Comedy (1982) and Zelig (1983) are the only Orion films from the original joint venture period now owned by MGM. Orion releases produced by the Hemdale Film Corporation and Nelson Entertainment are included in MGM's library as well, and are incorporated into the Orion library. MGM did not acquire the Hemdale films (which include The Terminator, Hoosiers, and Platoon) or the Nelson films (including the Bill & Ted films) until MGM bought the pre-1996 library of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment (the “Epic library”), which included both companies' libraries, although the television and digital rights to certain Nelson films are now held by Paramount Television (the result of a pre-existing deal Nelson had with Viacom), with television syndication handled on behalf of Paramount Television by Trifecta Entertainment & Media.
Many of the film and television holdings of The Samuel Goldwyn Company have now also been incorporated into the Orion library (with ownership currently held by MGM), and the copyright on some of this material is held by Orion, except The New Adventures of Flipper now carries the MGM Television Entertainment copyright.
MGM still holds distribution rights to the 1980s revival of Hollywood Squares and High Rollers the company produced, as well as the remnants of the Heatter-Quigley library that was not erased, including all remaining episodes of the original Squares; they do not own the rights to the format, which is currently owned by CBS Television Distribution, successor-in-interest to King World, who purchased the format rights in 1991 and produced another syndicated revival from 1998 to 2004.
Orion distributed the first Rambo film, First Blood (1982). That film, like the rest of the Rambo franchise, is now owned by StudioCanal as a result of purchasing the library of its co-distributor, Carolco Pictures.
References
Further reading
External links
Orion Pictures Corporation
Film distributors of the United States
Film production companies of the United States
Television production companies of the United States
Entertainment companies based in California
Companies based in Los Angeles
Joint ventures
American companies established in 1978
American companies disestablished in 1999
Entertainment companies established in 1978
Entertainment companies disestablished in 1999
Mass media companies established in 1978
Mass media companies disestablished in 1999
1978 establishments in California
1999 disestablishments in California
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1991
Metromedia
1997 mergers and acquisitions
Re-established companies
American companies established in 2014
Entertainment companies established in 2014
Mass media companies established in 2014
2014 establishments in California
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer subsidiaries | [
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218725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelang%20Commandery | Lelang Commandery | Lelang Commandery was a commandery of the Han Dynasty established after conquering Wiman Joseon in 108 BC and lasted until Goguryeo conquered it in 313. The Lelang Commandery extend the rule of the Four Commanderies of Han as far south as the Han River (Korea), which largely follows along the boundary between modern day North and South Korea. South Korean scholars have described its administrative areas as being limited to the Pyongan and Hwanghae regions, whose southern bounds lie roughly 75 miles North of the Han River.
History
Han dynasty
In 108 BC, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty conquered the area under King Ugeo, a grandson of King Wiman. The Emperor set up Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu and Zhenfan, known as the Four Commanderies of Han in the northern Korean peninsula and Liaodong peninsula. The Book of Han records Lelang belonged to Youzhou, located in northwestern Gojoseon consisted of 25 prefectures, 62,812 houses, and the population was 406,748. Its capital, then the prefecture of Joseon (朝鮮縣, 조선현), was located at modern P'yŏngyang. (Rakrang 樂浪/락랑, a district in central P'yŏngyang today, is named after Lelang.)
After Emperor Wu's death, Zhenfan and Lintun were abolished and Xuantu was moved to Liaodong. Some prefectures of the abolished commanderies were incorporated into Lelang. Lelang after the consolidation is sometimes called "Greater Lelang commandery". Since Lelang became too large, the Defender of the Southern Section (南部都尉) was set up to rule the seven prefectures which formerly belonged to Zhenfan. Before that, the Defender of the Eastern Section (東部都尉) was set up to rule former Lintun's seven prefectures.
Immigrants mainly from Yan and Qi settled in the former Gojoseon lands and brought with them Chinese culture. Among them, the Wang clan, whose ancestor is said to have fled there from Qi in the 2nd century BC, became powerful.
While the Han dynasty was taken over by Wang Mang, Wang Tiao (王調) started a rebellion and tried to secede from China. In 30 AD, the rebellion was stopped by Wang Zun (王遵), whom Emperor Guangwu appointed as governor. Lelang came under the direct control of China once again. However, the shortage of human resources caused by the turmoil resulted in the abolishment of the seven eastern prefectures. The administration was left to the Dongye natives, whose chiefs were conferred as marquises.
At the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Gongsun Du, appointed as the Governor of Liaodong in 184, extended his semi-independent domain to the Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. His son Gongsun Kang separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and established the Daifang commandery in 204. As a result, the Lelang commandery reverted to its original size.
Cao Wei
In 236, under the order of Emperor Ming of Cao Wei, Sima Yi crushed the Gongsun family and annexed Liaodong, Lelang and Daifang to Wei. Sima Yi did not encourage frontier settlers to continue their livelihoods in the Chinese northeast and instead ordered households who wished to return to coastal and central China to do so, evacuating the region of Chinese settlers. The Jin Shu records the number of households in the Korean commanderies of Lelang and Daifeng as 8,600 households, less than a sixth of the figures given in the Hou Han Shu for Lelang (which included Daifeng). Liaodong would be out of Chinese hands for centuries due to the lack of Chinese presence there as a result of the policies the Wei court adopted for the commanderies after the fall of the Gongsun family.
Jin dynasty
Lelang was then inherited by the Jin dynasty. Due to bitter civil wars, Jin was unable to control its holdings within the northern section of the Korean peninsula at the beginning of the 4th century and was no longer able to dispatch officials to the frontier commanderies, which were maintained by the dwindling local population of remaining Han Chinese residents. The Zizhi Tongjian states that Zhang Tong (張統) of Liaodong, Wang Zun (王遵) of Lelang and over one thousand households decided to break away from Jin and submit to the Xianbei warlord of Former Yan Murong Hui. Murong Hui relocated the remnants of the commandery to the west within Liaodong. Goguryeo annexed the former territory of Lelang in 313. Goguryeo ended Chinese rule over any part of the Korean peninsula by conquering Lelang in 313. After Lelang's fall, some commandery residents may have fled south to the indigenous Han polities there, bringing with them their culture that spread to the southern part of the Korean peninsula. With the collapse of the commanderies after four centuries of Chinese rule, Goguryeo and the native polities in the south that became Baekje and Silla began to grow and develop rapidly, heavily influenced by the culture of the Four Commanderies of Han.
Goguryeo absorbed much of what was left of Lelang through its infrastructure, economy, local inhabitants, and advanced culture. Unable to govern the region directly and form a new political center immediately, Goguryeo began to consolidate authority by replacing previous government administrators with its own appointed officials, mostly refugees and exiles from China, the most famous being Dong Shou (冬壽) who was entombed at Anak Tomb No. 3, overtly retaining the previous administrative system of Lelang. In 334 Goguryeo established the fortress and city of Pyongyang-song within the center of the former commandery. Towards the end of the 4th century, in order to focus on the growing threat of Baekje and having checked the power of Former Yan in Liaodong, Goguryeo began to actively strengthen and govern the city. In 427 Goguryeo moved its capital to Pyongyang from its former capital of Ji'an as the new political center of the kingdom in order to administer its territories more effectively.
Revisionism
In the North Korean academic community and some parts of the South Korean academic community, the Han dynasty's annexation of a section of the Northern portion of the Korean peninsula have been denied. Proponents of this revisionist theory claim that the Lelang Commandery actually existed outside of the Korean peninsula, and place them somewhere in Liaodong Commandery, China instead.
The characterization of Japanese historical and archaeological findings in Korea as imperialist forgeries owes in part to those scholars' discovery of the Lelang Commandery—by which the Han Dynasty administered territory near Pyongyang—and insistence that this Chinese commandery had a major impact on the development of Korean civilization. Until the North Korean challenge, it was universally accepted that Lelang was a commandery established by Emperor Wu of Han after he defeated Gojoseon in 108 BCE. To deal with the Han Dynasty tombs, North Korean scholars have reinterpreted them as the remains of Gojoseon or Goguryeo. For those artifacts that bear undeniable similarities to those found in Han China, they propose that they were introduced through trade and international contact, or were forgeries, and "should not by any means be construed as a basis to deny the Korean characteristics of the artifacts". The North Koreans also say that there were two Lelangs, and that the Han actually administered a Lelang on the Liao River on the Liaodong peninsula, while Pyongyang was an "independent Korean state" of Lelang, which existed between the 2nd century BCE until the 3rd century CE. The traditional view of Lelang, according to them, was expanded by Chinese chauvinists and Japanese imperialists.
These hypotheses are considered authoritative in the North Korean academic community, which is supported by some historians in South Korea, but this theory is not recognized at all in the academic circles of the United States, China and Japan.The debate over the exact location of the Han commandries is not a new issue that surfaced in recent years, but has been debated throughout history. According to Ancient Chinese geography text Water Classic, composed by Chinese historian Sang Qin (桑欽) (300 AD), the Pei river flows out of Lelang luofang County, passes Linyi County in the Southeast, and enters the sea in the east. However, the Taedong River which believed to be the Pei river in Pyongyang flows westward into the sea. The watercourse of Pei river in Lelang contradicts the records in Chinese geography text and flowing opposite direction of Taedong river in Pyongyang. Three hundred years later, a Chinese geographer and politician Li Daoyuan （466 AD～527 AD）, revised the watercourse of the Pei river recorded in original Water classic in his work Commentary on the Water Classic. He claimed that the Pei river flows westward into the sea which was in line with the narrative that the Lelang county was in Pyongyang. His evidence was based on his conversation with Goguryeo missionaries he encountered in China. Initially, there were three Commanderies of Han said to have been installed in Northern Korean peninsula. In the case of Lintun and Zhenfan County, they were too short-lived to have left meaningful record and archaeological evidence having been abolished only 28 years after they were installed as these two counties were relocated to the Liaodong. Therefore the controversy over exact location of commandries mainly lies in the Lelang county. Majority Korean scholars from the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties considered the location of Lelang county somewhere around today's Pyongyang area based on the Korean history record Samguk sagi which referred to the Chinese records on the Han commandries. But there were also scholars who disagree with the reinterpretation of Commentary on the Water Classic by Li Daoyuan, such as Bak Jiwon (born 1737), a Silhak scholar who had conducted field research in Manchuria during his visit to Qing dynasty in 1780. Bak claimed that the location of commandries were in Liaodong area in his The Jehol Diary. Ri Ji Rin (Lee Ji Rin)，A prestigious North Korea historian who obtained his Ph.D in history from China's top university, Peking University, in his Research on Ancient Korea also suggests that based on the initial records of Chinese texts and archaeological findings in Liaodong area, the Han Commanderies were located in Liaodong Peninsula. South Korea Historian Yoon, Nae-Hyun also suggests that the Han commanderies were not in Korean peninsula as there is no archaeological evidence to prove such claim.
Maps
See also
Daifang commandery
Canghai Commandery
Nakrang Kingdom
Protectorate General to Pacify the East
Notes
References
100s BC establishments
Cao Wei
Commanderies of the Jin dynasty (266–420)
Former Yan
Four Commanderies of Han | [
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] |
218727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nangnang | Nangnang | Nangnang or Naklang can have several meanings:
Lelang Commandery
The ancient Korean peninsular polity
The commandery of the Han empire of China
Nangnang-guyok, a district of Pyongyang, North Korea
Nangnang, Bhutan, a town in Bumthang, Bhutan
Na Klang (disambiguation), several places in Thailand | [
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218732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Go-K%C5%8Dmy%C5%8D | Emperor Go-Kōmyō | was the 110th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Go-Kōmyō's reign spanned the years from 1643 through 1654.
This 17th-century sovereign was named after the 14th-century Nanboku-chō Emperor Kōmyō and go- (後), translates as later, and thus, he could be called the "Later Emperor Kōmyō". The Japanese word go has also been translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as "Kōmyō, the second", or as Kōmyō II".
Genealogy
Before Go-Kōmyō's accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was ; and his pre-accession title was .
He was the fourth son of Emperor Go-Mizunoo. His mother was Fujiwara no Mitsuko, the daughter of the Minister of the Left (Sadaijin); but he was raised as if he were the son of Tōfuku-mon'in. His predecessor, Empress Meishō, was his elder paternal half-sister.
Go-Kōmyō's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. His family included only one daughter and no son:
Lady-in-waiting: Niwata Hideko (d. 1685; 庭田秀子), Niwata Shigehide's daughter
First daughter: Imperial Princess Takako (1650–1725; 孝子内親王) later Empress Dowager Reiseimon’in (礼成門院)
Events of Go-Kōmyō's life
Tsuguhito-shinnō was granted the title of Crown Prince; and the following year, he became Emperor when Empress Meishō abdicated. His sister stepped down from the throne and the succession (senso) was received by the new monarch. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Kōmyō is considered to have acceded to the throne (sokui). The events during his lifetime shed light on his reign. The years of Go-Kōmyō's reign correspond with a period in which Tokugawa Iemitsu and Tokugawa Ietsuna were leaders at the pinnacle of the Tokugawa shogunate.
April 20, 1633: The birth of an Imperial prince who will become known by the posthumous name of Go-Kōmyō-tennō.
1641 (Kan'ei 19): Prince Tsuguhito was named heir; and he was given the title of Crown Prince.
1643 (Kan'ei 20, 29th day of the 9th month): The empress ceded her throne to her brother by abdicating; and the succession (senso) was received by his younger brother.
November 14, 1643 (Kan'ei 20, 3rd day of the 10th month): Go-Kōmyō accepted the title; and he is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui). He was age 11. His reign is considered to have begun.
1645 (Shōhō 2, 23rd day of the 4th month): The shōgun was elevated to the rank of sadaijin.
1649 (Keian 2, 20th day of the 2nd month): There was a major earthquake in Edo.
1651 (Keian 4): Tokugawa Ietsuna was proclaimed shōgun.
1652 (Keian 5, 5th month): Nihon Ōdai Ichiran is first published in Kyoto under the patronage of the tairō Sakai Tadakatsu, lord of the Obama Domain of Wakasa Province.
1653 (Jōō 2, 12th day of the 8th month): A violent fire destroyed a large part of the imperial palace and many temples which were nearby. Shortly thereafter, several girls, aged 12–14 years, were imprisoned for arson involving this fire as well as other fires in Kyoto.
1654 (Jōō 3, 6th day of the 7th month): Ingen, a Buddhist priest who would eventually become very influential, arrived at Nagasaki from China. His intention was to reform the practice of Buddhism in Japan.
October 30, 1654 (Jōō 3, 20th day of the 9th month): The emperor died. He was buried at Sennyū-ji on the 15th day of the 10th month. There is a probability that the emperor died of smallpox.
Go-Kōmyō is among those enshrined in the imperial mausoleum, Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined are Go-Kōmyō's immediate predecessors, Emperor Go-Mizunoo and Empress Meishō. Go-Kōmyō's immediate Imperial successors are also memorialized in this misasagi, including Go-Sai, Reigen, Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Go-Kōmyō's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Sesshō, Nijō Yasumichi, 1635–1647
Sesshō, Kujō Michifusa, 1647
Sesshō, Ichijō Akiyoshi, 1647
Kampaku, Ichijō Akiyoshi, 1647–1651
Kampaku, Konoe Hisatsugu, 1651–1653
Kampaku, Nijō Mitsuhira, 1653–1663
Sadaijin
Udaijin
Naidaijin
Dainagon
Eras of Go-Kōmyō's reign
The years of Go-Kōmyō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Kan'ei (1624–1644)
Shōhō (1644–1648)
Keian (1648–1652)
Jōō (1652–1655)
Ancestry
Notes
References
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ; OCLC 42041594
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
See also
Imperial cult
Japanese emperors
Go-Komyo of Japan, Emperor
Go-Komyo of Japan, Emperor
Emperor Go-Komyo
Emperor Go-Komyo
Emperor Go-Komyo
Deaths from smallpox
Infectious disease deaths in Japan
17th-century Japanese monarchs | [
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218738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Go-Sai | Emperor Go-Sai | , also known as , was the 111th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Go-Sai's reign spanned the years from 1655 through 1663.
This 17th-century sovereign was named after the 9th-century Emperor Junna and go- (後), translates as later, and thus, he could have been called the "Later Emperor Junna". Emperor Go-Sai could not pass the throne onto his descendants. For this reason, he was known as the Go-Saiin emperor, after an alternate name of Emperor Junna, who had confronted and reached an accommodation with similar issues. This emperor was also called . The Japanese word go has also been translated to mean the second one, and thus, this emperor might be identified as "Junna II". During the Meiji era, the name became just Go-Sai.
Genealogy
Before Go-Sai's accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was or Yoshihito; and his pre-accession title was or Momozono-no-miya.
He was the eighth son of Emperor Go-Mizunoo. He was raised as if he were the son of Tōfuku-mon'in; both former Empress Meishō and former Emperor Go-Kōmyō were his older half-siblings.
Emperor Go-Sai's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. This family included at least 11 sons and 17 daughters, none of whom would ascend to the throne.
Nyōgo: Princess Akiko (明子女王; 1638–1680) later Myokichijou’in (妙吉祥院), Imperial Prince Takamatsu-no-miya Yoshihito's daughter
First daughter: Imperial Princess Tomoko (1654–1686; 誠子内親王)
First son: Imperial Prince Hachijō-no-miya Osahito (1655–1675; 八条宮長仁親王) – fourth Hachijō-no-miya, Hachijō-no-miya Yasuhito's adopted son
Lady-in-waiting: Seikanji Tomoko (d.1695; 清閑寺共子), Seikanji Tomotsuna's daughter
Second son: Imperial Prince Arisugawa-no-miya Yukihito (1656–1695; 有栖川宮幸仁親王) – 3rd Arisugawa-no-miya
Second daughter: Second Princess (Onna-Ni-no-miya, 1657–1658; 女二宮)
Third daughter: Princess Sōei (1658–1721; 宗栄女王)
Fourth daughter: Princess Sonsyū (1661–1722; 尊秀女王)
Fourth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gien (1662–1706; 義延法親王)
Sixth daughter: Princess Enkōin (1663; 円光院宮)
Fifth son: Imperial Prince Priest Tenshin (1664–1690; 天真法親王)
Seventh daughter: Princess Kaya (1666–1675; 賀陽宮)
Tenth daughter: Imperial Princess Mashiko (1669–1738; 益子内親王) married Kujo Sukezane
Eleventh daughter: Princess Rihō (1672–1745; 理豊女王)
Thirteenth daughter: Princess Zuikō (1674–1706; 瑞光女王)
Consort: Iwakura Tomoki's Daughter
Third son: Imperial Prince Priest Eigo (1659–1676; 永悟法親王)
Consort: Ukyō-no-Tsubone (右京局), Tominokōji Yorinao's Daughter
Fifth daughter: Princess Tsune (1661–1665; 常宮)
Consort: Umenokōji Sadako (梅小路定子), Umenokōji Sadanori's adopted daughter and Kōgenji Tomohide's daughter
Eighth daughter: Princess Kaku (1667–1668; 香久宮)
Ninth daughter: Princess Syō'an (1668–1712; 聖安女王)
Sixth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kōben (1669–1716; 公弁法親王)
Seventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Dōyū (1670–1691; 道祐法親王)
Eighth son: Imperial Prince Hachijō-no-miya Naohito (1671–1689; 八条宮尚仁親王) – fifth Hachijō-no-miya
Twelfth daughter: Princess Mitsu (1672–1677; 満宮)
Fourteenth daughter: Princess Sonkō (1675–1719; 尊杲女王)
Fifteenth daughter: Princess Sonsyō (1676–1703; 尊勝女王)
Eleventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Ryō'ou (1678–1708; 良応法親王)
Sixteenth daughter: Ryougetsuin (1679; 涼月院) (there is still doubt about birth mother)
Consort: Azechi-no-tsubone (按察使局, Takatsuji Toyonaga's Daughter
Ninth son: Imperial Prince Priest Sondō (道尊法親王) (1676–1705; Buddhist Priest)
Consort: Matsuki Atsuko (松木条子), Matsuki Muneatsu's Daughter
Tenth son: Prince Roei’in (槿栄院宮; 1677)
Events of Go-Sai's life
Nagahito-shinnō became emperor when his emperor-brother died. This death left the throne vacant and the succession (senso) was received by the new monarch. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Sai is considered to have acceded to the throne (sokui). The events during his lifetime shed light on his reign. The years of Go-Sai's reign correspond with a period in which Tokugawa Ietsuna was the leader at the pinnacle of the Tokugawa shogunate.
Go-Sai married the daughter of the first ; and he succeeded as second Takamatsu-no-miya. Then this Imperial prince became the emperor as a temporary measure until his younger brother, could grow older.
January 1, 1638: The birth of an Imperial prince who will become known by the posthumous name of Go-Sai-tennō.
January 5, 1655: The death of Go-Kōmyō caused the succession (senso) to be passed to his brother; and when the succession (senso) was received, the reign of Emperor Go-Sai was deemed to commence.
1655 (Meireki 1): The new ambassador of Korea, arrived in Japan.
March 2–3, 1657 (Meireki 3, 18–19th days of the 1st month): Great Fire of Meireki: The city of Edo was devastated by a violent fire.
1659 (Manji 5): In Edo, construction begins on the Ryōgoku Bridge (ryōgokubashi).
1661 (Manji 6): Imperial Palace in Kyoto is burnt to the ground; and the Gekū at Yamada was seriously damaged by fire.
March 20, 1662 (Kanbun 2, 1st day of the 2nd month): There was a violent earthquake in Kyoto which destroyed the tomb of the Taiko, Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
1662 (Kanbun 2): Emperor Gosai ordered Tosa Hiromichi 土佐広通 (1561–1633), a Tosa-school disciple, to adopt the name Sumiyoshi (probably in reference to a 13th-century painter, Sumiyoshi Keinin 住吉慶忍), upon assuming a position as official painter for the Sumiyoshi Taisha 住吉大社).
March 5, 1663 (Kanbun 3, 26th day of the 1st month): Emperor Go-Sai abdicated, which meant that the Prince Satohito received the succession (senso). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Reigen formally acceded to the throne (sokui).
After abdicating, Go-sai put his heart into scholarship and he left behind many books, including the "Water and Sun Collection" (Suinichishū, 水日集). He was talented in waka; and he had a profound understanding of the classics.
During his reign, because of great fires at the Grand Ise Shrine, Osaka Castle, and the Imperial Palace, among others, the Great Meireki Fire, earthquakes in the region, and because of repeated floods, many people blamed the Emperor, saying he lacked moral virtue.
March 26, 1685 (Jōkyō 2, 22nd day of the 2nd month): Former-Emperor Go-Sai died; and a great comet was observed crossing the night sky.
Emperor Go-Sai is enshrined in the imperial mausoleum, Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined are Go-Sai's immediate predecessors, Emperor Go-Mizunoo, Empress Meishō and Go-Kōmyō. Go-Sai's immediate Imperial successors, including Reigen, Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono, are enshrined here as well.
At the Kitano Shrine, a tablet over the Chu-mon entryway reads tenmangu in the calligraphy of Emperor Go-sai.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Go-Sai's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Kampaku, Nijō Mitsuhira, 1653–1663
Sadaijin Udaijin Naidaijin DainagonEras of Go-Sai-tennō's reign
The years of Go-Sai's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Jōō (1652–1655)
Meireki (1655–1658)
Manji (1658–1661)
Kanbun (1661–1673)
Ancestry
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
References
Martin, John H. and Phyllis G. Martin. (2002). Kyoto: A Cultural Guide to Japan's Ancient Imperial City. Tokyo:Tuttle Publishing. ; OCLC 243831939
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ; OCLC 42041594
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
External links
National Museum of Japanese History – see example of Emperor Go-sai's calligraphy
Japanese emperors
1638 births
1685 deaths
Emperor Go-Sai
Emperor Go-Sai
Emperor Go-Sai
17th-century Japanese monarchs | [
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218742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario%20Hockey%20League | Ontario Hockey League | The Ontario Hockey League (OHL; ) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues which constitute the Canadian Hockey League. The league is for players aged 16–21. There are currently 20 teams in the OHL; seventeen in Ontario, two in Michigan, and one in Pennsylvania.
The league was founded in 1980 when its predecessor, the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League, formally split away from the Ontario Hockey Association, joining the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League and its direct affiliation with Hockey Canada. The OHL traces its history of Junior A hockey back to 1933 with the partition of Junior A and B. In 1970, the OHA Junior A League was one of five Junior A leagues operating in Ontario. The OHA was promoted to Tier I Junior A for the 1970–71 season and took up the name Ontario Major Junior Hockey League. Since 1980 the league has grown rapidly into a high-profile marketable product, with many games broadcast on television and radio.
History
Leagues for ice hockey in Ontario were first organized in 1890 by the newly created Ontario Hockey Association (OHA). In 1892 the OHA recognized junior hockey - referring to skill rather than age. In 1896 the OHA moved to the modern age-limited junior hockey concept, distinct from senior and intermediate divisions. Since then the evolution to the Ontario Hockey League has developed through four distinct eras of junior-aged non-professional hockey in Ontario. In 1933, the junior division was divided into two levels, Junior A and Junior B. In 1970 the Junior A level was divided into two levels, Tier I (or Major Junior A) and Tier II (or Minor Junior A). In 1974 the Tier I/Major Junior A group separated from the OHA and became the independent 'Ontario Major Junior Hockey League' (OMJHL). In 1980, the OMJHL became the 'Ontario Hockey League.'
Commissioners
OMJHL and OHL Commissioners (years in office)
Tubby Schmalz (September 23, 1974 – December 15, 1978)
Bill Beagan (December 15, 1978 – January 1979)
Sherwood Bassin (interim, 1979)
David Branch (September 17, 1979 to present)
Member teams
Former teams
Cornwall Royals 1981–1992, moved to Newmarket
Newmarket Royals 1992–1994, moved to Sarnia
Niagara Falls Flyers 1980–1982, moved to North Bay
North Bay Centennials 1982–2002, moved to Saginaw
Brantford Alexanders 1980–1984, moved to Hamilton
Hamilton Steelhawks 1984–1988, moved to Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls Thunder 1988–1996, moved to Erie
Guelph Platers 1980–1989, moved to Owen Sound
Toronto Marlboros 1980–1989, moved to Hamilton
Dukes of Hamilton 1989–1991, moved to Guelph
Detroit Junior Red Wings 1992–1995, became the Detroit Whalers
Detroit Whalers 1995–1997, moved to Plymouth
Plymouth Whalers 1997–2015, moved to Flint
Brampton Battalion 1998–2013, moved to North Bay
Mississauga IceDogs 1998–2007, moved to St. Catharines
Toronto St. Michael's Majors 1996–2007, played in Mississauga until 2012
Belleville Bulls 1981–2015, moved to Hamilton
Timeline of franchises (since 1980)
Note: The 12 original OHL franchises were all previously members of the OMJHL. Some other franchises played in different junior leagues prior to joining the OHL.
Schedule
The 20 OHL clubs play a 68-game unbalanced schedule, which starts in the third full week of September, running until the third week of March. Ninety percent (90%) of OHL games are scheduled between Thursday and Sunday to minimize the number of school days missed for its players.
Approximately 20% of players on active rosters in the National Hockey League (NHL) have come from the OHL, and about 54% of NHL players are alumni of the Canadian Hockey League.
OHL playoffs and Memorial Cup
The J. Ross Robertson Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the Championship Series. The Cup is named for John Ross Robertson, who was president of the Ontario Hockey Association from 1901 to 1905.
The OHL playoffs consist of the top 16 teams in the league, 8 from each conference. The teams play a best-of-seven game series, and the winner of each series advances to the next round. The final two teams eventually compete for the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
The OHL champion then competes with the winners of the Western Hockey League, the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, and the host of the tournament to play for the Memorial Cup, which is awarded to the junior hockey champions of Canada. The host team of the tournament is alternated between the three leagues every season. The most recent OHL team to win the Memorial Cup was the Windsor Spitfires in 2017.
Memorial Cup champions
The Memorial Cup has been captured 17 times by OHL/OHA teams since the tournament went to a three-league format in 1972:
The Cup was also won 16 times by OHA teams in the period between 1945 and 1971:
Priority selection
The OHL's predecessor, the OHA, had a midget and juvenile draft dating back to the 50s, until voted out in 1962. In 1966 it was resumed, though not publicized. Starting in the 1970s the draft went through several changes. Originally the draft was for 17-year-old midgets not already associated with teams through their sponsored youth programs. In 1971 the league first allowed "underage" midgets to be picked in the first three rounds. In 1972 disagreements about the Toronto team's rights to its "Marlie" players (and Greg Neeld) and claims to American player Mark Howe led to a revised system. In 1973 each team was permitted to protect eight midget area players (Toronto was allowed to protect 10 players from its midget sponsored teams). In 1975 the league phased out the area protections, and the 1976 OHA midget draft was the first in which all midget players were eligible. In 1999 the league changed the draft to a bantam age (15 and 16 year old). It is a selection of players who are residents of the province of Ontario, the states of Michigan, Pennsylvania and New York, and other designated U.S. states east of the Mississippi River plus Missouri.
Prior to 2001, the OHL held the Priority Selection in a public forum, such as an arena. Drafts were attended by many players and family members. In 2001, the OHL decided to hold the "draft" via the internet, greatly reducing the costs the league and its member teams incurred in hosting a public draft. This move reduced the stress and pressure that prospective players faced with a large crowd present.
The Jack Ferguson Award is presented annually to the first overall selection. The award was named in honour of long time OHL scout and former Director of Central Scouting Jack Ferguson.
Trophies and awards
List of trophies and awards in the Ontario Hockey League.
See also
List of OHL seasons
List of OHA Junior A standings
References
External links
Official website
Canadian Hockey League Official website
Internet Hockey Database archive of standings and statistics
1
3
Junior ice hockey leagues in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1974
1974 establishments in Ontario | [
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218745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Hockey%20League | Canadian Hockey League | The Canadian Hockey League (CHL; ) is an umbrella organization that represents the three Canada-based major junior ice hockey leagues. The CHL was founded in 1975 as the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League, and is composed of its three member leagues, the Western Hockey League, Ontario Hockey League, and Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. For the 2021–22 season, its three leagues and 60 teams represent nine Canadian provinces (52 teams) as well as four American states (8 teams).
The CHL schedule culminates in the Memorial Cup tournament, which sees each of the three league champions, as well as a host team, play a round-robin tournament to determine a national champion. The CHL also hosts the CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game, for the top draft eligible players in the league, as well as the CHL Canada/Russia Series, a six-game all-star exhibition series against a team of Russian juniors. The current president is Dan MacKenzie, and Gilles Courteau and Ron Robison are vice-presidents.
Introduction
The Canadian Hockey League (CHL) is the governing body for Major Junior hockey (formerly known as Tier One Junior A), the top level of amateur hockey in Canada. The CHL currently oversees the Western Hockey League (WHL), the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), with the OHL and WHL having teams in both Canada and the United States. Each league plays individual regular season schedules, and playoffs. The annual CHL championship is determined by the Memorial Cup tournament held in May.
The CHL is generally considered the world's top junior hockey league for developing professional players and is a key supplier of new players and officials for the many North American professional hockey leagues, such as the National Hockey League, American Hockey League, and the ECHL. If a CHL player does not sign a professional contract, many also opt to play for U Sports (formerly Canadian Interuniversity Sport - CIS) and go to school due to CHL sponsored scholarship programs. However, due to the use of paying player stipends and allowing junior players that have signed entry level contracts with the NHL, all CHL teams are considered professional by the NCAA; thus any player who plays a game at the Major Junior level loses their eligibility to play for universities in the United States.
The CHL also seeks to raise the profile of the junior game by hosting annual events such as the Memorial Cup, the CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game and the CHL Canada/Russia Series. The organization also provides many scholarships and bursaries for its players who exemplify extraordinary efforts and community involvement. These programs are supported by the many corporate sponsors.
History
On May 9, 1975, officials from the Western Canada Hockey League, the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, announced a constitution to establish the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League (CMJHL) composed of the three league under one umbrella. The new organization wanted standard contracts for all players, consistent dollar amounts for development fees paid by professional leagues to sign junior players, and for the National Hockey League and the World Hockey Association to work together on a common drafting program to eliminate bidding wars. The CMJHL sought to represent players directly instead of agents, and proposed an escalating development fee schedule if professional teams wanted to sign a player while he was still eligible for junior hockey. The league also proposed to allow some players under professional contracts to continue playing in junior hockey. Ontario's commissioner Tubby Schmalz defended the validity of the constitution, despite a challenge from Alan Eagleson that it violated antitrust laws in Canada and the United States.
On July 30, 2019, Dan MacKenzie was announced as the new full-time president as of September 2019, taking over for David Branch. In March 2020, the CHL and its constituent leagues cancelled the remainder of the 2019–20 regular seasons, playoffs and the 2020 Memorial Cup, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in North America.
The QMJHL and WHL played a 2020–21 season with limitations; the WHL played a shortened season consisting exclusively of regional play and no playoffs, with "bubbles" used for all B.C. and East Division games. The QMJHL was the only CHL league to play a full season with playoffs, albeit with disruptions and the use of bubbles due to public health orders in Quebec and travel restrictions in Atlantic Canada. Due to public health orders in Ontario, the OHL indefinitely delayed, and later cancelled the 2020–21 season. The Memorial Cup was cancelled and not awarded for the second consecutive season.
On July 21, 2021, the CHL announced a new national media rights deal with Bell Media and the CBC (replacing a long-standing relationship with Sportsnet), under which TSN (English) and RDS (French) will serve as the CHL's national media partners. TSN will carry 30 regular season games per-season, RDS will carry 20 regular season games per-season, and both will carry coverage of selected playoff games and CHL national events (including the Memorial Cup). CBC Sports will also carry coverage of selected games beginning in the 2021–22 season, including a package of early-season games, and a game of the week package on TSN, RDS, and CBC Gem.
Annual events
Memorial Cup
The Memorial Cup Tournament is the championship of Junior Canadian hockey. Each year it features the champions from the (WHL, OHL, QMJHL) and the host CHL team. The host team changes from year to year, and is selected by a bidding process prior to the start of each season. The annual event is one of the biggest sporting events in North America, attracting thousands of spectators and generating increasing revenue for both the CHL teams and the host city.
CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game
The CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game is an annual event sponsored by Home Hardware and hosted by the CHL in which 40 of the top NHL Entry Draft eligible prospects in the Canadian Hockey League play against each other much like an all-star game. Each draft prospect hopes to boost their draft ranking with the NHL scouts and general managers who attend. The players are typically coached by a pair of hockey celebrities, usually Don Cherry and Bobby Orr. The event has been held annually since 1992. From 1992 to 1995 the event was known as the CHL All-Star Challenge and usually pitted one of the CHL's leagues against the other two.
CHL Canada/Russia Series
The CHL Canada/Russia Series is an annual junior ice hockey exhibition tournament held between a select team of Russian players and all-star teams representing the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, the Ontario Hockey League and the Western Hockey League. The event is organized by the Canadian Hockey League and consists of six games total each year, with the Russian Selects playing two games versus each league's all-star team. All games are broadcast nationally in Canada on Sportsnet. The series often features players from the Canadian national junior team, and the Russian national junior team.
CHL Import Draft
The CHL Import Draft is an annual event in which every team in the Canadian Hockey League may select the rights to eligible import players. An import is classified as a player whose parents are not residents of Canada or the United States. The draft is conducted online, during the last week of June, or first week of July. Teams from the Western Hockey League, Ontario Hockey League, and Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, systematically take turns making selections in reverse order of the team's standings in the CHL from the previous season. Teams can have a maximum of two imports, which may only be obtained through the draft.
Trophies and awards
The Canadian Hockey League awards sixteen annual trophies for accomplishments during the regular and at the Memorial Cup to top individuals and teams among its three member leagues. The Memorial Cup is the top award for the championship team at the end-of-season Memorial Cup tournament. A set of five individual awards are given for performance at the tournament. In the regular season, Canadian Hockey League also presents ten annual awards. The nominees for each individual award are determined by the winner of the corresponding award handed out by each of the Canadian Hockey League's three member leagues, the Ontario Hockey League, the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, and the Western Hockey League.
Teams
For the 2021–22 season the league includes 60 teams located in nine Canadian provinces (52 teams) and four American states (8 teams). Currently, nine of the ten Canadian provinces have a member team. Newfoundland and Labrador is the only province without a team.
The Western Hockey League, with 22 teams in British Columbia (5), Alberta (5), Saskatchewan (5), Manitoba (2), Washington (4), and Oregon (1).
The Ontario Hockey League, with 20 teams in Ontario (17), Michigan (2), and Pennsylvania (1).
The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, with 18 teams in Quebec (12), New Brunswick (3), Nova Scotia (2), and Prince Edward Island (1).
Ontario Hockey League
Barrie Colts
Erie Otters
Flint Firebirds
Guelph Storm
Hamilton Bulldogs
Kingston Frontenacs
Kitchener Rangers
London Knights
Mississauga Steelheads
Niagara IceDogs
North Bay Battalion
Oshawa Generals
Ottawa 67's
Owen Sound Attack
Peterborough Petes
Saginaw Spirit
Sarnia Sting
Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds
Sudbury Wolves
Windsor Spitfires
Quebec Major Junior Hockey League
Acadie–Bathurst Titan
Baie-Comeau Drakkar
Blainville-Boisbriand Armada
Cape Breton Eagles
Charlottetown Islanders
Chicoutimi Saguenéens
Drummondville Voltigeurs
Gatineau Olympiques
Halifax Mooseheads
Moncton Wildcats
Quebec Remparts
Rimouski Océanic
Rouyn-Noranda Huskies
Saint John Sea Dogs
Shawinigan Cataractes
Sherbrooke Phoenix
Val-d'Or Foreurs
Victoriaville Tigres
Western Hockey League
Brandon Wheat Kings
Calgary Hitmen
Edmonton Oil Kings
Everett Silvertips
Kamloops Blazers
Kelowna Rockets
Lethbridge Hurricanes
Medicine Hat Tigers
Moose Jaw Warriors
Portland Winterhawks
Prince Albert Raiders
Prince George Cougars
Regina Pats
Red Deer Rebels
Saskatoon Blades
Seattle Thunderbirds
Spokane Chiefs
Swift Current Broncos
Tri-City Americans
Vancouver Giants
Victoria Royals
Winnipeg Ice
Attendance
Listed below are the top CHL teams by average attendance for the 2018–19 regular season. Teams with an average attendance over 5,000 are shown.
The CHL single game attendance record is held by the London Knights and Plymouth Whalers for the December 29, 2013 outdoor game at Comerica Park in Detroit, Michigan. A total of 26,384 spectators took in the game.
References
External links
Official website | [
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218746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Hockey%20League | Western Hockey League | The Western Hockey League (WHL) is a major junior ice hockey league based in Western Canada and the Northwestern United States. The WHL is one of three leagues that constitutes the Canadian Hockey League (CHL) as the highest level of junior hockey in Canada. Teams play for the Ed Chynoweth Cup, with the winner moving on to play for the Memorial Cup, Canada's national junior championship. WHL teams have won the Memorial Cup 19 times since the league became eligible to compete for the trophy. Many players have been drafted from WHL teams, and have found success at various levels of professional hockey, including the National Hockey League (NHL).
The league was founded in 1966, as the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League (CMJHL), with seven western Canadian teams in Saskatchewan and Alberta. For its 1967 season, the league was renamed the Western Canada Junior Hockey League (WCJHL). From 1968, the league was renamed the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL), before the admission of American-based teams in the league and then renaming as the Western Hockey League (WHL) commencing in 1978, up to present day.
The league was the brainchild of Bill Hunter, who intended to build a western league capable of competing with the top leagues in Ontario and Quebec. Originally considered an "outlaw league" by the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association, it was not sanctioned as the top junior league in Western Canada until 1970, when Canadian junior hockey was reorganized.
The WHL is composed of 22 teams as of 2019, divided into two conferences of two divisions. The Eastern Conference comprises 12 teams from Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, while the Western Conference comprises ten teams from British Columbia, and the US states of Washington and Oregon.
History
Formative seasons
Despite winning the 1966 Memorial Cup, the Edmonton Oil Kings' owner, Bill Hunter, was growing concerned about the state of junior hockey in western Canada. Each of the West's four provinces had its own junior league, and Hunter felt that this put them at a disadvantage when competing nationally against the powerful leagues in Ontario and Quebec. Desiring stronger competition, Hunter's Oil Kings competed in the Alberta Senior Hockey League rather than the Alberta Junior Hockey League. During the 1966 Memorial Cup, Hunter made newspaper headlines when he stated his vision for a nation-wide junior ice hockey league competing for the Memorial Cup. The Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) second vice-president Lloyd Pollock responded by saying that the idea would be nothing more than a pipe dream, and would not be feasible while the CAHA was renegotiating a development agreement with the National Hockey League.
The CAHA informed the Oil Kings, which then competed against men in the senior-level Central Alberta Hockey League, that they were required to play in a junior hockey league for the 1966–67 season or would be held ineligible to compete for the Memorial Cup. This led Hunter to form a new junior league with five members of the then-version of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League (SJHL), the Estevan Bruins, Regina Pats, Saskatoon Blades, Moose Jaw Canucks, and Weyburn Red Wings leaving the SJHL and joining the Oil Kings and the Calgary Buffaloes in a new league known as the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League. Despite concerns that CMJHL would see the demise of the Alberta and Saskatchewan leagues (the SJHL did immediately fold), the governing bodies in both provinces sanctioned the new league. The CAHA did not, however, sanction the new league, declaring the CMJHL to be an "outlaw league" and suspending all teams and players from participation in CAHA sanctioned events, including the Memorial Cup. The new league accused the CAHA of overstepping its boundaries and with the support of the players and their families, chose to play the season regardless. The CMJHL began legal action against the CAHA executive in March 1967, fighting to regain eligibility to enter the Memorial Cup playoffs.
In May 1967, the CMJHL renamed itself to the Western Canada Junior Hockey League (WCJHL), having previously avoided the term "Western" as some of its founders wanted to keep open the possibility of inviting top Eastern junior clubs to join in a national elite junior league in case negotiations with the CAHA reached a complete impasse. The new CAHA-NHL development agreement came into effect July 1, 1967. The new pact ended direct sponsorship of junior teams by the NHL, which then shifted to paying development fees to the CAHA, and junior players became eligible for the NHL Entry Draft at age 20. In May 1968, Bill Hunter announced the league would use an age limit of 21 in defiance of the CAHA and NHL agreement. The WCJHL stopped short of declaring independence from the CAHA, and claimed that the lower age limit would decrease its talent pool and negatively affect ticket sales. In response, the CAHA suspended league and its players.
On June 10, 1968, the WCJHL announced a name change to the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL), and that it was leaving the CAHA to affiliate with the rival Canadian Hockey Association (CHA). Hunter became chairman of the board for the WCHL, and Ron Butlin became president of the WCHL and the CHA. Four new teams were added in 1968 to total 11 as the league stretched east into Manitoba. Concerns over the WCHL's relationship with the CAHA led the Pats, Canucks and Red Wings to withdraw before the 1968–69 season, and join the new Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League.
When the CAHA reorganized junior hockey in 1971, it reunited with the WCHL making it one of three Tier I Major-Junior leagues, along with the Ontario Hockey Association's Tier I division (now the Ontario Hockey League) and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League.
Logo timeline
Early years
The first decade of the WCHL saw constant expansion and franchise movement as the league spread throughout the West. The Flin Flon Bombers became the league's first powerhouse team, led by future NHL stars Bobby Clarke and Reggie Leach. The Brandon Wheat Kings and Swift Current Broncos joined in 1967, the Medicine Hat Tigers in 1970. The WCHL truly became a western league in 1971 when Estevan moved to B.C. to become the New Westminster Bruins, joined by expansion franchises the Victoria Cougars and Vancouver Nats.
In the mid 1970s, the New Westminster Bruins became the WCHL's first true dynasty, capturing four consecutive championships between 1975 and 1978. The Bruins also won back-to-back Memorial Cups in 1977 and 1978.
In 1976, the Oil Kings succumbed to the competing Edmonton Oilers of the World Hockey Association and relocated to Portland to become the Winter Hawks, the WCHL's first American franchise. With the addition of American teams in Seattle and Billings a year later, the WCHL shortened its name to the Western Hockey League.
The Brawling '80s
The 1980s were marked by several brawls that involved police intervention, one of the most bizarre trades in hockey history, and the tragic deaths of four players in a bus crash.
Early in the 1980–81 WHL season, Medicine Hat Tigers GM/Coach Pat Ginnell traded blows with a linesman during a bench clearing brawl against the Lethbridge Broncos. Ginnell was found guilty of assault, fined $360, and suspended for 36 games by the WHL. In March 1982 a violent brawl between the Regina Pats and Calgary Wranglers saw the two teams collectively fined $2250 and players suspended for 73 games combined. Pats coach Bill LaForge would end up in a courtroom later that season when he got into an altercation with a fan. LaForge was acquitted when the judge noted that it was hard to convict a man for assault when faced with "an obnoxious person trying to get into the coach's area." LaForge resigned following the season after serving three separate suspensions.
On January 19, 1983, the Seattle Breakers dealt Tom Martin and $35,000 to the Victoria Cougars for the Cougars' team bus. The deal made perfect sense upon further examination: the Breakers were unable to sign Martin, who wanted to play in his home town of Victoria, and the Cougars were unable to use the bus (which they had purchased from the folded Spokane Flyers) because they were unwilling to pay the taxes and duties required to register the vehicle in Canada.
On December 30, 1986, tragedy struck the Swift Current Broncos when their bus slid off an icy highway and rolled on the way to Regina for a game. Scott Kruger, Trent Kresse, Brent Ruff, and Chris Mantyka were killed. The Broncos retired their numbers, and still wear a commemorative patch in remembrance of the four players who died. The WHL later renamed its award for most valuable player as the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy in their honour.
The 1990s to today
Since the early 1990s, the WHL has seen another period of expansion and the return of the league to Western Canada's major cities. The Kamloops Blazers became the WHL's second dynasty in the early 1990s when they won both the WHL Championship and Memorial Cup three times in four years between 1992 and 1995. The Kelowna Rockets became the third dynasty, winning three WHL titles in 2003, 2005, and 2009; and winning the Memorial Cup as host city in 2004. The Portland Winter Hawks won their second Memorial Cup in 1998.
In 1995, the Calgary Hitmen, founded by a group of investors including Bret "the Hitman" Hart from whom the team got its name, were granted an expansion franchise. Despite early fears that the WHL could not succeed in an NHL city, the Hitmen were a success, averaging as many as 10,000 fans per game in 2004–05. The Hitmen were followed one year later by the Edmonton Ice, but failed after only two seasons because of conflicts with the Edmonton Oilers. The team became the Kootenay Ice and had better success in Cranbrook, British Columbia, despite being one of the smallest markets in the league including winning the 2002 Memorial Cup.
In the 2000s, the league expanded with four more teams — the Vancouver Giants in 2001, the Everett Silvertips in 2003, the Chilliwack Bruins in 2005 (who relocated in 2011 to become the Victoria Royals), and the Edmonton Oil Kings in 2007, as the Oilers have taken an interest in cultivating a junior team within their home market in the Alberta capital.
Since 2006 Shaw TV has become the television partner with the league in Canada airing a game every Friday Night and other select games throughout the season as well as one round of every playoff series. From 2008 to 2015, FSN Northwest (now Root Sports Northwest) aired some games throughout the northwest United States.
On February 21, 2011, the Calgary Hitmen hosted the Regina Pats, Canada's oldest major junior hockey team, at McMahon Stadium for an outdoor game in conjunction with the 2011 Heritage Classic. The WHL teams wore retro inspired jerseys. The Spokane Chiefs also hosted the Kootenay Ice outdoors on January 15, 2011. The 2010–11 season was the first for the league to be featured in video game, EA Sports' NHL 11, and included all the teams and rosters.
On January 29, 2019, the Kootenay Ice announced the team would be relocated to Winnipeg for the 2019–20 season as the Winnipeg Ice.
Member teams
For the 2021–22 season, the WHL comprises 22 teams divided into two conferences, making it the largest league in the CHL; the Ontario Hockey League has 20 teams and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League has 18. The WHL has member teams across four Canadian provinces and two American states. The Eastern Conference comprises teams from Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The Western Conference is made up of teams based in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.
The top eight teams in each conference qualify for the playoffs, with the division winners declared the top two seeds in the first round of the post-season. The four remaining teams in each conference are reseeded by regular season points in the second round of the playoffs. The Saskatoon Blades, one of the original WHL teams, are the only team to never have won a league championship since their inception in 1966.
Timeline of franchises (since 1966)
Franchise history
Calgary Buffaloes (1966–67) → Calgary Centennials (1967–77) → Billings Bighorns (1977–82) → Nanaimo Islanders (1982–83) → New Westminster Bruins (1983–88) → Tri-City Americans (1988–present)
Edmonton Oil Kings (1966–76) → Portland Winterhawks (1976–present)
Estevan Bruins (1966–71) → New Westminster Bruins (1971–81) → Kamloops Junior Oilers (1981–84) → Kamloops Blazers (1984–present)
Moose Jaw Canucks (1966–68)
Regina Pats (1966–68, 1970–present)
Saskatoon Blades (1966–present)
Weyburn Red Wings (1966–68)
Brandon Wheat Kings (1967–present)
Flin Flon Bombers (1967–78) → Edmonton Oil Kings (1978–79) → Great Falls Americans (1979–80) → Spokane Flyers (1980–82)
Swift Current Broncos (1967–74) → Lethbridge Broncos (1974–86) → Swift Current Broncos (1986–present)
Winnipeg Jets (1967–73) → Winnipeg Clubs (1973–76) → Winnipeg Monarchs (1976–77) → Calgary Wranglers (1977–87) → Lethbridge Hurricanes (1987–present)
Medicine Hat Tigers (1970–present)
Vancouver Nats (1971–73) → Kamloops Chiefs (1973–77) → Seattle Breakers (1977–85) → Seattle Thunderbirds (1985–present)
Victoria Cougars (1971–94) → Prince George Cougars (1994–present)
Winnipeg Warriors (1980–84) → Moose Jaw Warriors (1984–present)
Kelowna Wings (1982–85) → Spokane Chiefs (1985–present)
Prince Albert Raiders (1982–present)
Tacoma Rockets (1991–95) → Kelowna Rockets (1995–present)
Red Deer Rebels (1992–present)
Calgary Hitmen (1995–present)
Edmonton Ice (1996–98) → Kootenay Ice (1998–2019) → Winnipeg Ice (2019–present)
Vancouver Giants (2001–present)
Everett Silvertips (2003–present)
Chilliwack Bruins (2006–11) → Victoria Royals (2011–present)
Edmonton Oil Kings (2007–present)
Education
The WHL has taken a much greater role in its players educational needs in recent years. The league operates a scholarship program that offers one full year of tuition, textbooks and compulsory fees for each season they play in the WHL. Since the program was introduced in 1993, more than 3000 scholarships of this calibre have been handed out at a total value of . Each team maintains an academic advisor, who monitors the academic progress of all players along with the league's Director of Education Services.
Canadian universities and colleges recruit extensively from the WHL, affording graduating players the opportunity to continue playing hockey as they attend post-secondary institutions. The U.S. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), though, considers graduates of the WHL (and the other two CHL members, the OHL and QMJHL) to be professionals and thus ineligible to participate in college hockey programs in the United States. Players hoping to receive scholarships to, and play for, American universities must play Junior A hockey in one of the Canadian Junior Hockey League's member organizations or the United States Hockey League to retain their NCAA eligibility.
Player eligibility
The WHL Bantam Draft is an annual event which teams select players from bantam hockey league age groups, 14 or 15 years old. The order of selection depends on the final standings of the teams, the last place team selects first the second to last will choose second and so on.
Players aged 15–20 are eligible to play in the WHL, though 15-year-olds are permitted to play only five games unless their midget team's season has ended. Also, each team is allowed to have only three 20-year-olds on their rosters, unless there is an expansion team, in which case five 20-year-olds are eligible to play. Each team is permitted to carry only two non-North American players. Each of the CHL's three member leagues are granted exclusive territorial rights to players from within North America. The WHL holds rights to players from the four western provinces, the U.S. Pacific Northwest, all other U.S. states west of the Mississippi River (except Missouri), and the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut.
Memorial Cup champions
The Memorial Cup has been captured by a WHL team 19 times since the league's founding.
Records
Individual
Most goals in a season: 108, Ray Ferraro, 1983–84
Most assists in a season: 136, Rob Brown, 1986–87
Most points in a season: 212, Rob Brown, 1986–87
Most penalty minutes in a season: 511, Brent Gogol, 1977–78
Most points in a season, rookie: 145, Petr Nedved, 1989–90
Most points in a season, defenceman: 140, Cam Plante, 1983–84
Most hat-tricks in a season: 15, Ray Ferraro, 1983–84
Most goals in a single game: 7, Five times, last by Kimbi Daniels, 1990–91
Team
Most wins in a season: 60, Victoria Cougars, 1980–81
Most wins in an inaugural season: 35, Everett Silvertips, 2003–04
Most points in a season: 125, Brandon Wheat Kings, 1978–79
Most goals in a season: 496, Kamloops Blazers, 1986–87
Fewest goals against in a season: 125, Kelowna Rockets, 2003–04
Most powerplay goals in a season: 180, Swift Current Broncos, 1988–89
Trophies and awards
Ed Chynoweth Cup—playoff champions
Scotty Munro Memorial Trophy—regular season champions
Four Broncos Memorial Trophy—player of the year
Daryl K. (Doc) Seaman Trophy—scholastic player of the year
Bob Clarke Trophy—top scorer
Brad Hornung Trophy—most sportsmanlike player
Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy—top defencemen
Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy—rookie of the year
Del Wilson Trophy—top goaltender
Dunc McCallum Memorial Trophy—coach of the year
Lloyd Saunders Memorial Trophy—executive of the year
Allen Paradice Memorial Trophy—top official
St. Clair Group Trophy—marketing/public relations award
Doug Wickenheiser Memorial Trophy—humanitarian of the year
WHL Plus-Minus Award
airBC Trophy—most valuable player in the playoffs
Commissioners
Frank Boucher (Commissioner) – 1966–1968
Ron Butlin (President) – 1968–1971
Jim Piggott (President) & Tom Fisher (Executive Secretary) – 1971–1972
Del Wilson (President) & Tom Fisher (Executive Secretary) – 1972–1973 – 1973 was transition period to Chynoweth & League office in Saskatoon
Ed Chynoweth (President) – 1973–1979
David Descent (President) – 1979–1980 – resigned March 3, Board of Governors for balance of season
Ed Chynoweth (President) – 1980–1995
Dev Dley (Commissioner) – 1995–2000
Ron Robison (Commissioner) – 2000–present
See also
List of ice hockey leagues
Ontario Hockey League
Quebec Major Junior Hockey League
References
General
Specific
External links
Official website
Official website of the Canadian Hockey League
Sports leagues established in 1966
1
Junior ice hockey leagues in the United States
1966 establishments in Canada | [
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218747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec%20Major%20Junior%20Hockey%20League | Quebec Major Junior Hockey League | The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (French: Ligue de hockey junior majeur du Québec, abbreviated QMJHL in English, LHJMQ in French) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues that constitute the Canadian Hockey League. The league includes teams in the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The current president of the QMJHL is Gilles Courteau.
The President's Cup is the championship trophy of the league. The QMJHL champion then goes on to compete in the Memorial Cup against the OHL and WHL champions, and the CHL host team. The QMJHL had traditionally adopted a rapid and offensive style of hockey. Former QMJHL players hold many of the Canadian Hockey League's career and single season offensive records.
Hockey Hall of Fame alumni of the QMJHL include Mario Lemieux, Guy Lafleur, Ray Bourque, Pat LaFontaine, Mike Bossy, Denis Savard, Michel Goulet, Luc Robitaille, and goaltenders Patrick Roy and Martin Brodeur.
Member teams
History
The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League was founded in 1969, through the merger of best teams from the existing Quebec Junior Hockey League and the Metropolitan Montreal Junior Hockey League, declaring themselves a "major junior" league. Of the original eleven QMJHL teams, eight came from the QJHL, two from the MMJHL, and the Cornwall Royals, from Cornwall, Ontario, near the Quebec border, who transferred from the Central Junior A Hockey League. The Rosemont National and Laval Saints transferred from the MMJHL. The eight teams from the QJHL were the Drummondville Rangers, Quebec Remparts, Saint-Jérôme Alouettes, Shawinigan Bruins, Sherbrooke Castors, Sorel Éperviers, Trois-Rivières Ducs and the Verdun Maple Leafs.
Most of the teams were within a few hours' drive of Montreal. From the first season in 1969–70, only Shawinigan remains in the same city with an uninterrupted history, although the team's name has changed to the Cataractes.
In 1972 the QMJHL had been in operation for three years, and wanted a team in the province's largest city. It threatened a lawsuit to force the Montreal Junior Canadiens of the Ontario Hockey Association into the Quebec-based league. Over the summer of 1972, the OHA granted the Junior Habs a "one-year suspension" of operations, while team ownership transferred the team and players into the QMJHL, renaming themselves the Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge in the process. The OHA then reactivated the suspended franchise for the 1973–74 season in Kingston, Ontario, under new ownership and with new players, calling the team the Kingston Canadians.
QMJHL teams have won the Memorial Cup twelve times since 1969, with the Shawinigan Cataractes, Saint John Sea Dogs, the Granby Prédateurs, the Hull Olympiques, Halifax Mooseheads, Rouyn-Noranda Huskies, Rimouski Océanic, and the Acadie-Bathurst Titan each winning once, the Quebec Remparts winning twice (once in their first edition 1969–1985, and once in their second edition 1997–present) and the Cornwall Royals winning three times.
Starting in 1994, the QMJHL began to expand further east, outside of Quebec. The "Q" filled the void in Atlantic Canada after the exodus of American Hockey League franchises, when the AHL had a strong presence in the 1980s and 1990s; all of the Maritime Division cities save for Bathurst, New Brunswick are former homes of AHL franchises. To date, Fredericton, New Brunswick is the lone former AHL market that has not established a QMJHL franchise.
In recent seasons, the QMJHL has been scouting players from the Atlantic Canada region along with a surge in players coming out of the New England area: the QMJHL has territorial rights to draft and recruit players from New England as part of an agreement where players from the United States can be drafted by the CHL league that is in a similar geographic area.
Retired numbers
Sidney Crosby's # 87 was retired by the Océanic on 27 September 2019, and retired for all teams in the QMJHL at the same time.
League presidents
Robert Lebel (1969–1975)
Jean Rougeau (1981–1983)
Paul Dumont (1983–1984)
Gilles Courteau (1986–present)
Canadian Hockey League records
This is a list of Canadian Hockey League career and single season records accomplished by QMJHL players.
Most goals, career
1st – 309 – Mike Bossy, Laval National (1972–77)
2nd – 281 – Stephane Lebeau, Shawinigan Cataractes (1984–88)
3rd – 278 – Normand Dupont, Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge, Montreal Juniors (1973–77)
Most assists, career
1st – 408 – Patrice Lefebvre, Shawinigan Cataractes (1984–88)
3rd – 346 – Patrick Emond, Trois-Rivières Draveurs, Hull Olympiques, Chicoutimi Saguenéens (1981–86)
7th – 315 – Mario Lemieux, Laval Voisins (1981–84)
Most points, career
1st – 595 – Patrice Lefebvre, Shawinigan Cataractes (1984–88)
3rd – 580 – Stephane Lebeau, Shawinigan Cataractes (1984–88)
4th – 575 – Patrick Emond, Trois-Rivières Draveurs, Hull Olympiques, Chicoutimi Saguenéens (1981–86)
Most goals, one season
1st – 133 – Mario Lemieux, Laval Voisins, 1983–84 (70 games)
2nd – 130 – Guy Lafleur, Quebec Remparts, 1970–71 (62 games)
4th – 104 – Pat LaFontaine, Verdun Juniors, 1982–83 (70 games)
5th – 103 – Guy Lafleur, Quebec Remparts, 1969–70 (56 games)
6th – 100 – Gary MacGregor, Cornwall Royals, 1973–74 (66 games)
Most assists, one season
1st – 157 – Pierre Larouche, Sorel Éperviers, 1973–74 (70 games)
2nd – 149 – Mario Lemieux, Laval Voisins, 1983–84 (70 games)
3rd – 136 – Patrice Lefebvre, Shawinigan Cataractes, 1987–88 (70 games)
5th – 135 – Michel Deziel, Sorel Éperviers, 1973–74 (69 games)
5th – 135 – Marc Fortier, Chicoutimi Saguenéens, 1986–87 (65 games)
Most points, one season
1st – 282 – Mario Lemieux, Laval Voisins, 1983–84 (70 games)
2nd – 251 – Pierre Larouche, Sorel Éperviers, 1973–74 (67 games)
3rd – 234 – Pat LaFontaine, Verdun Juniors, 1982–83 (70 games)
4th – 227 – Michel Deziel, Sorel Éperviers, 1973–74 (69 games)
5th – 216 – Real Cloutier, Quebec Remparts, 1973–74 (69 games)
6th – 214 – Jacques Cossette, Sorel Éperviers, 1973–74 (68 games)
8th – 209 – Guy Lafleur, Quebec Remparts, 1970–71 (62 games)
9th – 206 – Jacques Locas, Quebec Remparts, 1973–74 (63 games)
10th – 201 – Marc Fortier, Chicoutimi Saguenéens, 1986–87 (65 games)
11th – 200 – Patrice Lefebvre, Shawinigan Cataractes, 1987–88 (70 games)
Timeline of teams
This is a complete list of team histories since 1969.
1969– First season, 2 divisions. East: Quebec City Remparts, Shawinigan Bruins, Drummondville Rangers, Sorel Éperviers (Black Hawks), Trois-Rivières Ducs (Dukes), and Sherbrooke Castors (Beavers). West: Saint-Jérôme Alouettes, Cornwall Royals, Rosemont National, Verdun Maple Leafs, and Laval Saints.
1970– Divisions dissolved, Laval folds.
1971– Rosemont National move to Laval.
1972– The Saint-Jérôme Alouettes and the Verdun Maple Leafs fold. The Montreal Junior Canadiens franchise of the OHA transfers to QMJHL, becoming the Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge.
1973– League split into two divisions. East: Sorel, Quebec, Shawinigan, Trois-Rivières, Chicoutimi; West: Cornwall, Montreal, Sherbrooke, Laval, Drummondville, Hull. Chicoutimi Saguenéens, and the Hull Festivals granted franchises. Shawinigan Bruins become Shawinigan Dynamos.
1974– Drummondville Rangers fold, Trois-Rivières Ducs become Trois-Rivières Draveurs (Lumberjacks).
1975– Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge became Montreal Juniors.
1976– Hull Festivals became Hull Olympiques. Divisions renamed: East becomes Dilio, West becomes Lebel.
1977– Sorel Éperviers (Black Hawks) move to Verdun. Sherbrooke moved to Dilio Division, while Verdun played in the Lebel.
1978– Shawinigan Dynamos became Shawinigan Cataractes.
1979– Verdun Éperviers (Black Hawks) became Sorel/Verdun Éperviers. Laval National become Laval Voisins.
1980– Sorel/Verdun Éperviers became Sorel Éperviers.
1981– Divisions cease to exist, Cornwall moved to the OHL, Sorel Éperviers moved to Granby and became the Bisons.
1982– Lebel and Dilio Divisions reintroduced. Shawinigan, Chicoutimi, Trois-Rivières, Quebec, and Drummondville played in the Dilio, while Laval, Verdun, Longueuil, Saint-Jean, Hull, and Granby played in the Lebel. Sherbrooke Castors moved to Saint-Jean. Montreal Juniors moved to Verdun. Drummondville Voltigeurs (Infantrymen) granted a franchise, Longueuil Chevaliers (Cavaliers) granted a franchise.
1984– Plattsburgh Pioneers granted a franchise, but fold three months into the schedule after playing 17 games. They played in the Lebel Division, Granby is moved to the Dilio. Verdun Juniors become the Verdun Junior Canadiens.
1985– Quebec Remparts fold. Laval Voisins became Laval Titan.
1987– Longueuil Chevaliers moved to Victoriaville and became the Tigres. They played in the Dilio. Granby was moved to the Lebel Division.
1988– Divisions ceased to exist, Longueuil Collège-Français are granted the rights to resurrect the Quebec Remparts franchise.
1989– Verdun Junior Canadiens moved to Saint-Hyacinthe and became the Laser. Saint-Jean Castors became St-Jean Lynx.
1990– Lebel and Dilio divisions created yet again: Chicoutimi, Trois-Rivières, Drummondville, Shawinigan, Beauport, and Victoriaville play in the Dilio; Longueuil, Hull, Laval, Saint-Hyacinthe, Granby, and Saint-Jean played in the Lebel. Beauport Harfangs was granted a franchise.
1991– Longueuil Collège-Français moved to Verdun.
1992– Trois-Rivières Draveurs moved to Sherbrooke and became the Faucons.
1993– Val-d'Or granted a franchise, named the Foreurs. They played in the Lebel.
1994– Verdun Collège-Français folded. Halifax awarded an expansion team, the Mooseheads. Halifax played in the Dilio. Laval Titan became Laval Titan Collège-Français.
1995– Saint-Jean Lynx moved to Rimouski and become the Océanic. Moncton Alpines franchise granted. Rimouski and Moncton both played in the Dilio. Drummondville and Sherbrooke moved to the Lebel. Granby Bisons became Granby Prédateurs.
1996– Saint-Hyacinthe Laser moved to Rouyn-Noranda and became the Huskies. Moncton Alpines became Moncton Wildcats.
1997– Granby Prédateurs move to Cape Breton and became the Screaming Eagles. They played in the Dilio. Shawinigan moved to the Lebel. The Beauport Harfangs moved to Quebec City and became the Quebec Remparts. Baie-Comeau was granted an expansion team called the Drakkar and played in the Dilio.
1998– Laval Titan Collège-Français moved to Acadie-Bathurst, and played in the Dilio.
1999– Lebel Division became Lebel Conference, and split into the West Division (Hull, Rouyn-Noranda, Montreal, Val-d'Or) and the Central Division (Shawinigan, Drummondville, Sherbrooke, Victoriaville). The Dilio Division became the Dilio Conference and split into the Eastern Division (Rimouski, Quebec City, Baie-Comeau, Chicoutimi) and the Maritime Division (Moncton, Halifax, Cape Breton, Acadie-Bathurst). Montreal Rocket was granted a franchise.
2003– The QMJHL switched to a three-division format: Atlantic (Cape Breton, Moncton, Prince Edward Island, Halifax, Acadie-Bathurst); Eastern (Rimouski, Chicoutimi, Lewiston, Quebec, Baie-Comeau); and Western (Gatineau, Shawinigan, Rouyn-Noranda, Val-d'Or, Drummondville, Victoriaville). Sherbrooke Castors moved to Maine, becoming the Lewiston Maineiacs; Montreal Rocket moved to Charlottetown and took the Prince Edward Island name, Hull Olympiques become Gatineau Olympiques.
2004– The QMJHL announced plans to expand from 16 to 18 teams, effective with the 2005–06 season. St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saint John, New Brunswick were awarded franchises, the St. John's Fog Devils and Saint John Sea Dogs respectively.
2005– Effective with the 2005–06 season, the league reverted to a two-division format. The East Division consisted of all of the league's non-Québec teams, and the West Division contained all of the Quebec teams.
2006– The Western Division was renamed the Telus Division, under a sponsorship agreement with the Telus Corporation.
2008– The St. John's Fog Devils relocated to Verdun, Quebec to become the Montreal Junior Hockey Club.
2011– The Lewiston Maineiacs were purchased by the league and were dissolved. The remaining roster that's still eligible to play in the QMJHL was claimed by the remaining teams in a dispersal draft.
2011– The Montreal Junior Hockey Club was sold to a group led by former NHL Defencemen Joel Bouchard and renamed the Blainville-Boisbriand Armada.
2012– Sherbrooke permitted to resurrect the former Lewiston franchise as the Phoenix.
2013– The PEI Rocket changed their franchise name to the Charlottetown Islanders.
2020– League returns to a three-division format.
Cities represented
Memorial Cup champions
The Memorial Cup has been captured thirteen times by QMJHL teams since the league's founding in 1969:
2019 – Rouyn-Noranda Huskies
2018 – Acadie–Bathurst Titan
2013 – Halifax Mooseheads
2012 – Shawinigan Cataractes
2011 – Saint John Sea Dogs
2006 – Quebec Remparts
2000 – Rimouski Océanic
1997 – Hull Olympiques
1996 – Granby Prédateurs
1981 – Cornwall Royals
1980 – Cornwall Royals
1972 – Cornwall Royals
1971 – Quebec Remparts
Trophies and awards
This is a list of QMJHL trophies. The trophy's first season being awarded is shown in brackets.
Team
President's Cup – Playoff Champions (1969–70)
Jean Rougeau Trophy – Regular Season Champions (1969–70)
Luc Robitaille Trophy – Team that scored the most goals (2001–02 to 2013–14), Team with the best goals for average (2014–15)
Robert Lebel Trophy – Team with best GAA (1977–78)
Player
Michel Briere Trophy – Most Valuable Player (1972–73)
Jean Beliveau Trophy – Top Scorer (1969–70)
Guy Lafleur Trophy – Playoff MVP (1977–78)
Telus Cup – Offensive – Offensive Player of the Year (1989–90)
Telus Cup – Defensive – Defensive Player of the Year (1989–90)
Jacques Plante Memorial Trophy – Best GAA (1969–70)
Guy Carbonneau Trophy – Best Defensive Forward (2004–05)
Emile Bouchard Trophy – Defenceman of the Year (1975–76)
Kevin Lowe Trophy – Best Defensive Defenceman (2004–05)
Michael Bossy Trophy – Best Pro Prospect (1980–81)
RDS Cup – Rookie of the Year (1991–92)
Michel Bergeron Trophy – Offensive Rookie of the Year (1969–70)
Raymond Lagacé Trophy – Defensive Rookie of the Year (1980–81)
Frank J. Selke Memorial Trophy – Most Sportsmanlike Player (1969–70)
QMJHL Humanitarian of the Year – Also known as "Wittnauer Plaque" (1992–93)
Marcel Robert Trophy – Best Scholastic Player (1980–81)
Paul Dumont Trophy – Personality of the Year (1989–90)
Executive
Ron Lapointe Trophy – Coach of the Year (1992–93)
Maurice Filion Trophy – General Manager of the Year (2005–06)
John Horman Trophy – Executive of the Year (1989–90)
Jean Sawyer Trophy – Marketing Director of the Year (1990–91)
Defunct trophies
AutoPro Plaque – Best Plus/Minus total (1989–90 to 2001–02)
Philips Plaque – Best faceoff percentage (1997–98 to 2001–02)
See also
List of ice hockey leagues
List of QMJHL seasons
References
External links
Official website
Canadian Hockey League Official website
Internet Hockey Database Archive of standings and statistics
1969 establishments in Quebec
2
1
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218751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20France | Prime Minister of France | The prime minister of France (), officially the prime minister of the French Republic, is the head of government of the French Republic and the leader of the Council of Ministers.
The prime minister is the holder of the second-highest office in France, after the president of France. The president, who appoints but cannot dismiss the prime minister, can ask for their resignation. The Government of France, including the prime minister, can be dismissed by the National Assembly. Upon appointment, the prime minister proposes a list of ministers to the president. Decrees and decisions signed by the prime minister, like almost all executive decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Some decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State (), over which the prime minister is entitled to preside. Ministers defend the programmes of their ministries to the prime minister, who makes budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the prime minister or president often depends upon whether they are of the same political party. If so, the president may serve as both the head of state and de facto head of government, while the prime minister serves as his deputy.
Jean Castex was appointed prime minister of France by President Emmanuel Macron on 3 July 2020. He presented his government three days later. He replaced Édouard Philippe who resigned on the latter date.
Nomination
The prime minister is appointed by the President of France, who is theoretically free to pick whomever he pleases for the post. In practice, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the government by adopting a motion of censure, the choice of prime minister must reflect the will of the majority in the National Assembly. Notably, immediately after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand had to appoint Jacques Chirac as prime minister although Chirac was a member of the Rally for the Republic and therefore a political opponent of Mitterrand. While Mitterrand's Socialist Party was the largest party in the National Assembly, it did not have an absolute majority. The RPR had an alliance with the Union for French Democracy, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, in which the president is forced to work with a prime minister who is a political opponent, is called a cohabitation.
While prime ministers are usually chosen from amongst the ranks of the National Assembly, on rare occasions the president has selected a non-officeholder because of their experience in bureaucracy or foreign service, or their success in business management—Dominique de Villepin, most notably, served as prime minister from 2005 to 2007 without ever having held elected office.
Although the president's choice of prime minister must be in accordance with the majority in the National Assembly, a prime minister does not have to ask for a vote of confidence after their government's formation. They can base their legitimacy on the president's assignment as prime minister and approval of the government. However, it is traditionally expected that the government seeks a motion of confidence upon entering office.
Role
According to article 21 of the Constitution, the prime minister "shall direct the actions of the Government". Additionally, Article 20 stipulates that the government "shall determine and conduct the policy of the Nation", and it includes domestic issues, while the president concentrates on formulating directions on national defense and foreign policy while arbitrating the efficient service of all governmental authorities in France. Other members of the government are appointed by the president "on the recommendation of the prime minister". In practice the prime minister acts in harmony with the president to whom he is a subordinate, except when there is a cohabitation. In such cases, a constitutional convention gives the prime minister primacy in domestic affairs, while the president oversees foreign affairs. His responsibilities, then, are akin to those of a prime minister in a parliamentary system.
The prime minister can "engage the responsibility" of their government before the National Assembly. This process consists of placing a bill before the assembly, and either the assembly overthrows the government, or the bill is passed automatically (article 49). In addition to ensuring that the government still has support in the house, some bills that might prove too controversial to pass through the normal assembly rules are able to be passed this way.
The prime minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council (article 61). Before they are allowed to dissolve the assembly, the president has to consult the prime minister and the presidents of both houses of Parliament (article 12). They are, as the representative of the government, the only member of the government able to introduce legislation in Parliament.
History
Under the Third Republic, the French Constitutional Laws of 1875 titled the head of government as the "President of the Council of Ministers" (), though he was informally called "prime minister" or "premier" outside of France.
The president of the council was vested with similar formal powers to those of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. In practice, however, this proved insufficient to command the confidence of France's multi-party parliament. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the entire cabinet out of office by a vote of censure. As a result, cabinets were often toppled twice a year, and there were long stretches where France was left with only a caretaker government. Under the circumstances, the president of the council was usually a fairly weak figure whose strength was more dependent on charisma than formal powers. Often, he was little more than primus inter pares, and was more the cabinet's chairman than its leader.
After several unsuccessful attempts to strengthen the role in the first half of the twentieth century, a semi-presidential system was introduced under the Fifth Republic. It was at this point that the post was formally named "Prime Minister" and took its present form. The 1958 Constitution includes several provisions intended to strengthen the prime minister's position, for instance by restricting the legislature's power to censure the government. As a result, a prime minister has only been censured once during the existence of the Fifth Republic, in 1962 when Georges Pompidou was toppled over objections to President Charles de Gaulle's effort to have the president popularly elected. However, at the ensuing 1962 French legislative election, de Gaulle's coalition won an increased majority, and Pompidou was reappointed prime minister.
Present
The current officeholder is Jean Castex, who was appointed on 3 July 2020.
Fifth Republic records
The only person to serve as prime minister more than once under the Fifth Republic was Jacques Chirac (1974–1976 and 1986–1988).
The youngest appointed prime minister was Laurent Fabius, on 17 July 1984. He was 37 years old.
The oldest appointed prime minister was Pierre Bérégovoy, on 2 April 1992. He was 66 years old.
The only woman who was appointed at the head of government is Édith Cresson, prime minister from 1991 to 1992.
Two prime ministers were mayor of Bordeaux, and at the same time prime minister, Jacques Chaban-Delmas (1969–1972) and Alain Juppé (1995–1997).
The longest-serving prime minister was Georges Pompidou, 6 years, 2 months and 26 days, from 1962 to 1968.
The shortest-serving prime minister was Bernard Cazeneuve, 5 months and 4 days, from 2016 to 2017.
Three prime ministers were born abroad: Édouard Balladur in İzmir, Turkey, Dominique de Villepin in Rabat, Morocco and Manuel Valls in Barcelona, Spain.
Living former prime ministers of France
See also
First Minister of State
List of prime ministers of France
References
External links
1958 establishments in France | [
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218754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly%20fishing | Fly fishing | Fly fishing is an angling method that uses a light-weight lure—called an artificial fly—to catch fish. The fly is cast using a fly rod, reel, and specialized weighted line. The light weight requires casting techniques significantly different from other forms of casting. The flies may resemble natural invertebrates, baitfish, or other food organisms.
Fly fishing can be done in fresh or saltwater. North Americans usually distinguish freshwater fishing between cold-water species (trout, salmon, steelhead) and warm-water species, notably bass. In Britain, where natural water temperatures vary less, the distinction is between game fishing for trout and salmon versus coarse fishing for other species. Techniques for fly fishing differ with habitat (lakes and ponds, small streams, large rivers, bays and estuaries, and open ocean.)
Author Izaak Walton called fly fishing "The Contemplative Man's Recreation".
Overview
In fly fishing, fish are caught by using artificial flies that are cast with a fly rod and a fly line. The fly line (today, almost always coated with plastic) is heavy enough to send the fly to the target. The main difference between fly fishing and spin or bait fishing is that in fly fishing the weight of the line carries the hook through the air, whereas in spin and bait fishing the weight of the lure or sinker at the end of the monofilament or braided line gives casting distance. Artificial flies are of several types; some imitating an insect (either flying or swimming), others a bait fish or crustacean, others attractors are known to attract fish although they look like nothing in nature. Flies can be made either to float or sink, and range in size from a few millimeters to 30 cm long; most are between 1 and 5 cm.
Artificial flies are made by fastening hair, fur, feathers, or other materials, both natural and synthetic, onto a hook. The first flies were tied with natural materials, but synthetic materials are now popular and prevalent. Flies are tied in sizes, colors and patterns to match local terrestrial and aquatic insects, baitfish, or other prey attractive to the target fish species.
Fish species
Fly fishing is most renowned as a method for catching trout, grayling and salmon, but it is also used for a wide variety of species including pike, bass, panfish, and carp, as well as marine species, such as redfish, snook, tarpon, bonefish and striped bass. Many fly anglers catch unintended species such as chub, bream and rudd while fishing for 'main target' species such as trout. A growing population of anglers attempt to catch as many different species as possible with the fly. With the advancement of technology and development of stronger rods and reels, larger predatory saltwater species such as wahoo, tuna, marlin and sharks have become target species on fly. Realistically any fish can be targeted and captured on fly as long as the main food source is effectively replicated by the fly itself and suitable gear is used.
History
Many credit the first recorded use of an artificial fly to the Roman Claudius Aelianus near the end of the 2nd century. He described the practice of Macedonian anglers on the Astraeus River:
In his book Fishing from the Earliest Times, however, William Radcliff (1921) gave the credit to Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born some two hundred years before Aelianus, who wrote:
The last word, somewhat indistinct in the original, is either "mosco" (moss) or "musca" (fly) but catching fish with fraudulent moss seems unlikely.
The traditional Japanese method of fly-fishing is known as "Tenkara" (, literally: "from heaven"). Tenkara originated in the mountains of Japan as a way for professional fishermen and inn-keepers to harvest the local fish, Ayu, trout and char for selling and providing a meal to their guests. Primarily a small-stream fishing method that was preferred for being highly efficient, where the long rod allowed the fisherman to place the fly where the fish would be.
Another style of fishing in Japan is Ayu fishing. As written by historian Andrew Herd, in the book "The Fly", "Fly fishing became popular with Japanese peasants from the twelfth century onward...fishing was promoted to a pastime worthy of Bushi (warriors), as part of an official policy to train the Bushi's mind during peacetime." This refers primarily to Ayu fishing, which commonly uses a fly as lure, uses longer rods, but there is no casting technique required, it's more similar to dapping. Ayu was practiced in the lowlands (foothills), where the Bushi resided, tenkara practiced in the mountains. Fishing flies are thought to have originated in Japan for Ayu fishing over 430 years ago. These flies were made with needles that were bent into shape and used as fishing hooks, then dressed as a fly. The rods along with fishing flies, are considered to be a traditional local craft of the Kaga region.
Although anglers in Scotland and Ireland had been fishing the lochs and loughs for trout with an artificial fly for several generations (as far back as 1840 John Colquhoun listed the menus of fly dressings in his book The Moor and Loch detailing the wings, body and hackle of artificial flies in use at the time), the history of stillwater trout fishing in English reservoirs goes back little more than a century. The simple reason for that was because (apart from the Lake District which was somewhat isolated before the construction of the railways) England possessed few large stillwaters that contained trout. That all changed when the water supply reservoirs began to be built to meet the increasing demand for water from the big cities.
The earliest of these reservoirs to be stocked with trout were Thrybergh Reservoir close to Doncaster completed around 1880, Lake Vyrnwy, Powys in 1891, Ravensthorpe Reservoir in Northamptonshire in 1895 and Blagdon Lake in Somerset which was first opened as a trout fishery in 1904.
Origins
Other than a few fragmented references little was written on fly fishing until The Treatyse on Fysshynge with an Angle was published (1496) within The Boke of Saint Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Berners. The book contains instructions on rod, line and hook making and dressings for different flies to use at different times of the year. By the 15th century, rods of approximately fourteen feet length with a twisted line attached at its tips were probably used in England.
The earliest English poetical treatise on Angling by John Dennys, said to have been a fishing companion of Shakespeare, was published in 1613, The Secrets of Angling. Footnotes of the work, written by Dennys' editor, William Lawson, make the first mention of the phrase to 'cast a fly': "The trout gives the most gentlemanly and readiest sport of all, if you fish with an artificial fly, a line twice your rod's length of three hairs' thickness... and if you have learnt the cast of the fly."
The art of fly fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War, where a newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that were written on the subject at the time. The renowned officer in the Parliamentary army, Robert Venables, published in 1662 The Experienced Angler, or Angling improved, being a general discourse of angling, imparting many of the aptest ways and choicest experiments for the taking of most sorts of fish in pond or river. Another Civil War veteran to enthusiastically take up fishing was Richard Franck. He was the first to describe salmon fishing in Scotland, and both in that and trout-fishing with artificial fly he was a practical angler. He was the first angler to name the burbot, and commended the salmon of the River Thames.
The Compleat Angler was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye. It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse; 6 verses were quoted from John Dennys's earlier work. A second part to the book was added by Walton's friend Charles Cotton.
Walton did not profess to be an expert with a fishing fly; the fly fishing in his first edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a retired cook and humorist, who produced a treatise of his own in 1659; but in the use of the live worm, the grasshopper and the frog "Piscator" himself could speak as a master. The famous passage about the frog, often misquoted as being about the worm—"use him as though you loved him, that is, harm him as little as you may possibly, that he may live the longer"—appears in the original edition. Cotton's additions completed the instruction in fly fishing and advised on the making of artificial flies where he listed sixty five varieties.
Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with an offset point, still commonly used today.
Development
The 18th century was mainly an era of consolidation of the techniques developed in the previous century. Running rings began to appear along the fishing rods, which gave anglers greater control over the cast line. The rods themselves were also becoming increasingly sophisticated and specialized for different roles. Jointed rods became common from the middle of the century and bamboo came to be used for the top section of the rod, giving it a much greater strength and flexibility.
The industry also became commercialized - rods and tackle were sold at the haberdashers store. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, artisans moved to Redditch which became a centre of production of fishing related products from the 1730s. Onesimus Ustonson established his trading shop in 1761, and his establishment remained as a market leader for the next century. He received a Royal Warrant and became the official supplier of fishing tackle to three successive monarchs starting with King George IV over this period.
Some have credited Onesimus with the invention of the multiplying winch, although he was certainly the first to advertise its sale. Early multiplying reels were wide and had a small diameter, and their gears, made of brass, often wore down after extensive use. His earliest advertisement in the form of a trading card date from 1768 and was entitled To all lovers of angling. A full list of the tackles he sold included artificial flies, and 'the best sort of multiplying brass winches both stop and plain'. The commercialization of the industry came at a time of expanded interest in fishing as a recreational hobby for members of the aristocracy.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution was first felt in the manufacture of fly lines. Instead of anglers twisting their own lines - a laborious and time-consuming process - the new textile spinning machines allowed for a variety of tapered lines to be easily manufactured and marketed.
British fly-fishing continued to develop in the 19th Century, with the emergence of fly fishing clubs, along with the appearance of several books on the subject of fly tying and fly fishing techniques.
Alfred Ronalds took up the sport of fly fishing, learning the craft on the rivers Trent, Blythe and Dove. On the River Blythe, near what is today Creswell Green, Ronalds constructed a bankside fishing hut designed primarily as an observatory of trout behaviour in the river. From this hut, and elsewhere on his home rivers, Ronalds conducted experiments and formulated the ideas that eventually were published in The Fly-fisher's Entomology in 1836.
He combined his knowledge of fly fishing with his skill as an engraver and printer, to lavish his work with 20 color plates. It was the first comprehensive work related to the entomology associated with fly fishing and most fly-fishing historians credit Ronalds with setting a literature standard in 1836 that is still followed today. Describing methods, techniques and, most importantly, artificial flies, in a meaningful way for the angler and illustrating them in colour is a method of presentation that can be seen in most fly-fishing literature today.
The book was mostly about the aquatic insects—mayflies, caddisflies and stoneflies—that trout and grayling feed on and their counterpart artificial imitations. About half the book is devoted to observations of trout, their behaviour, and the methods and techniques used to catch them. Most of this information, although enhanced by Ronalds' experiences and observations, was merely an enhancement of Charles Bowlker's Art of Angling (first published in 1774 but still in print in 1836).
In Chapter IV - Of a Selection of Insects, and Their Imitations, Used in Fly Fishing - for the first time is discussed specific artificial fly imitations by name, associated with the corresponding natural insect. Organized by their month of appearance, Ronalds was the first author to begin the standardization of angler names for artificial flies. Prior to The Fly-fisher's Entomology, anglers had been given suggestions for artificial flies to be used on a particular river or at a particular time of the year, but those suggestions were never matched to specific natural insects the angler might encounter on the water. According to Ernest Schwiebert: "Ronalds is one of the major milestones in the entire literature of fly-fishing, and with his Entomology the scientific method has reached angling in full flower. Ronalds was completely original in its content and research, setting the yardstick for all subsequent discussion and illustration of aquatic fly hatches.
Technological improvements
Modern reel design had begun in England during the latter part of the 18th century, and the predominant model in use was known as the 'Nottingham reel'. The reel was a wide drum which spooled out freely, and was ideal for allowing the bait to drift a long way out with the current. Geared multiplying reels never successfully caught on in Britain, but had more success in the United States, where similar models were modified by George Snyder of Kentucky into his bait-casting reel, the first American-made design, in 1810.
The material used for the rod itself changed from the heavy woods native to England, to lighter and more elastic varieties imported from abroad, especially from South America and the West Indies. Bamboo rods became the generally favoured option from the mid-19th century, and several strips of the material were cut from the cane, milled into shape, and then glued together to form light, strong, hexagonal rods with a solid core that were superior to anything that preceded them. George Cotton and his predecessors fished their flies with long rods and light lines, allowing the wind to do most of the work of getting the fly to the fish.
Tackle design began to improve from the 1880s. The introduction of new woods to the manufacture of fly rods made it possible to cast flies into the wind on silk lines, instead of horse hair. These lines allowed for a much greater casting distance. However, these early fly lines proved troublesome as they had to be coated with various dressings to make them float and needed to be taken off the reel and dried every four hours or so to prevent them from becoming waterlogged. Another negative consequence was that it became easy for the much longer line to get into a tangle – this was called a 'tangle' in Britain, and a 'backlash' in the US. This problem spurred the invention of the regulator to evenly spool the line out and prevent tangling.
An American, Charles F. Orvis, designed and distributed a novel reel and fly design in 1874, described by reel historian Jim Brown as the "benchmark of American reel design", and the first fully modern fly reel. The founding of The Orvis Company helped institutionalize fly fishing by supplying angling equipment via the circulation of his tackle catalogs, distributed to a small but devoted customer list.
Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth, a textiles magnate, patented the modern form of fixed-spool spinning reel in 1905. When casting Illingworth's reel design, the line was drawn off the leading edge of the spool, but was restrained and rewound by a line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. Because the line did not have to pull against a rotating spool, much lighter lures could be cast than with conventional reels.
Expansion
By the mid to late 19th century, expanding leisure opportunities for the middle and lower classes began to have its effect on fly fishing, which steadily grew in mass appeal. The expansion of the railway network in Britain allowed the less affluent for the first time to take weekend trips to the seaside or to rivers for fishing. Richer hobbyists ventured further abroad. The large rivers of Norway replete with large stocks of salmon began to attract fishermen from England in large numbers in the middle of the century - Jones's guide to Norway, and salmon-fisher's pocket companion, published in 1848, was written by Frederic Tolfrey and was a popular guide to the country.
In southern England, dry-fly fishing acquired an elitist reputation as the only reliable method of fishing the slower, clearer rivers of the south such as the River Test and the other chalk streams concentrated in Hampshire, Surrey, Dorset and Berkshire (see Southern England Chalk Formation for the geological specifics). The weeds found in these rivers tend to grow very close to the surface, and it was necessary to develop new techniques that would keep the fly and the line on the surface of the stream. These methods became the foundation of all later dry-fly developments. F. M. Halford was a major exponent and is generally accepted as "The Father of Modern Dry Fly Fishing."
However, there was nothing to prevent the successful employment of wet flies on these chalk streams, as G. E. M. Skues proved with his nymph and wet fly techniques. To the horror of dry-fly purists, Skues later wrote two books, Minor Tactics of the Chalk Stream, and The Way of a Trout with a Fly, which greatly influenced the development of wet fly fishing. In northern England and Scotland, many anglers also favored wet-fly fishing, where the technique was more popular and widely practiced than in southern England. One of Scotland's leading proponents of the wet fly in the early-to-mid 19th century was W.C. Stewart, who published "The Practical Angler" in 1857.
In the United States, attitudes toward methods of fly fishing were not nearly as rigidly defined, and both dry- and wet-fly fishing were soon adapted to the conditions of the country. Fly anglers there are thought to be the first anglers to have used artificial lures for bass fishing. After pressing into service the fly patterns and tackle designed for trout and salmon to catch largemouth and smallmouth bass, they began to adapt these patterns into specific bass flies. Fly anglers seeking bass developed the spinner/fly lure and bass popper fly, which are still used today.
In the late 19th century, American anglers, such as Theodore Gordon in the Catskill Mountains of New York, began using fly tackle to fish the region's brook trout-rich streams such as the Beaverkill and Willowemoc Creek. Many of these early American fly anglers also developed new fly patterns and wrote extensively about their sport, increasing the popularity of fly fishing in the region and in the United States as a whole. Albert Bigelow Paine, a New England author, wrote about fly fishing in The Tent Dwellers, a book about a three-week trip he and a friend took to central Nova Scotia in 1908.
Participation in fly fishing peaked in the early 1920s in the eastern states of Maine and Vermont and in the Midwest in the spring creeks of Wisconsin. Along with deep sea fishing, Ernest Hemingway did much to popularize fly fishing through his works of fiction, including The Sun Also Rises.
Fly fishing in Australia took off when brown trout were first introduced by the efforts of Edward Wilson's Acclimatisation Society of Victoria with the aim to "provide for manly sport which will lead Australian youth to seek recreation on the river's bank and mountainside rather than in the Cafe and Casino. " The first successful transfer of Brown Trout ova (from the Itchen and Wye) was accomplished by James Arndell Youl, with a consignment aboard The Norfolk in 1864. Rainbow Trout were not introduced until 1894.
It was the development of inexpensive fiberglass rods, synthetic fly lines, and monofilament leaders, however, in the early 1950s, that revived the popularity of fly fishing. In recent years, interest in fly fishing has surged as baby boomers have discovered the sport. Movies such as Robert Redford's film A River Runs Through It, cable fishing shows, and the emergence of a competitive fly casting circuit have added to the sport's visibility.
Methods
Casting
Unlike other casting methods, fly fishing can be thought of as a method of casting line rather than lure. Non-flyfishing methods rely on a lure's weight to pull line from the reel during the forward motion of a cast. By design, a fly is too light to be cast, and thus simply follows the unfurling of a properly cast fly line, which is heavier and tapered and therefore more castable than lines used in other types of fishing.
The physics of flycasting can be described by the transfer of impulse, the product of mass and speed through the rod from base to top and from the transfer of impulse through the fly line all the way to the tip of the leader. Because both the rod and the fly line are tapered the smaller amount of mass will reach high speeds as the waves in rod and line unfurl. The waves that travel through the fly line are called loops. Determining factors in reaching the highest speeds are the basal frequency of a rod and the transfer of the speed from the tip of the rod to the fly line. At the moment the rod tip reaches its highest velocity the direction of the cast is determined.
The type of cast used when fishing varies according to the conditions. The most common cast is the forward cast, where the angler whisks the fly into the air, back over the shoulder until the line is nearly straight, then forward, using primarily the forearm. The objective of this motion is to "load" (bend) the rod tip with stored energy, then transmit that energy to the line, resulting in the fly line (and the attached fly) being cast for an appreciable distance. However, just bending the rod and releasing it to jerk the fly line forward (like a bowstring or a catapult) will not propel the fly line and fly very far. More important is the movement of the rod through an arc acting as a lever, magnifying the hand movement of the caster (of about a foot) to an arc at the rod tip of several feet. Here the rod acts as a class 3 lever, where the force is applied between the fulcrum and the load. The fulcrum in the fly cast is below the caster's hand gripping the rod; the load is at the rod tip; the hand exerts the force between. The caster's "stroke" backwards and forwards, for the backcast and the forward cast, operates the rod. Casting without landing the fly on the water is known as 'false casting', and may be used to pay out line, to dry a soaked fly, or to reposition a cast. Other casts are the roll cast, the single- or double-haul, the tuck cast, and the side- or curve-cast.
Dropping the fly onto the water and its subsequent movement on or beneath the surface is one of fly fishing's most difficult aspects; the angler is attempting to cast in such a way that the line lands smoothly on the water and the fly appears as natural as possible. At a certain point, if a fish does not strike, depending upon the action of the fly in the wind or current, the angler picks up the line to make another presentation. On the other hand, if a fish strikes, the angler pulls in line while raising the rod tip. This "sets" the hook in the fish's mouth. The fish is played either by hand, where the angler continues to hold the fly line in one hand to control the tension applied to the fish, or by reeling up any slack in the line and then using the hand to act as a drag on the reel. Most modern fly reels have an adjustable, mechanical drag system to control line tension during a fish's run.
Beginners tend to point with the rod to where they want to throw, but the movement of the hand has to be a controlled speed-up and then come to an abrupt stop. The rod will then start to unfurl and the tip of the rod will reach a high speed in the required direction. The high speed of the rod tip toward the target gives the impulse to make the cast, the abrupt stop and retreat of the rod tip is essential for the formation of a loop. Experienced fishermen also improve the speed of the line leaving the rod tip by a technique called hauling, applying a quick fast pull with the hand holding the line. At the end of the cast when the line is stretched the line as a whole will still have speed and the fisherman can let some extra line through their fingers making a false throw, either forward or backward or to finish the cast and start fishing.
There are a great number of special casts meant to evade problems like trees behind the angler (roll cast), the pulling of the line on the fly by the action of the stream, or to make the fly land more softly.
Spey casting
Spey casting is a casting technique used in fly fishing. Spey casting requires a longer, heavier two-handed fly rod, referred to as a "Spey rod". Spey casting is essentially a large roll cast, developed on the Scottish River Spey where high banks do not allow space for the usual back cast.
Spey casting is used for fishing large rivers for salmon and large trout such as steelhead and sea trout. Spey technique is also used in saltwater surf casting. All of these situations require the angler to cast larger flies long distances. The two-handed Spey technique allows more powerful casts and avoids obstacles on the shore by keeping most of the line in front of the angler.
Fly fishing for trout
Fly fishing for trout is a very popular sport, which can be done using any of the various methods and any of the general types of flies. Many of the techniques and presentations of fly fishing were first developed in fishing for trout. There is a misconception that all fly fishing for trout is done on the surface of the water with "dry flies." In most places, especially heavily fished trout areas, success usually comes from fly fishing using flies called "nymphs" that are designed to drift close to the riverbed, also called "nymphing". A trout feeds below the water's surface nearly 90 percent of the time. Trout usually only come to the surface when there is a large bug hatch (when aquatic insects grow wings and leave the water to mate and lay eggs). There are exceptions to this rule, however, particularly during the summer months and on smaller mountain streams, when trout often feed on terrestrial insects such as ants, beetles and grasshoppers.
Techniques
Fishing in cold water
In order to deceive wary trout, or to reach deep runs where salmon may lie, the fly angler often needs to wade to the right casting position. He therefore requires sure footing and insulation from cold water, both provided by hip boots or chest-high waders.
The latter are of two main types, one-piece "boot foot" waders and "stocking foot" waders, which require external boots.
Formerly of latex rubber, "stocking foot" waders are now made of neoprene, usually 3 mm thick, which provide additional warmth. In the mid-20th century, American anglers developed felt boot soles for a better grip in rocky rivers: but felt is now prohibited in some US states, as a vector of fish and plant diseases that damage sport fisheries. Manufacturers now offer wading boots with special rubber treads or metal studs. Breathable Gore-Tex waders provide ventilation when hiking along the water, but do not provide flotation in the event of slipping or falling into deep water. In deep water streams, an inflatable personal flotation device (PFD), or a Type III Kayak fishing vest, adds a degree of safety.
Some "catch and release" anglers flatten the barb of their hook. Such "barbless hooks" are much easier to remove from the fish (and from the angler, in the event of mishap). Many rivers with special regulations mandate that fishermen use barbless hooks in an effort to conserve a healthy fish population.
Dry fly trout fishing
Dry fly fishing is done with line and flies that float, joined by a leader, usually made of fine polyamide monofilament line. The tapered leader is 3 to 5 meters long, thus nearly invisible where the fly is knotted, and the angler can replace the last meter of nylon as required. Unlike sinking fly (nymph) fishing, the "take" on dry flies is visible, explosive and exciting. While trout typically consume about 90% of their diet from below-water sources, the 10% of surface-level consumption by trout is more than enough to keep most anglers busy. Additionally, beginning fly anglers generally prefer dry fly fishing because of the relative ease of detecting a strike and the instant gratification of seeing a trout strike their fly. Nymph fishing may be more productive, but dry fly anglers soon become addicted to the surface strike.
Dry flies may be "attractors", such as the Royal Wulff, or "natural imitators", such as the elk hair caddis, a caddisfly imitation A beginner may wish to begin with a fly that is easy to see such as a Royal Wulff attractor or a mayfly imitation such as a parachute adams. The "parachute" on the parachute adams makes the fly land as softly as a natural on the water and has the added benefit of making the fly very visible from the surface. Being able to see the fly is especially helpful to the beginner. The fly should land softly, as if dropped onto the water, with the leader fully extended from the fly line. Due to rivers having faster and slower currents often running side by side, the fly can over take or be overtaken by the line, thus disturbing the fly's drift. Mending is a technique whereby one lifts and moves the part of the line that requires re-aligning with the fly's drift, thus extending the drag free drift. The mend can be upstream or down stream depending on the currents carrying the line or fly. To be effective, any mending of the fly line should not disturb the natural drift of the fly. Learning to mend is often much easier if the angler can see the fly.
Once a fish has been caught and landed, the fly may no longer float well. A fly can sometimes be dried and made to float again by "false" casting, casting the fly back and forth in the air. In some cases, the fly can be dried with a small piece of reusable absorbent towel, an amadou patch or chamois and after drying placed and shaken in a container full of fly "dressing"; a hydrophobic solution. A popular solution to a dry fly which refuses to float is simply to replace it with another, similar or identical fly until the original can fully dry, rotating through a set of flies.
Dry fly fishing on small, clear-water streams can be especially productive if the angler stays as low to the ground and as far from the bank as possible, moving upstream with stealth. Trout tend to face upstream and most of their food is carried to them on the current. For this reason, the fish's attention is normally focused into the current; most anglers move and fish "into the current", fishing from a position downstream of the fish's suspected lie. Trout tend to strike their food at current "edges", where faster- and slower-moving waters mix. Obstructions to the stream flow, such as large rocks or nearby pools, provide a "low energy" environment where fish sit and wait for food without expending much energy. Casting upstream to the "edge" of the slower water, the angler can see the fly land and drift slowly back downstream. The challenge in stream fishing is placing the fly with deadly accuracy, within inches of a protective rock for instance, not long range casting. Done properly, the fly seems to be just floating along in the current with a "perfect drift" as if not connected to the fly line. The angler must remain vigilant for the "take" in order to be ready to raise the rod tip and set the hook.
Nymphing for trout
Trout tend mostly to feed underwater. When fishing deeper waters such as rivers or lakes, putting a fly down to the trout may be more successful than fishing on the surface, especially in the absence of any surface insect activity or hatch. The nymph itself can be weighted, as is the popular bead headed hare's ear nymph or bead headed pheasant tail nymph. Alternatively, the angler can use an attractor pattern such as a prince nymph. Weights can be added to the leader. Probably the best weight to use is twist on lead or other metal strips because it has a much less detrimental effect on the casting ability. A sinking tip fly line can also serve to sink the fly. A common nymphing and general overall fly fishing technique that even beginners can master is a "dead drift" or tight line fishing technique, casting directly across the river, letting the fly line drift downriver while keeping any slack out of the line. If the Nymph is drifting too fast, then you should perform an upstream mend. If the nymph is drifting too slowly, you should mend downstream. A beginner need simply to point the rod at the fly, lifting the rod in the event of a strike. This is a "downstream technique" where the angler moves in a downstream direction. More advanced techniques make use of a highly visible strike indicator attached to the leader above the sinking fly.
In New Zealand, nymphing has become the dominant form of fishing in rivers such as the Tongariro River. A technique involving a high visibility indicator, and 2 nymphs tied in short succession (a weighted nymph and a 2nd often un-weighted nymph) means the chances of getting a fly into deeper water with a fly that still moves naturally increases.
It is also possible to use standard sinking fly lines, especially if the current is strong and if it is difficult to get down to the correct level to catch the trout.
Still water trout fishing
Fishing for trout in lakes requires different tactics. A canoe, pontoon boat or a float tube allows an angler to cover a lot more water than waders. Trout may congregate in cooler water near an inflowing stream or an underwater spring and may be lured to bite on a streamer fly. An often successful tactic is to pull a streamer such as a woolly bugger using clear sinking line, behind the watercraft. The somewhat erratic motion of the oars or fins tends to give the streamer an enticing action. Trout also tend to "cruise" transitional areas (e.g. dropoffs, weed bed edges, subsurface river flow at inlets, etc.) Watching for cruising trout and casting well ahead of any visible fish is often successful.
The legacy of Dr Howard Alexander Bell (1888-1974). Although he never wrote a word about fishing and shunned publicity, Dr Bell of Blagdon had the greatest formative influence of any man on the development of reservoir fishing in the first half of this century. In those days Blagdon was fished with spinners or with traditional sea-trout and low-water salmon flies. Fly fishing was carried out from boats and bank during the evening rise. Daytime fishing with the fly was thought to be of little use. Bell had read Skues and, following his example, used a marrow spoon to spoon out the trout he caught (one of his friends said, ‘He would spoon out his grandmother if he thought there was anything in her’). The stomach contents of the Blagdon trout were a revelation. There was nothing there but small larvae and pupae, among them the pupae of the famous black midge. Dr Bell tied artificials to represent the insects that he found in the Blagdon trout, including bloodworms, midge and sedge pupae and beetles. His flies were quite small, 10s, 12s and sometimes 14s. He might have a Worm Fly on a single hook on the point, a Grenadier (caddis pupa) on the middle dropper and a Buzzer (midge pupa) on the top. All his dressings were plain and simple. Nevertheless, in the 1920s and 30s he set the scene and pointed the way in which imitative patterns of underwater insects were to develop as one of the major techniques of reservoir trout fishing.
Playing trout
Once hooked, a small trout can be easily retrieved "on the reel" or by simply pulling in the fly line with the reel hand while pinching the line between the rod handle and the index finger of the rod hand. It is important to keep the rod tip high, allowing the bend of the rod to absorb the force of the fish's struggles against the line. Larger trout will often take line in powerful runs before they can be landed. Unlike spin fishing where the line is already on the reel, playing a large fish with fly line and a fly reel can present a special challenge. Usually, when a fish is hooked, there will be extra fly line coiled between the reel and the index finger of the rod hand. The challenge is to reel up the loose fly line onto the reel without breaking off a large fish (or getting the line wrapped up around the rod handle, one's foot, a stick or anything else in the way). With experience, really large trout can be put on the reel simply by applying light pressure on the outgoing line using the fisher's fingers. Once the extra line is on the reel, an angler can use the reel's drag system to tire the fish. It is important to use heavier tippet material if it won't spook the fish. The reason why this is important is an exhausted fish can easily die if released too soon. Heavier tippet material enables the angler to land the fish while not over exhausting it.
Releasing trout
Releasing wild trout helps preserve the quality of a fishery. Trout are more delicate than most fish and require careful handling. When a trout has been caught but the hook is still embedded, wet your hands before handling the fish. Dry hands stick to the adhesive slime coating the fish and can pull off its scales. It is preferred for the fish to remain in the water when removing the hook, but holding the trout out of the water will not be lethal, provided the hook is removed quickly and the trout is returned immediately.
Small trout caught on a barb-less hook can be released simply by: grasping the eyelet of the fly, and rotating the eyelet toward the bend (the U-bend). This pulls the point backwards, back through the way it entered. Push the eyelet directly toward the bend until the point is removed from the fish. Large trout can be grasped gently and forceps can be used to grip the bend and push backwards, away from the direction the hook currently points. If necessary, squirming trout can be held on their backs. This often subdues the fish and provides enough time to remove the hook.
Once the hook has been removed, return the trout into the water. Support the trout until it stabilizes. This includes holding the fish in water deep enough to submerge its gills. After long fights, it may be necessary to manually move water past its gills. This can be done either by holding the trout in moving water with its head facing upstream, or, in calm water, moving the trout backwards and forwards repeatedly. Once stabilized, the trout will swim off on its own. If released prematurely, the trout, not having enough energy to move, will sink to the bottom of the river and suffocate. Take however long is necessary to revive a trout.
Saltwater fly fishing
Saltwater fly fishing is typically done with heavier tackle than that which is used for freshwater trout fishing, both to handle the larger, more powerful fish, and to accommodate the casting of larger and heavier flies. Saltwater fly fishing typically employs the use of wet flies resembling baitfish, crabs, shrimp and other forage. However, saltwater fish can also be caught with poppers and other surface lure similar to those used for freshwater bass fishing, though much larger. Saltwater species sought and caught with fly tackle include: bonefish, redfish or red drum, permit, snook, spotted sea trout, tuna, dorado (mahi-mahi), sailfish, tarpon, striped bass, salmon, giant trevally and marlin. Offshore saltwater species are usually attracted to the fly by "chumming" with small baitfish, or "teasing" the fish to the boat by trolling a large hookless lure (Billfish are most often caught using this latter method).
Many saltwater species, particularly large, fast and powerful fish, are not easily slowed down by "palming" the hand on the reel. Instead, a purpose-made saltwater reel for these species must have a powerful drag system. Furthermore, saltwater reels purpose-made for larger fish must be larger, heavier, and corrosion-resistant; a typical high-quality saltwater reel costs US$500.00 or more. Corrosion-resistant equipment is key to durability in all types of saltwater fishing, regardless of the size and power of the target species.
Saltwater fly fishing is most often done from a boat, either a shallow draft flats boat is used to pursue species such as bonefish, redfish, permit and tarpon in shallow waters, or from larger offshore boats for pursuing sailfish, tuna, dorado, marlin and other pelagics and may be done from shore, such as wading flats for bonefish or redfish or surf fishing for striped bass and other assorted fish. Typically, most trout fly fisherman need to practice new skills to catch saltwater fish on a fly rod. Ocean fish are usually harder to catch. They can be extremely spooky, and much larger. Trout fisherman need to practice with at least an 8 weight fly rod and accurately cast the line 30–90 feet if they are going to have success—particularly in the flat areas fishing for bonefish, redfish, permit, tarpon, jacks and more.
Hooks for saltwater flies must also be extremely durable and corrosion resistant. Most saltwater hooks are made of stainless steel, but the strongest (though less corrosion resistant) hooks are of high-carbon steel. Typically, these hooks vary from size #8 to #2 for bonefish and smaller nearshore species, to size #3/0 to #5/0 for the larger offshore species.
Tackle
Fly fishing tackle comprises the fishing tackle or equipment typically used by fly anglers. Fly fishing tackle includes:
A wide variety of Fly rods of different weights, lengths and material are used to present artificial flies to target species of fish as well as fight and land fish being caught.
A wide variety of Fly reels are used to store fly line and provide a braking mechanism (drag) for fighting heavy or fast moving fish.
A wide variety of general use and specialized fly lines are used to cast artificial flies under a wide variety of fresh and saltwater conditions.
Terminal tackle is used to connect the artificial fly to the fly line and allow the appropriate presentation of the fly to the fish.
There are a wide variety of accessories—tools, gadgets, clothing and apparel used by the fly angler for maintenance and preparation of tackle, dealing the fish being caught as well as personal comfort and safety while fly fishing. Includes fly boxes used to store and carry artificial flies.
Fly rods are typically between 1.8 m (6 ft) long in freshwater fishing and up to 4.5 m (15 ft) long for two-handed fishing for salmon or steelhead, or in tenkara fishing in small streams. The average rod for fresh and saltwater is around in length and weighs from 3 –5 ounces, though a recent trend has been to lighter, shorter rods for fishing smaller streams. Another trend is to longer rods for small streams. The choice of rod lengths and line weights used varies according to local conditions, types of flies being cast, and/or personal preference.
When actively fishing, the angler may want to keep the fly line lightly pressed against the rod handle with the index finger of the casting arm. The free arm is used to pull line from the reel or to retrieve line from the water. If a fish strikes, the angler can pinch the line with the index finger against the rod handle and lift the rod tip, setting the hook.
Artificial flies
In broadest terms, flies are categorised as either imitative or attractive. Imitative flies resemble natural food items. Attractive flies trigger instinctive strikes by employing a range of characteristics that do not necessarily mimic prey items. Flies can be fished floating on the surface (dry flies), partially submerged (emergers), or below the surface (nymphs, streamers, and wet flies). A dry fly is typically thought to represent an insect landing on, falling on (terrestrials), or emerging from, the water's surface as might a grasshopper, dragonfly, mayfly, ant, beetle, stonefly or caddisfly. Other surface flies include poppers and hair bugs that might resemble mice, frogs, etc. Sub-surface flies are designed to resemble a wide variety of prey including aquatic insect larvae, nymphs and pupae, baitfish, crayfish, leeches, worms, etc. Wet flies, known as streamers, are generally thought to imitate minnows, leeches or scuds.
Throughout history, artificial flies constructed of furs, feathers, and threads bound on a hook have been created by anglers to imitate fish prey. Most early examples of artificial flies imitated common aquatic insects and baitfish. Today, artificial flies are tied with a wide variety of natural and synthetic materials (like mylar and rubber) to represent all manner of potential freshwater and saltwater fish prey to include aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, worms, baitfish, vegetation, flesh, spawn, small reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds, etc.
Knots
A few knots have become more or less standard for attaching the various parts of the fly lines and backing, etc., together. A detailed discussion of most of these knots is available in any good book on fly fishing, and several studies have been done evaluating their performance. Some of the knots that are in most every fly angler's arsenal are: the improved clinch knot which is commonly used to attach the fly to the leader, the overhand slip knot or arbor knot which is used to attach the backing to the spool, the albright knot which can be used to attach the fly line to the backing. A loop can also be put in fly line backing using a bimini twist. Often, a loop is added to the business end of the fly line to facilitate the connection to the leader. This loop may take one of several forms. It may be formed by creating a loop in the end of the fly line itself or by adding a braided loop or a loop of monofilament nylon (as in Gray's Loop). Alternatively, a single length of monofilament nylon, or fluorocarbon, may be tied to the end of the fly line using a nail or tube knot or a needle knot. A loop can then be tied at the end of this monofilament butt length or butt section using a double surgeon's knot or a perfection loop, to which the tapered or untapered leader, also looped using a double surgeon's knot or a perfection loop, may in turn be connected via a loop to loop connection. The use of loop to loop connections between the fly line and the leader provides a quick and convenient way to change or replace a tapered leader. Many commercially produced tapered leaders come with a pre-tied loop connection.
Some traditionalists create their own tapered leaders using progressively smaller-diameter lengths of monofilament line tied together with the blood, barrel knot or "surgeons knot".
See also
American Angler
Grand Slam (Fly-Fishing Caribbean)
Trout memo - a 1939 British Intelligence document comparing deception of an enemy in wartime with fly fishing
References
Further reading
Angling writers
Recreational fishing
Insects in culture
Flies and humans
Fishing equipment
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218761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20bull | Golden bull | A golden bull or chrysobull was a decree issued by Byzantine Emperors and later by monarchs in Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, most notably by the Holy Roman Emperors. The term was originally coined for the golden seal (a bulla aurea), attached to the decree, but came to be applied to the entire decree. Such decrees were known as golden bulls in western Europe and chrysobullos logos, or chrysobulls, in the Byzantine Empire (χρυσός, chrysos, being Greek for gold).
For nearly eight hundred years, they were issued unilaterally, without obligations on the part of the other party or parties. However, this eventually proved disadvantageous as the Byzantines sought to restrain the efforts of foreign powers to undermine the empire. During the 12th century, the Byzantines began to insert into golden bulls sworn statements of the obligations of their negotiating partners.
Notable golden bulls included:
The Golden Bull of 1082, issued by Alexios I Komnenos to grant Venice merchants with free trading rights, exempt from tax, throughout the Byzantine Empire in return for their defense of the Adriatic Sea against the Normans.
The Golden Bull of 1136, issued by Pope Innocent II, more commonly known as the Bull of Gniezno.
The Golden Bull of Sicily, issued in 1212 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
The Golden Bull of 1213, issued by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
The Golden Bull of 1213, issued by the papacy to recognize its agreement with John Lackland (more commonly known as King John of England).
The Golden Bull of 1214, issued by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor to cede all German territories north of the rivers Elbe and Elde to King Valdemar the Victorious of Denmark.
The Golden Bull of Berne, supposedly issued by Frederick II in 1218, but now considered a forgery.
The Golden Bull of 1222, issued by King Andrew II of Hungary to confirm the rights of nobility and forced on him in much the same way King John of England was made to sign Magna Carta.
The Golden Bull of 1224 (the Goldener Freibrief) issued by Andrew to grant certain rights to the Saxon inhabitants of Transylvania.
The Golden Bull of Rimini (1226), issued by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
The Golden Bull of 1242 issued by King Béla IV to proclaim a free royal city for the inhabitants of Gradec (part of Zagreb) and Samobor in Croatia, during the Mongol invasion of Europe.
The Golden Bull of 1267, issued by King Béla IV of Hungary.
The Golden Bull of 1348, issued by King Charles I of Bohemia, later Holy Roman Emperor as Charles IV, to confer privileges and immunities on Charles University established by Pope Clement VI in Prague, one of the oldest universities in the world.
The Golden Bull of 1356 (one of the most famous golden bulls), issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV for promulgation at the Diet of Nuremberg, to define (and to last more than four hundred years) the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Golden Bull of 1702, issued by Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor to establish the Akademia Leopoldina in the Silesian capital of Breslau (present name: Wrocław), the future University of Breslau (Universitas Vratislatensis).
See also
Bulla (seal)
Papal Bull
References
External links
Andrew II of Hungary's Golden Bull of 1222
Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV's Golden Bull of 1356
Columbia Encyclopedia article on the Golden Bull
Detailed Information about the Golden Bull
Seals (insignia) | [
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218762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20G.%20Humphreys | Benjamin G. Humphreys | Benjamin Grubb Humphreys (August 26, 1808December 20, 1882) was an American politician from Mississippi. He was a general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War and served as Governor of Mississippi from 1865 to 1868, during Reconstruction.
Early life
Humphreys was born in Claiborne County in the Territory of Mississippi, on the Bayou Pierre. He was educated in New Jersey and enrolled at West Point in the same class as Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston. However, he was expelled in 1826 when he participated in a "Christmas frolic" that ended up turning into the Eggnog Riot.
Upon his return to Mississippi, he was elected to the state senate representing his native county, serving from 1839 to 1844. In 1846, he moved to Sunflower County, Mississippi, and founded Itta Bena. He developed a cotton plantation there.
Civil War
Humphreys raised a company and was commissioned a captain in the Confederate States Army in 1861. Being part of the 21st Mississippi Infantry Regiment he was elected to the rank of colonel the same year. Brigaded with other regiments under command of Brig. Gen. William Barksdale he fought in the Eastern Theater. At the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 Humphreys's regiment was part of the force that attacked Federal positions at the Peach Orchard, driving the defenders back toward Cemetery Ridge. Humphreys took command of the brigade after the death of Barksdale. He was subsequently promoted to brigadier general, and remained in command until he was wounded in the battle of Berryville, Virginia, on September 3, 1864. Humphreys returned home to Mississippi to convalesce, but was unable to return to active duty before the war ended.
Political career
After the surrender of the Confederate Army, Southern politicians and Army officers were not automatically pardoned and were forbidden to hold public office. At the time of his candidacy, Benjamin Humphreys was unpardoned, and President Andrew Johnson did not want him elected. Unwilling to withdraw his candidacy, on October 2, 1865, Humphreys was elected as a Democrat, but was not immediately recognized as the Governor of Mississippi. Without presidential approval, on October 16, 1865, Humphreys had himself inaugurated and sworn in as the 26th Governor of Mississippi. By October 26, 1865, Mississippi provisional Governor, William L. Sharkey, received from President Andrew Johnson a pardon authorizing political office under the Reconstruction plan. He won re-election in 1868 and continued with a second term, but with the beginning of Congressional control of Reconstruction he was physically removed by occupying U.S. armed forces on June 15 of that year.
As a Democratic Governor of the State of Mississippi, he sympathized with the ideology of White supremacy. In his own words:
After his retirement from politics, Humphreys entered a career in insurance in Jackson, Mississippi. He continued there until his retirement in 1877, when he moved to his plantation in Leflore County, Mississippi, where he died in 1882. He is buried in Wintergreen Cemetery, Port Gibson, Mississippi.
Humphreys County, Mississippi, is named after him. His son, also named Benjamin G. Humphreys, entered into a political career of his own. He became a Congressman and was on the Harbors and Rivers Committee, where he was instrumental in the successful amendment that created and added levees to the charter of the commission.
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)
Notes
References
McKitrick, Eric L. "Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction". New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg – The Second Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. .
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. .
Mississippi History
History Central
1808 births
1882 deaths
People from Claiborne County, Mississippi
People from Itta Bena, Mississippi
United States Military Academy alumni
Governors of Mississippi
Confederate States Army generals
People of Mississippi in the American Civil War
19th-century American Episcopalians
American people of Welsh descent
Mississippi Democrats
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Mississippi state senators
Recipients of American presidential pardons
19th-century American politicians | [
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218767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroidectomy | Thyroidectomy | A thyroidectomy is an operation that involves the surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid gland. In general surgery, endocrine or head and neck surgeons often perform a thyroidectomy when a patient has thyroid cancer or some other condition of the thyroid gland (such as hyperthyroidism) or goiter. Other indications for surgery include cosmetic (very enlarged thyroid), or symptomatic obstruction (causing difficulties in swallowing or breathing). Thyroidectomy is a common surgical procedure that has several potential complications or sequelae including: temporary or permanent change in voice, temporary or permanently low calcium, need for lifelong thyroid hormone replacement, bleeding, infection, and the remote possibility of airway obstruction due to bilateral vocal cord paralysis. Complications are uncommon when the procedure is performed by an experienced surgeon.
The thyroid produces several hormones, such as thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin. After the removal of a thyroid, patients usually take a prescribed oral synthetic thyroid hormone—levothyroxine (Synthroid)—to prevent hypothyroidism. Less extreme variants of thyroidectomy include:
Hemithyroidectomy (or unilateral lobectomy): removing only half of the thyroid
Isthmectomy: removing the band of tissue (or isthmus) connecting the two lobes of the thyroid
A thyroidectomy should not be confused with a thyroidotomy (thyrotomy), which is a cutting into (‑otomy) the thyroid, not a removal (‑ectomy, literally “out-cutting”) of it. A thyroidotomy can be performed to get access for a median laryngotomy, or to perform a biopsy. (Although technically a biopsy involves removing some tissue, it is more frequently categorized as an ‑otomy than an ‑ectomy because the volume of tissue removed is minuscule.)
Traditionally, the thyroid has been removed through a neck incision that leaves a permanent scar. More recently, minimally invasive and "scarless" approaches such as transoral thyroidectomy have become popular in some parts of the world. In the United States, over 100,000 procedures are performed yearly as it is a common procedure.
Uses
Thyroidectomy is used in the treatment of:
Thyroid cancer
Toxic thyroid nodule (produces too much thyroid hormone)
Multinodular goiter (enlarged thyroid gland with many nodules), especially if there is compression of nearby structures
Graves' disease, especially if there is exophthalmos (bulging eyes)
Thyroid nodule, if fine needle aspirate (FNA) results are unclear
Types
Hemithyroidectomy — Entire isthmus is removed along with 1 lobe. Done in benign diseases of only 1 lobe.
Subtotal thyroidectomy — Removal of majority of both lobes leaving behind 4-5 grams (equivalent to the size of a normal thyroid gland) of thyroid tissue on one or both sides—this used to be the most common operation for multinodular goitre.
Partial thyroidectomy —Removal of gland in front of trachea after mobilization. Done in nontoxic MNG. Its role is controversial.
Near total thyroidectomy — Both lobes are removed except for a small amount of thyroid tissue (on one or both sides) in the vicinity of the recurrent laryngeal nerve entry point and the superior parathyroid gland.
Total thyroidectomy — Entire gland is removed. Done in cases of papillary or follicular carcinoma of thyroid, medullary carcinoma of thyroid. This is now also the most common operation for multinodular goitre.
Hartley Dunhill operation — Removal of 1 entire lateral lobe with isthmus and partial/subtotal removal of opposite lateral lobe. Done in nontoxic MNG.
Complications
Hypothyroidism in up to 50% of patients after ten years.
Laryngeal nerve injury in about 1% of patients, in particular the recurrent laryngeal nerve: Unilateral damage results in a hoarse voice. Bilateral damage presents as laryngeal obstruction after surgery and can be a surgical emergency: an emergency tracheostomy may be needed. Recurrent Laryngeal nerve injury may occur during the ligature of the inferior thyroid artery.
Hypoparathyroidism temporary (transient) in many patients, but permanent in about 1 to 4% of patients
Anesthetic complications
Infection (at about a 2% rate. Drainage is an important part of treatment.), possibly an increased risk with chronic pre-operative steroid use.
Stitch granuloma
Chyle leak
Haemorrhage/Hematoma (This may compress the airway, becoming life-threatening.)
Removal or devascularization of the parathyroids
History
Al-Zahrawi, a tenth century Arab physician, sometimes referred to as the "Father of surgery", is credited with the performance of the first thyroidectomy.
See also
List of surgeries by type
References
External links
Early postoperative scar images
Thyroid Surgery Tutorial From the Patient Education Institute
Surgical oncology
Surgical removal procedures
Thyroid disease
Endocrine surgery
Thyroidological methods | [
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218768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%2C%20Kent | Rochester, Kent | Rochester ( ) is a town in the unitary authority of Medway, in Kent, England. It is at the lowest bridging point of the River Medway about from London. Rochester was a city until losing its status as one in 1998 following the forming of Medway and failing to protect its status as a city. There have been ongoing campaigns to reinstate the city status for Rochester.
Rochester was for many years a favourite of Charles Dickens, who owned nearby Gads Hill Place, Higham, basing many of his novels on the area. The Diocese of Rochester, the second oldest in England, is centred on Rochester Cathedral and was responsible for the founding of a school, now The King's School in 604 AD, which is recognised as being the second oldest continuously running school in the world. Rochester Castle, built by Bishop Gundulf of Rochester, has one of the best preserved keeps in either England or France, and during the First Barons' War (1215–1217) in King John's reign, baronial forces captured the castle from Archbishop Stephen Langton and held it against the king, who then besieged it.
Rochester, Chatham and Gillingham, Strood and a number of outlying villages form a single large urban area known as the Medway Towns with a population of about 250,000. These places now make up the Medway Unitary Authority area. It was, until 1998, under the control of Kent County Council and is still part of the ceremonial county of Kent, under the latest Lieutenancies Act.
Toponymy
The Romano-British name for Rochester was Durobrivae, later Durobrivis c. 730 and Dorobrevis in 844. The two commonly cited origins of this name are that it either came from "stronghold by the bridge(s)" or is the latinisation of the British word Dourbruf meaning "swiftstream". Durobrivis was pronounced 'Robrivis. In later times, the word cæster (=castle, from Latin castrum) was added to the name and the city was called Robrivis Cæster. Bede mentions the city in c. 730 and calls it Hrofes cæster, mistaking its meaning as Hrofi's fortified camp. From this came c. 730 Hrofæscæstre, 811 Hrofescester, 1086 Rovescester, 1610 Rochester. The Latinised adjective 'Roffensis' refers to Rochester.
History
Neolithic remains have been found in the vicinity of Rochester; over time it has been variously occupied by Celts, Romans, Jutes and/or Saxons. During the Celtic period it was one of the two administrative centres of the Cantiaci tribe. During the Roman conquest of Britain a decisive battle was fought at the Medway somewhere near Rochester. The first bridge was subsequently constructed early in the Roman period. During the later Roman period the settlement was walled in stone. King Æthelberht of Kent (560–616) established a legal system which has been preserved in the 12th-century Textus Roffensis. In AD 604 the bishopric and cathedral were founded. During this period, from the recall of the legions until the Norman conquest, Rochester was sacked at least twice and besieged on another occasion.
The medieval period saw the building of the current cathedral (1080–1130, 1227 and 1343), the building of two castles and the establishment of a significant town. Rochester Castle saw action in the sieges of 1215 and 1264. Rochester's basic street plan was set out, constrained by the river, Watling Street, Rochester Priory and Rochester Castle.
Rochester has produced two martyrs: St John Fisher, executed by Henry VIII for refusing to sanction the divorce of Catherine of Aragon; and Bishop Nicholas Ridley, executed by Queen Mary for being an English Reformation protestant.
Military history
Rochester has for centuries been of great strategic importance through its position near the confluence of the Thames and the Medway. Rochester Castle was built to guard the river crossing. In 1667, the city was raided by the Dutch fleet as part of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch, commanded by Admiral de Ruijter, broke through the chain at Upnor and sailed to Rochester Bridge capturing part of the English fleet and burning it.
The Royal Navy Dockyard's establishment at Chatham witnessed the beginning of the Royal Navy's long period of supremacy. The town, as part of Medway, is surrounded by two circles of fortresses; the inner line built during the Napoleonic wars consists of Fort Clarence, Fort Pitt, Fort Amherst and Fort Gillingham. The outer line of Palmerston Forts was built during the 1860s in light of the report by the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom and consists of Fort Borstal, Fort Bridgewood, Fort Luton, and the Twydall Redoubts, with two additional forts on islands in the Medway, namely Fort Hoo and Fort Darnet.
During the First World War the Short Brothers' aircraft manufacturing company developed the first plane to launch a torpedo, the Short Admiralty Type 184, at its seaplane factory on the River Medway not far from Rochester Castle. In the intervening period between the 20th century World Wars the company established a world-wide reputation as a constructor of flying boats with aircraft such as the Singapore, Empire 'C'-Class and Sunderland. During the Second World War, Shorts also designed and manufactured the first four-engined bomber, the Stirling.
The UK's decline in naval power and shipbuilding competitiveness led to the government decommissioning the RN Shipyard at Chatham in 1984, which led to the subsequent demise of much local maritime industry. Rochester and its neighbouring communities were hit hard by this and have experienced a painful adjustment to a post-industrial economy, with much social deprivation and unemployment resulting. On the closure of Chatham Dockyard the area experienced an unprecedented surge in unemployment to 24%; this had dropped to 2.4% of the local population by 2014.
Civic history and traditions
Rochester was recognised as a City from 1211 to 1998. The City of Rochester's ancient status was unique, as it had no formal council or Charter Trustees nor a Mayor, instead having the office of Admiral of the River Medway, whose incumbent acted as de facto civic leader.
Since Norman times Rochester had always governed land on the other side of the Medway in Strood, which was known as Strood Intra; before 1835 it was about wide and stretched to Gun Lane. In the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act the boundaries were extended to include more of Strood and Frindsbury, and part of Chatham known as Chatham Intra.
Like many of the medieval towns of England, Rochester had civic Freemen whose historic duties and rights were abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. However, the Guild of Free Fishers and Dredgers continues to the present day and retains rights, duties and responsibilities on the Medway, between Sheerness and Hawkwood Stone. This ancient corporate body convenes at the Admiralty Court whose Jury of Freemen is responsible for the conservancy of the River as enshrined in current legislation. The City Freedom can be obtained by residents after serving a period of "servitude", i.e. apprenticeship (traditionally seven years), before admission as a Freeman. The annual ceremonial Beating of the Bounds by the River Medway takes place after the Admiralty Court, usually on the first Saturday of July.
Ecclesiastical parishes
There were three medieval parishes: St Nicholas', St Margaret's and St Clement's. St Clement's was in Horsewash Lane until the last vicar died in 1538 when it was joined with St Nicholas' parish; the church's last remaining foundations were finally removed when the railway was being constructed in the 1850s. St Nicholas' Church was built in 1421 beside the cathedral to serve as a parish church for the citizens of Rochester. The ancient cathedral included the Benedictine monastic priory of St Andrew with greater status than the local parishes. Rochester's pre-1537 diocese, under the jurisdiction of the Church of Rome, covered a vast area extending into East Anglia and included all of Essex.
As a result of the restructuring of the Church during the Reformation the cathedral was reconsecrated as the Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary without parochial responsibilities, being a diocesan church. In the 19th century the parish of St Peter's was created to serve the burgeoning city with the new church being consecrated in 1859. Following demographic shifts, St Peter's and St Margaret's were recombined as a joint benefice in 1953 with the parish of St Nicholas with St Clement being absorbed in 1971. The combined parish is now the "Parish of St Peter with St Margaret", centred at the new (1973) Parish Centre in The Delce (St Peter's) with St Margaret's remaining as a chapel-of-ease. Old St Peter's was demolished in 1974, while St Nicholas' Church has been converted into the diocesan offices but remains consecrated. Continued expansion south has led to the creation of an additional more recent parish of St Justus (1956) covering The Tideway estate and surrounding area.
A church dedicated to St Mary the Virgin at Eastgate, which was of Anglo-Saxon foundation, is understood to have constituted a parish until the Middle Ages, but few records survive.
Governance
On 1 April 1974, the City Council was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972, and the territory was merged with the District of Medway, Borough of Chatham and most of Strood Rural District, including the parishes of Cuxton, Halling and Cliffe, and the Hoo Peninsula, to form a new a local government district called the Borough of Medway, within the county of Kent. Medway Borough Council applied to inherit Rochester's city status, but this was refused; instead letters patent were granted constituting the area of the former Rochester local government district to be the City of Rochester, to "perpetuate the ancient name" and to recall "the long history and proud heritage of the said City". The Home Office said that the city status may be extended to the entire borough if it had "Rochester" in its name, so in 1979, Medway Borough Council renamed the borough to Borough of Rochester-upon-Medway, and in 1982, Rochester's city status was transferred to the entire borough by letters patent, with the district being called the City of Rochester-upon-Medway. The Admiral of the River Medway was ex-officio Mayor of Rochester and this dignity transferred to the Mayor of Medway when that unitary authority was created, along with the Admiralty Court for the River which constitutes a committee of the Council.
On 1 April 1998, the existing local government districts of Rochester-upon-Medway and Gillingham were abolished and became the new unitary authority of Medway. The Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions informed the city council that since it was the local government district that officially held City status under the 1982 Letters Patent, the council would need to appoint charter trustees to preserve its city status, but the outgoing Labour-run council decided not to appoint "Charter Trustees", so the city status was lost when Rochester-upon-Medway was abolished as a local government district. The other local government districts with City status that were abolished around this time, Bath and Hereford, decided to appoint Charter Trustees to maintain the existence of their own cities and the mayoralties. The incoming Medway Council apparently only became aware of this when, in 2002, it was advised that Rochester was not on the Lord Chancellor's Office's list of cities.
In 2010, Medway Council started to refer to the "City of Medway" in promotional material, but it was rebuked and instructed not to do so in future by the Advertising Standards Authority. Subsequently, the Medway Unitary Authority has applied for City status for Medway as a whole, rather than merely for Rochester. Medway applied unsuccessfully for City status in 2000 and 2002 and again in the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Year of 2012. Any future bid to regain formal City status has been recommended to be made under the aegis of Rochester-upon-Medway.
The 2011 definition of Rochester includes Strood to the northwest and is defined as an urban subdivision with a 2011 population of 62,982. Strood makes up the majority of Rochester's population on the west bank of the river, making the town of Rochester itself on the east bank actually smaller and less populated than its own suburb; should the two towns ever separate Strood would be the larger of the two.
Kelly Tolhurst MP is the current Conservative parliamentary representative for the constituency.
Geography
Rochester lies within the area, known to geologists, as the London Basin. The low-lying Hoo peninsula to the north of the town consists of London Clay, and the alluvium brought down by the two rivers—the Thames and the Medway—whose confluence is in this area. The land rises from the river, and being on the dip slope of the North Downs, this consists of chalk surmounted by the Blackheath Beds of sand and gravel.
As a human settlement, Rochester became established as the lowest river crossing of the River Medway, well before the arrival of the Romans.
It is a focal point between two routes, being part of the main route connecting London with the Continent and the north-south routes following the course of the Medway connecting Maidstone and the Weald of Kent with the Thames and the North Sea. The Thames Marshes were an important source of salt. Rochester's roads follow north Kent's valleys and ridges of steep-sided chalk bournes. There are four ways out of town to the south: up Star Hill, via The Delce, along the Maidstone Road or through Borstal. The town is inextricably linked with the neighbouring Medway Towns but separated from Maidstone by a protective ridge known as the Downs, a designated area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.
At its most limited geographical size, Rochester is defined as the market town within the city walls, now associated with the historic medieval city. However, Rochester historically also included the ancient wards of Strood Intra on the river's west bank, and Chatham Intra as well as the three old parishes on the Medway's east bank.
The diocese of Rochester is another geographical entity which can be referred to as Rochester.
Climate
Rochester has an oceanic climate similar to much of southern England, being accorded Köppen Climate Classification-subtype of "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate).
On 10 August 2003, neighbouring Gravesend recorded one of the highest temperatures since meteorological records began in the United Kingdom, with a reading of 38.1 degrees Celsius (100.6 degrees Fahrenheit), only beaten by Brogdale, near Faversham, to the ESE. The weather station at Brogdale is run by a volunteer, only reporting its data once a month, whereas Gravesend, which has an official Met Office site at the PLA pilot station, reports data hourly.
Being near the mouth of the Thames Estuary with the North Sea, Rochester is relatively close to continental Europe and enjoys a somewhat less temperate climate than other parts of Kent and most of East Anglia. It is therefore less cloudy, drier and less prone to Atlantic depressions with their associated wind and rain than western regions of Britain, as well as being hotter in summer and colder in winter. Rochester city centre's micro-climate is more accurately reflected by these officially recorded figures than by readings taken at Rochester Airport.
North and North West Kent continue to record higher temperatures in summer, sometimes being the hottest area of the country, eg. on the warmest day of 2011, when temperatures reached 33.1 degrees. Additionally, it holds at least two records for the year 2010, of 30.9 °C and 31.7 °C. Another record was set during England's Indian summer of 2011 with 29.9 °C, the highest temperature ever recorded in the UK for October.
Buildings
Rochester comprises numerous important historic buildings, the most prominent of which are the Guildhall, the Corn Exchange, Restoration House, Eastgate House, as well as Rochester Castle and Rochester Cathedral. Many of the town centre's old buildings date from as early as the 14th century up to the 18th century. The chapel of St Bartholomew's Hospital dates from the ancient priory hospital's foundation in 1078.
Economy
Thomas Aveling started a small business in 1850 producing and repairing agricultural plant equipment. In 1861 this became the firm of Aveling and Porter, which was to become the largest manufacturer of agricultural machinery and steam rollers in the country. Aveling was elected Admiral of the River Medway (i.e. Mayor of Rochester) for 1869-70.
Culture
Sweeps Festival
Since 1980 the city has seen the revival of the historic Rochester Jack-in-the-Green May Day dancing chimney sweeps tradition, which had died out in the early 1900s. Though not unique to Rochester (similar sweeps' gatherings were held across southern England, notably in Bristol, Deptford, Whitstable and Hastings), its revival was directly inspired by Dickens' description of the celebration in Sketches by Boz.
The festival has since grown from a small gathering of local Morris dance sides to one of the largest in the world. The festival begins with the "Awakening of Jack-in-the-Green" ceremony, and continues in Rochester High Street over the May Bank Holiday weekend.
There are numerous other festivals in Rochester apart from the Sweeps Festival. The association with Dickens is the theme for Rochester's two Dickens Festivals held annually in June and December. The Medway Fuse Festival usually arranges performances in Rochester and the latest festival to take shape is the Rochester Literature Festival, the brainchild of three local writers.
Library
A new public library was built alongside the Adult Education Centre, Eastgate. This enabled the registry office to move from Maidstone Road, Chatham into the Corn Exchange on Rochester High Street (where the library was formerly housed). As mentioned in a report presented to Medway Council's Community Services Overview and Scrutiny Committee on 28 March 2006, the new library opened in late summer (2006).
Huguenot Museum
A new Huguenot Museum, which includes items from the collections of the French Hospital, was opened in Rochester on 13 May 2015, with support from the Heritage Lottery Fund and individual donations.
Theatre
There is a small amateur theatre, Medway Little Theatre, on St Margaret's Banks, Rochester High Street (the part of the High Street that continues from Star Hill towards Chatham) and just opposite the former railway station. Converted from a building which in its almost 200-year history had been, amongst other things, a wine merchants, warehouse and printing works the theatre's first season was in 1958. Since then hundreds of plays have been presented ranging from Shakespeare to Ayckbourn, modern classics to timeless farces along with many plays presented for the first time in the Medway Towns and, indeed, Kent. Medway Little Theatre also has a thriving youth company and a children's workshop for younger people. Every summer the Duncan Rand One-Act Play Festival (named after one of Medway Little Theatre's founders) attracts groups from far and wide.
Media
Local newspapers for Rochester include the Medway Messenger, published by the KM Group, and free papers.
The local commercial radio station for Rochester is KMFM Medway, owned by the KM Group. Medway is also served by community radio station Radio Sunlight which is now an online service. The area also receives broadcasts from county-wide stations BBC Radio Kent, Heart and Gold, as well as from various Essex and Greater London radio stations.
Rochester is part of the ITV Meridian and BBC South East area, receiving television signals from the Bluebell Hill transmitter on the crest of the North Downs to the SE, supplemented by a low power relay transmitter in central Chatham.
Sport
Football is played with many teams competing in Saturday and Sunday leagues. The local football club is Rochester United F.C. Rochester F.C. was its old football club but has been defunct for many decades. Rugby is also played; Medway R.F.C. play their matches at Priestfields and Old Williamsonians is associated with Sir Joseph Williamson's Mathematical School.
Cricket is played in the town, with teams entered in the Kent Cricket League.
Holcombe Hockey Club enter teams in both the Men's and Women's England Hockey Leagues. Speedway was staged on a track adjacent to City Way that opened in 1932. Proposals for a revival in the early 1970s did not materialise and the Rochester Bombers became the Romford Bombers.
Sailing and rowing are also popular on the River Medway with respective clubs being based in Rochester.
Film
The 1959 James Bond novel Goldfinger describes Bond driving along the A2 through the Medway Towns from Strood to Chatham. Of interest is the mention of "inevitable traffic jams" on the Strood side of Rochester Bridge, the novel being written some years prior to the construction of the M2 motorway Medway bypass.
Rochester is the setting of the controversial 1965 Peter Watkins television film The War Game, which depicts the town's destruction by a nuclear missile. The opening sequence was shot in Chatham Town Hall, but the credits particularly thank the people of Dover, Gravesend and Tonbridge.
The 2011 adventure film Ironclad is based upon the 1215 siege of Rochester Castle. There are however areas where the plot differs from accepted historical narrative.
'Notable people
Charles Dickens
The historic city was for many years the favourite of Charles Dickens, who lived within the diocese at nearby Gads Hill Place, Higham, many of his novels being based on the area. Descriptions of the town appear in Pickwick Papers, Great Expectations and (lightly fictionalised as "Cloisterham") in The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Elements of two houses in Rochester, Satis House and Restoration House, are used for Miss Havisham's house in Great Expectations, Satis House.
Dame Sybil Thorndike and Russell Thorndike
The actress Dame Sybil Thorndike and her brother Russell were brought up in Minor Canon Row adjacent to the cathedral; the daughter of a canon of Rochester Cathedral, she was educated at Rochester Grammar School for Girls. A local doctors' practice, local dental practice and a hall at Rochester Grammar School are all named after her.
Sir Peter Buck
Sir Peter Buck was Admiral of the Medway in the 17th century; knighted in 1603 he and Bishop Barlow hosted King James, the Stuart royal family and the King of Denmark in 1606. A civil servant to The Royal Dockyard and Lord High Admiral, Buck lived at Eastgate House, Rochester.
Denis Redman
Major-General Denis Redman, a World War II veteran, was born and raised in Rochester and later became a founder member of REME, head of his Corps and a Major-General in the British Army.
Kelly Brook
The model and actress Kelly Brook went to Delce Junior School in Rochester and later the Thomas Aveling School (formerly Warren Wood Girls School).
Education
Medway council run a selective system of education, similar to other local authorities in Kent, but call their secondary modern schools secondary schools. Almost all secondary schools in Rochester have opted for academy status.
In 1701, Sir Joseph Williamson left a bequest to establish the Mathematical School, a boys' grammar school, also referred to either as Rochester Math or The Math School''. Unlike earlier educational foundations, such as The King's School, it was not tied to a religious establishment, but was opened for practical instruction of boys in navigation and mathematics.
The University for the Creative Arts, formerly the Kent Institute of Art & Design, is located on the boundary of Rochester with Chatham.
Transport
Road
Rochester is on the A2, which crosses the Medway at Rochester Bridge – the route roughly follows the ancient road known as Watling Street, first paved by the Romans, but used by earlier Britons for centuries before the Roman invasion. Nowadays vehicular traffic is largely diverted onto the nearby M2 motorway.
Watling Street passes through the town, and slightly to the south both the M2 motorway and the High Speed 1 railway line bridge the River Medway.
Bus
Bus services are operated by Arriva Southern Counties, which took over the locally owned Maidstone & District bus company in the 1990s. Other local bus companies including Nu-Venture provide certain services, some contracted from the local council.
Rail
Rochester railway station is on the Chatham Main Line and the North Kent Line. Strood railway station is on the North Kent Line and the Medway Valley Line; it links to the HS1 high speed line at Ebbsfleet International giving a running time of 30 minutes into St Pancras. All services are provided by Southeastern.
Air
Rochester Airport began in September 1933 when Rochester City Council purchased some land as the site for a municipal airport. One month later the aircraft manufacturers Short Brothers leased the land for test flying. By 1934–5 Short Brothers had taken over the site, and moved in some of their personnel from the existing seaplane works. The inaugural flight into Rochester was from Gravesend, John Parker flying the Short Brothers Short Scion G-ACJI.
In 1979 the lease reverted to the City Council. After giving thorough consideration to closing the airport, GEC (then comprising Marconi and instrument makers Elliot Automation) decided to take over management of the airport. It maintained two grass landing strips while releasing some land for light industrial expansion.
Further reading
See also
Rainham
HM Prison Rochester
Rochester and Strood (UK Parliament constituency)
Earl of Rochester
References
External links
Medway Council Official Site
Archive Images
Rochester Airport and British Aviation
Photographs of the Rochester Sweeps Festival
Google video of Morris Dancers at Sweeps Festival Rochester 1997
Rochester Literature Festival
www.rochestercathedral.org
Towns in Kent
Market towns in Kent
Towns with cathedrals in the United Kingdom
Unparished areas in Kent
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218770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medway | Medway | Medway is a conurbation and unitary authority in Kent, South East England. It had a population in 2019 of 278,016. The unitary authority was formed in 1998 when the City of Rochester-upon-Medway amalgamated with Gillingham Borough Council to form Medway Council, a unitary authority independent of Kent County Council.
Medway is one of the boroughs included in the Thames Gateway development scheme. It is also the home of Universities at Medway, a tri-partite collaboration of the University of Greenwich, the University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University on a single campus in Chatham, together with the University for the Creative Arts, which has a campus in Rochester.
Geography
Because of its strategic location by the major crossing of the River Medway, it has made a wide and significant contribution to Kent, and to England, dating back thousands of years, as evident in the siting of Watling Street by the Romans and by the Norman Rochester Castle, Rochester Cathedral (the second oldest in Britain) and the Chatham naval dockyard and its associated defences.
The main towns in the conurbation are (from west to east): Strood, Rochester, Chatham, Gillingham, and Rainham. These are traditionally known as the Medway Towns. Many smaller towns and villages such as Frindsbury, Brompton, etc., lie within the conurbation. Outside the urban area, the villages retain parish councils. Cuxton, Halling and Wouldham are in the Medway Gap region to the south of Rochester and Strood. Hoo St Werburgh, Cliffe, High Halstow, St Mary Hoo, Allhallows, Stoke and Grain are on the Hoo Peninsula to the north. Frindsbury Extra including Upnor borders Strood.
The southern part of the urban area is on the north slope of the North Downs, including the suburbs of Walderslade, Luton, Hempstead and Wigmore.
Over half of the unitary authority area is rural in nature. Medway includes parts of the North Kent Marshes, an environmentally significant wetlands region with several Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). Other similar areas of conservation include Ranscombe Farm on chalk grassland and woodland between Strood and Cuxton, with rare woodland flowers and orchids.
History
The Medway area has a long and varied history dominated originally by the city of Rochester and later by the naval and military establishments principally in Chatham and Gillingham.
Rochester was established on an Iron Age site by the Romans, who called it Durobrivae (meaning "stronghold by the bridge"), to control the point where Watling Street (now the A2) crossed the River Medway. Rochester later became a walled town and, under later Saxon influence, a mint was established here. The first cathedral was built by Bishop Justus in 604 and rebuilt under the Normans by Bishop Gundulf, who also built the castle that stands opposite the cathedral. Rochester was also an important point for people travelling the Pilgrims' Way, which stretches from Winchester to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury. The Pilgrims' Way crossed the Medway near Cuxton.
In Rochester, parts of the Roman city wall are still in evidence, and the city has many fine buildings, such as the Guildhall (today a museum), which was built in 1687 and is among the finest 17th-century civic buildings in Kent; the Corn Exchange, built in 1698, originally the Butcher's Market; the small Tudor house of Watts Charity endowed by Sir Richard Watts to house "six poor travelers" for one night each; Satis House and Old Hall, both visited by Queen Elizabeth I, built in 1573. In Medway there are 82 scheduled ancient monuments, 832 Listed buildings and 22 conservation areas.
Naval and military history
The Royal Navy opened an anchorage dockyard in Gillingham (Jillingham Water) during the reign of Henry VIII, in 1567 the Royal Naval Dockyard was established in Medway. Although it is called Chatham dockyard, two-thirds of the dockyard lie within Gillingham. The dockyard was closed in 1984, with the loss of eight thousand jobs at the dockyard itself and many more in local supply industries, contributing to a mid-1980s Medway unemployment rate of sixteen percent. It was protected by a series of forts including Fort Amherst and the Lines, Fort Pitt and Fort Borstal. The majority of surviving buildings in the Historic Dockyard are Georgian. It was here that , Admiral Lord Nelson's flagship at Trafalgar, was built and launched in 1765. Sir Francis Drake learned his seamanship on the Medway; Sir John Hawkins founded a hospital in Chatham for seamen, and Nelson began his Navy service at Chatham at the age of 12. Other notable sea-faring and naval figures, such as William Adams, were raised on the Medway but apprenticed elsewhere. The river was further protected by such fortifications as Upnor Castle which, in 1667 in varying accounts says it was partly successful in thwarting the Dutch raid on the dockyard, or the commanding officer fled without firing on the Dutch.
Another warship built at Chatham that still exists is (a 46-gun "Leda" class frigate) laid down in February 1822, and launched 30 March 1824. She never saw active service and has been restored and is (as of 2005) preserved afloat in Dundee, Scotland.
On 25 November 1914 the battleship was moored at buoy number 17 at Kethole Reach on the River Medway. She was taking on coal from the airship base at Kingsnorth, on the Isle of Grain when an internal explosion (most likely the result of cordite charges stored alongside a boiler room bulkhead and failure to follow guidelines on the storage of shells) ripped the ship apart. In all, the explosion killed 745 men and 51 officers. Five of the 14 men who survived died later of their wounds, and almost all of the others were seriously wounded. There are mass and individual graves in Woodlands Cemetery in Gillingham for the Bulwarks dead, who were mostly drawn from the Portsmouth area. The explosion could be heard from up to at Southend and Whitstable. In terms of loss of life it remains the second worst explosion in British history.
Less than six months later there was a second explosion. This time it was the Princess Irene. She was a 1,500-passenger liner built at Dumbarton in 1914 for Canadian Pacific. Before she could leave Britain she was commandeered for war service and became , and was used as a minelayer. After several trips she was back in the Medway for a refit when on the morning of 27 May 1915 a huge internal explosion tore through the vessel, shaking the ground for miles around and showering the surrounding villages with remains of bodies and debris. 278 died, including 78 workers from nearby towns and villages. In one Sheerness street there were ten who died. A Court of Inquiry was held into the loss and evidence was given that priming of the mines was being carried out hurriedly and by untrained personnel. A faulty primer was blamed for the explosion.
The British Army also established barracks here; and the Royal Engineers headquarters is in Gillingham.
The Royal Marines also have a long association with Chatham. The Chatham Division was based in Chatham until the closure of Chatham Dockyard. A museum dedicated to the Royal Marines can be found close to the dockyard at the Royal Engineers Museum in Brompton. Founded in 1812, it moved to its current site in 1987. It was classed as Grade II listed on 5 December 1996.
21st century development
The population of Medway is projected to increase to around 300,000 by 2028 according to 2013 projections. Medway Council foresees total investment on development to be in excess of £1 billion over a 20-year period from 2006.
As of 2019, the towns in order of population (approximate figures) were Gillingham (85,000 – not including Rainham), Chatham (78,000), Strood (40,000), Rochester (30,000 – not including Strood) and Rainham (25,000). The towns as a whole are expected to rise dramatically in residents as increased development and housing prices are considerably less than most of Kent and London, which is 30 miles away.
In 2004, Medway Council announced its development strategy for the Medway Waterfront area. The report set out a 20-year framework plan for the redevelopment of up to seven miles (11 km) of waterfront and surrounding areas along the River Medway. The project aims to create between 6,000 and 8,000 new homes and 8,500 jobs, against central government targets of 16,000 new homes and 23,000 new jobs for the Medway area as a whole.
Among the transport proposals set forth for consideration were a new bridge linking the Medway City industrial estate to central Chatham; the removal of Chatham's gyratory system along with an associated relocation of the town's bus station; remodelling of Strood's one-way system; and the provision of new cycle lanes and park-and-ride services throughout the area.
Chatham's ring road system was subsequently changed into a two-way system in September 2006 with the Sir John Hawkins flyover (pictured right in 2007) being closed before later demolition to make way for a new bus station at the end of 2008. The new bus station opened in October 2011.
Other recent and proposed developments include:
Rochester riverside
In Rochester, a 74-acre (30-hectare) area of brownfield land between the river and the railway line is being developed with high-density housing. Up to 50 homes per hectare will be built. The site will also include a primary school, two hotels, business centre, health centre, cafes, restaurants, bars and various commercial units.
Chatham centre and waterfront
Numerous developments are proposed for the Chatham area including widening and straightening Union Street, development and improvements to The Brook and new developments at Gun Wharf and Chatham Waterfront. One such development at Chatham Waterfront (the area between Rochester railway station and Chatham Dockyard) is The Quays, a mixed-use development comprising two 20-storey residential towers, designed by WilkinsonEyre architects.
Medway Gate
A major development in Strood between Medway Valley Park and junction 2 of the M2 motorway, much of the Medway Gate development is inside a large abandoned chalk pit. The area has seen the building of over 400 homes since work began in 2006, including 125 affordable homes.
Strood riverside
Redevelopment including new homes and a landscaped play area were completed in the 1990s, but there are plans to extend this development further along the river beyond Strood railway station with another 500 to 600 homes to be built, the waterfront developed with new recreational and leisure facilities, and access to the station, town centre and Medway City estate to be improved.
Temple Waterfront
This 173-acre (70-hectare) area between the river and Morgan's Timber yard in Strood (formerly a Templar farm) has plans for 600 homes to be built along with 161,458 square feet (15,000 square metres) of commercial space and a new two-hectare site for Morgan's Timber.
Governance
Formation
Throughout the 19th century there had been proposals to join the Medway towns under a single authority. By 1903 moves began to take place: that year saw the creation of the Borough of Gillingham, to which, in 1928, the adjoining parish of Rainham was added.
In 1944, a Medway Towns Joint Amalgamation Committee was formed by the borough corporations of Chatham, Gillingham and Rochester, to discuss the possibility of the towns forming a single county borough. In 1948 the Local Government Boundary Commission recommended that the area become a "most purposes" county borough, but the recommendation was not carried out. In 1956 the Joint Amalgamation Committee decided in favour of the amalgamation and invited representatives from Strood Rural District Council to join the Committee. In 1960, a proposal was made by Rochester Council that the merger be effected by the city absorbing the two other towns, to safeguard its ancient charters and city status. This led to Gillingham Council voting to leave the committee, as it believed the three towns should go forward as equal partners. On 9 March, the committee held its last meeting, with the Chatham representatives voting to dissolve the body and those from Rochester voting against. The motion to disband was passed on the casting vote of the chairman, Alderman Semple from Chatham.
Under the Local Government Act 1972, on 1 April 1974 the City of Rochester, the Borough of Chatham and part of Strood Rural District were amalgamated to form the Borough of Medway, a local government district in the county of Kent. Gillingham chose to remain separate. Under letters patent the former city council area was to continue to be styled the "City of Rochester" to "perpetuate the ancient name" and to recall "the long history and proud heritage of the said city". The city was unique, as it had no council or charter trustees and no mayor or civic head. In 1979, the Borough of Medway was renamed as Rochester-upon-Medway, and in 1982 further letters patent transferred the city status to the entire borough.
On 1 April 1998, the existing local government districts of Rochester-upon-Medway and Gillingham were abolished under the local government review and merged to become the new unitary authority of Medway, administratively independent from Kent County Council; though, Medway is still within the Kent ceremonial county and Lieutenancy Area, as this has not been amended.
Since it was the local government district of Rochester-upon-Medway that officially held city status under the 1982 letters patent, when it was abolished, it also ceased to be a city. The other local government districts with city status that were abolished around this time (Bath and Hereford) appointed charter trustees to maintain the existence of the city and the mayoralty. However, Rochester-upon-Medway City Council had decided not to and as a result their city status was rescinded. Medway Council apparently only became aware of this when they discovered that Rochester was not on the Lord Chancellor's Office's list of cities. Medway applied for city status in the 2000 and 2002 competitions, but was unsuccessful. In 2010, it started to refer to the "City of Medway" in promotional material, but it was rebuked and instructed not to do so in future by the Advertising Standards Authority. Medway Council made a further bid for city status in 2012, when three cities were afforded the honour as part of The Queen's Diamond Jubilee civic honours competition. Ultimately Medway was unsuccessful with the eventual winners being Chelmsford (Essex), Perth (Perthshire), and St Asaph (Denbighshire).
Politics
The council comprises 55 councillors representing different wards. The party political breakdown of the council following the 2019 local elections is:
Since the election, one Conservative councillor was expelled from the group and now sits as an Independent Conservative.
Parts of the unitary authority are parished, chiefly the rural areas. There are currently 11 parishes;
Allhallows
Cliffe and Cliffe Woods
Cooling
Cuxton
Frindsbury Extra
Halling
High Halstow
Hoo St Werburgh
St James Isle of Grain
St Mary Hoo
Stoke
Education
Medway operates a two-tier education system, with academic selection for admission to secondary schools determined by the Eleven plus exam. There are a number of grammar schools located in the area, the other secondary schools in Medway being non-selective (apart from one faith schools and the school on the peninsula). There are also a number of independent schools operating in the area. Medway is also home to the third largest Home School population of children in the UK after the Isles of Scilly and Isle of Wight.
Demographics
Population: The population of Medway as measured in the 2001 Census was 249,488, of which 49% were male and 51% female. Most of the population live in the Chatham and Gillingham areas: 70,540 in Chatham and 99,773 in Gillingham.
Unemployment: The closure of Chatham Dockyard cost some 20,000 jobs. In June 2005 local unemployment stood at 2.3% of the workforce, a total of 3,678 people. Many of the employed population of 160,000 people now work outside the district — especially in London, which has many transport links from Medway.
Economy
This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Medway at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of pounds Sterling.
Culture
Medway's cultural strategy is run by Creative Medway, a sector-led organisation drawing together business, cultural sector organisations and freelancers.
There are five theatres in Medway, two run by the council and three independent. The council theatres are the Central Theatre (966 seats hosting a variety of tribute acts) and the Brook Theatre in the Old town hall (400 seats hosting a variety of shows). The independent theatres are Medway Little Theatre (96 seats), The Oasthouse Theatre and Kings Theatre (110 seats).
Leisure and recreation
Medway Park (formerly The Black Lion Leisure Centre) in Gillingham is a sub-regional sports centre with three indoor pools for swimming and SCUBA diving, gym, fitness centre, sports hall and squash courts. It includes the Jumpers Rebound Centre for trampolining. Medway Park has been upgraded for the Medway 2012 programme to secure local benefits from the London Olympics.
The Strand Leisure Park in Gillingham has an open-air swimming pool on the banks of the River Medway as well as other leisure attractions including tennis courts and a narrow-gauge railway.
Strood Sports Centre in has an indoor swimming pool, gym, sports hall, squash courts and an astroturf sports pitch.
Gillingham has an ice rink, The Ice Bowl, home to a local ice hockey team, the Invicta Dynamos who play in the NIHL South Division 1.
Gillingham F.C. are the main football team of the area. They play in Football League One.
John Nike Ski Centre – located in Capstone near Hempstead
The Splashes Leisure Centre in Rainham, Kent has a swimming pool with indoor slide and a wave machine. It also has a small gym on the second floor.
Transport
Roadways
Watling Street (the A2), the Roman road between the Port of Dover on the English Channel and London, runs through Medway. This route became particularly congested and led to the building of the M2 to bypass the Medway Towns to the south in the 1960s and was subsequently widened extensively at the turn of the 21st century. The A2 through the Medway Towns varies from single carriageway to dual carriageway to "one way" systems. In places it deviates from the original route of Watling Street.
The A2 leaves the main route (which bypasses Medway by either the Northern Relief Road — The A289 or the M2) at the Three Crutches junction. The road descends through Strood towards the river. During the descent, the road to Gravesend, the A226 joins. In Strood the High Street is bypassed by the one-way system to the north and south encircling the High Street. The A2 crosses the Medway via two bridges in a dual carriageway (see Rochester Bridge). One bridge is Victorian and in the position of the original Roman bridge. The second bridge is more recent and build upon the piers of the original London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) main line railway bridge (the Chatham Main Line uses the South Eastern Railway's branch line's bridge).
In Rochester the High street is bypassed to the north by the dualled Corporation Street. The A2 then crosses the high street, climbs Star Hill and follows New road by Fort Pitt / Jackson's Field to bypass Chatham to the south (by the Station, via a flyover known as New Cut). As it approaches Luton it is a dual carriageway for a short stretch, where a major junction lies with the railway (Chatham Main line) passes overhead — this is known as Luton Arches. It then climbs Chatham Hill (to Gillingham) now has a separate bus lane. The A2 / Watling street traditionally bypasses central Gillingham which lies to the North. From the main road to Gillingham (Canterbury Street), the A2 is dual carriageway. Here the Northern Relief Road (A289) rejoins at the Will Adams roundabout. This is swiftly followed by the Bowater roundabout where the A278 Hoath Way leads to the M2 to the South, this is so named and distinctive because of the former paper mill Bowaters at this location that left a giant water tower. A large Tesco supermarket currently inhabits the site. As the road progresses into Rainham it becomes single carriageway again.
Connecting Medway with neighbouring Gravesend is the A226. The leaves the A2 on the hill above Strood. It is a single carriageway A road.
The A228 runs along the west bank of the Medway, through Strood. Intersecting the M2 at its second junction, crossing the A2 through the centre of Strood and meeting (and encompassing for a short stretch) the Northern Relief Road (A289). The road then carries on to the Isle of Grain. Throughout its passage through Strood it is single carriageway, but the stretches to the North are dualled partially toward Grain. The road to Grain was an accident black spot, this and increased traffic from the major port of Thamesport which is located to the north-west along the Medway Estuary prompted the construction of a new dual carriageway. The A228 Main Road to Ropers Lane project was provisionally approved by the government in December 2001. Design work started in March 2000 and in February 2004, contractors got under way with moving services such as water, gas and fuel pipes. This work was vital, as the pipes actually supply the Hoo Peninsula and the power station at Grain. The largest water main that was moved was 24 inches (610 mm) in diameter and the largest gas main 36 inches (914 mm). The road cost £19 million and is approximately 2.5 miles (4 km) long.
The A229 starts from the A2 at the junction at the top of Star Hill alongside Jackson's Field / Fort Pitt, it follows City Way to the South where at Fort Horstead / Rochester Airport / Mid Kent College it meets the branch from Chatham (the A230 which starts at Chatham Station / New Cut). From here it continues south, becoming dual carriageway and meeting the M2 at its third junction, which also provides access with Walderslade. This road then proceeds down Blue Bell Hill (from the summit of the North Downs) to the county town of Maidstone and the M20.
The A278 Hoath Way links the A2 at Gillingham to its southern suburbs (Hempstead, Wigmore and Parkwood) to the M2's fourth junction. It is dual carriageway throughout.
The A289 was built in the 1990s as the Medway Towns Northern Relief Road. Constructed in three stages, firstly it bypasses Strood with a dual carriageway from Three Crutches (M2 J1) to the A226 and the A228 (The Wainscott Northern Bypass). It then joins the A228 (as The Wainscott Eastern Bypass) — these two parts are dualled. A dualled link road leads to the Medway Tunnel to the Chatham Dockyard. Here it meets Dock Road (A231) that leads to Chatham. The A289 continues between northern Gillingham and the river, and then turns southwards through Gillingham Golf Course to rejoin the A2 at the Will Adams roundabout.
The A2045 is the A289's counterpart, however it is largely unbuilt. The Medway Towns Southern Relief Road was proposed to link the (then) new developments to the south of Chatham (Walderslade) and Gillingham (Hempstead, Wigmore and Parkwood) with M2's J3 and the A229 to the east and the M2's J4 and A278 in the west. A single carriageway road was built south of Walderslade to access the Walderslade Woods and Lordswood developments. At the other end a small section was built to access the Hempstead development and its shopping centre. However, the key middle stretch was left unbuilt, a link road to central Chatham via Luton, the B2156 North Dane Way was also left incomplete with no road to link to. The removal of Medway from Kent (which the incomplete section would lay in) and the recent widening of M2 leaves the proposed project with little chance of completion in the foreseeable future.
Buses
The vast majority of local bus routes throughout Medway are centred upon the newly opened Waterfront bus station (replacing Pentagon bus station) in Chatham.
Most bus routes are run by Arriva Southern Counties, which took over the locally owned Maidstone & District bus company in the 1990s. Other local bus companies including Nu-Venture provide certain services, some under contract to the local authority.
Buses are numbered between 100 and 199 for local services, with buses numbered in the 700s to show Kent County Council subsidised services including those to Walderslade and Bluewater Shopping Centre, and in the 600s for school bus services.
Bus links to London and other parts of the south east can be accessed via Bluewater Shopping Centre, near Greenhithe, which has extensive bus routes to London.
Coaches
Commuter coaches run from various parts of Medway to a selection of London destinations using the M2/A2. Operating companies include The Kings Ferry and Chalkwell Coaches.
National Express runs regular services from Hempstead Valley Shopping Centre, Chatham Waterfront bus station, and Chatham Maritime Universities to Gatwick Airport.
Railways
The Medway Council area has seven railway stations:
Strood Station
Rochester Station
Chatham Station
Gillingham Station
Rainham Station
Halling Station
Cuxton Station
It is served by the Medway Valley line, the North Kent line and the Chatham Main Line.
The owners of the Thames and Medway Canal tunnel that linked Medway (specifically Strood) with Gravesend turned half their canal into a railway bringing the first rails to Medway. They were soon absorbed by the South Eastern Railway whose North Kent line linked Strood with Gravesend, Dartford, and then London Bridge. Subsequently, SER extended their branch from their main line to Maidstone to Strood — the Medway Valley line. Stations were built on the Medway Valley line for the villages of Cuxton and Halling.
A rival company, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway, built a railway between Chatham and East Kent. Unable to secure a connection and running rights over the SER's North Kent line they built their own main line to Bromley where they connected with the West End of London & Crystal Palace Railway to gain access to London Victoria. This railway became known as the Chatham Main Line. It had stations at which was actually in Strood, Chatham and New Brompton which was renamed Gillingham. The line was extended through Rainham to the Kent Coast (Thanet and Dover).
In reaction to this strong rival the SER built a small branch alongside the LCDR over the Medway on a parallel bridge to a station in Rochester and a terminus called which was actually just outside Chatham.
The strenuous competition between the two companies resulted in their merger into the South Eastern and Chatham Railway in 1899. Subsequent rationalisation saw the closure of the LCDR's station in Strood and the SER's branch to Rochester and Chatham (although the bridge was retained and is used to this day).
Post World War I saw the big four grouping and the SECR was merged into Southern in 1923. This led to electrification of suburban services (750 V DC third rail) which by World War II had seen electric traction reach Gillingham on the Chatham Main Line and Maidstone West (via Strood and the North Kent Line) on the Medway Valley line.
Post war (1948) saw nationalisation into British Rail, which under its 1955 modernisation part saw the completion of Southern's electrification efforts in Kent as a key target. Thus Rainham was reached as part of this programme. It also saw the extension of platforms on the Chatham Main Line to 12 cars, leading to the closure of two of Chatham's four platforms. Rochester retained four platforms, while Strood and Gillingham kept three. Rainham had only two platforms until 2017 when an additional bay was created to facilitate new trains on through services to destinations north of London. These are scheduled to commence in May 2018. In December 2015, a new Rochester station opened replacing the original one. It has three platforms and can handle 12-car trains.
Extensive goods yards existed at Strood, Rochester and Gillingham. Strood had engine sheds, while Gillingham still has carriage depots. A freight branch to Chatham Dockyard also exists. The network within the dockyard has been extensively curtailed since the dockyards closure.
Rail services generally consist of North Kent Line services (to London Bridge and beyond — Charing Cross and Cannon Street) starting from Gillingham. The Medway Valley line receives a shuttle service up and down terminating at Strood for transfers to the North Kent Line, although some services run through to Tonbridge and even Gatwick. The main services are on the Chatham Main line, with stopper services from Faversham (i.e. they stop at local stations, running fast from Bromley) and fast services from Kent Coast (i.e. they run fast from Medway to London). Services are currently operated by Southeastern.
The High Speed 1 line passes through the Medway Towns area, running parallel to the M2/A2 Trunk road. The completion of High Speed 1 has seen domestic services operating on the line, which includes a stopping service starting at Faversham running to Strood and Gravesend before joining the High Speed line at Ebbsfleet. From there it travels at high speed to Stratford International and St Pancras International, where connections can now be made with mainline trains to the north of England. The rail service is extensively used by the residents of Medway to commute into London.
Waterways
Although it is extensively used for leisure, the River Medway is not used for local transport purposes; however, cargo ships operated by Union Transport of Bromley still sail to the cement works to the south at Halling/Cuxton. Part of the closed Royal Navy base is now used as a cargo port and has Ro/Ro facilities; cargo that comes in ranges from paper pulp to dredged material, but this traffic only uses one of the three main basins. There is also a ship repair facility located in the basin. Thamesport, which is located on the edge of the Medway Estuary on the Isle of Grain, handles the shipping of containers and fossil fuels. Kingsnorth Power Station has coal shipped in from Dunkirk. Scotline also operates a fleet of coasters for the import of wood, and has a wharf on the River Medway. There is also a wharf on the river called Eurowharf, which deals with dredged material. In addition, there was a shipping company based on the river, formerly known as Lapthorn Shipping but then as Coastal Bulk Shipping, but it ceased trading at the end of 2008.
Air
There are two small airports. The first, Rochester Airport, is a "grass strip" used for leisure purposes. Stoke Airfield near Grain is used by microlights and light aircraft. For scheduled air travel, Medway residents can use Kent's Lydd Airport (or Manston Airport until its 2014 closure), but these lack extensive passenger facilities or routes; thus, the main London airports are used instead in most cases.
Notable people
See sections in the constituent towns.
William Adams, the first Englishman to record reaching Japan, was born in Gillingham. The Japanese Shogun made him a samurai (warrior). He is significant to Medway because this has led to the twinning with Yokosuka and Itō, the latter being the location of the shogun shipbuilding sites most associated with William Adams.
Charles Dickens lived in Medway; a museum was in Eastgate House in Rochester until its closure in 2004. A visitor attraction based on his works was located at Chatham Dockside until October 2016, when it closed. One of his many houses still exists in Rochester High Street today.
Thomas Aveling of Aveling and Porter, the first British, and once the largest, manufacturer of steamrollers in the world, is buried in the graveyard of Hoo St. Werburgh parish church. Aveling lived in this village on the Hoo Peninsula, where he invented and tested his steamrollers.
Actress and model Kelly Brook was born in Rochester and attended the Thomas Aveling School.
Artist, musician and poet Billy Childish.
Bill Lewis, poet (founder member of The Medway Poets, mythographer, founder member of the Stuckist art group and member of Colony: A Community of Artists.
Marxist scholar David Harvey was born and brought up in Gillingham.
Thomas Hodgskin, an early socialist whose writing on the political economy influenced Karl Marx.
Francis Drake lived in Upnor and learnt to sail on the Medway.
Chris Smalling English footballer attended Chatham Grammar School for Boys
Jools Holland, musician and the host of Later... with Jools Holland, lives in the Cooling Castle on the Hoo Peninsula.
River Medway, a contestant on RuPaul's Drag Race UK Series 3, placing 6th alongside Choriza May.
Twin towns
Medway is twinned with:
— Valenciennes (France) (existing since 1955 making it the 2nd oldest such twinning in the UK)
— Yokosuka and Itō (Japan)
— Cádiz (Spain)
— Foshan (China)
References
External links
Medway Council
Archive Images
Detailed history of the Medway Towns
Chatham's World Heritage Site application
Medway's UK City of Culture 2025 bid
Unitary authority districts of England
Urban areas of England
Local authorities adjoining the River Thames
Local government districts of South East England
Local government in Kent | [
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218779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20L.%20Sharkey | William L. Sharkey | William Lewis Sharkey (July 12, 1798 – March 30, 1873) was an American judge and politician from Mississippi. A staunch Unionist during the Civil War, he opposed the 1861 secession of Mississippi.
Sharkey was born in Tennessee in 1798 and moved to Mississippi as a child. He was admitted to the bar in 1822, and served in the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1828 to 1829. He then served on the Supreme Court of the state of Mississippi for 18 years until his 1851 appointment to Secretary of War by President Millard Fillmore. He declined the position and instead served as United States consul in Havana, Cuba. A Whig, he was a Unionist and opposed Mississippi's 1861 secession from the United States.
President Andrew Johnson appointed Sharkey to be provisional governor of Mississippi in 1865. That year, he was elected to the United States Senate but was denied his seat by the Congress.
He died in Washington, D.C. in 1873 and is Greenwood Cemetery in Jackson, Mississippi. Sharkey County, Mississippi, is named in his honor.
Biography
Early life
William Lewis Sharkey was born on July 12, 1798 in Sumner County, Tennessee. He moved to Warren County, Mississippi in 1804 with his family, when he was six years of age. In 1822, he was admitted to the bar in Natchez, Mississippi.
Career
In 1825, he moved to Vicksburg and after a few years was elected for a single term to the state House of Representatives (1828–1829). He served briefly in 1832 as a circuit court judge before being elected a justice to the state supreme court later that year where he remained for 18 years until his resignation. Sharkey was appointed to the office of Secretary of War by U.S. President Millard Fillmore in 1851, but declined. From 1851 to 1854, he served as United States consul in Havana, Cuba.
He was a member of the Whig Party and was strongly opposed to the secession of Mississippi in 1861. Throughout the American Civil War, he remained a staunch Unionist and, according to one source, was "tolerated by his Confederate neighbors only because of his towering reputation as a jurist."
Governor Charles Clark appointed him in 1865 as a commissioner (along with William Yeager) to confer on behalf of the state with President Andrew Johnson. On June 13, 1865, Johnson appointed Sharkey to be provisional governor, leaving office with the election of Benjamin G. Humphreys in October. He was elected Senator in 1865 but was denied his seat by the United States Congress.
Death
He died in Washington, D.C. in 1873. He is buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Jackson, Mississippi.
Legacy
Sharkey County, Mississippi, is named after him.
See also
Hinds v. Brazealle
References
x
External links
1798 births
1873 deaths
19th-century American politicians
American consuls
Governors of Mississippi
Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Justices of the Mississippi Supreme Court
Mississippi Whigs
People from Sumner County, Tennessee
People from Warren County, Mississippi
Southern Unionists in the American Civil War
19th-century American judges | [
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218780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Society%20for%20the%20Prevention%20of%20Cruelty%20to%20Animals | American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals | {{Infobox organization
|name = American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
|abbreviation = ASPCA
|image = American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (logo).svg
|motto = "We are their voice."
|formation = April 10, 1866
|type =
|status = Foundation
|purpose = Humane care for animals
|headquarters = New York City
|membership = 1.2 million+
|coords =
|region_served = United States
|language = English
|leader_title = President & CEO
|leader_name = Matthew E. Bershadker<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-board-directors-names-matthew-bershadker-president-and-ceo|title=ASPCA Board of Directors Names Matthew Bershadker President and CEO}}</ref>
|website =
}}
The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to preventing cruelty to animals. Based in New York City since its inception in 1866, the organization's mission is "to provide effective means for the prevention of cruelty to animals throughout the United States."
History
Following the creation of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) in the United Kingdom in 1824 (given Royal status in 1840), Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals on April 10, 1866, in New York City on the belief that animals are entitled to kind and respectful treatment at the hands of humans, and must be protected under the law. It is the oldest animal welfare organization in the United States. On February 8, 1866, Bergh pleaded on behalf of animals at a meeting at Clinton Hall in New York City. Some of the issues he discussed were cockfighting and the horrors of slaughterhouses. After getting signatures for his "Declaration of the Rights of Animals," Bergh was given an official charter to incorporate ASPCA on April 10, 1866. On April 19, 1866, the first anti-cruelty law was passed In NY since the founding of ASPCA, and the organization was granted the right to enforce anti-cruelty laws. In 1867, ASPCA operated its first ambulance for injured horses and began advocating for more humane treatment of animals such as horses, live pigeons, cats and dogs. Early goals of ASPCA focused on efforts for horses and livestock, since at the time they were used for a number of activities.
In 1918, ASPCA veterinarians developed the use of anesthesia and as a result were able to work on a horse with a broken kneecap.
In 1954, ASPCA hospitals added pathology and radiography laboratories and programs. In 1961, ASPCA veterinarians performed their first open-heart surgery on a dog.
From 1894 to 1994, the ASPCA operated the municipal animal shelter system in New York City which euthanized unadopted animals. Starting in 1977, the ASPCA entered into a contract with New York City Department of Health to receive municipal funding to operate the shelter system. The contract rendered the ASPCA increasingly reliant on government income rather than private donations, and subject to the effects of annual city budget appropriations. In 1993, the ASPCA decided not to renew its contract for operating the municipal animal shelter system in New York City, which they had been operating since 1894. Operation of the shelter system was transferred to Center for Animal Care and Control, later renamed Animal Care Centers of NYC, in 1995.
In 1996, the ASPCA acquired the Animal Poison Control Center from the University of Illinois. In 2013, the ASPCA made a $25 million commitment to assist at-risk animals and pet owners in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, including a fully subsidized spay/neuter facility in South Los Angeles operated by the ASPCA and a campaign to encourage the fostering of local vulnerable kittens.
In 2014, the ASPCA spoke out in support of new New York City mayor Bill de Blasio's campaign to ban horse-drawn carriages in the city.
In 2014, the ASPCA opened the Gloria Gurney Canine Annex for Recovery & Enrichment (CARE) in NYC to house dogs brought by the NYPD to the ASPCA in connection with animal cruelty investigations. In 2014, the ASPCA also opened the ASPCA Kitten Nursery in NYC to care for neonate and very young homeless kittens until they are appropriate for adoption.
In 2015, the ASPCA acquired the Asheville, NC-based Humane Alliance, now called the ASPCA Spay/Neuter Alliance.
In 2018, the ASPCA established the ASPCA Behavioral Rehabilitation Center. Located in Weaverville, North Carolina, the Center provides behavioral rehabilitation to canine victims of cruelty and neglect. The Center’s Learning Lab also disseminates rehabilitative aid and training to shelters around the country.
In 2019, the ASPCA opened the ASPCA Community Veterinary Center in Liberty City, Miami, FL to provide subsidized veterinary services for an undeserved community. Also in 2019, the ASPCA also took over responsibility for The Right Horse Initiative as an official program of the ASPCA.
In 2020, the ASPCA opened the ASPCA Community Veterinary Center in the Bronx, New York.
In 2020, the ASPCA launched a series of programs in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and its effect on pets, owners, and communities including free pet food for dogs, cats, and horses in New York City, Los Angeles, Miami, and Asheville, grants to animal welfare organizations, emergency pet boarding services, a New York City COVID-19 Pet Hotline, and expanded stationary and mobile veterinary care.
In 2021, the ASPCA opened the ASPCA Community Veterinary Center supported by the Alex and Elisabeth Lewyt Charitable Trust, in NYC.
Controversy
In 2012, the ASPCA agreed to pay Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus $9.3 million to settle a lawsuit regarding the ASPCA's false allegations of animal cruelty by the circus. Courts found that ASPCA activists had paid the key witness, a former Ringling barn helper, at least $190,000, making him "essentially a paid plaintiff" who lacked credibility. Edwin J. Sayres stepped down as CEO in 2012, and in 2013 longtime ASPCA staff member Matthew Bershadker was named president and CEO.
Legislation and litigation
The ASPCA’s Government Relations and Legal Advocacy and Investigations departments work with state and federal lawmakers and engage in legislative and litigation efforts to secure stronger legal protections for animals.
Some of the animal welfare issues the departments work on include ending puppy mills and breed-specific legislation.
In 2019, the ASPCA sued the U.S. Department of Agriculture for access to animal breeder inspection records.
National cruelty and field response
At the invitation of local agencies, the ASPCA deploys to sites of large-scale animal abuse, animal neglect, natural disasters, or man-made disasters in which animals are at risk. Teams including National Field Response, Legal Advocacy and Investigations, Forensic Sciences, the Cruelty Recovery Center, Relocation and the Behavioral Sciences team, engage in animal rescue efforts. They provide behavioral and medical treatment for the animals and support the prosecution of criminal cases with forensic science, evidence collection and analysis, legal and expert testimony support.
Cases involving torture, killings and mistreatment of animals are some examples of cases handled by the ASPCA. A common example was displayed in the news in October 2008, when the ASPCA was in charge of an investigation involving the slaughtering of a beagle that lived in the Bronx. Brian McCafferty was charged with torturing and injuring his wife's beagle, Jerry, after an argument with his wife. The ASPCA conducted a necropsy that concluded that Jerry was stabbed twice and shot in the neck with a rifle. McCafferty claims that he was acting in self-defense when the dog attacked him. He was eventually released on bail.
In 2016, ASPCA field deployment teams participated in a large animal cruelty rescue operation, rescuing nearly 700 animals from an unlicensed facility in North Carolina.
Other large-scale ASPCA rescues included providing emergency sheltering and assistance for approximately 1,300 animals displaced during the Joplin tornado in 2011, and assisting with the care of 367 dogs in Alabama, Mississippi and Georgia in 2013 in what is believed to be the second-largest dogfighting raid in U.S. history.
In September 2013, after many years of providing humane law enforcement services in NYC, the ASPCA and the New York City Police Department announced a collaboration to provide enhanced protection to New York City’s animals. In this partnership, the NYPD responds to all animal cruelty complaints throughout New York City, while the ASPCA provides medical and behavioral care for animal cruelty victims and provides legal and forensic assistance in the prosecution of cases. The ASPCA Community Engagement team also works closely with NYPD to connect pets in need to services such as medical care, grooming and pet supplies.
In 2020, the ASPCA also opened the ASPCA Veterinary Forensic Science Center in Gainesville, Florida, to assist law enforcement with animal cruelty investigations and prosecutions.
Welfare of farm animals and horses
The ASPCA’s Farm Animal Welfare Program features a “Shop With Your Heart” campaign that guides consumers on making animal welfare-conscious food buying decisions including seeking out meat, egg, and dairy products certified by a one of three credible animal welfare certifications, including Global Animal Partnership (GAP), and exploring more plant-based food options.
The ASPCA’s Right Horse Initiative is focused on increasing the number of successful horse adoptions in the U.S. and improving the number of positive outcomes for horses in transition as they move from one home, career, or owner to the next.
Animal relocation
The ASPCA Animal Relocation Program transports animals from source shelters in locations with high homeless pet overpopulation to destination shelters, where there is a higher demand for adoptable animals.
Presidents and chairpersons
See also
Humane Society of the United States
List of animal rights groups
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
Notes
ReferencesMuch of the content of this article is based on information from the official ASPCA website'':
External links
Finding aid for the ASPCA Papers, 1868-1889 at the Museum of the City of New York
1866 establishments in New York (state)
Animal charities based in the United States
Animal rights organizations
Animal welfare organizations based in the United States
Charities based in New York City
Cruelty to animals
Organizations established in 1866 | [
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218783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Saratoga%20%28CV-60%29 | USS Saratoga (CV-60) | USS Saratoga (CV/CVA/CVB-60), was the second of four supercarriers built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. Saratoga was the sixth U.S. Navy ship, and the second aircraft carrier, to be named for the Battles of Saratoga in the American Revolutionary War.
Commissioned in 1956, she spent most of her career in the Mediterranean, but also participated during the Vietnam War, receiving one battle star for her service. One of her last operational duties was to participate in Operation Desert Storm.
Saratoga was decommissioned in 1994, and was stored at Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island. Multiple unsuccessful attempts were made to preserve her as a museum ship. The Navy paid ESCO Marine of Brownsville, Texas, one cent to take the ship for dismantling and recycling. On 15 September 2014, ex-Saratoga arrived in Brownsville, Texas, to be scrapped. Scrapping was completed by early 2019.
Construction and trials
She was ordered as a "Large Aircraft Carrier", hull classification symbol CVB-60, and her contract was awarded to the New York Naval Shipyard of Brooklyn, New York on 23 July 1952. She is the second of the four Forrestal-class carriers. She was reclassified as an "Attack Aircraft Carrier" (CVA-60) on 1 October 1952. Her keel was laid down on 16 December 1952. She was launched on 8 October 1955 sponsored by Mrs. Charles S. Thomas, and commissioned on 14 April 1956 with CAPT Robert Joseph Stroh in command.<ref name=DANFS>{{cite DANFS |title=Saratoga (CV-60) |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/s/saratoga-vi.html |8 April 2014 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> She was the first carrier in the US Navy to use high-pressure boilers.
Service history
1950s
For the next several months, Saratoga conducted various engineering, flight, steering, structural, and gunnery tests. On 18 August, she sailed for Guantanamo Bay and her shakedown cruise. On 19 December, she reentered the New York Naval Shipyard and remained there until 28 February 1957. Upon completion of yard work, she got underway on a refresher training cruise to the Caribbean before entering her home port, Naval Station Mayport in Mayport, Florida.
On 6 June 1957, President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower and members of his cabinet boarded Saratoga to observe operations on board the giant carrier. For two days, she and eighteen other ships demonstrated air operations, antisubmarine warfare, guided missile operations, and the Navy's latest bombing and strafing techniques. Highlighting the President's visit was the nonstop flight of two F8U Crusaders, spanning the nation in three hours and twenty-eight minutes, from off the West Coast to the flight deck of Saratoga in the Atlantic.
Also in 1957, Saratoga conducted Regulus guided missile tests. She was one of ten aircraft carriers configured to operate the turbojet powered subsonic guided missile and only one of six carriers to ever actually launch the missile (performing two test launches) providing the first United States Navy nuclear strategic deterrence force.
The carrier departed Mayport on 3 September 1957 for her maiden transatlantic voyage. Saratoga sailed into the Norwegian Sea and participated in Operation Strikeback, joint naval maneuvers of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries. She returned briefly to Mayport before entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for repairs.
On 1 February 1958, Saratoga departed Mayport for the Mediterranean and her first deployment with the Sixth Fleet. From this date through 31 December 1967 she was to spend a part of each year in the Mediterranean on a total of eight cruises. The remainder of the time, she either operated off the coast of Florida or was in port undergoing restricted availability.
1960s
On the night of 24–25 May 1960, Saratoga collided with the German freighter Bernd Leonhardt off North Carolina. The freighter's bridge and superstructure were damaged by the carrier's flight-deck. The results of an investigation were never published, but repairs to the freighter, amounting to about 2.5 million German marks, were paid for by the U.S. Navy.
While deployed with the Sixth Fleet on 23 January 1961, a serious fire broke out in Saratogas number two machinery space which took seven lives. The fire, believed caused by a ruptured fuel oil line, was brought under control by the crew, and the ship proceeded to Athens, Greece, where a survey of the damage could be made. The ship continued on its patrol mission with reduced steam generation capability, returning to the U.S. as scheduled to offload its air group before going to repair.
After an extensive shipyard period in the second half of 1964, Saratoga departed for the Mediterranean, arriving just before Christmas 1964. Ports visited over the next 6 months were Naples, Athens, Cannes, Valencia, Spain, Istanbul, and Malta. Another routine Med cruise was undertaken in 1966. The Med cruise from June to December 1967 was anything but routine. Immediately after entering the Med, Saratoga was deployed to the eastern Mediterranean during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, where her medical facility was used to treat survivors of the Israeli attack on USS Liberty. Later on she was involved in a near collision with the cruiser , which cut across Saratogas bow during flight operations. Saratoga had messaged indicating that she was planning to turn to starboard. This would put Little Rock on the outside of the turn because Little Rock was on the port side. As the carrier indicated she was executing her turn, Little Rock increased speed to maintain position. Unfortunately, Saratoga turned to port, putting Little Rock across her bow. Fortunately there was little damage and no injuries reported. During the return voyage in early December 1967, Saratoga spent several days in a fierce Atlantic storm, which caused heavy damage to external catwalks on the flight deck, garbage chute, and boat sponsons. She arrived in Mayport on 6 December.
On 2 January 1968, Saratoga sailed for the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, and an overhaul and modernization program which was to last 11 months. On 31 January 1969, she departed Philadelphia for Guantanamo, via Hampton Roads and Mayport, and extensive refresher training of the crew and air detachments.
On 17 May 1969, Armed Forces Day, she was the host ship for President Richard Nixon during the firepower demonstration conducted by Carrier Air Wing Three in the Virginia Capes area. On 9 July, she departed Mayport for her ninth Mediterranean deployment. Underway, a Soviet surface force and a passed in close proximity, en route to Cuba. Off the Azores on 17 July, Saratoga was shadowed by Kipelovo-based Soviet aircraft. They were intercepted, photographed, and escorted while in the vicinity of the carrier. She operated with Task Group 60.2 of the Sixth Fleet in the eastern Mediterranean during September in a "show of force" in response to the large build-up of Soviet surface units there, the hijacking of a Trans World Airlines plane to Syria and the political coup in Libya. Numerous surveillance and reconnaissance flights were conducted by Carrier Wing Three aircraft against Soviet surface units, including the helicopter carrier , operating southeast of Crete. Saratoga operated in this area again in October because of the crisis in Lebanon.
1970sSaratoga returned to Mayport and the Florida coast from 22 January until 11 June 1970 when she again sailed for duty with the Sixth Fleet.
On 28 September 1970, President Richard Nixon and his party arrived on board. That night, word was received that Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of the United Arab Republic had died; an event that might plunge the entire Middle East into a crisis. The intelligence and communications personnel of the Saratoga were required to supply the President, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Secretaries of State and Defense with the essential intelligence information to keep them abreast of the deteriorating situation. The presidential party departed the ship the next evening, and Saratoga continued on patrol in the eastern Mediterranean until she sailed for the United States on 2 November.
From her arrival at Mayport until 10 March 1971, she was in a "cold iron" status. She then operated off the Florida coast until 7 June when she departed for her eleventh deployment with the Sixth Fleet, via Scotland and the North Sea where she participated in exercise "Magic Sword II." She returned to Mayport on 31 October for a period of restricted availability and local operations.
Vietnam War
On 11 April 1972, Saratoga sailed from Mayport en route to Subic Bay, and her first deployment to the Western Pacific. She arrived in Subic Bay on 8 May and departed for Vietnam the following week, arriving at "Yankee Station" on 18 May for her first period on the line. Before year's end, she was on station in the Tonkin Gulf a total of seven times: 18 May to 21 June; 1 to 16 July; 28 July to 22 August; 2 to 19 September; 29 September to 21 October; 5 November to 8 December; and 18 to 31 December. She had been reclassified as a "Multi-purpose Aircraft Carrier" (CV-60) on 30 June 1972.
During the first period, Saratoga lost four aircraft and three pilots. On 21 June, two of her F-4 Phantoms attacked three Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21s over North Vietnam. Dodging four surface-to-air missiles, they managed to down one of the MiG aircraft. Saratogas planes attacked targets ranging from enemy troop concentrations in the lower panhandle to petroleum storage areas northeast of Hanoi. On her second line period, she lost an F-4 to enemy fire northeast of Hanoi with the pilot and radar intercept officer missing in action. During this period, her aircraft flew 708 sorties against the enemy.
On 6 August, LT Jim Lloyd of Attack Squadron VA-105, flying an A-7 Corsair on a bombing mission near Vinh, had his plane shot out from under him by a SAM. He ejected into enemy territory at night. In a daring rescue by helicopters supported by CVW-3 aircraft, he was lifted from the midst of enemy soldiers and returned to the Saratoga. On 10 August, one of the ship's CAP jet fighters splashed a MiG at night using AIM-7 Sparrow missiles.
During the period 2 to 19 September, Saratogas aircraft flew over 800 combat strike missions against targets in North Vietnam. On 20 October, her aircraft flew 83 close air support sorties in six hours in support of a force of 250 Territorials beleaguered by the North Vietnamese 48th Regiment. Air support saved the small force, enabled ARVN troops to advance, and killed 102 North Vietnamese soldiers. During her last period on station, Saratogas aircraft battered targets in the heart of North Vietnam for over a week.Saratoga departed "Yankee Station" for Subic Bay on 7 January 1973. From there she sailed for the United States via Singapore and arrived at Mayport on 13 February 1973 where she joined the Atlantic Fleet.
Return to Atlantic Fleet
In the beginning of 1975, Saratoga took part in the Locked Gate-75, a NATO operation meant to contain the influence of the Portuguese Communist Party in Portugal after the Carnation Revolution. Along with several foreign vessels, she entered the Tagus River delta and anchored in front of the Presidential Palace of Belém.Saratoga sailed from Mayport, Florida January 1976 for another Med cruise. On board her was VS-22 with the first deployment of the S-3A Viking anti-submarine aircraft. She also took part in operations during the Lebanon crisis in 1976.
On 3 October 1978, the Saratoga departed on another Mediterranean deployment returning on 5 April 1979. On 21 November 1978, Saratoga collided with the replenishment oiler while operating with the Sixth Fleet, during a refueling operation south of Crete, suffering minor damage and no injuries.
1980s
In March 1980, Saratoga embarked airwing CVW-3 and departed on their 16th Mediterranean deployment. Highlights of the deployment included major exercises with the battle group, and visits by the Chief of Naval Operations, ADM Thomas B. Hayward, and Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy Thomas C. Crow. Then-commanding officer, CAPT James H. Flatley III, made naval aviation history on 21 June 1980 when he completed his 1,500th carrier arrested landing. To make the event special, Midshipman James H. Flatley IV, the Captain's son, rode in the back seat.
On 28 September 1980, only one month after her return from deployment, Saratoga departed Mayport and headed north to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard where she underwent the most extensive industrial overhaul ever performed on any Navy ship. Saratoga was the first ship to go through the Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) overhaul that would last 28 months. She conducted sea trials on 16 October 1982, and left Philadelphia with much fanfare on 2 February 1983 with her new nickname — "Super Sara."The Saratoga departed the Mayport Basin yet again for her 17th Mediterranean deployment on 2 April 1984.Saratoga's 18th deployment was anything but ordinary. After departing Mayport in August 1985, Saratoga steamed toward the Mediterranean for what was scheduled to be a routine deployment. But on 10 October, she was called into action. An Italian luxury liner, , on a pleasure cruise departing from Alexandria, was hijacked by terrorists from the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF). After tense negotiations and the killing of an American tourist, the hijackers went ashore at Port Said. Egyptian authorities made hasty arrangements for the terrorists to depart the country. They boarded an Egypt Air 737 jetliner at the Al Maza Air Base, northeast of Cairo. On orders from President Ronald Reagan, seven F-14 Tomcats from the VF-74 "Bedevilers" and the VF-103 "Sluggers" were launched from the Saratoga. Supporting the Tomcats continuously were VA-85 Grumman KA-6D air tankers and E-2C Hawkeye of VAW-125. Off the coast of Crete, the F-14s, without the use of running lights, eased up beside and behind the airliner. On command, the Tomcats turned on their lights and dipped their wings – an international signal for a forced landing. The E-2C Hawkeye radioed the airliner to follow the F-14s. Realizing they were in a "no-win" situation, the hijackers allowed the pilot to follow the Tomcats to Naval Air Station Sigonella, Italy. One hour and 15 minutes later, the aircraft landed and the hijackers were arrested by the Italians after a disagreement between American and Italian authorities. Seven hours after the fighter jets were scrambled, all Saratoga aircraft returned home without a shot fired.
On 5 December 1985 Saratoga became the first aircraft carrier to dock pierside on the island of Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean.
On 23 March 1986, while operating off coast of Libya, aircraft from the carriers Saratoga, and crossed what Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi had called the "Line of Death." The very next day at noon, three U.S. Navy warships crossed the same 32° 30' navigational line. Two hours later, Libyan forces fired SA-5 Gammon surface-to-air missiles from the coastal town of Surt. The missiles missed their F-14 Tomcat targets and fell harmlessly into the water. Later that afternoon, U.S. aircraft turned back two Libyan Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 fighter planes over the disputed Gulf of Sidra. Soon after, aircraft from the three carriers fought back in defense. A heavily armed A-6E Intruder fired Rockeye cluster bombs and a Harpoon anti-ship cruise missile at a Libyan missile patrol boat operating on the "Line of Death." Later that night, two A-7E Corsair II jets attacked a key radar installation at Surt. At the conclusion, three Libyan patrol boats and a radar site were destroyed by Navy aircraft.
Friendly fire shoot-down incident
At 1550 EDT on 22 September 1987, an F-14 Tomcat, of VF-74 out of Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia Beach, Virginia, operating from Saratoga, accidentally shot down a United States Air Force RF-4C Phantom II, of the 26th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, out of Zweibrücken Air Base, West Germany, over the Mediterranean during a NATO exercise, "Display Determination 87". Both RF-4C crew ejected and were rescued by a helicopter from the Saratoga within 30 minutes, suffering numerous injuries. The Tomcat pilot, Timothy W. Dorsey, was duly disciplined and permanently removed from flying status, but was recommended for promotion to rear admiral 25 years later.
Following Saratogas 19th Mediterranean deployment in June 1987, she was overhauled once again at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia, at a cost of $280 million.
1990s
Operation Desert StormSaratoga along with embarked airwing CVW-17, participated in Operation Desert Storm, primarily in the Red Sea. Before the outbreak of hostilities in Iraq, Saratoga suffered a loss of 21 crewmembers in a ferry boat accident off the coast of Haifa, Israel. During the war, Saratoga set what were at the time, several records. She completed six transits of the Suez Canal and completed approximately 11,000 aircraft launch and recovery cycles. Saddam Hussein claimed on Iraqi television that Saratoga had been sunk, along with several other Coalition vessels. On one occasion during the war, a missile, possibly a Scud, was launched in the general direction of Saratoga in the Red Sea, but it was either unguided, or launched on a hunch, as it was determined early in its flight path it would miss by more than .
The ship launched many flights in support of operations, including that of Scott Speicher, correctly assumed to be the first American casualty of the war.
Another Saratoga aircraft shot down was an A-6E Intruder. Bombardier/Navigator LT Jeffrey Zaun was paraded before cameras by his Iraqi captors, but was eventually returned to American forces and was able to return to the Saratoga.Saratoga-based US Navy SEALs conducted the first wartime boardings of merchant shipping in the Red Sea in support of Operation Desert Shield.
The TCG Muavenet incident
During the fall of 1992, the United States, Turkey, and several other NATO members participated in "Exercise Display Determination 1992", a combined forces naval exercise under the overall command of ADM Jeremy Michael Boorda of the United States Navy. The forces of participating nations were assigned to either of two multinational teams. VADM T. Joseph Lopez of the United States Navy led the "Brown Forces", which included Saratoga, with Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 8 embarked. The opposing "Green Forces", including the Turkish destroyer minelayer , former , were under the direct control of Admiral Kroon of the Netherlands.
During the "enhanced tactical" phase of the training exercises, the Brown Forces were to attempt an amphibious landing at Saros Bay in the Aegean Sea against the resistance offered by the Green Forces. ADM Boorda ordered the units comprising each force to actively seek and "destroy" each other. Both task force commanders had full authority to engage the enemy when and where they deemed appropriate and to use all warfare assets at their disposal to achieve victory. Needless to say, all confrontations were intended to be simulated attacks.
While all the ships had a break (green period) and stationed off the coast, on 30 September 1992 the combat direction center tactical action officer (TAO) aboard Saratoga decided to launch a simulated attack on nearby opposition forces utilizing the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missile system. After securing the approval of Saratogas commanding officer and the battle group commander, RADM Philip Dur, the combat direction center officer implemented the simulated assault plan. Without providing prior notice, officers on Saratoga woke the enlisted Sea Sparrow missile team and directed them to conduct the simulated attack. Certain members of the missile firing team were not told that the exercise was a drill, rather than an actual event.
As the drill progressed, the combat direction center officer (TAO) used language to indicate he was preparing to fire a live missile, but due to the absence of standard terminology, the responsible officers failed to appreciate the significance of the terms used and the requests made. Specifically, and at the direct order of the TAO, the target acquisition system operator issued the command "arm and tune", terminology the console operators understood to require arming of the missiles in preparation for actual firing. The officers supervising the drill did not realize that "arm and tune" signified a live firing. As a result, shortly after midnight on the morning of 1 October, Saratoga fired two live Sea Sparrow missiles at Muavenet. The missiles struck Muavenet in the bridge, destroying it and the combat information center, killing five, including the commanding officer, and injuring most of the Turkish ship's officers. Navy officials recommended that the captain of the aircraft carrier Saratoga and seven other officers and sailors be disciplined for the missile firing, a recommendation which was followed through.19962167.OPA.pdf
Decommissioning and fateSaratoga was decommissioned at the Naval Station, Mayport, Florida, on 20 August 1994, and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day. She was towed to Philadelphia in May 1995, then, upon deactivation of the Philadelphia Navy Yard in August 1998, to Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island. There, she was first placed on donation hold, then her status was changed to "disposal as an experimental ship", and finally she was returned to donation hold on 1 January 2000. While a hulk at Newport, ex-Saratoga, like her sisters, was extensively stripped to support the active carrier fleet. There was an active effort to make her a museum ship in Quonset Point in North Kingstown, Rhode Island. In April 2010 Saratoga was removed from donation hold and scheduled to be disposed.
Efforts in 1994–95 to establish the ship as a museum in Jacksonville, Florida failed to raise even half of the start up costs. Jacksonville civic leaders attempted to raise funds, but the fundraising campaign, "Save Our Sara", fell short of the $3 million goal. Efforts were abandoned when startup costs increased from $4.5 million to $6.8 million. Officials had wanted to place the ship in downtown Jacksonville, on the St. Johns River along the Southbank Riverwalk.A major hurdle was competition with the National Football League, who had awarded the city the Jacksonville Jaguars franchise in November 1993. To secure the team as part of the agreement with the NFL, the city had to ensure a large financial commitment to fund re-building of the city's stadium at a cost of $130 million during 1994. This severely limited the city's available funding and support of the "Save Our Sara" effort to bring Saratoga back to her home port. The Jacksonville USS Saratoga Museum Foundation, Inc ceased operating in the summer of 1995.
On 8 May 2014, Naval Sea Systems Command announced that ESCO Marine, Brownsville, Texas, would scrap Saratoga for one cent. This was the minimum amount that could be paid for scrapping the ship. On 21 August 2014, Saratoga departed Naval Station Newport and made its way down Narragansett Bay to the Atlantic Ocean, en route to the Esco Marine ship recycling plant in Brownsville, Texas. The vessel arrived at the scrapyard on 16 September for final scrapping. Scrapping was completed by 31 March 2019.
Both of Saratoga's anchors were reused on the 1998 commissioned, USS Harry S. Truman.
Notable naval officers
ADM Jeremy Michael Boorda, ship was his flagship 1987; 25th Chief of Naval Operations
VADM David Eugene Frost, The first Executive Officer, and interim Commanding Officer of United States Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program(The Navy's "Topgun" School). (CO of USS Saratoga August 1986 – March 1988; During that time, USS Saratoga won two consecutive Battle E's).
CAPT Scott Speicher, Naval Aviator.
RADM Jack M. James, Commanding Officer, 2 October 1964 – 2 September 1965
VADM Joseph Scott Mobley (COMNAVAIRLANT), the U.S. military's last Vietnam prisoner of war (Shot Down: 24 June 1968/Released: 14 March 1973) Retired from active duty on 12 April 2001. (CO of USS Saratoga'' during Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm).
CAPT Frederick T. Moore Jr., commanding officer, November 1962 - September 1963
See also
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
Notes
References
External links
USS Saratoga commisoning – Youtube
USS Saratoga association
history.navy.mil: USS Saratoga
navsource.org: USS Saratoga
navysite.de: USS Saratoga
Naval Historical Center – USS Saratoga (CVA-60, later CV-60), 1956–
Dictionary of American Fighting Ships – Saratoga
Saratoga Museum Foundation Home Page
Tomcatters Association – Saratoga
USS Saratoga CR Division webpage
Forrestal-class aircraft carriers
United States Navy New York (state)-related ships
Ships built in Brooklyn
1955 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
Gulf War ships of the United States
North Kingstown, Rhode Island
Washington County, Rhode Island
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218786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bon%20Homme%20Richard%20%28CV-31%29 | USS Bon Homme Richard (CV-31) | USS Bon Homme Richard (CV/CVA-31) was one of 24 s completed during or shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. She was the second US Navy ship to bear the name, the first one being named for John Paul Jones's famous Revolutionary War frigate by the same name. Jones had named that ship, usually rendered in more correct French as Bonhomme Richard, to honor Benjamin Franklin, the American Commissioner at Paris, whose Poor Richard's Almanac had been published in France under the title Les Maximes du Bonhomme Richard.
Bon Homme Richard was commissioned in November 1944, and served in the final campaigns of the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning one battle star. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was recommissioned in 1951 for the Korean War. In her second career she operated exclusively in the Pacific, playing a prominent role in the Korean War, for which she earned five battle stars, and the Vietnam War. She was modernized and recommissioned in 1955. She was decommissioned in 1971, and scrapped in 1992.
Construction and commissioning
Bon Homme Richard (CV-31) was laid down on 1 February 1943 at the New York Navy Yard, being the first Essex-class carrier to be built at the New York Navy Yard. She was launched 29 April 1944 by Mrs. John S. McCain, wife of Vice Admiral John S. McCain Sr. The ship was commissioned 26 November 1944, with Captain A. O. Rule Jr. as her first commander.
Service history
World War II
Bon Homme Richard departed Norfolk, Virginia, on 19 March 1945 to join the Pacific Fleet and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 5 April 1945. Following additional training in Hawaiian waters, the carrier joined TF 38 off Okinawa on 6 June 1945 with Carrier Air Group 91 (CVG-91) aboard. During 7–10 June she joined in the attacks on Okidaitōjima and then served with the 3rd Fleet during the air strikes against Japan from 2 July to 15 August. She remained off Japan until 16 September 1945 and after a short training period off Guam, proceeded to San Francisco, arriving 20 October. She left San Francisco 29 October and steamed to Pearl Harbor to undergo conversion for troop transport duty. From 8 November 1945 to 16 January 1946 she made trans-Pacific voyages, returning servicemen to the United States. She was thereafter generally inactive until decommissioning on 9 January 1947. She was mothballed at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington.
Korean War
The outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 called Bon Homme Richard back to active duty. She recommissioned on 15 January 1951 in an unmodernised state and joined TF 77 off Korea on 29 May and launched the first air strikes of CVG-102 on 31 May. Bon Homme Richard continued operations with TF 77 until 20 November 1951. The carrier reached San Diego in mid-December and on 20 May 1952 was off again to the Far East, this time with CVG-7. She joined TF 77 once more on 23 June and took part in the heavy strikes against the Sui-ho Dam on 24–25 June and the amphibious feint at Kojo from 12 to 16 October. She continued operations against North Korean targets until 18 December 1952 and then steamed to San Francisco where she arrived 8 January 1953. Her classification was changed from CV-31 to CVA-31 on 1 October 1952.
Modernization
Bon Homme Richard then went out of commission on 15 May 1953 preparatory to modernization at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. She was one of three Essex-class carriers to receive the SCB-27C and SCB-125 modernizations on one refit. Bon Homme Richard emerged from the shipyard with an angled and strengthened flight deck, enclosed "hurricane" bow, steam catapults, a new island, wider beam and many other improvements. She completed her conversion period 31 October 1955 and commenced sea trials in the Alameda-San Diego area. She was recommissioned on 6 September 1955 and began the first of a long series of 7th Fleet deployments on 16 August 1956 with CVG-21 embarked. CVG-5 reported aboard for the 1957 deployment, before CVG-19 reported aboard for the next six deployments in 1958–1959, 1959–1960, 1961, 1962–1963, 1964, and 1965–66. The 1964 cruise included a voyage into the Indian Ocean. Bon Homme Richard also had been in the Indian Ocean for a goodwill trip to Bombay, India, at the direction of President Eisenhower during the 1959-1960 Pacific cruise.
Vietnam War
Admiral George Stephen Morrison, father of The Doors lead singer Jim Morrison, flew his flag on Bon Homme Richard. Popular myth has it that he had some involvement in the Tonkin Gulf Incident, because he was commander of the U.S. naval forces in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Gulf of Tonkin Incident of August 1964. The aircraft carrier involved in the incident was the . The Vietnam War escalation in early 1965 brought Bon Homme Richard into a third armed conflict, and she deployed on five Southeast Asia combat tours over the next six years. Her aircraft battled North Vietnamese MiGs on many occasions, downing several, as well as striking transportation and infrastructure targets. Occasional excursions to other Asian areas provided some variety to her operations. Carrier Air Wing 21 (CVW-21) joined the Bonnie Dick for the 1967 deployment to Vietnam. CVW-5 was aboard again for the last three deployments in 1968, 1969, and 1970. Bon Homme Richard was ordered inactivated at the end of her 1970 deployment. She was decommissioned on 2 July 1971, becoming part of the Reserve Fleet at Bremerton, Washington. Adm. Morrison was the keynote speaker at the Decommissioning Ceremony on 2 July 1971 which was one day before his estranged son, Jim, died in Paris, France.
Following 20 years in mothballs, she was sold for scrap in March 1992. She was scrapped at Southwest Marine's yard in San Pedro, California.
Awards
Bon Homme Richard received one battle star for her World War II service, and five for the Korean War.
The Bon Homme Richard received three Navy Unit Citations (NUC): One NUC for actions during the Korean War; one NUC for actions during the Vietnam War in 1967 and a third NUC for actions during the Vietnam War in 1968. In 1972, however, the 1967 NUC was replaced with a Presidential Unit Citation (PUC) from president Richard Nixon. Therefore, the ship received a total of two NUC's and one PUC.
Presidential Unit Citation
Navy Unit Commendation (2)
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation (2)
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (1 battle star)
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal (with Asia clasp)
National Defense Service Medal (2)
Korean Service Medal (5 stars)
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (2)
Vietnam Service Medal (10 battle stars)
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm)
United Nations Korean Medal
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Republic of Korea War Service Medal (retroactive)
Gallery
References
Gardiner, Robert and Roger Chesneau. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1980. .
Anon. Second Hitch: U.S.S. Bon Homme Richard CV 31. Seattle: Naval Publishing, c. 1952. Covers the carrier's Korean War Service.
External links
USS BonHomme Richard
USS Bon Homme Richard CV/CVA 31
Essex-class aircraft carriers
Ships built in Brooklyn
1944 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States | [
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218787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bonhomme%20Richard%20%28LHD-6%29 | USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6) | USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6) was a of the United States Navy commissioned on 15 August 1998. Like the previous five Wasp-class ships, Bonhomme Richard was designed to embark, deploy and land elements of a Marine landing force in amphibious assault operations by helicopter, landing craft and amphibious vehicle, and if needed, to act as a light aircraft carrier.
LHD-6 was the third ship of the United States Navy to bear the name first given by John Paul Jones to his Continental Navy frigate, named in French "Good Man Richard" in honor of Benjamin Franklin, the publisher of Poor Richard's Almanac who at the time served as U.S. ambassador to France.
On 12 July 2020, a fire started on a lower vehicle-storage deck while the ship was undergoing maintenance at Naval Base San Diego. It took four days for firefighters to extinguish the fire, which injured at least 63 sailors and civilians and severely damaged the ship. After a long investigation into the cause of the fire, a sailor was charged with arson. Repairs to the ship were estimated to take up to seven years and cost up to $3.2 billion so the ship was decommissioned on 15 April 2021 and sold for scrap.
Construction
Ingalls Shipbuilding received the contract to build the ship on 11 December 1992, and laid down her keel on 18 April 1995. She was launched on 14 March 1997, delivered to the Navy on 12 May 1998, and commissioned on 15 August 1998.
Cost
The average cost of a Wasp-class landing helicopter dock (LHD) ship was estimated to be $750 million in 1989
($ billion in )
whereas the program unit cost of an America-class LHA (landing helicopter assault) was expected to be about $3.3 billion in 2015
($ billion in ).
In 2020, the cost of replacing the ship was estimated to be about $4 billion.
Ship's history
1998-2009
Bonhomme Richard departed her building yard, Ingalls Shipbuilding division of Litton Industries, Pascagoula, Mississippi, on 8 August 1998, sailing into Pensacola Harbor at Naval Air Station Pensacola for commissioning activities and culminating with the main ceremony, which was held on 15 August 1998.
U.S. Representative John P. Murtha, of Pennsylvania's 12th Congressional District, delivered the principal commissioning address. Then Secretary of the Navy, John H. Dalton, placed the new ship in commission. Congressman Murtha's wife, Mrs. Joyce Murtha, served as Ship Sponsor and christened the ship at Ingalls in May 1997. During the commissioning, Mrs. Murtha gave the traditional order to "Man our ship and bring her to life!"
Bonhomme Richard participated in several operations. From 24 January to 24 July 2000, the ship made the first Western Pacific (WESTPAC) deployment of any U.S. Navy ship in the 2000s as part of Operation Southern Watch. She deployed as part of Operation Enduring Freedom from 1 December 2001 to 18 June 2002.
Her next deployment was in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom, beginning 17 January 2003 and lasting to 26 July 2003. Bonhomme Richard played two significant roles in Operation Iraqi Freedom; first, she offloaded more than 1,000 marines and gear from the 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines into Kuwait. Second, after delivering her attack and transport helicopters, troops, and vehicles, she took up position just miles off the coast of Kuwait and became one of two light aircraft carriers, or "Harrier Carriers", along with in the Persian Gulf, launching AV-8B Harrier strike aircraft into Iraq. Pilots from Marine Attack Squadron 211 (VMA-211) and VMA-311, embarked aboard Bonhomme Richard, expended more than of ordnance, providing close air support to the Marines on the ground and during predetermined strikes in Iraq. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Bonhomme Richard launched more than 800 sorties, including 547 combat launches.
Bonhomme Richard sailed to Sri Lanka to provide support for relief efforts following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and its subsequent tsunamis. On 4 January 2005, the ship helped airlift relief supplies to the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. Bonhomme Richard deployed in Operation Unified Assistance from 5 January 2005 to February 2005. Her helicopters flew supplies and medical personnel into various areas of Indonesia, as well as evacuating the wounded.
The following July, Bonhomme Richard participated in RIMPAC 2006. From 23 May to November 2007 she joined up with two U.S. Navy aircraft carriers, and and their Carrier Strike Groups (CSG) off the coast of Iran to carry out previously unannounced air and sea exercises. In July 2008, the ship took part in RIMPAC 2008 off the coast of Hawaii.
From September 2009 to April 2010, Bonhomme Richard deployed to the Fifth and Seventh Fleet Areas of Operations (AoR). Ports of call include East Timor; Phuket, Thailand; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Oahu, Hawaii. In July she participated in RIMPAC 2010 in the Kaulakahi Channel, between Kauai and Niihau Islands, Hawaii, near the Pacific Missile Range Facility.
2010–2020
Bonhomme Richard took the place of as the command ship for Expeditionary Strike Group Seven and switched homeport from San Diego, California to Sasebo, Japan, on 23 April 2012.
During the summer of 2013 Bonhomme Richard participated in Exercise Talisman Sabre 2013. Maneuvers were performed off Queensland, Australia and in the Coral Sea. After the exercise, the ship sailed for Sydney, arriving 16 August 2013.
Bonhomme Richard assisted in the air-sea rescue operation of the capsized South Korean ferry MV Sewol with helicopters on 16 April 2014.
Bonhomme Richard participated in Exercise Talisman Saber 2017 involving more than 33,000 Australian and U.S. troops in June 2017. Alongside Bonhomme Richard, 20 other ships and over 200 aircraft took part in what was Australia's largest exercise to date. This was followed by a week long port call in Melbourne.
2017 Osprey crash
On 5 August 2017 a U.S. Marine Corps MV-22 Osprey of Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 265 with the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit took off from Bonhomme Richard and then crashed in Shoalwater Bay on the east coast of Australia. Twenty-three personnel were rescued, while three died, their bodies being recovered about three weeks later.
On 8 May 2018 Bonhomme Richard completed her homeport change to San Diego.
July 2020 fire
Witnesses reported that an explosion occurred about 8:50 a.m. on 12 July 2020 aboard Bonhomme Richard while in her homeport at Naval Base San Diego undergoing maintenance. The resulting fire was fueled by paper, cloth, rags or other materials, not fuel oil or other hazardous materials, Rear Admiral Philip Sobeck, commander of Expeditionary Strike Group 3, told reporters that evening. Since the ship was in maintenance, on-board fire-suppression systems had been disabled, delaying the onset of firefighting efforts, according to Admiral Sobeck. The fire was reported to have started in an area that is normally used to park military trucks while the ship is at sea, but where shipyard workers might have temporarily placed other items including combustible materials.
The day the fire erupted, 17 sailors and four civilians were taken to the hospital with non-life-threatening injuries; all but five were released by morning of the next day, Navy officials said. By 14 July the number of injured had risen to 61, as more people were treated for minor injuries, including heat exhaustion and smoke inhalation.
On 16 July, five days after the explosion, the Navy announced that all fires had been extinguished. The minor injury total had risen to 63 total (40 sailors and 23 civilians). Admiral Michael Gilday, Chief of Naval Operations, said the event was "a very, very serious incident" and that the Navy would address any systemic problems. He said the firefighting efforts had involved sailors from many ships and units in San Diego, including the helicopter squadron HSC-3, which dropped water on the ship. Eight sailors assigned to Bonhomme Richard were meritoriously promoted in rank on 31 July for their actions in fighting the fire.
Fire and water damage were sustained on 11 of 14 decks. Sections of the flight deck and other decks were warped and bulging, while the island was nearly gutted. The Navy removed the aft mast of the damaged ship to ensure it would not collapse.
Investigations
On 26 August 2020, news outlets reported that a sailor from the ship was being investigated for arson, but no motive had been identified, and no one had been charged. The Naval Criminal Investigative Service, along with other federal agencies, continued to investigate.
three investigations were ongoing related to the fire. Two investigations were being conducted by Naval Sea Systems Command: the first was a failure review board investigation of safety issues relating to ship design and structure, and how changes could prevent future fires from spreading through ships under similar circumstances; the second was a safety review related to the events and activities that occurred on the ship prior to the fire and their relation to existing navy policies and procedures; finally, an investigation into command issues was being led by Vice Admiral Scott Conn, the commander of the 3rd Fleet. Fire-suppression foam could have been released, but was not, due to lack of training.
On 29 July 2021, an unnamed sailor was charged by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) with aggravated arson under Article 126 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and hazarding a vessel under Article 110 of the UCMJ. The sailor was the same unnamed suspect questioned in August 2020 by NCIS and other federal law enforcement agencies and was identified as Seaman Apprentice Ryan Sawyer Mays in an affidavit that was unsealed in August 2021. The next step in the process will be an Article 32 hearing, the United States military equivalent of a preliminary hearing, to determine if the case is strong enough to proceed to a court-martial.
A Navy report published in 2021 lists numerous deficiencies in leadership, firefighting training and equipment that contributed to the loss of the ship. In his 3 August endorsement of the report, United States Pacific Fleet commanding admiral Samuel Paparo characterized the crew as "unprepared" and their training and readiness as "deficient," while calling out "a lack of familiarity with requirements and procedural noncompliance at all levels of command." Navy fire safety protocols enacted after the 2012 loss of attack submarine in a similar fire were not followed, and Bonhomme Richard'''s captain, executive officer, command master chief, and chief engineer were criticized for leadership failures that "directly led to the loss" of the ship. The report emphasized poor communication and coordination between sailors and officers on the ship, firefighting teams on the naval base, teams assembled on nearby destroyers, and civilian firefighters. When smoke was first noticed, sailors aboard Bonhomme Richard failed to promptly and accurately locate and report its source, partially because some sailors did not don firefighting attire and breathing equipment due to a misconception that it could not be worn with their working uniforms. Firefighting hoses and fittings on the ship were broken or missing, and numerous hatches could not be closed to contain the blaze because temporary utility lines routed through them for maintenance work could not be easily disconnected.
Disposal
On 30 November 2020, Navy officials said that attempting to repair the damage and return Bonhomme Richard to service would take between five and seven years and cost an estimated $2.5 billion to $3.2 billion. Instead, the decision was made to withdraw the ship from service and, following extensive component recovery, have her sold for scrap. In February 2021, a bipartisan group of congressional delegates from Florida proposed that the hulk be sunk off the coast of Florida as an artificial reef, arguing that the reef would become an environmental and economic benefit to the area. After a decommissioning ceremony on 14 April 2021, she was officially decommissioned on 15 April. The same day, the hull was towed from San Diego, heading for a scrap yard in Texas. On 9 April 2021, International Shipbreaking Ltd. of Brownsville, Texas purchased the ex-Bonhomme Richard for $3.66 million for breaking and recycling.
Ship awards
Among other unit awards, Bonhomme Richard'' was awarded the Navy Battle "E" eight times.
See also
2012 USS Miami (SSN-755) fire
References
Further reading
Command Investigation into the Fire Aboard USS Bonhomme Richard
Major Fires Review (19 Oct 21)
External links
USS Bonhomme Richard Homepage
Maritimequest USS Bonhomme Richard LHD-6 Photo Gallery
'Harrier Carrier' On Station, Ready for Call to Action
USS Bonhomme Richard history at U.S. Carriers
Wasp-class amphibious assault ships
Amphibious warfare vessels of the United States Navy
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
1997 ships
Maritime incidents in 2020
Non-combat naval accidents
Ship fires
2020 fires
Aircraft carrier fires | [
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218791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPA | DPA | DPA may refer to:
Organizations
Dartmoor Preservation Association, a group which monitors development on Dartmoor in South West England
Dental Professionals Association, a trade union supporting and representing primary dental care in the UK
Deutsche Presse-Agentur (German News Agency), a news agency founded in 1949 in Germany
Digital Pathology Association, a medical society for advancing the field of digital pathology
DPA Microphones, a Danish manufacturer
Drug Policy Alliance, an American anti-Drug-War advocacy group
Dubai Ports Authority, merged with Dubai Ports International in 2005 to form DP World
Government and politics
California Department of Personnel Administration
Defence Procurement Agency, an Executive Agency of the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence
Defense Production Administration, a former independent agency of the United States government
Definers Public Affairs, an American commercial research and PR firm
Democratic Party of Albanians, an ethnic Albanian political party in the Republic of North Macedonia
Democratic Progressive Alliance, an alliance of Indian political parties
United Nations Department of Political Affairs, a department of the United Nations Secretariat
Data protection authority, a role specified by EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Law
Durable power of attorney
Defensive patent aggregation, the practice of purchasing patents or patent rights
Deferred prosecution agreement, a voluntary alternative to adjudication in which a prosecutor agrees to grant amnesty in exchange for the defendant agreeing to fulfill certain requirements
Laws
Defense Production Act of 1950, a United States law
Defence Production Act (Canada)
Data Protection Act 1998, a United Kingdom Act of Parliament to regulate the processing of information relating to individuals
Data Protection Act 2018, a United Kingdom Act of Parliament which updates the Data Protection Act 1998
Computing
Data presentation architecture, a skill-set that seeks to identify, locate, manipulate, format and present data
Deterministic pushdown automaton
Differential power analysis, a cryptographic attack
Entertainment
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl Adventure!, a manga series
Drag Point Average, the grading system used on the television show RuPaul's Drag U
Science and technology
Decipascal (dPa), a SI unit equivalent to one tenth of a pascal
Diagnostic peritoneal aspiration, a surgical investigation to assess abdominal bleeding
Diphenylamine, a chemical stabiliser used in homogeneous propellants to absorb the catalyst produced by the autocatalytic decomposition of propellants
9,10-Diphenylanthracene, an organic compound
Dipicolinic acid, a chemical compound found in bacterial spores
Dipicolylamine, an organic compound used as a chelating ligand
2,2'-Dipyridylamide an organic ion ligand.
Docosapentaenoic acid, a group of fatty acids
D-phenylalanine, a stereoisomer of the amino acid, phenylalanine
Displacements per atom (dpa), in radiation material science, a measure of damage in nuclear materials
16-Dehydropregnenolone acetate (16-DPA), an intermediate in the production of many semisynthetic steroids
Other uses
Doctor of Public Administration, a terminal research degree in government
DuPage Airport (IATA code), an airport in West Chicago, DuPage County, Illinois, US
Data Processing Agreement, according to the General Data Protection Regulation(GDPR) | [
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218792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligation | Obligation | An obligation is a course of action that someone is required to take, whether legal or moral. Obligations are constraints; they limit freedom. People who are under obligations may choose to freely act under obligations. Obligation exists when there is a choice to do what is morally good and what is morally unacceptable. There are also obligations in other normative contexts, such as obligations of etiquette, social obligations, religious, and possibly in terms of politics, where obligations are requirements which must be fulfilled. These are generally legal obligations, which can incur a penalty for non-fulfilment, although certain people are obliged to carry out certain actions for other reasons as well, whether as a tradition or for social reasons.
Obligations vary from person to person: for example, a person holding a political office will generally have far more obligations than an average adult citizen, who themselves will have more obligations than a child. Obligations are generally granted in return for an increase in an individual's rights or power.
Other uses
The term obligate can also be used in a biological context, in reference to species which must occupy a certain niche or behave in a certain way in order to survive. In biology, the opposite of obligate is facultative, meaning that a species is able to behave in a certain way and may do so under certain circumstances, but that it can also survive without having to behave this way. For example, species of salamanders in the family Proteidae are obligate paedomorphs, whereas species belonging to the Ambystomatidae are facultative paedomorphs.
In the Catholic Church, Holy Days of Obligation or Holidays of Obligation, less commonly called Feasts of Precept, are the days on which, as canon 1247 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law states, the faithful are obliged to participate in the Mass.
Obligation and morality
An obligation is contract between an individual and the thing or person to which or whom they are obligated. If the contract is breached the individual can be subject to blame. When entering into an obligation people generally do not think about the guilt that they would experience if the obligation is not fulfilled; instead they think about how they can fulfil the obligation. Rationalists argue people respond in this way because they have a reason to fulfill the obligation. According to the sanction theory, an obligation corresponds to the social pressures one feels, and is not simply derived from a singular relationship with another person or project. In the rationalist argument, this same pressure adds to the reasons people have, thereby strengthening their desire to fulfill the obligation. The sanction theory states there needs to be a sanction in order for a duty to be a moral duty.
Sociological view of obligation versus philosophical view of obligation
Sociologists believe that obligations lead people to act in ways that society deems acceptable. Every society has their own way of governing, they expect their citizens to behave in a particular manner. Not only do the citizens have to oblige to the societal norms, they want to, in order to assimilate to society. Philosophers on the other hand, argue that rational beings have moral duties, they make a choice to either fulfill these moral duties or disregard them. They have a moral responsibility to fulfill their obligations. Duty is seen as the response to an individual's obligations. Obligations require an action being done and duty is the carrying out of this action. Sociologists believe that an obligation is an objective force, philosophers however, believe obligations are moral imperatives.
Types of obligations
Written obligations
Written obligations are contracts. They legally bind two people into an agreement. Each person becomes responsible for doing their part of the contract. A legal contract consists of an offer, an acceptance of that offer, an intention to bind to one another in a legal agreement and a consideration, something of value to be exchanged.
Political obligation
A political obligation is a requirement for the citizens of a society to follow the laws of that society. There are philosophical issues, however, about whether a citizen should follow a law simply because it is a law. There are various views about whether a political obligation is a moral obligation. John Rawls argues that people do have political obligations because of the principle of fairness. Humanity benefits from the joint effort of the government, so, in fairness, they should be active and supportive members of this effort. There are people, however, such as Robert Nozick, who argue enjoyment of a community effort does not mean obligation to that effort.
Social obligation
Social obligations refer to the things we as individuals accept because it is collectively accepted. When people agree to a promise or an agreement, they are collectively consenting to its terms. Humanity is obligated to fulfil that promise or agreement.
See also
Ability
Convention
Duty
Law of obligations
References
External links
Philosophy of law
Concepts in ethics
Philosophy of life | [
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218796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20John%20%22Mutt%22%20Lange | Robert John "Mutt" Lange | Robert John "Mutt" Lange (born 11 November 1948) is a South African record producer and songwriter. He is known for his work in the studio, producing many of rock's most famous albums. He has produced albums for, or otherwise worked with, artists such as AC/DC, Def Leppard, The Michael Stanley Band, The Boomtown Rats, Foreigner, Michael Bolton, The Cars, Bryan Adams, Huey Lewis and the News, Billy Ocean, Celine Dion, Britney Spears, The Corrs, Maroon 5, Lady Gaga, Now United, Nickelback, and Muse. He also wrote and produced songs with his then-wife, Canadian singer Shania Twain. Her 1997 album Come On Over, which he produced, is the best-selling country music album, the best-selling studio album by a female act, the best-selling album of the 1990s, and the 9th best-selling album in the United States.
Early life
Robert John Lange was born in Mufulira, Northern Rhodesia (today Zambia), and raised in Durban, South Africa. His German mother came from a prosperous family, and his South African father was a mining engineer. Nicknamed "Mutt" at an early age, Lange grew up a fan of country music, in particular the singer Slim Whitman. While studying at Belfast High School in what is now Mpumalanga province, he started a band in which he played rhythm guitar and sang harmonies.
Career
After his national service (1966–1967), Lange formed the band Sound Reason in 1969, together with James Borthwick, a South African TV, stage and film actor. In 1971, he started the group Hocus, recording one album and releasing five singles.
In 1978, Lange wrote and produced Ipswich Town's FA Cup final single "Ipswich Get That Goal", his connection with the club being due to their South Africa-born player Colin Viljoen. The song is derived from a previous recording "Give That Thang To Me" by Paul Jones (1977), with some parts rearranged and new lyrics.
Beginning production work in 1976, his first major hits came in October 1978 with the UK No. 1 single "Rat Trap" for The Boomtown Rats, followed in July 1979 with AC/DC's hard rock album Highway to Hell (#8 UK, No. 17 US). He produced a total of five albums for UK band City Boy from 1976 to 1979.
He produced two more albums with AC/DC, including Back in Black (1980), which is, , the second-best-selling album of all time. He also worked with rock group Foreigner with 4, and with Def Leppard on their hit albums, High 'n' Dry, Pyromania, Hysteria and Adrenalize co-writing most of the songs.
After Hysteria, Lange bowed out of working with Def Leppard. In 1999, he returned to working with them in a more limited role, co-writing three tracks for their album Euphoria. One of those songs, "Promises", was a Number 1 hit on the mainstream rock charts for the band.
In 1991, he produced Bryan Adams's Waking Up the Neighbours, including co-writing "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You", for the Kevin Costner film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves which, with 16 consecutive weeks at the top, from 7 July to 26 October 1991, holds the record for the longest number of consecutive weeks at Number 1 in the UK singles chart. Lange produced the single "Make You" from the album Great Escape by Irish singer Tara Blaise which was released in May 2008.
In the 2001 television film Hysteria – The Def Leppard Story, actor Anthony Michael Hall portrayed Lange.
Personal life
Lange is a strict vegetarian and a follower of the egalitarian teachings of Sant Mat. He has not given an interview for decades and prefers to live a secluded life, primarily in La Tour-de-Peilz, Switzerland.
Lange met Stevie Vann when the two attended the same school in Northern Rhodesia in the early 1960s, and the two reconnected a few years later while attending Belfast High School in South Africa. They played together in a short-lived band named Hocus, and later married and emigrated to the United Kingdom in the 1970s. The marriage broke down in the 1970s. While still married, Lange started a five-year relationship with Oonagh O'Reilly, an Irish-born co-worker.
After hearing Shania Twain's music, he got in touch with her and they spent many hours on the phone. They finally met six months after the initial contact and were married on 28 December 1993. Lange is a teetotaler and, as a result, they had non-alcoholic champagne at their wedding. Lange had the song "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" performed as a sign of his dedication to Twain. In August 2001, their son Eja (pronounced "Asia") was born.
On 15 May 2008, a spokesman for his employer Mercury Nashville announced that Twain and Lange were separating, after Lange had an affair with Twain's best friend, Marie-Anne Thiébaud, with whom he reportedly later began a relationship. Lange and Twain divorced in June 2010. On 1 January 2011, Twain married Frédéric Thiébaud, the former husband of Marie-Anne.
In 2011, Lange bought Coronet Peak Station located on the mountain and ski field of the same name in Queenstown, New Zealand. In 2014, he protected of his land as Queen Elizabeth II National Trust covenant; this is the largest private conservation covenant in New Zealand.
Discography
Produced albums
Albums on which Lange produced a majority of the tracks:
Hocus – "The Swan"/"He", 1972
Richard Jon Smith – Superstar Smith, 1974
Spider – Spider, 1975
City Boy – City Boy, 1976
City Boy – Dinner at the Ritz, 1976
Kevin Coyne – In Living Black and White, 1976
Mallard – In a Different Climate, 1976
Graham Parker – Heat Treatment, 1976
Supercharge – Local Lads Make Good, 1976
The Motors – 1, 1977
City Boy – Young Men Gone West, 1977
Clover – Love on the Wire, 1977
Clover – Unavailable, 1977
Supercharge – Horizontal Refreshment, 1977
The Boomtown Rats – The Boomtown Rats, 1977
The Rumour – Max, 1977
Savoy Brown – Savage Return, 1978
Michael Stanley Band – Cabin Fever, 1978
City Boy – Book Early, 1978
Outlaws – Playin' to Win, 1978
The Boomtown Rats – A Tonic for the Troops, 1978
Deaf School – English Boys/Working Girls, 1978
City Boy – The Day the Earth Caught Fire, 1979
The Records – Shades in Bed, 1979
Supercharge – Body Rhythm, 1979
The Boomtown Rats – The Fine Art of Surfacing, 1979
AC/DC – Highway to Hell, 1979
Tycoon – Tycoon, 1979
Broken Home – Broken Home, 1980
AC/DC – Back in Black, 1980
Foreigner – 4, 1981
Def Leppard – High 'N' Dry, 1981
AC/DC – For Those About to Rock We Salute You, 1981
Def Leppard – Pyromania, 1983
The Cars – Heartbeat City, 1984
Def Leppard – Hysteria, 1987
Romeo's Daughter – Romeo's Daughter, 1988
Billy Ocean – Tear Down These Walls, 1988
Bryan Adams – Waking Up the Neighbours, 1991
Def Leppard – Adrenalize (executive producer), 1992
Michael Bolton – The One Thing, 1993
Stevie Vann – Stevie Vann, 1995
Shania Twain – The Woman in Me, 1995
Bryan Adams – 18 til I Die, 1996
Shania Twain – Come on Over, 1997
The Corrs – In Blue, 2000
Shania Twain – Up!, 2002
Shania Twain – Greatest Hits, 2004
Nickelback – Dark Horse, 2008
Maroon 5 – Hands All Over, 2010
Muse – Drones, 2015
Ashley Clark – Ashley Clark, 2015
Produced album tracks
Albums on which Lange produced at least one track:
Jessica Jones – "Sunday, Monday, Tuesday", 1972
Stephen – "Right On Running Man", 1974/5
Graham Parker and the Rumour – The Parkerilla, 1978
XTC – "This Is Pop" (single version), 1978
Roman Holliday – Fire Me Up (executive producer), 1984
Billy Ocean – Suddenly (executive producer), 1984
Billy Ocean – Love Zone (executive producer), 1986
Billy Ocean – Greatest Hits, 1989
Bryan Adams – So Far So Good, 1993
Tina Turner – What's Love Got to Do with It, 1993
Michael Bolton – Greatest Hits, 1995
Celine Dion – All the Way... A Decade of Song, 1999
Backstreet Boys – Backstreet's Back, 1997
Backstreet Boys – Millennium, 1999
Bryan Adams – The Best of Me, 1999
Britney Spears – Oops!... I Did It Again, 2000
Celine Dion – A New Day Has Come, 2002
Bryan Adams – Room Service, 2004
Various artists – Music from and Inspired by Desperate Housewives, 2005
Anne Murray – Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends, 2007
Bryan Adams – 11, 2008
Tara Blaise – Great Escape, 2008
Lady Gaga – Born This Way, 2011
Zander Bleck – Bring It On, 2012
Bryan Adams - So Happy It Hurts, 2022
Album tracks written or co-written
Britney Spears – "Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know" from Oops!...I Did It Again, 2000
Bryan Adams – "I Will Always Return", "You Can't Take Me" and "This Is Where I Belong" from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, 2002
Bryan Adams – "So Far So Good" from Anthology, 2005
Bryan Adams and Sarah McLachlan – "Don't Let Go" from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, 2002
Bryan Adams, Rod Stewart, and Sting – "All for Love" from The Three Musketeers: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, 1993
Bryan Adams - "So Happy it Hurts" from So Happy It Hurts, 2021
Bryan Adams - "On The Road" from So Happy It Hurts, 2021
Bryan Adams - "Kick Ass" from So Happy It Hurts, 2021
Jessica Andrews – "I'll Take Your Heart" from Heart Shaped World, 1999
Backstreet Boys – "It's Gotta Be You" from Millennium, 1999
Blackhawk – "I'm Not Strong Enough to Say No" from Strong Enough, 1995
Michael Bolton – "Only a Woman Like You" from Only a Woman Like You, 2002
Michael Bolton – "Said I Loved You...But I Lied" from The One Thing, 1993
Clout – "Don't Stop" from Substitute, 1978
Billy Ray Cyrus – "Only God (Could Stop Me Loving You)" from Storm in the Heartland, 1994
Celine Dion – "If Walls Could Talk", from: "All the Way... A Decade of Song", 1999
Def Leppard – All songs on Pyromania, 1983
Def Leppard – All songs on Hysteria, 1987
Def Leppard – "Ring of Fire" and "I Wanna Be Your Hero" from Retro Active, 1993
Def Leppard – "Promises", "All Night" and "It's Only Love" from Euphoria, 1999
Dionne Warwick – "Without Your Love" – track produced by Richard Landis on album Finder of Lost Loves 1985
Dobie Gray - "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" from Dobie's self titled album, 1979
Heart – "All I Wanna Do Is Make Love to You" & "Wild Child" from Brigade, 1990
Heart – "Will You Be There (In the Morning)" from Desire Walks On, 1993
Huey Lewis and the News – "Do You Believe in Love" from Picture This, 1982
Huey Lewis and the News – "It Hit Me Like a Hammer" from Hard at Play, 1991
Lonestar – "You Walked In" from Crazy Nights, 1997
Loverboy – "Lovin' Every Minute of It" from Lovin' Every Minute of It, 1985
Reba McEntire – "I'll Take Your Heart" from Moments and Memories: The Best of Reba, 1998
Miss Willie Brown – "You're All That Matters to Me", 2012
PJ Powers – "(Let That) River Roll" from Thandeka Talk to Me, 2001
Starship – "I Didn't Mean to Stay All Night" from Love Among the Cannibals, 1989
Carrie Underwood – "Who Are You" from Blown Away, 2012
Celtic Woman – "Walk Beside Me", 2015
Romeos Daughter - "Don't Break My Heart", "I Cry Myself to Sleep at Night", "Wild Child", "Heaven in the Backseat", 1988
Eddie Money - "Heaven in the Backseat", 1991
The Corrs - "Breathless", 2000
Shania Twain - All songs on The Woman in Me (except "Leaving Is the Only Way Out"), Come on Over, and Up!
Zander Bleck - "Bring It On", 2012
Radioactive - "Move It", 2022
Grammy Awards
1991 – "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" – Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television
1995 – The Woman in Me – Best Country Album
1998 – "You're Still the One" – Best Country Song
1999 – "Come on Over" – Best Country Song
2016 – Drones – Best Rock Album
References
External links
1948 births
Living people
APRA Award winners
British record producers
British songwriters
Country record producers
Grammy Award winners
British expatriates in New Zealand
English expatriates in Switzerland
Zambian people of German descent
Zambian people of South African descent
Zambian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People from Mufulira
Musicians from London | [
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218798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customary%20law | Customary law | A legal custom is the established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of "what has always been done and accepted by law".
Customary law (also, consuetudinary or unofficial law) exists where:
a certain legal practice is observed and
the relevant actors consider it to be law (opinio juris).
Most customary laws deal with standards of community that have been long-established in a given locale. However the term can also apply to areas of international law where certain standards have been nearly universal in their acceptance as correct bases of action – for example, laws against piracy or slavery (see hostis humani generis). In many, though not all instances, customary laws will have supportive court rulings and case law that has evolved over time to give additional weight to their rule as law and also to demonstrate the trajectory of evolution (if any) in the interpretation of such law by relevant courts.
Nature, definition and sources
A central issue regarding the recognition of custom is determining the appropriate methodology to know what practices and norms actually constitutes customary law. It is not immediately clear that classic Western theories of jurisprudence can be reconciled in any useful way with conceptual analyses of customary law, and thus some scholars (like John Comaroff and Simon Roberts) have characterised customary law norms in their own terms. Yet, there clearly remains some disagreement, which is seen in John Hund's critique of Comaroff and Roberts' theory, and preference for the contributions of H. L. A. Hart. Hund argues that Hart's The Concept of Law solves the conceptual problem with which scholars who have attempted to articulate how customary law principles may be identified, defined and how they operate in regulating social behaviour and resolving disputes.
As an indefinite repertoire of norms
Comaroff and Roberts' famous work, "Rules and Processes", attempted to detail the body of norms that constitute Tswana law in a way that was less legalistic (or rule-oriented) than had Isaac Schapera. They defined "mekgwa le melao ya Setswana" in terms of Casalis and Ellenberger definition: melao therefore being rules pronounced by a chief and mekgwa as norms that become customary law through traditional usage. Importantly, however, they noted that the Tswana seldom attempt to classify the vast array of existing norms into categories and they thus termed this the 'undifferentiated nature of the normative repertoire'. Moreover, they observe the co-existence of overtly incompatible norms that may breed conflict, either due to circumstances in a particular situation, or inherently due to their incongruous content. This lack of rule classification and failure to eradicate internal inconsistencies between potentially conflicting norms allows for much flexibility in dispute settlement and is also viewed as a 'strategic resource' for disputants who seek to advance their own success in a case. The latter incongruities (especially of inconsistencies of norm content) are typically solved by elevating one of the norms (tacitly) from 'the literal to the symbolic'. This allows for the accommodation of both as they now theoretically exist in different realms of reality. This is highly contextual, which further illustrates that norms cannot be viewed in isolation and are open to negotiation. Thus, although there are a small number of so-called non-negotiable norms, the vast majority are viewed and given substance contextually, which is seen as fundamental to the Tswana.
Comaroff and Roberts describe how outcomes of specific cases have the ability to change the normative repertoire, as the repertoire of norms is seen to be both in a state of formation and transformation at all times. These changes are justified on the grounds that they are merely giving recognition to de facto observations of transformation [219]. Furthermore, the legitimacy of a chief is a direct determinant of the legitimacy of his decisions. In the formulation of legislative pronouncements, as opposed to decisions made in dispute resolution, the chief first speaks of the proposed norm with his advisors, then council of headmen, then the public assembly debate the proposed law and may accept or reject it. A chief can proclaim the law even if the public assembly rejects it, but this is not often done; and, if the chief proclaims the legislation against the will of the public assembly, the legislation will become melao, however it is unlikely that it will be executed because its effectiveness depends on the chief's legitimacy and the norm's consistency with the practices (and changes in social relations) and will of the people under that chief.
Regarding the invocation of norms in disputes, Comaroff and Roberts used the term, "paradigm of argument", to refer to the linguistic and conceptual frame used by a disputant, whereby 'a coherent picture of relevant events and actions in terms of one or more implicit or explicit normative referents' is created. In their explanation, the complainant (who always speaks first) thus establishes a paradigm the defendant can either accept and therefore argue within that specific paradigm or reject and therefore introduce his or her own paradigm (usually, the facts are not contested here). If the defendant means to change the paradigm, they will refer to norms as such, where actually norms are not ordinarily explicitly referenced in Tswana dispute resolution as the audience would typically already know them and just the way one presents one's case and constructs the facts will establish one's paradigm. The headman or chief adjudicating may also do same: accept the normative basis implied by the parties (or one of them), and thus not refer to norms using explicit language but rather isolate a factual issue in the dispute and then make a decision on it without expressly referring to any norms, or impose a new or different paradigm onto the parties.
Law as necessarily rule-governed
Hund finds Comaroff and Roberts' flexibility thesis of a 'repertoire of norms' from which litigants and adjudicator choose in the process of negotiating solutions between them uncompelling. He is therefore concerned with disproving what he calls "rule scepticism" on their part. He notes that the concept of custom generally denotes convergent behaviour, but not all customs have the force of law. Hund therefore draws from Hart's analysis distinguishing social rules, which have internal and external aspects, from habits, which have only external aspects. Internal aspects are the reflective attitude on the part of adherents toward certain behaviours perceived to be obligatory, according to a common standard. External aspects manifest in regular, observable behaviour, but is not obligatory. In Hart's analysis, then, social rules amount to custom that has legal force.
Hart identifies three further differences between habits and binding social rules. First, a social rule exists where society frowns on deviation from the habit and attempts to prevent departures by criticising such behaviour. Second, when this criticism is seen socially as a good reason for adhering to the habit, and it is welcomed. And, third, when members of a group behave in a common way not only out of habit or because everyone else is doing it, but because it is seen to be a common standard that should be followed, at least by some members. Hund, however, acknowledges the difficulty of an outsider knowing the dimensions of these criteria that depend on an internal point of view.
For Hund, the first form of rule scepticism concerns the widely held opinion that, because the content of customary law derives from practice, there are actually no objective rules, since it is only behaviour that informs their construction. On this view, it is impossible to distinguish between behaviour that is rule bound and behaviour that is not—i.e., which behaviour is motivated by adherence to law (or at least done in recognition of the law) and is merely a response to other factors. Hund sees this as problematic because it makes quantifying the law almost impossible, since behaviour is obviously inconsistent. Hund argues that this is a misconception based on a failure to acknowledge the importance of the internal element. In his view, by using the criteria described above, there is not this problem in deciphering what constitutes "law" in a particular community.
According to Hund, the second form of rule scepticism says that, though a community may have rules, those rules are not arrived at 'deductively', i.e. they are not created through legal/moral reasoning only but are instead driven by the personal/political motives of those who create them. The scope for such influence is created by the loose and undefined nature of customary law, which, Hund argues, grants customary-lawmakers (often through traditional 'judicial processes') a wide discretion in its application. Yet, Hund contends that the fact that rules might sometimes be arrived at in the more ad hoc way, does not mean that this defines the system. If one requires a perfect system, where laws are created only deductively, then one is left with a system with no rules. For Hund, this cannot be so and an explanation for these kinds of law-making processes is found in Hart's conception of "secondary rules" (rules in terms of which the main body of norms are recognised). Hund therefore says that for some cultures, for instance in some sections of Tswana society, the secondary rules have developed only to the point where laws are determined with reference to politics and personal preference. This does not mean that they are not "rules". Hund argues that if we acknowledge a developmental pattern in societies' constructions of these secondary rules then we can understand how this society constructs its laws and how it differs from societies that have come to rely on an objective, stand-alone body of rules.
Codification
The modern codification of civil law developed from the tradition of medieval custumals, collections of local customary law that developed in a specific manorial or borough jurisdiction, and which were slowly pieced together mainly from case law and later written down by local jurists. Custumals acquired the force of law when they became the undisputed rule by which certain rights, entitlements, and obligations were regulated between members of a community. Some examples include Bracton's De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae for England, the Coutume de Paris for the city of Paris, the Sachsenspiegel for northern Germany, and the many fueros of Spain.
International law
In international law, customary law refers to the Law of Nations or the legal norms that have developed through the customary exchanges between states over time, whether based on diplomacy or aggression. Essentially, legal obligations are believed to arise between states to carry out their affairs consistently with past accepted conduct. These customs can also change based on the acceptance or rejection by states of particular acts. Some principles of customary law have achieved the force of peremptory norms, which cannot be violated or altered except by a norm of comparable strength. These norms are said to gain their strength from universal acceptance, such as the prohibitions against genocide and slavery. Customary international law can be distinguished from treaty law, which consists of explicit agreements between nations to assume obligations. However, many treaties are attempts to codify pre-existing customary law.
Within contemporary legal systems
Customary law is a recognized source of law within jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, where it may be subordinate to both statutes and regulations. In addressing custom as a source of law within the civil law tradition, John Henry Merryman notes that, though the attention it is given in scholarly works is great, its importance is "slight and decreasing". On the other hand, in many countries around the world, one or more types of customary law continue to exist side by side with official law, a condition referred to as legal pluralism (see also List of national legal systems).
In the canon law of the Catholic Church, custom is a source of law. Canonical jurisprudence, however, differs from civil law jurisprudence in requiring the express or implied consent of the legislator for a custom to obtain the force of law.
In the English common law, "long usage" must be established.
It is a broad principle of property law that, if something has gone on for a long time without objection, whether it be using a right of way or occupying land to which one has no title, the law will eventually recognise the fact and give the person doing it the legal right to continue.
It is known in case law as "customary rights". Something which has been practised since time immemorial by reference to a particular locality may acquire the legal status of a custom, which is a form of local law. The legal criteria defining a custom are precise. The most common claim in recent times, is for customary rights to moor a vessel.
The mooring must have been in continuous use for "time immemorial" which is defined by legal precedent as 12 years (or 20 years for Crown land) for the same purpose by people using them for that purpose. To give two examples: a custom of mooring which might have been established in past times for over two hundred years by the fishing fleet of local inhabitants of a coastal community will not simply transfer so as to benefit present day recreational boat owners who may hail from much further afield. Whereas a group of houseboats on a mooring that has been in continuous use for the last 25 years
with a mixture of owner occupiers and rented houseboats, may clearly continue to be used by houseboats, where the owners live in the same town or city. Both the purpose of the moorings and the class of persons benefited by the custom must have been clear and consistent.
In Canada, customary aboriginal law has a constitutional foundation and for this reason has increasing influence.
In the Scandinavian countries customary law continues to exist and has great influence.
Customary law is also used in some developing countries, usually used alongside common or civil law. For example, in Ethiopia, despite the adoption of legal codes based on civil law in the 1950s according to Dolores Donovan and Getachew Assefa there are more than 60 systems of customary law currently in force, "some of them operating quite independently of the formal state legal system". They offer two reasons for the relative autonomy of these customary law systems: one is that the Ethiopian government lacks sufficient resources to enforce its legal system to every corner of Ethiopia; the other is that the Ethiopian government has made a commitment to preserve these customary systems within its boundaries.
In 1995, President of Kyrgyzstan Askar Akaev announced a decree to revitalize the aqsaqal courts of village elders. The courts would have jurisdiction over property, torts and family law. The aqsaqal courts were eventually included under Article 92 of the Kyrgyz constitution. As of 2006, there were approximately 1,000 aqsaqal courts throughout Kyrgyzstan, including in the capital of Bishkek. Akaev linked the development of these courts to the rekindling of Kyrgyz national identity. In a 2005 speech, he connected the courts back to the country's nomadic past and extolled how the courts expressed the Kyrgyz ability of self-governance. Similar aqsaqal courts exist, with varying levels of legal formality, in other countries of Central Asia.
The Somali people in the Horn of Africa follow a customary law system referred to as xeer. It survives to a significant degree everywhere in Somalia and in the Somali communities in the Ogaden. Economist Peter Leeson attributes the increase in economic activity since the fall of the Siad Barre administration to the security in life, liberty and property provided by Xeer in large parts of Somalia. The Dutch attorney Michael van Notten also draws upon his experience as a legal expert in his comprehensive study on Xeer, The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa (2005).
In India many customs are accepted by law. For example, Hindu marriage ceremonies are recognized by the Hindu Marriage Act.
In Indonesia, customary adat laws of the country's various indigenous ethnicities are recognized, and customary dispute resolution is recognized in Papua. Indonesian adat law are mainly divided into 19 circles, namely Aceh, Gayo, Alas, and Batak, Minangkabau, South Sumatra, the Malay regions, Bangka and Belitung, Kalimantan, Minahasa, Gorontalo, Toraja, South Sulawesi, Ternate, the Molluccas, Papua, Timor, Bali and Lombok, Central and East Java including the island of Madura, Sunda, and the Javanese monarchies, including the Yogyakarta Sultanate, Surakarta Sunanate, and the Pakualaman and Mangkunegaran princely states.
Custom in torts
Custom is used in tort law to help determine negligence. Following or disregarding a custom is not determinative of negligence, but instead is an indication of possible best practices or alternatives to a particular action.
Customary legal systems
Adat (Malays of Nusantara)
Anglo-Saxon law (England)
Aqsaqal (Central Asia)
Australian Aboriginal customary law
Basque and Pyrenean law
Coutume (France)
Custom (Catholic canon law)
Early Germanic law
Early Irish law (Ireland)
Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit
Kanun of Leke Dukagjini (Albania)
Laws of the Brets and Scots (Scotland)
Medieval Scandinavian laws
Pashtunwali and Jirga (Pashtuns of Pakistan and Afghanistan)
Smriti and Ācāra (India)
Customary law (South Africa)
Urf (Arab world/Islamic law)
Cyfraith Hywel (Wales)
Xeer (Somalia)
Usos y costumbres (various regions of Latin America)
Wahkohtowin (Cree Territories, Canada)
See also
Civil law (legal system)
Common law—Precedent
Customary international humanitarian law
Custom (Catholic canon law)
Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law
Legal dualism
Legal pluralism
Jus gentium (law of nations)
Oral law
Rule according to higher law
Rule of law
Time immemorial, has a specific meaning in English law
References
Citations
Sources
Hund, John. 'Customary law is what people say it is', ARSP Vol 84 1998, 420–433.
J Comaroff and S Roberts Rules and Processes: The Cultural Logic of Dispute in an African Context (1981).
External links
Customary IHL Database
Druzin, Bryan H. (2014, April). "Planting Seeds of Order: How the State Can Create, Shape, and Use Customary Law," BYU Journal of Public Law 28: 373-412.
International law
Sources of law
Tort law
Social agreement
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218800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Boorda | Michael Boorda | Jeremy Michael Boorda (November 26, 1939 – May 16, 1996) was a United States Navy admiral who served as the 25th Chief of Naval Operations. Boorda is notable as the first person to have risen from the enlisted ranks to become Chief of Naval Operations, the highest-ranking billet in the United States Navy.
Boorda died by suicide by shooting himself in the chest after leaving suicide notes reported to contain expressions of concern that he had tarnished the reputation of the Navy, following a media investigation into the legitimacy of his having worn on his uniform two service ribbons with bronze "V" devices, which indicate the awards were for acts of valor. The "V" devices are by regulation only to be awarded to personnel who performed an act of valor in actual combat, and Boorda had not served in combat. Boorda had removed the two ribbon devices on his uniform almost a year before he died and was generally perceived as having made a good-faith error in believing he was authorized to wear the devices.
Early life and education
Boorda was born in South Bend, Indiana, to Jewish parents, Gertrude (Frank) Wallis and Herman Boorda. His family moved to Momence, Illinois, where his father had a dress shop. His grandparents had immigrated from Ukraine.
When he was 19, Boorda married Bettie Moran. Their first son David was born with severe disabilities. They had two more sons, Edward and Robert, and a daughter named Anna. Boorda and his wife raised their children as Protestants.
Career
Boorda dropped out of high school to enlist in the United States Navy in 1956 at the age of 17; it provided a structure he at first disliked but came to appreciate. He finished high school while in the Navy and attained the rate of Personnelman First Class. Boorda served a variety of commands, primarily in aviation. His last two enlisted assignments were in Attack Squadron 144 and Carrier Airborne Early Warning Squadron 11.
Boorda was selected for potential commissioning under the Integration Program in 1962, by which enlisted sailors were admitted to the navy's Officer Candidate School in Newport, Rhode Island. Boorda was commissioned as an ensign upon graduating in August 1962. He first served aboard as combat information center officer at the rank of lieutenant junior grade. In 1964, he attended the Naval Destroyer School in Newport.
In October 1964, Boorda was assigned as weapons officer aboard the destroyer . The destroyer deployed to Vietnam in March 1965 and participated in combat missions and operations off the coast of Vietnam until it departed for San Diego on August 11. On August 15, Boorda was recommended for the Navy Commendation Medal by his commanding officer on John R. Craig. On August 28, the Commander in Chief, U.S Pacific Fleet, approved a lesser award, the Secretary of the Navy Commendation for Achievement (redesignated the Navy Achievement Medal in July 1967). The citation read: "for meritorious service while serving as Weapons Officer in USS JOHN R. CRAIG (DD 885) while operating in combat missions supporting the Republic of Vietnam from 10 April to 10 August 1965".
After the destroyer arrived in San Diego in September, Boorda served as commander of . His first shore tour was as a weapons instructor at Naval Destroyer School in Newport. In December 1971, after attending the U.S. Naval War College and also earning a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Rhode Island, Boorda assumed duties as Executive Officer, , a guided missile destroyer. In October 1972, the Seventh Fleet, including Boorda's ship departed for Vietnam; his second tour began in November 1972 and ended on February 19, 1973. On April 8, the commanding officer of Brooke recommended Boorda for the Navy Commendation Medal (without the Combat "V"). The medal was approved by the Commander, Seventh Fleet, and the citation read: "for meritorious achievement as Executive Officer while attached to and serving in USS BROOKE (DEG 1) from 15 December 1971 to 20 February 1973 including combat operations".
That tour was followed by a short period at the University of Oklahoma and an assignment as head, surface lieutenant commander assignments/assistant for captain detailing in the Bureau of Naval Personnel, Washington, D.C. From 1975 to 1977, Boorda commanded . He was next assigned as executive assistant to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs), Washington, DC. He relieved the civilian presidential appointee in that position, remaining until 1981, when he took command of Destroyer Squadron 22. In 1983–84, he served as executive assistant to the Chief of Naval Personnel/Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Manpower, Personnel and Training. In December 1984, he assumed his first flag officer assignment as executive assistant to the Chief of Naval Operations, remaining until July 1986. His next assignment was commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Group Eight in Norfolk, Virginia; he served as a carrier battle group commander embarked in , and also as commander, Battle Force Sixth Fleet in 1987.
In August 1988, Boorda became Chief of Naval Personnel/Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Manpower, Personnel and Training. In November 1991, he received his fourth star and in December 1991, became Commander in Chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe (CINCSOUTH – Naples, Italy) and Commander in Chief, United States Naval Forces Europe (CINCUSNAVEUR – London). As CINCSOUTH, Boorda was in command of all NATO forces engaged in operations enforcing United Nations sanctions during the Yugoslav wars.
On February 1, 1993, while serving as Commander in Chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe, Boorda assumed the additional duty as Commander, Joint Task Force Provide Promise, responsible for the supply of humanitarian relief to Bosnia-Herzegovina via air-land and air-drop missions, and for troops contributing to the UN mission throughout the Balkans. On April 23, 1994, Boorda became the 25th Chief of Naval Operations, the first who was not a graduate of the United States Naval Academy and the first of Jewish descent.
On February 24, 1996, he attended the christening and launching of at the Avondale Shipyard located on the west bank of the Mississippi River near New Orleans, Louisiana. Boorda personally greeted 73 members of the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association, and over 600 other military and civilian honorees who also were invited.
Seaman to admiral
Boorda was a product of an enlisted-to-officer commissioning program in the early 1960s. This program known as the Integration Program was designed to provide an opportunity for enlisted personnel who possessed outstanding qualifications and motivation for a naval career to obtain a commission. Boorda was the first Chief of Naval Operations to have risen from the enlisted rates, one of only four such modern service chiefs (the others being Air Force General Larry D. Welch, General Alfred Gray, USMC and Army General John Shalikashvili). Upon assuming this position, Boorda immediately re-established the historic program, naming it "Seaman to Admiral", as part of a STA-21 initiative for young sailors to earn their commission and become naval officers. Boorda believed "people should have the opportunity to excel, and be all they can be, even if they don't get a perfect or traditional start."
C4I
Boorda was particularly interested in C4I initiatives to place command and control, communications, computers, and intelligence assets on naval ships. Essentially this manifested itself as more robust combat information systems, with improved satellite and communication links, as well as placing more defensive assets on traditionally non-combatant ships such as support vessels. Boorda initiated efforts during the proposal phase for the future LPD-17 amphibious class to be fitted with first-class C4I suites, radars, communications, and defense systems-anti-torpedo, anti-missile, and anti-NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical), along with blast-hardened bulkheads that will absorb and dissipate much more punishment than is possible with present designs. This effort was a departure from past efforts, which relied on simply assigning a destroyer or cruiser to provide these functions for amphibious forces. The ship was commissioned January 14, 2006, nine years after Boorda's death.
Enlisted advancement system
Boorda also spearheaded efforts to change the U.S. Navy's officer fitness report, enlisted evaluation, and enlisted advancement systems. The new systems were more systematic and consistent. The systems also allowed a more concise rating of an officer's or sailor's advancement potential. This rating allowed a command to mark only 20% of officers or sailors as "early promotes", and set strict grading criteria for each evaluation mark. The new system linked each promotion marking to the advancement system.
Littoral oceanography
Boorda signed a policy for naval oceanography (the first such revision in 10 years), which emphasized, among other things, that, in addition to deep-water missions, naval oceanographers must master the complicated tangle of the oceanographic/geographic subject areas that make up the science of the littorals, or near-shore areas, as well as the complex weather patterns characteristic of any coastal area.
Boorda's vision brought the navy's new focus on littoral operations into alignment with naval projection policies. But this new program also created a large backlog of high priority oceanographic, hydrographic, and geophysical survey requirements. To meet those requirements, the navy expanded its oceanographic efforts from traditional platforms (ships, boats, planes) to new technologies (satellites, remote sensors, etc.), and efforts to work with other national and international agencies.
Stan Arthur incident
In the wake of the Tailhook scandal, Boorda faced hostility from a majority of naval flag officers who reportedly believed he had betrayed the Navy by allying himself with Clinton administration demands for reform of the Navy's officer corps. Naval aviators, in particular, were incensed by the treatment of Stan Arthur (Vice Chief of Naval Operations and senior Naval aviator), whose nomination for the post of commander, United States Pacific Command was withdrawn by President Clinton at the behest of U.S. Senator David Durenberger.
Durenberger raised questions over Arthur's possible mishandling of sexual harassment allegations brought by one of the Senator's constituents, Rebecca Hansen, a female student naval aviator who had not successfully completed flight training.
The administration expected protracted hearings to ensue over Arthur's nomination, and the Pacific Command position to remain unfilled during this period. Arthur decided to retire on February 1, 1995. Boorda issued an unusual public defense of Arthur and his decision not to fight for the nomination, saying that "Stan Arthur is an officer of integrity ... who chose to take this selfless action ... in the interests of more rapidly filling a critical leadership position. Those who postulate other reasons for the withdrawal are simply wrong."
Death
Boorda died on May 16, 1996, in the garden outside his home at the Washington Navy Yard. Boorda reportedly left two typed and unsigned suicide notes in his home, neither of which was released publicly, but were said to have been addressed to his wife and to his public information officer.
Boorda was reported to have been distraught over a media investigation led by decorated U.S. Army Vietnam War veteran David Hackworth of Newsweek, into two miniature bronze letter "V" (valor) devices which Boorda had worn for years on two of his uniform's service ribbons. In the Navy, the "V" is worn on a ribbon to denote a specific decoration was awarded for heroism in combat or direct exposure to combat. Photographs of Boorda in uniform showed him wearing the "V" devices on his Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal and Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal ribbons in the 1980s. However, Boorda stopped wearing the two "V" devices on these two service ribbons about a year before the Hackworth investigation, after being informed by the Navy that he was not authorized to wear them.
Reports at the time of Boorda's suicide indicated that his wearing of the two Combat "V"s on the two service ribbons had not been an intentional deception on his part, but had been an unintentional mistake that resulted from his following verbal instructions delivered to commanders during the Vietnam War by Admiral Elmo Zumwalt when he was Chief of Naval Operations, as well as conflicting interpretations and updating of Navy award regulations. Newsweek later reported that "Hackworth believed that wearing an undeserved combat pin for valor was a grave matter of honor in the military, 'the worst thing you can do.'" Boorda's suicide took place shortly before he was to have met with two Newsweek reporters that day regarding his wearing of the "V" devices. Boorda was said to have been worried that the issue would cause more trouble for the U.S. Navy's reputation.
Former CNO Elmo Zumwalt, who was Boorda's commander during the Vietnam War and who verbally authorized Combat "V"s for Boorda and many other sailors, wrote a letter to the effect that Boorda's wearing of the devices was "appropriate, justified and proper." However, wearing the Navy's Combat Distinguishing Device (Combat "V") on a specific decoration that may authorize the device requires written authorization for the device on a printed award citation.
Boorda was survived by his wife, Bettie Moran Boorda, four children and eleven grandchildren. Boorda was interred at Arlington National Cemetery on May 19, 1996, with a tombstone marked with the Star of David. On May 21, a public memorial service was held at the Washington National Cathedral that was broadcast nationally by CNN with tape delay broadcast on the C-SPAN network.
In June 1998, then Navy Secretary John Dalton put into Boorda's file a letter from Admiral Zumwalt stating it was "'appropriate, justified and proper' for Boorda to attach the Combat "V"s to the ribbons on his uniform." According to the Associated Press, "the Navy also modified Boorda's record to list the V's among his other decorations... recognition that they were earned." However, later that year, one of Boorda's sons requested a formal review of his father's service record. In a decision dated June 24, 1999, the Department of the Navy Board for Correction of Naval Records, the ultimate arbiter of whether or not Boorda was entitled to wear the Combat "V", determined that despite the additions to Boorda's personnel file, he was not.
Awards and decorations
Boorda's military decorations and awards include:
Legacy
Boorda has two sons and one daughter-in-law who are naval officers. He has four grandsons who served in the U.S. military: Peter Boorda was a petty officer in the United States Coast Guard, Andrew Boorda is an armor officer in the U.S. Army, Phillip Boorda is an amphibious assault vehicle officer in the U.S. Marine Corps, and Robert Dowling is an intelligence officer in the U.S. Army. Andrew and Phillip are twins, and like their grandfather, both graduated from the University of Rhode Island. In addition, Boorda has a step-grandson who also graduated from the University of Rhode Island and is a field artillery officer in the U.S. Army.
In Joe Biden's 2007 book Promises to Keep, Biden recounts his experience of interacting with Admiral Boorda. Boorda met with Joe Biden in 1993, while serving as commander-in-chief of Allied Forces Southern Command, to advise the then-Senator on the military situation in the Balkans. Biden had been attempting to persuade the Clinton administration to intervene militarily to stop the genocide in Bosnia, but had been met with resistance, due to the widespread perception in Washington that any U.S. military intervention in the Balkans would have to involve significant numbers of ground troops. Boorda, however, argued that U.S. air power 'could shut down the Serb aggression and could end the sieges in Sarajevo and Srebrenica' without the need for a costly and unpopular commitment of ground forces. Biden credits this conversation with Boorda as being 'the last piece of the puzzle', enabling him to successfully make the case for intervention in Bosnia to Clinton. In his book, Biden is effusive in his praise of Boorda, calling him 'truly heroic', including him in a partial list of 'the twenty brightest, most informed individuals I've worked with in government', and referring to his suicide as 'a blow to the country'.
Admiral Jeremy M. Boorda Award
The Navy's annual Admiral Boorda award was established and first awarded in 2003. The award recognizes a Navy military and civilian individual. The 2015 award will be given to those who have made significant contributions towards Navy personnel readiness either through research or analysis or the direct application of analytical results to policies and laws.
References
Further reading
1939 births
1996 suicides
American military personnel who committed suicide
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chiefs of Naval Operations
Jewish American military personnel
Naval War College alumni
People from Indiana in the Vietnam War
People from Momence, Illinois
People from South Bend, Indiana
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Suicides by firearm in Washington, D.C.
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
University of Rhode Island alumni
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
20th-century American Jews
Military personnel from Illinois | [
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218802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubykh%20phonology | Ubykh phonology | Ubykh, an extinct Northwest Caucasian language, has the largest consonant inventory of all documented languages that do not use clicks, and also has the most disproportional ratio of phonemic consonants to vowels. It has consonants in at least eight, perhaps nine, basic places of articulation and 29 distinct fricatives, 27 sibilants, and 20 uvulars, more than any other documented language. Some Khoisan languages, such as ǃXóõ, may have larger consonant inventories due to their extensive use of click consonants, although some analyses view a large proportion of the clicks in these languages as clusters, which would bring them closer into line with the Caucasian languages.
Consonants
Standard Ubykh Phonology
Below is an International Phonetic Alphabet representation of the Standard Ubykh consonant inventory.
Note the large number of basic series; Ubykh has basic consonants at nine places of articulation.
The glottal stop is also noted, but only as an allophone of .
Of the three secondary articulations:
Palatalization, abbreviated "pal.", is indicated with .
Labialization, abbreviated "lab.", is indicated with .
Pharyngealization, abbreviated "phar.", is indicated with .
The three postalveolar series have traditionally been called "postalveolar", "alveolo-palatal", and "retroflex", respectively, and have been transcribed with their associated symbols.
The laminal and apical postalveolar series are more accurately transcribed as and , respectively.
There is no standard IPA notation for the laminal-closed postalveolar series. They are transcribed , etc. by Catford.
The velar stops and the labiodental fricative are only found in Turkish and Circassian loanwords.
Out of the labials, the fricatives are labiodental, the others bilabial.
All but four of the 84 consonants are found in native vocabulary. The plain velars and the voiced labiodental fricative are found mainly in loans and onomatopoeia: ('crow') from Turkish karga), ('slat, batten') from Laz k'avari 'roofing shingle'), ('estate, legacy') from Turkish vakıf), ('the sound of glass breaking'). As well, the pharyngealised labial consonants are almost exclusively noted in words where they are associated with another pharyngealised consonant (for instance, 'handful'), but are occasionally found outside this context (for example, the verb root 'to explode, to burst'). Finally, is mainly found in interjections and loans, with ('now') the only real native word to contain the phoneme. The frequency of consonants in Ubykh is quite variable; the phoneme alone accounts for over 12% of all consonants encountered in connected text, due to the presence of the phoneme in the ergative and oblique singular and plural case suffixes, the third person singular and plural ergative verbal agreement prefix, the adverbial derivative suffix, the present and imperfect tense suffixes, and in suffixes denoting several non-finite verb forms.
Very few allophones of consonants are noted, mainly because a small acoustic difference can be phonemic when so many consonants are involved. However, the alveolopalatal labialised fricatives were sometimes realised as alveolar labialised fricatives , and the uvular ejective stop was often pronounced as a glottal stop in the past tense suffix -, due to the influence of the Kabardian and Adyghe languages.
The consonant has not been attested word-initially, and is found initially only in the personal name , but every other consonant can begin a word. Restrictions on word-final consonants have not yet been investigated; however, Ubykh has a slight preference for open syllables (CV) over closed ones (VC or CVC). The pharyngealised consonants and have not been noted word-finally, but this is probably a statistical anomaly due to the rarity of these consonants, each being attested only in a handful of words.
The alveolar trill is not common in native Ubykh vocabulary, appearing mostly in loan words. However, the phoneme carries a phonaesthetic concept of rolling or a repeated action in a few verbs, notably ~ ('to roll around') and ~ ('to slither').
Karacalar Ubykh Phonology
A divergent dialect of Ubykh spoken by Osman Güngör, an inhabitant of Karacalar in Balıkesir province was investigated by Georges Dumézil in the 1960s. Below is an International Phonetic Alphabet representation of the Karacalar Ubykh consonant inventory.
Güngör's speech differed phonologically from Standard Ubykh in a number of ways:
the labialised alveolar stops have merged into the corresponding bilabial stops .
The labialised alveolopalatal fricatives have merged with their postalveolar counterparts .
seems to have disappeared.
Pharyngealisation is no longer distinctive, surviving only on the lexemes ('to be ill') and ('to bark'), and being replaced in many instances by gemination (standard ('dog') → Karacalar ), and in at least one instance by ejectivisation (standard ('roasted maize') → Karacalar ).
Palatalisation of the uvular consonants is no longer phonemic, also being replaced in many instances by gemination (standard ('to cough') → Karacalar ).
The voiced retroflex affricate has, at least in some cases, merged with .
Vowels
Ubykh has very few basic phonemic vowels. The analysis in retains as a separate vowel, but most other linguists do not accept this analysis, preferring one with simpler vertical distinction: and . Other vowels, notably , appear in some loanwords. The question of whether an additional vowel should be retained is of some debate, since it differs from not in length but in quality. However, phonologically and diachronically, it is often derived from two instances of .
Even with so few vowels, there are many vowel allophones, affected by the secondary articulation of the consonants that surround them. Eleven basic phonetic vowels appear, mostly derived from the two phonemic vowels adjacent to labialised or palatalised consonants. The phonetic vowels are and . In general, the following rules apply:
and
and
and
and
Other, more complex vowels have been noted as allophones: ('you did it') can become , for instance. On occasion, nasal sonorants (particularly ) may even decay into vowel nasality. For instance, ('young man') has been noted as as well as .
The vowel appears initially very frequently, particularly in the function of the definite article. is extremely restricted initially, appearing only in ditransitive verb forms where all three arguments are third person, e.g. ('he gave it to him') (normally ). Even then, itself may be dropped to provide an even shorter form .
Both vowels appear without restriction finally, although when is unstressed finally, it tends to be dropped: ('father') becomes the definite form ('the father'). In fact, the alternation between and zero is often not phonemic, and may be dropped root-internally as well: ~ ('hoe'). This kind of allomorphy is called a zero allomorph.
argues that there are three vowels which correspond to Dumézil's respectively and this is evident in the minimal triplet of ('I milk X'), ('I reap X'), and ('I milk them; I reap them').
Notes
References
External links
COCOON archive (COllections de COrpus Oraux Numériques) where several Ubykh stories recorded by Dumézil with French and English translation can be found
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218808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Bradford | Andrew Bradford | Andrew Bradford (1686 – November 24, 1742) was an early American printer in colonial Philadelphia. He published the first newspaper in Philadelphia, The American Weekly Mercury, beginning in 1719, as well as the first magazine in America in 1741.
Life and career
He was the son of a printer, and grandson of two others. He was born to William and Elizabeth Sowle Bradford in Philadelphia. In 1692, the family moved to New York, and there he learned the printing trade from his father. In 1709, Andrew Bradford was listed as a printer in New York; that year, he declined an offer from Rhode Island to become that colony's printer.
He returned to Philadelphia in 1712 and opened his own print shop. On December 22, 1719, he began publication of The American Weekly Mercury. This was the first newspaper in Philadelphia and enjoyed a wide circulation. He also taught the print business to his nephew William Bradford and for a time employed Benjamin Franklin when Franklin first came to Philadelphia, introduced by Bradford's father William. Franklin would go on to establish a rival printing press and newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, in Philadelphia. On February 13, 1741, Bradford published the first issue of the American Magazine, the first magazine to be published in America — beating out Franklin for the honor by three days.
Throughout the 1720s, Bradford published political pamphlets critical of the local government, denouncing its "sinking credit" and supporting freedom of the press. He also published "Busy-Body" essays, criticisms of the colonial government penned by Franklin and Joseph Breintnall, in the Mercury. For these political actions, Bradford was brought before a council, censured several times, and jailed once.
Bradford's first wife was Dorcas Boels, who died in 1739. Bradford then married Cornelia Smith, who took over his print shop and newspaper upon his death in 1742.
Citations
Bibliography
The Bradford Family Papers (1620-1906), held at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania
External links
1686 births
1742 deaths
American printers
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
People of colonial Pennsylvania
American newspaper founders
American publishers (people)
Journalists from Pennsylvania
Colonial American printers | [
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218811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonisation%20%28disambiguation%29 | Harmonisation (disambiguation) | Harmonisation or harmonize may refer to:
Music
Harmonization, in music, the implementation of harmony, usually by using chords, including harmonized scales
Harmonize (musician), (born 1994), a Tanzanian musician
Last verse harmonisation, a technique of hymn accompaniment used by church organists
Law
Harmonisation of law, the process of establishing common laws, treaties and standards
Maximum harmonisation, a term used in European Union law, indicates a level that national law may not go beyond
Minimum harmonisation, a term used in European Union law, indicates a threshold which national legislation must meet
Tax harmonization, a process of adjusting tax systems of different jurisdictions in the pursuit of a common policy objective
Standards
Harmonization (standards), the process of minimizing redundant or conflicting standards which may have evolved independently
Standardization
International standardization
Other
Gospel harmony, an attempt to compile the canonical gospels of the Christian New Testament into a single account
Gun harmonisation, the aiming of fixed guns or cannon carried in the wings of a fighter aircraft
Socialist Harmonious Society, Chinese leader Hu Jintao's signature ideology
Harmonious and River crab (Internet slang), internet slang created by Chinese netizens, referring to censorship | [
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218818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20McGear | Mike McGear | Peter Michael McCartney (born 7 January 1944), known professionally as Mike McGear, is an English performing artist and photographer who was a member of the groups The Scaffold and Grimms. He is the younger brother of former Beatle Paul McCartney.
Early years
Michael and his brother Paul were both born in the Walton Centre in Liverpool, England, where their mother, Mary McCartney, had previously worked as a nursing sister in charge of the maternity ward. Michael was not enrolled in a Catholic school as his father, Jim McCartney, believed that they leaned too much towards religion instead of education. At age 17, McCartney started his first job at Jackson's the Tailors in Ranelagh Street, Liverpool. The year after, he took an apprenticeship at Andre Bernard, a hairdresser for ladies in the same street.
Musical career
At the time the Beatles became successful, Mike McCartney was working as an apprentice hairdresser. Mike worked in the hairdressers alongside future actor Lewis Collins. However, he was also a member of the Liverpool comedy-poetry-music group The Scaffold, which included Roger McGough and John Gorman, and had formed in 1962 (the year of the Beatles' first hit). Mike decided to use a stage name, so as not to appear to be riding his brother's coattails. After first dubbing himself "Mike Blank", he settled on "Mike McGear", "gear" being the Liverpudlian equivalent of "fab". The band was subsequently signed to Parlophone.
The Scaffold recorded a number of UK hit singles between 1966 and 1974, the most successful being the 1968 Christmas number one single, "Lily the Pink". McGear composed the band's next biggest hit, 1967's "Thank U Very Much". In 1968, he and McGough released a "duo" album (McGough & McGear) that included the usual Scaffold mix of lyrics, poems, and comedy. The Scaffold ended up hosting a TV programme, Score with the Scaffold, which limited the musical portion of their career, and they were dropped by Parlophone. McGear then signed to Island Records and released a solo musical album entitled Woman in 1972, which again included many tracks co-written with McGough, and The Scaffold subsequently released their own album on the label, Fresh Liver.
The Scaffold then added several other members and released two albums on Island in 1973 as Grimms (an acronym for Gorman-Roberts-Innes-McGear-McGough-Stanshall). However, McGear quit Grimms after the second album out of tension between himself and one of the poets added to the group.
McGear then signed to Warner Bros. Records and in 1974 released his second non-comedy musical album, McGear, in which he collaborated with his brother Paul and Paul's band Wings. Although four singles were released from these sessions, only "Leave It" enjoyed any moderate chart success (No. 36 UK). However, also recorded during McCartney's sessions with Wings was a Scaffold "reunion" song, "Liverpool Lou", which became The Scaffold's last top-ten hit. This led to the group's re-formation in 1974, and they recorded and performed together through to 1977.
Individually, McGear released a few more singles. His final release, while still using the name Mike McGear, was the 1981 release "No Lar Di Dar (Is Lady Di)". This was a satirical tribute to Lady Diana Spencer, released at the time of her wedding to Prince Charles.
In the 1980s, after retiring from music, Mike McCartney decided to end his use of the "McGear" pseudonym and revert to using his family name.
Photographic career
McCartney was a photographer during his entire musical career, and has continued with photography since then. Beatles' manager Brian Epstein nicknamed him "Flash Harry" in the early 1960s because he was always taking pictures with a flash gun. He has published books of pictures that he took of the Beatles backstage and on tour, and in 2008 brought out a limited edition book of photos he took spontaneously backstage at Live8. In 2005, McCartney premiered and exhibited a collection of photographs that he had taken in the 1960s, called "Mike McCartney's Liverpool Life", both in Liverpool and other venues, such as The Provincial Museum of Alberta. In addition, an exhibition book was published of the collection. He also took the cover photograph for Paul McCartney's 2005 solo album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard.
Personal life
The brothers McCartney also have a sister named Ruth whom their father Jim adopted in 1964, when he married her mother Angela Williams. McCartney married Angela Fishwick in 1968. They later divorced. They have three daughters: Benna, Theran, and Abigail Faith. He later married Rowena Horne and they have three sons: Joshua, Max, and Sonny.
Solo discography
Singles
UK releases
"Woman" / "Kill" (Island WIP 6131) April 1972
"Leave It" / "Sweet Baby" (Warner Bros. K 16446) September 1974 – UK #36
"Sea Breezes" / "Giving Grease a Ride" (Warner Bros. K 16520) February 1975
"Dance the Do" / "Norton" (Warner Bros. K16573) July 1975
"Simply Love You" / "What Do We Really Know" (Warner Bros. K 16658) November 1975
"Do Nothing All Day" / "A to Z" (EMI 2485) June 1976
"All The Whales in the Ocean" / "I Juz Want What You Got – Money!" (Carrere CAR 144) May 1980
"No Lar Di Dar (Is Lady Di)" / "God Bless Our Gracious Queen" (Conn CONN 29781) July 1981
US release
"Leave It" / "Sweet Baby" (Warner Bros. WBS 8037) October 1974
Albums
UK releases
McGough and McGear (Parlophone PMC 7047 [mono], PCS 7047 [stereo]) [LP] May 1968
Woman (Island ILPS 9191) [LP] April 1972
McGear (Warner Bros. Records K 56051) [LP] September 1974
McGough and McGear (Parlophone PCS 7332) [LP] April 1989 [Reissue of the 1968 album]
McGough and McGear (EMI CDP 7 91877 2) [CD] April 1989 [Reissue of the 1968 album]
McGear (See For Miles SEECD 339) [CD] April 1992 [reissue of the 1974 album, with two additional tracks]
Woman (Edsel EDCD 507) [CD] February 1997 [reissue of the 1972 album, with four short tracks omitted]
A Collection of Songs for the Young Homeless of Merseyside (Merseyside Accommodation Project), [CD] December 1996 [Multi-artist commemorative release, including one newly recorded track by McGear]
US releases
McGear (Warner Bros. BS 2825) [LP] October 1974
McGear (Rykodisc RCD 10192) [CD] September 1990 [Reissue of the 1974 album, with one additional track]
McGough and McGear (Real Gone Music RGM-0025) [CD] Feb., 2012 [Reissue of the 1968 album]
Discography notes
The album McGough and McGear was by Roger McGough and Mike McGear. Guest musicians, uncredited on the original pressing, include: Jimi Hendrix, Mitch Mitchell, Zoot Money, Paul Samwell-Smith, Gary Leeds and Paul McCartney. Paul's then-girlfriend, Jane Asher, also uncredited, contributed backing vocals on the song "Living Room."
The single "No Lar Di Dar (Is Lady Di)" is by Mike McGear (McCartney) and The Monarchists.
The track "Take It into Your Hearts," on the Merseyside Accommodation Project release, is billed as by Mike McCartney.
All other releases billed as by Mike McGear.
See also The Scaffold Discography.
See also Grimms Discography.
Notes
References
External links
Archived Mike McCartney Website
Michael's solo albums
McCartney’s Liverpool Life
Michael McCartney's 'beatleireland' biog
Honorary Fellowships awarded 2005
National Gallery portraits
McCartney's Live 8 book
BBC tags
Mike McCartney To Open Chambré Hardman's Home
Scaffold and the Grimms history
1944 births
Living people
20th-century British photographers
20th-century English singers
21st-century British photographers
Carrere Records artists
English male singers
English people of Irish descent
Grimms members
Island Records artists
McCartney family
Musicians from Liverpool
Parlophone artists
People from Walton, Liverpool
Photographers from Liverpool
The Scaffold members | [
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218822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-6 | PDP-6 | The PDP-6 (Programmed Data Processor-6) is a computer model developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1964. It was influential primarily as the prototype (effectively) for the later PDP-10; the instruction sets of the two machines are almost identical.
Hardware architecture
The PDP-6 was DEC's first "big" machine. It used 36-bit words, in common with other large computers at the time from companies like IBM, Honeywell and General Electric. Addressing remained 18-bit, as in earlier DEC machines, allowing for a 256 kword main memory. Memory was implemented using magnetic cores; a typical system included 32,768 words (equivalent to 144kB on modern machines).
The instruction set architecture could be categorized as "one-and-a-half address"; instructions contained one full 18-bit memory address, and a second four-bit address that could specify one of the first sixteen memory locations as an "accumulator" or "AC". Another four-bit field in the instruction allowed for any AC other than AC0 to be used as an index register.
Most, if not all, PDP-6 systems were equipped with the optional Type 162 "Fast Memory", which provided 16 memory locations constructed from discrete-transistor flip-flops. The Fast Memory (also known as "fast accumulators" or "fast ACs") substituted for the first 16 words of core memory and operated four times faster.
The PDP-6 weighed about , with "Fast Memory".
Construction
The PDP-6 was infamous because of the 6205 board, a large (11 × 9 inches) board which contained 1 bit of arithmetic register (AR), memory buffer (MB), and multiplier-quotient register (MQ) (thus there were 36 of these). It had 88 transistors, a two-sided PC etch, two 18-pin and two 22-pin connectors (two on each side of the module). Because of all these connectors, swapping this module was a major undertaking, and the mechanical coupling made it highly likely that fixing one fault would cause another. There was also a great fear of powering off a PDP-6, since it would generally result in at least one 6205 board failing.
The experience with the 6205 led the designers of the first models of PDP-10, the KA10 and KI10, to use only small boards. It was not until the KL10 that large boards were used again.
Operating system
The PDP-6 supported time-sharing through the use of a status bit selecting between two operating modes ("Executive" and "User", with access to input/output (I/O), etc., being restricted in the latter), and a single relocation/protection register which allowed a user's address space to be limited to a set section of main memory (a second relocation/protection register for shareable "high segments" was added on the PDP-10). The main operating system used on the machine was an early version of what later became TOPS-10, and several sites made custom versions of the system, which was available in source code form. MIT's Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS) operating system also began on the PDP-6.
Although it was possible to time-share a PDP-6 without a disk drive, configuring it with four dual DECtape drives "could effectively support about 4-6 simultaneous users." The same system, with a single disk drive, resulted in "real time-sharing (and) could easily handle 20-30 users."
Sales history
Worldwide, only 23 PDP-6's were sold, the smallest number of any DEC machine. It was complex and expensive to build, as well as difficult to install and get operational at the customer's site. Additionally the sales force found the PDP-6 to be a "hard sell". After a short period in the market, DEC let it be known that they were exiting the 36-bit market to concentrate on their smaller machines again. Not long after this, rumors started to spread that they were, in fact, working on a new 36-bit design, which was eventually released as the PDP-10.
DEC management still considered the system useful because those sales were to technical leaders such as universities. That gave DEC a number of advantages, including a foothold in that market, access to advice on future technical direction from a group of advanced and technically knowledgeable users, and finally a source of intelligent young employees as the business grew.
Museum
Stanford's PDP-6 was shown at DECUS in 1984. The machine was transferred to a DEC warehouse after that event. There are no records of this machine being given to the Computer Museum, which was not part of DEC in 1984. In the late 1990s Compaq donated the contents of the DEC internal archives to The Computer Museum History Center. The Fast Memory cabinet from the Stanford PDP-6 was part of that donation. There is no evidence that the modules sold at the Boston computer museum gift shop were from the Stanford PDP-6, nor is there any evidence that the museum had ever had this machine in its possession.
Notes
References
Bell, C. Gordon, Mudge, J. Craig, McNamara John E. "The PDP-10 Family". (1979). Part V of Computer Engineering: A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design. Digital Equipment Corp.
External links
PDP-6 Serial numbers
DEC's PDP-6 was the world's first commercial time-sharing system Gordon Bell interview at the Smithsonian
USENET alt.sys.pdp10 postings comparing the PDP-6 with the KA10
The PDP-6 at Stanford
36-bit computers
DEC mainframe computers
Transistorized computers
Computer-related introductions in 1964 | [
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218824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shii | Shii | Shii can refer to:
Shi'a Islam
The Japanese name of the tree genus Castanopsis
Shii-chan, the cat from Kamichama Karin
Kazuo Shii, Chairman of the Japanese Communist Party
Japanese ship Shii, several Japanese ships | [
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218825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Vailland | Roger Vailland | Roger Vailland (16 October 1907 - 12 May 1965) was a French novelist, essayist, and screenwriter.
Biography
Vailland was born in Acy-en-Multien, Oise. His novels include the prize winning Drôle de jeu (1945), Les mauvais coups (1948), Un jeune homme seul (1951), 325 000 francs (1955), and La loi (1957), winner of the Prix Goncourt. His screenplays include Les liaisons dangereuses (with Claude Brûlé and Roger Vadim, 1959) and Le vice et la vertu (with Vadim, 1962). He died, aged 57, in Meillonnas, Ain.
Vailland took part in the French Resistance during Nazi occupation. Drôle de jeu (Playing with Fire) is considered one of the finest novels about the anti-fascist Resistance. Vailland joined the French Communist Party but resigned after the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He remained an independent leftist for the rest of his life.
Bibliography
Novels
Drôle de jeu, Prix Interallié, Éditions Corrêa, Paris, 1945
Les Mauvais coups, Éditions Sagittaire, 1948
Bon pied, bon œil, Éditions Corrêa, Paris, 1950
Un Jeune homme seul, Éditions Corrêa, Paris, 1951
Beau masque, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1954
325 000 francs, Éditions Corrêa, Paris, 1955
La Loi, Prix Goncourt 1957. English: The Law
La Fête, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1960
La Truite, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1964
La Visirova, Messidor, Paris, 1986
Cortès, le conquérant de l'Eldorado, Messidor, Paris, 1992
Travel
Boroboudour, Éditions Gallimard, Paris
Boroboudour, voyage à Bali, Java et autres îles, Éditions du Sonneur, Paris
Journals
Chronique d’Hiroshima à Goldfinger : 1945-1965, Éditions sociales, Paris, 1984
Chronique des années folles à la Libération, Éditions sociales, Paris, 1984.
Écrits intimes, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1982.
Theatre
Héloïse et Abélard, Editions Corréa, 1947
Le Colonel Foster plaidera coupable, pièce en cinq actes, les Éditeurs réunis, Paris, 1952.
Monsieur Jean, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1959
Essays
Laclos, Éditions du Seuil, Paris, 1953
Éloge du Cardinal de Bernis, Éditions Grasset, Paris, 1956.
Expérience du drame, Éditions du Rocher, Monaco, 2002
Un homme du peuple sous la Révolution, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 1979
Le regard froid : réflexions, esquisses, libelles, 1945-1962, Éditions Grasset, Paris, 1998
N’aimer que ce qui n’a pas de prix, Éditions du Rocher, Monaco, 1995
Les pages immortelles de Suétone, Éditions du Rocher, Monaco, 2002
Le Saint-Empire, Éditions de la différence, Paris, 1978
Le Surréalisme contre la révolution, Éditions Complexe, Bruxelles, 1988
References
External links
Roger Vailland
1907 births
1965 deaths
People from Oise
French male screenwriters
French screenwriters
French communists
French Resistance members
Prix Goncourt winners
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
Prix Interallié winners
20th-century French novelists
French male essayists
French male novelists
20th-century French essayists
20th-century French male writers
Anti-Stalinist left
20th-century French screenwriters | [
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218832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribot%20%28horse%29 | Ribot (horse) | Ribot (February 27, 1952 – April 28, 1972) was an undefeated British-bred Italian-trained Thoroughbred racehorse who won all his 16 races including the Arc de Triomphe. He raced from 5 furlongs (1,000m) to 1m 7f (3,000m) in three different countries on all types of track conditions. He is considered by many experts to be in the top 3 of the most complete and strongest racehorses in history.
He was the best Italian two-year-old of 1954, when his three wins included the Gran Criterium. He won his first four races of 1955 in Italy before being sent to France where he won the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe. In the following year he was even better, recording wide-margin victories in both the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe.
Ribot was then retired to stud where he proved to be a highly successful breeding stallion. The performances of Ribot's progeny saw him become the leading sire in Great Britain & Ireland on three occasions (1963, 1967, 1968).
Breeding
Ribot was bred by Italy's leading Thoroughbred breeder, Federico Tesio, who personally bred six of the horses that appeared in the first three generations of Ribot's pedigree. Ribot was foaled at the English National Stud at Newmarket, Suffolk on 27 February 1952. He was sired by Tenerani an outstanding Italian racehorse whose most notable international success came when he defeated the French champion Arbar in the 1948 Goodwood Cup. Ribot's dam Romanella was a successful broodmare who also produced the Premio Regina Elena winner Rossellina and the Premio Parioli winner Raeburn.
He was described as being a "medium-sized bay with a lovely intelligent head and a perfect temperament. The secret of his success was probably his depth through the heart and there was not a girth at Dormello to fit him." Like many of Tesio's horses, Ribot was named after an artist—in this case, the French realist Théodule-Augustin Ribot. Tesio, who also bred the undefeated and prepotent sire Nearco, did not live to see Ribot develop into a champion. After Tesio's death in May 1954, Ribot was raced by Tesio's widow Donna Lydia and his business partner, Marchese Mario Incisa della Rocchetta.
Ribot was trained in Italy by Ugo Penco and ridden by Enrico Camici. He was nicknamed 'il cavallo super,' meaning 'the super horse'.
Racing record
1954 two-year-old season
In 1954 Ribot began his racing career by winning the Premio Tramuschio over 1,000m at San Siro Racecourse by one length. He then won the Criterium Nazionale over 1,200m at the same course by two lengths. He ended the season by running the Gran Criterium over 1,500m at San Siro. In this race Camici attempted to ride a waiting race and Ribot won narrowly by a head from Gail. In all his subsequent races he either led from the start or raced close to the leaders.
1955 three-year-old season
Ribot had been unusually small as a yearling, being nicknamed "il piccolo" (little one). As a result, he was never entered in races such as the Premio Parioli and the Derby Italiano.
In 1955 Ribot won the Premio Pisa at Pisa Racecourse by six lengths and then took the Premio Emanuele Filiberto at San Siro by 10 lengths. After a break to allow the colt to recover from a respiratory illness he won the Premio Brembo by one length from Derain, and the Premio Besana over 2,400m by 10 lengths, again beating Derain, who won the St Leger Italiano two weeks later.
In October he raced outside Italy for the first time when he contested the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe over 2400 metres at Longchamp Racecourse. Starting at odds of 9/1 he took the lead early in the straight and won by three lengths from Beau Prince. According to press reports, he won very easily, with Camici never resorting to the whip and restraining the colt rather than driving him out in the closing stages. After the race he was surrounded by photographers and given the attention normally reserved for Hollywood film-stars. In his final start of the year he returned to Italy, where he won the Gran Premio del Jockey Club by 15 lengths from the previous year's winner Norman on heavy going.
1956 four-year-old season
Ribot began his four-year-old season with three easy wins at San Siro. He won the Premio Giulio Venino over 2000 metres by four lengths, the Premio Vittuone over 2400 metres by twelve lengths and the Premio Garbagnate over 2000 metres by eight lengths from Grand Rapids. He then contested Italy's Premier weight-for-age race, the Gran Premio di Milano over 3000 metres at San Siro. He led from the start and won by eight lengths from Tissot.
In July, Ribot raced outside Italy for the second time when he was sent to England for the sixth running of the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes over one and a half miles at Ascot Racecourse. Racing on soft ground, he started the 2/5 favourite and won by five lengths from High Veldt and Todrai. His fourteenth consecutive victory saw him equal the record of the pre-War Italian champion Nearco. Ribot then returned to Milan, where he won the Premio del Piazzale over 1800 metres, winning by eight lengths from a field which included the Premio Parioli winner Magabait.
In October, Ribot returned to Paris for his second Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe. He faced a stronger field than in 1955, with the field including Talgo (Irish Derby), Tanerko, Fisherman, Career Boy, Master Boing (Washington, D.C. International) and Oroso. Ribot took the lead on the turn into the straight and drew away from the field to win by an official margin of six lengths from Talgo. Photographs suggest that the winning margin was more like eight and a half lengths.
Stud record
Retired from racing, Ribot had an exceptionally successful career at stud. Under a one-year contract, he first stood at Lord Derby's stud in England. In 1959, he was syndicated for a five-year lease at a cost of $1.35 million before being sent to the United States in a deal of such significance that on June 1, 1959, Sports Illustrated did a feature article on it.
Originally, Ribot was leased by Darby Dan to stand in the United States for five years. After his temper surfaced, no insurance company would offer a policy to cover shipping him back to Europe. A new contract was worked out, and Ribot remained in the United States until his death. He is buried in the equine cemetery at Darby Dan, near his sons Graustark and His Majesty.
He was leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland on three occasions (1963, 1967 and 1968). His European progeny included Molvedo and Prince Royal, both winners of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe; Ragusa, winner of the Irish Derby, St. Leger, King George VI & Queen Elizabeth Stakes, and Eclipse Stakes. In America he sired Long Look, winner of Epsom Oaks; the full brothers Ribocco and Ribero, both winners of the Irish Derby and St. Leger; Boucher, the winner of the 1972 St Leger; Tom Rolfe, winner of the 1965 Preakness Stakes; Arts and Letters, winner of the 1969 Belmont Stakes; and Graustark. Ribot's son His Majesty sired the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes winner Pleasant Colony, and his great grandson Alleged, by Tom Rolfe's son Hoist The Flag, emulated him by winning the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe in successive years (1977 and 1978).
At least 15 Ribot stallions stood in Australasia, including Arivederci, Angeluccio, Latin Lover, Boucher (USA), Dies, Ribollire, Heir Apparent, Koryo, Regent's Tale, Ruantallan, Ribotlight, and Headland. The progeny of the 15 imported stallions had won over A$7 million until late 1979.
Honours
Timeform awarded Ribot a rating of 133 in 1955, six pounds behind the British-trained sprinter Pappa Fourway. In 1956 he was given a rating of 142, making him the highest-rated horse in Europe.
A Century of Champions, written by John Randall and Tony Morris and published by Portway Press Limited, says that photographs show Sea-Bird winning the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe by only four and a half lengths (and not by an official six lengths). Thus, Ribot's triumph (correctly by eight and half lengths and not by an official six lengths) in the race is de facto the largest winning distance. His Timeform rating is also based on the wrong official winning distance of his Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe victory. Hence, there is reason to think that he should have been rated higher. In the same book, Randall and Morris rated Ribot the third best racehorse of the 20th century, behind Sea Bird and Secretariat. As both Sea Bird and Secretariat never raced beyond the age of three, Ribot was the highest-rated horse in absolute terms.
In La Gazzetta dello Sport's poll, Ribot was named the 4th greatest Italian athlete of the 20th century. The Premio Ribot at Capannelle Racecourse is named in his honour, and he has been named Horse of the Century in Italy.
Pedigree
See also
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
References
Further reading
Mortimer, Roger and Willett, Peter, Great Racehorses of the World, Michael Joseph 1969, p. 186-192.
Incisa della Rocchetta, Mario, The Tesios as I Knew Them, J. A. Allen & Co. Ltd. 1979.
External links
Ribot’s complete racing career
Ribot’s progeny
1952 racehorse births
1972 racehorse deaths
Arc winners
British Champion Thoroughbred Sires
Racehorses trained in Italy
Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom
Undefeated racehorses
Thoroughbred family 4-l
Chefs-de-Race
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes winners | [
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218835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Patch | Dan Patch | Dan Patch (April 29, 1896 – July 11, 1916) was a noted American Standardbred pacer. At a time when harness racing was one of the largest sports in the nation, Dan Patch was a major celebrity. He was undefeated in open competition, and was so dominant on the racetrack that other owners eventually refused to enter their horses against him. Instead, he ended his racing career performing time trials, and traveled extensively on exhibition, earning millions of dollars in purses, attendance gate receipts, and product endorsements. Dan Patch broke world speed records at least 14 times in the early 1900s. In 1905, he set a world's record for the fastest mile by a harness horse (1:55 – 1 minute, seconds) that stood unmatched for over 30 years. Unofficially, Dan Patch broke this record in 1906 with a clocking of 1:55. He died on July 11, 1916. His owner, Marion Willis Savage, died just one day later.
Dan Patch was inducted into the Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame in 1953 and the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 2019.
Background
Dan Patch was a mahogany bay Standardbred stallion bred by Daniel (Dan) Messner Jr., a prosperous dry goods merchant from Oxford, Indiana. In late 1894, Messner purchased a three-year-old filly named Zelica for $255, planning to use her as a buggy horse. Zelica had gone lame in her only start and was later estimated to be worth under $100 at the time. In 1895, Messner paid a $150 stud fee to breed her to Joe Patchen, a top-quality racehorse, but untried as a sire. The resulting colt was foaled on April 29, 1896, at the livery stable in Oxford. His legs were so crooked that he could not at first stand on his own, leading many of the locals to call him "Messner's Folly". Some even suggested he be put down. Instead, Messner and his friends held the colt so he could ingest the colostrum (first milk) from Zelica. The foal's legs gradually grew straighter, although he still had crooked hocks, especially on his left hind leg. The colt developed an alert, cheerful personality and was noted for his intelligence.
In 1897, Messner applied to the American Trotting Association for the name Dan Patchen, based on his own first name and the last name of the colt's sire, with Dan P. as an alternative. Both names were taken, so the Trotting Association assigned a similar name, Dan Patch.
Zelica continued to be used as a buggy horse with her colt running freely alongside until he was weaned around five or six months. At first, the young horse showed little promise. "The only redeemable feature about the little fellow was that he was friendly and cute," recalled Messner. "I honestly thought the colt's future would be confined to hauling a delivery wagon." However, a close friend named John Wattles, the owner of the livery stable in which Dan Patch was foaled, saw potential in the colt. Wattles received permission from Messner to train Dan Patch and gradually developed the horse's abilities. By late 1898, Messner was able to use Dan Patch as his buggy horse, since Zelica was again in foal, and even hooked the horse up to his sleigh over the winter. The locals were increasingly impressed by the almost black colt, who loved to move fast, but was biddable enough to pull young boys behind him on the sleigh.
At maturity, Dan Patch stood tall at the withers and weighed a "hefty" 1,165 pounds. His hindquarters were notably higher than his front. He had a short body and long legs, a combination that would have been problematic for a trotter, as the hind legs would have risked striking the front leg in full stride (known as firing). As a pacer, the risk of firing is nonexistent, as the front and hind legs on a given side move back and forth together. However, because of the crooked hock on his left hind, Dan Patch would initially "cross fire", meaning his left hind leg would sometimes hit his right fore. A special horseshoe was used on his left hind to stabilize the leg, resulting in a smooth, rhythmical stride. The left leg would still sometimes "paddle" wide though, striking the wheel of the training cart. Wattles resolved this problem by designing a wider sulky.
Ownership
Messner was the owner of a dry-goods store in Oxford and traveled extensively as a buyer of clothing and fabrics and other items for his growing business. During these trips, he frequently went to the harness races and probably made small bets with his friends. Despite his long-standing interest in the sport, Zelica was the first horse he ever owned.
In 1902, Messner sold Dan Patch to Manley E. Sturges (sometimes spelled Sturgis) of New York, for a record $20,000. Sturges first became interested in Dan Patch in 1901 when he placed a large bet on the horse in a race at Brighton Beach. Sturges was the part owner and operator of an illegal, but highly profitable, casino in Manhattan, the Victoria Club. Although the casino was frequently raided, Sturges was never arrested and maintained a low profile. He made his first offer for Dan Patch in the summer of 1901, and was finally successful in February 1902. At that time, Messner cited many reasons for the sale, including the record price and the pressure of running his store. Years later, however, Messner said that he had felt threatened by Sturges. A two-year-old daughter of Dan Patch died suddenly in February 1902, apparently from poisoning, and Messner believed that Sturges was responsible.
In turn, Sturges sold Dan Patch in December 1902 to Marion Willis Savage, a resident of Hamilton (later Savage) Minnesota, for the then unheard of price of $60,000 (). Savage was the owner of the International Stock Food Company, which specialized in feed supplements for animals, and used the horse to advertise the business. Savage took great pride in his champion and was reported as saying he loved Dan Patch like a son. When not on exhibition, Dan Patch lived in Minnesota, either in the stable of Savage's Minneapolis mansion or at Savage's sprawling farm in Hamilton in an extravagant stable known as the "Taj Mahal".
Racing career
Dan Patch made his first start as a four-year-old in 1900. At the time, harness races consisted of multiple heats – a horse had to win a majority of heats (usually three out of a possible five heats) to be declared the race winner. During his career, Dan Patch never lost a race and lost only two heats. The first of those two losses occurred in his second start against what was termed "real competition" at the Lafayette Fair. In that heat, Dan Patch was last at the beginning of the homestretch and despite closing rapidly, lost by a nose. The other loss occurred in 1901 at Brighton Beach in a heat where the judges determined that the driver was "not driving to win", much to the fury of the crowd.
1900: Indiana county fairs
Wattles began training Dan Patch in earnest at a half-mile track (0.8 km) in Templeton in 1899. Before his first start in August 1900, Dan Patch impressed Messner and Wattles with a timed mile of 2:14, a promising performance for an unprompted horse who did not seem to be working hard. On August 30, they entered him at the Boswell county fair with a purse of $250 against 2:35 horses, meaning their fastest official time was no better than the next level of 2:20. Attendance at the fair that day exceeded 8,000, boosted by a large contingent from Oxford, who wanted to see the local favorite. Dan Patch did not disappoint, winning in three straight heats in times of 2:24, 2:24 and 2:24. Wattles had not pushed the colt, wanting to be able to stay at the 2:35 level and perhaps to improve his odds in potential side bets in his upcoming races.
With only five days of rest, Dan Patch made his next start at the Lafayette Fair for a purse of $300. Although the race was still at the 2:35 level, the competition was much stiffer. With a field of nine horses, five or six horses started in the first tier, while Dan Patch started in the second tier. Dan Patch was jostled and trapped at the back of the field until Wattles finally found racing room as they entered the homestretch. Dan Patch closed rapidly but just missed in a heat timed at 2:18. Although some blamed Wattles for the loss (either due to inexperience or in an effort to drive up the odds), Wattles himself blamed it on a new harness. Regardless, Dan Patch proved his superiority by winning the next three heats, the fastest of which was completed in 2:16.
On September 12, Dan Patch took the winner's share of another purse worth $300 at the fair in Crawfordsville in three straight heats in times of 2:19, 2:20 and 2:20. The following week, the horse was asked for a little more effort in a $400 race at the Brazil fair. He responded with times of 2:16, 2:19 and 2:17. Messner had hoped to end the year at the Terre Haute fair but heavy rains forced the cancellation of the race. Dan Patch ended the year with four wins and earnings of $625.
1901: the Grand Circuit
In 1901, Messner decided to test Dan Patch against the best horses in the country on the Grand Circuit, a series of valuable races around the north-eastern United States. Accordingly, he hired Myron McHenry to be Dan Patch's new trainer and driver. Though McHenry was reputed to be difficult to work with, his ability with horses was such that he was called "America's greatest reinsman". On May 13, Dan Patch left Oxford on a train bound for Cleveland so that McHenry could try him out. In their first drive together, Dan Patch did not appear to be working hard but the stopwatch showed he had been moving fast. McHenry reportedly said to the horse, "You're either the world's biggest counterfeit, or you're the fastest horse in the world."
McHenry worked with Dan Patch for two months before the start of the Grand Circuit season. Although Dan Patch had been trained well by Wattles, he still had some gaiting issues associated with his conformation. McHenry had the toe of Dan Patch's feet trimmed short while using a shoe that was raised in the back, a combination that some observers said made Dan Patch look like he was wearing high heels. Despite the odd appearance, the shoeing improved on the earlier changes made by Wattles to keep Dan Patch's hind legs from interfering with his front legs while reducing the wide action that led to him sometimes striking the wheels of the sulky. Always a natural pacer who required no hobbles or special equipment to keep him on stride, Dan Patch soon attracted interest from observers of the training sessions.
Dan Patch made his first start with McHenry at the racetrack in Windsor, Ontario, on July 10 in a race for 2:15 level pacers. With a purse of $600, the race was meant to serve as a modest test for a horse whose official best time was 2:16. Dan Patch did not disappoint, winning in three straight heats, the fastest of which was completed in 2:07.
On July 17 in Detroit, Dan Patch made his first start on the Grand Circuit at the Grosse Pointe racetrack. Although he faced some steep competition, Dan Patch again won easily in straight heats. The Grand Circuit continued in Cleveland, Columbus, and Buffalo with Dan Patch continuing to build his reputation with one win after the other. In the Buffalo race, McHenry took Dan Patch to the back of the field in one of the heats, then unleashed him in the stretch. Dan Patch responded with a final quarter mile in a stunning 30 seconds, a noteworthy fraction at a time when only one pacer had ever broken the two-minute barrier for the mile. McHenry told reporters, "Dan Patch is the best pacer I've ever drawn a rein over."
Dan Patch made his next start on August 16 at the Brighton Beach racetrack in New York City, known as a gambling hotbed. Dan Patch was the heavy favorite to win the race, but his odds to win the first heat drifted up from 3/5 to 5/4, attracting a "mad scramble" from bettors looking to cash in on the generous odds. The start of the first heat was delayed by over an hour due to an equipment malfunction. When the race finally began, Dan Patch went to the early lead, but was then eased back. In the homestretch, he was given "modest" encouragement, but failed to close enough ground, finishing fourth. Bettors were incensed, believing McHenry did not drive to win, possibly after having tipped the bookmakers given the way the odds changed before the race. The time for the heat was 2:09, two seconds slower than Dan Patch's best time to date. McHenry stated that he had held back because he had heard that the winner was fast and he wanted to see how things sorted out. Some reports say the judges paid no attention to the "improbable" result. However, the Boston Globe reported that the judges were "very displeased" and others reported on a heated meeting of the officials and a near riot by the fans.
In the second heat, Dan Patch showed his superiority by winning in a time of 2:04, a new personal best. Because of the delay in the start of the first heat and another delay due to protests over its result, the third heat was not run until the next day. Dan Patch again won easily, this time in 2:07 before winning the fourth and final heat in 2:05.
Dan Patch's next start was at the Readville racetrack in Boston on August 22. The Globe reporter noted that Dan Patch was clearly superior to the field while the race result would be "as close as McHenry cares to draw the finishes." No betting was allowed and Dan Patch won easily in straight heats. Following the race, Dan Patch developed a cough but still raced on August 30 at the Narragansett Trotting Park in Cranston, Rhode Island on August 30. Pushed in the first heat to a time of 2:04, Dan Patch won the next two heats and was reported to have made a deep bow to the crowd after the race.
Dan Patch followed up with routine wins in Hartford, Cincinnati, Lexington, and Memphis. All told, he won 12 races in 1901. He was supposed to finish the season at the Terre Haute meet, but no one would enter against him. Instead, he returned home on November 2. On November 14, Oxford held the first "Dan Patch Day", in which the horse was led around town to the tune of the newly written "Dan Patch Two Step".
1902: new ownership
Dan Patch started 1902 in Indiana with his backers speculating just how fast he could go, as he had thus far only paced as hard as needed to win. The Oxford Tribune wrote, "It does not seem possible to those of our town who see this beautiful stallion, as gentle as a Newfoundland dog, driven about every fine day for exercise, that they are looking at the pacing king of the world." Townsfolk hoped that "Daniel" would be able to attend the upcoming Fourth of July celebrations.
In a surprising development, Dan Patch was sold to Manley Sturges in February, and was relocated to New York with McHenry remaining as his driver. His first start of the year was in Windsor, Ontario, in a match race against Canadian pacer Harold H., followed by races in Grosse Pointe and Cleveland on the Grand Circuit. In these wins, he was so dominant that subsequently either owners refused to race their horses against him or tracks were unwilling to allow betting. Sturges's only alternative was to have Dan Patch compete against the clock in exhibition races. Dan Patch paced his first public time trial on August 2 in Columbus and made headlines by surpassing the mark of his sire with a time of 2:00. This was second only to Star Pointer's world record of 1:59, a time that now looked achievable.
Over the summer and fall, interest in Dan Patch continued to grow, with racetracks negotiating with McHenry to have the horse appear. Dan Patch paced a mile in 2:00 at Brighton Beach despite high winds, then lowered his personal best to 2:00 at Readville. On August 29, Dan Patch just missed the world record with a time of 1:59 at Providence. After strong attempts in Philadelphia, Syracuse and Empire City, Dan Patch finally tied Star Pointer's world record on September 29 at Readville. He rounded out the year with exhibitions before enormous crowds at Cincinnati, Terre Haute, Davenport and Memphis.
Marion Savage became one of Dan Patch's biggest fans and made multiple offers to Sturges for the horse. Savage finally succeeded in December with an offer of $60,000, then a staggering amount.
1903: "champion harness horse of the world"
Savage was known for his advertising skills and soon capitalized on Dan Patch's growing fame. Rather than charging an exhibition fee, Savage received a proportion of the gate receipts for crowds that grew to between 40 and 50 thousand. In most of his exhibition races, Dan Patch started behind galloping horses who were hooked up to a sulky, which gave Dan Patch a target to beat and also acted as a wind breaker. The pace makers would eventually swing wide, leaving Dan Patch alone against the clock.
Not long after buying Dan Patch, Savage entered him in the Minneapolis Riding and Driving Club's winter horse show held on January 29, 1903. The "champion harness horse of the world" was given the chance to show his paces on a snowy Park avenue. Savage scheduled other special appearances for Dan Patch throughout the spring before finally handing him over to McHenry for serious training in June. Dan Patch made his first major appearance of 1903 in a time trial at Columbus on July 17. Despite being short of conditioning and pacing into a headwind, Dan Patch tied Prince Alert's world record for the half mile of 57 seconds. Although far less famous, Prince Alert was the only other active horse to have broken the two minute barrier for the mile and might have given Dan Patch a serious battle had the two ever met head to head. Instead, the two tried to outdo each other racing against the clock.
Dan Patch's next notable achievement was on August 19 at Brighton Beach, where he broke the world record by pacing a mile in 1:59 despite cold and windy conditions. This was the first time the race format had used galloping Thoroughbreds to prompt the pace, with one running beside Dan Patch at the start and the other behind. The effort was nearly derailed when Dan Patch came close to clipping the rail when moving into the first turn, while his running mates swept wide and were left behind. Dan Patch completed the half-mile in :59 before one of the pacemakers caught up, then moved in front. His time for the three-quarters was 1:29, just off of world record pace. McHenry urged Dan Patch hard down the homestretch and he responded with a final quarter mile in under 30 seconds to set the record.
Dan Patch next tackled the record for one mile on a half-mile track. Because the horse must negotiate more and tighter turns on a smaller track, the half-mile track record is slower than the time on a one-mile track. Even today, separate records are kept in harness racing depending on the track dimensions. On September 7 at the half-mile track in Lima, Ohio, Dan Patch paced a world record of 2:04, only to have the record broken by Prince Alert a few weeks later. Prince Alert then lowered the world record on a one-mile track to an astonishing 1:57, thanks in part to perfect weather conditions but also aided by a large canvas sail carried between the galloping horses who set the pace. Critics pointed out that the sail, later referred to as a wind shield, lessened the wind resistance that a horse faced (similar to drafting in cycling or motor racing). Although the usage of wind shields was eventually disallowed by the American Trotting Register, in the short term it meant that Dan Patch was no longer the fastest harness horse in the world.
Dan Patch responded to the challenge by setting a flurry of records. In Lexington, he broke the existing record for pacing while attached to a wagon, instead of the lighter, more aerodynamic sulky, by over two seconds. A week later in Memphis, he regained the one mile world from Prince Alert with a time of 1:56, an accomplishment that made the first page of the New York Times. Dan Patch maintained a steady pace, completing the first quarter mile in 29 seconds, the first half in 58 seconds and the three-quarters in 1:37. McHenry had used only a small canvas strip between the wheels of his pacemaker's sulky that McHenry called a dust shield, compared to the much larger wind shield carried between two pacemakers used by Prince Alert.
On October 27 while still in Memphis, he set two world records within 45 minutes of each other. In the first trial, he lowered the record for the half mile from 57 seconds to 56 seconds flat. In the second, he lowered his own record for a mile pacing to wagon from 1:59 to 1:57.
Dan Patch made two further appearances in 1903. At Birmingham, Alabama on November 10, he lowered the record for a mile on a half mile track to 2:03, even though his pacemaker had moved too far ahead to act as a proper windshield. The conditions in Macon, Georgia on November 30 were cold and windy but Dan Patch still set two world records within an hour of each other. In the first, he was attached to an old-fashioned high-wheeled sulky and lowered the existing record by seconds. In the second, he paced two miles in 4:17, lowering the existing record by two seconds.
1904: on the road
In 1904, Savage split company with McHenry, who had been Dan Patch's trainer and driver since 1901. A variety of reasons were cited, including McHenry's drinking and his complaints that Savage was treating Dan Patch like a circus act. Savage replaced McHenry with Harry Hersey, who had been the manager of Savage's farm in Minnesota but had little race-driving experience. Savage had no inclination to test Dan Patch in competitive formats, where even the fastest horse can lose due to a variety of factors. Instead, Savage used Dan Patch to promote the horse feed supplements his company produced and, in the model of Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show, turned each appearance by Dan Patch into a major event. Dan Patch was shipped in a custom built rail-car, with half of the space reserved for Dan Patch and the other half for his grooms and the horses used as prompters. Savage estimated that Dan Patch traveled roughly 10,000 miles in 1904 alone.
Dan Patch did not make his seasonal debut for 1904 until August 11 in Indianapolis and his first performances were considered disappointing, well off his personal best. Despite this, the crowds though continued to grow, reaching 40,000 in Des Moines and 50,000 in Milwaukee. He was then scheduled to make an appearance in Topeka on the September 14 and arrived in town a few days early. After a workout on the 12th, he cooled out normally but later started to show signs of distress. The condition quickly deteriorated and a respected veterinarian diagnosed a strangulated hernia, which had a very high fatality rate at the time since abdominal surgery on horses was not then an option. Hersey sent two telegraphs on hearing the news: one to Savage and the other to the Minneapolis Journal. While Savage rushed to Dan Patch's side, news went out across America that the horse was dying.
On his arrival in Kansas on the 13th, Savage called in other veterinarians, one of whom felt that the condition was actually an impacted bowel – still serious but much more survivable. For the next few days, newspapers updated on Dan Patch's slowly improving condition until the horse was finally pronounced out of danger on September 29. Savage had administered triple doses of "International Colic Cure", one of his company's feed supplements, and later said this helped Dan Patch's recovery, though he did not claim that it actually cured the colic. Some skeptics wondered if Savage had manufactured the crisis for the resulting publicity, though this seems unlikely since he was not present when the horse first became ill. Dan Patch made a brief appearance before the crowd in Topeka before being shipped home to Minnesota. He was given a brief time off before attending a previously scheduled event on October 7 at the Illinois State Fair, where 50,000 people turned out to see the "national pet".
His next scheduled appearance was in Memphis, Tennessee, where little was expected of him due to the recent illness. On October 24, he paced a mile without prompters in 2:00, the fastest time paced that year despite appearing "dull and weak" to his old owner Manley Sturges. Just two days later though, Dan Patch returned in much better condition. Behind his galloping prompter, he paced the first quarter mile in 29 seconds and completed the first half in 57 seconds. He seemed to falter around the far turn, but still completed the three-quarters in 1:26. In the stretch, he recovered his best stride and completed the mile in a new world record of 1:56. He was greeted with an ovation and Hersey was carried from the sulky on the way back to the stands.
Dan Patch finished the year with appearances in St. Louis, Oklahoma City and Dallas. At Oklahoma City, he broke his own record for one mile on a half-mile track with a time of 2:03, despite "dreadful" track conditions that caused Dan Patch to nearly fall. Hersey said, "It was the most wonderful mile ever paced by a horse." The crowd concurred – according to a reporter, "Canes, hats, and coats filled the air."
1905: the Black Whirlwind
Dan Patch celebrated his ninth birthday in 1905, an age at which racehorses are considered past their prime. From this point onward, the expectation that he would set a new record on any given trial was lower, but the horse's popularity remained intact. Dan Patch made his first appearance of the year in September at the Minnesota State Fair before a crowd of 98,000, followed by a crowd of 55,000 at Indianapolis and more than 100,000 in Allentown. He then shipped to Lexington where he tied his own world record of 1:56 while surrounded by a cloud of dust, leading the New York Times to call him the "Black Whirlwind". Two days later, Dan Patch outdid himself, setting his official record of 1:55, a time that would remain a record for over 30 years.
Savage then decided to tackle the record for an unprompted mile, which still stood at 1:59. The harness racing community was becoming increasingly concerned about the use of prompters and wind shields, so Savage wished to establish that Dan Patch could break Star Pointer's old record without assistance. After several attempts that were close to or matched that time, Dan Patch finally shattered the "in the open" record with a time of 1:58 at Memphis on November 11.
1906-1909: celebrity
In 1906, the National Trotting Association banned the use of wind shields, although they did allow Dan Patch's 1905 records to stand. Thus, his official best mile is 1:55. Unofficially, his best time was 1:55, paced in September 1906 at the Minnesota State Fair. Savage was so indignant about the 1:55 mark not being recognized that he renamed his International Stock Food Farm to the International 1:55 Stock Food Farm. Savage later used Dan Patch and his offspring in ads for the farm, with the 1:55 time clearly included. The 1:55 mark was equaled in following years but was not broken until 1960, 54 years after Dan Patch's run, when Adios Butler paced the first sub-1:55 mile in 1:54:3.
Although Dan Patch continued to make public appearances and posted some excellent times, he was never able to achieve that level again. The closest he came was on October 11, 1908, at Lexington, when he paced the first three-quarters of a mile in an exceptional 1:25 before his prompter started bleeding and slowed down. Dan Patch was forced to check but still finished the mile in 1:56. Savage advertised that Dan Patch would otherwise have finished in 1:54, which "the Horse Papers and all Horsemen admit was the Fastest and Greatest Performance in the life of the World Famous Harness Horse King."
Dan Patch's achievements made him a sports celebrity, possibly the most famous athlete in America until Babe Ruth. His name and likeness were used to sell a vast array of merchandise including whiskey bottles, shot glasses, cigars, coffee, billiard cues and sheet music. At the height of his fame, he earned more than $1 million a year for his owner and was billed as "kindhearted, generous, and a staunch Methodist who never performed on a Sunday."
Among the hundreds of thousands of people who turned out for a glimpse of the horse over his career was Dwight Eisenhower, who lined up with his parents at the 1904 Kansas State Fair. Harry Truman recalled that as a boy he had written a fan letter to the horse.
Records set
Retirement
Dan Patch retired undefeated in 1909 as the holder of nine world records, and spent much of his later life attending exhibitions. Even during his racing career, he was used for stallion duty with a stud fee of between $300 and $500, though he was never exposed to the best mares. He had a moderately successful stud career but never sired a horse close to his ability. He sired 38 trotters who met the 2m:30s standard with 1 breaking 2:10. He also sired 138 pacers who met the standard, 5 of whom broke the 2:05 barrier. Dazzle Patch was his most successful son but died young and left only a few foals behind. Dan Patch's name is rare in modern pedigrees. His most famous descendant is Hall of Famer Jate Lobell, who traces to Dan Patch's daughter Theda Patch in the female line.
In July 1916, Savage went into the hospital for minor hemorrhoid surgery. At the same time, Dan Patch suffered an attack of colic, from which he soon seemed to recover. However, at 10:00 AM on July 11, Dan Patch collapsed, thrashed his legs in a pacing motion and then died of a massive heart attack. Savage was notified and indicated that he wished to have Dan Patch stuffed and mounted. Before this could be done, Savage died on July 12 of a pulmonary embolism.
Memorials
Dan Patch is believed to be buried somewhere on the "Taj Mahal" property in an unmarked grave – the tombstone in Oxford is just a memorial. Dan Patch's home town of Oxford continues to honor the horse at its annual "Dan Patch Days" festival, a festival that is scheduled for the weekend following Labor Day each year. Savage, Minnesota, also holds a celebration called "Dan Patch Days" annually in June.
Today, the land in Savage formerly occupied by the Taj Mahal stables and racetracks is vacant, though the outline of a track is visible from the air, near the intersection of State Highway 13 and Vernon Avenue. The land is posted "no trespassing" and no historical marker documents that anything of significance ever stood there.
In 1953, Dan Patch was inducted in the new Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame.
The City of Savage, Minnesota, was renamed for Dan Patch's owner, Marion Willis Savage, in 1904. Dan Patch Avenue on the Minnesota State Fair grounds is named for the horse. Dan Patch Drive and Dan Patch Lane in Savage, Minnesota, are also named after Dan Patch.
In 1992, the Dan Patch Historical Society was formed to "collect, preserve and disseminate information about the horse". In 1997, it helped set up a Heritage Room in the Savage Public Library, which contains two display cases of Dan Patch memorabilia and extensive records.
In 2004, Prior Lake High School, located in Savage, named its new stadium after the horse.
In 2019, Dan Patch was named into the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame.
In a display on the exterior of the Indiana State Museum, Benton County (where Dan Patch's hometown of Oxford is located) is represented by a wire sculpture of Dan Patch. The road into Oxford is named the Dan Patch highway and there are several tributes to the horse including an historical marker showing his birthplace.
Cultural references
The brass era automobile maker Dan Patch was founded in Minneapolis in 1911. The company was owned by Savage and was one of 16 manufacturers in Minnesota at the time. This operation came to an end when the Ford Motor Company began its assembly operations in St. Paul.
The proposed Dan Patch Corridor commuter rail line in southern Minnesota runs along the tracks of the former Dan Patch line, created in 1907 by Marion W. Savage. Passenger service on the Dan Patch line began the summer of 1910, with travel from Bloomington, Minnesota to Minneapolis. Savage's plan of running rail through to Iowa never materialized as the citizens of Faribault, Minnesota would have nothing to do with it. The railroad was declared bankrupt in 1917 and purchased a year later. Savage's track however would spur growth along all the cities it lay and service industries like Ford, John Deere and Thermo King.
Dan Patch Toastmasters, Club 1280 of Toastmasters International, was founded in 1954, and continues to meet on Wednesday evenings in Richfield, Minnesota.
The song "Ya Got Trouble", from the Broadway musical and film The Music Man, makes a reference to the horse in expounding upon the "degradation" of jockeys sitting on the horse during a race, when Harold Hill (Robert Preston) states:
Dan Patch was the subject of the 1949 motion picture The Great Dan Patch starring Dennis O'Keefe and Gail Russell.
The Disney movie So Dear to My Heart begins with Dan Patch's train pulling into a small town. Jeremiah's black lamb, Danny, is named for the horse and serves as his inspiration.
Pedigree
In 1879, the harness racing community established "The Standard", which stated that a Standardbred was a horse who either: (a) could trot a mile in 2:30, or (b) was the offspring of such a horse. Both Dan Patch's parents were Standardbreds but further back in his pedigree are a significant number of Morgan horses. Even further back can be found Thoroughbreds (most notably Messenger, the great-grandfather of Hambletonian) and a wide variety of harness horse breeds including the Narragansett Pacer, Canadian Pacer, Norfolk Trotter and Hackney.
Dan Patch was from the first crop of Joe Patchen, one of the fastest pacers of his time. Joe Patchen's main rival was Star Pointer, the first Standardbred to break the two minute barrier. Joe Patchen was a great-grandson of Standardbred foundation sire Hambletonian (known more fully as Hambletonian 10 or Rysdyk's Hambletonian to distinguish him from the Thoroughbred of the same name). Hambletonian sired 40 trotters who met the standard, with several going on to be influential sires. His son George Wilkes raced for twelve years, winning 29 of 67 races. Known for his ill temper, he was initially greeted with indifference at stud but soon became one of the greatest sires of his age. One of George Wilkes's less distinguished sons was Patchen Wilkes, who barely met the standard with a best time of 2:29. Patchen Wilkes's only important offspring was a colt produced by the Morgan mare Josephine and named Joe Patchen after his parents. Though his breeding was suspect, Joe Patchen was a great pacer with a career best of 2:01. Other than Dan Patch, he was not a great success at stud.
Dan Patch's dam Zelica was sired by Wilkesberry, also a grandson of George Wilkes through one of his best sons, Young Jim. Wilkesberry was a talented horse who died young and left only a few foals. Zelica's dam Abdallah Belle descended from Alexander's Abdallah, a son of Hambletonian who also died young and left few survivors due to the Civil War. Zelica produced several foals after Dan Patch but they were fairly undistinguished.
‡ Morgan horse
Dan Patch is inbred 3x4 to George Wilkes, meaning George Wilkes appears once in the third generation of the pedigree and once in the fourth generation. Dan Patch is also inbred 4x5x5 to Hambletonian through his sons George Wilkes and Alexander's Abdallah.
References
External links
History of Savage
Dan Patch Days
Dan Patch Toastmasters club website.
Dan Patch, MNopedia.
Dan Patch Race Poster, Minnesota Reflections.
Dan Patch biography, images and link to newsreel footage
Leerhsen, Charles, Crazy Good: The True Story of Dan Patch, the Most Famous Horse in America, 2008, New York: Simon & Schuster.
American Standardbred racehorses
Racehorses bred in the United States
Racehorses trained in the United States
Benton County, Indiana
History of Minnesota
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Harness racing in the United States
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
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218837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delegation | Delegation | Delegation is one of the core concepts of management leadership. The process involves managers deciding which work they should do themselves and which work should be delegated to others for completion. From a managerial standpoint, delegation involves shifting project responsibility to team members, giving them the opportunity to finalize the work product effectively, with minimal intervention. The opposite of effective delegation is micromanagement, where a manager provides too much input, direction, and review of delegated work. Delegation empowers a subordinate to make decisions. It is a shifting of decision-making authority as well as responsibility for the results from one organisational level to another lower one. However, a certain level of accountability for the outcome of the work does remain with the person who delegated the work to begin with.
There are a number of reasons someone may decide to delegate. These include:
To free themselves up to do other tasks
To have the most qualified person making the decisions
To seek another qualified person's perspective on an issue
To develop someone else's ability to handle the additional assignments judiciously and successfully
Delegation is widely accepted as an essential element of effective management. It is one of the most useful management tools available. The ability to delegate is a critical, yet difficult to develop, skill in managing effectively. There are a number of factors which facilitate effective delegation by managers. These include: "Recognising and respecting others’ capabilities; evaluating tasks and communicating how they fit in the big picture; matching people and assignments; providing support and encouragement; tolerating ambiguity and uncertainty; interpreting failure as a key to learning." With organisations being such complex and dynamic entities, the success of objectives rely heavily on how effectively tasks and responsibilities can be delegated. There are a number of characteristics which apply to delegation. Firstly, as previously discussed it is the process of assigning authority of a task to a supporting employee. This also shifts the decision-making authority relating to this task. The delegation of tasks across organisational levels creates connections and develops a chain of authority.
The process of delegation
According to Dr. Kanthi Wijesinghe, Senior Lecturer, National Institute of Education, "Delegation begins when the manager passes on some of their responsibilities to a subordinate. Responsibility is the work assigned to an individual." Delegation is strongly dependent on a supervisor's ability to communicate, motivate and understand individual preferences and differences. The process of delegation involves ensuring that a task and appropriate employee have been selected. The process of delegation requires ‘preparation, initiation, implementation, and closure’. The tasks assigned to an individual should not include those which are a traditional part of their role. While a manager is able to delegate authority to carry out a give task, ultimate responsibility is not transferred. This means that delegation involves a process of sharing, which may include ‘authority, power, influence, information, knowledge, or risk’. This builds trust and morale between managers and subordinates. The internal and external environment of an organisation is often characterised by many interfering factors. Some of these include ‘too much urgency, inexperience, and lack of trust’. In order to minimise the effect of these factors, a clear delegation protocol should be developed and followed within an organisation.
The process of delegation does not not always follow a conformed structure, nor is it straightforward, however there are a number of key aspects which are generally involved. The generalised process of delegation involves some combination of the following:
Allocation of duties: the delegator communicates to their subordinate the task which is to be performed. Resources are provided and a time limit is informed.
Delegation of authority: In order for the subordinate to perform the task, authority is required. The required authority is granted to the employee when the task is delegated.
Assignment of responsibilities: When authority is delegated, the subordinate is assigned with the responsibility of this task. When someone is given the rights to complete a task, they are assigned with the corresponding obligation to perform. Responsibility itself cannot be entirely delegated; a manager must still operate under equal responsibility to the delegated authority.
Creation of accountability: At the completion of the delegation process, it is essential that the manager creates accountability, meaning that subordinates must be answerable for the tasks which they have been authorised to carry out.
Principles of delegation
There are a number of guidelines, in the form of principles, which are essential to understanding and implementing the process of delegation. The principles of delegation include:
Principle of result expected
The authority delegated to an individual subordinate needs to be adequate to ensure their ability to accomplish the results expected of the task. Prior to delegation, the manager needs to know the purpose of such delegation and the results which they expect from it. This means that goals, standards of performance and targets need to be clearly outlined to direct the actions of the subordinate to completion of the task.
Principle of parity of authority and responsibility
This principle outlines the concept that authority and responsibility co-exist and must go hand-in-hand. This means that the authority which is delegated to an employee must be consistent and equal to that of their responsibility. "Responsibility without authority is meaningless". Each individual in an organisation requires the necessary authorities in order to effectively carry out assigned tasks; disparity should not exist between the responsibility imposed on and the authority granted to an employee in order to carry out a task.
Principle of absoluteness of responsibility
The principle of absoluteness of responsibility states that delegation of responsibility is not possible. Superiors are unable to relinquish, through the process of delegation, responsibility for the tasks and activities assigned to their subordinates, for they are the ones who delegated this authority and assigned the duty. Responsibility is absolute, with a manager remaining accountable for the actions of their subordinates.
Principle of unity of command
According to the principle of unity of command, employees should only have one supervisor, who they report to, are granted authority by and receive orders from. This employee should be solely accountable to their direct supervisor. This is associated with increased employee efficiency and less role conflict within an organisation.
The scalar principle
The scalar principle asserts that there are clear and formal lines of hierarchal authority within an organisation. This hierarchy reflects the flow of authority and responsibility. It clearly outlines to managers and subordinates, who has the power to delegate authority and to whom they are answerable to.
Principle of exception
This principle asserts that employees should be given complete freedom to fulful their responsibilities within the purview of their authority. Managers should therefore refrain from interfering with the day-today work of their subordinates, even if minor mistakes are recognised. This level of control leads to more efficient results. In some exceptional cases, managers are able to interfere on matters deviating significantly from the norm; in this case the authority delegated to the subordinate may even be withdrawn.
Potential advantages and disadvantages
Delegation is an essential and extremely useful management tool. When implemented effectively and successfully delegation results in many benefits to the organisation, manager and subordinate. However, if delegation in unsuccessful and not implemented optimally, the results can lead to serious disadvantages and have detrimental effects.
Delegation is one of the best-known methods for efficiently managing time and leads to numerous benefits within an organisation. One of the most significant advantages of delegation is its use for employee motivation and development. The motivating factor associated with delegations comes from the increased confidence transferred from manager to subordinate. When a supervisor demonstrates their confidence it builds staff trust and self-confidence in the employees. There is a highly significant and positive relationship that exists between delegation and trust between an individual employee and management. Leaders are able to empower subordinates through the sharing of supervisor power. This leads to positive reinforcement of the supervisor's role, builds morale and generates organisation trust. Delegation significantly increases effectiveness and efficiency in multiple ways. It eases the challenges relating to management’ workload, increasing responsiveness and growing and developing the capabilities of employees. Organisational resources are managed more efficiently, and subordinates are able to make decisions and perform tasks faster. Through delegation, lower level employees are able to embrace the opportunity to gain experience, build on capabilities and develop skills, which improves the organization. Delegation is positively related to organizational commitment, task performance, innovative behaviour and job satisfaction. At an organisational level, delegation can provide insight into current strengths and weaknesses, providing the opportunity for improvement and growth. It also increases the capacity of an organisation to respond quickly and effectively.
While the benefits are clear, there are a number of potential disadvantages and challenges to effective delegation. Ineffective use of delegation includes allowing no real influence or granting too much authority to someone who is unwilling or unable to make appropriate decisions. Some supervisors find it challenging to delegate tasks for the fear of becoming out of touch with the required skills or giving up something they truly enjoy. Delegation does involve a level of risk and uncertainty, which can be a powerful deterrent to delegation. When supervisors delegate a task, they remain responsible for whether or not it is carried out effectively and must consider the potential risks and rewards as a result of the delegation. Managers are often reluctant to delegate due to concerns that mistakes will be made, or that the job will not be completed to the standard which they believe they could achieve. Another concern relating to delegation is that top-level management can become wary that middle management will delegate for the benefit of their specific needs rather than those general to the organisation.
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218839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greyhound%20%28horse%29 | Greyhound (horse) | Greyhound was a grey Standardbred gelding by Guy Abbey out of Elizabeth by Peter the Great. Born in 1932, Greyhound was the outstanding trotting horse of his day and arguably the most outstanding in the history of the sport. He was nicknamed "The Great Grey Ghost" and "Silver-skinned Flyer." In 1935, he won the Hambletonian race and in 1938 he lowered the record time for trotting the mile to 1:55¼. This record stood until 1969.
Early life
Greyhound was sold for $900 at auction due to his awkward appearance. As a two-year-old he won at venues including Good Time Park where he won the Good Time Stake, Springfield where he won the Review Futurity and Syracuse where he won the Horseman Futurity. At the end of the season he won the Lexington Trot at The Red Mile.
1935 season
In the Hambletonian, Greyhound sat back in the field until making a move at the 5/8 mile mark and swirling past the field to win in 2.02 1/4 in the first heat and 2.02 3/4 in the second. The first heat time was a race record. Reflective of the era, the nearly $19,000 he won at The Hambletonian was to become almost half his career earnings. After The Hambletonian Greyhound won the Review Futurity at Springfield with a 2.00 mile and the Championship Stallion Stake at Syracuse but due to injury he did not contest the Kentucky Futurity. He also won the Matron Stakes and Horseman Futurity. He won 18 of 20 starts as a three-year-old in 1935.
1936 and 1937
In 1936 Greyhound won at Springfield in 1.57 1/4. It was the fastest mile ever trotted in a race and the fastest trotting mile since Peter Manning in 1922. During the year he won the Empire State Trot at Syracuse and the Transylvania at Lexington as well as Grand Circuit wins at Old Orchard Beach and Springfield, Massachusetts. He also trotted a mile in 2.02 at Allentown which was a half mile track world record.
In 1937 Greyhound began his season by smashing the half mile track record with a 1.59 3/4 mile at Goshen. In a time trial at Indianapolis he reduced the world record for miles by almost 10 seconds to 3.02 1/2. At The Red Mile in Lexington Greyhound first equalled the world mark of 1.56 3/4 held by Peter Manning then a week later broke it trotting a mile in 1.56. His quarter mile fractions were 29 1/4, 57 1/2 and 1.27 1/2.
1938 season
In 1938 Greyhound raced more than he had the previous year winning the Trotting Derby at Goshen's Good Time Park, the Matron Stakes and the Championship Stallion Stakes. He won all 10 heats across the 5 races he contested during the year. He trotted in 1.56 3/4 over a slow track at Indianapolis on August 30 before returning to Lexington to try to break his record. At Lexington he first equalled his 1.56 world record then a week later going to the quarter in 29 1/4, half in 58 1/2 and three quarters in 1.26 he was home in 1.55 1/4, last half in 56 3/4. Five days later Palin tried a different tactic by going quicker to the half in 28 1/2 and 56 3/4, but again getting to the three quarters in 1.26, he finished in 1.55 1/2.
1939 and 1940
In 1939 Greyhound did not start in a race as there was no horse prepared to race against him. Therefore, he was restricted to exhibitions against the clock. At Syracuse he was hitched together as a tandem with the mare Rosalind breaking the tandem record with a mile in 1:59. The next week at Indianapolis they did still better and nudged the trotting team mark down to 1:58 1/4. He took state records for Maine (1.57 1/2) at Old Orchard and Wisconsin (1.58) at Milwaukee. He also trotted 2 miles in 4.06 breaking the world record of Peter Manning.
It was announced in 1940 that Greyhound would be retired at the conclusion of the season's racing. He won seven races and 14 of 15 heats and at Lexington Frances Dodge Johnson rode him under saddle in 2.01 3/4 for a mile, a world record for a trotter under saddle. Greyhound was then retired. He won 71 of 82 heats and 33 of 37 races, with three of the four race defeats coming as a two-year-old in 1934. He had trotted 25 two-minute miles and at one time held fourteen world records.
Retirement
He was retired in 1940 to Red Gate Farm in St. Charles, Illinois, and Baker's Acres in Northbrook, Illinois, and in 1949, moved to Flanery Farm in Maple Park, Illinois where Col. Baker had an air-conditioned stall built for Greyhound with a sitting room for guests. During his twenty-five years of retirement, Greyhound was immensely popular among horse enthusiasts around the country. Greyhound was so popular that visitors came to see him until February 1965 when he died at the age of 33. His guest book was signed by visitors from 30 countries and all 50 states. He was buried at the Baker horse cemetery on Red Gate Farm alongside 1943 Hambletonian winner Volo Song and Col. Baker's famous trotters Winnipeg and Labrador. In 2014, Greyhound's stall where he had been shown to the public before his death, was transported to the Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame in Goshen, New York so that it could be reassembled and displayed in the museum.
Greyhound was honored as Trotter of the Century by the Hall of Fame after his death. He was again voted Trotter of the Century when in 1999 Hoof Beats, the official journal of the United States Trotting Association bestowed a similar honor upon him.
See also
Harness racing
Harness Racing Museum & Hall of Fame
References
External links
Greyhound
1932 racehorse births
1965 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
Racehorses bred in the United States
Racehorses trained in the United States
Hambletonian Stakes winners
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees | [
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218840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse%20of%20process | Abuse of process | An abuse of process is the unjustified or unreasonable use of legal proceedings or process to further a cause of action by an applicant or plaintiff in an action. Traditionally, It is a claim made by the respondent or defendant that the other party is misusing or perverting regularly issued court process (civil or criminal) not justified by the underlying legal action. In common law it is classified as a tort distinct from the intentional tort of malicious prosecution. It is a tort that involves misuse of the public right of access to the courts. In the United States it may be described as a legal process being commenced to gain an unfair litigation advantage.
The elements of a valid cause of action for abuse of process in most common law jurisdictions are as follows: (1) the existence of an ulterior purpose or motive underlying the use of process, and (2) some act in the use of the legal process not proper in the regular prosecution of the proceedings. Abuse of process can be distinguished from malicious prosecution, in that abuse of process typically does not require proof of malice, lack of probable cause in procuring issuance of the process, or a termination favorable to the plaintiff, all of which are essential to a claim of malicious prosecution. "Process", as used in this context, includes not only the service of process, i.e. an official summons or other notice issued from a court, but means any method used to acquire jurisdiction over a person or specific property that is issued under the official seal of a court. Typically, the person who abuses process is interested only in accomplishing some improper purpose that is collateral to the proper object of the process and that offends justice, such as an unjustified arrest or an unfounded criminal prosecution. Subpoenas to testify, attachments of property, executions on property, garnishments, and other provisional remedies are among the types of "process" considered to be capable of abuse.
Principle
In the case of Hui Chi-ming v The Queen: PC 5 Aug 1991 abuse of process was defined as "something so unfair and wrong that the court should not allow a prosecutor to proceed with what is in all other respect a regular proceeding". An abuse of process might occur where the defendant would not receive a fair trial and/or it would be unfair for the defendant to be tried. The standard of proof is the balance of probabilities.
The principles which led to a finding of an abuse of process in the UK were stated in Johnson v Gore Wood & Co by Lord Bingham.
Distinct from malicious prosecution
A cause of action for abuse of process is similar to the action for malicious prosecution in that both actions are based on and involve the improper use of the courts and legal systems. The primary difference between the two legal actions is that malicious prosecution concerns the malicious or wrongful commencement of an action, while, on the other hand, abuse of process concerns the improper use of the legal process after process has already been issued and a suit has commenced. In abuse of process, the legal process is misused for some purpose which is considered improper under the law. Thus technically, the service of process itself—in the form of a summons—could be considered abuse of process under the right circumstances, e.g. fraudulent or malicious manipulation of the process itself, but in malicious prosecution, the wrongful act is the actual filing of the suit itself for improper and malicious reasons. The three requirements of malice, lack of probable cause in the issuance of the process, and a termination of the prior proceeding favorable to the plaintiff, are essential elements for malicious prosecution. Most jurisdictions do not require any of these three elements in order to make out a prima facie case for abuse of process.
Illustration
A cause of action for abuse of process may lie in situations where a criminal proceeding is brought against a defendant for improper motives. For example, in Lader v. Benkowitz, a pleading was held to state a good cause of action for abuse of process when it alleged that defendant hotel owner had threatened to have the plaintiff arrested on a warrant issued at the behest of the defendant on a charge of disorderly conduct.
The allegedly improper motive was the hotel owner's underlying purpose of compelling plaintiff to pay a bill owed for plaintiff's alleged rental of a room in defendant's hotel. It was claimed that through the unlawful use of the warrant and threat of arrest, the defendant was able to obtain the sum of money allegedly owed by plaintiff. In denying defendant's motion to dismiss, the court admonished that it was sufficient to show that regularly issued process had been used to accomplish an improper purpose in order to set forth a cause of action for abuse of process.
The fact that the plaintiff had yielded to defendant's threat to have her arrested under the warrant did not diminish the cause of action, because it was clear that the plaintiff actually had been arrested for the purpose of compelling her to pay the cost of the room.
See also
Abuse of rights
Barratry
Frivolous litigation
Gaming the system
Paper terrorism
Pseudolaw
Sewer service
SLAPP
Spamigation
Vexatious litigation
References
Abuse of the legal system
Tort law
Common law
Common law legal terminology
Abuse | [
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218841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%20Feet%20Under%20%28TV%20series%29 | Six Feet Under (TV series) | Six Feet Under is an American drama television series created and produced by Alan Ball. It premiered on the premium network HBO in the United States on June 3, 2001, and ended on August 21, 2005, spanning 63 episodes across five seasons. It depicts the lives of the Fisher family, who run a funeral home in Los Angeles, along with their friends and lovers.
The ensemble drama stars Peter Krause, Michael C. Hall, Frances Conroy, Lauren Ambrose, Freddy Rodriguez, Mathew St. Patrick, and Rachel Griffiths as the central characters. It was produced by Actual Size Films and The Greenblatt/Janollari Studio, and was shot on location in Los Angeles and in Hollywood studios.
Six Feet Under received widespread critical acclaim, particularly for its writing and acting, and consistently drew high ratings for the HBO network. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time. The show's finale has also been described as one of the greatest television series finales. The series won numerous awards, including nine Emmy Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Peabody Award.
Show synopsis
The show stars Peter Krause as Nate Fisher, whose funeral director father (Richard Jenkins) dies and bequeaths ownership of Fisher & Sons Funeral Home to Nate and his other son David (Michael C. Hall). The Fisher clan also includes widow Ruth Fisher (Frances Conroy) and daughter Claire Fisher (Lauren Ambrose). Other regulars include mortician and family friend Federico Diaz (Freddy Rodriguez), Nate's on-again/off-again girlfriend Brenda Chenowith (Rachel Griffiths), and David's long-term boyfriend Keith Charles (Mathew St. Patrick).
On one level, the show is a conventional family drama, dealing with such issues as interpersonal relationships, dysfunction, infidelity, personal growth, and religion. At the same time, it is distinguished by its focus on the topic of death, which it explores on personal, religious, and philosophical levels. Each episode begins with a death, the cause of which ranges from heart attack to murder to accidental death or sudden infant death syndrome. That death usually sets the thematic tone for each episode, allowing the characters to reflect on their current fortunes and misfortunes in a way that is illuminated by the death and its aftermath. The show also uses dark humor and surrealism throughout its seasons.
A recurring plot device consists of a character having an imaginary conversation with the deceased; for example, Nate, David, and Federico sometimes "converse" with the deceased at the beginning of the episode, while the corpse is being embalmed, or during funeral planning or the funeral itself. Sometimes, the characters converse with other deceased characters, most notably Nathaniel Fisher, Sr. The show's creator Alan Ball said this represents the living characters' internal dialogues expressed in the form of external conversations.
Production
Concept
Although overall plots and characters were created by Alan Ball, reports conflict on how the series was conceived. In one instance, Ball stated that he came up with the premise of the show after the deaths of his sister and father. However, in an interview on the series' DVD collection, he intimated that HBO entertainment president Carolyn Strauss had proposed the idea to him. In a copyright-infringement lawsuit, screenwriter Gwen O'Donnell asserted that she was the original source of the idea that later passed through Strauss to Ball; the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, proceeding on the assumption that this assertion was true, rejected her claim.
Airing on a premium cable network allowed the series to explore darker themes than would have been possible on other networks. Ball stated in an interview:
Major themes
The show focuses on human mortality, the symbiotic nature of life and death feeding off each other, the death industry, and the lives of those who deal with it on a daily basis. When discussing the concept of the show, creator Ball elaborates on the foremost questions the show's pilot targeted:
Six Feet Under introduces the Fisher family as the basis on which to explore these questions. Throughout its five-season, 63-episode run, major characters experience crises which are in direct relation to their environment and the grief they have experienced. Alan Ball again relates these experiences, as well as the choice of the series' title, to the persistent subtext of the program:
Cultural critic Sally Munt commented: "one might risk saying [the show] has an uncanny, or queer rendition of class positions and relations". New York magazine opined that the show "carefully avoided moralism" but there were times where it "felt like a message" that "death has a terrible timing" and it could also be a "karmic gift" for some. Creator Alan Ball refuted this claim by asserting that there was no message in the story but only a recognition that death comes in the middle of "messy things" and doesn't wait for us to sort our lives.
Setting
Exteriors for the Fisher home were shot at 2302 West 25th Street and the intersection of Arlington Avenue, in the West Adams neighborhood of Los Angeles. In season five, episode one, Rico mentions that he grew up "in West Adams, near where I work."
Crew
Creator Alan Ball also served as executive producer and showrunner for the entire series run. Robert Greenblatt and David Janollari executive produced the series, as the Greenblatt Janollari Studio was one of the production companies. The other producers were Lori Jo Nemhauser and Robert Del Valle.
The writing staff included Ball, who wrote nine episodes over the series run, including the pilot episode and the series finale. Writers who were on staff for the entire series run included Rick Cleveland, who wrote eight episodes and became an executive producer in the fifth season; Kate Robin, who wrote eight episodes and became a supervising producer in the fifth season; and Bruce Eric Kaplan, who wrote seven episodes and became an executive producer in the fourth season. Christian Williams was just on staff for the first season, writing two episodes. Both Laurence Andries and Christian Taylor wrote three episodes each during their run on the series for the first two seasons, and they also served as producers. Scott Buck and Joey Soloway joined in the second season, staying on staff for the rest of the series, and each wrote seven episodes. Buck became a co-executive producer in the fourth season, and Soloway became a co-executive producer in the fifth season. The last set of writers to join the staff were Craig Wright and Nancy Oliver in the third season. Wright wrote six episodes and became a producer in the fifth season and Oliver wrote five episodes and became a co-producer in the fifth season.
Ball also directed the most episodes, directing the pilot and each of the season finales. Dan Attias also directed six episodes, from seasons two to five. Kathy Bates (who also played Bettina on the series), Michael Cuesta, Rodrigo García, and Jeremy Podeswa each directed five episodes. Michael Engler, Daniel Minahan, and Alan Poul (who also served as an executive producer for the series) each directed four episodes. Miguel Arteta directed three episodes and Nicole Holofcener directed two episodes. Single-episode directors included Peter Care, Alan Caso, Lisa Cholodenko, Allen Coulter, Adam Davidson, Mary Harron, Joshua Marston, Jim McBride, Karen Moncrieff, John Patterson, Matt Shakman, Alan Taylor, Rose Troche, and Peter Webber.
Music
The series' main theme, written by composer Thomas Newman, won a 2002 Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music and two Grammy Awards in 2003 for Best Instrumental Composition and Best Instrumental Arrangement.
The production sound from seasons three through five was mixed by Bo Harwood, and was nominated in 2004 for a Cinema Audio Society Award.
Seasons two through five featured a promotional teaser trailer prior to the premiere of that season. The songs featured in each season's trailer were "Heaven" by Lamb for season two; "A Rush of Blood to the Head" by Coldplay for season three; "Feeling Good" by Nina Simone for season four; and "Breathe Me" by Sia Furler for season five, which is also used for montage in the series finale. All these songs are included in either of two soundtracks for the show.
The episode recaps for the first two seasons feature the song "Nothing Lies Still Long" by Pell Mell. The episode previews for the first and fifth seasons feature the Six Feet Under title theme, while the other seasons feature the Rae & Christian remix version of the title theme.
Music supervision for the entire run of the series was provided by Gary Calamar and Thomas Golubic, who were also credited as producers for the two soundtrack albums.
Cast and characters
Main
Peter Krause as Nate Fisher – the eldest child, he is in search of meaning, while facing the prospect of his own death.
Michael C. Hall as David Fisher – the middle child, he is uptight and coming to terms with being gay.
Frances Conroy as Ruth Fisher – the matriarch, she is emotionally repressed and trying to form a new, independent life.
Lauren Ambrose as Claire Fisher – the youngest child, she is rebellious and creative.
Freddy Rodriguez as Federico Diaz – the business partner of the Fishers, he is a family man.
Mathew St. Patrick as Keith Charles – David's on-off significant other, he is a member of the LAPD.
Rachel Griffiths as Brenda Chenowith – Nate's on-off significant other, she struggles with depression.
Jeremy Sisto as Billy Chenowith – Brenda's younger brother, he has bipolar disorder (main season 1; recurring seasons 2–5).
James Cromwell as George Sibley – a geology professor, he is Ruth's second husband (recurring season 3; main seasons 4–5).
Justina Machado as Vanessa Diaz – Federico's wife, she is a licensed vocational nurse (recurring seasons 1–4; main season 5).
Recurring
Richard Jenkins as Nathaniel Fisher, Sr. – the patriarch of the Fisher family, he dies at the start, but appears in dream sequences and flashbacks (seasons 1–5)
Joanna Cassidy as Margaret Chenowith – Brenda and Billy's psychologist mother (seasons 1–5)
Giancarlo Rodriguez as Julio Diaz – Federico and Vanessa's son (seasons 1–5)
Tim Maculan as Father Jack – the priest at the Fisher's family church (seasons 1–5)
Eric Balfour as Gabriel Dimas – Claire's high-school boyfriend, and a chronic drug user (seasons 1–3)
Robert Foxworth as Dr. Bernard Chenowith – Brenda and Billy's psychiatrist father (seasons 1–3)
Ed O'Ross as Nikolai – a boyfriend of Ruth's when she worked as a florist (seasons 1–2, 5)
Marina Black as Parker McKenna – a friend of Claire's during high school (seasons 1–2)
David Norona as Gary Deitman – Claire's counselor (seasons 1–2)
Gary Hershberger as Matthew Gilardi – an employee of a major funeral home organization, who attempts to buy out Fisher & Sons (seasons 1–2)
Ed Begley, Jr., as Hiram Gunderson – Hiram, a hair stylist, had an affair with Ruth while she was married to Nathaniel (seasons 1 and 5)
Illeana Douglas as Angela – Angela temporarily replaced Federico in Fisher & Sons (seasons 1 and 5)
Dina Waters as Tracy Montrose Blair (season 1)
Patricia Clarkson as Sarah O'Connor – Ruth's younger sister, an artist who lives in Topanga Canyon (seasons 2–5)
Lili Taylor as Lisa Kimmel Fisher – Nate's former roommate, his first wife, and mother of his daughter Maya (seasons 2–5)
Melissa Marsala as Angelica – Vanessa's sister, she has a contentious relationship with her brother-in-law Federico (seasons 2–5)
Aysia Polk as Taylor Charles – Keith's niece, she is under his care (seasons 2–5)
John Paul Pitoc as Phil – Claire's boyfriend briefly and works at the crematorium (seasons 2–3)
Kellie Waymire as Melissa – a high-class prostitute whom Brenda befriends (season 2)
Nicki Micheaux as Karla Charles – Keith's sister and Taylor's mother, and a drug addict (season 2)
Julie White as Mitzi Dalton-Huntley – an employee of a major funeral home organization, which attempts to buy out Fisher & Sons (seasons 1–2)
Kathy Bates as Bettina – Sarah's friend and caretaker, she becomes a good friend of Ruth's (seasons 3–5)
Peter Macdissi as Olivier Castro-Staal – Claire's professor at art school and Margaret Chenowith's lover (seasons 3–5)
Ben Foster as Russell Corwin – Claire's boyfriend during art school (seasons 3–5)
Brenna Tosh and Bronwyn Tosh as Maya Fisher – Nate and Lisa's young daughter (seasons 3–5)
Rainn Wilson as Arthur Martin – a young intern from mortuary school, he works for the funeral home (seasons 3–5)
Justin Theroux as Joe – Brenda's neighbor, and boyfriend during season four (seasons 3–4)
Idalis DeLeón as Sophia – an exotic dancer with whom Federico has an affair (seasons 3–4)
Catherine O'Hara as Carol Ward – Lisa's boss, a neurotic motion-picture producer (seasons 3 and 5)
Sprague Grayden as Anita Miller – Claire's friend from art school (seasons 4–5)
Peter Facinelli as Jimmy – Claire's friend from art school and one-time lover (seasons 4–5)
Mena Suvari as Edie – a free-spirited lesbian artist and friend of Claire's from art school (season 4)
Michael Weston as Jake – a mentally unstable crack addict, he kidnaps and assaults David (seasons 4–5)
Tina Holmes as Maggie Sibley – George's daughter, she has an affair with Nate (seasons 4–5)
Matt Malloy as Roger Pasquese – Keith's employer, a movie producer (seasons 4–5)
Julie Dretzin as Barb – Lisa's sister (seasons 4–5)
Jeff Yagher as Hoyt – Lisa's brother-in-law (season 4)
Michelle Trachtenberg as Celeste – a pop star under Keith's security (season 4)
Bobby Cannavale as Javier – Keith's colleague (season 4)
Chris Messina as Ted Fairwell – a lawyer at Claire's temporary office job and her boyfriend during season five (season 5)
Kendré Berry as Durrell Charles-Fisher – an adopted son of David and Keith's (season 5)
C. J. Sanders as Anthony Charles-Fisher – an adopted son of David and Keith's (season 5)
Anne Ramsay as Jackie Feldman – Brenda's colleague and friend (season 5)
Family tree
Episodes
Reception
Critical reception
Six Feet Under received widespread critical acclaim, particularly for its writing and acting. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time, included on best-of lists by Time, The Guardian, and Empire. The show's finale has also been described as one of the greatest television series finales.
Six Feet Under received critical acclaim for most of its run, with the exception of the fourth season, which received more mixed reviews. The first season holds a rating of 74 out of 100 at Metacritic based on 23 reviews. Early reviews of the series were positive, prior to the screening of the pilot episode; Steve Oxman of Variety stated, "Six Feet Under is a smart, brooding, fanciful character-driven ensemble piece about a family in the funeral biz." Following the series premiere, Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter commented that the series' "examination of family life through the prism of a mortuary business, combines sardonic humor with poignant drama and comes up with a unique tone and style, in itself quite an accomplishment for any TV series. It is fearless in its approach to storytelling and, far more often than not, succeeds in the risks it takes" and "there is much to admire about this series, including top-notch performances, artful direction and creative storytelling that employs various techniques, including dream sequences and parody commercials. Best of all, though, is Ball’s introspection and the insight he provides about society, the funeral industry, and family relationships."
Bill Carter of The New York Times wrote, "Six Feet Under certainly got enthusiastic reviews, almost universally glowing notices about the rich characterizations and quirky humor shaped by the show's celebrated creator, Alan Ball, the Academy Award-winning writer of the film American Beauty." In an early response from HBO executive Chris Albrecht, he announced in regards to the viewers, that they are "totally thrilled with the series."
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a 90% approval rating with an average score of 8/10 based on 39 reviews, with a critical consensus of, "Six Feet Unders unusual setting provides a perfect backdrop for the macabre meditations on mortality made by its brilliant, brooding cast." The second season has a 79% approval rating with an average score of 9.33/10 based on 14 reviews, with a critical consensus of, "Six Feet Unders deliberately paced second season is less endearing than the first, but the engaging ensemble remain reason enough to watch." The third season has a 90% approval rating with an average score of 7.56/10 based on 20 reviews, with a critical consensus of, "Six Feet Unders third season dials down the comedy in favor of creepier narratives – a challenge its cast is more than up to." The fourth season has a 50% approval rating with an average score of 5.58/10 based on 10 reviews, with a critical consensus of, "Six Feet Under overreaches in its fourth season, with twists and story arcs that feel more contrived than compelling, though its willingness to venture boldly into the dark also proves occasionally exhilarating." The fifth season has a 97% approval rating with an average score of 8.86/10 based on 37 reviews, with a critical consensus of, "Six Feet Under offers a fitting end for the Fishers by concluding the way it began: an unexpectedly beautiful rumination on life, death and grief."
The series finale is considered one of the greatest endings in television history. In a 2015 interview with Alan Ball, Peter Krause, Michael C. Hall, and Lauren Ambrose for The Hollywood Reporter, to mark 10 years since the show's ending, they described it as the "finale that would not die". Megan Vick of The Hollywood Reporter said, "The idea of flashing forward to depict how each member of the Fishers and their loved ones would pass on seemed revolutionary in 2005, but Ball – who created the series and would write and direct its final episode – uses another word for it – inevitable."
Ratings
Awards and nominations
At the 2002 Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 23 nominations for its first two seasons, including a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series. Series creator Alan Ball won for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode and Patricia Clarkson won for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. The rest of the ensemble cast, including Michael C. Hall, Peter Krause, Frances Conroy, Rachel Griffiths, Freddy Rodriguez, and Lauren Ambrose all received acting nominations. Guest actors Lili Taylor and Illeana Douglas received nominations in the guest-acting category. The series received 16 nominations at the 2003 Primetime Emmy Awards for its third season, including a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series. Krause, Conroy, Ambrose, Griffiths, James Cromwell, and Kathy Bates all received acting nominations. Alan Poul was nominated for directing for the episode "Nobody Sleeps", and Craig Wright was nominated for writing for the episode "Twilight". The series received five nominations at the 2005 Primetime Emmy Awards for its fourth season, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Frances Conroy. The series received nine nominations at the 2006 Primetime Emmy Awards for its fifth and final season. Patricia Clarkson won for the second time for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, and Krause, Conroy, and Joanna Cassidy received acting nominations. Ball was nominated for writing and directing for the series finale episode "Everyone's Waiting".
For the Golden Globe Awards, the series won for Best Drama Series in 2001, and received nominations in 2002 and 2003. Peter Krause was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series in 2001 and 2002. Rachel Griffiths won for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or TV Film in 2001, and received a nomination in 2002 in the Lead Actress category. Frances Conroy won for Best Actress in a Drama Series in 2003.
For the Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast won for Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2002 and 2003, and received nominations in 2001, 2004, and 2005. Peter Krause was nominated for Outstanding Male Actor in a Drama Series in 2001 and 2003. Frances Conroy won for Outstanding Female Actor in a Drama Series in 2003.
The series won a Peabody Award for general excellence in 2002 "for its unsettling yet powerfully humane explorations of life and death".
Home media
DVDs
The first season was released in a VHS box set. All five seasons are available on DVD in individual box sets and in a collected volume.
Soundtracks
Two soundtrack albums, featuring music that had appeared in the series, were released:
Six Feet Under (March 5, 2002)
Six Feet Under, Vol. 2: Everything Ends (June 21, 2005)
Books
Streaming
The complete series is available from various streaming sites including HBO Max, Amazon Video and Disney+ Hotstar.
See also
Family Plots – a reality TV series about a Poway, California-based funeral home
References
External links
2001 American television series debuts
2005 American television series endings
2000s American drama television series
2000s American LGBT-related drama television series
Adultery in television
Best Drama Series Golden Globe winners
Bipolar disorder in fiction
Emmy Award-winning programs
English-language television shows
Funeral homes in fiction
HBO original programming
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Peabody Award-winning television programs
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Serial drama television series
Television series about dysfunctional families
Television series about widowhood
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television shows about death
Television shows set in Los Angeles
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
Television series about siblings | [
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218842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malicious%20prosecution | Malicious prosecution | Malicious prosecution is a common law intentional tort. Like the tort of abuse of process, its elements include (1) intentionally (and maliciously) instituting and pursuing (or causing to be instituted or pursued) a legal action (civil or criminal) that is (2) brought without probable cause and (3) dismissed in favor of the victim of the malicious prosecution. In some jurisdictions, the term "malicious prosecution" denotes the wrongful initiation of criminal proceedings, while the term "malicious use of process" denotes the wrongful initiation of civil proceedings.
Criminal prosecuting attorneys and judges are protected from tort liability for malicious prosecution by doctrines of prosecutorial immunity and judicial immunity. Moreover, the mere filing of a complaint cannot constitute an abuse of process. The parties who have abused or misused the process have gone beyond merely filing a lawsuit. The taking of an appeal, even a frivolous one, is not enough to constitute an abuse of process. The mere filing or maintenance of a lawsuit, even for an improper purpose, is not a proper basis for an abuse of process action.
Declining to expand the tort of malicious prosecution, a unanimous California Supreme Court in the case of Sheldon Appel Co. v. Albert & Oliker, 47 Cal. 3d 863, 873 (1989) observed: "While the filing of frivolous lawsuits is certainly improper and cannot in any way be condoned, in our view the better means of addressing the problem of unjustified litigation is through the adoption of measures facilitating the speedy resolution of the initial lawsuit and authorizing the imposition of sanctions for frivolous or delaying conduct within that first action itself, rather than through an expansion of the opportunities for initiating one or more additional rounds of malicious prosecution litigation after the first action has been concluded."
Origins
The tort originates in the (now defunct) legal maxim that "the King pays no costs"; that is, the Crown could not be forced to pay the legal costs of a person it prosecuted, even if that person was found innocent. As The London Magazine stated in 1766: "if a groundless and vexatious prosecution be commenced in the King's name, his ministers who commenced, or advised commencing that prosecution, ought at least to be obliged to pay the costs which an innocent subject has thereby been put to".
U.S. use of English Rule
Sixteen U.S. states require another element of malicious prosecution. This element, commonly called the English Rule, states that, in addition to fulfilling all other malicious prosecution elements, one must also prove injury other than the normal downside of being sued. This rule is limited to equitable damages, such as loss of profit, and excludes damages that cannot be measured by the law (e.g., damage to reputation).
Canadian law
Canadian jurisprudence has changed in that if any individual takes legal action that meets the above criteria, they may be sued. Legal action may be taken against the police or Crown attorneys or the Attorney General, as they are no longer exempt from suit.
The tort of malicious prosecution was reviewed in 2009 by the Supreme Court of Canada in Miazga v. Kvello Estate, and specifically how it applied to public prosecutors in Canada. The court outlined the four required elements for the tort of malicious prosecution: (i) The prosecution must be initiated by the defendant; (ii) The prosecution must be terminated in the plaintiff's favour. (iii) There was a lack of reasonable and probable grounds to commence or continue the prosecution; and (iv) The defendant was motivated to commence or continue to the prosecution due to malice.
In 2014, the Quebec Court of Appeal held that the contents of plea bargaining negotiations held in the context of criminal cases could be admitted as evidence in the context of a civil suit for malicious prosecution, despite the general evidentiary rule prohibiting adducing settlement discussions into proof at trial. More specifically, the Court held that introducing into evidence the contents of such negotiations was possible when it tended to demonstrate that the prosecution initiated or maintained criminal charges on the basis of improper motives.
Limitations
Notably, the tort of malicious prosecution only protects the right of defendants to be free of frivolous lawsuits brought by malicious plaintiffs. For a variety of reasons grounded in public policy, courts have consistently refused to authorize the converse — a tort of malicious defense which would protect the right of plaintiffs to be free of frivolous defenses raised by defendants.
See also
Barratry (common law)
Frivolous lawsuit
Immunity from prosecution
Legal abuse
Miscarriage of justice
Selective prosecution
Pervert the course of justice
Strategic lawsuit against public participation
Vexatious litigation
References
Legal terminology
Abuse of the legal system
Tort law | [
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218843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy%20DeSylva | Buddy DeSylva | George Gard "Buddy" DeSylva (January 27, 1895 – July 11, 1950) was an American songwriter, film producer and record executive. He wrote or co-wrote many popular songs and, along with Johnny Mercer and Glenn Wallichs, he co-founded Capitol Records.
Biography
DeSylva was born in New York City, but grew up in California, and attended the University of Southern California, where he joined the Theta Xi Fraternity.
His Portuguese-born father, Aloysius J. De Sylva, was better known to American audiences as actor Hal De Forrest. His father was also a lawyer as well as an actor. His mother, Georgetta Miles Gard, was the daughter of Los Angeles police chief George E. Gard.
DeSylva's first successful songs were those used by Al Jolson on Broadway in the 1918 production of Sinbad, which included "I'll Say She Does". Soon thereafter, he met Jolson and in 1918 the pair went to New York and DeSylva began working as a songwriter in Tin Pan Alley.
In the early 1920s, DeSylva frequently worked with composer George Gershwin. Together, they created the experimental one-act jazz opera Blue Monday set in Harlem, which is widely regarded as a forerunner to Porgy and Bess ten years later.
In April 1924, DeSylva married Marie Wallace, a Ziegfeld Follies dancer.
In 1925, DeSylva became one third of the songwriting team with lyricist Lew Brown and composer Ray Henderson, one of the top Tin Pan Alley songwriters of the era. The team was responsible for the song "Magnolia" (1927) which was popularized by Lou Gold's orchestra. The writing and publishing partnership continued until 1930, producing a string of hits and the perennial Broadway favorite Good News.
DeSylva joined ASCAP in 1920 and served on the ASCAP board of directors between 1922 and 1930. He became a producer of stage and screen musicals. DeSylva relocated to Hollywood and was contracted to Fox Studios.
During this tenure, he produced movies such as The Little Colonel, The Littlest Rebel, Captain January, Poor Little Rich Girl and Stowaway. In 1941, he became the Executive Producer at Paramount Pictures, a position he would hold until 1944. At Paramount, he was also an uncredited executive producer for Double Indemnity, For Whom the Bell Tolls, The Story of Dr. Wassell and The Glass Key. Betty Hutton always credited DeSylva for bringing her to Hollywood and launching her film career.
The Paramount all-star extravaganza Star Spangled Rhythm, which takes place at the Paramount film studio in Hollywood, features a fictional movie executive named "B.G. DeSoto" (played by Walter Abel) who is a parody of DeSylva.
In 1942, Johnny Mercer, Glenn Wallichs and DeSylva together founded Capitol Records. He also founded the Cowboy label.
He is sometimes credited as: Buddy De Sylva, Buddy DeSylva, Bud De Sylva, Buddy G. DeSylva and B.G. DeSylva.
Buddy DeSylva died in Hollywood, aged 55, and is buried at Glendale's Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.
Individual songs
Desylva, Buddy, B. G. De Sylva, Lew Brown, and Ray Henderson. Seven Veils. 26 March 1927
Desylva, Buddy, B. G. De Sylva, Lew Brown, and Ray Henderson. Good News: vocal selection. [Place of publication not identified]: Chappell, n.d.
Henderson, Ray, B. G. De Sylva, and Bud Green. "Alabamy Bound". New York: Shapiro, Bernstein & Co, 1925.
De Sylva, B. G., Lew Brown, and Ray Henderson. "Magnolia". 1927.
"Avalon"
"April Showers"
"The Best Things in Life Are Free"
"The Birth of the Blues"
"Button Up Your Overcoat"
"California, Here I Come"
"If You Knew Susie"
"It All Depends on You"
"Look for the Silver Lining"
"Somebody Loves Me"
"Sonny Boy"
"The Varsity Drag"
"You're the Cream in My Coffee"
Broadway credits
1919 - La La Lucille (music by George Gershwin)
1922 - George White's Scandals of 1922 (music by George Gershwin, and included premiere of one-act jazz opera Blue Monday)
1922 - Orange Blossoms (music by Victor Herbert)
1922 - The Yankee Princess (music by Emmerich Kalman)
1923 - George White's Scandals of 1923 (music by George Gershwin)
1924 - Sweet Little Devil (music by George Gershwin)
1924 - George White's Scandals of 1924 music by George Gershwin
1925 - Big Boy (music by Joseph Meyer and James F. Hanley)
1925 - Tell Me More! (co-lyricist with Ira Gershwin music by George Gershwin)
1925 - George White's Scandals of 1925 (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1925 - Captain Jinks (music by Lewis Gensler)
1926 - George White's Scandals of 1926 (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1926 - Queen High (music by Lewis Gensler)
1927 - Good News (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1927 - Manhattan Mary (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1928 - George White's Scandals of 1928 (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1928 - Hold Everything! (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1929 - Follow Thru (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1930 - Flying High (DeSylva, Brown and Henderson)
1932 - Take a Chance (music by Nacio Herb Brown, Richard A. Whiting and Vincent Youmans)
Selected filmography
Stepping Sisters (1932)
My Weakness (1933)
The Stork Club (1945)
In popular culture
The 1956 Hollywood film The Best Things in Life Are Free, starring Gordon MacRae, Dan Dailey, and Ernest Borgnine, depicted the De Sylva, Brown and Henderson collaboration.
References
Further reading
Ewen, David (1970). Great Men of American Popular Song ASIN: B000OKLHXU
Green, Stanley (1984). The World Of Musical Comedy. Publisher: Da Capo Press.
External links
Buddy DeSylva and the 1909 Copyright Act
Buddy DeSylva at the Internet Archive
Buddy De Sylva recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1895 births
1950 deaths
American people of Portuguese descent
Broadway composers and lyricists
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Capitol Records
Musicians from New York City
People from Greater Los Angeles
Songwriters from New York (state)
University of Southern California alumni
20th-century American musicians | [
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218844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamla%20stan | Gamla stan | Gamla stan (, "The Old Town"), until 1980 officially Staden mellan broarna ("The Town between the Bridges"), is the old town of Stockholm, Sweden. Gamla stan consists primarily of the island Stadsholmen. Officially, but not colloquially, Gamla stan includes the surrounding islets Riddarholmen, Helgeandsholmen and Strömsborg.
Overview
The town dates back to the 13th century, and consists of medieval alleyways, cobbled streets, and archaic architecture. North German architecture has had a strong influence in the Old Town's construction.
Stortorget is the name of the scenic large square in the centre of Gamla Stan, which is surrounded by old merchants' houses including the Stockholm Stock Exchange Building. The square was the site of the Stockholm Bloodbath, where Swedish noblemen were massacred by the Danish King Christian II in November, 1520. The following revolt and civil war led to the dissolution of the Kalmar Union and the subsequent election of King Gustav I.
As well as being home to the Stockholm Cathedral, the Nobel Museum, and the Riddarholm church, Gamla stan also boasts Kungliga slottet, Sweden's baroque Royal Palace, built in the 18th century after the previous palace Tre Kronor burned down. The House of Nobility (Riddarhuset) is on the north-western corner of Gamla stan.
The restaurant Den gyldene freden is located on Österlånggatan. It has been in business, continuously, since 1722 and according to the Guinness Book of Records is the longest operated restaurant with an unchanged environment and is one of the oldest restaurants in the world. It is now owned by the Swedish Nobel Academy that have their "Thursday luncheons" there every week. A statue of St. George and the Dragon (sculpted by Bernt Notke) can be found in the Stockholm Cathedral, while Riddarholmskyrkan is the royal burial church. Bollhustäppan, a small courtyard at Slottsbacken behind the Finnish Church, just south of the main approach to the Royal Palace, is home to one of the smallest statues in Sweden, a little boy in wrought iron. The plaque just below the statue says its name "Järnpojken" ("The Iron Boy"). It was created by Liss Eriksson in 1967.
From the mid-19th century to the early-mid 20th century Gamla stan was considered a slum, many of its historical buildings left in disrepair, and just after World War II, several blocks together five alleys were demolished for the enlargement of the Riksdag (see Brantingtorget). From the 1970s and 80s, however, it has become a tourist attraction as the charm of its medieval, Renaissance architecture and later additions have been valued by later generations.
While the archaeology of the 370 properties in Gamla stan remains poorly documented, recent inventories done by volunteers have shown many buildings previously dated to the 17th and 18th centuries, can be up to 300 years older.
History
Origin of the name
The name Stockholm originally referred to Gamla Stan only, but as the city expanded, the name now also refers several suburban areas and the metro region. The name Stockholm means "log island" in Swedish. The previous capital of Sweden was located in Sigtuna. A thousand years ago Sigtuna had problems with armed gangs attacking the city. The situation became untenable and there was a need to find a new location for the capital city of Sweden. According to legend the leaders in Sigtuna then took a log of wood, cut out all the wood inside, filled it with gold, and let it float on the water. The log was floating on the water for several days and eventually hit land on the island where Gamla Stan today is located. The island was named Stockholm or log island, meaning the place where the log had hit ground. This is where they decided to found the new capital of Sweden. The island of Stockholm had the advantage that it was an island, easy to defend from armed gangs that could be thought to want to attack the city. It also had the advantage from a trade point of view, that it was situated just at the inlet of Lake Mälaren, a big lake very important to contemporary trade, from the Baltic. A sculpture symbolizing the old log is today found at Stadshuset, the Stockholm City Hall.
Until the mid 19th century Gamla stan was simply referred to as själva staden ("the city itself"), which must have made sense since the areas surrounding it were still mostly rural in character and referred to as malmarna ("the ridges"). On maps and in literature from the mid 19th century it started to be called staden mellan broarna ("the city between the bridges") or staden inom broarna ("the city within the bridges"), a name which remained official until 1980, and from 1934 also included the islets Helgeandsholmen and Strömsborg. The name Gamla stan probably dates back to the early 20th century, then used colloquially. "Gamla" means "(the) old." The word stan is simply a contraction of the word staden ("sta'n"), meaning "the town." In 1957 a station of the Stockholm metro was opened here with the name Gamla stan. Even though the official name was changed to Gamla stan in 1980, modern Stockholm is occasionally called "The city between the bridges".
Prehistory
Stockholm derives its mythological origin from a dwelling place called Agnefit. As the second element fit means 'moist meadow', this place was supposedly located on the western shore of today's Stadsholmen (arguably the only possible location for a meadow at the time). The first element of this name is, explains the historian Snorri Sturluson (1178–1241), derived from King Agne, a presumably mythological king who, in a dim and distant past (around 400 A.D. according to some historians), encamped here after having successfully raided Finland. His intentions were to marry Skjalf, the daughter of the defeated Finnish chieftain. The young woman, however, tricked him to arrange a celebration including prominent guests which eventually turned into a boozing party, and, while Agne slept in a drunken stupor, Skjalf had him hanged in his gold necklace before escaping.
While the reliability of this story remains disputed, dendrochronological examinations of logs found on Helgeandsholmen just north of Stadsholmen in 1978–1980, concluded these trees were cut down during the period 970–1020, most of them from the later part of that period, and these logs presumably gave the entire city its present name, Stock-holm, "Log-Islet".
Middle Ages and Vasa era
The original wall-enclosed city only encompassed the central elevated area of the present old town located between the two long streets — Västerlånggatan and Österlånggatan (i.e. "Western/Eastern Long Street") — which passed between the shorelines of the era and the eastern and western city walls. The eastern wall passed between two defensive towers; the northern being that of what was to become the castle Three Crowns, destroyed by fire in 1697, and the southern, of which no archaeological traces have been found, is known to have been given to the Blackfriars by King Magnus Eriksson (1316–1377) in 1336 and therefore was arguably located at the location for the monastery, in the southern end of Prästgatan, north of the square Järntorget. The steep precipices forming the outskirts of the original city is still discernible in the pronounced difference of levels in today's urban landscape: The two long streets which ran just outside the city walls — Västerlånggatan and Prästgatan (some 5 metres) — and the streets running parallel to them, just inside the city walls — Österlånggatan and Bollhusgränd-Baggensgatan (up to 10 metres).
The center of the medieval city was probably just a fairground south of the town hall and the only church in the village. The market place, originally smaller than the present and enlarged following a fire in the early 15th century, was eventually surrounded by permanent buildings and evolved into the present public square Stortorget ("The Large Square"), still located south of the so-called Stock Exchange and the Cathedral. While Stockholm is likely to have expanded quickly, it remains much debated if the expansion was planned in accordance to the model of southern prototypes (e.g. such as Lübeck) and, as historical sources traditionally have rendered it, governed directly by Birger Jarl (1210–1266) and Magnus Ladulås (1240–1290), or, as some historian have argued, a somewhat desultory if not entirely unmethodical process. Nevertheless, the medieval thoroughfares led from the large square in all four cardinal directions: Köpmangatan ("Merchant's Street") led east down to a second square by the water, Fisketorget ("Fishery Square"). Svartmangatan ("Black Man's Street", named after the Blackfriars monastery) and Skomakargatan ("Shoemaker's Street") led south to the financial centre of the city. Located where is today Järntorget ("The Iron Square"), this marketplace was at the time not much more than two landing stages separated by an open space on the southern corner of the island. On either side of this marketplace, considerably larger than the present square, was on its eastern side Koggabron (named after, cogs, a type of medieval merchant vessel) and today superseded by Skeppsbron, and on its western side was Kornhamn ("Corn Harbour") receiving the ships from Lake Mälaren, located near today's Kornhamnstorg. Trångsund ("Narrow Strait"), at the time much narrower than today, was leading north past the cathedral.
As the city gates were patently the weakest point in all medieval fortifications, the fewer the better was the obvious rule. In medieval Stockholm, presumably three or four narrow gates opened the wall: Through the eastern wall a single gate allowed Köpmangatan to pass down to the shore, while the others, all leading to Västerlånggatan, were located where today are Storkyrkobrinken ("Slope of the Great Church"), Kåkbrinken ("Slope of the [Ramshackle] House"), and Tyska Brinken ("German Slope"). Surrounding the Royal Palace was an open area called Sanden ("The Sand"), intentionally kept free for defensive reasons and including the present location of Slottsbacken ("Palace Slope"), south of the palace, and Högvaktsterrassen ("Terrace of the Main Guard"), west of it. Within the city, the artery roads were stipulated to be eight ell wide (aln, e.g. barely five meters) to allow horse-drawn vehicles to pass, while no rules restricted the width of cross-streets. As the city started to get overcrowded in the 14th century, new buildings were built on the shores outside the city wall, and gradually land fillings between the bridges along the shores gave room for sheds and storehouses forming the elongated blocks separated by narrow alleys which are today characteristic for the old town. Within the old city center, larger blocks were partitioned into smaller ones, which resulted in several narrow streets such as Trädgårdsgatan ("Garden Street") and Kindstugatan ("Box on the Ear Street", historical, corrupted).
In average, the medieval streets are found some three meters below the present streets. Archaeological excavations have shown the oldest streets were covered with wood, the oldest being the three layers of wooden pavings found under the northern end of Västerlånggatan from around 1250–1300. During the later part of the 14th century, the streets started to get paved in stone, and as the archaeological deposits above them are composed of thin layers of filth containing few findings, street cleansing was apparently improved during this era. Waste and garbage was often simply poured out into the alleys, occasionally through apertures used exclusively for the purpose. Though a few assumed medieval subterranean wooden tubes and vaulted underground chambers have been found, relatively few traces remain in Stockholm of the sort of sophisticated system of sewers found in for example Visby and Bergen, so most likely the sloping alleys simply had to do the job. Many public notices were in vain devoted to restrain the habit of littering the surrounding waters and restricting the number of animals kept within the city walls, and not until the end of the Middle Ages were gutters ordered to be cleaned twice a week and the placement of bogs forbidden next to neighbours and thoroughfares. Latrines were gathered on central locations known as flugmöten ("fly meetings") where the number of insects darkened the sky well into the 19th century.
The present alleys only give a vague glimpse of the appearance of the medieval city where the gables of the building were facing the streets and contained window bays for offering goods of sale; where filth, the bumpy paving and hand-drawn vehicles made walking circumstantial; and where odours and scents from dung, food, fishes, leather, furnaces, and seasonal spices mingled. During nights (and certainly during the long winters) the city was completely dark, save for exceptional fire watchers and nocturnal ramblers who used torches to find their bearing. Neither were there any street signs guiding foreigners as no streets were officially named, instead referred to as "the thoroughfare running from the outer southern gate and up to the cross and the chapel" or constantly renamed after the most prominent person settled in an exposed part of the alley. Indeed, historical records contain many examples of obscure references to locations in the city, close to impossible to pin down as some streets have been renamed dozens of times, often carrying the same or a similar name as other streets before physically ceasing to exist.
17th century
In Swedish history, the first half of the 17th century was a period of awakening which preceded the so-called Swedish Empire. Following the death of Gustavus II Adolphus (1594–1632) the nation was determined never having to repeat the embarrassment experienced when Stockholm, still medieval in character, caused hesitation on whether to invite foreign statesmen for fear the lamentable appearance might undermine the nation's authority.
A map of Stadsholmen dated 1626 presents a proposal for two streets roughly equivalent to the southern stretches of today's Tyska Brinken and Stora Nygatan. Within short, however, it was realized that with the proposal the northern end of the boulevard-like street would be pointing at a non-notable medieval façade, and it was thus decided the street had to be lengthened all the way to the northern shore of the island — a project that would take decades to complete. The two straight streets Stora Nygatan and Lilla Nygatan ("Large/Small New Street") — both children of this second regulation — took a time long to realize and were not completed until the funeral of King Charles X in 1660. Soon this ambitious project led to a more representative framework. The informal northern end of Stora Nygatan was thus connected to the newly created square Mynttorget by Myntgatan, and the slope Storkyrkobrinken was widened.
On the eastern side of the island, the obsolete medieval wall was gradually demolished, and before the end of the century completely replaced by a row of private palaces, the so-called Skeppsbroraden, the "Row of Skeppsbron". To what extent these two projects were planned and initiated by the King Gustavus II Adolphus himself remains undocumented, but undoubtedly he must have played an important role. These projects were, nevertheless, accompanied by similar ambitions for Riddarholmen, where eventually several new palaces would be built, and for the ridges surrounding the city, where Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna had the medieval slum replaced by a more representative Baroque city.
See also
History of Stockholm
List of streets and squares in Gamla stan
References
Districts of Stockholm
Tourist attractions in Stockholm
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218845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20code | Civil code | A civil code is a codification of private law relating to property, family, and obligations.
A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a code of civil procedure. In some jurisdictions with a civil code, a number of the core areas of private law that would otherwise typically be codified in a civil code may instead be codified in a commercial code.
History
The concept of codification dates back to ancient Babylon. The earliest surviving civil code is the Code of Ur-Nammu, written around 2100–2050 BC. The Corpus Juris Civilis, a codification of Roman law produced between 529 and 534 AD by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, forms the basis of civil law legal systems.
Other codified laws used since ancient times include various texts used in religious law, one an only pure law Islamic Sharia law of the Qur'an and Sunnah and others are, the Mishnah in Jewish Halakha law, the Canons of the Apostles in Christian Canon law.
European codes and influences on other continents
The idea of codification re-emerged during the Age of Enlightenment, when it was believed that all spheres of life could be dealt with in a conclusive system based on human rationality, following from the experience of the early codifications of Roman Law during the Roman Empire.
The first attempts at modern codification were made in the second half of the 18th century in Germany, when the states of Austria, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony began to codify their laws. The first statute that used this denomination was the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis of 1756 in Bavaria, still using the Latin language. It was followed in 1792 by a legal compilation that included civil, penal, and constitutional law, the Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preussischen Staaten (General National Law for the Prussian States) promulgated by King Frederick II the Great. In Austria, the first step towards fully-fledged codification were the yet incomplete Codex Theresianus (compiled between 1753 and 1766), the Josephinian Code (1787) and the complete West Galician Code (enacted as a test in Galicia in 1797). The final Austrian Civil Code (called Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, ABGB) was only completed in 1811 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire under the influence of the Napoleonic Wars. One of the first countries to follow up through legal transplants in codification was Serbia, the Serbian Civil Code (1844).
Meanwhile, the French Napoleonic code (Code Civil) was enacted in 1804 after only a few years of preparation, but it was a child of the French Revolution, which is strongly reflected by its content. The French code was the most influential one because it was introduced in many countries standing under French occupation during the Napoleonic Wars. In particular, countries such as Italy, the Benelux countries, Spain, Portugal (with the Civil Code of 1867, later replaced by the Civil Code of 1966, which is strongly influenced by the German BGB), the Latin American countries, the province of Quebec in Canada, the state of Louisiana in the United States, and all other former French colonies which base their civil law systems to a strong extent on the Napoleonic Code.
The late 19th century and the beginning 20th century saw the emergence of the School of Pandectism, whose work peaked in the German Civil Code (BGB), which was enacted in 1900 in the course of Germany's national unification project, and in the Swiss Civil Code (Zivilgesetzbuch) of 1907. Those two codes had been most advanced in their systematic structure and classification from fundamental and general principles to specific areas of law (e.g. contract law, labour law, inheritance law). While the French Civil Code was structured in a "casuistic" approach attempting to regulate every possible case, the German BGB and the later Swiss ZGB applied a more abstract and systematic approach. Therefore, the BGB had a great deal of influence on later codification projects in countries as diverse as Japan, Greece, Turkey, Portugal (1966 Civil Code) and Macau (1999 Civil Code).
Since 2002 with the First law of the Civil Code of Catalonia, Parliament of Catalonia's several laws have approved the successive books of the Civil Code of Catalonia. This has replaced most of the Compilation of the Civil Law of Catalonia, several special laws and two partial codes. Only the Sixth book, relating to obligations and contracts, has to be approved.
In Europe, apart from the common law countries of the United Kingdom and Ireland, only Scandinavia remained untouched by the codification movement. The particular tradition of the civil code originally enacted in a country is often thought to have a lasting influence on the methodology employed in legal interpretation. Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory of (financial) development usually subdivide the countries of the civil law tradition as belonging either to the French, Scandinavian or German group (the latter including Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea).
Civil codes in the Americas
The first civil code promulgated in Canada was that of New Brunswick of 1804, inspired by the 1800 project of the French civil code, known as the Projet de l'an VIII (project of the 8th year); nevertheless, in 1808 a Digeste de la loi civile was sanctioned.
In the United States, codification appears to be widespread at a first glance, but U.S. legal codes are actually collections of common law rules and a variety of ad hoc statutes; that is, they do not aspire to complete logical coherence. For example, the California Civil Code largely codifies common law doctrine and is very different in form and content from all other civil codes. Another unique example is the Louisiana Civil Code, based on French law.
In 1825, Haiti promulgated a Code Civil, that was simply a copy of the Napoleonic one; while Louisiana abolished its Digeste, replacing it with the Code Civil de l'État de la Louisiane the same year.
The Mexican state of Oaxaca promulgated the first Latin American civil code in 1827, copying the French civil code.
Later on, in 1830, the civil code of Bolivia, a summarized copy of the French one, was promulgated by Andrés de Santa Cruz. The latest, with some changes, was adopted by Costa Rica in 1841.
The Dominican Republic, in 1845, put into force the original Napoleonic code, in French language (a translation in Spanish was published in 1884).
In 1852, Peru promulgated its own civil code (based on a project of 1847), which was not a simple copy or imitation of the French one, but presented a more original text based on the Castillan law (of Roman origin) that was previously in force on the Peruvian territory.
Chile promulgated its civil code in 1855, an original work in confront with the French code both for the scheme and for the contents (similar to the Castillan law in force in that territory) that was written by Andrés Bello (begun in 1833). This code was integrally adopted by Ecuador in 1858; El Salvador in 1859; Venezuela in 1862 (only during that year); Nicaragua in 1867; Honduras in 1880 (until 1899, and again since 1906); Colombia in 1887; and Panama (after its separation from Colombia in 1903).
In 1865, the Code Civil du Bas-Canada (or Civil Code of Lower Canada) was promulgated in Lower Canada (later the Canadian province of Quebec). It was replaced in 1991 by a new Civil Code of Quebec, which came into effect in 1994.
Uruguay promulgated its code in 1868, and Argentina in 1869 (work by Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield). Paraguay adopted its code in 1987, and in 1877 Guatemala adopted the Peruvian code of 1852.
Nicaragua in 1904 replaced its civil code of 1867 by adopting the Argentine code. In 1916 Brazil enacted its civil code (project of Clovis Bevilacqua, after rejecting the project by Teixeira de Freitas that was translated by the Argentines to prepare their project), that entered into effect in 1917 (in 2002, the Brazilian Civil Code was replaced by a new text). Brazilian Civil Code of 1916 was considered, by many, as the last code of the 19th century despite being adopted in the 20th century. The reason behind that is that the Brazilian Code of 1916 was the last of the important codes from the era of codifications in the world that had strong liberal influences, and all other codes enacted thereafter were deeply influenced by the social ideals that emerged after World War I and the Soviet Socialist Revolution.
Panama in 1916 decided to adopt the Argentine code, replacing its code of 1903.
Cuba had the old Civil Code of Spain until the year 1987 when the National Assembly of People's Power approved the Cuban Civil Code, Law 59.
Civil codes in Asia
The Portuguese Civil Code of 1868 was introduced in the Portuguese overseas territories of Asia (Portuguese India, Macau and Portuguese Timor) from 1870, with local modifications being latter introduced. It continued to be in effect in the former Portuguese India even after the end of the Portuguese rule in 1961. It is still in force in the present Indian territories of Goa (locally referred as the Goa civil code), Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. As Macau and Portuguese Timor were still under Portuguese rule when the Portuguese Civil Code of 1868 was replaced by that of 1966, this later was adopted by these territories. In East Timor (ex-Portuguese Timor), the Portuguese Code was replaced by the Indonesian Code when Indonesia occupied that territory in 1975. Macau adopted its own Civil Code in 1999, although this being based in the Portuguese Code of 1966.
Also the civil code of Spain of 1889 would be enforced in its colony, the Philippines, and this would remain in effect even after the end of Spanish rule until the Philippines enacted its own Civil Code in 1950 after almost fifty years of U.S. rule.
Many legal systems of other countries in Asia are within the civil law tradition and have enacted a civil code, mostly derived from the German civil code; that is the case of China, Japan, Korea, Thailand (the Civil and Commercial Code), Taiwan and Indonesia (which is influenced by the Dutch Civil Code, ).
Contents of a civil code
A typical civil code deals with the fields of law known to the common lawyer as law of contracts, torts, property law, family law and the law of inheritance. Commercial law, corporate law and civil procedure are usually codified separately.
The older civil codes such as the French, Egyptian, Austrian and Spanish ones are structured under the Institutional System of the Roman jurist Gaius and generally have three large parts:
Law of Persons (personae)
Law of Things (res)
Issues common to both parts (actiones).
The newer codes such as the ones of Germany, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, Romania and Catalonia are structured according to the Pandectist System:
General part
Law of Obligation
Law of Real Rights
Family Law
Law of Inheritance
The civil code of the state of Louisiana, following the institutions system, is divided into five parts:
Preliminary Title
Of Persons
Things and Different Modifications of Ownership
Of Different Modes of Acquiring the Ownership of Things
Conflict of Laws
Pandectism also had an influence on the earlier codes and their interpretation. For example, Austrian civil law is typically taught according to the Pandect System (which was devised by German scholars in the time between the enactment of the Austrian and the German Codes), even though this is not consistent with the structure of the Code.
Important civil codes
The following is the list of national or regional civil codes by alphabetic order of names of countries or regions:
See also
Civil law
Criminal code
References
Civil law (legal system)
Civil codes | [
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218852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20America | USS America | USS America may refer to:
, a 74-gun ship of the line, laid down in 1777, but not launched until 1782 and thereupon given to France
USS America (IX-41), a 19th-century racing yacht converted for United States naval service during the American Civil War
, originally the German ocean liner SS Amerika, seized by the United States during World War I and used as a troop transport
, a commissioned in 1965 and decommissioned in 1996. Currently the only supercarrier to be expended as a target.
, an awarded for construction in June 2007 and commissioned in 2014
See also
, part of the Civil War "Stone Fleet" deliberately sunk to block the harbor in Charleston, South Carolina; sometimes erroneously referred to as USS America
, an ocean liner launched in 1939
, various merchantmen
America was the name of the Command Module on Apollo 17
, two ships of the French Navy
, various ships of the Royal Navy
RMS America
United States Navy ship names | [
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218856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20trademark%20law | United States trademark law | A trademark is a word, phrase, or logo that identifies the source of goods or services. Trademark law protects a business' commercial identity or brand by discouraging other businesses from adopting a name or logo that is "confusingly similar" to an existing trademark. The goal is to allow consumers to easily identify the producers of goods and services and avoid confusion.
United States trademark law is mainly governed by the Lanham Act. Common law trademark rights are acquired automatically when a business uses a name or logo in commerce, and are enforceable in state courts. Marks registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office are given a higher degree of protection in federal courts than unregistered marks—both registered and unregistered trademarks are granted some degree of federal protection under the Lanham Act 43(a).
History
United States law has protected trademarks under state common law since colonial times, but it was not until 1870 that Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime. This 1870 statute was purported to be an exercise of Congress' Copyright Clause powers, however, the Supreme Court struck down the 1870 statute in the Trade-Mark Cases. In 1881, Congress passed a new trademark act, this time pursuant to its Commerce Clause powers. Congress revised the Trademark Act in 1905.
In the 1917 decision in Aunt Jemima Mills Co. v. Rigney & Co., the federal courts created the "Aunt Jemima Doctrine" which protects a trademark even when used to sell a different product (in this case, pancake syrup instead of pancake mix).
In 1946, Congress passed the Lanham Act (). The Lanham Act defines federal trademark protection and trademark registration rules. The Lanham Act grants the United States Patent and Trademark Office ("USPTO") administrative authority over trademark registration.
State law continues to add its own protection, complementing (and complicating) the federal trademark system.
Recent developments in U.S. trademark law have included the adoption of the Federal Trademark Dilution Act of 1995 (see Trademark dilution), the 1999 Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, and the Trademark Dilution Revision Act of 2006 (see Trademark dilution).
Purpose
Trademark law protects a company's goodwill, and helps consumers easily identify the source of the things they purchase.
In principle, trademark law, by preventing others from copying a source-identifying mark, reduces the customer's costs of shopping and making purchasing decisions, for it quickly and easily assures a potential customer that this item—the item with this mark—is made by the same producer as other similarly marked items that he or she liked (or disliked) in the past. At the same time, the law helps assure a producer that it (and not an imitating competitor) will reap the financial, reputation-related rewards associated with a desirable product. The law thereby encourages the production of quality products and simultaneously discourages those who hope to sell inferior products by capitalizing on a consumer's inability quickly to evaluate the quality of an item offered for sale. [internal punctuation omitted]
Symbols
U.S. Trademark rights come in two types: common law and federal registration.
™ – Signifies common law trademark rights. Businesses automatically receive common law trademark rights by using a brand name or logo in the normal course of commerce.
® – Signifies a registered trademark. The ® symbol may only be used on a trademark that has been examined, approved and registered with the USPTO.
Acquiring trademark rights
Trademark rights are acquired through use of a mark in the normal course of commerce. For example, by using a brand name or logo on a product or its retail packaging.
Trademarkable things
A word, phrase, or logo can act as a trademark. But so can a slogan, a name, a scent, the shape of a product's container, and a series of musical notes.
The language of the Lanham Act describes that universe [of things that can qualify as a trademark] in the broadest of terms. It says that trademarks "includ[e] any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof." § 1127. Since human beings might use as a "symbol" or "device" almost anything at all that is capable of carrying meaning, this language, read literally, is not restrictive. The courts and the Patent and Trademark Office have authorized for use as a mark a particular shape (of a Coca-Cola bottle), a particular sound (of NBC's three chimes), and even a particular scent (of plumeria blossoms on sewing thread).
Distinctiveness
Some trademarks afford more potent rights than others. The closer the relationship between the mark and the goods, the weaker the mark. Trademarks are often separated into four categories of distinctiveness:
Arbitrary and Fanciful (strongest)
Suggestive (medium)
Descriptive (weak)
Generic (no protection)
Arbitrary and Fanciful
Where there is no logical relationship between the mark and the goods or services, trademark protection is at its strongest. Arbitrary and fanciful marks are considered inherently distinctive and are prima facia registrable. For example, coined words – such as Kodak, Polaroid, or Starbucks – are considered fanciful and receive strong trademark protection. Arbitrary marks include preexisting words used in an arbitrary way, such as "Apple" when used for computers.
Suggestive
Suggestive trademarks are still broadly protected. These marks "suggest" something about the product or services they are used on. The suggestion is a subtle connotation, not an outright description of the product. An example is "Whirlpool" for washing machines.
Descriptive
Descriptive terms immediately describe the goods, or some important characteristic of the goods. Trademark law does not protect descriptive terms unless they achieve "secondary meaning" in the minds of consumers. That is, trademark rights accrue when the public comes to associate the descriptive term with a particular company rather than the product in general.
Generic
The generic term for a product or service cannot be trademarked. Granting trademark rights on a generic term-say "apple" for use on apple juice-puts other companies at an unfair competitive disadvantage. Every company has the right to describe its products and services using generic terms.
Trademark registration
Once acquired, trademark rights may be registered with the USPTO. "The Lanham Act gives a seller or producer the exclusive right to "register" a trademark, 15 U.S.C. § 1052, and to prevent his or her competitors from using that trademark, § 1114(1)."
Benefits
Trademark protection depends on use in commerce, not registration. Both registered and non-registered trademarks are eligible for protection under the Lanham Act. However, registration (on the "Principal Register") affords several advantages:
Nationwide trademark rights
A registered mark is presumed to be a valid trademark
The owner listed on the registration is presumed to be the true owner of the trademark rights
Presumption that the mark has not been "abandoned" through non-use
Access to Federal Courts for litigating trademark infringement
"Incontestability." After five years of unopposed registration, a trademark is eligible to become "incontestable." An incontestable mark cannot be attacked on the grounds that it is "merely descriptive."
Constructive notice – that is, infringers cannot claim that they were unaware of a registered trademark
Enhanced remedies for infringement, including the possibility of triple damages and criminal penalties for counterfeiting (note that counterfeiting is a more culpable type of infringement)
Right to have the U.S. Customs Service prevent others from importing goods bearing infringing marks
Application process
Trademarks may be registered online. The USPTO charges a $275 fee for online trademark applications. The process takes about 6 months from initial application to final registration. It is a general practice to hire a trademark lawyer to file the application on behalf of the future owner.
Once the application is filed, it sits in a queue for a few months. Eventually, a USPTO Trademark Examiner will examine the application according to the rules of the Trademark Manual of Examining Procedure. If the Trademark Examiner identifies problems with the applications, the applicant will be sent a "preliminary rejection." The applicant will then have 6 months to file a reply with arguments in favor of their trademark application. If the Trademark Examiner is persuaded by the reply arguments, the application will be granted registration. If not, a "final rejection" will be issued.
When an application is allowed, it moves on to "publication" in the Trademark Official Gazette. Once published, there is a 30-day opportunity for other companies to appeal the registration. If no appeal is filed, the registration is finally issued.
If the registration receives a final rejection from the Trademark Examiner, the applicant may appeal the rejection to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board. Likewise, if the application is opposed by a third party, the appeal will be reviewed by the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board.
Actual use vs. intent to use
An application for registration may be based upon "actual use" in commerce (a §1(a) registration) or upon a bona fide intent to use ("ITU") the mark in commerce (§1(b) registration). An ITU application is a placeholder. It will not be allowed to register until the applicant actually begins using the mark in interstate commerce. The value of ITU is in establishing priority—that is, determining which business first acquired the trademark rights.
Principal and Supplemental Registers
The benefits of federal trademark registration only accrue to marks listed on the "Principal Register". To be eligible for the Principal Register, a mark must be recognized as a trademark, and not just a description of some goods or services. Eligible marks include (a) arbitrary or fanciful marks, (b) "suggestive" marks, and (c) descriptive marks that have achieved "secondary meaning" or "distinctiveness."
The Supplemental Register is for "descriptive" marks that have not yet become distinctive. Descriptive marks describe some quality of the goods or services they are used with. Descriptive marks may become distinctive (acquire "secondary meaning") through 5 years of use in commerce, or through evidence of heavy advertising and market recognition.
Secondary meaning is acquired when in the minds of the public, the primary significance of a product feature... is to identify the source of the product rather than the product itself.
Note that "generic" terms are ineligible for trademark protection altogether, and may not be registered on either the Principal or Supplemental Registers.
State-level
Trademarks may also be registered at the state level. State registrations are less potent than federal trademark registration. But federal registration requires use of the mark in interstate commerce. If a mark is only used in one particular state, registration at the state level may be appropriate. State trademark registration is usually by filing an application with the Secretary of State of the relevant state.
Infringement: likelihood of confusion test
Trademark infringement is measured by the so-called "likelihood of confusion" test. A new trademark will infringe on an existing one if the new one is so similar to the original that consumers are likely to confuse the two marks, and mistakenly purchase from the wrong company.
The likelihood of confusion test turns on several factors, including:
Strength of the plaintiff's trademark
Degree of similarity between the two marks at issue
Similarity of the goods and services at issue
Evidence of actual confusion
Purchaser sophistication
Quality of the defendant's goods or services
Whether the defendant's attempt to register the trademark was bona fide (in good faith).
This multi-factor test was articulated by Judge Henry Friendly in Polaroid v. Polarad. and are often referred to as the "Polaroid Factors".
Note that other factors may also be considered in determining whether a likelihood of confusion exists. "Even this extensive catalogue does not exhaust the possibilities—the court may have to take still other variables into account."
Limits
Consistent with the limited nature of trademark protection and the free speech guarantees of the First Amendment, U.S. law provides for a fair use defense to trademark infringement. Fair use in trademark law does not employ the same four-pronged analysis used in copyright law. The law recognizes two fair use defenses: classic fair use, where the alleged infringer is using the mark to describe accurately an aspect of its products; and nominative fair use, in which the trademark is being used to actually refer to the trademarked product or trademark owner.
These uses are still subject to the requirement that there be no consumer confusion as to source or sponsorship. Trademarks may also be lawfully used in parodies, since in that case there is usually no likelihood of confusion.
Loss
Trademark rights operate under a "use it or lose it" rule. In other words, the trademark owner must continuously use the mark in commerce or risk a finding of abandonment through nonuse (usually after three years of nonuse).
Difference from similar laws
In contrast to copyright or patent law, trademark protection does not have a set duration or definite expiration date. Trademark rights only expire when the owner stops using the mark in commerce. However, federal trademark registrations expire ten years after the registration date, unless renewed within one year prior to the expiration.
The U.S. Constitution specifically grants Congress power over copyright and patent law, but not over trademark law. Instead, Congress' power to create federal trademark law is derived from the Commerce Clause. Therefore, there must be some degree of interstate commerce present for a trademark to receive Lanham Act protection. The U.S. Supreme Court invalidated the first federal trademark law by finding that Congress could not stretch the Copyright Clause to cover trademarks,
Unlike copyright law which provides for criminal penalties as well as civil damages, trademark law in the United States is almost entirely enforced through private lawsuits. The exception is in the case of criminal counterfeiting of goods. Otherwise, the responsibility is entirely on the mark owner to file suit in either state or federal civil court in order to restrict an infringing use. Failure to "police" a mark by stopping infringing uses can result in the loss of protection.
See also
Concurrent use registration
Generic trademark
Service mark
Trademark dilution
Trademark symbol
Imperial Group v. Philip Morris
List of United States Supreme Court trademark case law
Tea Rose-Rectanus doctrine (remote, good-faith user)
World Intellectual Property Organization
References
External links
Text of the Lanham Act
Fair Use Network by the NYU Brennan Center for Justice (information about copyright & trademark fair use)
Trademark law by jurisdiction | [
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218860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales%20Cambriae | Annales Cambriae | The Annales Cambriae (Latin for The Annals of Wales) is the title given to a complex of Cambro-Latin chronicles compiled or derived from diverse sources at St David's in Dyfed, Wales. The earliest is a 12th-century presumed copy of a mid-10th-century original; later editions were compiled in the 13th century. Despite the name, the Annales Cambriae record not only events in Wales, but also events in Ireland, Cornwall, England, Scotland and sometimes further afield, though the focus of the events recorded especially in the later two-thirds of the text is Wales.
Sources
The principal versions of Annales Cambriae appear in four manuscripts:
A: London, British Library, MS. Harleian 3859, folios 190r–193r.
B: London (Kew), National Archives, MS. E.164/1 (K.R. Misc. Books, Series I) pp. 2–26
C: London, British Library, MS. Cotton Domitian A.i, folios 138r–155r
D: Exeter, Cathedral Library, MS. 3514, pp. 523–28, the Cronica ante aduentum Domini.
E: ibid., pp. 507–19, the Cronica de Wallia.
A is written in a hand of about 1100–1130 AD, and inserted without title into a manuscript (MS) of the Historia Brittonum where it is immediately followed by a pedigree for Owain ap Hywel (died 988). Although no explicit chronology is given in the MS, its annals seem to run from about AD 445 to 977 with the last entry at 954, making it likely that the text belongs to the second half of the 10th century.
B was written, probably at the Cistercian abbey of Neath, at the end of the 13th century. It is entitled Annales ab orbe condito adusque A. D. mcclxxxvi [1286].
C is part of a book written at St David's, and is entitled Annales ab orbe condito adusque A. D. mcclxxxviii [1288]; this is also of the late 13th century.
Two of the texts, B and C, begin with a World Chronicle derived from Isidore of Seville's Origines (Book V, ch. 39), through the medium of Bede's Chronica minora. B begins its annals with Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain "sixty years before the incarnation of the Lord." After A.D. 457, B agrees closely with A until A ends. C commences its annals after the empire of Heraclius (AD 610–41) at a year corresponding to AD 677. C mostly agrees with A until A ends, although it is clear that A was not the common source for B and C (Dumville 2002, p. xi). B and C diverge after 1203, C having fewer and briefer Welsh entries.
D and E are found in a manuscript written at the Cistercian abbey of Whitland in south-west Wales in the later 13th century; the Cronica ante aduentum Domini (which takes its title from its opening words) extends from 1132 BC to 1285 AD, while the Cronica de Wallia extends from 1190 to 1266.
A alone has benefited from a complete diplomatic edition (Phillimore 1888).
Source for the Arthurian legend
There are two entries in the Annales on King Arthur, one on Medraut (Mordred), and one on Merlin. These entries have been presented in the past as proof of the existence of Arthur and Merlin, although that view is no longer widely held because the Arthurian entries could have been added arbitrarily as late as 970, long after the development of the early Arthurian myth.
The entries on Arthur and Mordred in the A Text:
Year 72 (c. AD 516) The Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights and the Britons were victors.
Year 93 (c. 537) The Strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) fell and there was death in Britain and in Ireland.
Concerning Arthur's cross at the Battle of Badon, it is mirrored by a passage in Nennius where Arthur was said to have borne the image of the Virgin Mary "on his shoulders" during a battle at a castle called Guinnion. The words for "shoulder" and "shield" were, however, easily confused in Old Welsh *scuit "shield" versus *scuid "shoulder" and Geoffrey of Monmouth played upon this dual tradition, describing Arthur bearing "on his shoulders a shield" emblazoned with the Virgin.
Merlin (Old Welsh Myrddin) is not mentioned in the A Text, though there is mention of the battle of Arfderydd, associated with him in medieval Welsh literature:
Year 129 (c. 573) The Battle of Armterid
Texts B and C omit the second half of the year 93 entry. B calls Arfderydd "Erderit"; C, "Arderit". In the B Text, the year 129 entry continues: "between the sons of Elifer and Guendoleu son of Keidau in which battle Guendoleu fell and Merlin went mad". Both the B and C texts display the influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, and this is reflected in the Arfderydd entry by the choice of the Latinized form Merlinus, first found in Geoffrey's Historia, as opposed to the expected Old Welsh form Merdin.
See also
History of Wales
English historians in the Middle Ages
References
Further reading
Brett, Caroline, 1988 'The Prefaces of Two Late Thirteenth-century Welsh Latin Chronicles', Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 35, pp. 64–73.
Dumville, David N., 1972-74 'Some aspects of the chronology of the Historia Brittonum''', Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 25, pp. 439–445.
Dumville, David N., 1977 'Sub-Roman Britain: history and legend', History 62, pp. 173–192.
Dumville, David N., 1977/8 'The Welsh Latin annals', Studia Celtica 12/13, pp. 461–467 (review of Hughes 1974)
Dumville, David N., 1984 'When was the 'Clonmacnoise Chronicle' created? The evidence of the Welsh annals', in Grabowski K. & Dumville D.N., 1984 Chronicles and Annals of Mediaeval Ireland and Wales: The Clonmacnoise-group of texts, Boydell, pp. 209–226.
Dumville, David N. (ed, and trans.), 2002 'Annales Cambriae, A.D. 682-954: Texts A-C in Parallel', Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, University of Cambridge.
Dumville, David N. 2004 ' Annales Cambriae and Easter', in The Medieval Chronicle III, Rodopi, Amsterdam & New York.
Gough-Cooper, Henry, 2010 'Annales Cambriae, from Saint Patrick to AD 682: Texts A, B & C in Parallel.' The Heroic Age: A Journal of Early Medieval Northwest Europe, Issue 15 (October 2012) The Heroic Age website
Gough-Cooper, Henry, 2018 'Decennovenal Reason and Unreason in the C-text of Annales Cambriae ', in Erik Kooper et al. The Medieval Chronicle 11, Brill, pp. 195–212.
Gough-Cooper, Henry, 2020 'Meet the Ancestors?' in Ben Guy et al. The Chronicles of Medieval Wales and the March, Brepols, pp. 107–138.
Gough-Cooper, Henry, 2021 'How was the chronology of the earliest Welsh Latin chronicle regulated?', Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 39 (2019), pp. 134–165.
Grigg, Erik, 2009 ' 'Mole Rain' and other natural phenomena in the Welsh annals: can mirabilia unravel the textual history of the Annales Cambriae?' Welsh History Review 244, p. 1-40.https://www.academia.edu/1878398/MOLE_RAINAND_OTHER_NATURAL_PHENOMENA_IN_THE_WELSH_ANNALS_CAN_MIRABILIA_UNRAVEL_THE_TEXTUAL_HISTORY_OF_THE_ANNALES_
Hayward, P.A., 2010 The Winchcombe and Coventry chronicles: hitherto unnoticed witnesses to the work of John of Worcester, (2 vols.) Tempe, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies.
Hughes, Kathleen, 1974 'The Welsh Latin chronicles: Annales Cambriae and related texts', in (1980) Celtic Britain in the Early Middle Ages, Boydell, pp. 67–85.
Hughes, Kathleen, 1980 'The A-text of Annales Cambriae, in Celtic Britain in the Early Middle Ages, Boydell, pp. 86–100
Jones, T., 1948, Cronica de Wallia and other Documents from Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514, Oxford University Press.
Ker, N.R. 1955, 'Sir John Prise'. The Library, 5th series, x (1955), p. 1-24.
Miller, Molly, 1975 'The Commanders at Arthuret', Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Archaeological and Antiquarian Society, New Series, 75, pp. 96–118.
Miller, Molly, 1977/8 'Date-Guessing and Dyfed', Studia Celtica 12/13, pp. 33–61.
Miller, Molly, 1979 'The disputed historical horizon of the Pictish king-lists', Scottish Historical Review, 58, pp. 1–34.
+Miller, Molly, 2004 'Final stages in the construction of the Harleian Annales Cambriae: the evidence of the framework' in The Journal of Celtic Studies JCS 4, Brepols.
Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), 1888 'The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies from Harleian MS. 3859', Y Cymmrodor 9 (1888) pp. 141–183 .
Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), 1890/1 'The publication of the Welsh historical records', Y Cymmrodor 11 (1890/1) pp. 133–75.
Remfry, P.M., 2007, Annales Cambriae. A Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E, Castle Studies Research and Publishing ()
Stephenson, David, 2008 'Welsh Chronicles' Accounts of the Mid-Twelfth Century', Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies, No. 56, Aberystwyth, CMCS, pp 45–57.
Stephenson, David, 2010 'Gerald of Wales and Annales Cambriae ', Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies, No. 60, Aberystwyth, CMCS, pp 24–37.
Wiseman, Howard, 2000 'The derivation of the date of Badon in the Annales Cambriae from Bede and Gildas' Parergon 17.2, pp. 1–10.
Wiseman, Howard, 2002 'The derivation of the date of the Arthurian entries in the Annales Cambriae from Bede and Gildas' Vortigern Studies website
External links
Complete editions of A, B, C, D and E are available here
An English translation of the original annals (combining text from MSS. A, B & C''' for the period from the mid-5th century to the mid-10th) can be found here.
Medieval Welsh literature
Arthurian literature in Latin
Welsh chronicles
Medieval Latin histories
10th-century history books
10th-century Latin books
10th-century Latin writers
10th-century historians | [
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] |
218862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n%20dynasty | Nguyễn dynasty | The Nguyễn dynasty (Chữ Nôm: 茹阮, ; Hán tự: 阮朝, ) was the last Vietnamese dynasty, which ruled the unified Vietnamese state largely independently from 1802 to 1884. During its existence, the empire expanded into modern-day southern Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos through a continuation of the centuries-long Nam tiến and Siamese–Vietnamese wars. After 1883, the Nguyễn emperors ruled nominally as heads of state of the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin until the final months of WWII; they later nominally ruled over the Empire of Vietnam until the Japanese surrender.
The Nguyễn Phúc family established feudal rule over large amounts of territory as the Nguyễn Lords by the 16th century before defeating the Tây Sơn dynasty and establishing their own imperial rule in the 19th century. The dynastic rule began with Gia Long ascending the throne in 1802, after ending the previous Tây Sơn dynasty. The Nguyễn dynasty was gradually absorbed by France over the course of several decades in the latter half of the 19th century, beginning with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858 which led to the occupation of the southern area of Vietnam. A series of unequal treaties followed; the occupied territory became the French colony of Cochinchina in the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, and the 1863 Treaty of Huế gave France access to Vietnamese ports and increased control of its foreign affairs. Finally, the 1883 and 1884 Treaties of Huế divided the remaining Vietnamese territory into the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin under nominal Nguyễn Phúc rule. In 1887, Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, and the French Protectorate of Cambodia were grouped together to form French Indochina.
The Nguyễn dynasty remained the formal emperors of Annam and Tonkin within Indochina until World War II. Japan had occupied Indochina with French collaboration in 1940, but as the war seemed increasingly lost, overthrew the French administration in March 1945 and proclaimed independence for its constituent countries. The Empire of Vietnam under Emperor Bảo Đại was a nominally independent Japanese puppet state during the last months of the war. It ended with Bảo Đại's abdication following the surrender of Japan and August Revolution by the anti-colonial Việt Minh in the August 1945. This ended the 143-year rule of the Nguyễn dynasty. Many Vietnamese historians have a harsh and poor assessment of the Nguyễn dynasty.
Names
Việt Nam
The name (, chữ Hán: ) is a variation of (; literally "Southern Việt"), a name that can be traced back to the Triệu dynasty of the second century BC. The term "" (Yue) () in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty ( BC), and later as "越". At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang. In the early eighth century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south. Between the seventh and fourth centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. From the third century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, ; ). The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC. By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, educated Vietnamese called themselves and their people as nguoi viet and nguoi nam, which combined to become nguoi viet nam (Vietnamese people). However, this designation was for the Vietnamese themselves and not for the whole country.
The form () is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558. In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' ( in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead. Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.
Đại Nam
In 1839, under the rule of Emperor Minh Mạng's, Đại Việt Nam was shortened to Đại Nam (大南, which means "Great South").
Nam Triều
During the 1930s its government used the name Nam Triều (Southern dynasty) on its official documents.
Other names
Westerners in the past often called the kingdom as Annam or the Annamite Empire. However, in Vietnamese historiography, modern historians often refer to this period in Vietnamese history as Nguyen Vietnam, alternatively spelled as Nguyễn Vietnam, or simply Vietnam to distinguish with the pre-19th century Đại Việt kingdom.
History
Background and establishment
Origin of Nguyễn clan
The Nguyễn family clan, originated in the Thanh Hóa Province, exerted substantial political influence and military power, in particular throughout early modern Vietnamese history. Affiliations with the ruling elite date back to the tenth century when Nguyễn Bặc was appointed the first Grand Chancellor of the short-lived Đinh dynasty under Đinh Bộ Lĩnh in 965. Nguyễn Thị Anh, a queen consort of emperor Lê Thái Tông served as official regent of Đại Việt for her son emperor Lê Nhân Tông between 1442 and 1453.
Lê dynasty's servants
In 1527 Mạc Đăng Dung, after defeating and executing the Lê dynasty's vassal (Nguyễn Hoằng Dụ) in a rebellion and emerged as the intermediate victor and established the Mạc dynasty by deposing Emperor Lê Cung Hoàng of the once prosperous but rapidly declining later Lê dynasty. Nguyễn Hoằng Dụ's son Nguyễn Kim and his Trịnh clan allies remained loyal to the Lê dynasty and attempted to restore the Lê dynasty to power, thereby reigniting the rebellion. After that, both the Trịnh and Nguyễn clan again took up arms in Thanh Hóa province and revolted against the Mạc. However the rebellion was failed and they fled to kingdom of Lan Xang where the king Photisarath allows them to establish the exiled government in Xam Neua. The Lê royalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the Royal family, escaped to Muang Phuan (today Laos). During exile, Marquis of An Thanh Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. In 1540, they return to Đại Việt and begin their first military campaign against Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hóa province and capture the province in 1543.
Nguyễn's dominion in the south
Lê dynasty was restored in 1539 after the alliance recaptured Thanh Hoa Province and reinstall the Lê emperor Lê Trang Tông in throne. Nguyễn Kim, who had served as leader of the alliance during the 12 year of Lê–Mạc War (from 1533 to 1545) in the period of Northern and Southern dynasties, was assassinated in 1545 by a captured Mạc general (Dương Chấp Nhất). After that, Kim's son-in-law, Trịnh Kiểm who had killed the eldest son of Kim (Nguyễn Uông),then seize control of the alliance. The sixth son of Kim, Nguyễn Hoàng fears that his fate will be like his brother; therefore, he tried to run away from the capital to avoid the next assassination. Later, he asks his sister Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Bảo (wife of Trịnh Kiểm) to ask Kiểm to appoint him to be the governor of far-south frontier of Đại Việt, Thuận Hóa (modern Quảng Bình to Quảng Nam provinces). Trịnh Kiểm think this is the opportunity to remove the power and influence of Nguyễn Hoàng in the capital city so he agreed with the proposal. In 1558, Lê Anh Tông, emperor of the re-established Lê dynasty appointed Nguyễn Hoàng with the lordship of the Thuận Hóa, which had been conquered during the 15th century from the Champa kingdom. This event marked the beginning of division of two powerful families in 1558, Trịnh clan rules as dictatorship in the government of Lê dynasty in the north Đại Việt (Đàng Ngoài) and Nguyễn clan rules the South Đại Việt (Đàng Trong).
Nguyễn Phúc Lan chose the city of Phú Xuân in 1636 as his residence and established the dominion of the Nguyễn lord in the southern part of the country. Although the Nguyễn and Trịnh lords ruled as de facto rulers in their respective lands, they paid official tribute to the Lê emperors in a ceremonial gesture,and recognize Lê dynasty as the legitimacy of Đại Việt.
Nguyễn-Trịnh confrontation
Nguyễn Hoàng and his successors started to engage in rivalry with the Trịnh lords, after refusing to pay tax and tribute to the central government in Hanoi as Nguyễn lords tried to create the autonomous regime. They expanded their territory by making parts of Cambodia as protectorate, invaded Laos, captured the last vestiges of Champa in 1693 and ruled in an unbroken line until 1776.
Tây Sơn–Nguyễn war (1771–1802)
The end of the Nguyễn lords' reign
The 17th-century war between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn ended in an uneasy peace, with the two sides creating de facto separate states although both professed loyalty to the same Lê dynasty. After 100 years of domestic peace, the Nguyễn lords were confronted with the Tây Sơn rebellion in 1774. Its military had had considerable losses in manpower after a series of campaigns in Cambodia and proved unable to contain the revolt. By the end of the year, the Trịnh lords had formed an alliance with the Tây Sơn rebels and captured Huế in 1775.
Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần fled south to the Quảng Nam province, where he left a garrison under co-ruler Nguyễn Phúc Dương. He fled further south to the Gia Định Province (around modern-day Ho Chi Minh City) by sea before the arrival of Tây Sơn leader Nguyễn Nhạc, whose forces defeated the Nguyễn garrison and seized Quảng Nam.
In early 1777 a large Tây Sơn force under Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ attacked and captured Gia Định from the sea and defeated the Nguyễn Lord forces. The Tây Sơn received widespread popular support as they presented themselves as champions of the Vietnamese people, who rejected any foreign influence and fought for the full reinstitution of the Lê dynasty. Hence, the elimination of the Nguyễn and Trinh lordships was considered a priority and all but one member of the Nguyễn family captured at Saigon were executed.
Nguyễn Ánh escapes
In 1775, the 13-year-old Nguyễn Ánh escaped and with the help of the Vietnamese Catholic priest Paul Hồ Văn Nghị soon arrived at the Paris Foreign Missions Society in Hà Tiên. With Tây Son search parties closing in, he kept on moving and eventually met the French missionary Pigneau de Behaine. By retreating to the Thổ Chu Islands in the Gulf of Thailand, both escaped Tây Sơn capture.
Pigneau de Behaine decided to support Ánh, who had declared himself heir to the Nguyễn lordship. A month later the Tây Sơn army under Nguyễn Huệ had returned to Quy Nhơn. Ánh seized the opportunity and quickly raised an army at his new base in Long Xuyên, marched to Gia Định and occupied the city in December 1777. The Tây Sơn returned to Gia Định in February 1778 and recaptured the province. When Ánh approached with his army, the Tây Sơn retreated.
By the summer of 1781, Ánh's forces had grown to 30,000 soldiers, 80 battleships, three large ships and two Portuguese ships procured with the help of de Behaine. Ánh organized an unsuccessful ambush of the Tây Sơn base camps in the Phú Yên province. In March 1782 the Tây Sơn emperor Thái Đức and his brother Nguyễn Huệ sent a naval force to attack Ánh. Ánh's army was defeated and he fled via Ba Giồng to Svay Rieng in Cambodia.
Nguyễn–Cambodian agreement
Ánh met with the Cambodian King Ang Eng, who granted him exile and offered support in his struggle with the Tây Sơn. In April 1782 a Tây Sơn army invaded Cambodia, detained and forced Ang Eng to pay tribute, and demanded, that all Vietnamese nationals living in Cambodia were to return to Vietnam.
Chinese Vietnamese support for Nguyễn Ánh
Support by the Chinese Vietnamese began when the Qing dynasty overthrew the Ming dynasty. The Han Chinese refused to live under the Manchu Qing and fled to Southeast Asia (including Vietnam). Most were welcomed by the Nguyễn lords to resettle in southern Vietnam and set up business and trade.
In 1782, Nguyễn Ánh escaped to Cambodia and the Tây Sơn seized southern Vietnam (now Cochinchina). They had discriminated against the ethnic Chinese, displeasing the Chinese-Vietnamese. That April, Nguyễn loyalists Tôn Thất Dụ, Trần Xuân Trạch, Trần Văn Tự and Trần Công Chương sent military support to Ánh. The Nguyễn army killed grand admiral Phạm Ngạn, who had a close relationship with the Emperor Thái Đức, at Tham Lương bridge. Thái Đức, angry, thought that the ethnic Chinese had collaborated in the killing. He sacked the town of Cù lao (present-day Biên Hòa), which had a large Chinese population, and ordered the oppression of the Chinese community to avenge their assistance to Ánh. Ethnic cleansing had previously occurred in Hoi An, leading to support by wealthy Chinese for Ánh. He returned to Giồng Lữ, defeated Admiral Nguyễn Học of the Tây Sơn and captured eighty battleships. Ánh then began a campaign to reclaim southern Vietnam, but Nguyễn Huệ deployed a naval force to the river and destroyed his navy. Ánh again escaped with his followers to Hậu Giang. Cambodia later cooperated with the Tây Sơn to destroy Ánh's force and made him retreat to Rạch Giá, then to Hà Tiên and Phú Quốc.
Nguyễn – Siam alliance
Following consecutive losses to the Tây Sơn, Ánh sent his general Châu Văn Tiếp to Siam to request military assistance. Siam, under Chakri rule, wanted to conquer Cambodia and southern Vietnam. King Rama I agreed to ally with the Nguyễn lord and intervene militarily in Vietnam. Châu Văn Tiếp sent a secret letter to Ánh about the alliance. After meeting with Siamese generals at Cà Mau, Ánh, thirty officials and some troops visited Bangkok to meet Rama I in May 1784. The governor of Gia Định Province, Nguyễn Văn Thành, advised Ánh against foreign assistance.
Rama I, fearing the growing influence of the Tây Sơn dynasty in Cambodia and Laos, decided to dispatch his army against it. In Bangkok, Ánh began to recruit Vietnamese refugees in Siam to join his army (which totaled over 9,000). He returned to Vietnam and prepared his forces for the Tây Sơn campaign in June 1784, after which he captured Gia Định. Rama I nominated his nephew, Chiêu Tăng, as admiral the following month. The admiral led Siamese forces including 20,000 marine troops and 300 warships from the Gulf of Siam to Kiên Giang Province. In addition, more than 30,000 Siamese infantry troops crossed the Cambodian border to An Giang Province. On 25 November 1784, Admiral Châu Văn Tiếp died in battle against the Tây Sơn in Mang Thít District, Vĩnh Long Province. The alliance was largely victorious from July through November, and the Tây Sơn army retreated north. However, Emperor Nguyễn Huệ halted the retreat and counter-attacked the Siamese forces in December. In the decisive battle of Rạch Gầm–Xoài Mút, more than 20,000 Siamese soldiers died and the remainder retreated to Siam.
Ánh, disillusioned with Siam, escaped to Thổ Chu Island in April 1785 and then to Ko Kut Island in Thailand. The Siamese army escorted him back to Bangkok, and he was briefly exiled in Thailand.
French assistance
The war between the Nguyễn lord and the Tây Sơn dynasty forced Ánh to find more allies. His relationship with de Behaine improved, and support for an alliance with France increased. Before the request for Siamese military assistance, de Behaine was in Chanthaburi and Ánh asked him to come to Phú Quốc Island. Ánh asked him to contact King Louis XVI of France for assistance; de Behaine agreed to coordinate an alliance between France and Vietnam, and Ánh gave him a letter to present at the French court. Ánh's oldest son, Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh, was chosen to accompany de Behaine. Due to inclement weather, the voyage was postponed until December 1784. The group departed from Phú Quốc Island for Malacca and thence to Pondicherry, and Ánh moved his family to Bangkok. The group arrived in Lorient in February 1787, and Louis XVI agreed to meet them in May.
On 28 November 1787, de Behaine signed the Treaty of Versailles with French Minister of Foreign Affairs Armand Marc at the Palace of Versailles on behalf of Nguyễn Ánh. The treaty stipulated that France provide four frigates, 1,200 infantry troops, 200 artillery, 250 cafres (African soldiers), and other equipment. Nguyễn Ánh ceded the Đà Nẵng estuary and Côn Sơn Island to France. The French were allowed to trade freely and control foreign trade in Vietnam. Vietnam had to build one ship per year which was similar to the French ship which brought aid and give it to France. Vietnam was obligated to supply food and other aid to France when the French were at war with other East Asian nations.
On 27 December 1787, Pigneau de Behaine and Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh left France for Pondicherry to wait for the military support promised by the treaty. However, due to the French Revolution and the abolition of the French monarchy, the treaty was never executed. Thomas Conway, who was responsible for French assistance, refused to provide it. Although the treaty was not implemented, de Behaine recruited French businessman who intended to trade in Vietnam and raised funds to assist Nguyễn Ánh. He spent fifteen thousand francs of his own money to purchase guns and warships. Cảnh and de Behaine returned to Gia Định in 1788 (after Nguyễn Ánh had recaptured it), followed by a ship with the war materiel. Frenchmen who were recruited included Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau, Philippe Vannier, Olivier de Puymanel, and Jean-Marie Dayot. A total of twenty people joined Ánh's army. The French purchased and supplied equipment and weaponry, reinforcing the defense of Gia Định, Vĩnh Long, Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên, Biên Hòa, Bà Rịa and training Ánh's artillery and infantry according to the European model.
Qing China - Lê alliance against Tây Sơn
In 1786, Nguyễn Huệ led the army against the Trịnh lords; Trịnh Khải escaped to the north but got captured by the local people. He then committed suicide. After the Tây Sơn army returned to Quy Nhơn, subjects of the Trịnh lord restored Trịnh Bồng (son of Trịnh Giang) as the next lord. Lê Chiêu Thống, emperor of the Lê dynasty, wanted to regain power from the Trịnh. He summoned Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, governor of Nghệ An, to attack the Trịnh lord at the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long. Trịnh Bồng surrendered to the Lê and became a monk. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh wanted to unify the country under Lê rule, and began to prepare the army to march south and attack the Tây Sơn. Huệ led the army, killed Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, and captured the later Lê capital. The Lê royal family were exiled to China, and the later Lê dynasty collapsed.
At that time, Nguyễn Huệ's influence became stronger in northern Vietnam; this made Emperor Nguyễn Nhạc of the Tây Sơn dynasty suspect Huệ's loyalty. The relationship between the brothers became tense, eventually leading to battle. Huệ had his army surround Nhạc's capital, at Quy Nhơn citadel, in 1787. Nhạc begged Huệ not to kill him, and they reconciled. In 1788, Lê emperor Lê Chiêu Thống fled to China and asked for military assistance. Qing emperor Qianlong ordered Sun Shiyi to lead the military campaign into Vietnam. The campaign failed, diplomatic relations with Vietnam were normalized, and the Tây Sơn dynasty began to weaken.
Franco-Nguyễn alliance against Tây Sơn
Nguyễn Ánh's counter-attack
Ánh began to reorganize a strong armed force in Siam. He left Siam (after thanking King Rama I), and returned to Vietnam. During the 1787 war between Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Nhạc in northern Vietnam, Ánh recaptured the southern Vietnamese capital of Gia Định. Southern Vietnam had been ruled by the Nguyễns and they remained popular, especially with the ethnic Chinese. Nguyễn Lữ, the youngest brother of Tây Sơn (who ruled southern Vietnam), could not defend the citadel and retreated to Quy Nhơn. The citadel of Gia Định was seized by the Nguyễn lords.
In 1788 de Behaine and Ánh's son, Prince Cảnh, arrived in Gia Định with modern war equipment and more than twenty Frenchmen who wanted to join the army. The force was trained and strengthened with French assistance.
Defeat of the Tây Sơn
After the fall of the citadel at Gia Định, Nguyễn Huệ prepared an expedition to reclaim it before his death on 16 September 1792. His young son, Nguyễn Quang Toản, succeeded him as emperor of the Tây Sơn and was a poor leader. In 1793, Nguyễn Ánh began a campaign against Quang Toản. Due to conflict between officials of the Tây Sơn court, Quang Toản lost battle after battle. In 1797, Ánh and Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh attacked Qui Nhơn (then in Phú Yên Province) in the battle of Thị Nại. They were victorious, capturing a large amount of Tây Sơn equipment. Quang Toản became unpopular due to his murders of generals and officials, leading to a decline in the army. In 1799, Ánh captured the citadel of Quy Nhơn. He seized the capital (Phú Xuân) on 3 May 1801, and Quang Toản retreated north. On 20 July 1802, Ánh captured Hanoi and end the Tây Sơn dynasty, all of the members of the Tây Sơn was captured Ánh then executed all the members of the Tây Sơn dynasty that year.
Imperial rule (1802–1883)
Overview
In Vietnamese historiography, the independent period is referred to as the Nhà Nguyễn thời độc lập period. During this period the Nguyễn dynasty's territories comprised the present-day territories of Vietnam and portions included Cambodia and Laos, bordered with Siam to the west and Manchu Qing dynasty to the north. Throughout its existence, the ruling Nguyễn emperors established and ran the first well-defined imperial administrative and bureaucratic system across the country, annexed Cambodia and Champa into its territories in the 1830s. Together with Chakri Siam and Konbaung Burma, it was one among three major Southeast Asian powers at the time. Gia Long, was relatively friendly toward Western powers and Christianity. The second emperor after Gia Long, Minh Mạng, ruled for 21 years from 1820 to 1841, a conservative and Confucian Orthodoxy ruler that had been adopted the policy of isolationist, kept the country from the rest of the world for nearly 40 years until the French invasion in 1858. Minh Mạng tightened control over Catholicism, Muslim, and ethnic minorities, resulting in more than two hundred rebellions across the country during his twenty-one-year reign. He also expanded his ambition to modern-day Laos and Cambodia.
Nguyễn Phúc Ánh united Vietnam after a three-hundred-year division of the country. He celebrated his coronation at Huế on 1 June 1802 and proclaimed himself emperor (), with the era name Gia Long (嘉隆). Gia Long prioritized the nation's defense, and feared that it could again be divided by civil war. He replaced the feudal system with a reformist Doctrine of the Mean, based on Confucianism. The Nguyen dynasty was founded as a tributary state of the Qing Empire, with Gia Long receiving an imperial pardon and recognition as the ruler of Vietnam from the Jiaqing Emperor for recognizing Chinese suzerainty.
Nguyễn Phúc Ánh immediately sent an embassy to Qing China in 1802 to establish relations with his new kingdom. However, the envoys cited the ancient kingdom of Nanyue (Vietnamese: Nam Việt) to the Qing Emperor Jiaqing to represent their country, that made the emperor dissatisfied, and that Nguyễn Phúc Ánh had to officially rename his kingdom as Vietnam in the next year in favour of the Chinese audience. The country was officially known as The (Great) Vietnamese state (Vietnamese: Đại Việt Nam quốc),
The Qing dynasty Jiaqing Emperor refused Gia Long's request to change his country's name to Nam Việt, viewing it as an overambitious claim to the ancient state, and instead changed its name to Việt Nam. "Trung Quốc" (中國) was used as a name for Vietnam by Gia Long in 1805.
After Gia Long, other dynastic rulers encountered problems with Catholic missionaries and other Europeans in Indochina. Gia Long's son, Minh Mạng, was then faced with the Lê Văn Khôi revolt in which native Christians and their European clergy tried to replace him and install a grandson of Gia Long who had converted to Roman Catholicism. The missionaries then incited frequent revolts in an attempt to Catholicize the throne and the country, although Minh Mạng set aside public lands as part of his reforms.
During the 19th century, the Nguyễn maintained tributary relationships with Cambodia and Laos after a series of military campaigns involving the Siamese Rattanakosin Kingdom, including the Cambodian rebellion, Lao rebellion, Siamese–Vietnamese War of 1831–1834, and Siamese–Vietnamese War of 1841–1845. The Nguyễn also expanded further into Champa lands in modern-day southern Vietnam in a continuation of the centuries-long Nam tiến.
Minh Mạng's successors, Thiệu Trị (r. 1841–1847) and Tự Đức (r. 1847–1883) however consecutive faced more serious problems that ultimately decimated the Vietnamese state. In the late 1840s, Vietnam was struck by a global deadly cholera pandemic that killed roughly 8% of the country's population, while continuously isolationist policies and prohibition of trade and contact damaged the country's economy and internal politics. The French Empire of Napoleon III and Spain of Isabell II declared war on Vietnam in September 1858. Facing mighty industrialized France and Spain, the hermit Nguyễn dynasty Empire and its military crumbled as the Franco-Spanish alliance took Saigon in early 1859. A series of unequal treaties followed; the occupied territory became the French colony of Cochinchina in the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, and the 1863 Treaty of Huế gave France access to Vietnamese ports and increased control of its foreign affairs. The Treaty of Saigon (1874) concluded the French annexation of Cochinchina.
The last independent Nguyễn emperor was Tự Đức. A succession crisis followed his death, as the regent Tôn Thất Thuyết orchestrated the murders of three emperors in a year. This allowed the French to take control of the country and its monarchy. Later, the Hue court was forced to sign the Harmand Convention in September 1883, which handover Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and several provinces to the French administration. After the Treaty of Patenôtre was signed in 1884, France annexed and partitioned Vietnam into three constituent protectorates of French Indochina, and effectively turned the ruling Nguyen dynasty court into a vassal monarchy of France. Finally, the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) between the Chinese Empire and the French Republic was signed on 9 June 1885. All emperors after Đồng Khánh were chosen by the French, and only ruled symbolically.
Gia Long period
Nguyễn Ánh (well known as Nguyen Anh), the only surviving heir of the last Nguyen lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần, had escaped the Taysons purge in 1777. He was sheltered by a Catholic priest in Rạch Giá, near Gulf of Thailand. Therefore, he met a French priest, Pigneau de Behaine in Hà Tiên, and they became comrades. In 1786, the Taysons under Nguyen Hue stormed northern Vietnam, overthrew the ruling Trịnh family who were former enemies of the Nguyen and the old Lê dynasty, then annihilated a large Chinese intervention in Spring 1789. In November 1787, Nguyễn Ánh signed a treaty of alliance with Louis XVI in Versailles, sought military help. With the assistance of the French, Portuguese, Chinese-Vietnamese, Siamese, Chams, and Cambodians, and the command of the loyal talented generals Le Van Duyet and Nguyen Van Thanh, his forces slowly conquered Vietnam from the Taysons, captured Saigon in 1789, Hue in 1801, and Hanoi in June 1802, successfully unified the whole country under his hands by July 1802.
On 1 June, Nguyễn Ánh enthroned as Emperor Gia Long in Huế, whose imperial title emphasized his rule from Gia[-dinh] region (Saigon) in the far south to [Thang]-long (Hanoi) in the north. Gia Long claimed to revive the old government system of the bureaucratic state that was built by King Le Thanh Tong during the fifteenth-century golden age (1470–1497), adopted Confucian-bureaucratic government model, and sought unification with northern literati. His first concern was to bring stability over the unified kingdom, and placed two of his most loyal and Confucian-educated figures, Nguyễn Văn Thành and Le Van Duyet as viceroys of Hanoi and Saigon. From 1780 to 1820, roughly 300 French served Gia Long's court as officials. Under his reign, a system of road connecting Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon with postal stations and inns that laid the foundation for the latter national highway, several canals connecting the Mekong River to the Gulf of Siam were constructed and finished. In 1812, Gia Long issued the Gia Long Code, which was instituted based on the Ch'ing Code of China, replaced the previous Thanh Tong's 1480 Code. In 1811, a coup d'état arose in the Kingdom of Cambodia, a Vietnamese tributary state, forced the pro-Vietnamese King Ang Chan II to offer Gia Long for help. Gia Long sent 13,000 men to Cambodia. He restored the Cambodian monarch to the throne, and began the occupation of the country for the next 30 years, while Siam seized northern Cambodia in 1814.
Seeming a Vietnam with French influences as a potential danger, the British Empire sent two envoys to Gia Long in 1803 and 1804 to convince him to abandon his friendship with the French. In 1808, a British fleet led by William O'Bryen Drury mounted an attack on Vietnamese Red River Delta, but was soon driven back by the Vietnamese navy and suffered several losses. After the Napoleonic war and Gia Long's death, the British Empire renewed relation with Vietnam in 1822.
Throughout his reign, Gia Long continued to adopt the liberal and tolerant policy of his former rival Tayson. He died in 1819 and was succeeded by his fourth son, Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, who soon became known as Emperor Minh Mạng (r. 1820–1841) of Vietnam.
Rise and expansion under Minh Mạng
Minh Mạng was the younger brother of prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh and fourth son of Emperor Gia Long. Educated in Confucian classic since youth age, Minh Mạng became the Emperor of Vietnam in 1820, during a deadly cholera (or plague) outbreak that ravaged and killed 200,000 people across the country. His reign mainly focused on centralizing and stabilizing the state, by abolishing the Viceroy system and implementing a new full bureaucracy-provincial-based administration. He also halted diplomacy with Europe, and imposed religious intolerance.
Minh Mạng immediately shunned relations with the outside world. By 1824, after the death of Jean Marie Despiau, none Western advisors who had served Gia Long remained in Minh Mạng's court. The last French consul of Vietnam, Eugene Chaigneau, was never able to obtain one audience with Minh Mạng. After he left, France made no further attempts. In the next year he launched an anti-Catholicism propaganda campaign, denounced it as a "vicious religion" and "false teaching." In 1832 Minh Mạng turned the Cham Principality of Thuan Thanh into a Vietnamese province. He coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture. The first Cham revolt for independence took place in 1833–1834 when Katip Sumat, a Cham mullah who had just returned to Vietnam from Mecca declared a holy war (jihad) against the Vietnamese emperor. The rebellion later quickly lost support from the Cham elites and was overrun by Royal Vietnamese troops with ease. The second Cham revolt started in 1834, led by a Muslim clergy named Ja Thak with supports from the old Cham royalty, highland people, and Vietnamese dissents. Minh Mạng mercilessly crushed the Ja Thak rebellion and executed the last Cham ruler Po Phaok The in early 1835.
In 1833, as Minh Mạng had been trying to take firm control over six southern provinces, a large rebellion led by Lê Văn Khôi (an adopted son of the Saigon viceroy Le Van Duyet) against Minh Mạng in Saigon, attempted to establish the brother of Minh Mạng, Prince Cảnh's line to the throne. The rebellion lasted for two years, gathered support from Vietnamese Catholics, Khmers, Chinese merchants in Saigon, and even the Siamese ruler Rama III until it was crushed by the government forces in 1835. In January, he issued the first country-wide prohibition of Catholicism, and began persecuting Christians. 130 Christian missionaries, priests and church leaders were executed, dozens of churches were burned and destroyed during his persecution.
War with Siam and invasion of Cambodia
Minh Mạng also expanded his empire westward, putting central and southern Laos under Cam Lộ Province, and collided with his father's former ally-Siam in Vientiane and Cambodia. He backed the revolt of Laotian king Anouvong of Vientiane against the Siamese, and seized Xam Neua and Savannakhet in 1827.
In 1834, the Vietnamese Crown fully annexed Cambodia and renamed it to Tây Thành Province. Minh Mạng placed the general Truong Minh Giang as the governor of the Cambodian province, imposing the policy of assimilating the Cambodians. King Ang Chan II of Cambodia died in the next year and Ming Mang installed Chan's daughter Ang Mey as Commandery Princess of Cambodia. Cambodian officials were required to wear Vietnamese-style clothing, and govern in Vietnamese style. However the Vietnamese rule over Cambodia did not last long as it wasted the Vietnamese economy. Minh Mạng died in 1841, while a major Khmer uprising in the same year with Siamese aid eventually end the Tay Thanh province and his ambition over Cambodia.
Decline of the Nguyễn dynasty
In the next forty years, Vietnam was ruled by two weak emperors Thieu Tri (r. 1841–1847) and Tu Duc (r. 1848–1883). Thieu Tri or Prince Miên Tông, was the eldest son of Emperor Minh Mạng. His six-year reign showed a remarkable decrease in Catholic persecution. The self-sustaining agriculture-based isolationist economy proved insufficient. The population grew from 6 million in the 1820s to 10 million in 1850, severe disasters, epidemics, and famines flawed internal instability. Between 1802 and 1862, the court had faced 405 minor and large revolts of peasants, political dissents, ethnic minorities, Lê loyalists (people that were loyal to the old Lê Duy dynasty) across the country, in many ways contributed to the downfall of the Vietnamese state in the latter half of the 1800s.
In 1845, American warship USS Constitution landed in Da Nang, took all local officials as hostages to demand Thieu Tri to free imprisoned French bishop Dominique Lefèbvre. In 1847 Thieu Tri had made peace with Siam, but got into trouble with France and Britain. In April French navy attacked the Vietnamese navy and sank many Vietnamese ships in Da Nang, also demanding the relæse of Lefèbvre. Angered by the incident, Thieu Tri ordered all European documents in his palace to be smashed, and all European caught on Vietnamese land were to immediate execution. In autumn, two British warships of Sir John Davis arrived in Da Nang and asserted a commercial treaty with Vietnam, but the emperor refused. He died a few days later of apoplexy.
Tu Duc, or Prince Hồng Nhậm was Thieu Tri's youngest son, well-educated in Confucian learning, he was crowned by minister and co-regent Trương Đăng Quế. Prince Hồng Bảo-the elder brother of Tu Duc who was the primogeniture chosen by Thieu Tri-rebelled against Tu Duc in the day of his accession. The coup failed. Under the intervention of the empress mother Từ Dụ, his sentence was reduced to life imprisonment. Aware of the rise of Western influences in Asia, Tự Đức re-announced the isolationist closed door policy, neither to welcome French or British, American or Spanish embassies, forbid trade and contacts with foreigners and renewed the persecution of Catholics. During Tu Duc's first twelve years, Vietnamese Catholicism faced the worst and bloodiest persecution in history: 27 European missionaries, 300 Vietnamese priests and bishops, and 30,000 Vietnamese Christians were executed and crucified from 1848 to 1860.
In the late 1840s, a cholera outbreak set on Vietnamese soils, via trade with British India. The epidemic quickly spread out of control and killed 800,000 people (8%–10% of Vietnam's 1847 population) across the Empire. Locusts plagued northern Vietnam in 1854, and a major rebellion in the following year damaged much of the Tonkin countryside. The central government became so weak and unable to maintain its control on Tonkin as strong as the early period.
In the 1850-1870s, a new class of liberal intellectuals emerged in the court, many of them Catholics and had studied abroad in Europe, most notably Nguyễn Trường Tộ, urged the emperor to reform and transform the Empire following the Western model, open Vietnam to the world. Their reform efforts however were usually ignored and rejected by the top Confucian conservative bureaucrats and Tu Duc himself. No significant industrial economy was available at the time except mining to fund the reformists' modernisation progress. Social cohesion was low. 95 percent of the empire's population lived in rural areas and depended on agriculture and lasting effects of prolonged isolationist policies which undermining the economy.
French conquest
In September 1858, Franco-Spanish army bombarded and invaded Da Nang to protest against the executions of two Spanish Dominican missionaries. Seven months later, they sailed to the south to attack Saigon and the rich Mekong Delta. The Alliance troops were holding Saigon for two years, while a rebellion of Lê loyalists led by Catholic bishop Pedro Tạ Văn Phụng, who self-proclaimed to be a Lê prince, broke out in the north and escalated. In February 1861, French reinforcement and 70 warships led by General Vassoigne arrived and overwhelmed Vietnamese strongholds. Facing the Alliance invasion and internal rebellion, Tu Duc chose to cede three Southern provinces to France in order to deal with the coinciding rebellion.
In June 1862, the Treaty of Saigon was signed, resulting in Vietnam losing three rich Gia Dinh, My Tho, Bien Hoa provinces, and the Poulo Condoræ Island, open for religious freedom and, along with paying war reparations to France. However, to Queen mother Từ Dụ, the court, and the people, the 1862 treaty was a national humiliation. Tu Duc once again sent a mission to French Emperor Napoleon III, called to revise the 1862 treaty. In July 1864, another draft treaty was signed. France returned the three provinces to Vietnam, but still hold control over three important cities Saigon, My Tho, and Thu Dau Mot. In 1866, France convinced Tu Duc to hand over three remaining southern provinces of Vinh Long, Ha Tien, and Chau Doc. Phan Thanh Gian, the Governor of the three provinces immediately resigned. Without resistance, in 1867 the French annexed the provinces with ease and were turning their attention to the northern provinces.
By the late 1860s, pirates, bandits, remnants of the Taiping rebellion in China, fled to Tonkin and turned Northern Vietnam into a hotbed for their raid activities. The Vietnamese state was on its deep decline and was unable to fight against the pirates. These Chinese rebels eventually formed their own mercenary armies like the Black Flags, and cooperated with local Vietnamese officials, together harassing French business. As France was looking for Yunnan and Tonkin, in 1873, a French merchant-adventurer named Jean Dupuis was intercepted by local Hanoi authority, prompting the French Cochinchina government to set out a new attack without talking with the Hue court. A French army led by Francis Garnier arrived at Tonkin in November. Because local administrators had allied with the Black Flags and mistrusting of Hanoi governor Nguyen Tri Phuong, in late November the French and Le loyalists opened fire at the Vietnamese citadel of Hanoi. Tu Duc immediately sent delegations to negotiate with Garnier, but Prince Hoàng Kế Viêm, governor of Sơn Tây, had enlisted the Chinese Black Flags militia of Liu Yongfu to attack the French. Garnier was killed on 21 December by the Black Flag soldiers at the . A peace negotiation between Vietnam and France was reached on 5 January 1874. France formally recognized Vietnam's full independence from China; France would pay off Vietnam's Spanish debts; French force returned Hanoi to the Vietnamese; Vietnamese military in Hanoi had to disband and be reduced to a simple police force; total religious and trade freedom was ensured; Vietnam must recognise all six southern provinces as French territories.
End of independence (1874–1885)
Just two years after French recognisation, Tu Duc sent an embassy to Qing China in 1876 and re-provoked the tributary relationship with the Chinese (the last mission was in 1849). In 1878, Vietnam renewed relation with Thailand. In 1880, Britain, Germany, and Spain were still debating the fate of Vietnam, and the Chinese Embassy in Paris openly rejected the 1874 Franco-Vietnamese agreement. In Paris, Prime minister Jules Ferry proposed a direct military campaign against Vietnam to revise the 1874 treaty. Because Tự Đức was too preoccupied to keep the French out of his Empire without directly engaging against them, he requested the Chinese court. In 1882, 30,000 Qing troops flooded into the northern provinces and occupied cities. The Black Flags had also been returning, together, collaborating with local Vietnamese officials and harassing French businesses. In March, the French responded by sending a second expedition led by Henri Rivière to the north to quell off the obstacles as their obligation, but had to avoid all international attention, particularly with China. On 25 April 1882, Rivière took Hanoi without facing any resistance. Tự Đức hopelessly informed the Chinese court that their tributary state was being attacked. In September 1882, 17 Chinese divisions (200,000 men) crossed the Sino-Vietnamese borders and occupied Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng, Bac Ninh, and Thái Nguyên, commissioning for Tự Đức and also themselves to defend against the French aggression.
Backed by the Chinese army and the prince Hoàng Kế Viêm, Liu Yongfu, and the Black Flags decided to attack Rivière. On 19 May 1883, the Black Flags ambushed and beheaded Rivière at the Second battle of Cầu Giấy. News of the death of Rivière spread waves of anger among the French public triggered the national response. The French Parliament quickly voted for the conquest of Vietnam. Tens of thousands of French and Chinese reinforcements poured into the Red River Delta.
Tự Đức died on 17 July. Succession trouble temporarily paralyzed the court. One of his nephews Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Ái was crowned as Emperor Dục Đức but was, however, imprisoned and executed after three days by the three powerful regents Nguyễn Văn Tường, Tôn Thất Thuyết and Tran Tien Thanh for an unclear reason. Tự Đức's brother Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Dật succeeded on 30 July as Emperor Hiệp Hòa. The senior Censorate official of the court Phan Đình Phùng denounced the three regents for their irregular handling of Tự Đức's succession. Tôn Thất Thuyết blasted Phan Đình Phùng and sent him back to home, where later he led a nationalist resistance movement against the French for ten years.
To knock Vietnam out of the war, France decided to take a direct assault on the city of Hue. The French army split up itself into two parts: the smaller under General Bouët stayed in Hanoi and waited for reinforcement from France while the French fleet led by Amédée Courbet and Jules Harmand sailed to Thuận An, the sea gate of Hue on August 17. Harmand demanded the two regents Nguyễn Văn Tường and Tôn Thất Thuyết to surrender Northern Vietnam, North-Central Vietnam (Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh) and Bình Thuận Province to French possession, and to accept a French résident in Huế who could demand royal audiences. He sent an ultimatum to the regents that "The name Vietnam will no longer exist in history" if they would resist.
On 18 August, French battleships began shelling Vietnamese positions in the Thuận An citadel. Two days later, at dawn, Courbet and the French marines landed on the shore. By the next morning, all Vietnamese defenses in Hue were overwhelmed by the French. Emperor Hiệp Hòa dispatched mandarin Nguyen Thuong Bac to negotiate.
On 25 September, two court officials Tran Dinh Tuc and Nguyen Trong Hop signed a twenty-seven-article treaty known as Harmand Convention. French seized Bình Thuận; Da Nang, Qui Nhon were opened for trade; the ruling sphere of the Vietnamese monarchy was reduced to Central Vietnam while Northern Vietnam became a French Protectorate. In November Emperor Hiệp Hòa and Tran Tien Thanh were executed by Nguyễn Văn Tường and Tôn Thất Thuyết for their pro-French stand. 14-year-old Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Đăng was crowned as Emperor Kiến Phúc. After achieving peace with China through the Tientsin Accord in May 1884, on 6 June the French Ambassador in China Jules Patenôtre des Noyers signed with Nguyen Van Tuong the Protectorate Treaty of Patenôtre, acknowledge confirmed the French dominant over Vietnam. On 31 May 1885, France appointed the first governor of all Vietnam. On 9 June 1885, Vietnam ceased to exist after 83 years as an independent state. Leader of the pro-war faction, Tôn Thất Thuyết and his supporters revolted against the French in July 1885, were forced to retreat to the Laotian highlands with the young emperor Hàm Nghi (Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Lịch), while the French had already installed his pro-French brother Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Kỷ as emperor Đồng Khánh. Thuyết called up the nobility, royalists and nationalists to arm for the resistance against the French occupation (Cần Vương movement). The movement lasted for 11 years (1885–1896) and Thuyết was forced to exile in China in 1888. As the Can Vuong movement got suppressed and the French took over the monarchy.
French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin (1883–1945)
French conquest of Nam Kỳ
Napoleon III took the first steps to establish a French colonial influence in Indochina. He approved the launching of a Punitive expedition in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese for their mistreatment of European Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. However, the expedition quickly evolved into a full invasion. Factors in Napoleon's decision were the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia, and the expanding idea that France had a civilizing mission. By 18 February 1859 France conquered Saigon and three southern Vietnamese provinces: Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường.
Unequal treaties
By 1862, the war was over and in the Treaty of Saigon Vietnam was forced to concede the three provinces in the south, which became the colony of French Cochinchina. The subsequent 1863 Treaty of Huế also saw the Vietnamese Empire open three ports to French trade, allowed free passage of French warships to Kampuchea (which led to the French protectorate of Kampuchea), allowed freedom for French missionaries, and gave France a large indemnity for the cost of the war. France did not intervene in the Christian-supported Vietnamese rebellion in Bắc Bộ (despite missionary urging) or the subsequent massacre of thousands of Christians after the rebellion, suggesting that persecution of Christians prompted the original intervention but military and political reasons drove continued colonization of Vietnam.
In the following decades Vietnam was gradually absorbed under French control. Further unequal treaties followed. The Second Treaty of Saigon in 1874 reiterated the stipulations of the previous treaty. When both China and France claimed sovereignty over Vietnamese territory, France deemed the treaty unfulfilled and occupied Hanoi in 1882. The 1883 Treaty of Huế led to the rest of Vietnam becoming French protectorates, divided into the Protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The terms were, however, considered overly harsh in French diplomatic circles and never ratified in France. The following 1884 Treaty of Huế provided a softened version of the previous treaty. The 1885 Treaty of Tientsin, which reaffirmed the 1884 Tientsin Accord and ended the Sino-French War, confirmed Vietnam's status as French protectorates and severed Vietnam's tributary relationship with the Qing dynasty by requiring that all of Vietnam's foreign affairs be conducted through France.
After this the Nguyễn dynasty only nominally ruled the two French protectorates. Annam and Tonkin were combined with Cochinchina and the neighboring Cambodian protectorate in 1887 to form the Union of French Indochina, of which they became administrative components.
French rule also added new ingredients to Vietnam's cultural stew: Catholicism and a Latin-based alphabet. The spelling used in the Vietnamese transliteration was Portuguese, because the French relied on a dictionary compiled earlier by a Portuguese cleric.
World War I
While seeking to maximize the use of Indochina's natural resources and manpower to fight World War I, France cracked down on Vietnam's patriotic mass movements. Indochina (mainly Vietnam) had to provide France with 70,000 soldiers and 70,000 workers, who were forcibly drafted from villages to serve on the French battlefront. Vietnam also contributed 184 million piastres in loans and 336,000 tons of food.
These burdens proved heavy, since agriculture experienced natural disasters from 1914 to 1917.
Lacking a unified nationwide organization, the vigorous Vietnamese national movement failed to use the difficulties France had as a result of war to stage significant uprisings.
In May 1916, sixteen-year-old emperor Duy Tân escaped from his palace to participate in an uprising of Vietnamese troops. The French were informed of the plan, and its leaders were arrested and executed. Duy Tân was deposed and exiled to the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean.
World War II
Nationalist sentiment intensified in Vietnam (especially during and after the First World War), but uprisings and tentative efforts failed to obtain concessions from the French. The Russian Revolution greatly impacted 20th-century Vietnamese history.
For Vietnam, the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 was as decisive as the 1858 French seizure of Đà Nẵng. The Axis power of Japan invaded Vietnam on 22 September 1940, attempting to construct military bases to strike against Allied forces in Southeast Asia. This led to a period of Indochina under Japanese occupation with cooperation of the collaborationist Vichy French, who still retained administration of the colony. During this time the Viet Minh, a communist resistance movement, developed under Ho Chi Minh from 1941, with allied support. During a 1944–1945 famine in northern Vietnam, over one million people starved to death.
In March 1945, after the liberation of France in Europe and heavy setbacks in the war. In a last ditch effort to gather support, the Japanese overthrew the French administration, imprisoned their civil servants and proclaimed independence for Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, which became the Empire of Vietnam with Bảo Đại as its Emperor. The Empire of Vietnam was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan. After the Surrender of Japan, Bảo Đại abdicated on 25 August 1945 while the Viet Minh launched the August Revolution.
This ended the 143-year reign of the Nguyễn dynasty.
National administration
Government
Emperor
The Nguyễn dynasty retained the bureaucratic and hierarchic system of previous dynasties. The emperor was the head of state who wielded absolute authority. Under the emperor was the Ministry of Interior (which worked on papers, royal messages and recording) and four Grand Secretariats (), later renamed the Ministry of Secret Council.
The Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty was an absolutist ruler, which means he was both the head of state and the head of government. The Gia Long Code in 1812 declared the Vietnamese monarch as the universal ruler of all Vietnam; using the Confucian concept Mandate of Heaven to provide monarchs absolute power. Their reign and popular images were judged based on how prosperous the livelihood (民生, dân sinh) of the people and the Confucian concept of chính danh (rectification of names), according to the Confucian biblical Analects, everything has to stay in its right order. Gia Long also perceived the ancient Chinese conception of Hua-yi (Hoa-Di in Vietnamese) and in 1805 he confessed his Empire as Trung Quốc (中國, "the Middle Kingdom"), the Vietnamese term which often refers to China but now was taken by Gia Long to emphasis his Son of Heaven status and the devaluation of China. Following next decades, Confucianism and the Mandate of Heaven theory gradually lost their positions within the Vietnamese officials and intellectuals. When the fourth emperor, Tự Đức, ceded Southern Vietnam to France and called all Southern officials to give up arms, many ignored, disobeyed the Son of Heaven, and continued to fight against invaders. Many dissents viewed him as surrendering and frightened of France. Rebellions against Tự Đức erupted every year from 1860 until he died in 1883.
A dual theory of sovereignty existed in Vietnam. All the Nguyễn monarchs were addresses as hoàng đế (黃帝, Sino-Vietnamese title for "Emperor") in the court while referring himself the first person honorific trẫm (he who give the order). They also used the concept of thiên tử (天子, "Son of Heaven", which is borrowed from China) to demonstrate that the ruler was descended and commissioned by heaven to rule the kingdom. However, in most cases, Nguyen rulers were formally called vua (君, the Vietnamese title for "monarch" or " sovereign ruler") by the ordinary Vietnamese folks. The concept of a divine Son of Heaven has not been dogmatically practiced, and the monarch's divinity was not absolute due to the dual theory. For example, Xu Jiyu, a Chinese geographer, reported that the bureaucrats in the Vietnamese court sat down and even felt free to search themselves for body lice during the court audiences. Gia Long once told the son of J. B. Chaigneau, one of his advisors, that the use of Son of Heaven in Vietnam was an "absurdity" and "at least in mixed Vietnamese-European Company." Once the young crown prince being chosen to succeed, his obligation was to be filial with parents, being well-educated in politics and classics, internalise the morals and ethics of a ruler.
After the 1884 treaty of Huế was signed, the Nguyễn dynasty became two protectorates of France and the French installed their own administrators. Although the Emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty were still nominally in control of the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, the Resident-Superior of Annam gradually gained more influence over the imperial court in Huế. In 1897 the Resident-Superior was granted the power to appoint the Nguyễn dynasty Emperors and presided over the meetings of the Viện cơ mật. These moves incorporated French officials directly into the administrative structure of the Imperial Huế Court and further legitimised French rule in the legislative branch of the Nguyễn government. From this period onwards any imperial edicts issued by the Emperors of Đại Nam had to be confirmed by the Resident-Superior of Annam giving him both legislative and executive power over the Nguyễn government.
In the year 1898 the federal government of French Indochina took over the financial and property management duties of the Nguyễn dynasty's imperial court meaning that the Nguyễn dynasty Emperor (at the time Thành Thái) became a salaried employee of the Indochinese colonial structure, reducing their power to being only a civil servant of the Protectorate government. The Resident-Superior of Annam also took over the management of provincial mandarins and was a member of the Supreme Council (Conseil supérieur) of the Government-General of French Indochina.
Civil service and bureaucracy
Taxes
Vietnam's monetary subunit was the quan (貫). One quan equaled 10 coins, equivalent to ₫600. Officials received the following taxes ():
First senior rank (Chánh nhất phẩm): 400 quan; rice: 300 kg; per-capita tax: 70 quan
First junior rank (Tòng nhất phẩm): 300 quan; rice: 250 kg; tax: 60 quan
Second senior rank (Chánh nhị phẩm): 250 quan; rice: 200 kg; tax: 50 quan
Second junior rank (Tòng nhị phẩm): 180 quan; rice: 150 kg; tax: 30 quan
Third senior rank (Chánh tam phẩm): 150 quan; rice: 120 kg; tax: 20 quan
Third junior rank (Tòng tam phẩm): 120 quan; rice: 90 kg; tax: 16 quan
Fourth senior rank (Chánh tứ phẩm): 80 quan; rice: 60 kg; tax: 14 quan
Fourth junior rank (Tòng tứ phẩm): 60 quan; rice: 50 kg; tax: 10 quan
Fifth senior rank (Chánh ngũ phẩm): 40 quan; rice: 43 kg; tax: 9 quan
Fifth junior rank (Tòng ngũ phẩm): 35 quan; rice: 30 kg; tax: 8 quan
Sixth senior rank (Chánh lục phẩm): 30 quan; rice: 25 kg; tax: 7 quan
Sixth junior rank (Tòng lục phẩm): 30 quan; rice: 22 kg; tax: 6 quan
Seventh senior rank (Chánh thất phẩm): 25 quan; rice: 20 kg; tax: 5 quan
Seventh junior rank (Tòng thất phẩm): 22 quan; rice: 20 kg; tax: 5 quan
Eighth senior rank (Chánh bát phẩm): 20 quan; rice: 18 kg; tax: 5 quan
Eighth junior rank (Tòng bát phẩm): 20 quan; rice: 18 kg; tax: 4 quan
Ninth senior rank (Chánh cửu phẩm): 18 quan; rice: 16 kg; tax: 4 quan
Ninth junior rank (Tòng cửu phẩm): 18 quan; rice: 16 kg; tax: 4 quan
Political Organization
Education system
Pension
When mandarins retired, they could receive one hundred to four hundred quan from the emperor. When they died, the royal court provided twenty to two hundred quan for a funeral.
Administrative divisions
Under Gia Long
During the reign of Gia Long, the kingdom was divided into twenty-three quasi-militant protectorates trấn and four military departments doanh. Each protectorate, besides having their own separated regional governments, was under patrol of one greater, powerful unit called Overlord of Citadel, or the Viceroy. For examples, the northern protectorates had Bắc thành Tổng trấn (Viceroy of Northern Protectorates) in Hanoi, and southern protectorates had Gia Định thành Tổng trấn (Viceroy of Gia Định Protectorates) resides in Saigon. Two famously viceroys during Gia Long's reign were Nguyễn Văn Thành (Hanoi) and Lê Văn Duyệt (Saigon). By 1802, these were:
16 protectorates under joint-governance from the Viceroys.
Sơn Nam Thượng (Hanoi)
Sơn Nam Hạ (Nam Định)
Sơn Tây
Kinh Bắc (Bắc Ninh)
Hải Dương
Tuyên Quang
Hưng Hoá
Cao Bằng
Lạng Sơn
Thái Nguyên
Quảng Yên
Gia Định or Phiên An
Biên Hoà
Vĩnh Thanh (later became Vĩnh Long and An Giang
Định Tường (Tiền Giang)
Hà Tiên
7 Central protectorates
Thanh Hoá
Nghệ An
Quảng Nghĩa (Quảng Ngãi)
Bình Định
Phú Yên
Bình Hoà (Khánh Hoà)
Bình Thuận
4 departments surrounding Huế, directly ruled by Gia Long.
Quảng Đức
Quảng Bình
Quảng Trị
Quảng Nam
Minh Mạng and later
In 1831, Minh Mạng reorganised his kingdom by converting all these protectorates into 31 provinces (tỉnh). Each province had a series of smaller jurisdictions: the prefecture (phủ), the subprefecture (châu, in areas whereas having a significant population of ethnic minorities). Under prefecture and subprefecture, there was the district (huyện), the canton (tổng). Under district and canton, the bundle of hamlets around one common religious temple or social factor point, the village làng or the commune (xã) was the lowest administrative unit, which one respected person nominally took care of village administrative, which called lý trưởng.
Two nearby provinces were combined into a pair. Every pair had a governor-general (Tổng đốc) and a governor (Tuần phủ). Frequently, there were twelve governor-generals and eleven governors, although, in some periods, the Emperor would appoint a "commissioner in charge of patrolled borderlands" (kinh lược sứ) that supervising entire northern of the southern part of the kingdom. In 1803, Vietnam had 57 prefectures, 41 subprefectures, 201 districts, 4,136 cantons and 16,452 villages, and then by 1840s its had been increased to 72 prefectures, 39 subprefectures and 283 districts, which an average 30,000 people per district. Cambodia had been absorbed into the Vietnamese administrative system, bore the name Tây Thành Province from 1834 to 1845. With areas having minority groups like Tày, Nùng, Mèo (Hmong people), Mường, Mang and Jarai, the Huế court imposed the co-existing tributary and quasi-bureaucratic governance system, while allowing these people to have their own local rulers and autonomy.
In 1832, there were:
Three regions and 31 provinces (encompassed modern-day Vietnam):
Bắc Kỳ (Tonkin)
Hanoi
Lạng Sơn
Cao Bằng
Bắc Ninh
Thái Nguyên
Nam Định
Hưng Yên
Sơn Tây
Hưng Hoá
Tuyên Quang
Hải Dương
Quảng Yên
Ninh Bình
Trung Kỳ (Annam)
Thanh Hoá
Nghệ An
Hà Tĩnh
Quảng Bình
Quảng Trị
Thừa Thiên
Quảng Nam
Quảng Ngãi
Bình Định
Phú Yên
Khánh Hoà
Bình Thuận
Nam Kỳ (Cochinchina)
Biên Hoà
Gia Định
Vĩnh Long
Định Tường
An Giang
Hà Tiên
Client/dependent territories:
Luang Phrabang
Vientine
Cambodia
Jarai chiefdoms
Chief cities:
Huế, capital city, population (1880): 30,000
Hanoi, major city, population (1880): 120,000
Saigon, major city, population (1880): 100,000
Economy
Society
Culture and Cultural Discrimination
The Vietnamese at one point viewed cultures that were "non-Chinese" as barbaric and called themselves the Central Kingdom. This occurred after Vietnam had sent a delegate to Beijing, whereupon a diplomatic disaster caused Vietnam to view other "non-Chinese" as barbaric following Qing viewpoints. By the Nguyen dynasty the Vietnamese themselves were ordering Cambodian Khmer to adopt Vietnamese culture by ceasing "barbarous" habits like cropping hair and ordering them to grow it long besides making them replace skirts with trousers. Han Chinese Ming dynasty refugees numbering 3,000 came to Vietnam at the end of the Ming dynasty. They opposed the Qing dynasty and were fiercely loyal to the Ming dynasty. Vietnamese women married these Han Chinese refugees since most of them were soldiers and single men. They did not wear Manchu hairstyle unlike later Chinese migrants to Vietnam during the Qing dynasty.
Subjugation of Champa
Minh Mang engineered the final conquest of the Champa Kingdom after the centuries-long Cham–Vietnamese wars. Cham Muslim leader Katip Suma was educated in Kelantan, returning to Champa to declare a jihad against the Vietnamese after Minh Mang's annexation of the region. The Vietnamese forced Champa's Muslims to eat lizard and pork and its Hindus to eat beef to assimilate them into Vietnamese culture.
Vietnamisation of ethnic minorities
Minh Mạng sinicised ethnic minorities (such as Cambodians), claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam, and used the term "Han people" (漢人, Hán nhân) to refer to the Vietnamese. According to the emperor, "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs." These policies were directed at the Khmer and hill tribes. Nguyen Phuc Chu had referred to the Vietnamese as "Han people" in 1712, distinguishing them from the Chams. The Nguyen lords established colonies after 1790. Gia Long said, "Hán di hữu hạn" (漢 夷 有 限, "The Vietnamese and the barbarians must have clear borders"), distinguishing the Khmer from the Vietnamese. Minh Mang implemented an acculturation policy for minority non-Vietnamese peoples. "Thanh nhân" (清 人 referring to the Qing dynasty) or "Đường nhân" (唐人 referring to the Tang dynasty) were used to refer to ethnic Chinese by the Vietnamese, who called themselves "Hán dân" (漢 民) and "Hán nhân" (漢人 referring to the Han dynasty) during 19th-century Nguyễn rule. Since 1827, descendants of Ming dynasty refugees were called Minh nhân (明人) or Minh Hương (明 鄉) by Nguyễn rulers, to distinguish with ethnic Chinese. Minh nhân were treated as Vietnamese since 1829. They were not allowed to go to China, and also not allowed to wear the Manchu queue.
Costume
The Nguyễn dynasty popularized Chinese Qing clothing. Trousers were adopted by female White H'mong speakers, replacing their traditional skirts. The Qing Chinese Qibao tunics and trousers were worn by the Vietnamese. The áo dài was developed in the 1920s, when compact, close-fitting tucks were added to similar Qibao "Ao Tu Than". Chinese Qipao trousers and tunics were ordered by lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát during the 18th century, replacing traditional Vietnamese Hanfu-style clothes. Although the Chinese trousers and tunic were mandated by the Nguyen government, skirts were worn in isolated north Vietnamese hamlets until the 1920s. Chinese style clothing was ordered for the Vietnamese military and bureaucrats by Nguyễn Phúc Khoát.
An 1841 polemic, "On Distinguishing Barbarians", was based on the Qing sign "Vietnamese Barbarians' Hostel" (越夷會館) on the Fujian residence of Nguyen diplomat and Hoa Chinese Lý Văn Phức (李文馥). It argued that the Qing did not subscribe to the neo-Confucianist texts from the Song and Ming dynasties which were learned by the Vietnamese, who saw themselves as sharing a civilization with the Qing. This event triggered a diplomatic disaster. The consequence was that non-"Han Chinese highland tribes" and other non-Vietnamese peoples living near (or in) Vietnam were called "barbarian" by the Vietnamese imperial court. The essay distinguishes the Yi and Hua, and mentions Zhao Tuo, Wen, Shun and Taibo. Kelley and Woodside described Vietnam's Confucianism.
Emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức, were opposed to French involvement in Vietnam, and tried to reduce the country's growing Catholic community. The imprisonment of missionaries who had illegally entered the country was the primary pretext for the French to invade (and occupy) Indochina. Like Qing China, a number of incidents involved other European nations during the 19th century.
Religion
Although the previous Nguyễn lords were faithful Buddhists, Gia Long was not a Buddhist. He adopted Confucianism and actively prohibited Buddhism. Scholars, elites, and officials attacked Buddhist doctrine and criticized them as superstitious and useless. The third emperor, Thieu Tri, elevated Confucianism as the true religion and while regarding Buddhism as superstition. Building new Buddhist pagoda and temple were forbidden. Buddhist clergies and nuns were forced to join public works in order to suppress the Buddhism religion, its deities and promote Confucianism as the sole dominant belief of the society. However, such embracing a Sinic Confucian culture among the Vietnamese populace whom lived amidst a Southeast Asian infrastructure, pushed the distance between the population and the court far away. Buddhism still made it prevailed in society and penetrating the royal palace. Empress mother, queens, princess, and concubines were devout Buddhists, despite the patriarchy prohibition.
Confucianism itself was the ideology of the Nguyen court, also provided the basic core of classical education and civil examination every year. Gia Long pursued Confucianism to create and maintain a conservative society and social structures. Confucian rituals and ideas were circulations based within ancient Confucian teaching such as The Analects and Spring and Autumn Annals in Vietnamese-script collections. The court rigidly imported these Chinese books from Chinese merchants. Confucian rituals such as cầu đảo (offering heaven for wind and rain during a drought) that the emperor and court officials perform for wishing heaven to rain down his kingdom. If the offer went successful, they had to conduct lễ tạ (thanksgiving ritual) to heaven. In addition, the emperor believed that holy spirits and natural goddesses of his country can also make rain. In 1804, Gia Long built the Nam Hải Long Vương Temple (Temple of Dragon king of Southern ocean) in Thuận An, northeast of Hue in his faithfulness to the spirit of Thuận An (Thần Thuận An), the place where most of cầu đảo ritual was performed. His successor, Minh Mang, continued to build several temples dedicated to the Vũ Sư (rainmaking goddess) and altars for Thần Mây (Cloud Goddess) and Thần Sấm (Thunder Goddess).
Nguyen Truong To, a prominent Catholic and reformist intellectual, launched an attack on Confucian structures in 1867 as decadent. He wrote to Tu Duc: "the evil that has been brought on China and on our country by the Confucian way of life." He criticized the court's Confucian education as dogmatic and unrealistic, promoted for his education reform.
During Gia Long's years, Catholicism was peacefully worshipped without any restriction. Began with Minh Mạng, who considered Christianity as a heterodox religion for its rejection of ancestor worship, the important belief of the Vietnamese monarchy. After reading the Bible (Old and New Testament), he considered the Christianity religion irrational and ridiculous, and praised Tokugawa Japan for its notorious policies on Christians. Minh Mạng also was influenced by anti-Christian propaganda written by Vietnamese Confucian officials and literati, which described the mixing of men and women and liberal society among the Church. The most thing he worried about Christianity and Catholicism was writing texts that proved that Christianity was a means for Europeans to take over foreign countries. He also praised the anti-Christian policy in Japan. Churches were destroyed and many Christians were imprisoned. The persecution got intense during the reign of his grandson Tu Duc, when most of the state efforts were to annihilate Vietnamese Christianity. Unironically, even during the height of the anti-Catholic campaign, many Catholic scholars were still permitted to hold high positions in the royal court.
After a royal edict in late 1862, Catholicism was officially recognised and worshippers obtained state protection. It is estimated that late-19th century Vietnam had about 600,000 to 700,000 Catholic Christians.
Demography
Before the French conquest, the Vietnamese population was very sparse due to the agricultural backbones economy of the country. The population in 1802 was 6.5 million people and had only grown to 8 million by 1840. Rapid industrialization after the 1860s ushered in massive population growth and rapid urbanization in the late 19th century. Many peasants left tenant farms and poured into cities, they were hired by French-owned factories. By 1880 the Vietnamese were estimated back then as high as 18 million people, while modern estimates by Angus Maddison have suggested a lower figure of 12.2 million people. Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty was always a multiethnic complex. Nearly 80% percent of the Empire's population were ethnic Vietnamese (called Annamites then), whom language belonged to the Mon-Khmer (Mon—Annamite then) stock, and the rest were Cham, Chinese, Khmer, Muong, Tày (called Tho then), and other 50 ethnic minorities such as the Mang, Jarai, Yao.
The Annamites are distributed across the lowland of the country from Tonkin to Cochichina. The Chams live in central Vietnam and the Mekong Delta. The Chinese particularly concentrated in urbanised areas such as Saigon, Cho Lon, and Hanoi. The Chinese tended to be divided into two groups called Minh Hương (明鄉) and Thanh nhân. (清人) The Minh hương were Chinese refugees that had migrated and settled down in Vietnam earlier during the 17th century, who married with Vietnamese women, had been substantially assimilated to local Vietnamese and Khmer populaces, and loyal to the Nguyen, compared to the Thanh nhân that recently arrived in Southern Vietnam, dominated the rice trade. During the reign of Minh Mạng, a restriction against the Thanh nhân was issued in 1827, Thanh nhân could not access to the state bureaucracy and had to be integrated into Vietnamese population like the Minh Hương.
The Muongs inhabited on the hills west of the Red River Delta, although subordinate to the central authority, they were also permitted to bear arms, a privilege not accorded to any other subjects of the court of Hue. The Tay and the Mang live in the northern highlands of Tonkin, both submitted to Hue court along with taxes and tribute, but are allowed to have their hereditary chiefs.
Photography
The first photographs of Vietnam were taken by Jules Itier in Danang, in 1845. The first photos of the Vietnamese were taken by Fedor Jagor in November 1857 in Singapore. Due to the forbidden contact to foreigners, photography returned to Vietnam again during the French conquest and had shots taken by Paul Berranger during the French invasion of Da Nang (September 1858). Since the French seizure of Saigon in 1859, the city and southern Vietnam had been opening to foreigners, and photography entered Vietnam exclusively from France and Europe.
Early photographers active in Vietnam were:
Octave de Bermond de Vaulx (1831–95)
Jules-Félix Apollinaire Le Bas (1834–75)
August Sachtler (?–1874)
John Thomson
Wilhelm Burger (1844–1920)
Émile Gsell (1837–1869)
Commercial studios:
Clément Gillet (fl. 1863–1867)
Charles Parant (fl. 1864)
Pun Lun (f. 1867–1872)
Đặng Huy Trứ's Cam Hieu Duong Photography Shop (fl. 1869–1874)
Pun Ky (f. 1870)
Louis Auguste Gustave Jugant
Noémie Ary-Jouanne (fl. 1877–1881)
Military
Galleries
Imperial family
The House of Nguyễn Phúc (Nguyen Gia Mieu) had historically been founded in the 14th century in Gia Mieu village, Thanh Hoa Province, before they came to rule southern Vietnam from 1558 to 1777, then became the ruling dynasty of the entire Vietnam. Traditionally, the family traces themselves to Nguyễn Bặc (?–979), the first duke of Dai Viet. Princes and male descendants of Gia Long are called Hoàng Thân, while male lineal descendants of previous Nguyen lords are named Tôn Thất. Grandsons of the emperor were Hoàng tôn. Daughters of the emperor were called Hoàng nữ, and always earned the title công chúa (princess).
Their succession practically is according to the law of primogeniture, but sometimes conflicted. The first succession conflict arose in 1816 when Gia Long was designing for an heir. His first prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh died in 1802. As a result, two rival factions emerged, one support Nguyễn Phúc Mỹ Đường, the eldest son of Prince Cảnh, as the crown prince, while other support Prince Đảm (later Minh Mang). The second conflict was the 1847 succession when two young princes Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Bảo and Hồng Nhậm were dragged by the ill-failing Emperor Thieu Tri as a potential heir. At first, Thieu Tri apparently chose Prince Hồng Bảo because he was older, but after hearing advice from two regents Trương Đăng Quế and Nguyễn Tri Phương, he revised the heir at last minute and choose Hồng Nhậm as the crown prince.
Emperors
The following list is the emperors' era names, which have meaning in Chinese and Vietnamese. For example, the first ruler's era name, Gia Long, is the combination of the old names for Saigon (Gia Định) and Hanoi (Thăng Long) to show the new unity of the country; the fourth, Tự Đức, means "Inheritance of Virtues"; the ninth, Đồng Khánh, means "Collective Celebration".
After the death of Emperor Tự Đức (and according to his will), Dục Đức ascended to the throne on 19 July 1883. He was dethroned and imprisoned three days later, after being accused of deleting a paragraph from Tự Đức's will. With no time to announce his dynastic title, his era name was named for his residential palace.
Lineage
Note:
Years are reigning years.
Family tree
Simplified family tree of the Nguyen Phuc dynasty:
- Lords of Cochinchina (1550s–1777)
- Emperors of the independent Vietnamese monarchy (1802–1883)
- Emperors of French Annam and Tonkin/Emperor of Empire of Vietnam (1885–1945)
Succession line
Thiệu Trị (1801-1847)
Tự Đức (1829-1883)
Kiên Thái Vương (1845-1876)
Đồng Khánh (1864-1889)
Khải Định (1885-1925)
Bảo Đại (1913-1997)
Crown Prince Bảo Long (1936-2007)
Prince Bảo Thắng (1943-2017)
Kiến Phúc (1869-1884)
Hàm Nghi (1871-1944)
(1910-1990)
Images of the imperial family
Symbols
Flags
The Nguyễn dynasty's national flag or the Imperial flag first appeared during the reign of Gia Long. It was a yellow flag with a single or three horizontal red stripes, sometimes in 1822, it was entirely blank yellow or white. The emperor's personal flag was a golden dragon spitting fire, surrounded by clouds, a silver moon, and a black crescent on a yellow background.
Seals
The Nguyễn dynasty's seal are rich and diverse in types and had strict rules and laws that regulated their manipulation, management, and use. The common practice of using seals was clearly recorded in the book "Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ" on how to use seals, how to place them, and on what kinds of documents, which was compiled by the Cabinet of the Nguyễn dynasty in the year Minh Mạng 3 (1822). The various types of seals of the Nguyễn dynasty had different names based on their function, namely Bảo (寶), Tỷ (璽), Ấn (印), Chương (章), Ấn chương (印章), Kim bảo tỷ (金寶璽), Quan phòng (關防), Đồ ký (圖記), Kiềm ký (鈐記), Tín ký (信記), Ấn Ký (印記), Trưởng ký (長記), and Ký (記).
Seals in the Nguyễn dynasty were overseen by a pair of agencies referred to as the Office of Ministry Seals Management - Officers on Duty (印司 - 直處, Ấn ty - Trực xứ), this is a term that refers to two agencies which were established within each of the Six Ministries, these agencies were tasked with keeping track of the seals, files, and chapters of their ministry. On duty of the Office of Ministry Seals Management were the correspondents of each individual ministry that received and distributed documents and records of a government agency. These two agencies usually had a few dozen officers who would import documents from their ministry. Usually the name of the ministry is directly attached to the seal agency's name, for example "Office of Civil Affairs Ministry Seals Management - Civil Affairs Ministry Officers on Duty" (吏印司吏直處, Lại Ấn ty Lại Trực xứ).
Since the Nguyễn dynasty period seals have a fairly uniform shape (with or without a handle), the uniform description of these seals in Vietnamese are:
Thân ấn - The geometric block, or body, of the seal.
Núm ấn - The handle for pressing the seal down down on texts. In case the seal is shaped like a pyramid, there is no knob.
Mặt ấn - Where the main content of the seal (symbol or word) is engraved, this area is usually in the face down position. The stamp surface is often used up to engrave letters or drawings.
Lưng ấn - The face of the seal, where other information about the seal is engraved, usually in the supine position. In the case of the flat-head pyramid seal (ấn triện hình tháp đầu bằng), the flat head is the back.
Hình ấn - A word used to indicate the impression of the seal on a text.
Seals were also given to people after they received a noble title. For example, after Léon Louis Sogny received the title of "Baron of An Bình" (安平男) in the year Bảo Đại 14 (保大拾肆年, 1939) he was also given a golden seal and a Kim Bài (金牌) with his noble title on it. The seal had the seal script inscription An Bình Nam chi ấn (安平男之印).
In its 143 years of existence, the government of the Nguyễn dynasty had created more than 100 imperial seals. These imperial seals were made of jade, bronze, silver, gold, ivory, and meteorite.
Sun, moon, auspicious clouds, and the Yin-Yang symbol
Like Imperial China and Royal Korea, the Vietnamese used the sun as the "Symbol of the Empire" and auspicious clouds and the Taijitu as "Symbols of the State". The heraldic systems of both the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties were similar to those found in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The sun symbol as a flaming disc in Vietnam dates back to the 11th century and during the Nguyễn dynasty period this symbol was often depicted with pointed rays. The moon symbolised the state, the sun the empire, stars the sovereigns, and clouds the heaven.
The "Achievement of the Empire" and the "Achievement of the State" were identical to their Imperial Chinese counterparts, the "Achievement of the Empire" first appeared in Vietnam during the 11th century and were identical during the Later Lê and Nguyễn periods consisting of two Dragons surrounding a flaming sun, while the "Achievement of the State" is known to have been as used as early as the Trần dynasty period and this early Trần version consists of two Dragons surrounding a lotus flower (a symbol of Buddhism). During the Nguyễn dynasty period the "Achievement of the State" typically consisted of two dragons surrounding a moon or two dragons surrounding a Taijitu, this symbol was commonly found on the caps of high-ranking mandarins. The two dragons surrounding the moon implies that the emperor, or "sovereign", (represented by the dragons) was also the head of state (represented by either the moon or a Yin-Yang symbol). During the period of French domination (法屬, Pháp thuộc) these symbols could be interpreted as the French National Assembly (that is: the French people) was the sovereign over the Empire (the dragons), the Nguyễn Emperor now merely being the head of state (moon or Yin-Yang symbol). Moons also appeared on the shields of common Nguyễn dynasty soldiers representing the state, while soldiers of the imperial guards sometimes had shields depicting a red sun showcasing that they were a function of the empire.
Dragons
Dragon motifs appeared on many state symbols during the Nguyễn dynasty period including on imperial edicts, coins, buildings, and the badges of the Imperial Guard. During the Minh Mạng period (1820–1841) dragons on silver Tiền coins were often depicted facing dexter (to the right), while during the Thiệu Trị period (1841–1847) and later these coins depicted dragons guardant (facing forwards). Dragons were considered to be one of the four sacred animals together with the Phượng hoàng (Phoenix), Kỳ lân (Unicorn), and the Linh quy (Sacred turtle). During the Nguyễn dynasty period the depiction of dragons in Vietnamese art reached their zenith and the quality and variety of Nguyễn dynasty dragons was much higher than those of earlier dynasties.
In the third month of the year Bính Tý, or Gia Long 15 (1816), Emperor Gia Long instructed the court to create special clothes, hats, and seals for himself and the crown prince to denote independence from China. These regalia all depicted five-clawed dragons (蠪𠄼𤔻, rồng 5 móng), in Chinese symbolism (including Vietnamese symbolism) five-clawed dragons are symbols of an Emperor, while four-clawed dragons are seen as symbols or kings. To denote the high status of Emperor all monarchial robes, hats, and seals were adorned with five-clawed dragons and ordered the creation of new seals with five-clawed dragons as their seal knobs to showcase imperial legitimacy. Meanwhile, the wardrobes and other symbols of vassals and princes were adorned with four-clawed dragons symbolising their status as "kings".
The two national coats of arms of the French protectorate of Annam would also consist of golden dragons with one being a sword per fess charged with a scroll inscribed with two Traditional Chinese characters Đại Nam (大南) and supported by a single Vietnamese dragon and the other being a golden five-clawed dragon positioned affronté.
Gallery of symbols
See also
List of monarchs of Vietnam
Nguyễn Trường Tộ – served Emperor Tự Đức
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Articles
External links
homepage of The Nguyễn Dynasty
States and territories established in 1802
1945 disestablishments in Vietnam
Vietnam, Nguyen Dynasty
Vietnamese independence movement
Former countries in Vietnamese history
Vietnamese dynasties
1802 establishments in Vietnam
Former polities of the interwar period | [
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218864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns%20Hopkins | Johns Hopkins | Johns Hopkins (May 19, 1795 – December 24, 1873) was an American entrepreneur, investor, and philanthropist of Baltimore, Maryland.
His bequests founded numerous institutions bearing his name, most notably Johns Hopkins Hospital, and Johns Hopkins University (including its academic divisions such as Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies). Although historically noted as an abolitionist, recent research indicates that Johns Hopkins may have been a slave owner for at least part of his life.
Early life
Johns Hopkins was born on May 19, 1795. He was one of eleven children born to Samuel Hopkins of Crofton, Maryland, and Hannah Janney, of Loudoun County, Virginia. His home was Whiteshall, a tobacco plantation in Anne Arundel County. His first name was inherited from his grandfather Johns Hopkins, who received his first name when his mother Margaret Johns married Gerard Hopkins.
The Hopkins family were of English descent and members of the Society of Friends (Quakers). They emancipated their slaves in 1778 in accordance with their local Society decree, which called for freeing the able-bodied and caring for the others, who would remain at the plantation and provide labor as they could. The second eldest of eleven children, Johns was required to work on the farm alongside his siblings and indentured and free Black laborers. From 1806 to 1809, he likely attended The Free School of Anne Arundel County, which was located in modern-day Davidsonville, Maryland.
In 1812, at the age of 17, Hopkins left the plantation to work in his uncle Gerard Hopkins' Baltimore wholesale grocery business. While living with his uncle's family, Johns and his cousin, Elizabeth, fell in love; however, the Quaker taboo against marriage of first cousins was especially strong, and neither Johns nor Elizabeth ever married.
As he became able, Hopkins provided for his extended family, both during his life and posthumously through his will. He bequeathed a home for Elizabeth, where she lived until her death in 1889. He also gave $5,000 and a house to his longest serving servant, James Jones.
Whitehall Plantation is located in today's Crofton, Maryland. Its home, since modified, is on Johns Hopkins Road, adjacent to Riedel Road. The heavily landscaped property is surrounded by Walden Golf Course and bears a historic marker.
Business years
Hopkins' early experiences and successes in business came when he was put in charge of the store while his uncle was away during the War of 1812. After seven years with his uncle, Hopkins went into business together with Benjamin Moore, a fellow Quaker. The business partnership was later dissolved with Moore alleging Hopkins' penchant for capital accumulation as the cause for the divide.
After Moore's withdrawal, Hopkins partnered with three of his brothers and established Hopkins & Brothers Wholesalers in 1819. The company prospered by selling various wares in the Shenandoah Valley from Conestoga wagons, sometimes in exchange for corn whiskey, which was then sold in Baltimore as "Hopkins' Best". The bulk of Hopkins' fortune however was made by his judicious investments in myriad ventures, most notably the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), of which he became a director in 1847 and chairman of the Finance Committee in 1855. He was also President of Merchants' Bank as well as director of a number of other organizations. After a successful career, Hopkins was able to retire at the age of 52 in 1847.
A charitable individual, Hopkins put up his own money more than once to not only aid Baltimore City during times of financial crises, but also to twice bail the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad company out of debt, in 1857 and 1873.
In 1996, Johns Hopkins ranked 69th in "The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates - A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present".
Civil War
One of the first campaigns of the American Civil War was planned at Johns Hopkins' summer estate, Clifton, where he had also entertained a number of foreign dignitaries including the future King Edward VII. Hopkins was a strong supporter of the Union, unlike some Marylanders, who sympathized with and often supported the South and the Confederacy. During the Civil War, Clifton became a frequent meeting place for local Union sympathizers, and federal officials.
Hopkins' support of Abraham Lincoln also often put him at odds with some of Maryland's most prominent people, particularly Supreme Court Justice Roger B. Taney, who continually opposed Lincoln's presidential decisions, such as his policies of limiting habeas corpus and stationing troops in Maryland. In 1862 Hopkins wrote a letter to Lincoln requesting the President not to heed the detractors' calls and continue to keep soldiers stationed in Maryland. Hopkins also pledged financial and logistic support to Lincoln, in particular the free use of the B&O railway system.
Abolitionism
In 2020, Johns Hopkins University researchers discovered that Johns Hopkins may have owned or employed enslaved people who worked in his home and on his country estate, citing census records from 1840 and 1850.
Johns Hopkins' reputation as an abolitionist is currently disputed. An email sent from the Johns Hopkins University to all employees on December 9, 2020 stated "The current research done by Martha S. Jones and Allison Seyler finds no evidence to substantiate the description of Johns Hopkins as an abolitionist, and they have explored and brought to light a number of other relevant materials. They have been unable to document the story of Johns Hopkins’ parents freeing enslaved people in 1807, but they have found a partial freeing of enslaved people in 1778 by Johns Hopkins’ grandfather, and also continued slaveholding and transactions involving enslaved persons for decades thereafter. They have looked more closely at an 1838 letter from the Hopkins Brothers (a firm in which Johns Hopkins was a principal) in which an enslaved person is accepted as collateral for a debt owed, and recently located an additional obituary in which Johns Hopkins is described as holding antislavery political views (consistent with the letter conveying his established support for President Lincoln and the Union) and as purchasing an enslaved person for the purpose of securing his eventual freedom. Still other documents contain laudatory comments by Johns Hopkins’ contemporaries, including prominent Black leaders, praising his visionary philanthropic support for the establishment of an orphanage for Black children."
A second group of scholars disputes the university's December 2020 declarations. In a pre-print paper published by the Open Science Framework, these scholars argue that Johns Hopkins’ parents and grandparents were devout Quakers who liberated the family’s enslaved laborers prior to 1800, that Johns Hopkins was an emancipationist who supported the movement to end slavery within the limits of the laws governing Maryland, and that the available documentation, including relevant tax records these researchers have uncovered, does not support the university’s claim that Johns Hopkins was a slaveholder.
Before the discovery of possible slaveholding or employment, Johns Hopkins had been described as being an "abolitionist before the word was even invented", having been represented as such both prior to the Civil War period, as well as during the Civil War and Reconstruction Era. There are several accounts that describe the abolitionist influence Hopkins was privy to as a 12-year-old participant in his parents' emancipation of their family's slaves before 1800. Prior to the Civil War, Johns Hopkins worked closely with two of America's most famous abolitionists, Myrtilla Miner and Henry Ward Beecher. During the Civil War, Johns Hopkins, being a staunch supporter of Lincoln and the Union, was instrumental in bringing fruition to Lincoln's emancipatory vision.
After the Civil War and during Reconstruction, Johns Hopkins' stance on abolitionism infuriated many prominent people in Baltimore. During Reconstruction and up to his death his abolitionism was expressed in the documents founding the Johns Hopkins Institutions, and reported in newspaper articles before, during, and after the founding of these institutions. Before the war, there was significant written opposition to his support for Myrtilla Miner's founding of a school for African American females (now the University of the District of Columbia). In a letter to the editor, one subscriber to the widely circulated De Bow's Review wrote:
Similarly, opposition (and some support) was expressed during Reconstruction, such as in 1867, the same year he filed papers incorporating the Johns Hopkins Institutions, when he attempted unsuccessfully to stop the convening of the Maryland Constitutional Convention where the Democratic Party came into power and where a new state Constitution, the Constitution still in effect, was voted to replace the 1864 Constitution of the Radical Republicans previously in power.
Apparent also in the literature of the times was opposition, and support for, the various other ways he expressed opposition to the racial practices that were beginning to emerge, and re-emerge as well, in the city of Baltimore, the state of Maryland, the nation, and in the posthumously constructed and founded institutions that would carry his name. A Baltimore American journalist praised Hopkins for founding three institutions, a university, a hospital, and an orphan asylum, specifically for colored children, adding that Hopkins was a "man (beyond his times) who knew no race" citing his provisions for both blacks and whites in the plans for his hospital. The reporter also pointed to similarities between Benjamin Franklin's and Johns Hopkins' views on hospital care and construction, such as their shared interest in free hospitals and the availability of emergency services without prejudice. This article, first published in 1870, also accompanied Hopkins' obituary in the Baltimore American as a tribute in 1873. Cited in many of the newspaper articles on him during his lifetime and immediately after his death were his provisions of scholarships for the poor, and quality health services for the under-served without regard to their age, sex, or color, the colored children asylum and other orphanages, and the mentally ill and convalescents.
A biography entitled Johns Hopkins: A Silhouette written by his grand niece, Helen Hopkins Thom, was published in 1929 by the Johns Hopkins University Press. This biography was one source for the story that Hopkins was an abolitionist.
Philanthropy
Living his entire adult life in Baltimore, Hopkins made many friends among the city's social elite, many of them Quakers. One of these friends was George Peabody, who was also born in 1795, and who in 1857 founded the Peabody Institute in Baltimore. Other examples of public giving were evident in the city, as public buildings housing free libraries, schools, and foundations sprang up along the city's widening streets. On the advice of Peabody, some believe, Hopkins determined to use his great wealth for the public good.
The Civil War had taken its toll on Baltimore, however, as did the yellow fever and cholera epidemics that repeatedly ravaged the nation's cities, killing 853 in Baltimore in the summer of 1832 alone. Hopkins was keenly aware of the city's need for medical facilities, particularly in light of the medical advances made during the war, and in 1870 he made a will setting aside seven million dollars — mostly in B&O stock — for the incorporation of a free hospital and affiliated medical and nurse's training colleges, as well as an orphanage for colored children and a university. The hospital and orphan asylum would each be overseen by the 12-member hospital board of trustees, and the university by the 12-member university board of trustees. Many board members were on both boards. Johns Hopkins' bequest was used to posthumously found the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum first as he requested, in 1875; the Johns Hopkins University in 1876; the Johns Hopkins Press, the longest continuously operating academic press in America, in 1878; the Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins School of Nursing in 1889; the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1893; and the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health in 1916.
Johns Hopkins' views on his bequests, and on the duties and responsibilities of the two boards of trustees, especially the hospital board of trustees led by his friend and fellow Quaker Francis King, were formally stated primarily in four documents, the incorporation papers filed in 1867, his instruction letter to the hospital trustees dated March 12, 1873, his will, which was quoted from extensively in his Baltimore Sun obituary, and in his will's two codicils, one dated 1870 and the other dated 1873.
In these documents, Hopkins also made provisions for scholarships to be provided for poor youths in the states where Johns Hopkins had made his wealth, as well as assistance to orphanages other than the one for African American children, to members of his family, to those he employed, black and white, his cousin Elizabeth, and, again, to other institutions for the care and education of youths regardless of color, and the care of the elderly, and the ill, including the mentally ill, and convalescents.
John Rudolph Niernsee, one of the most famous architects of the time, designed the orphan asylum and helped to design the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The original site for the Johns Hopkins University had been chosen personally by Hopkins. According to his will, it was to be located at his summer estate, Clifton. However, a decision was made not to found the university there. The property, now owned by the city of Baltimore, is the site of a golf course and a park named Clifton Park. While the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum was founded by the hospital trustees, the other institutions that carry the name of "Johns Hopkins" were founded under the administration of the first president of the Johns Hopkins University and Johns Hopkins Hospital, Daniel Coit Gilman and his successors.
Colored Children Orphan Asylum
As per Johns Hopkins' instruction letter, the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum (JHCCOA) was founded first, in 1875, a year before Gilman's inauguration, now the founding date of the university. The construction of the asylum, including its educational and living facilities, was praised by The Nation and the Baltimore American, the latter stating that the orphan asylum was a place where "nothing was wanting that could benefit science and humanity". As was done for other Johns Hopkins Institutions, it was planned after visits and correspondence with similar institutions in Europe and America.
The Johns Hopkins Orphan Asylum opened with 24 boys and girls. Under Gilman and his successors, this orphanage was later changed to serve as an orphanage and training school for black female orphans principally as domestic workers, and next as an "orthopedic convalescent" home and school for "colored crippled" children and orphans. The asylum was eventually closed in 1924 nearly fifty years after it opened, and was never reopened.
Hospital, university, press, and schools of nursing and medicine
As per Hopkins' March 1873 Instruction Letter, the school of nursing was founded alongside the hospital in 1889 by the hospital board of trustees in consultation with Florence Nightingale. Both the nursing school and the hospital were founded over a decade after the founding of the orphan asylum in 1875 and the university in 1876. Hopkins' instruction letter explicitly stated his vision for the hospital; first, to provide assistance to the poor of "all races", no matter the indigent patient's "age, sex or color"; second, that wealthier patients would pay for services and thereby subsidize the care provided to the indigent; third, that the hospital would be the administrative unit for the orphan asylum for African American children, which was to receive $25,000 in annual support out of the hospital's half of the endowment; and fourth, that the hospital and orphan asylum should serve 400 patients and 400 children respectively; fifth, that the hospital should be part of the university, and, sixth, that religion but not sectarianism should be an influence in the hospital.
By the end of Gilman's presidency, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Press, Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum had been founded; the latter by the trustees, and the others in the order listed under the Gilman administration. "Sex" and "color" were major issues in the early history of the Johns Hopkins Institutions. The founding of the school of nursing is usually linked to Johns Hopkins' statements in his March 1873 instruction letter to the trustees that: "I desire you to establish, in connection with the hospital, a training school for female nurses. This provision will secure the services of women competent to care for those sick in the hospital wards, and will enable you to benefit the whole community by supplying it with a class of trained and experienced nurses".
Legacy
Hopkins died on December 24, 1873 in Baltimore.
Following Hopkins' death, The Baltimore Sun wrote a lengthy obituary that closed thus: "In the death of Johns Hopkins a career has been closed which affords a rare example of successful energy in individual accumulations, and of practical beneficence in devoting the gains thus acquired to the public." His contribution to the university that has become his greatest legacy was, by all accounts, the largest philanthropic bequest ever made to an American educational institution.
Johns Hopkins' Quaker faith and his early life experiences, in particular the 1778 emancipation, had a lasting influence throughout his life and his posthumous legacy as a businessman, railroad man, banker, investor, ship owner, philanthropist, and a founder of several Institutions. From very early on, Johns Hopkins had looked upon his wealth as a trust to benefit future generations. He is said to have told his gardener that: "like the man in the parable, I have had many talents given to me and I feel they are in trust. I shall not bury them but give them to the lads who long for a wider education"; his philosophy quietly anticipated Andrew Carnegie's much-publicized Gospel of Wealth by more than 25 years.
In 1973, Johns Hopkins was cited prominently in the Pulitzer Prize-winning book The Americans: The Democratic Experience by Daniel Boorstin, former Librarian of Congress. From November 14, 1975, to September 6, 1976, a portrait of Hopkins was displayed at the National Portrait Gallery in an exhibit on the democratization of America based on Boorstin's book. In 1989, the United States Postal Service issued a $1 postage stamp in Johns Hopkins' honor, as part of the Great Americans series.
References
External links
Hopkins Family Papers, Sheridan Libraries, Johns Hopkins University
Thom and Jacob discuss his love for his cousin and Quaker traditions
In his 1887 memoir, Baltimore and the Nineteenth of April, 1861: A Study of the War, George William Brown cites Johns Hopkins as a wealthy Union man in Baltimore, a city with strong Confederate and Southern leanings
In The Chronicles of Baltimore: Being a Complete History of "Baltimore Town" and Baltimore City from the Earliest Period to the Present Time published in 1874, John Thomas Scharf cited the 1873 instruction letter to the hospital trustees and a city council resolution thanking Johns Hopkins for his philanthropy. Thom's biography and New York and Maryland newspapers were sources that published parts or all of this letter
"If He Could See Us Now: Mr. Johns Hopkins' Legacy Strong University, Hospital Benefactor Turned 200 on May 19, 1995" by Mike Field a writer for the Johns Hopkins Gazette. Field, Thom, and Jacob called Johns Hopkins an abolitionist. See also The Racial Record of Johns Hopkins University in the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 25, Autumn, 1999, pp. 42–43/ JSTOR
Johns Hopkins, Maryland State Archives
1795 births
1873 deaths
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century American philanthropists
American abolitionists
American Quakers
Burials at Green Mount Cemetery
Businesspeople from Baltimore
Johns Hopkins University
People from Crofton, Maryland
Quaker abolitionists
University and college founders | [
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218869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard%20Karlgren | Bernhard Karlgren | Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods. In the early 20th century, Karlgren conducted large surveys of the varieties of Chinese and studied historical information on rhyming in ancient Chinese poetry, then used them to create the first ever complete reconstructions of what is now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese.
Early life and education
Bernhard Karlgren was born on 15 October 1889 in Jönköping, Sweden. His father, Johannes Karlgren, taught Latin, Greek, and Swedish at the local high school. Karlgren showed ability in linguistics from a young age, and was interested in Sweden's dialects and traditional folk stories. He mastered classical languages and was an accomplished translator of Greek poetry into his native language. He displayed an early interest in China, and wrote a drama, The White Hind, set in that country in his early teens. His first scholarly article, a phonetic transcription, based on a system devised by Johan August Lundell, of traditional folk stories from his native province of Småland, was completed when he was 14. and published in 1908 when he was only 18 years old. He studied Russian at Uppsala University under Johan August Lundell, a Slavicist interested in comparative linguistics. He graduated in 1909 with a bachelor's degree in Nordic, Greek, and Slavonic languages. Although he initially intended to specialize in the Scandinavian languages, on the advice of his elder brother Anton Karlgren (18821973) he decided to focus on Chinese instead, attracted to it also by the fact that, as Lundell had told him, Chinese contained a great number of dialects. He departed for St. Petersburg, which, under the guidance of Vasily Vasilyev, had created one of the major European centres for the study of Chinese. While there, Karlgren, studying under A. I. Ivanov, won a grant to study Chinese dialects, even though he had no background in Chinese at that point.
Karlgren lived in China from 1910 to 1912. He achieved basic fluency and literacy after only a few months of study, and prepared a questionnaire of 3,100 Chinese characters to gather information on Chinese dialects. After his grant money ran out, Karlgren supported himself by teaching French and, famously, English, which, according to one anecdote, he had never been taught but had picked up from English-speaking passengers on the ship from Europe to China. In fact he had received a high credit in English in his final High School exams. He eventually gathered data on 19 different Mandarin dialects, as well as Shanghainese, the Fuzhou dialect of Eastern Min, and Cantonese, plus the Vietnamese and Japanese pronunciations of the characters in his questionnaire.
Career
Karlgren returned to Europe in January 1912, first staying in London, then in Paris, before arriving in Uppsala, where in 1915 he produced his doctoral dissertation, "Études sur la phonologie chinoise" ("Studies on Chinese Phonology"). Although his dissertation was written in French, most of his subsequent scholarly works were in English. After obtaining his doctorate, Karlgren taught at the University of Gothenburg, serving as its rector from 1931 to 1936.
In 1939, Karlgren succeeded Johan Gunnar Andersson as director of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Östasiatiska Museet), a post he held until 1959. This public museum was founded in 1926 on Andersson's pioneering discoveries of prehistoric archaeology made in China in the 1920s, and later expanded to cover later periods as well as other parts of Asia. Karlgren had been in close contact with Andersson for many years, and also succeeded Andersson as editor of the museum's journal, the Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (BMFEA, 1929–) and continued in this position until the 1970s. Karlgren himself first published many of his own major works in this annual journal, or as books in the monograph series of the museum.
In 1946, Karlgren began a far-reaching attack on the then rather loosely argued historiography of ancient China. Reviewing the literature on China's pre-Han history in his article Legends and Cults in Ancient China, he pointed out that "a common feature to most of these treatises is a curious lack of critical method in the handling of the material". In particular, Karlgren criticised the unselective use of documents from different ages when reconstructing China's ancient history. "In this way very full and detailed accounts have been arrived at—but accounts that are indeed caricatures of scientifically established ones."
In 1950, Karlgren was inducted into the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death and legacy
Karlgren died on 20 October 1978 in Stockholm at age 89.
Karlgren was the first scholar to use European-style principles of historical linguistics to study the Chinese language. He was also the first one to reconstruct the sounds of what is now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (what he called "Ancient Chinese" and "Archaic Chinese" respectively). Karlgren suggested that at the very earliest stage recoverable, the personal pronouns were declined for case.
Karlgren attempted to unearth Chinese history itself from its linguistic development and diffusion. As he writes in his English adaptation Sound and Symbol in Chinese (1923), Chapter I: "Thus, though Chinese traditions give no hint whatever of an immigration from any foreign country, and though there consequently is no external chronological point d'appui, we are nonetheless able to state, from internal evidence, that the Chinese tradition which places the reign of the emperor Yao in the twenty-fourth century B.C. is correct; that the Chinese even in those remote times were skilled astronomers; that they put down in writing in the Chinese language records of memorable events, and in all probability wrote their accounts soon after the events; in short, that a well-developed Chinese civilization—resting undoubtedly on foundations many centuries old—together with the Chinese language, existed on Chinese soil two thousand years before Christ."
Although important as a pioneer of historical Chinese linguistics, Karlgren's original findings have been surpassed. Today the phonological systems proposed by Karlgren have largely been superseded, as their weaknesses are obvious: "Karlgren saw himself as reconstructing phonetics, not phonology, and paid little attention to phonological structure. As a result, the systems he reconstructed often lack the symmetry and pattern which are in the phonological systems of natural languages." Nevertheless, Karlgren's groundbreaking works laid the foundation of modern Chinese historical linguistics and many of his works are still used as works of reference.
Awards and decorations
Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star (23 November 1961)
Selected works
adapted as Sound and symbol in Chinese, London: Oxford University Press, 1923. Reprinted 2007: Toronto: Global Language Press, .
Reprinted by Dover Publications, .
In Swedish he published numerous popular works on Chinese language, culture and history. In the 1940s, he published three novels under the pen name Klas Gullman.
See also
Grammata Serica Recensa
Karlgren–Li reconstruction of Middle Chinese
Notes
Footnotes
Works cited
Translation of Göran Malmqvist, Bernhard Karlgren: ett forskarporträtt [Bernhard Karlgren: Portrait of a Scholar], Stockholm: Norstedts. 1995.
1889 births
1978 deaths
People from Jönköping
Swedish sinologists
Linguists from Sweden
Historical linguists
Uppsala University alumni
University of Gothenburg faculty
Rectors of the University of Gothenburg
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Paleolinguists
20th-century linguists
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star | [
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218871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsbury%27s%20Laws%20of%20England | Halsbury's Laws of England | Halsbury's Laws of England is a uniquely comprehensive encyclopaedia of law, and provides the only complete narrative statement of law in England and Wales. It has an alphabetised title scheme covering all areas of law, drawing on authorities including Acts of the United Kingdom, Measures of the Welsh Assembly, UK case law and European law. It is written by or in consultation with experts in the relevant field.
Halsbury's Laws has an annual and monthly updating service. The encyclopaedia and updates are available in both hard copy and online with some content available for free online.
History
In 1907 Stanley Shaw Bond, editor at Butterworths, began a project to produce a complete statement of the law of England and Wales that was authoritative, comprehensive and up-to-date. Bond tracked down the former Lord Chancellor, The Earl of Halsbury, on holiday in Nice to invite him to be the editor-in-chief of The Laws of England.
Traditionally, the role of editor-in-chief of Halsbury's Laws is held by a former Lord Chancellor, and the current incumbent is Lord Mackay of Clashfern.
In 2007, Halsbury's Laws celebrated its centenary with an evening of seminars led by Lord Mackay of Clashfern and professor Richard Susskind, and the publication of a collection of centenary essays.
First edition
The first edition was published in 31 volumes from 1907 to 1917. Since then, new editions have been launched at intervals of about 20 to 30 years.
Volume 1 was published in 1907. Its articles run from action to bankers and banking. The volume deals with action, admiralty, agency, agriculture, aliens, allotments, animals, arbitration, auction, bailment and bankers and banking.
Volume 2 was published in 1908. Its articles run from bankruptcy to bills of exchange. It contains but four treatises, upon bankruptcy and insolvency (335 pages), barristers (67 pages), bastardy (28 pages) and bills of exchange, promissory notes and negotiable instruments (124 pages).
Volume 5 (companies) is devoted entirely to company law, and forms a treatise of 768 pages on that subject. After a general consideration of the nature and domicile of companies, the work considers briefly the history of company legislation. Then follows an elaborate treatise on the Companies Act 1908. Special companies, like banking, insurance and public service companies, are considered; as well as chartered companies, the livery companies of the city of London, quasi-corporations, and illegal companies; and a few pages are devoted to foreign companies. The reviewer in the Harvard Law Review thought the table of cases cited must contain at least five thousand cases. He said the importance of this treatise was at once apparent; and that to the commercial lawyer in the Eastern cities of the United States it would be exceedingly useful.
The articles in volume 11 run from descent to ecclesiastical law. It contains a short article on descent and distribution; a discussion of discovery, inspection and interrogatories, under the English practice; an elaborate article on distress; an article on easements and profits, which the Harvard Law Review said was the most interesting article in the volume to an American lawyer; and an elaborate disquisition on ecclesiastical law.
The articles in volume 12 run from education to electric lighting and power. The Harvard Law Review said that the articles on education and elections had comparatively little value to the American bar, but the hundred pages devoted to electric lighting and power were useful.
Volume 20 was published in 1911. Its articles run from markets to misrepresentation. It contains articles on markets and fairs (59 pages), master and servant (221 pages), medicine and pharmacy (82 pages), the Metropolis (106 pages), mines, minerals and quarries (156 pages) and misrepresentation and fraud (110 pages). According to the Harvard Law Review, the article on master and servant was of constant interest to an American lawyer; and that on misrepresentation and fraud, from the master hand of G Spencer Bower, was a valuable treatise in itself.
Volume 21 was published in 1912. Its articles run from mistake to partition. It contains articles on mistake (34 pages), money and money lending (29 pages), mortgage (283 pages), negligence (134 pages), notaries (9 pages), nuisance (72 pages), Parliament (197 pages) and partition (59 pages). The Harvard Law Review said that the standard set by the preceding volumes appeared to be maintained and that the series, up to this volume, was a collection of very admirable treatises on English law.
Second, third and fourth editions
The second edition was published in 37 volumes from 1932 to 1941. The editor-in-chief was Viscount Hailsham. The managing editor was Sir Roland Burrows. The second edition of volume 5 was published in 1949. The second and subsequent editions of the encyclopaedia took the name of the said Earl of Halsbury.
The third edition was published in 43 volumes from 1952 to 1964. The general editor was Lord Simonds.
The fourth edition was published in 56 volumes from 1973 to 1987. The editor-in-chief was Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone. The editor-in-chief of volumes reissued from August 1998 onwards was Lord Mackay of Clashfern.
Fifth edition
Publication of the fifth edition began in 2008 and is being published in 103 volumes. It will have a new title scheme, a new updating service, and improved integration of European law. New titles for the fifth edition include, Sports Law, Information Technology Law, Financial Services and Institutions, Judicial Review and Environmental Quality and Public Health.
Halsbury Legal Awards
The Halsbury Legal Awards debuted in 2013. They celebrate the value that people in law bring to society. The theme of the awards is: "The Whole of the law. Connected.
The awards recognise the achievements and talents of individuals and teams across the entire legal sector. The Bar, legal practice, in-house counsel, academia and legal journalism are all recognised, as are contribution to the promotion, growth and value of the sector.
Halsbury Awards
The Halsbury Awards, in association with the British and Irish Association of Law Librarians, were sponsored by Halsbury's Laws from 2007-2012. They recognise outstanding performance given by legal information services, law libraries and teams managing legal collections and resources.
Related publications
Halsbury's Laws of Australia
Halsbury's Laws of Canada
Halsbury's Laws of Singapore
Halsbury's Laws of Malaysia
Halsbury's Laws of Hong Kong
Halsbury's Laws of India
Halsbury's Laws of New Zealand
The Laws of Scotland: Stair Memorial Encyclopaedia
See also
Halsbury's Statutes
Halsbury's Statutory Instruments
Is it in Force?
Destination Tables
LexisNexis Butterworths
Bibliography
Marke, J J. A Catalogue of the Law Collection at New York University. New York University. 1953.
External links
Volume I - 1907 - Action to Bankers and Banking
Volume II - 1908 - Bankruptcy and Insolvency to Bills of Exchange
Volume III - 1908 - Bills of Sale to Burial and Cremation
Volume IV - 1908 - Carriers to Commons and Rights of Common
Volume V - 1910 - Companies
Volume VI - 1909 - Compulsory Purchase of Land and Compensation to Constitutional Law (Parts I - V)
Volume VII - 1909 - Constitutional Law (Part VI to End) to Contract
Volume VIII - 1909 - Copyholds to County Court
Volume IX - 1909 - Courts to Criminal Law and Procedure
Volume X - 1909 - Crown Practice to Dependencies and Colonies
Volume XI - 1910 - Descent and Distribution to Ecclesiastical Law
Volume XII - 1910 - Education to Electric Lighting and Power
Volume XIII - 1910 - Equity to Evidence
Volume XIV - 1910 - Execution to Fisheries
Volume XV - 1911 - Food and Drugs to Guarantee
Volume XVI - 1911 - Highways, Streets, and Bridges to Income Tax
Volume XVII - 1911 - Industrial, Provident and Similar Societies to Interpleader
Volume XVIII - 1911 - Intoxicating Liquors to Libel and Slander
Volume XIX - 1911 - Lien to Malicious Prosecution and Procedure
Volume XX - 1911 - Markets and Fairs to Misrepresentation and Fraud
Volume XXI - 1912 - Mistake to Partition
Volume XXII - 1912 - Partnership to Post Office
Volume XXIII - 1912 - Powers to Railways and Canals
Volume XXIV - 1912 - Rates and Rating to Revenue
Volume XXV - 1913 - Royal Forces to Sheriffs and Bailiffs
Volume XXVI - 1914 - Shipping and Navigation to Solicitors
Volume XXVII - 1913 - Specific Performance to Trover and Detinue
Volume XXVIII - 1914 - Trusts and Trustees to Work and Labour
Volume XXIX - 1915 - Consolidated Table of Cases
Volume XXX - 1917 - General Index - A-L
Volume XXXI - 1917 - General Index - M-Z
Supplement No. 21 - 1931 - Bringing the Work up to 1931
References
English law
Encyclopedias of law
British encyclopedias
1907 non-fiction books
1932 non-fiction books
1952 non-fiction books
1973 non-fiction books
2008 non-fiction books
20th-century encyclopedias
21st-century encyclopedias | [
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218873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns%20Hopkins%20Hospital | Johns Hopkins Hospital | The Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) is the teaching hospital and biomedical research facility of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. It was founded in 1889 using money from a bequest of over $7 million (1873 money, worth 134.7 million dollars in 2016) by city merchant, banker/financier, civic leader and philanthropist Johns Hopkins (1795–1873). Johns Hopkins Hospital and its school of medicine are considered to be the founding institutions of modern American medicine and the birthplace of numerous famous medical traditions including rounds, residents and house staff. Many medical specialties were formed at the hospital including neurosurgery, by Harvey Cushing and Walter Dandy; cardiac surgery by Alfred Blalock; and child psychiatry, by Leo Kanner. Attached to the hospital is the Johns Hopkins Children’s Center which serves infants, children, teens, and young adults aged 0–21.
Johns Hopkins Hospital is widely regarded as one of the world's greatest hospitals and medical institutions. It was ranked by U.S. News & World Report news magazine as the best overall hospital in America for 21 consecutive years (1991–2011). In 2019–2020, U.S. News & World Report ranked the hospital on 15 adult specialties and 10 children's specialties; the hospital came in 1st in Maryland and 3rd nationally behind the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota and Mass General in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2021 the hospital marked 32 consecutive years of placing in the top 5 hospitals in the nation.
Beginnings
Johns Hopkins, (1795–1873), a Baltimore merchant and banker, left an estate of approximately $7 million (US$134.07 million in 2016) when he died on Christmas Eve, December 24, 1873, in his city mansion on West Saratoga Street, just west of North Charles Street, at the age of 78. In his will, he asked that his fortune be used to found two institutions that would bear his name: "Johns Hopkins University" and "The Johns Hopkins Hospital." At the time that it was made, Hopkins's gift was the largest philanthropic bequest in the history of the United States.
Toward the end of his life, Hopkins selected 12 prominent Baltimoreans to be the trustees for the project and a year before his death, sent a letter telling them that he was giving "thirteen acres of land, situated in the city of Baltimore, and bounded by Broadway, Wolfe, Monument, and Jefferson streets upon which I desire you to erect a hospital." He wished for a hospital "which shall, in construction and arrangement, compare favorably with any other institution of like character in this country or in Europe" and directed his trustees to "secure for the service of the Hospital, physicians and surgeons of the highest character and greatest skill."
Most importantly, Hopkins told the trustees to "bear constantly in mind that it is my wish and purpose that the hospital shall ultimately form a part of the Medical School of that university for which I have made ample provision in my will." By calling for this integral relationship between patient care, as embodied in the hospital, and teaching and research, as embodied in the university, Hopkins laid the groundwork for a revolution in American medicine. Johns Hopkins' vision, of two institutions in which the practice of medicine would be wedded to medical research and medical education was nothing short of revolutionary.
Initial plans for the hospital were drafted by surgeon John Shaw Billings, and the architecture designed by John Rudolph Niernsee and completed by Edward Clarke Cabot of the Boston firm of Cabot and Chandler in a Queen Anne style. When completed in 1889 at a cost of $2,050,000 (US$50.8 million in 2016), the hospital included what was then state-of-the-art concepts in heating and ventilation to check the spread of disease.
The trustees obtained the services of four outstanding physicians, known as the "Big Four," to serve as the founding staff of the hospital when it opened on May 7, 1889. They were pathologist William Henry Welch, surgeon William Stewart Halsted, internist William Osler, and gynecologist Howard Atwood Kelly.
In 1893, Johns Hopkins University was one of the first medical schools to admit women. The decision to begin coeducation was a result of a shortage of funds, as the B&O Railroad stock that was supposed to cover cost was used up in building the hospital in 1889 and the medical school had not yet been built. Four of the original trustees’ daughters offered to raise the money needed to open the school, but only if the school agreed to admit qualified women to the university. After several discussions, the trustees agreed to their terms and accepted the financial help of these four women, with only one of the doctors, William Henry Welch resisting. Eventually, even Welch changed his views on coeducation, "The necessity for coeducation in some form," he wrote later, "becomes more evident the higher the character of the education. In no form of education is this more evident than in that of medicine ... we regard coeducation a success; those of us who were not enthusiastic at the beginning are now sympathetic and friendly."
Osler, the first chief of the Department of Medicine, is credited with originating the idea of a residency, whereby recently graduated doctors receive advanced training in their specialty while treating patients under supervision; then as now, residents comprise most of the medical staff of the hospital. He also introduced the idea of bringing medical students into actual patient care early in their training; at the time medical school consisted almost entirely of lectures. Osler's contribution to practical education extends to the creation of "grand rounds", the practice of leading physicians discussing the most difficult cases in front of assembled medical students, for the benefit of patients and students. The term “rounds” derives from the circular ward where bedside teaching occurred. He once said he hoped his tombstone would say only, "He brought medical students into the wards for bedside teaching."
Halsted, the first chief of the Department of Surgery, established many other medical and surgical achievements at Johns Hopkins including modern surgical principles of control of bleeding, accurate anatomical dissection, complete sterility, and the first radical mastectomy for breast cancer (before this time, such a diagnosis was a virtual death sentence). His other achievements included the introduction of the surgical glove and advances in thyroid, biliary tree, hernia, intestinal and arterial aneurysm surgeries. Halsted also established the first formal surgical residency training program in the United States.
Kelly is credited with establishing gynecology as a true medical specialty. He created new surgical approaches to women's diseases and invented numerous medical devices, including a urinary cystoscope. He was one of the first to use radium to treat cancer.
Welch was responsible for training many of the outstanding physicians of the day, such as Walter Reed. He also founded at Hopkins the nation's first Public Health school, now known as the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
A familiar sight at the hospital is the marble statue Christus Consolator (or "Christ, The Divine Healer") in the rotunda of the Billings Administration Building.The gift of a Baltimore merchant, William Wallace Spence, it is a replica of the original by Danish sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen in Copenhagen, Denmark. Unveiled in 1896, it brings comfort to many, the hospital has said.
In 1903, Harriet Lane Johnston left a sum of over $400,000 at her death in 1903 to establish the Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children as a memorial to two sons who had died in childhood. In October 1912 the Harriet Lane Home officially opened. It was the first children's clinic in the United States that was associated with a medical school, first run by John Howland. Eventually treating over 60,000 children a year, the Harriet Lane Home became a pioneer treatment, teaching, and research clinic, and the first to have subspecialties in pediatrics as created by Edwards A. Park. From 1930 to 1963 Helen Taussig, who helped to develop the blue baby operation, headed the pediatric cardiac clinic. Child psychiatrist Leo Kanner did studies of autistic children. Lawson Wilkins established an endocrine clinic that developed procedures used universally to treat children with certain glandular disorders, including dwarfism. John E. Bordley and William G. Hardy made strides in detecting hearing impairments in very young children.
In 1912, Diamond Jim Brady donated $220,000 to the hospital, which created the James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute.
Ophthalmologist William Holland Wilmer opened the Wilmer Eye Institute in 1925, its home was completed four years later. Wilmer received an M.D. degree from the University of Virginia in 1885 and worked in New York, Washington D.C., in addition to Baltimore, where he established the institute.
Achievements
Medical achievements at Johns Hopkins include the first male-to-female sex reassignment surgery in the United States that took place in 1966 at the Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic. Two of the most far-reaching advances in medicine during the last 25 years were also made at Hopkins. First, the Nobel Prize-winning discovery of restriction enzymes gave birth to the genetic engineering industry. Second, the discovery of the brain's natural opiates has triggered an explosion of interest in neurotransmitter pathways and functions. Other accomplishments include the development of HeLa, by George Otto Gey, head of tissue culture research in 1951; the first and arguably most important line of human cells grown in culture; identification of the three types of polio virus; and the first "blue baby" operation, which was done by surgeon Alfred Blalock in collaboration with Helen Taussig, a female Hopkins graduate specializing in pediatric cardiology and surgical technician Vivien Thomas which opened the way to modern heart surgery. Contributions to heart surgery were brought on by the discovery of heparin and the Blalock-Thomas-Taussig Shunt. Johns Hopkins has also published The Harriet Lane Handbook, an indispensable tool for pediatricians, for over 60 years.
Operations
The hospital occupies approximately 20 of the 60 buildings on the Johns Hopkins Medical Campus. The complex has over 80 entrances and receives 80,000 visitors weekly. It houses over 1,000 beds and has a staff of over 1,700 doctors with over 30,000 total employees.
From 1982 to 1992, then CEO Robert Heyssel established the hospital's first Oncology Center, the Nelson Patient Tower, the Clayton Heart Center and the Johns Hopkins Outpatient Center which bears Heyssel's name. In May 2012, the Johns Hopkins Hospital opened two new towers as part of a major campus redevelopment effort. The opening of the new $1.1 billion Charlotte R. Bloomberg Children's Center tower and the new Sheikh Zayed Tower marked the highpoint of this effort. In addition to the main hospital, the system operates four other hospitals and several outpatient care facilities in the Baltimore and Washington metro areas and All Children's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida. In May, 2019, the hospital completed an $80 million expansion project at its Green Spring Station campus in Brooklandville, Maryland, offering out-patient surgery, imaging, and oncology treatment at the 3-story, Pavilion III.
Johns Hopkins also provides remote consultations worldwide through the Grand Rounds platform, and uses the same platform to help patients find the ideal specialist for their unique needs.
Johns Hopkins Children’s Center
Johns Hopkins Children’s Center (JHCC) is a nationally ranked, pediatric acute care children's teaching hospital located in Baltimore, Maryland, adjacent to Johns Hopkins Hospital. The hospital has 196 pediatric beds and is affiliated the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. The hospital is the flagship pediatric member of Johns Hopkins Medicine and is 1 of 2 children's hospital in the network. The hospital provides comprehensive pediatric specialties and subspecialties to infants, children, teens, and young adults aged 0–21 throughout Baltimore and the wider United States. Johns Hopkins Children’s Center also sometimes treats adults that require pediatric care. Johns Hopkins Children’s Center also features one of the only ACS verified Level 1 Pediatric Trauma Centers in the state. The hospital is directly attached to Johns Hopkins Hospital and is situated near the Ronald McDonald House of Maryland.
Rankings
The Johns Hopkins Hospital was ranked as the top overall hospital in the United States for 21 consecutive years by U.S. News & World Report until 2012, when it moved to 2nd place behind the rise of the Massachusetts General Hospital. In 2013, it was reinstated as the top hospital in the United States. In the 2016-2017 Best Hospitals edition, Johns Hopkins ranks 3rd nationally.
Leadership
Paul B. Rothman is the Frances Watt Baker, M.D., and Lenox D. Baker Jr., M.D. Dean of the Medical Faculty, vice president for medicine of The Johns Hopkins University, and CEO of Johns Hopkins Medicine. He is the 14th dean of the School of Medicine and the second CEO of Johns Hopkins Medicine.
As dean and CEO, Rothman oversees both the Johns Hopkins Health System and the School of Medicine. He came to Hopkins in July 2012 after having served as dean of the Carver College of Medicine at the University of Iowa.
Notable deaths
Henrietta Lacks
Elijah Cummings
See also
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
Johns Hopkins University
Hopkins television series
Medical centers in the United States
References
Further reading
External links
The Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health System website
Johns Hopkins Medicine website
Baltimore, Maryland, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Johns Hopkins Hospital on Google Street View
C-SPAN Q&A interview with Ronald Peterson about Johns Hopkins Hospital, January 9, 2005
Teaching hospitals in Maryland
Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
Johns Hopkins University
Hospitals in Baltimore
Hospital buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Baltimore
Hospital buildings completed in 1889
Hospitals established in 1889
Voluntary hospitals
1889 establishments in Maryland | [
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218874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification%20%28law%29 | Codification (law) | In law, codification is the process of collecting and restating the law of a jurisdiction in certain areas, usually by subject, forming a legal code, i.e. a codex (book) of law.
Codification is one of the defining features of civil law jurisdictions. In common law systems, such as that of English law, codification is the process of converting and consolidating judge-made law into statute law.
History
Ancient Sumer's Code of Ur-Nammu was compiled circa 2050–1230 BC, and is the earliest known surviving civil code. Three centuries later, the Babylonian king Hammurabi enacted the set of laws named after him.
In the World first religious law Sharia introduced by Prophet Mohammed called as an Islamic Law or Sharia't. Islamic laws are adopted by Ancient Arabia. The first use of civil codes from Islamic Sharia law in some Islamic ruled part of an Asia began by the Ottoman Empire 19th century AD.
Some law such Halakha, important codifications were developed in the ancient Roman Empire, with the compilations of the Lex Duodecim Tabularum and much later the Corpus Juris Civilis. These codified laws were the exceptions rather than the rule, however, as during much of ancient times Roman laws were left mostly uncodified.
Upon confederation, the Haudenosaunee created constitutional wampum, each component symbolizing one of the many laws within the 117 articles. The union of the five original nations occurred in 1142 C.E., the unification narrative of which serves the basis for the Iroquois laws.
The first permanent system of codified laws could be found in imperial China , with the compilation of the Tang Code in AD 624. This formed the basis of the Chinese criminal code, which was eventually replaced by the Great Qing Legal Code, which was in turn abolished in 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China. The new laws of the Republic of China were inspired by the German codified work, the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. A very influential example in Europe was the French Napoleonic code of 1804.
Civil law jurisdictions
Civil law jurisdictions rely, by definition, on codification. A notable early example were the Statutes of Lithuania, in the 16th century. The movement towards codification gained momentum during the Enlightenment, and was implemented in several European countries during the late 18th century (see civil code). However, it only became widespread after the enactment of the French Napoleonic Code (1804), which has heavily influenced the legal systems of many other countries.
Common law jurisdictions
Common law has been codified in many jurisdictions and in many areas of law: examples include criminal codes in many jurisdictions, and include the California Civil Code and the Consolidated Laws of New York (New York State).
England and Wales
The English judge Sir Mackenzie Chalmers is renowned as the draftsman of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the Sale of Goods Act 1893 and the Marine Insurance Act 1906, all of which codified existing common law principles. The Sale of Goods Act was repealed and re-enacted by the Sale of Goods Act 1979 in a manner that revealed how sound the 1893 original had been. The Marine Insurance Act (mildly amended) has been a notable success, adopted verbatim in many common law jurisdictions.
Most of England's criminal laws have been codified, partly because this enables precision and certainty in prosecution. However, large areas of the common law, such as the law of contract and the law of tort remain remarkably untouched. In the last 80 years there have been statutes that address immediate problems, such as the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943 (which, inter alia, coped with contracts rendered void by war), and the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, which amended the doctrine of privity. However, there has been no progress on the adoption of Harvey McGregor's Contract Code (1993), even though the Law Commission, together with the Scots Law Commission, asked him to produce a proposal for the comprehensive codification and unification of the contract law of England and Scotland. Similarly, codification in the law of tort has been at best piecemeal, a rare example of progress being the Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945.
Consolidation bills are routinely passed to organize the law.
United States
In the United States, acts of Congress, such as federal statutes, are published chronologically in the order in which they become law – often by being signed by the President, on an individual basis in official pamphlets called "slip laws", and are grouped together in official bound book form, also chronologically, as "session laws". The "session law" publication for Federal statutes is called the United States Statutes at Large. A given act may be a single page or hundreds of pages in length. An act may be classified as either a "Public Law" or a "Private Law".
Because each Congressional act may contain laws on a variety of topics, many acts, or portions thereof, are also rearranged and published in a topical, subject matter codification by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel. The official codification of Federal statutes is called the United States Code. Generally, only "Public Laws" are codified. The United States Code is divided into "titles" (based on overall topics) numbered 1 through 54. Title 18, for example, contains many of the Federal criminal statutes. Title 26 is the Internal Revenue Code.
Even in code form, however, many statutes by their nature pertain to more than one topic. For example, the statute making tax evasion a felony pertains to both criminal law and tax law, but is found only in the Internal Revenue Code. Other statutes pertaining to taxation are found not in the Internal Revenue Code but instead, for example, in the Bankruptcy Code in Title 11 of the United States Code, or the Judiciary Code in Title 28. Another example is the national minimum drinking age, not found in Title 27, Intoxicating liquors, but in Title 23, Highways, §158.
Further, portions of some Congressional acts, such as the provisions for the effective dates of amendments to codified laws, are themselves not codified at all. These statutes may be found by referring to the acts as published in "slip law" and "session law" form. However, commercial publications that specialize in legal materials often arrange and print the uncodified statutes with the codes to which they pertain.
In the United States, the individual states, either officially or through private commercial publishers, generally follow the same three-part model for the publication of their own statutes: slip law, session law, and codification.
Rules and regulations that are promulgated by agencies of the Executive Branch of the United States Federal Government are codified as the Code of Federal Regulations. These regulations are authorized by specific legislation passed by the legislative branch, and generally have the same force as statutory law.
International law codification
Following the First World War and the establishment of the League of Nations, the need for codification of international law arose. In September 1924, the General Assembly of the League established a committee of experts for the purpose of codification of international law, which was defined by the Assembly as consisting of two aspects:
Putting existing customs into written international agreements
Developing further rules
In 1930 the League of Nations held at the Hague a conference for the purpose of codification of rules on general matters, but very little progress was made.
Following the Second World War, the International Law Commission was established within the United Nations as a permanent body for the formulation of principles in international law.
Canon law codification
Papal attempts at codification of the scattered mass of canon law spanned the eight centuries since Gratian produced his Decretum c. 1150. In the 13th century especially canon law became the object of scientific study, and different compilations were made by the Roman Pontiffs. The most important of these were the five books of the Decretales Gregorii IX and the Liber Sextus of Boniface VIII. The legislation grew with time. Some of it became obsolete, and contradictions crept in so that it became difficult in recent times to discover what was of obligation and where to find the law on a particular question.
Since the close of the ‘’Corpus Juris’’ numerous new laws and decrees had been issued by popes, councils, and Roman Congregations. No complete collection of them had ever been published and they remained scattered through the ponderous volumes of the ‘’Bullaria’’ the ‘’Acta Sanctae Sedis’’, and other such compilations, which were accessible to only a few and for professional canonists themselves and formed an unwieldy mass of legal material. Moreover, not a few ordinances, whether included in the ‘’Corpus Juris’’ or of more recent date, appeared to be contradictory; some had been formally abrogated, others had become obsolete by long disuse; others, again, had ceased to be useful or applicable in the present condition of society. Great confusion was thus engendered and correct knowledge of the law rendered very difficult even for those who had to enforce it.
When the Vatican Council met in 1869 a number of bishops of different countries petitioned for a new compilation of church law that would be clear and easily studied. The council never finished its work and no attempt was made to bring the legislation up to date. By the 19th Century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms. Many of these were difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. In response to the request of the bishops at the First Vatican Council, on 14 May 1904, with the motu proprio Arduum sane munus ("A Truly Arduous Task"), Pope Pius X set up a commission to begin reducing these diverse documents into a single code, presenting the normative portion in the form of systematic short canons shorn of the preliminary considerations ("Whereas...") and omitting those parts that had been superseded by later developments.
By the winter of 1912, the "whole span of the code" had been completed, so that a provisional text was printed. This 1912 text was sent out to all Latin bishops and superiors general for their comment, and their notations which they sent back to the codification commission were subsequently printed and distributed to all members of the commission, in order that the members might carefully consider the suggestions. The new code was completed in 1916. Under the aegis of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, Pius X's successor, who promulgated it on 27 May 1917 as the Code of Canon Law () and set 19 May 1918 as the date on which it came into force. In its preparation centuries of material were examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other codes, from the Codex of Justinian to the Napoleonic Code. It contained 2,414 canons and was in force until Canon 6 §1 1° of the 1983 Code of Canon Law took legal effect—thereby abrogating it—on 27 November 1983.
Recodification
Recodification refers to a process where existing codified statutes are reformatted and rewritten into a new codified structure. This is often necessary as, over time, the legislative process of amending statutes and the legal process of construing statutes by nature over time results in a code that contains archaic terms, superseded text, and redundant or conflicting statutes. Due to the size of a typical government code, the legislative process of recodification of a code can often take a decade or longer.
Notes
References
Law reform | [
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218875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mysterious%20Affair%20at%20Styles | The Mysterious Affair at Styles | The Mysterious Affair at Styles is a detective novel by British writer Agatha Christie. It was written in the middle of the First World War, in 1916, and first published by John Lane in the United States in October 1920 and in the United Kingdom by The Bodley Head (John Lane's UK company) on 21 January 1921.
Styles was Christie's first published novel. It introduced Hercule Poirot, Inspector (later, Chief Inspector) Japp, and Arthur Hastings. Poirot, a Belgian refugee of the Great War, is settling in England near the home of Emily Inglethorp, who helped him to his new life. His friend Hastings arrives as a guest at her home. When the woman is killed, Poirot uses his detective skills to solve the mystery.
The book includes maps of the house, the murder scene, and a drawing of a fragment of a will. The true first publication of the novel was as a weekly serial in The Times, including the maps of the house and other illustrations included in the book. This novel was one of the first ten books published by Penguin Books when it began in 1935.
This first mystery novel by Agatha Christie was well received by reviewers in the UK and the US at initial publication. An analysis in 1990 was positive about the plot, considered the novel one of the few by Christie that is well-anchored in time and place, a story that knows it describes the end of an era, and mentions that the plot is clever. Christie had not mastered cleverness throughout her first novel, as "too many clues tend to cancel each other out"; this was judged a difficulty "which Conan Doyle never satisfactorily overcame, but which Christie would."
Composition and original publication
Agatha Christie began working on The Mysterious Affair at Styles in 1916, writing most of it on Dartmoor. The character of Hercule Poirot was inspired by her experience working as a nurse, ministering to Belgian soldiers during the First World War, and by Belgian refugees who were living in Torquay.
The manuscript was rejected by Hodder and Stoughton and Methuen. Christie then submitted the manuscript to The Bodley Head. After keeping the submission for several months, The Bodley Head's founder, John Lane offered to accept it, provided that Christie make slight changes to the ending. She revised the next-to-last chapter, changing the scene of Poirot's grand revelation from a courtroom to the Styles library. (Some modern editions of the published book also include an appendix with the original "unpublished" alternative ending set in the courtroom. It is very similar to the final version in content, with dialogue from other characters replaced by dialogue from the Judge and Sir Ernest Heavywether.) Christie later stated that the contract she signed with Lane was exploitative.
The Mysterious Affair at Styles was published by John Lane in the United States in October 1920 and by The Bodley Head in the United Kingdom on 21 January 1921. The US edition retailed at $2.00 and the UK edition at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6).
Plot summary
On the morning of 18 July, the household at Styles Court wakes to the discovery that Emily Inglethorp, the elderly owner, has died. She had been poisoned with strychnine. Arthur Hastings, a soldier from the Western Front staying at this country manor as a guest on his sick leave, ventures out to the nearby village of Styles St Mary to enlist help from his friend Hercule Poirot. Emily was a wealthy woman. Her household includes her husband, Alfred Inglethorp, a younger man she recently married; her stepsons (from her first husband's previous marriage) John and Lawrence Cavendish; John's wife Mary Cavendish; Cynthia Murdoch, the daughter of a deceased friend of the family; and Evelyn Howard, Emily's companion.
Poirot learns that per Emily's will, John inherits the manor property from her, per his father's will. However, the money she inherited would be distributed according to her own will, which she changed at least once per year; her most recent will favours Alfred, who will inherit her fortune. On the day of the murder, Emily had been arguing with someone, suspected to be either Alfred or John. She had been quite distressed after this and apparently made a new will. No one can find any evidence of this new will. Alfred left the manor early that evening and stayed overnight in the village. Meanwhile, Emily ate little at dinner and retired early to her room, taking her document case with her; when her body was found, the case had been forced open. Nobody can explain how or when the poison was administered to her.
Inspector Japp, the investigating officer, considers Alfred to be the prime suspect, as he gains the most from his wife's death. Poirot notes that Alfred's behaviour is suspicious during the investigation. Alfred refuses to provide an alibi and openly denies purchasing the strychnine in the village, despite evidence to the contrary. Although Japp is keen to arrest him, Poirot intervenes by proving he could not have purchased the poison; the signature for the purchase is not in his handwriting. Suspicion now falls on John, next to gain from Emily's will and without an alibi for the murder. Japp soon arrests him: the signature for the poison is in his handwriting; a phial that contained the poison is found in his room; a beard and a pair of pince-nez identical to Alfred's are found within the manor.
Poirot soon exonerates John of the crime. He reveals that the murder was committed by Alfred Inglethorp, with aid from his cousin Evelyn Howard. The pair pretended to be enemies but were romantically involved. They added bromide to Emily's regular evening medicine, obtained from her sleeping powder, making the final dose lethal. The pair then left false evidence that would incriminate Alfred, which they knew would be refuted at his trial; once acquitted, he could not be tried for the crime again if genuine evidence against him was found, per the law of double jeopardy. The pair framed John as part of their plan; Evelyn forged his handwriting, and the evidence against him was fabricated.
Poirot explains that he prevented Japp from arresting Alfred because Poirot saw that Alfred wanted to be arrested. Thanks to a chance remark by Hastings, Poirot finds a letter in Emily's room that detailed Alfred's intentions for Emily. Emily's distress on the afternoon of the murder was because Emily had found this letter in Alfred's desk while searching for stamps. Emily's document case was forced open by Alfred when Alfred realised she had the letter. Alfred then hid the letter elsewhere in the room to avoid being found with it.
Characters
Hercule Poirot - Renowned Belgian private detective. He lives in England after being displaced by the war in Europe. Asked to investigate the case by his old friend Hastings.
Hastings - Poirot's friend, and the narrator of the story. He is a guest at Styles Court while on sick leave from the Western Front.
Inspector Japp - A Scotland Yard detective, and the investigating officer. He is an acquaintance of Poirot at the time of the novel's setting.
Emily Inglethorp - A wealthy old woman, and the wife of Alfred Inglethorp. She inherited her fortune and her home of Styles Court following the death of her first husband, Mr Cavendish. She is the victim of the case.
Alfred Inglethorp - Emily's second husband and 20 years younger than she is. Considered by her family to be a spoiled fortune-hunter.
John Cavendish - Emily's elder stepson, from her first husband's previous marriage, and the brother of Lawrence. John formerly practised as a barrister and has known Hastings for many years. It is he who invites Hastings to Styles near the beginning of the story. He is going through some issues with his marriage to his wife Mary.
Mary Cavendish - John's wife, and a friend of Dr Bauerstein.
Lawrence Cavendish - Emily's younger stepson, from her first husband's previous marriage, and the brother of John. Known to have studied medicine and qualified as a doctor.
Evelyn Howard - Emily's companion, and a second cousin of Alfred Inglethorp, of whom she nevertheless expresses a strong dislike.
Cynthia Murdoch - The daughter of a deceased friend of the family, an orphan. She performs war-time work at a nearby hospital's dispensary.
Dr Bauerstein - A well-known toxicologist, living not far from Styles.
Dorcas - A maid at Styles. Loyal to Mrs Inglethorp.
Dedication
The book's dedication reads: "To my Mother".
Christie's mother, Clarissa ("Clara") Boehmer Miller (1854–1926), was a strong influence on her life and someone to whom Christie was extremely close, especially after the death of her father in 1901. It was while Christie was ill (circa 1908) that her mother suggested she write a story. The result was The House of Beauty, now a lost work, which hesitantly started her writing career. Christie later revised this story as The House of Dreams, and it was published in issue 74 of The Sovereign Magazine in January 1926 and, many years later, in 1997, in book form in While the Light Lasts and Other Stories.
Christie also dedicated her debut novel as Mary Westmacott, Giant's Bread (1930), to her mother who, by that time, had died.
Literary significance and reception
The Times Literary Supplement (3 February 1921) gave the book an enthusiastic, if short, review, which stated: "The only fault this story has is that it is almost too ingenious." It went on to describe the basic set-up of the plot and concluded: "It is said to be the author's first book, and the result of a bet about the possibility of writing a detective story in which the reader would not be able to spot the criminal. Every reader must admit that the bet was won."
The New York Times Book Review (26 December 1920), was also impressed:
The novel's review in The Sunday Times of 20 February 1921, quoted the publisher's promotional blurb concerning Christie writing the book as the result of a bet that she would not be able to do so without the reader being able to guess the murderer, then said, "Personally we did not find the "spotting" so very difficult, but we are free to admit that the story is, especially for a first adventure in fiction, very well contrived, and that the solution of the mystery is the result of logical deduction. The story, moreover, has no lack of movement, and the several characters are well drawn."
The contributor who wrote his column under the pseudonym of "A Man of Kent" in the 10 February 1921 issue of the Christian newspaper The British Weekly praised the novel but was overly generous in giving away the identity of the murderers. To wit,
The Bodley Head quoted excerpts from this review in future books by Christie but, understandably, did not use those passages which gave away the identity of the culprits.
"Introducing Hercule Poirot, the brilliant – and eccentric – detective who, at a friend's request, steps out of retirement – and into the shadows of a classic mystery on the outskirts of Essex. The victim is the wealthy mistress of Styles Court, found in her locked bedroom with the name of her late husband on her dying lips. Poirot has a few questions for her fortune-hunting new spouse, her aimless stepsons, her private doctor, and her hired companion. The answers are positively poisonous. Who's responsible, and why, can only be revealed by the master detective himself." (Book jacket, Berkley Book edition April 1984)
In his book, A Talent to Deceive – An Appreciation of Agatha Christie, Robert Barnard wrote:
In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343-44 (26 December 2014–3 January 2015), the writers picked The Mysterious Affair at Styles as an "EW favorite" on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels".
Golden Age of Detective Fiction
The story is told in the first person by Hastings, and features many of the elements that have become icons of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction, largely due to Christie's influence. It is set in a large, isolated country manor. There are a half-dozen suspects, most of whom are hiding facts about themselves. The plot includes a number of red herrings and surprise twists.
Impact on Christie's career
The Mysterious Affair at Styles launched Christie's writing career. Christie and her husband subsequently named their house "Styles".
Hercule Poirot, who first appeared in this novel, would go on to become one of the most famous characters in detective fiction. Decades later, when Christie told the story of Poirot's final case in Curtain, she set that novel at Styles.
Adaptations
Television
British
The Mysterious Affair at Styles was adapted as an episode for the series Agatha Christie's Poirot on 16 September 1990; the episode was specially made by ITV to celebrate the centenary of the author's birth. The cast included David Suchet as Hercule Poirot, Hugh Fraser as Lieutenant Arthur Hastings and Philip Jackson as Inspector James Japp. It was filmed at Chavenage House, Gloucestershire. The adaptation was generally faithful to Christie's story, although there were a number of deviations from it. The introduction of Poirot is greatly extended, including scenes of Poirot interrupting a military exercise, singing "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" with the Belgian refugees, and advising the post office of a better way to organize their products by country of origin. The adaptation also provided further elaboration on Hastings' first meeting with Poirot - the pair met during an investigation into a shooting, in which Hastings was a suspect.
Latvian
The novel was adapted as a TV miniseries for Latvijas Televīzija, titled "Slepkavība Stailzā". It was broadcast over 3 nights in 1990. The cast included as Puaro (Poirot's name in Latvian) and Romāns Birmanis as Hastingss (Hastings). Being a miniseries, with a total runtime of approximately 198 minutes, it included many details from the novel that were omitted from other shorter adaptations, and was generally faithful to the novel. One difference from the novel is that the inquest hearing is omitted, and instead there are more scenes from Džaps and Samerhejs (Japp and Summerhaye) searching for clues at Styles Court. Also, the ending sequence follows Christie's original unpublished version, where Poirot makes his final revelations in the courtroom.
French
It was adapted for an episode of Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie, which was broadcast in 2016. The series stars as Swan Laurence, who replaces the character of Poirot in this adaptation. This version has many differences from the novel, but the core story is the same: a wealthy old woman is murdered by her husband together with her top business partner, who appear to hate each other but are secretly lovers. Certain aspects from the novel are retained, such as a disguise used to buy the poison with Eve Constantin (the character equivalent to Evelyn Howard) impersonating Adrien Sauvignac (the equivalent of Alfred Inglethorp), and the latter's deliberate attempt to get himself arrested so that he can produce his alibi. In this adaptation, Styles Court is a beauty spa instead of a country house.
Radio
The novel was adapted for radio by Michael Bakewell as a five-part serial in 2005, as part of the Hercule Poirot radio series for BBC Radio 4. The cast included John Moffatt as Poirot and Simon Williams as Captain Hastings. Inspector Japp was played by Philip Jackson, who had played the same role in the British television adaptation. The serial was broadcast weekly from 5 September to 3 October. All five episodes were recorded on 4 April 2005 at Bush House. This version retained the first-person narration by the character of Hastings.
Stage
On 14 February 2012, Great Lakes Theater in Cleveland, Ohio debuted a 65-minute stage adaptation as part of their educational programming. Adapted by David Hansen, this production is performed by a cast of five (3 men, 2 women) with most performers playing more than one role.
On 17 March 2016, the Hedgerow Theatre company in Media, Pennsylvania, premiered an adaptation by Jared Reed. While largely faithful to the novel, the character of Inspector Japp was omitted.
Publication history
1920, John Lane (New York), October 1920, Hardcover, 296 pp
1920, National Book Company, Hardcover, 296 pp
1921, John Lane (The Bodley Head), 21 January 1921, Hardcover, 296 pp
1926, John Lane (The Bodley Head), June 1926, Hardcover (Cheap edition – two shillings) 319 pp
1931, John Lane (The Bodley Head), February 1931 (As part of the Agatha Christie Omnibus along with The Murder on the Links and Poirot Investigates), Hardcover, Priced at seven shillings and sixpence; a cheaper edition at five shillings was published in October 1932
1932, John Lane (The Bodley Head), July 1932, Paperback (ninepence)
1935, Penguin Books, 30 July 1935, Paperback (sixpence), 255 pp
1945, Avon Books (New York), Avon number 75, Paperback, 226 pp
1954, Pan Books, Paperback (Pan number 310), 189 pp
1959, Pan Books, Paperback (Great Pan G112)
1961, Bantam Books (New York), Paperback, 154 pp
1965, Longman (London), Paperback, 181 pp
1976, Dodd, Mead and Company, (Commemorative Edition following Christie's death), Hardback, 239 pp;
1984, Berkley Books (New York, Division of Penguin Putnam), Paperback, 198 pp;
1988, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 208 pp;
1989, Ulverscroft Large Print Edition, Hardcover;
2007, Facsimile of 1921 UK first edition (HarperCollins), 5 November 2007, Hardcover, 296 pp;
2018, Srishti Publishers & Distributors, Paperback, 186 pp;
Additional editions are listed at Fantastic Fiction, including
29 Hardcover editions from 1958 to September 2010 ( / 9781169289864 Publisher: Kessinger Publishing)
107 Paperback editions from 1970 to September 2013 ( / 9780007527496 (UK edition) Publisher: Harper)
30 Audio editions from September 1994 to June 2013 ( / 9781470887711 Publisher: Blackstone Audiobooks)
96 Kindle editions from December 2001 to November 2013 (ISBN B008BIGEHG).
The novel received its first true publication as an eighteen-part serialisation in The Times newspaper's Weekly Edition (aka The Times Weekly Edition) from 27 February (Issue 2252) to 25 June 1920 (Issue 2269). This version of the novel mirrored the published version with no textual differences and included the maps and illustrations of handwriting examples used in the novel. At the end of the serialisation an advertisement appeared in the newspaper, which announced, "This is a brilliant mystery novel, which has had the unique distinction for a first novel of being serialised in The Times Weekly Edition. Mr John Lane is now preparing a large edition in volume form, which will be ready immediately." Although another line of the advertisement stated that the book would be ready in August, it was first published by John Lane in the United States in October 1920 and was not published in the UK by The Bodley Head until the following year.
The Mysterious Affair at Styles later made publishing history by being one of the first ten books to be published by Penguin Books when they were launched on 30 July 1935. The book was Penguin Number 6.
The blurb on the inside flap of the dustwrapper of the first edition reads:
This novel was originally written as the result of a bet, that the author, who had previously never written a book, could not compose a detective novel in which the reader would not be able to "spot" the murderer, although having access to the same clues as the detective. The author has certainly won her bet, and in addition to a most ingenious plot of the best detective type she has introduced a new type of detective in the shape of a Belgian. This novel has had the unique distinction for a first book of being accepted by the Times as a serial for its weekly edition.
References
External links
The Mysterious Affair at Styles is in the public domain in the US. The copyright on the book will not expire in some Western countries before 2047.
(without the illustrations)
The Mysterious Affair at Styles at the official Agatha Christie website
1920 British novels
Hercule Poirot novels
Works originally published in The Times
Novels first published in serial form
Novels about murder
Novels set in Essex
John Lane (publisher) books
United Kingdom home front during World War I
Novels set during World War I
British novels adapted into television shows
1920 debut novels
Uxoricide in fiction
Works set in country houses
Refugees and displaced people in fiction | [
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218877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Long%20Island | Battle of Long Island | The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, was an action of the American Revolutionary War fought on Tuesday, August 27, 1776, at the western edge of Long Island in the present-day Brooklyn, New York. The British defeated the Americans and gained access to the strategically important Port of New York, which they held for the rest of the war. It was the first major battle to take place after the United States declared its independence on July 4, and in troop deployment and combat, it was the largest battle of the war.
After defeating the British in the siege of Boston on March 17, commander-in-chief George Washington relocated the Continental Army to defend the port city of New York, located at the southern end of Manhattan Island. Washington understood that the city's harbor would provide an excellent base for the Royal Navy, so he established defenses there and waited for the British to attack. In July, the British, under the command of General William Howe, landed a few miles across the harbor on the sparsely populated Staten Island, where they were reinforced by a fleet of ships in Lower New York Bay over the next month and a half, bringing their total force to 32,000 troops. Washington knew the difficulty in holding the city with the British fleet in control of the entrance to the harbor at the Narrows, and accordingly moved the bulk of his forces to Manhattan, believing that it would be the first target.
On August 21, the British landed on the shores of Gravesend Bay in southwest Kings County, across the Narrows from Staten Island and more than a dozen miles south of the established East River crossings to Manhattan. After five days of waiting, the British attacked the American defenses on the Guan Heights. Unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, resulting in twenty percent losses through casualties and capture, although a stand by 400 Maryland and Delaware troops prevented greater losses. The remainder of the army retreated to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege, but on the night of August 29–30, Washington evacuated the entire army to Manhattan without the loss of supplies or a single life. The Continental Army was driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and was forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania.
Prelude to battle
In the first stage of the war, the British Army was trapped in the peninsular city of Boston and were forced to abandon it on March 17, sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia, to await reinforcements. Washington then began to transfer regiments to New York City, which he believed the British would attack next because of the port's strategic importance. Washington left Boston on April 4, arrived at New York on April 13, and established headquarters at the former home of Archibald Kennedy on Broadway facing Bowling Green. Washington had sent his second-in-command Charles Lee ahead to New York the previous February to establish the city's defenses.
Lee remained in New York City until March, when the Continental Congress sent him to South Carolina; construction of the city's defenses was left to General William Alexander (Lord Stirling). Troops were in limited supply, so Washington found the defenses incomplete, but Lee had concluded that in any case it would be impossible to hold the city with the British commanding the sea. He reasoned that the defenses should be located with the ability to inflict heavy casualties upon the British if any move was made to take and hold ground. Barricades and redoubts were established in and around the city, and the bastion of Fort Stirling was built across the East River in Brooklyn Heights, facing the city. Lee also saw that the immediate area was cleared of Loyalists.
Strategy
Washington began moving troops to Brooklyn in early May, and there were several thousand of them there in a short time. Three more forts were under construction on the eastern side of the East River to support Fort Stirling, which stood to the west of the hamlet of Brooklyn Heights. These new fortifications were Fort Putnam, Fort Greene, and Fort Box (named for Major Daniel Box). They lay from north to south, with Fort Putnam farthest to the north, Greene slightly to the southwest, and Box slightly farther southwest. Each of these defensive structures was surrounded by a large ditch, all connected by a line of entrenchments and a total of 36 cannons.
Fort Defiance was also being constructed at this time, located farther southwest, past Fort Box, near present-day Red Hook. In addition to these new forts, a mounted battery was established on Governors Island, on Manhattan cannons were placed at Fort George facing Bowling Green, and more cannons were placed at the Whitehall Dock, which sat on the East River. Hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways.
Washington had been authorized by Congress to recruit an army of up to 28,501 troops, but he had only 19,000 when he reached New York. Military discipline was inadequate; routine orders were not carried out, muskets were fired in camp, flints were ruined, bayonets were used as knives to cut food, and firearm readiness was lax. Petty internal conflict was common under the strain of a large number of people from different environments and temperaments living in relative proximity.
Commander of the artillery Henry Knox persuaded Washington to transfer 400 to 500 soldiers, who lacked muskets or guns, to crew the artillery. In early June, Knox and General Nathanael Greene inspected the land at the north end of Manhattan and decided to establish Fort Washington. Fort Constitution, later renamed Fort Lee, was planned opposite Fort Washington on the Hudson River. The forts were intended to discourage the British ships from sailing up the Hudson River.
British arrival
On June 28, Washington learned that the British fleet had set sail from Halifax on June 9 and were heading toward New York. On June 29, signals were sent from men stationed on Staten Island, indicating that the British fleet had appeared. Within a few hours, 45 British ships dropped anchor in Lower New York Bay. The population of New York went into panic at the sight of the British ships; alarms went off and troops immediately rushed to their posts. Less than a week later, there were 130 ships off Staten Island under the command of Richard Howe, the brother of General Howe. On July 2, British troops began to land on Staten Island. The Continental regulars on the island took a few shots at them before fleeing, and the citizens' militia switched over to the British side.
On July 6, news reached New York that Congress had voted for independence four days earlier. On Tuesday, July 9, at 18:00, Washington had several brigades march onto the commons of the city to hear the Declaration of Independence read. After the end of the reading, a mob ran down to Bowling Green with ropes and bars, where they tore down the gilded lead equestrian statue of George III of Great Britain. In their fury, the crowd cut off the statue's head, severed the nose, mounted what remained of the head on a spike outside a tavern, and the rest of the statue was dragged to Connecticut and melted down into musket balls.
On July 12, the British ships Phoenix and Rose sailed up the harbor toward the mouth of the Hudson. The American batteries opened fire from the harbor defenses of Fort George, Fort Defiance, and Governors Island, but the British returned fire into the city. The ships sailed along the New Jersey shore and continued up the Hudson, sailing past Fort Washington and arriving by nightfall at Tarrytown, the widest part of the Hudson. The goals of the British ships were to cut off American supplies from New England and the north, and to encourage Loyalist support. The only casualties of the day were six Americans who were killed when their own cannon blew up.
The next day, July 13, Howe attempted to open negotiations with the Americans. He sent a letter to Washington delivered by Lieutenant Philip Brown, who arrived under a flag of truce. The letter was addressed "George Washington, Esq." Brown was met by Joseph Reed, who had hurried to the waterfront on Washington's orders, accompanied by Henry Knox and Samuel Webb. Washington asked his officers whether it should be received or not, as it did not recognize his rank as general, and they unanimously said no. Reed told Brown that there was no one in the army with that address. On July 16, Howe tried again, this time with the address "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc.", but it was again declined. The next day, Howe sent Captain Nisbet Balfour to ask if Washington would meet with Howe's adjutant face to face, and a meeting was scheduled for July 20. Howe's adjutant was Colonel James Patterson. Patterson told Washington that Howe had come with powers to grant pardons, but Washington said, "Those who have committed no fault want no pardon." Patterson departed soon after. Washington's performance during the meeting was praised in parts of the colonies.
Meanwhile, British ships continued to arrive. On August 1, 45 ships arrived with generals Henry Clinton and Charles Cornwallis, along with 3,000 troops. By August 12, 3,000 more British troops and another 8,000 Hessians had arrived. At this point, the British fleet numbered over 400 ships, including 73 war ships, and 32,000 troops were camped on Staten Island. Faced with this large force, Washington was unsure as to where the British would attack. Both Greene and Reed thought that the British would attack Long Island, but Washington felt that a British attack on Long Island might be a diversion for the main attack on Manhattan. He broke his army in half, stationing half of it on Manhattan, and the other half on Long Island; the army on Long Island was commanded by Greene. On August 20, Greene became ill and was forced to move to a house in Manhattan where he rested to recover. John Sullivan was placed in command until Greene was well enough to resume command.
Invasion of Long Island
At 05:10 on August 22, an advance guard of 4,000 British troops left Staten Island under the command of Clinton and Cornwallis to land on Long Island. At 08:00, all 4,000 troops landed unopposed on the shore of Gravesend Bay. Colonel Edward Hand's Pennsylvanian riflemen had been stationed on the shore, but they did not oppose the landings and fell back, killing cattle and burning farmhouses on the way. By noon, 15,000 troops had landed on shore along with 40 pieces of artillery, as hundreds of Loyalists came to greet the British troops. Cornwallis pushed on with the advance guard, advancing six miles onto the island and establishing a camp at the village of Flatbush. He was given orders to advance no further.
Washington received word of the landings the same day, but was informed that the number was 8,000 to 9,000 troops. This convinced him that it was the feint which he had predicted and therefore he only sent 1,500 more troops to Brooklyn, bringing the total number of troops on Long Island to 6,000. On August 24, Washington replaced Sullivan with Israel Putnam who commanded the troops on Long Island. Putnam arrived on Long Island the next day along with six battalions. Also that day, the British troops on Long Island received 5,000 Hessian reinforcements, bringing their total to 20,000. There was little fighting on the days immediately after the landing, although some small skirmishes did take place with American marksmen armed with rifles picking off British troops from time to time.
The American plan was for Putnam to direct the defenses from Brooklyn Heights, while Sullivan and Stirling and their troops would be stationed on the Guan Heights. The Guan (hills) were up to 150 feet high and blocked the most direct route to Brooklyn Heights. Washington believed that, by stationing men on the heights, heavy casualties could be inflicted on the British before the troops fell back to the main defenses at Brooklyn Heights. There were three main passes through the heights; the Gowanus Road farthest to the west, the Flatbush Road slightly farther to the east, in the center of the American line where it was expected that the British would attack, and the Bedford Road farthest to the east. Stirling was responsible for defending the Gowanus Road with 500 men, and Sullivan was to defend the Flatbush and Bedford roads where there were 1,000 and 800 men respectively. Six-thousand troops were to remain behind at Brooklyn Heights. There was one lesser-known pass through the heights farther to the east called the Jamaica Pass, which was patrolled by just five militia officers on horses.
On the British side, General Clinton learned of the almost undefended Jamaica Pass from local Loyalists. He drew up a plan and gave it to William Erskine to propose to Howe. Clinton's plan had the main army making a night march and going through the Jamaica Pass to turn the American flank, while other troops would keep the Americans busy in front. On August 26, Clinton received word from Howe that the plan would be used, and that Clinton was to command the advance guard of the main army of 10,000 men on the march through the Jamaica Pass. While they made the night march, General James Grant's British troops along with some Hessians, a total of 4,000 men, were to attack the Americans in front to distract them from the main army coming on their flank. Howe told Clinton to be ready to move out that night, August 26.
Battle
Night march
At 21:00, the British moved out. No one except the commanders knew of the plan. Clinton led a crack brigade of light infantry with fixed bayonets in front, followed by Cornwallis who had eight battalions and 14 artillery pieces. Cornwallis was followed by Howe and Hugh Percy with six battalions, more artillery, and baggage. The column consisted of 10,000 men who stretched out over two miles. Three Loyalist farmers led the column toward the Jamaica Pass. The British had left their campfires burning to deceive the Americans into thinking that nothing was happening. The column headed northeast until it reached what later became the village of New Lots, when it headed directly north toward the heights.
The column had yet to run into any American troops when they reached Howard's Tavern (also known as "Howard's Half-Way House"), just a few hundred yards from the Jamaica Pass. Tavern keeper William Howard and his son William Jr. were forced to act as guides to show the British the way to the Rockaway Foot Path, an old Indian trail that skirted the Jamaica Pass to the west (located today in the Cemetery of the Evergreens). William Howard Jr. describes meeting Howe:
It was about two in the morning of August 27 that I was awakened by seeing a soldier at the side of my bed. I got up and dressed and went down to the barroom, where I saw my father standing in one corner with three British soldiers before him with muskets and bayonets fixed. The army was then lying in the field in front of the house... General Howe and another officer were in the barroom. General Howe wore a camlet cloak over his regimentals. After asking for a glass of liquor from the bar, which was given him, he entered into familiar conversation with my father, and among other things said, "I must have some one of you to show me over the Rockaway Path around the pass." My father replied, "We belong to the other side, General, and can’t serve you against our duty." General Howe replied, "That is alright; stick to your country, or stick to your principles, but Howard, you are my prisoner and must guide my men over the hill." My father made some further objection, but was silenced by the general, who said, "You have no alternative. If you refuse I shall shoot you through the head.
Five minutes after leaving the tavern, the five American militia officers stationed at the pass were captured without a shot fired, as they thought that the British were Americans. Clinton interrogated the men and they informed him that they were the only troops guarding the pass. By dawn, the British were through the pass and stopped so that the troops could rest. At 09:00, they fired two heavy cannons to signal the Hessian troops below Battle Pass to begin their frontal assault against Sullivan's men deployed on the two hills flanking the pass, while Clinton's troops simultaneously flanked the American positions from the east.
Grant's diversionary attack
At about 23:00 on August 26, the first shots were fired in the Battle of Long Island, near the Red Lion Inn (near present-day 39th Street and 4th Avenue). American pickets from Samuel John Atlee's Pennsylvania regiment fired upon two British soldiers who were foraging in a watermelon patch near the inn.
Around 01:00 on August 27, the British approached the vicinity of the Red Lion with 200–300 troops. The American troops fired upon the British; after approximately two fusillades, they fled up the Gowanus Road toward the Vechte–Cortelyou House. Major Edward Burd had been in command, but he was captured along with a lieutenant and 15 privates. This first engagement was fought in the vicinity of 38th and 39th streets between 2nd and 3rd avenues near a swamp located adjacent to the Gowanus Road.
Brigadier General Samuel Holden Parsons and Colonel Atlee were stationed farther north on the Gowanus Road. Parsons was a lawyer from Connecticut who had recently secured a commission in the Continental Army; Atlee was a veteran of the French and Indian War in command of the First Regiment of Pennsylvania Musketry. Putnam had been awakened by a guard at 03:00 and told that the British were attacking through the Gowanus Pass. He lit signals to Washington, who was on Manhattan, and then rode south to warn Stirling of the attack.
Stirling led two units of Colonel John Haslet's 1st Delaware Regiment under the immediate command of Major Thomas Macdonough, and Colonel William Smallwood's 1st Maryland Infantry under the immediate command of Major Mordecai Gist; both Haslet and Smallwood were on courts-martial duty in Manhattan. Following close behind was Parson's Connecticut regiment with 251 men. Stirling led this combined force to reinforce Parsons and Atlee and stop the British advance. Stirling had a total of 1,600 troops at his command.
Stirling placed Atlee's men in an apple orchard owned by Wynant Bennett on the south side of the Gowanus Road near present-day 3rd Avenue and 18th Street. Upon the approach of the British, the Americans:
took possession of a hill about two miles from camp, and detached Colonel Atlee to meet them further on the road; in about sixty rods he drew up and received the enemy's fire and gave them a well-directed fire from his regiment, which did great execution, and then retreated to the hill. – General Parsons
Stirling took up positions with the Delaware and Maryland regiments just to the north of Atlee's men on the slopes of a rise of land between 18th and 20th streets. Some of the Maryland troops were positioned on a small hill near today's 23rd Street, which the local Dutch called "Blokje Berg" (Dutch for cube or block hill). At the base of this hill, the Gowanus Road crossed a small bridge over a ditch which drained a marshy area. When the British advanced up the Gowanus Road, the American troops fired upon them from positions on the north side of the ditch. To their left was Colonel Peter Kachline's Pennsylvania regiment.
Just to the southeast of Blokje Berg were a few hills; amongst them was a hill which is the highest point in King's County at 220 feet which came to be known as "Battle Hill," in what is today Greenwood Cemetery by the cemetery's boundary of 23rd Street and 7th Avenue. The British attempted to outflank the American positions by taking this hill. The Americans tried to prevent the British move, sending troops under Parsons and Atlee to take the hill. The British got there first but the Americans were able to dislodge them in fierce fighting. Battle Hill was the site of especially brutal fighting, with the Americans inflicting the highest number of casualties against the British troops during the entire Battle of Long Island. Among those killed was British Colonel James Grant, which led the Americans to believe that they had killed General James Grant. He was alleged to have been shot by a Pennsylvanian rifleman who had been sniping at the British from up in a tree. Among the American dead was Pennsylvania Colonel Caleb Parry, who was killed while rallying his troops.
The Americans were still unaware that this was not the main British attack, in part due to the ferocity of the fighting and the number of British troops engaged.
Battle Pass
The Hessians, in the center under the command of General von Heister, began to bombard the American lines stationed at Battle Pass under the command of General John Sullivan. The Hessian brigades did not attack, as they were waiting for the pre-arranged signal from the British, who were in the process of outflanking the American lines at that time. The Americans were still under the assumption that Grant's attack up the Gowanus Road was the main thrust, and Sullivan sent four hundred of his men to reinforce Stirling.
Howe fired his signal guns at 09:00 and the Hessians began to attack up Battle Pass, while the main army came at Sullivan from the rear. Sullivan left his advance guard to hold off the Hessians while he turned the rest of his force around to fight the British. Heavy casualties mounted between the Americans and the British, and men on both sides fled out of fear. Sullivan attempted to calm his men and tried to lead a retreat. By this point, the Hessians had overrun the advance guard on the heights and the American left had completely collapsed. Hand-to-hand fighting followed, with the Americans swinging their muskets and rifles like clubs to save their own lives. It was later claimed, Americans who surrendered were bayoneted by the Hessians. Sullivan, despite the chaos, managed to evacuate most of his men to Brooklyn Heights though he himself was captured.
Vechte–Cortelyou House
At 09:00, Washington arrived from Manhattan. He realized that he had been wrong about a feint on Long Island and he ordered more troops to Brooklyn from Manhattan. His location on the battlefield is not known because accounts differ, but most likely he was at Brooklyn Heights where he could view the battle.
Stirling still held the line against Grant on the American right, to the west. He held on for four hours, still unaware of the British flanking maneuver, and some of his own troops thought that they were winning the day because the British had been unable to take their position. However, Grant was reinforced by 2,000 marines, and he hit Stirling's center by 11:00, and Stirling was attacked on his left by the Hessians. Stirling pulled back, but British troops were coming at him from the rear, south down the Gowanus Road. The only escape route left was across Brouwer's millpond on the Gowanus Creek which was 80 yards wide, Brooklyn Heights lies on the other side.
Maryland 400
Stirling ordered all of his troops to cross the creek, except a contingent of Maryland troops under the command of Gist. This group became known to history as the "Maryland 400", although they numbered about 260–270 men. Stirling and Gist led the troops in a rear-guard action against the overwhelming numbers of British troops, which surpassed 2,000 supported by two cannons. Stirling and Gist led the Marylanders in two attacks against the British, who were in fixed positions inside and in front of the Vechte–Cortelyou House (known today as the "Old Stone House"). After the last assault, the remaining troops retreated across the Gowanus Creek. Some of the men who tried to cross the marsh were bogged down in the mud and under musket fire, and others who could not swim were captured. Stirling was surrounded and, unwilling to surrender to the British, broke through their lines to von Heister's Hessians and surrendered to them. Two hundred fifty six Maryland troops were killed in the assaults in front of the Old Stone House, and fewer than a dozen made it back to the American lines. Washington watched from a redoubt on nearby Cobble Hill (intersection of today's Court Street and Atlantic Avenue) and reportedly said, "Good God, what brave fellows I must this day lose."
Disengagement
The American troops who were not killed or captured escaped behind the fortified American positions centered on Brooklyn Heights. In a move later denounced by analysts as a bad mistake, Howe then ordered all of his troops to halt the attack, despite the protests of many officers in his command who believed that they should push on to Brooklyn Heights. Howe had decided against a direct frontal assault on the entrenched American positions, choosing instead to begin a siege and setting up lines of circumvallation around the American positions. He believed the Americans to be essentially trapped, with his troops blocking escape by land and the Royal Navy in control of the East River, which they would have to cross to reach Manhattan Island.
Howe's failure to press the attack and the reasons for it have been disputed. He may have wished to avoid the casualties that his army suffered when attacking the Continentals under similar circumstances at the Battle of Bunker Hill. He may also have been giving Washington an opportunity to conclude that his position was hopeless and surrender, in the European gentleman-officer tradition. Howe told Parliament in 1779 that his essential duty was to avoid excessive British casualties for insufficient purpose, and capturing Brooklyn Heights would likely not have meant capturing the entire American army. "The most essential duty I had to observe was, not wantonly to commit his majesty's troops, where the object was inadequate. I knew well that any considerable loss sustained by the army could not speedily, nor easily, be repaired. . . . The loss of 1,000, or perhaps 1,500 British troops, in carrying those lines, would have been but ill repaid by double that number of the enemy, could it have been supposed they would have suffered in that proportion."
Aftermath
Retreat to Manhattan
Washington and the army were surrounded on Brooklyn Heights with the East River to their backs. As the day went on, the British began to dig trenches, slowly coming closer to the American defenses. By doing this, the British would not have to cross over open ground to assault the American defenses as they did in Boston the year before. Despite this perilous situation, Washington ordered 1,200 more men from Manhattan to Brooklyn on August 28. The men that came over were two Pennsylvania regiments and Colonel John Glover's regiment from Marblehead, Massachusetts. In command of the Pennsylvanian troops was Thomas Mifflin who, after arriving, volunteered to inspect the outer defenses and report back to Washington. In these outer defenses, small skirmishes were still taking place. On the afternoon of August 28, it began to rain and Washington had his cannons bombard the British well into the night.
As the rain continued, George Washington sent a letter instructing General William Heath, who was at Kings Bridge between Manhattan and what is now the Bronx, to send every flat-bottomed boat and sloop without delay, in case battalions of infantry from New Jersey came to reinforce their position. At 16:00, on August 29, Washington held a meeting with his generals. Mifflin advised Washington to retreat to Manhattan while Mifflin and his Pennsylvania regiments made up the rear guard, holding the line until the rest of the army had withdrawn. The generals agreed unanimously with Mifflin that retreat was the best option and Washington had orders go out by the evening.
The troops were told that they were to gather up all their ammunition and baggage and prepare for a night attack. By 21:00, the sick and wounded began to move to the Brooklyn Ferry in preparation for evacuation. At 23:00, Glover and his Massachusetts men, who were sailors and fishermen, began to evacuate the troops.
As more troops were evacuated, more were ordered to withdraw from the lines and march to the ferry landing. Wagon wheels were muffled, and men were forbidden to talk. Mifflin's rear guard was tending campfires to deceive the British. At 04:00, on August 30, Mifflin was informed that it was his unit's turn to evacuate. Mifflin told the man who had been sent to order him to leave, Major Alexander Scammell, that he must be mistaken, but Scammell insisted that he was not and Mifflin ordered his troops to move out. When Mifflin's troops were within a half mile of the ferry landing, Washington rode up and demanded to know why they were not at their defenses. Edward Hand, who was leading the troops, tried to explain what had happened, but Mifflin arrived shortly. Washington exclaimed "Good God. General Mifflin, I am afraid you have ruined us." Mifflin explained that he had been told that it was his turn to evacuate by Scammell; Washington told him it had been a mistake. Mifflin then led his troops back to the outer defenses.
Artillery, supplies, and troops were all being evacuated across the river at this time but it was not going as fast as Washington had anticipated and daybreak soon came. A fog settled in and concealed the evacuation from the British. British patrols noticed that there did not seem to be any American pickets and thus began to search the area. While they were doing this, Washington, the last man left, stepped onto the last boat. At 07:00, the last American troops landed in Manhattan. All 9,000 troops had been evacuated with no loss of life.
Conclusion of the campaign
The British were stunned to find that Washington and the army had escaped. Later in the day, August 30, the British troops occupied the American fortifications. When news of the battle reached London, it caused many festivities to take place. Bells were rung across the city, candles were lit in windows and King George III gave Howe the Order of the Bath.
Washington's defeat, in the opinions of some, revealed his deficiencies as a strategist, because of how he split his forces. His inexperienced generals misunderstood the situation, and his raw troops fled in disorder at the first shots. However, his daring nighttime retreat has been seen by some historians as one of his greatest military feats. Other historians concentrate on the failure of British naval forces to prevent the withdrawal.
Howe remained inactive for the next half month, not attacking until September 15 when he landed a force at Kip's Bay. The British quickly occupied the city. Although American troops delivered an unexpected check to the British at Harlem Heights in mid-September, Howe defeated Washington in battle again at White Plains and then again at Fort Washington. Because of these defeats, Washington and the army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. On September 21, a fire of uncertain origin destroyed a quarter of New York City. In the immediate aftermath of the fire Nathan Hale was executed for spying.
Casualties
At the time, it was by far the largest battle ever fought in North America. If the Royal Navy is included, over 40,000 men took part in the battle. Howe reported his losses as 59 killed, 268 wounded and 31 missing. The Hessian casualties were 5 killed and 26 wounded. The Americans suffered much heavier losses. About 300 had been killed and over 1,000 captured. As few as half of the prisoners survived. Kept on prison ships in Wallabout Bay, then transferred to locations such as the Middle Dutch Church, they were starved and denied medical attention. In their weakened condition, many succumbed to smallpox.
Historians believe that as many as 256 soldiers of the First Maryland Regiment under Colonel William Smallwood fell in the battle, about two-thirds of the regiment. It is known that they were buried in a mass-grave, but the grave's exact location has been a mystery for 240 years.
Legacy
The most significant legacy of the Battle of Long Island was that it showed there would be no easy victory, and that the war would be long and bloody.
Commemorations of the battle include:
The Altar to Liberty: Minerva monument: The battle is commemorated with a monument, which includes a bronze statue of Minerva near the top of Battle Hill, the highest point of Brooklyn, in Green-Wood Cemetery. The statue was sculpted by Frederick Ruckstull and unveiled in 1920. The statue stands in the northwest corner of the cemetery and gazes directly at the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. In 2006, the Minerva statue was invoked in a successful defense to prevent a building from blocking the line of sight from the cemetery to the Statue of Liberty in the harbor. The annual Battle of Long Island commemoration begins inside the main Gothic arch entrance to Green-Wood Cemetery and marches up Battle Hill to ceremonies at the monument.
The Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument: A freestanding Doric column in Fort Greene memorializing all those who died while kept prisoner on the British ships just off the shore of Brooklyn, in Wallabout Bay.
Soldiers' Monument – Milford, Connecticut. Memorializes the 200 seriously ill prisoners of the Battle of Long Island who were dumped on the beach at Milford the night of January 3, 1777.
The Old Stone House: A re-constructed farmhouse (c.1699) that was at the center of the Marylanders' delaying actions serves as a museum of the battle. It is located in J.J. Byrne Park, at Third Street and Fifth Avenue, Brooklyn, and features models and maps.
Prospect Park, Brooklyn, Battle Pass: along the eastern side of East Drive is a large granite boulder with a brass plaque affixed, and another marker lies near the road for the Dongan Oak, a very large and old tree felled to block the pass from the British advance. In addition, in the park resides the Line of Defense marker erected by the Sons of the American Revolution and, near the eastern edge of Long Meadow, the Maryland Monument & Maryland Memorial corinthian column.
There are only thirty currently existing units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial and revolutionary eras. Five Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 125th MP Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1–5th FA) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Long Island.
See also
List of American Revolutionary War battles
American Revolutionary War §British New York counter-offensive. The ‘Battle of Long Island’ placed in overall sequence and strategic context.
Dr. John Hart, Regimental Surgeon of Col Prescott's Regiment who was stationed at Governor's Island
Long Island order of battle
New York and New Jersey campaign
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Whittimore, Henry "The Heroes of the American Revolution and their Descendants; The Battle of Long Island" 1897
The Battle of Long Island
The Wild Geese Today – Honoring Those Who Saved Washington's Army
Website on Battle of Long Island
"The Old Stone House" museum
Animated History Map of the Battle of Long Island
Howe's defense of his actions to Parliament in spring 1779
New York Guard 1/9th Battalion
1776 in the United States
Conflicts in 1776
Long Island
Long Island
Long Island
Long Island
Military history of New York City
18th century in Brooklyn
1776 in New York (state)
South Brooklyn | [
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