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218879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleonasm | Pleonasm | Pleonasm (; , ) is redundancy in linguistic expression, such as "black darkness" or "burning fire". It is a manifestation of tautology by traditional rhetorical criteria, and might be considered a fault of style. Pleonasm may also be used for emphasis, or because the phrase has become established in a certain form. Tautology and pleonasm are not consistently differentiated in literature.
Usage
Most often, pleonasm is understood to mean a word or phrase which is useless, clichéd, or repetitive, but a pleonasm can also be simply an unremarkable use of idiom. It can aid in achieving a specific (sic) linguistic effect, be it social, poetic or literary. Pleonasm sometimes serves the same function as rhetorical repetition—it can be used to reinforce an idea, contention or question, rendering writing clearer and easier to understand. Pleonasm can serve as a redundancy check; if a word is unknown, misunderstood, misheard, or if the medium of communication is poor—a wireless telephone connection or sloppy handwriting—pleonastic phrases can help ensure that the meaning is communicated even if some of the words are lost.
Idiomatic expressions
Some pleonastic phrases are part of a language's idiom, like "tuna fish" and "safe haven" in American English. They are so common that their use is unremarkable and often even unnoticeable for native speakers, although in many cases the redundancy can be dropped with no loss of meaning.
When expressing possibility, English speakers often use potentially pleonastic expressions such as It may be possible or maybe it's possible, where both terms (verb may or adverb maybe along with the adjective possible) have the same meaning under certain constructions. Many speakers of English use such expressions for possibility in general, such that most instances of such expressions by those speakers are in fact pleonastic. Others, however, use this expression only to indicate a distinction between ontological possibility and epistemic possibility, as in "Both the ontological possibility of X under current conditions and the ontological impossibility of X under current conditions are epistemically possible" (in logical terms, "I am not aware of any facts inconsistent with the truth of proposition X, but I am likewise not aware of any facts inconsistent with the truth of the negation of X"). The habitual use of the double construction to indicate possibility per se is far less widespread among speakers of most other languages (except in Spanish; see examples); rather, almost all speakers of those languages use one term in a single expression:
French: Il est possible or il peut arriver.
Romanian: Este posibil or se poate întâmpla.
Typical Spanish pleonasms
Voy a subir arriba – I am going to go up upstairs, "arriba" not being necessary.
Entra adentro – enter inside, "adentro" not being necessary.
Turkish has many pleonastic constructs because certain verbs necessitate objects:
yemek yemek – to eat food.
yazı yazmak – to write writing.
dışarı çıkmak – to exit outside.
içeri girmek – to enter inside.
oyun oynamak – to play a game.
In a satellite-framed language like English, verb phrases containing particles that denote direction of motion are so frequent that even when such a particle is pleonastic, it seems natural to include it (e.g. "enter into").
Professional and scholarly use
Some pleonastic phrases, when used in professional or scholarly writing, may reflect a standardized usage that has evolved or a meaning familiar to specialists but not necessarily to those outside that discipline. Such examples as "null and void", "terms and conditions", "each and every" are legal doublets that are part of legally operative language that is often drafted into legal documents. A classic example of such usage was that by the Lord Chancellor at the time (1864), Lord Westbury, in the English case of Gorely, when he described a phrase in an Act as "redundant and pleonastic". Although this type of usage may be favored in certain contexts, it may also be disfavored when used gratuitously to portray false erudition, obfuscate, or otherwise introduce verbiage. This is especially so in disciplines where imprecision may introduce ambiguities (such as the natural sciences).
Of the aforementioned phrases, "terms and conditions" may not be pleonastic in some legal systems, as they refer not to a set provisions forming part of a contract, but rather to the specific terms conditioning the effect of the contract or a contractual provision to a future event. In these cases, terms and conditions imply respectively the certainty or uncertainty of said event (e.g., in Brazilian law, a testament has the initial term for coming into force the death of the testator, while a health insurance has the condition of the insured suffering a or one of a set of certain injuries from a or one of a set of certain causes).
Stylistic preference
In addition, pleonasms can serve purposes external to meaning. For example, a speaker who is too terse is often interpreted as lacking ease or grace, because, in oral and sign language, sentences are spontaneously created without the benefit of editing. The restriction on the ability to plan often creates much redundancy. In written language, removing words not strictly necessary sometimes makes writing seem stilted or awkward, especially if the words are cut from an idiomatic expression.
On the other hand, as is the case with any literary or rhetorical effect, excessive use of pleonasm weakens writing and speech; words distract from the content. Writers wanting to conceal a thought or a purpose obscure their meaning with verbiage. William Strunk Jr. advocated concision in The Elements of Style (1918):
Yet, one has only to look at Baroque, Mannerist, and Victorian sources for different opinions.
Literary uses
"This was the most unkindest cut of all." —William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar (Act 3, Scene 2, 183)
"I will be brief: your noble son is mad:/Mad call I it; for, to define true madness,/What is't but to be nothing else but mad?" — Hamlet (Act 2, Scene 2)
"Let me tell you this, when social workers offer you, free, gratis and for nothing, something to hinder you from swooning, which with them is an obsession, it is useless to recoil ..." —Samuel Beckett, Molloy
Types
There are various kinds of pleonasm, including bilingual tautological expressions, syntactic pleonasm, semantic pleonasm and morphological pleonasm:
Bilingual tautological expressions
A bilingual tautological expression is a phrase that combines words that mean the same thing in two different languages. An example of a bilingual tautological expression is the Yiddish expression mayim akhroynem vaser. It literally means "water last water" and refers to "water for washing the hands after meal, grace water". Its first element, mayim, derives from the Hebrew ['majim] "water". Its second element, vaser, derives from the German Wasser "water".
According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Yiddish abounds with both bilingual tautological compounds and bilingual tautological first names.
The following are examples of bilingual tautological compounds in Yiddish:
fíntster khóyshekh "very dark", literally "dark darkness", traceable back to the German word finster "dark" and the Hebrew word חושך ħōshekh "darkness".
khameréyzļ "womanizer", literally "donkey-donkey", traceable back to the Hebrew word חמור [ħă'mōr] "donkey" and the German word Esel "donkey".
The following are examples of bilingual tautological first names (anthroponyms) in Yiddish:
Dov-Ber, literally "bear-bear", traceable back to the Hebrew word dov "bear" and the German word Bär "bear".
Tsvi-Hirsh, literally "deer-deer", traceable back to the Hebrew word tsvi "deer" and the German word Hirsch "deer".
Ze'ev-Volf, literally "wolf-wolf", traceable back to the Hebrew word ze'ev "wolf" and the German word Wolf "wolf".
Arye-Leyb, literally "lion-lion", traceable back to the Hebrew word arye "lion" and the German word Löwe "lion".
Examples occurring in English-language contexts include:
River Avon, literally "River River", from Welsh
the Sahara Desert, literally "the The Desert Desert", from Arabic.
the La Brea Tar Pits, literally "the The Tar Tar Pits", from Spanish.
the hoi polloi, literally "the the many", from Greek.
An example of English embedded tautologically in German is coffee to go zum mitnehmen, where zum mitnehmen is German equivalent to English to go.
Syntactic pleonasm
Syntactic pleonasm occurs when the grammar of a language makes certain function words optional. For example, consider the following English sentences:
"I know you're coming."
"I know that you're coming."
In this construction, the conjunction that is optional when joining a sentence to a verb phrase with know. Both sentences are grammatically correct, but the word that is pleonastic in this case. By contrast, when a sentence is in spoken form and the verb involved is one of assertion, the use of that makes clear that the present speaker is making an indirect rather than a direct quotation, such that he is not imputing particular words to the person he describes as having made an assertion; the demonstrative adjective that also does not fit such an example. Also, some writers may use "that" for technical clarity reasons. In some languages, such as French, the word is not optional and should therefore not be considered pleonastic.
The same phenomenon occurs in Spanish with subject pronouns. Since Spanish is a null-subject language, which allows subject pronouns to be deleted when understood, the following sentences mean the same:
""
""
In this case, the pronoun ('I') is grammatically optional; both sentences mean "I love you" (however, they may not have the same tone or intention—this depends on pragmatics rather than grammar). Such differing but syntactically equivalent constructions, in many languages, may also indicate a difference in register.
The process of deleting pronouns is called pro-dropping, and it also happens in many other languages, such as Korean, Japanese, Hungarian, Latin, Italian, Portuguese, Swahili, Slavic languages, and the Lao language.
In contrast, formal English requires an overt subject in each clause. A sentence may not need a subject to have valid meaning, but to satisfy the syntactic requirement for an explicit subject a pleonastic (or dummy pronoun) is used; only the first sentence in the following pair is acceptable English:
"It's raining."
* "Is raining."
In this example the pleonastic "it" fills the subject function, however, it does not contribute any meaning to the sentence. The second sentence, which omits the pleonastic it is marked as ungrammatical although no meaning is lost by the omission. Elements such as "it" or "there," serving as empty subject markers, are also called (syntactic) expletives, and also dummy pronouns. Compare:
"There is rain."
* "Today is rain."
The pleonastic (), expressing uncertainty in formal French, works as follows:
""('I fear it may rain.')
""('These ideas are harder to understand than I thought.')
Two more striking examples of French pleonastic construction are and .
The word / is translated as 'today', but originally means "on the day of today" since the now obsolete means "today". The expression (translated as "on the day of today") is common in spoken language and demonstrates that the original construction of is lost. It is considered a pleonasm.
The phrase meaning 'What's that?' or 'What is it?', while literally, it means "What is it that it is?".
There are examples of the pleonastic, or dummy, negative in English, such as the construction, heard in the New England region of the United States, in which the phrase "So don't I" is intended to have the same positive meaning as "So do I."
When Robert South said, "It is a pleonasm, a figure usual in Scripture, by a multiplicity of expressions to signify one notable thing", he was observing the Biblical Hebrew poetic propensity to repeat thoughts in different words, since written Biblical Hebrew was a comparatively early form of written language and was written using oral patterning, which has many pleonasms. In particular, very many verses of the Psalms are split into two halves, each of which says much the same thing in different words. The complex rules and forms of written language as distinct from spoken language were not as well-developed as they are today when the books making up the Old Testament were written. See also parallelism (rhetoric).
This same pleonastic style remains very common in modern poetry and songwriting (e.g., "Anne, with her father / is out in the boat / riding the water / riding the waves / on the sea", from Peter Gabriel's "Mercy Street").
Types of syntactic pleonasm
Overinflection: Many languages with inflection, as a result of convention, tend to inflect more words in a given phrase than actually needed in order to express a single grammatical property. Take for example the German, Die alten Frauen sprechen ("The old women speak"). Even though the use of the plural form of the noun Frau ("woman", plural Frauen) shows the grammatical number of the noun phrase, agreement in the German language still dictates that the definite article die, attributive adjective alten, and the verb sprechen must all also be in the plural. Not all languages are quite as redundant however, and will permit inflection for number when there is an obvious numerical marker, as is the case with Hungarian, which does have a plural proper, but would express two flowers as two flower. (The same is the case in Celtic languages, where numerical markers precede singular nouns.) The main contrast between Hungarian and other tongues such as German or even English (to a lesser extent) is that in either of the latter, expressing plurality when already evident is not optional, but mandatory; making the neglect of these rules result in an ungrammatical sentence. As well as for number, our aforementioned German phrase also overinflects for grammatical case.
Multiple negation: In some languages, repeated negation may be used for emphasis, as in the English sentence, "There ain't nothing wrong with that". While a literal interpretation of this sentence would be "There is not nothing wrong with that," i.e. "There is something wrong with that," the intended meaning is, in fact, the opposite: "There is nothing wrong with that" or "There isn't anything wrong with that." The repeated negation is used pleonastically for emphasis. However, this is not always the case. In the sentence "I don't not like it," the repeated negative may be used to convey ambivalence ("I neither like nor dislike it") or even affirmation ("I do like it"). (Rhetorically, this becomes the device of litotes; it can be difficult to distinguish litotes from pleonastic double negation, a feature which may be used for ironic effect.) Although the use of "double negatives" for emphatic purposes is sometimes discouraged in standard English, it is mandatory in other languages like Spanish or French. For example, the Spanish phrase ('It is nothing') contains both a negated verb ("no es") and another negative, the word for nothing ("nada").
Multiple affirmations: In English, repeated affirmation can be used to add emphasis to an affirmative statement, just as repeated negation can add emphasis to a negative one. A sentence like I do love you, with a stronger intonation on the do, uses double affirmation. This is because English, by default, automatically expresses its sentences in the affirmative and must then alter the sentence in one way or another to express the opposite. Therefore, the sentence I love you is already affirmative, and adding the extra do only adds emphasis and does not change the meaning of the statement.
Double possession: The double genitive of English, as with a friend of mine, is seemingly pleonastic, and therefore has been stigmatized, but it has a long history of use by careful writers and has been analyzed as either a partitive genitive or an appositive genitive.
Multiple quality gradation: In English, different degrees of comparison (comparatives and superlatives) are created through a morphological change to an adjective (e.g. "prettier", "fastest") or a syntactic construction (e.g. "more complex", "most impressive"). It is thus possible to combine both forms for additional emphasis: "more bigger" or "bestest". This may be considered ungrammatical, but is common in informal speech for some English speakers. "The most unkindest cut of all" is from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Musical notation has a repeated Italian superlative in fortississimo and pianississimo.
Not all uses of constructions such as "more bigger" are pleonastic, however. Some speakers who use such utterances do so in an attempt, albeit a grammatically unconventional one, to create a non-pleonastic construction: A person who says "X is more bigger than Y" may, in the context of a conversation featuring a previous comparison of some object Z with Y, mean "The degree by which X exceeds Y in size is greater than the degree by which Z exceeds Y in size". This usage amounts to the treatment of "bigger than Y" as a single grammatical unit, namely an adjective itself admitting of degrees, such that "X is more bigger than Y" is equivalent to "X is more bigger-than-Y than Z is." Another common way to express this is: "X is even bigger than Z."
Semantic pleonasm
Semantic pleonasm is a question more of style and usage than of grammar. Linguists usually call this redundancy to avoid confusion with syntactic pleonasm, a more important phenomenon for theoretical linguistics. It usually takes one of two forms: Overlap or prolixity.
Overlap: One word's semantic component is subsumed by the other:
"Receive a free gift with every purchase.", a gift is already free.
"I ate a tuna fish sandwich."
"The plumber fixed our hot water heater." (This pleonasm was famously attacked by American comedian George Carlin, but is not truly redundant; a device that increases the temperature of cold water to room temperature would also be a water heater.)
The Big Friendly Giant (title of a children's book by Roald Dahl), a giant is inherently already big
Prolixity: A phrase may have words which add nothing, or nothing logical or relevant, to the meaning.
"I'm going down south."(South is not really "down", it is just drawn that way on maps by convention.)
"You can't seem to face up to the facts."
"He entered into the room."
"Every mother's child" (as in 'The Christmas Song' by Nat King Cole', also known as 'Chestnuts roasting...'). (Being a child, or a human at all, generally implies being the child of/to a mother. So the redundancy here is used to broaden the context of the child's curiosity regarding the sleigh of Santa Claus, including the concept of maternity. The full line goes: "And every mother's child is gonna spy, to see if reindeer really know how to fly". One can furthermore argue that the word "mother" is included for the purpose of lyrical flow, adding two syllables, which make the line sound complete, as "every child" would be too short to fit the lyrical/rhyme scheme. )
"What therefore God hath joined together, let no man put asunder."
"He raised up his hands in a gesture of surrender."
"Where are you at?"
"Located" or similar before a preposition: "the store is located on Main St." The preposition contains the idea of locatedness and does not need a servant.
"The house itself" for "the house", and similar: unnecessary re-specifiers.
"Actual fact": fact.
"On a daily basis": daily.
"This particular item": this item.
"Different" or "separate" after numbers: for example:
"Four different species" are merely "four species", as two non-different species are together one same species. (However, in "a discount if you buy ten different items", "different" has meaning, because if the ten items include two packets of frozen peas of the same weight and brand, those ten items are not all different.)
"Nine separate cars": cars are always separate.
"Despite the fact that": although.
An expression like "tuna fish", however, might elicit one of many possible responses, such as:
It will simply be accepted as synonymous with "tuna".
It will be perceived as redundant (and thus perhaps silly, illogical, ignorant, inefficient, dialectal, odd, and/or intentionally humorous).
It will imply a distinction. A reader of "tuna fish" could properly wonder: "Is there a kind of tuna which is not a fish? There is, after all, a dolphin mammal and a dolphin fish." This assumption turns out to be correct, as a "tuna" can also mean a prickly pear. Further, "tuna fish" is sometimes used to refer to the flesh of the animal as opposed to the animal itself (similar to the distinction between beef and cattle).
It will be perceived as a verbal clarification, since the word "tuna" is quite short, and may, for example, be misheard as "tune" followed by an aspiration, or (in dialects that drop the final -r sound) as "tuner".
Careful speakers, and writers, too, are aware of pleonasms, especially with cases such as "tuna fish", which is normally used only in some dialects of American English, and would sound strange in other variants of the language, and even odder in translation into other languages.
Similar situations are:
"Ink pen" instead of merely "pen" in the southern United States, where "pen" and "pin" are pronounced similarly.
"Extra accessories" which must be ordered separately for a new camera, as distinct from the accessories provided with the camera as sold.
Not all constructions that are typically pleonasms are so in all cases, nor are all constructions derived from pleonasms themselves pleonastic:
"Put that glass over there on the table." This could, depending on room layout, mean "Put that glass on the table across the room, not the table right in front of you"; if the room were laid out like that, most English speakers would intuitively understand that the distant, not immediate table was the one being referred to; however, if there were only one table in the room, the phrase would indeed be pleonastic. Also, it could mean, "Put that glass on the spot (on the table) which I am gesturing to"; thus, in this case, it is not pleonastic.
"I'm going way down South." This may imply "I'm going much farther south than you might think if I didn't stress the southerliness of my destination"; but such phrasing is also sometimes—and sometimes jokingly—used pleonastically when simply "south" would do; it depends upon the context, the intent of the speaker/writer, and ultimately even on the expectations of the listener/reader.
Morphemic pleonasm
Morphemes, not just words, can enter the realm of pleonasm: Some word-parts are simply optional in various languages and dialects. A familiar example to American English speakers would be the allegedly optional "-al-", probably most commonly seen in "" vs. "publicly"—both spellings are considered correct/acceptable in American English, and both pronounced the same, in this dialect, rendering the "publically" spelling pleonastic in US English; in other dialects it is "required", while it is quite conceivable that in another generation or so of American English it will be "forbidden". This treatment of words ending in "-ic", "-ac", etc., is quite inconsistent in US English—compare "maniacally" or "forensically" with "stoicly" or "heroicly"; "forensicly" doesn't look "right" in any dialect, but "heroically" looks internally redundant to many Americans. (Likewise, there are thousands of mostly American Google search results for "eroticly", some in reputable publications, but it does not even appear in the 23-volume, 23,000-page, 500,000-definition Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the largest in the world; and even American dictionaries give the correct spelling as "erotically".) In a more modern pair of words, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers dictionaries say that "electric" and "electrical" mean the same thing. However, the usual adverb form is "electrically". (For example, "The glass rod is electrically charged by rubbing it with silk".)
Some (mostly US-based) prescriptive grammar pundits would say that the "-ly" not "-ally" form is "correct" in any case in which there is no "-ical" variant of the basic word, and vice versa; i.e. "maniacally", not "maniacly", is correct because "maniacal" is a word, while "publicly", not "publically", must be correct because "publical" is (arguably) not a real word (it does not appear in the OED). This logic is in doubt, since most if not all "-ical" constructions arguably are "real" words and most have certainly occurred more than once in "reputable" publications, and are also immediately understood by any educated reader of English even if they "look funny" to some, or do not appear in popular dictionaries. Additionally, there are numerous examples of words that have very widely accepted extended forms that have skipped one or more intermediary forms, e.g. "disestablishmentarian" in the absence of "disestablishmentary" (which does not appear in the OED). At any rate, while some US editors might consider "-ally" vs. "-ly" to be pleonastic in some cases, the majority of other English speakers would not, and many "-ally" words are not pleonastic to anyone, even in American English.
The most common definitely pleonastic morphological usage in English is "irregardless", which is very widely criticized as being a non-word. The standard usage is "regardless", which is already negative; adding the additional negative ir- is interpreted by some as logically reversing the meaning to "with regard to/for", which is certainly not what the speaker intended to convey. (According to most dictionaries that include it, "irregardless" appears to derive from confusion between "regardless" and "irrespective", which have overlapping meanings.)
Morphemic pleonasm in Modern Standard Chinese
There are several instances in Chinese vocabulary where pleonasms and cognate objects are present. Their presence usually indicate the plural form of the noun or the noun in formal context.
('book(s)' – in general)
('paper, tissue, pieces of paper' – formal)
In some instances, the pleonasmic form of the verb is used with the intention as an emphasis to one meaning of the verb, isolating them from their idiomatic and figurative uses. But over time, the pseudo-object, which sometimes repeats the verb, is almost inherently coupled with the it.
For example, the word ('to sleep') is an intransitive verb, but may express different meaning when coupled with objects of prepositions as in "to sleep with". However, in Mandarin, is usually coupled with a pseudo-character , yet it is not entirely a cognate object, to express the act of resting.
('I want sleep'). Although such usage of is not found among native speakers of Mandarin and may sound awkward, this expression is grammatically correct and it is clear that means 'to sleep/to rest' in this context.
('I want to sleep') and ('I'm going to sleep'). In this context, ('to sleep') is a complete verb and native speakers often express themselves this way. Adding this particle clears any suspicion from using it with any direct object shown in the next example:
('I want to have sex with her') and ('I want to sleep with her'). When the verb follows an animate direct object the meaning changes dramatically. The first instance is mainly seen in colloquial speech. Note that the object of preposition of "to have sex with" is the equivalent of the direct object of in Mandarin.
One can also find a way around this verb, using another one which does not is used to express idiomatic expressions nor necessitate a pleonasm, because it only has one meaning:
('I want "to dorm)
Nevertheless, is a verb used in high-register diction, just like English verbs with Latin roots.
There is no relationship found between Chinese and English regarding verbs that can take pleonasms and cognate objects. Although the verb to sleep may take a cognate object as in "sleep a restful sleep", it is a pure coincidence, since verbs of this form are more common in Chinese than in English; and when the English verb is used without the cognate objects, its diction is natural and its meaning is clear in every level of diction, as in "I want to sleep" and "I want to have a rest".
Subtler redundancies
In some cases, the redundancy in meaning occurs at the syntactic level above the word, such as at the phrase level:
"It's déjà vu all over again."
"I never make predictions, especially about the future."
The redundancy of these two well-known statements is deliberate, for humorous effect. (See Yogi Berra#"Yogi-isms".) But one does hear educated people say "my predictions about the future of politics" for "my predictions about politics", which are equivalent in meaning. While predictions are necessarily about the future (at least in relation to the time the prediction was made), the nature of this future can be subtle (e.g., "I predict that he died a week ago"—the prediction is about future discovery or proof of the date of death, not about the death itself). Generally "the future" is assumed, making most constructions of this sort pleonastic. The latter humorous quote above about not making predictions – by Yogi Berra – is not really a pleonasm, but rather an ironic play on words.
Alternatively it could be an analogy between predict and guess.
However, "It's déjà vu all over again" could mean that there was earlier another déjà vu of the same event or idea, which has now arisen for a third time; or that the speaker had very recently experienced a déjà vu of a different idea.
Redundancy, and "useless" or "nonsensical" words (or phrases, or morphemes), can also be inherited by one language from the influence of another and are not pleonasms in the more critical sense but actual changes in grammatical construction considered to be required for "proper" usage in the language or dialect in question. Irish English, for example, is prone to a number of constructions that non-Irish speakers find strange and sometimes directly confusing or silly:
"I'm after putting it on the table."('I [have] put it on the table.') This example further shows that the effect, whether pleonastic or only pseudo-pleonastic, can apply to words and word-parts, and multi-word phrases, given that the fullest rendition would be "I am after putting it on the table".
"Have a look at your man there."('Have a look at that man there.') An example of word substitution, rather than addition, that seems illogical outside the dialect. This common possessive-seeming construction often confuses the non-Irish enough that they do not at first understand what is meant. Even "Have a look at that man there" is arguably further doubly redundant, in that a shorter "Look at that man" version would convey essentially the same meaning.
"She's my wife so she is."('She's my wife.') Duplicate subject and verb, post-complement, used to emphasize a simple factual statement or assertion.
All of these constructions originate from the application of Irish Gaelic grammatical rules to the English dialect spoken, in varying particular forms, throughout the island.
Seemingly "useless" additions and substitutions must be contrasted with similar constructions that are used for stress, humor, or other intentional purposes, such as:
"I abso-fuckin'-lutely agree!"(tmesis, for stress)
"Topless-shmopless—nudity doesn't distract me."(shm-reduplication, for humor)
The latter of these is a result of Yiddish influences on modern English, especially East Coast US English.
Sometimes editors and grammatical stylists will use "pleonasm" to describe simple wordiness. This phenomenon is also called prolixity or logorrhea. Compare:
"The sound of the loud music drowned out the sound of the burglary."
"The loud music drowned out the sound of the burglary."
or even:
"The music drowned out the burglary."
The reader or hearer does not have to be told that loud music has a sound, and in a newspaper headline or other abbreviated prose can even be counted upon to infer that "burglary" is a proxy for "sound of the burglary" and that the music necessarily must have been loud to drown it out, unless the burglary was relatively quiet (this is not a trivial issue, as it may affect the legal culpability of the person who played the music); the word "loud" may imply that the music should have been played quietly if at all. Many are critical of the excessively abbreviated constructions of "headline-itis" or "newsspeak", so "loud [music]" and "sound of the [burglary]" in the above example should probably not be properly regarded as pleonastic or otherwise genuinely redundant, but simply as informative and clarifying.
Prolixity is also used to obfuscate, confuse, or euphemize and is not necessarily redundant or pleonastic in such constructions, though it often is. "Post-traumatic stress disorder" (shell shock) and "pre-owned vehicle" (used car) are both tumid euphemisms but are not redundant. Redundant forms, however, are especially common in business, political, and academic language that is intended to sound impressive (or to be vague so as to make it hard to determine what is actually being promised, or otherwise misleading). For example: "This quarter, we are presently focusing with determination on an all-new, innovative integrated methodology and framework for rapid expansion of customer-oriented external programs designed and developed to bring the company's consumer-first paradigm into the marketplace as quickly as possible."
In contrast to redundancy, an oxymoron results when two seemingly contradictory words are adjoined.
Foreign words
Redundancies sometimes take the form of foreign words whose meaning is repeated in the context:
"We went to the El Restaurante restaurant."
"The La Brea tar pits are fascinating."
"Roast beef served with au jus sauce."
"Please R.S.V.P."
"The Schwarzwald Forest is deep and dark."
"The Drakensberg Mountains are in South Africa."
LibreOffice office suite.
The hoi polloi.
I'd like to have a chai tea.
These sentences use phrases which mean, respectively, "the restaurant restaurant", "the tar tar", "with juice sauce" and so on. However, many times these redundancies are necessary—especially when the foreign words make up a proper noun as opposed to a common one. For example, "We went to Il Ristorante" is acceptable provided the audience can infer that it is a restaurant. (If they understand Italian and English it might, if spoken, be misinterpreted as a generic reference and not a proper noun, leading the hearer to ask "Which ristorante do you mean?"—such confusions are common in richly bilingual areas like Montreal or the American Southwest when mixing phrases from two languages.) But avoiding the redundancy of the Spanish phrase in the second example would only leave an awkward alternative: "La Brea pits are fascinating".
Most find it best to not even drop articles when using proper nouns made from foreign languages:
"The movie is playing at the El Capitan theater."
This is also similar to the treatment of definite and indefinite articles in titles of books, films, etc. where the article can—some would say must—be present where it would otherwise be "forbidden":
"Stephen King's The Shining is scary."(Normally, the article would be left off following a possessive.)
"I'm having an An American Werewolf in London movie night at my place."(Seemingly doubled article, which would be taken for a stutter or typographical error in other contexts.)
Some cross-linguistic redundancies, especially in placenames, occur because a word in one language became the title of a place in another (e.g., the Sahara Desert—"Sahara" is an English approximation of the word for "deserts" in Arabic). "The Los Angeles Angels" professional baseball team is literally "the The Angels Angels." A supposed extreme example is Torpenhow Hill in Cumbria, if etymologized as meaning "hill" in the language of each of the cultures that have lived in the area during recorded history, could be translated as "Hillhillhill Hill". See the List of tautological place names for many more examples.
Acronyms and initialisms
Acronyms and initialisms can also form the basis for redundancies; this is known humorously as RAS syndrome (for Redundant Acronym Syndrome syndrome):
"I forgot my PIN number for the ATM machine" is actually: "I forgot my Personal Identification Number number for the Automated Teller Machine machine."
"I upgraded the RAM memory of my computer."
"She is infected with the HIV virus."
"I have installed a CMS system on my server."
"Physics is based on the SI system of units."
In all the examples listed above, the word after the acronym repeats a word represented in the acronym—respectively, "Personal Identification Number number", "Automated Teller Machine machine", "Random Access Memory memory", "Human Immunodeficiency Virus virus", "Content Management System system", "International System of Units". (See RAS syndrome for many more examples.) The expansion of an acronym like PIN or HIV may be well known to English speakers, but the acronyms themselves have come to be treated as words, so little thought is given to what their expansion is (and "PIN" is also pronounced the same as the word "pin"; disambiguation is probably the source of "PIN number"; "SIN number" for "Social Insurance Number number" is a similar common phrase in Canada.) But redundant acronyms are more common with technical (e.g. computer) terms where well-informed speakers recognize the redundancy and consider it silly or ignorant, but mainstream users might not, since they may not be aware or certain of the full expansion of an acronym like "RAM". In the case of the International System of Units, the redundancy is complicated by the French name, Le Système International. d'Unités. This results in a statement such as "the International System of units system is better than the English system.".
Typographical
Some redundancies are simply typographical. For instance, when a short inflexional word like "the" occurs at the end of a line, it is very common to accidentally repeat it at the beginning of the following line, and a large number of readers would not even notice it.
Apparent redunancies that actually are not redundant
Carefully constructed expressions, especially in poetry and political language, but also some general usages in everyday speech, may appear to be redundant but are not. This is most common with cognate objects (a verb's object that is cognate with the verb):
"She slept a deep sleep."
Or, a classic example from Latin:
mutatis mutandis = "with change made to what needs to be changed" (an ablative absolute construction)
The words need not be etymologically related, but simply conceptually, to be considered an example of cognate object:
"We wept tears of joy."
Such constructions are not actually redundant (unlike "She slept a sleep" or "We wept tears") because the object's modifiers provide additional information. A rarer, more constructed form is polyptoton, the stylistic repetition of the same word or words derived from the same root:
"...[T]he only thing we have to fear is fear itself."—Franklin D. Roosevelt, "First Inaugural Address", March 1933.
"With eager feeding[,] food doth choke the feeder."—William Shakespeare, Richard II, II, i, 37.
As with cognate objects, these constructions are not redundant because the repeated words or derivatives cannot be removed without removing meaning or even destroying the sentence, though in most cases they could be replaced with non-related synonyms at the cost of style (e.g., compare "The only thing we have to fear is terror".)
Semantic pleonasm and context
In many cases of semantic pleonasm, the status of a word as pleonastic depends on context. The relevant context can be as local as a neighboring word, or as global as the extent of a speaker's knowledge. In fact, many examples of redundant expressions are not inherently redundant, but can be redundant if used one way, and are not redundant if used another way. The "up" in "climb up" is not always redundant, as in the example "He climbed up and then fell down the mountain." Many other examples of pleonasm are redundant only if the speaker's knowledge is taken into account. For example, most English speakers would agree that "tuna fish" is redundant because tuna is a kind of fish. However, given the knowledge that "tuna" can also refer a kind of edible prickly pear, the "fish" in "tuna fish" can be seen as non-pleonastic, but rather a disambiguator between the fish and the prickly pear.
Conversely, to English speakers who do not know Spanish, there is nothing redundant about "the La Brea tar pits" because the name "La Brea" is opaque: the speaker does not know that it is Spanish for "the tar" and thus "the La Brea Tar Pits" translates to "the the tar tar pits". Similarly, even though scuba stands for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus", a phrase like "the scuba gear" would probably not be considered pleonastic because "scuba" has been reanalyzed into English as a simple word, and not an acronym suggesting the pleonastic word sequence "apparatus gear". (Most do not even know that it is an acronym and do not spell it SCUBA or S.C.U.B.A. Similar examples are radar and laser.)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Figures of speech
Linguistics
Rhetoric
Semantics (linguistics)
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218883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Howe%2C%205th%20Viscount%20Howe | William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe | William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC (10 August 172912 July 1814) was a British Army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British land forces in the Colonies during the American War of Independence. Howe was one of three brothers who had distinguished military careers. In historiography of the American war he is usually referred to as Sir William Howe to distinguish him from his brother Richard, who was 4th Viscount Howe at that time.
Having joined the army in 1746, Howe saw extensive service in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years' War. He became known for his role in the capture of Quebec in 1759 when he led a British force to capture the cliffs at Anse-au-Foulon, allowing James Wolfe to land his army and engage the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Howe also participated in the campaigns to take Louisbourg, Belle Île and Havana. He was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, a post he held until 1795.
Howe was sent to North America in March 1775, arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out. After leading British troops to a costly victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill, Howe took command of all British forces in America from Thomas Gage in September of that year. Howe's record in North America was marked by the successful capture of both New York City and Philadelphia. However, poor campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign, which played a major role in the entry of France into the war. Howe's role in developing those plans and the degree to which he was responsible for British failures that year (despite his personal success at Philadelphia) have both been subjects of contemporary and historic debate.
He was knighted after his successes in 1776. He resigned his post as Commander-in-Chief, British land forces in America, in 1777, and the next year returned to England, where he was at times active in the defence of the British Isles. He sat in the House of Commons from 1758 to 1780 for Nottingham. He inherited the Viscountcy of Howe upon the death of his brother Richard in 1799. He married, but had no children, and the viscountcy became extinct with his death in 1814.
Early life and career
William Howe was born in England, the third son of Emanuel Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe and Charlotte, the daughter of Sophia von Kielmansegg, Countess of Leinster and Darlington, an acknowledged illegitimate half-sister of King George I. His mother was a regular in the courts of George II and George III. This connection with the crown may have improved the careers of all four sons, but all were also very capable officers. His father was a politician, who served as Governor of Barbados where he died in 1735. William's eldest brother, General George Howe, was killed just before the 1758 Battle of Carillon at Fort Ticonderoga. Another brother, Admiral Richard Howe, rose to become one of Britain's leading naval commanders. A third brother, Thomas, commanded ships for the East India Company, Winchelsea in 1762–64 and Nottingham in 1766, and made observations on Madeira and on the Comoro Islands.
William entered the army when he was 17 by buying a cornet's commission in the Duke of Cumberland's Dragoons in 1746, becoming a lieutenant the following year. He then served for two years in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession. After the war he was transferred to the 20th Regiment of Foot, where he became a friend of James Wolfe.
Seven Years' War
During the Seven Years' War Howe's service first brought him to America, and did much to raise his reputation. Promoted to the rank of major in 1756, he joined the newly formed 58th (Rutlandshire) Regiment of Foot in February 1757, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in December of that year. He commanded the regiment at the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758, leading an amphibious landing under heavy enemy fire. This action won the attackers a flanking position and earned Howe a commendation from Wolfe.
Howe commanded a light infantry battalion under General Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec. He was in the Battle of Beauport, and was chosen by Wolfe to lead the ascent from the Saint Lawrence River up to the Plains of Abraham that led to the British victory in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on 13 September 1759. After spending the winter in the defence of Quebec City, his regiment fought in the April 1760 Battle of Sainte-Foy and subsequent siege of Quebec. He then led a brigade in the decisive Montreal Campaign under Jeffery Amherst before returning to England. Howe led a brigade in the 1761 Capture of Belle Île, off the French coast, and turned down the opportunity to become military governor after its capture so that he might continue in active service. He served as adjutant general of the force that captured Havana in 1762, playing a part in a skirmish at Guanabacoa.
In 1758, Howe was elected a member of parliament for Nottingham, succeeding to the seat vacated by his brother George's death. His election was assisted by the influence of his mother, who campaigned on behalf of her son while he was away at war, and may very well have been undertaken because service in Parliament was seen as a common way to improve one's prospects for advancement in the military. In 1764 he was promoted to colonel of the 46th (South Devonshire) Regiment of Foot, and in 1768 he was appointed lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight. As tensions rose between Britain and the colonies in the 1770s, Howe continued to rise through the ranks, and came to be widely regarded as one of the best officers in the army. He was promoted to major general in 1772, and in 1774 introduced new training drills for light infantry companies.
In Parliament he was generally sympathetic to the American colonies. He publicly opposed the collection of legislation intended to punish the Thirteen Colonies known as Intolerable Acts, and in 1774 assured his constituents that he would resist active duty against the Americans and asserted that the entire British army could not conquer America. He also let government ministers know privately that he was prepared to serve in America as second in command to Thomas Gage, whom he knew was unpopular in government circles. In early 1775, when King George called on him to serve, he accepted, claiming publicly that if he did not, he would suffer "the odious name of backwardness to serve my country in distress." He sailed for America in March 1775, accompanied by Major Generals Henry Clinton and John Burgoyne. In May 1775 his colonelcy was transferred to the 23rd Fusiliers.
American War of Independence
Howe was first sent to Boston. Privately, he did not agree with the policy of the government towards the colonists, and regretted in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the memory of his brother George was still cherished by the inhabitants, and General Gage, in whom he had no confidence, was commander-in-chief.
Along with fellow British Army Generals Clinton and Burgoyne, Howe arrived there aboard on 25 May 1775, having learned en route that war had broken out with the skirmishes at the marches to Lexington and Concord in April. The Cerberus provided naval reinforcement at the Battle of Bunker Hill. He led a force of 4,000 troops sent to reinforce the 5,000 troops under General Thomas Gage who were besieged in the city after those battles. Gage, Howe, and Generals Clinton and Burgoyne discussed plans to break the siege. They formulated a plan to seize high ground around Boston and attack the besieging colonial militia forces, setting its execution for 18 June. However, the colonists learned of the plan and fortified the heights of Breed's Hill and nearby Bunker Hill on the Charlestown peninsula across the Charles River from Boston on the night of 16–17 June, forcing the British leadership to rethink their strategy.
Bunker Hill and Boston
In a war council held early on 17 June, the generals developed a plan calling for a direct assault on the colonial fortification, and Gage gave Howe command of the operation. Despite a sense of urgency (the colonists were still working on the fortifications at the time of the council), the attack, now known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, did not begin until that afternoon. With Howe personally leading the right wing of the attack, the first two assaults were firmly repulsed by the colonial defenders. Howe's third assault gained the objective, but the cost of the day's battle was appallingly heavy. The British casualties, more than 1,000 killed or wounded, were the highest of any engagement in the war. Howe described it as a "success ... too dearly bought." Although Howe exhibited courage on the battlefield, his tactics and overwhelming confidence were criticised. One subordinate wrote that Howe's "absurd and destructive confidence" played a role in the number of casualties incurred.
Although Howe was not injured in the battle, it had a pronounced effect on his spirit. According to British historian George Otto Trevelyan, the battle "exercised a permanent and most potent influence" especially on Howe's behaviour, and that Howe's military skills thereafter "were apt to fail him at the very moment when they were especially wanted." Despite an outward appearance of confidence and popularity with his troops, the "genial six-footer with a face some people described as 'coarse'", privately often exhibited a lack of self-confidence, and in later campaigns became somewhat dependent on his older brother Richard (the admiral in the Royal Navy, also on station in the Colonies) for advice and approval.
On 11 October 1775, General Gage sailed for England, and Howe took over as Commander-in-Chief of British land forces in America. British military planners in London had, with the outbreak of hostilities, begun planning a massive reinforcement of the troops in North America. Their plans, made with recommendations from Howe, called for the abandonment of Boston and the establishment of bases in New York and Newport, Rhode Island in an attempt to isolate the rebellion to New England. When orders arrived in November to execute these plans, Howe opted to remain in Boston for the winter and begin the campaign in 1776. As a result, the remainder of the Siege of Boston was largely a stalemate. Howe never attempted a major engagement with the Continental Army, which had come under the command of Major General George Washington. He did, however, spend a fair amount of time at the gambling tables, and allegedly established a relationship with Elizabeth Lloyd Loring, the wife of Loyalist Joshua Loring, Jr. Loring apparently acquiesced to this arrangement, and was rewarded by Howe with the position of commissary of prisoners. Contemporaries and historians have criticised Howe for both his gambling and the amount of time he supposedly spent with Mrs. Loring, with some going so far as to level accusations that this behaviour interfered with his military activities; historian John Alden does not give these ideas credence. The alleged relationship is also mentioned in The Battle of the Kegs, an American propaganda ballad written by Francis Hopkinson. In January 1776 Howe's role as commander in chief was cemented with a promotion to full general in North America.
The siege was broken in March 1776 when Continental Army Colonel Henry Knox brought heavy artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston during the winter, and General Washington used them to fortify Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston and its harbour. Howe at first planned an assault on this position, but a snowstorm interfered, and he eventually decided to withdraw from Boston. On 17 March, British troops and Loyalists evacuated the city, and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.
New York campaign
Howe and his troops began to arrive outside New York Harbour and made an uncontested landing on Staten Island to the west in early July. Howe, whose orders from Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State responsible for directing the war from Westminster, were fairly clear that he should avoid conflict before the arrival of reinforcements, then waited until those reinforcements arrived in mid-August, along with the naval commander, his brother Richard. This delay proved to be somewhat costly, since the Americans used this time to improve fortifications on northwestern Long Island (at Brooklyn Heights along the East River shoreline) and increased the size of their Continental Army with additional militia. After moving most of his army by amphibious barges across the Verazzano Narrows to southwestern Long Island without opposition, he attacked the American positions on 27 August in what became known as the Battle of Long Island. In a well-executed manoeuvre, a large column led by Howe and Clinton passed around the American left flank and through the lightly guarded Jamaica Pass far to the east (a ridge of hills running east to west bisected the island, with a series of lower entrances that were all guarded by Continentals except inexplicably to the farthest east at Jamaica), catching the Patriots off-guard and routing the Americans from their forward positions back into the entrenchments on Brooklyn Heights. Despite the urging of Clinton and others, Howe decided against an immediate assault on these fortifications, claiming "the Troops had for that day done handsomely enough." He instead began siege operations, methodically advancing on the entrenched Americans. This decision allowed General Washington to successfully orchestrate a nighttime strategic withdrawal across the East River on the night of 29–30 August, aided by a thick morning fog. Historian George Bilias notes that had Howe attacked Brooklyn Heights, the capture of even half of Washington's army, and possibly Washington himself, might have had a significant effect on the rebellion. Some officers, notably General Clinton, were critical of Howe's decision not to storm the American works. Howe was knighted as a reward for his victory on Long Island.
Howe and his brother Richard had, as part of their instructions, been assigned roles as peace commissioners, with limited authority to treat with the rebels. After Long Island, they pursued an attempt at reconciliation, sending the captured General John Sullivan to Philadelphia with a proposal for a peace conference. The meeting that resulted, conducted by Admiral Howe, was unsuccessful. The Howes had been given limited powers, as had the Congressional representatives, and the latter were insistent that the British recognise the recently declared colonial independence. This was not within the Howes' powers, so the conference failed, and Howe then continued the campaign. He first landed troops on Manhattan on 15 September and occupied New York City (which then covered only Lower Manhattan), although his advance northward on Upper Manhattan was checked the next day at Harlem Heights. He paused, spending nearly one month consolidating control of New York City and awaiting reinforcements. During this time he ordered the execution of Nathan Hale for espionage and had to deal with the effects of a major fire in the city. He then attempted a landing on the mainland at Throgs Neck, intending to flank Washington's position at Harlem Heights. However, the narrow causeway between the beach and the mainland was well-defended, and he ended up withdrawing the troops. He made a successful landing of troops at Pell's Point in Westchester County, but Washington managed to avoid being flanked, retreating to White Plains. Howe successfully forced Washington out of the New York area in the 28 October Battle of White Plains, and then turned his attention to consolidate British hold on Manhattan. In November he attacked the remaining Continental Army stronghold in the Battle of Fort Washington, taking several thousand prisoners.
Washington then retreated across New Jersey, followed by Howe's advance forces under Charles Cornwallis. At this point, Howe prepared troops under the command of General Clinton for embarkation to occupy Newport, the other major goal of his plan. Clinton proposed that these troops instead be landed in New Jersey, either opposite Staten Island or on the Delaware River, trapping Washington or even capturing the seat of the Continental Congress, Philadelphia. Howe rejected these proposals, despatching Clinton and General Hugh, Earl Percy, two vocal critics of his leadership, to take Newport. In early December, Howe came to Trenton, New Jersey to arrange the disposition of his troops for the winter. Washington had retreated all the way across the Delaware, and Howe returned to New York, believing the campaign to be ended for the season. When Washington attacked the Hessian quarters at Trenton on 26 December 1776, Howe sent Cornwallis to reform the army in New Jersey and chase after Washington. Cornwallis was frustrated in this, with Washington gaining a second victory at Trenton and a third at Princeton. Howe recalled the army to positions much closer to New York for the winter.
Howe has been criticised by contemporaries and historians for failing to decisively defeat the Continental Army during the New York campaign. Contemporaries complained that his landing in Westchester failed to trap Washington, but failed to understand that his goal in the campaign was to secure Manhattan, and not necessarily to defeat Washington. However, historian George Billias observes that Howe's overly rigid adherence to his plans meant that he was unable to capitalise on the opportunities that arose during the campaign for a decisive action.
Philadelphia campaign
On 30 November 1776, as Washington was retreating across New Jersey, Howe had written to Germain with plans for the 1777 campaign season. He proposed to send a 10,000-man force up the Hudson River to capture Albany, New York, in conjunction with an expedition sent south from Province of Quebec. He again wrote to Germain on 20 December 1776 with more elaborate proposals for 1777. These again included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, and included expanded operations from the base at Newport, and an expedition to take Philadelphia. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively [against Philadelphia], where the enemy's chief strength lies." Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested", but it called for more men that Germain was prepared to provide. After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe in mid-January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army. This plan was developed to the extent that in April, Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River. However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies."
When the campaign season opened in May 1777, General Washington moved most of his army from its winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey to a strongly fortified position in the Watchung Mountains. In June 1777, Howe began a series of odd moves in New Jersey, apparently in an attempt to draw Washington and his army out of that position onto terrain more favourable for a general engagement. His motives for this are uncertain; historian John Buchanan argues that Howe was determined to attempt to draw Washington into a major engagement while both were in northern New Jersey, writing that "Washington's shift in position had whetted Howe's appetite for a major action when, if everything went right, he would finally accomplish what he and his brother's policies had denied him the previous year: the destruction of the Continental Army", but that Howe's underlying campaign goal for the season was Philadelphia. One British major wrote that "[t]he report circulated by those in power is that it was thought necessary to march to Hilsborough to offer Washington battle." Americans like Henry Knox were perplexed but also concluded that was its purpose: "It was unaccountable that [the British] should stop short when they had gone only nine miles ... In the course of a day or two [we] discovered that they ... had come out with an intention of drawing us into the plain." Washington had intelligence that Howe had moved without taking the heavy river-crossing equipment, and was apparently not fooled at all.
When Washington refused to take the bait, Howe withdrew the army to Perth Amboy, under harassment by Colonel Daniel Morgan's skirmisher unit, Morgan's Riflemen, who used their superior weapons to snipe at and harry his forces as they moved. Washington moved down to a more exposed position, assuming Howe was going to embark his army on ships. Howe then launched a lightning strike designed to cut Washington's retreat off. This attempt was foiled by the Battle of Short Hills, which gave Washington time to retreat to a more secure position. Howe then did in fact embark his army and sailed south with his brother's fleet. Howe maintained an effective secrecy surrounding the fleet's destination: not only did Washington not know where it was going, neither did many British rank and file.
Howe's campaign for Philadelphia began with an amphibious landing at Head of Elk, Maryland, southwest of the city in late August. Although Howe would have preferred to make a landing on the Delaware River below Philadelphia, reports of well-prepared defences dissuaded him, and the fleet spent almost an entire extra month at sea to reach Head of Elk. Howe's army left Head of Elk early on 3 September 1777 and pushed back an advance guard of American light infantry at Cooch's Bridge. On 11 September 1777, Howe's army met Washington's near Chadds Ford along the Brandywine Creek in the Battle of Brandywine. Howe established his headquarters at the Gilpin Homestead, where it stayed until the morning of 16 September. In a reprise of earlier battles, Howe once again flanked the Continental Army position and forced Washington to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties.
After two weeks of manoeuvre and engagements (including The Battle of the Clouds, The Battle of Paoli, and an engagement at Valley Forge where Alexander Hamilton was nearly killed in action), Howe triumphantly entered the city on 26 September. The reception Howe received was not quite what he had expected, however. He had been led to believe that "Friends thicker than Woods" would greet him upon his arrival; he instead was greeted by women, children, and many deserted houses. Despite Howe's best attempts to minimise any misconduct by his troops (he authorised the execution of violators of his orders against it), marauding soldiers greatly impacted the public opinion of his army.
One week after Howe entered Philadelphia, on 4 October, Washington made a dawn attack on the British garrison at Germantown. He came close to winning the battle before being repulsed by belated reinforcements sent from the city. This forced Howe to withdraw his troops a little closer to the city, where they were also needed to help clear the American Delaware River defences, which were preventing the navy from resupplying the army. It was late November before this task was accomplished, which included a poorly executed attack on Fort Mercer by a division of Hessians commanded by Colonel von Donop and an advance fleet commanded by Admiral Francis Reynolds.
Impact on Burgoyne's campaign
Concomitant with Howe's campaign, General Burgoyne led his expedition south from Montreal to capture Albany. Burgoyne's advance was stopped in the Battles of Saratoga in September and October, and he surrendered his army on 17 October. Burgoyne's surrender, coupled with Howe's near defeat at Germantown, dramatically altered the strategic balance of the conflict. Support for the Continental Congress, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was strengthened, and the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Britain. Burgoyne's loss also further weakened the British government of Lord North.
Burgoyne made his advance under the assumption that he would be met in Albany by Howe or troops sent by Howe. Burgoyne was apparently not aware that Howe's plans had evolved as they had. Although Germain knew what Howe's plans were, whether he communicated them to Burgoyne is unclear. Some sources claim he did while others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway. Whether Germain, Howe and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear. Some historians argue that Howe failed to follow instructions and essentially abandoned Burgoyne's army, while others suggest that Burgoyne failed on his own and then tried to shift the blame to Howe and Clinton.
Howe's decision to focus his own activity on an expedition to Philadelphia may have been motivated by competition with General Burgoyne, who was given command of the northern force despite lobbying by Howe for its command to be given to Clinton. John Alden notes the jealousies among the British leaders, saying, "It is likely that [Howe] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown." Along the same lines historian Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe's view, "It [the northern campaign] was Burgoyne's whole show, and consequently he [Howe] wanted little to do with it. With regard to Burgoyne's army, he would do only what was required of him (virtually nothing)."
Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on 17 July that he intended to stay close to Washington: "My intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington, but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations, and you can keep him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you." This suggested that Howe would follow Washington if he went north to assist in the defence of the Hudson. Howe, however, sailed from New York on 23 July. On 30 August, shortly after his arrival at Head of Elk, Howe wrote to Germain that he would be unable to assist Burgoyne, citing a lack of Loyalist support in the Philadelphia area.
A small force sent north from New York by General Clinton in early October was also unable to assist Burgoyne.
Resignation
In October 1777 Howe sent his letter of resignation to London, complaining that he had been inadequately supported in that year's campaigns. He was finally notified in April 1778 that his resignation was accepted. A grand party, known as the "Mischianza", was thrown for the departing general on 18 May. Organized by his aides John André and Oliver De Lancey Jr., the party featured a grand parade, fireworks, and dancing until dawn. Washington, aware that the British were planning to evacuate Philadelphia, sent the Marquis de Lafayette out with a small force on the night of the party to determine British movements. This movement was noticed by alert British troops, and Howe ordered a column out to entrap the marquis. In the Battle of Barren Hill, Lafayette escaped the trap with minimal casualties.
On 24 May, the day Howe sailed for England, General Clinton took over as commander-in-chief of British armies in America, and made preparations for an overland march to New York. Howe arrived back in England on 1 July, where he and his brother faced censure for their actions in North America. It is likely that the resignation of both William and his brother Richard was due to their desire to hurry home to vindicate their conduct during the campaign. In 1779 Howe and his brother demanded a parliamentary inquiry into their actions. The inquiry that followed was unable to confirm any charges of impropriety or mismanagement levelled against either of them. Because of the inconclusive nature of the inquiry, attacks continued to be made against Howe in pamphlets and the press, and in 1780 he published a response to accusations levelled by Loyalist Joseph Galloway, who issued a reply that harshly criticized the general's conduct and accused him of deliberately undermining the war effort for the benefit of the anti-war Whig faction in Parliament.
Later life
In 1780, Howe lost in his bid to be re-elected to the House of Commons. In 1782, he was named lieutenant general of the ordnance and appointed to the Privy Council. His colonelcy was transferred from the 23rd Fusiliers to the 19th Light Dragoons in 1786. He resumed limited active duty in 1789, when a crisis with Spain over territorial claims in northwestern North America threatened to boil over into war. He was placed in command of the forces organized for action against Spain, but the crisis was resolved and Howe did not see further action until 1793, when the French Revolutionary Wars involved Britain. He was promoted to full general in 1793, and commanded Northern District from 1793 and Eastern District from 1795. In 1795, he was appointed governor of Berwick-on-Tweed.
When his brother Richard died in 1799 without surviving male issue, Howe inherited the Irish titles and became the 5th Viscount Howe and Baron Clenawly. In 1803, he resigned as lieutenant general of the ordnance, citing poor health. In 1805, he was appointed governor of Plymouth. He died at Twickenham in 1814 after a long illness.
Howe had married Frances Connolly, often referred to as Fanny, in 1765. Their marriage was childless. Therefore, his titles died with him. His wife survived him by three years. Both are buried in Twickenham.
Popular culture
Howe appears as an antagonist in the supernatural TV series Sleepy Hollow, depicted in flashbacks by Nicholas Guest and described as being notorious for his brilliant tactics and ruthless cruelty. In his historical role as the main British general during the War for Independence, Howe was acquainted with Ichabod Crane (Tom Mison) before Crane defected to America; his first major flashback appearance sees him offer Crane a chance to return to Britain if he identifies Washington's spies in the British forces, with Crane feeling guilty that he was briefly tempted by the offer. Howe also plays a key role in the crossover episodes between Sleepy Hollow and crime drama Bones; his body is discovered in a small American church in the present (characters noting that he is recorded as being buried in Twickenham), with his skull being identified as the 'murder weapon' in Bones episode "The Resurrection in the Remains", and he is resurrected as a zombie-like warrior in the following Sleepy Hollow episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales", requiring Crane to destroy him with Greek fire.
Howe is also featured in "Howe's Masquerade" and "Old Esther Dudley", two of the stories that make up Nathaniel Hawthorne's Legends of the Province House, a quartet of tales that first appeared in 1838–39.
Citations
Bibliography
(Paperback: )
2003 Da Capo reprint, .
Further reading
Gruber, Ira D. The Howe Brothers and the American Revolution (1974)
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (2014).
Smith, David. William Howe and the American War of Independence (London: Bloomsbury, 2015) 201 pp.
Smith, David. New York 1776: The Continentals' first battle (Bloomsbury, 2012).
Smith, David. Whispers Across the Atlantick: General William Howe and the American Revolution (Bloomsbury, 2017).
Primary sources
Howe's 1780 pamphlet defending his conduct in North America
Joseph Galloway's response to Howe's pamphlet
External links
General Howe's Orderly book June 30, 1776 – Oct 1776
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218884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20Record%20Office | Public Record Office | The Public Record Office (abbreviated as PRO, pronounced as three letters and referred to as the PRO), Chancery Lane in the City of London, was the guardian of the national archives of the United Kingdom from 1838 until 2003, when it was merged with the Historical Manuscripts Commission to form The National Archives, based in Kew. It was under the control of the Master of the Rolls, a senior judge. The Public Record Office still exists as a legal entity, as the enabling legislation has not been modified.
History
19th century
The Public Record Office was established in 1838, to reform the keeping of government and court records which were being held, sometimes in poor conditions, in a variety of places. Some of these were court or departmental archives (established for several centuries) which were well-run and had good or adequate catalogues; others were little more than store-rooms. Many of the professional staff of these individual archives simply continued their existing work in the new institution. Many documents were transferred from the Tower of London and the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, though Domesday Book was not moved from Westminster Abbey until 1859, when proper storage had been prepared.
The PRO was placed under the control of the Master of the Rolls, a senior judge whose job originally had included responsibility for keeping the records of the Court of Chancery. Its original premises were the mediaeval Rolls Chapel (the former Domus Conversorum, a chapel for Jews who had converted to Christianity), on Chancery Lane at the western extremity of the City of London, near the border with the City of Westminster. The first Master of the Rolls to take on this responsibility was Lord Langdale (d.1851) although his Deputy Keeper, the historian Sir Francis Palgrave (who wrote a voluminous work on ancient writs, many of which were housed in the PRO), had full-time responsibility for running the Office.
Until 1852 no right existed for the general public to consult the records freely, even for scholarly purposes, despite the intention of the Public Record Office Act 1838 to enable public access. Fees were payable by lawyers who in return were permitted to consult a limited number of documents. These charges were abolished for serious historical and literary researchers after a petition was signed in 1851 by 83 people including Charles Dickens and the historians Lord Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle.
Between 1851 and 1858 a purpose built archive repository was built next to the Rolls Chapel, to the design of the architect Sir James Pennethorne, and following the chapel's demolition due to structural unsoundness, was extended onto that original site between 1895 and 1902. Public search rooms were opened in 1866, but the pressure of wider demand led the authorities to restrict the availability of certain classes of document and to favour visitors who were experienced in dealing with historical material.
20th century
The growing size of the archives held by the PRO and by government departments led to the Public Records Act 1958, which sought to avoid the indiscriminate retention of huge numbers of documents by establishing standard selection procedures for the identification of those documents of sufficient historical importance to be kept by the PRO. Even so, growing interest in the records produced a need for the Office to expand, and in 1977 a second building was opened at Kew in south-west London. The Kew building was expanded in the 1990s and by 1997 all records had been transferred from Chancery Lane either to Kew or to the Family Records Centre in Islington, North London. The Chancery Lane building was acquired by King's College London in 2001, and is now the Maughan Library, the university's largest library.
Merger with the Historical Manuscripts Commission
In April 2003 the PRO merged with the Historical Manuscripts Commission (HMC) to form The National Archives. The HMC moved from its previous office, also located off Chancery Lane, to Kew in 2004. The National Archives of Scotland and the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland were and remain separate institutions.
Functions
The archive held the official collection of records of public business for England, Wales and the central UK government, including the records of court proceedings going back to the Middle Ages, and the original manuscript of Domesday Book.
Public access
Under the 1958 act, most documents held by the PRO were kept "closed" (or secret) for 50 years: under an amending act of 1967 this period was reduced to 30 years (the so-called "thirty year rule"). These provisions changed significantly when the UK's Freedom of Information Act 2000 came into full effect in 2005: the 30 year rule was abolished and closed records in The National Archives became subject to the same access controls as other records of public authorities. Some records do remain closed for longer periods, however: individual census returns, for example, are kept closed for 100 years. In 2002 the PRO set up a website to allow online access to the records of the 1901 census, and was overwhelmed by the numbers of people wanting to access the site.
Deputy Keepers and Keepers
From 1838 to 1958 the nominal head of the office, known as the Keeper of the Records, was the Master of the Rolls of the day. The chief executive officer who oversaw the office's day-to-day operations was known as the Deputy Keeper of the Records. Deputy Keepers from 1838 to 1958 were:
1838–1861: Sir Francis Palgrave
1861–1878: (Sir) Thomas Duffus Hardy
1878–1886: (Sir) William Hardy
1886–1926: (Sir) Henry Maxwell Lyte
1926–1938: Alfred Edward Stamp
1938–1947: (Sir) Cyril Thomas Flower
1947–1954: (Sir) Hilary Jenkinson
1954–1958: (Sir) David Lewis Evans
The 1958 act transferred responsibility for the PRO from the Master of the Rolls to the Lord Chancellor; and the title of the chief executive was changed to Keeper of Public Records. The Keepers from 1958 to 2003 were:
1958–1960: Sir David Lewis Evans
1960–1966: Stephen Wilson
1966–1970: Harold Cottam Johnson
1970–1978: Jeffery Raymond Ede
1978–1982: Alfred Mabbs
1982–1988: Geoffrey Martin
1988–1991: Michael Roper
1991–2003: Sarah Tyacke (became Chief Executive of The National Archives, and retired 2005)
References
Further reading
Archives in the City of London
The National Archives (United Kingdom) | [
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218886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavium | Scandinavium | Scandinavium () is an indoor arena located in Gothenburg, Sweden. Construction on Scandinavium began in 1969 after decades of setbacks, and was inaugurated on 18 May 1971.
Scandinavium has been selected as a championship arena at least fifty times, hosting events such as World Championships in handball and ice hockey, European championships, Davis Cup finals, and in 1985 the Eurovision Song Contest. Scandinavium is the home arena for Frölunda HC of Swedish Hockey League, Redbergslids IK of Handbollsligan, and venue for the annual Göteborg Horse Show.
History
Plans to build an arena at the site were part of a proposal originating from 1931 to build a swimming hall and other municipally owned facilities for sport and recreation next to the exhibition center Svenska Mässan. In 1936 a preplanning process for the swimming hall and the adjunct area started, but was put on hold due to the precarious situation in Europe at the time and eventually canceled following the outbreak of World War II. In 1948 an architectural design competition was announced for an indoor arena with the project name Valhalla Inomhusarena (), the winning design was presented by a work group led by architect Poul Hultberg, who was working for Nils Olsson's architect firm in Gothenburg. Financing for the arena and other proposed facilities became a subject of public and political debate, the plans to build the arena were postponed indefinitely. The Valhalla Swimming Hall, which was the primary building in the 1931 proposal, was the only proposed facility to be built during the 1950s due to capacity problems at other central swimming facilities.
In the 1962 election campaign the Swedish Social Democratic Party guaranteed that they would build the arena if they won the election. The Social Democrats won the election and a pre-planning process was started but financing was still an issue and the plans were yet again put on hold. In 1968 a committee assigned to plan the 350th year celebration of Gothenburg considered that it was a good idea to build the arena in time for the celebrations in 1971, making it a lasting memory of the anniversary. A company responsible for the construction was formed by the municipality and private investors, while Hultberg was asked to revise his 23-year-old designs. An estimated construction cost of twenty-three million SEK caused wild protests and intense debates but did not delay the progress. In May 1969 it was discovered that there was no construction permit for the arena, delaying the start of construction for a few weeks. When tartan tracks were installed near the end of construction, the concentration of flammable gases in the building was so high that one spark could have potentially blown up the entire structure. When construction was completed in May 1971, Scandinavium stood as the largest covered arena in northern Europe with an attendance capacity of 14,000 spectators. The construction cost totaled thirty-one million SEK, which resulted in an eight million SEK budget deficit.
Structure and facilities
Scandinavium's "sweeping appearance" comes from the hyperbolic paraboloid shaped saddle roof. The roof is supported by a prestressed cable net, with a nearly constant spacing of four meters in both directions, anchored in a space curved reinforced concrete ring beam with a rectangular cross-section of 3.5 meters × 1.2 meters (11.5 ft × 4 ft). The hanging cables rise ten meters to the top from the saddle point and the bracing cables fall four meters to the valley of the ring beam. The building is 14 meters (46 ft) tall, from the event floor to the pinnacle of the roof. The ring beam is supported by forty circular columns and four stiff pylons, all visible in the arenas facade. The pylons consist of radially oriented concrete walls, with a length of 3.5 meters (11.5 ft), which stores ventilation equipment. The video board, lights, and sound system is suspended in a radially oriented cable system anchored in the four pylons. It was not consider stable enough for colour telecasting to attach these components directly to the roof. The cable system also serves as tension rods for the ring beam.
The seating in Scandinavium is arranged in a one-level monolithic grandstand. The round design of the structure and the symmetric oval shape of the arena floor results in more rows along the length of the floor. The first six rows are telescopic seating which can be electrically retracted. There are forty-four executive boxes in the arena, located between the two northern pylons.
The ice hockey rink measures 61 meters × 30 meters (200 ft × 98.5 ft) which is standard international size. New double frame half boards were installed in 2001, designed to switch to NHL rink dimensions or to be easily removed when other events than ice hockey take place. To maximize the view for spectators, a seamless protective glass barrier consisting of tempered glass panels clipped together at their top corners with clear plastic brackets is used instead of traditional Plexiglas with metal dividers.
For the 2011 Göteborg Horse Show a new equestrian surface was purchased for 2 million SEK.
The arena also contains a McDonald's restaurant, and the familiar golden arches are placed atop the arena's street sign.
Location and transportation
Scandinavium is located in central Gothenburg, in the Heden district of the borough Centrum. Scandinavium is one of the center pieces of the event district called Evenemangsstråket, with Ullevi Stadium, Liseberg, Universeum, the Museum of World Culture, and Bergakungen nearby. Public transport is easily accessible; Just outside there is a tram stop named after the arena, which serves tram lines two, six, eight, thirteen, and fourteen. Tram lines four and five stops 250 meters from the arena at Korsvägen, a major public transport hub, which serves more than fifteen different bus lines, and will have an underground rapid transit station once Västlänken is completed. Approximately one and one half kilometer north west from Scandinavium is the Gothenburg Central Station and the Nils Ericson Terminal, one half kilometer south east is the Liseberg station serving the Gothenburg commuter rail.
When Frölunda and the Ottawa Senators played an exhibition game on 2 October 2008, spectators could use their game tickets for free travel with public transportation within Gothenburg's municipality, before and after the game. Extra trams and buses were in traffic during this time. The campaign was a test to see if it would be possible to include a public transportation fee on tickets to future events.
Due to Scandinavium's central location the arena site itself does not have any public parking spaces, parking is only provided for sponsors, the press, and event personnel at a guard-gated parking lot next to Valhalla IP. Visitors are guided to eighteen nearby parking lots and parking garages—with a total of 7,000 parking spaces—by the event districts parking guidance and information system. The system has a total of 130 digital signs, located on motorways with information about which exit to use, and on streets in the city with more detailed information about directions and number of available parking spaces.
Notable events
The arena has also hosted a semifinal of Melodifestivalen every year since the introduction of the current format, except for 2002 itself. It was also considered to host the final of Melodifestivalen 2010, but scheduling conflicts ruled this out. The arena hosts the annual Göteborg Horse Show every year since 1977.
The arena has hosted concerts by many famous artists, spanning many different genres. Some of the first major concerts to take place at the venue were performed by The Who, Deep Purple and Led Zeppelin during their 1972 and 1973 European Tours respectively. In May 1988, pop/R&B superstar, Whitney Houston, would set the record attendance with 14,606 tickets sold on her Moment of Truth World Tour. Iron Maiden have performed at the arena the most with a total of nine times with the latest being in 2006.
The arena was one of the four potential candidate venues to host the Eurovision Song Contest 2013. In the end, the Malmö Arena was chosen to host the contest.
See also
List of indoor arenas in Sweden
List of indoor arenas in Nordic countries
List of European ice hockey arenas
References
External links
Scandinavium — Official site
Frölunda Indians — Official site
Göteborg Horse Show — Official site
Förvaltnings AB Framtiden — Official site
Sports venues in Gothenburg
Indoor arenas in Sweden
Indoor ice hockey venues in Sweden
Show jumping venues
1971 establishments in Sweden
Handball venues in Sweden
Indoor track and field venues
Tensile membrane structures
Sports venues completed in 1971
Music venues completed in 1971
1984 Davis Cup
1987 Davis Cup
1988 Davis Cup
1997 Davis Cup | [
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218887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullevi | Ullevi | Ullevi, sometimes known as Nya Ullevi (, New Ullevi), is a multi-purpose stadium in Gothenburg, Sweden. It was built for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, but since then has also hosted the World Allround Speed Skating Championships six times; the 1995 World Championships in Athletics and the 2006 European Athletics Championships; the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup finals in 1983 and 1990; the UEFA Euro 1992 final, the UEFA Cup final in 2004; and annually hosted the opening ceremony of the Gothia Cup, the world's largest football tournament in terms of the number of participants. IFK Göteborg has also played two UEFA Cup finals at the stadium, in 1982 and 1987, but then as "home game" in a home and away final. The stadium has hosted several events, including football, ice hockey, boxing, racing, athletics and concerts.
The stadium is one of the biggest in the Nordic countries, with a seating capacity of 43,000 and a total capacity of 75,000 for concerts.
History
Sport
The ground opened for the 1958 FIFA World Cup held across Sweden. It hosted four matches in Group D, including a play-off. It also held a quarter-final, a semi-final and the third-place match. The stadium's record attendance for football is 52,194, set on 3 June 1959 when Örgryte IS played against IFK Göteborg. The stadium hosted the 1983 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, which saw Scotland's Aberdeen defeat Spanish giants Real Madrid 2–1 after extra time. It also hosted the first leg of the 1987 UEFA Cup Final between IFK Göteborg and Dundee United of Scotland. The hosts won the game 1-0 thanks to a goal from Stefan Pettersson. The Swedish side would go on to lift the trophy for the second time in their history after a 1–1 draw at Tannadice Park, Dundee in the second leg.
It was also the venue for the first game between National Football League teams to be played on the European continent, organised by Swedish motor company Volvo. In a pre-season game on 14 August 1988, the Minnesota Vikings won 28–21 against the Chicago Bears. The 1990 European Cup Winners' Cup Final was also held at the stadium. It saw Sampdoria of Italy defeat Anderlecht of Belgium 2-0 after extra-time.
Ullevi held three Group B matches at UEFA Euro 1992 as well as a semi-final, and the final itself on 26 June in which Denmark won the trophy against Germany. The 2004 UEFA Cup Final was held at the stadium on 19 May of that year. Valencia of Spain defeated Marseille of France, 2–0. The annual Världsungdomsspelen (translation: World Youth Games) track and field competition is held at the stadium and the mass event has around 3000 athletes competing each year.
Music
Ullevi nearly collapsed during a Bruce Springsteen concert on 8 June 1985 due to the rhythmic movement of tens of thousands of people in the audience and the clay soil on which the stadium is built. The concert also caused nearly £3 million in damages, while David Bowie's Glass Spider Tour in June 1987 was relocated from Ullevi to Eriksberg because of fears about the safety of the structure. Since then, the concrete pillars supporting the stadium have been extended down to the bedrock. Springsteen has performed at the stadium on subsequent tours.
Pink Floyd performed at Ullevi on 27 August 1994 as part of their The Division Bell Tour. Michael Jackson came to Ullevi on August 16, 1997, as part of his HIStory World Tour, performing for a crowd of 50,000 people. Elton John hosted a sell-out concert in 1998. It was part of the Face-To-Face Tour with Billy Joel, although Joel was unable to perform because of illness. John played for over three hours. Tina Turner came to Ullevi on August 9, 1996, as part of her Wildest Dreams Tour and August 5, 2000, as part of her Twenty Four Seven Tour with a sold-out crowd of 55,180.
The "big four" of thrash metal (Slayer, Anthrax, Megadeth and Metallica) played in the stadium on 3 July 2011. U2 have performed at the stadium four times: the first occasion was on 2 August 1997 during their PopMart Tour, in front of a crowd of 46,658 people. The second was on 29 July 2005 during their Vertigo Tour, in front of a sold-out crowd of 58,478 people. The third and the fourth were on 31 July and 1 August 2009 during their U2 360° Tour, in front of a total sold-out crowd of 119,297 people. The performance of "The Unforgettable Fire" from the first 2009 show was recorded for the group's live album U22.
Foo Fighters performed at the venue on 12 June 2015 on the Sonic Highways World Tour. However, Dave Grohl fell off stage during the second song of the concert, breaking his leg. He was treated in the stadium before returning to the stage to continue the rest of the concert sitting down in a chair while a medic applied a cast. Despite Grohl's injuries, the band was able to complete the concert.
Iron Maiden performed at the stadium four times. The first was on 9 July 2005 during their Eddie Rips Up the World Tour. The second time was on 26 July 2008 during their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour. The third time was on 1 July 2011 during The Final Frontier World Tour. The fourth time was on 17 June 2016 during The Book of Souls World Tour. The band was scheduled to play Ullevi on 22 July 2022 as a part of Legacy of the Beast Tour.
Innovation
Since March 2007, Ullevi has one of Sweden's largest solar power plants, consisting of 600m² of solar photovoltaic panels situated on the roof of the luxury boxes section. The top effect is 86.4 kW and the yield is supposed to cover the total power used by the artificial lighting for events, with a surplus.
Speedway
Ullevi has also hosted Motorcycle speedway and hosted the Speedway World Championship on no less than eight occasions, second only to the old Wembley Stadium in London, England which hosted the World Final a record 26 times. The track is a dirt surface laid out over the athletics track and is officially long with a track record of 69.4 seconds (4 laps clutch start).
The first Championship World Final to be held at Ullevi was the inaugural Speedway World Team Cup competition in 1960. Led by reigning world champion Ove Fundin and his teammates Olle Nygren, Rune Sörmander and Björn Knutsson, Sweden swept to victory over England, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Ullevi would have to wait 26 years before World Team Cup competition returned with the stadium hosting the first round of the three round 1986 Final.
The first ever Individual World Final staged at Ullevi was in 1964 when New Zealand's Barry Briggs won with a 15-point maximum. The largest attendance for a World Final at Ullevi occurred in 1974 when 38,390 turned out to see Sweden's own Anders Michanek win his only World Championship with an unbeaten 15 point maximum. No World Championship winners at Ullevi dropped more than one point in their five rides with five of the seven World Finals being won with a 15-point maximum. The stadium also hosted other qualifying rounds for the Individual World Final including the inaugural running of the Intercontinental Final in 1975 won by New Zealand legend Ivan Mauger.
Since the World Championship was changed in 1995 from a single meeting Final to the Speedway Grand Prix (SGP), Ullevi has hosted a round of the series in 2002, 2003, 2004 (Grand Prix of Scandinavia), 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 (Grand Prix of Sweden). No rider who has won a SGP at Ullevi has gone on to be that years World Champion, though 2011 Swedish Grand Prix winner Chris Holder from Australia did go on to become the 2012 World Champion.
Ullevi hosted its only World Pairs Championship Final in 1983 when Peter Collins and Kenny Carter won England's 6th Pairs crown.
Speedway World Finals
Individual World Championship
1964 - Barry Briggs - 15pts
1968 - Ivan Mauger - 15pts
1971 - Ole Olsen - 15pts
1974 - Anders Michanek - 15pts
1977 - Ivan Mauger - 14pts
1980 - Michael Lee - 14pts
1984 - Erik Gundersen - 14pts
1991 - Jan O. Pedersen - 15pts
World Pairs Championship
1983 - England (Peter Collins / Kenny Carter) - 25pts
World Team Cup
1960 - Sweden (Ove Fundin / Olle Nygren / Rune Sörmander / Björn Knutsson) - 44pts
1986* - Denmark (Hans Nielsen / Erik Gundersen / Tommy Knudsen / Jan O. Pedersen / John Jørgensen) - 130pts
* Ullevi hosted the first of 3 rounds in the Final.
Speedway Grand Prix
2002 Speedway Grand Prix of Scandinavia - Leigh Adams
2003 Speedway Grand Prix of Scandinavia - Ryan Sullivan
2004 Speedway Grand Prix of Scandinavia - Hans N. Andersen
2008 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Rune Holta
2009 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Emil Sayfutdinov
2010 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Kenneth Bjerre
2011 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Chris Holder
2012 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Fredrik Lindgren
2013 Speedway Grand Prix of Sweden - Emil Sayfutdinov
Record attendances
Most attended concerts
Sports
One day events
Multi day events
Location and transportation
Ullevi is located on the eastern edge of Gothenburg's city centre and is one of the centre pieces of the event district Evenemangsstråket, with Scandinavium, Liseberg, Universeum, the Museum of World Culture and Bergakungen nearby. Public transport is easily accessible. There are two tram stops named after the stadium; Ullevi Norra (North) and Ullevi Södra (South). Both tram stops serve lines 6 (orange) and 8 (purple). Ullevi Södra also serves lines 2 (yellow) and 13 (beige), while Ullevi Norra also serves lines 1 (white) and 3 (blue). Approximately 700 metres west of Ullevi lies the Gothenburg Central Station and Nils Ericson Terminal. 900 metres south of Ullevi lies Korsvägen, a major public transport hub which serves more than fifteen different bus lines and several tram lines, and the Liseberg station serving the Gothenburg commuter rail.
The stadium has 650 parking spaces located in a garage underneath the pitch. Additionally visitors are guided to eighteen nearby parking lots and parking garages—with a total of 7,000 parking spaces—by the event districts parking guidance and information system. The system has a total of 130 digital signs, located on motorways with information about which exit to use, and on streets in the city with more detailed information about directions and number of available parking spaces.
References
https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/rockbjornen/a/KVmpe/sa-bra-var-hakan-hellstroms-sista-spelning-pa-ullevi
https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/rockbjornen/a/rqjqm/sa-bra-var-hakan-hellstroms-forsta-spelning-pa-ullevi
External links
Ullevi — Official site
Athletics (track and field) venues in Sweden
Sports venues in Gothenburg
1958 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Football venues in Gothenburg
Speed skating venues in Sweden
Speedway venues in Sweden
UEFA Euro 1992 stadiums
IFK Göteborg
Örgryte IS
UEFA European Championship final stadiums | [
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218888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Clinton%20%28British%20Army%20officer%2C%20born%201730%29 | Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730) | General Sir Henry Clinton, KB (16 April 1730 – 23 December 1795) was a British army officer and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1772 and 1795. He is best known for his service as a general during the American War of Independence. First arriving in Boston in May 1775, from 1778 to 1782 he was the British Commander-in-Chief in North America. In addition to his military service, due to the influence of his cousin Henry Pelham-Clinton, 2nd Duke of Newcastle, he was a Member of Parliament for many years. Late in life he was named Governor of Gibraltar, but died before assuming the post.
Early life
Henry Clinton was born on 16 April 1730, to Admiral George Clinton
and Anne Carle, the daughter of a general. Early histories claimed his birth year as 1738, a date widely propagated even in modern biographic summaries; according to biographer William Willcox, Clinton claimed in a notebook found in 1958 to be born in 1730, and that evidence from English peerage records places the date of birth as 16 April. Willcox also notes that none of these records give indication of the place of Clinton's birth. Historian John Fredriksen claims that Clinton was born in Newfoundland; his father was posted there from 1732 to 1738.
Little is known of the earliest years of Clinton's life, or of his mother and the two sisters that survived to adulthood. Given his father's naval career, where the family lived is uncertain. They were obviously well-connected to the seat of the Earls of Lincoln, from whom his father was descended, or the estate of the Dukes of Newcastle, to whom they were related by marriage.
In 1739 his father, then stationed at Gibraltar, applied for the governorship of the Province of New York. He won the post in 1741 with the assistance of the Duke of Newcastle (who was his brother's brother-in-law). He did not actually go to New York until 1743. He took young Henry with him, having failed to acquire a lieutenant's commission for the 12-year-old. Henry's career would also benefit from the family connection to the Newcastles.
Records of the family's life in New York are sparse. He is reported to have studied under Samuel Seabury on Long Island, suggesting the family may have lived in the country outside New York City. Clinton's first military commission was to an independent company in New York in 1745. The next year his father procured for him a captain's commission, and he was assigned to garrison duty at the recently captured Fortress of Louisbourg. In 1749, Clinton went to Britain to pursue his military career. It was two years before he received a commission as a captain in the Coldstream Guards. His father, after he returned to London when his term as New York governor was over, procured for Clinton a position as aide to Sir John Ligonier in 1756.
Seven Years' War
By 1758 Clinton had risen to be a lieutenant colonel in the 1st Foot Guards, which was later renamed the Grenadier Guards, and was a line company commander in the 2nd Battalion and was based in London. The 2nd Battalion, 1st Foot Guards, was deployed to Germany to participate in the Seven Years' War, arriving at Bremen on 30 July 1760 then joining the main Army, operating under Conway's Corps near Warberg. George II died on 25 October 1760 and Clinton, along with all Officers of the Regiment, was amongst those listed in the renewal of commissions to George III, in London, on 27 October 1760.
Clinton was back with the 2nd Battalion coming out of winter quarters, at Paderborn in February 1761 and with the unit at the Battle of Villinghausen on 16 July 1761, then under Prince Ferdinand, the Hereditary Crown Prince, at the crossing of the Diemel, near Warburg, in August, before wintering near Bielefeld. His father died this year necessitating a return to England to resolve family affairs.
In 1762 the unit, part of the force led by Prince Ferdinand, was in action at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal on 24 June 1762. After this action they participated in cutting the French supply lines at the heights of Homberg on 24 July 1762 and secured artillery into position. It was after this engagement that the unit lost its commanding officer, General (Colonel) Julius Caesar who died at Elfershausen and is buried there. Clinton, now a colonel (seniority dated to 24 June 1762), was appointed as aide-de-camp to Prince Ferdinand by the start of 1762 and was with him when he attacked Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé at the Battle of Nauheim on 30 August 1762. Prince Ferdinand was wounded during this engagement and Clinton severely wounded forcing him to quit the field. This and the consequent siege of Cassel, were the last actions of the 1st Foot Guards in the Seven Years' War and Clinton returned to England. Clinton had distinguished himself as an aide-de-camp to Brunswick, with whom he established an enduring friendship.
During these early years, he formed a number of friendships and acquaintances, mostly with other officers serving in Brunswick's camp. These included Charles Lee and William Alexander, who styled himself "Lord Stirling"; both of these men would face Clinton as enemies in North America. He formed long-lasting and deep friendships with John Jervis, and William Phillips; Phillips later served under Clinton in North America, and Jervis rose to prominence in the Royal Navy. He also made the acquaintance of Charles Cornwallis, who would famously serve under him as well.
Family and marriage
While Clinton was campaigning with the army in 1761, his father died. As the new head of the family, he had to unwind his father's affairs, which included sizable debts as well as arrears in pay. Battles he had with the Board of Trade over his father's unpaid salary lasted for years, and attempts to sell the land in the colonies went nowhere; these lands were confiscated during the American Revolution, and even his heirs were unable to recover any kind of compensation for them. His mother, who had a history of mental instability and played only a small part in his life, died in August 1767.
On 12 February 1767, Clinton married Harriet Carter, the daughter of landed gentry, and the couple settled into a house in Surrey. There is some evidence that the marriage was performed in haste; six months later, the household accounts contain evidence of a son, Frederick. Frederick died of an illness in 1774, two years after his mother. Although Clinton did not write of his marriage, it was apparently happy. The couple produced five children: Frederick, Augusta (1768), William Henry (1769), Henry Jr. (1771), and Harriet (1772). Clinton's wife died on 29 August 1772, eight days after giving birth to Harriet. It took him over a year to recover from the grief. He took his in-laws into his house, and his wife's sisters took over the care of his children. His second and third sons later continued the family tradition of high command.
Patronage
Upon the death of the Duke of Newcastle, his patronage was taken up by the latter's nephew and successor Henry Pelham-Clinton. Although he was sometimes instrumental in advancing Clinton's career, the new duke's lack of attention and interest in politics would at times work against Clinton. Clinton also complicated their relationship by treating the young duke more as an equal than as a noble who should be respected. A second patron was King George III's brother the Duke of Gloucester. Clinton was appointed Gloucester's Groom of the Bedchamber in 1764, a position he continued to hold for many years. However, some of Gloucester's indiscretions left him out of favour at court, and he was thus not an effective supporter of Clinton.
Peacetime service
In 1769, Clinton's regiment was assigned to Gibraltar, and Clinton served as second in command to Edward Cornwallis. During this time, Newcastle asked him to see after one of his (Newcastle's) sons who was serving in the garrison. The young man, described by his father as having "sloth and laziness" and "despicable behavior", was virtually unmanageable, and Clinton convinced the duke to put him into a French academy.
Clinton was promoted to major-general in 1772, and in the same year he obtained a seat in Parliament through Newcastle's influence. He remained a Member of Parliament until 1784, first for Boroughbridge and subsequently for Newark-on-Trent. In April 1774 he went on a military inspection tour of the Russian army in the Balkans. He inspected some of the battlefields of the Russo-Turkish War with his friend Henry Lloyd, a general in the Russian army, and had an audience with Joseph II in Vienna. He very nearly had the chance to watch an artillery bombardment, but it was called off by the onset of peace negotiations. Clinton was at one point introduced to the Turkish negotiators, of whom he wrote that "they stared a little, but were very civil." He returned to England in October 1774, and in February 1775 was ordered by King George to prepare for service in North America.
American War of Independence
Boston
Clinton, along with Major Generals William Howe and John Burgoyne, was sent with reinforcements to strengthen the position of General Thomas Gage in Boston. They arrived on 25 May, having learned en route that the American War of Independence had broken out, and that Boston was under siege. Gage, along with Clinton and Generals Howe and Burgoyne discussed plans to break the siege. Clinton was an advocate for fortifying currently unoccupied high ground surrounding Boston, and plans were laid to occupy those spots on 18 June. However, the colonists learned of the plan and fortified the heights of the Charlestown peninsula on the night of 16–17 June, forcing the British leadership to rethink their strategy.
In a war council held early on 17 June, the generals developed a plan calling for a direct assault on the colonial fortification, and Gage gave Howe command of the operation. Despite a sense of urgency (the colonists were still working on the fortifications at the time of the council), the attack did not begin until that afternoon. Clinton was assigned the role of providing reserve forces when requested by Howe. After two assaults failed, Clinton, operating against his orders from General Gage, crossed over to Charlestown to organize wounded and dispirited troops milling around the landing area.
On the third and successful assault against the redoubt on Breed's Hill, the position was taken and these troops, having rallied, arrived and drove the rebels back to Bunker Hill. The battle was a victory for the British, but only at the heavy cost of over 1,000 casualties. Clinton famously wrote of the battle that it was "A dear bought victory, another such would have ruined us."
For the remainder of 1775 the siege became little more than a standoff, with the sides either unwilling or unable to mount an effective attack on the other. After Howe took command of the forces following General Gage's recall in September, the two of them established a working relationship that started out well, but did not take long to begin breaking down. Howe gave Clinton the command of Charlestown, but Clinton spent most of his time in Boston. He occupied the house of John Hancock, which he scrupulously cared for. He hired a housekeeper named Mary Baddeley, the wife of a man who had supposedly been demoted because she refused an officer's advances. Clinton also hired Thomas Baddeley as a carpenter; the relationship Clinton established with Mary lasted the rest of his life, although it was only platonic during his time in Boston.
Cracks had already begun to form in his relationship with Howe when plans were developed for an expedition to the southern colonies, command of which went to Clinton. He asked Howe for specific officers to accompany him and authority that an independent commander might normally have, but Howe rebuffed him on all such requests. In January 1776, Clinton sailed south with a small fleet and 1,500 men to assess military opportunities in the Carolinas. During his absence his fears about the situation in Boston were realized when the Dorchester Heights were occupied and fortified by the rebels in early March, causing the British to evacuate Boston and retreat to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Campaigns in 1776
Clinton's expedition to the Carolinas was expected to meet a fleet sent from Europe with more troops for operations in February 1776. Delayed by logistics and weather, this force, which included General Charles Cornwallis as Clinton's second in command and Admiral Sir Peter Parker did not arrive off the North Carolina coast until May. Concluding that North Carolina was not a good base for operations, they decided to assault Charleston, South Carolina, whose defenses were reported to be unfinished. Their assault, launched in late June, was a dismal failure. Clinton's troops were landed on an island near Sullivan's Island, where the rebel colonists had their main defenses, with the expectation that the channel between the two could be waded at low tide. This turned out not to be the case, and the attack was reduced to a naval bombardment. The bombardment in its turn failed because the spongy palmetto logs used to construct the fort absorbed the force of the cannonballs without splintering and breaking.
Clinton and Parker rejoined the main fleet to participate in General Howe's August 1776 assault on New York City. Clinton pestered Howe with a constant stream of ideas for the assault, which the commander in chief came to resent. Howe did however adopt Clinton's plan for attacking George Washington's position in Brooklyn. At the 27 August Battle of Long Island, British forces led by Howe and Clinton, following the latter's plan, successfully flanked the American forward positions, driving them back into their fortifications on Brooklyn Heights. However, Howe refused Clinton's recommendation that they follow up the overwhelming victory with an assault on the entrenched Americans, due to a lack of intelligence as to their strength and a desire to minimize casualties. Instead, Howe besieged the position, which the Americans abandoned without loss on 29 August. General Howe was rewarded with a knighthood for his success.
Howe then proceeded to take control of New York City, landing at Kip's Bay on Manhattan, with Clinton again in the lead. Although Clinton again suggested moves to cut Washington's army off, Howe rejected them. In October Clinton led the army ashore in Westchester County in a bid to trap Washington between the Hudson and Bronx Rivers. However, Washington reached White Plains before Clinton did. After a brief battle in which Washington was pushed further north, Howe turned south to consolidate control of Manhattan. By this time the relationship between the two men had broken down almost completely, with Howe, apparently fed up with Clinton's constant stream of criticisms and suggestions, refusing to allow Clinton even minor deviations in the army's marching route.
In November Howe ordered Clinton to begin preparing an expedition to occupy Newport, Rhode Island, desired as a port by the Royal Navy. When Howe sent General Cornwallis into New Jersey to chase after Washington, Clinton proposed that, rather than taking Newport, his force should be landed in New Jersey in an attempt to envelop Washington's army. Howe rejected this advice, and Clinton sailed for Newport in early December, occupying it in the face of minimal opposition.
Campaigns in 1777
In January 1777 Clinton was given leave to return to England. Planning for the 1777 campaign season called for two campaigns, one against Philadelphia, and a second that would descend from Montreal on Lake Champlain to Albany, New York, separating the New England colonies. Since General Howe was taking leadership of the Philadelphia campaign, Clinton contested for command of the northern campaign with Burgoyne. Howe supported him in this effort, but Burgoyne convinced King George and Lord Sackville to give him the command. The king refused Clinton's request to resign, and ordered him back to New York to serve again as Howe's second in command. He was placated with a knighthood, but was also forbidden to publish accounts of the disastrous Charleston affair. He was formally invested with the Order of the Bath on 11 April, and sailed for New York on the 29th.
When Clinton arrived in New York in July, Howe had not yet sailed for Philadelphia. Clinton was surprised and upset that he would be left to hold New York with 7,000 troops, dominated by Loyalist formations and Hessians, an arrangement he saw as inadequate to the task. He also quite bluntly informed Howe of the defects he saw in Howe's plan, which would isolate Burgoyne from any reasonable chance of support by either Howe or Clinton. He presciently wrote after learning that much of Washington's force had left the New York area, "I fear it bears heavy on Burgoyne ... If this campaign does not finish the war, I prophesy that there is an end of British dominion in America."
Burgoyne's campaign ended in disaster; Burgoyne was defeated at Saratoga and surrendered shortly after. Clinton attempted to support Burgoyne, but the delay in arrival of reinforcements put off the effort. In early October, Clinton captured two forts in the Hudson River highlands, and sent troops up the river toward Albany. The effort was too little and too late, and was cut off when he received orders from Howe requesting reinforcements. Howe's campaign for Philadelphia had been a success, but he had very nearly suffered a defeat in the Battle of Germantown.
As the commander in New York, Clinton lived at No. 1 Broadway, on Bowling Green, a house occupied by later commandants General Robertson and General Pattison. He was obligated to do a certain amount of entertaining. This he did, although he chafed at the costs involved. He was eventually joined by the Baddeleys. Mary Baddeley resumed her role as housekeeper, which he appreciated in part because of her excellent managerial skills. She apparently rebuffed Clinton's romantic overtures until she discovered her husband had been cheating on her. Clinton procured a position in one of the Loyalist regiments for her husband, and tried without success to get him transferred out of New York.
Commander-in-Chief
General Howe submitted his resignation as Commander-in-Chief, America in the wake of the 1777 campaigns, and Clinton was on the short list of nominees to replace him. Despite being mistrusted by Prime Minister North, principally over his many complaints and requests to resign, Clinton was formally appointed to the post on 4 February 1778. Word of this did not arrive until April, and Clinton assumed command in Philadelphia in May 1778. France had by this time formally entered the war on the American side. Clinton was consequently ordered to withdraw from Philadelphia and send 5,000 of his troops to the economically important Caribbean. For the rest of the war, Clinton received few reinforcements as a consequence of the globalisation of the conflict. His orders were to strengthen areas of North America that were firmly under British control, and do no more than conduct raiding expeditions in the rebel-controlled areas.
Owing to a shortage of transports for all of the Loyalists fleeing Philadelphia, Clinton acted against his direct orders and decided to move the army to New York by land instead of by sea. He conducted a skillful march to New York, accomplished without losing a wagon, and fighting a standoff battle with Washington's army at Monmouth Court House on 28 June. Clinton burnished his reputation at home by penning a report on the movement that greatly exaggerated the size of Washington's Continental Army and minimised the British casualties at Monmouth.
Arriving in New York, he and Admiral Howe were faced with the spectre of a French fleet outside the harbour. Fortunately, Admiral d'Estaing decided against crossing the bar into the harbour, and sailed instead for Newport. Once Clinton learned of his destination he marshalled troops to reinforce the Newport garrison while Lord Howe sailed to meet d'Estaing. Both fleets were scattered by a storm, and the American attempt on Newport failed before Clinton arrived. Clinton sent the supporting force on a raid of nearby communities, while he returned to New York to organize the troops that were to be sent southward.
The detachment to strengthen the Floridas was sent to instead strike at Georgia. This force took Savannah in December, and in January 1779 it gained a tenuous (and ultimately temporary) foothold at Augusta. He also detached troops for service in the West Indies, pursuant to a plan to capture St. Lucia; the expedition was a success, compelling a French surrender not long before the French fleet arrived.
During his time in Philadelphia and New York in 1778, Clinton managed to establish a harmonious relationship with William Eden, a member of the Carlisle Peace Commission. This commission, nominally led by the Earl of Carlisle had been sent in a vain attempt at reconciliation with the rebel Congress. Despite its failures, Eden and Clinton got along, and Eden promised to make sure Clinton's dispatches received favourable distribution in England.
Not long before his term as Commander-in-Chief came to a close, Clinton found himself dealing with the tit-for-tat murders taking place between the Patriots and Loyalists, and he was in office when Captain Huddy was murdered, which eventually led to the Asgill Affair. His dealings with the Board of Associated Loyalists, and their President, Governor William Franklin in particular, were his priority in the weeks before his departure. By mid-May 1782 Clinton informed the Secretary for the Colonies in Whitehall of the situation regarding Huddy's murder. He wrote to the Right Honourable Wellbore Ellis Esq on 11 May 1782:
Politics
With the 1778 campaign season closed, Clinton considered options for action in 1779. Although he felt that Britain would be best served by withdrawing to the frontiers, popular opinion at home, as well as that of the king and George Germain, dictated otherwise. Germain felt that raiding expeditions should be conducted "with spirit and humanity" to destroy American commerce and privateering; this strategy was one Clinton disliked. Militarily, Clinton and Washington did little more than stare at each other across the lines of New York City. Clinton ordered two major raiding expeditions, one against Connecticut, the other against Chesapeake Bay, while Washington detached troops to deal with the increasing frontier war, which was primarily orchestrated from Quebec.
Early in 1779 Clinton sent his trusted aide, Lieutenant Duncan Drummond, to England in order to argue Clinton's request to be recalled. Drummond was unsuccessful in this: despite the intervention of the Duke of Newcastle, the king refused to even consider granting Clinton leave, claiming that Clinton was "the only man who might still save America". William Eden also interceded in an attempt to improve Clinton's situation, but political divisions in the government and the prospect of Spanish entry into the war meant that Clinton ended up with very little support. Clinton also complained about the lack of naval support being provided by Admiral James Gambier, with whom he also had a difficult relationship. He eventually sent London a list of admirals he thought he could work with. None of them were chosen, and Gambier was replaced temporarily by George Collier before his permanent replacement, Mariot Arbuthnot, arrived.
After the Chesapeake raid Clinton drove the Americans from a key crossing of the Hudson River at Stony Point, New York. Clinton had hoped that, with an expected reinforcement of troops from Europe, he could then attack either Washington's army or its supply lines, forcing Washington out of his well-defended mountain positions. However, the reinforcements, including Admiral Arbuthnot, were late in arriving, and Stony Point was retaken by the Americans after Clinton weakened its garrison to supply men for the Connecticut raids. The Americans chose not to hold Stony Point, and Clinton reoccupied it. However, Clinton's opponents used the American success to criticise him, calling him "undetermined" and "feeble". A similar action against a British outpost in New Jersey gave them further ammunition, and soured British morale. Further actions from New York were rendered impossible by the need for the naval squadron to address the American expedition to dislodge a newly established British outpost in Penobscot Bay.
On 30 June 1779, Clinton issued what has become known as the Philipsburg Proclamation (so named because it was issued from his headquarters at the Philipsburg Manor House in Westchester County, New York). This proclamation institutionalized in the British Army an offer of freedom to enlisted runaway slaves that had first been made in a similar proclamation by Virginia Governor Lord Dunmore in 1775. He justified this offer by citing the fact that the Continental Army was also actively recruiting African Americans. The proclamation led to a flood of fugitive slaves making their way to British lines to take advantage of the offer, and the issue of slave repatriation would complicate Anglo-American relations as the war was ending.
Southern strategy
Clinton's relationship with Arbuthnot got off to a bad start. Rumors of a French fleet headed for northern ports (Halifax, Newport, or New York) pulled the leaders in different directions, and put off plans to withdraw from Newport for the purposes of strengthening the New York garrison (which had been weakened by disease) on at least one occasion. However, the French instead besieged Savannah, Georgia, with American assistance, and failed disastrously in the attempt. This convinced Clinton that an expedition against South Carolina held promise. Loyalist support was said to be strong there, and the people were said to be "sick of their opposition to government" and the British blockade of their ports.
Clinton began to assemble a force an expedition to take Charleston, withdrawing the forces from Newport for the purpose. Clinton took personal command of this campaign, and the task force with 14,000 men sailed south from New York at the end of the year. By early 1780, Clinton had brought Charleston under siege. In May, working together with Admiral Arbuthnot, he forced the surrender of the city, with its garrison of 5,000, in a stunning and serious defeat for the rebel cause. Arbuthnot and Clinton did not work together well during the siege, and their feuding lasted into 1781, with disastrous results for the unity of the British high command. Clinton's relationship with Cornwallis also deteriorated further during the siege, improving slightly after the American surrender and Clinton's departure for New York.
From New York, he oversaw the campaign in the South, and his correspondence to Cornwallis throughout the war showed an active interest in the affairs of his southern army. However, as the campaign progressed, he grew further and further away from his subordinate. As the campaign drew to a close, the correspondence became more and more acrimonious. Part of this may be due to George Germain, whose correspondence with Cornwallis may have convinced the junior officer to start disregarding the orders of his superior and consider himself to be an independent command.
In 1782, after fighting in the North American theater ended with the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Clinton was replaced as Commander-in-Chief by Sir Guy Carleton, and he returned to England.
Later career
In 1783, he published a Narrative of the Campaign of 1781 in North America in which he attempted to lay the blame for the 1781 campaign failures on General Cornwallis. This was met with a public response by Cornwallis, who leveled his own criticisms at Clinton. Clinton also resumed his seat in Parliament, serving until 1784.
Not much is known about what Sir Henry did from 1784 until he was re-elected to Parliament in 1790 for Launceston in Cornwall, a pocket borough controlled by his cousin Newcastle. Three years later, in October 1793, Clinton was promoted to full general. The following July he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar, but he died at Portland Place before he was able to assume that post.
He was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.
Legacy
Sir Henry Clinton's legacy in the eyes of historians has been mixed. He held the command in America for four years, ending in disaster, and as a result, he is widely seen to share in the blame for the defeat. Biographer William Willcox, in his analysis of Clinton's tenure in North America, observes that at times "Sir Henry's ideas were not carried out for reasons that lay to some extent within himself", and that he and Admiral Graves "apparently ignored the danger" of de Grasse in 1781. However, Willcox notes that campaign plans Clinton formulated for 1777, 1779 and 1780 were frustrated by external events he could not control, and Willcox generally blames Cornwallis for the failure of the Carolina campaign. In contrast, Cornwallis' biographers Franklin and Mary Wickwire point out that Cornwallis' failures are at least partially attributable to directives of Clinton that left him with relatively inadequate troop strength and irregular supply lines.
Major James Wemyss, who served under Clinton, wrote that he was "an honourable and respectable officer of the German school; having served under Prince Ferdinand of Prussia and the Duke of Brunswick. Vain, open to flattery; and from a great aversion to all business not military, too often misled by aides and favourites", but also pointed out that Clinton's interests were narrow and that he was crippled by self-distrust. Colonel Sir Charles Stuart described him as "fool enough to command an army when he is incapable of commanding a troop of horse." However, historian Piers Mackesy writes that he was "a very capable general in the field."
Letters from General Sir Henry Clinton during the Revolutionary War can be found in the political papers of his cousin, Henry Pelham-Clinton, in the Newcastle (Clumber) Collection held at Manuscripts and Special Collections, University of Nottingham Information Services.
In 1937 the William L. Clements Library at University of Michigan library acquired a number of manuscripts belonging to Clinton. They were first sorted and organized by colonial American historian Howard Henry Peckham and are now part of the collection of this library.
Notes
Bibliography
— eBook
online edition
Further reading
Newcomb, Benjamin H., ‘Clinton, Sir Henry (1730–1795)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, . Retrieved 27 March 2012.
O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (2014).
External links
Biography of Henry Clinton, with links to online catalogues, from Manuscripts and Special Collections at The University of Nottingham
'Conflict': e-learning resource from Manuscripts and Special Collections at The University of Nottingham, including digitised images of some of Henry Clinton's letters
Henry Clinton papers William Clements Library.
1730 births
1795 deaths
Place of birth unknown
British Army generals
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
British MPs 1768–1774
British MPs 1774–1780
British MPs 1780–1784
British MPs 1790–1796
Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath
7th Queen's Own Hussars officers
Coldstream Guards officers
Grenadier Guards officers
Suffolk Regiment officers
British Army personnel of the Seven Years' War
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
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218892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrill%20ride | Thrill ride | Thrill ride or Thrill Ride may refer to
Amusement ride
3-D Ultra Pinball: Thrill Ride
Thrill Ride, the 4th book in The Hardy Boys Undercover Brothers series.
Roller coaster
Thrill Ride (film) | [
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] |
218906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20Crown%20Jewels | Irish Crown Jewels | The Jewels Belonging to the Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick, commonly called the Irish Crown Jewels or State Jewels of Ireland, were the heavily jewelled star and badge regalia created in 1831 for the Sovereign and Grand Master of the Order of St Patrick, an order of knighthood established in 1783 by George III as King of Ireland to be an Irish equivalent of the English Order of the Garter and the Scottish Order of the Thistle. The British monarch was the Sovereign of the order, as monarch of Ireland until 1801 and of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland thereafter. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland was the Grand Master in the absence of the Sovereign. The insignia were worn by the Sovereign at the investiture of new knights as members of the order, and by the Grand Master on other formal ceremonial occasions.
They were stolen from Dublin Castle in 1907, along with the collars of five knights of the order. The theft has never been solved, and the items have never been recovered.
History
The original regalia of the Sovereign were only slightly more opulent than the insignia of an ordinary Knight Member of the order; the king's 1783 ordinance said they were to be "of the same materials and fashion as those of Our Knights, save only those alterations which befit Our dignity". The regalia were replaced in 1831 by new ones presented by William IV as part of a revision of the order's structure. They were delivered from London to Dublin on 15 March by the 18th Earl of Erroll in a mahogany box together with a document titled "A Description of the Jewels of the Order of St. Patrick, made by command of His Majesty King William the Fourth, for the use of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and which are Crown Jewels." They contained 394 precious stones taken from the English Crown Jewels of Queen Charlotte and the Order of the Bath star of her husband George III. The jewels were assembled by Rundell & Bridge. On the badge of Saint Patrick's blue enamel, the green shamrock was of emeralds and the red Saint Patrick's Saltire of rubies; the motto of the order was in pink diamonds and the encrustation was of Brazilian diamonds of the first water. Notices issued after the theft described the jewels thus:
When not being worn or cleaned, the insignia of the Sovereign and those of deceased Knights were in the custody of the Ulster King of Arms, the senior Irish officer of arms, and kept in a bank vault. The description "Crown Jewels" was officially applied to the star and badge regalia of the Sovereign in a 1905 revision of the order's statutes. The label "Irish Crown Jewels" was publicised by newspapers after their theft.
Theft
In 1903, the Office of Arms, the Ulster King of Arms's office within the Dublin Castle complex, was transferred from the Bermingham Tower to the Bedford or Clock Tower. The jewels were transferred to a new safe, which was to be placed in the newly constructed strongroom. The new safe was too large for the doorway to the strongroom, and Sir Arthur Vicars, the Ulster King of Arms, instead had it placed in his library. Seven latch keys to the door of the Office of Arms were held by Vicars and his staff, and two keys to the safe containing the regalia were both in the custody of Vicars. Vicars was known to get drunk on overnight duty and he once awoke to find the jewels around his neck. It is not known whether this was a prank or practice for the actual theft.
The regalia were last worn by the Lord Lieutenant, The 7th Earl of Aberdeen, on 15 March 1907, at a function to mark Saint Patrick's Day on 17 March. They were last known to be in the safe on 11 June, when Vicars showed them to a visitor to his office. The jewels were discovered to be missing on 6 July 1907, four days before the start of a visit by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra to the Irish International Exhibition, at which it was planned to invest The 2nd Baron Castletown into the order. The theft is reported to have angered the King, but the visit went ahead. However, the investiture ceremony was cancelled. Some family jewels inherited by Vicars and valued at £1,500 () were also stolen, along with the collars of five Knight Members of the order: four living (the Marquess of Ormonde and Earls of Howth, of Enniskillen, and of Mayo) and one deceased (The 9th Earl of Cork). These were valued at £1,050 ().
Investigation
A police investigation was conducted by the Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP). Posters issued by the DMP depicted and described the missing jewels. Detective Chief Inspector John Kane of Scotland Yard arrived on 12 July to assist. His report, never released, is said to have named the culprit and to have been suppressed by the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). Vicars refused to resign his position, and similarly refused to appear at a Viceregal Commission under Judge James Johnston Shaw into the theft held from 10 January 1908. Vicars argued for a public Royal Commission instead, which would have had power to subpoena witnesses. He publicly accused his second in command, Francis Shackleton, of the theft. Kane explicitly denied to the Commission that Shackleton, brother of the explorer Ernest Shackleton, was involved. Shackleton was exonerated in the Commission's report, and Vicars was found to have "not exercise[d] due vigilance or proper care as the custodian of the regalia." Vicars was compelled to resign, as were all the staff in his personal employ.
Rumours and theories
There was a theory that the jewels were stolen by political activists who were in the Irish Republican Brotherhood. In the House of Commons in August 1907, Pat O'Brien, MP blamed "loyal and patriotic Unionist criminals". Lord Haddo, the son of the Lord Lieutenant, was alleged by some newspapers to have been involved in the theft; Augustine Birrell, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, stated in the Commons that Haddo had been in Great Britain throughout the time period within which the theft took place. In 1912 and 1913 Laurence Ginnell suggested that the police investigation had established the identity of the thief, that his report had been suppressed to avoid scandal, and that the jewels were "at present within the reach of the Irish Government awaiting the invention of some plausible method of restoring them without getting entangled in the Criminal Law". In an adjournment debate in 1912 he alleged:
The police charged with collecting evidence in connection with the disappearance of the Crown Jewels from Dublin Castle in 1907 collected evidence inseparable from it of criminal debauchery and sodomy being committed in the castle by officials, Army officers, and a couple of nondescripts of such position that their conviction and exposure would have led to an upheaval from which the Chief Secretary shrank. To prevent that, he suspended the operation of the Criminal Law, and appointed a whitewashing commission with the result for which it was appointed.
His speech was curtailed when a quorum of forty MPs was not present in the chamber. He elaborated the following week on the alleged depravity of "two of the characters", namely army captain Richard Gorges ("a reckless bully, a robber, a murderer, a bugger, and a sod") and Shackleton ("One of [Gorges'] chums in the Castle, and a participant in the debauchery"). Birrell denied any cover-up and urged Ginnell to give to the police any evidence he had relating to the theft or any sexual crime. Walter Vavasour Faber also asked about a cover-up; Edward Legge supported this theory.
After Francis Shackleton was imprisoned in 1914 for passing a cheque stolen from a widow, The 6th Earl Winterton asked for the judicial inquiry demanded by Vicars.
On 23 November 1912, the London Mail alleged that Vicars had allowed a woman reported to be his mistress to obtain a copy to the key to the safe and that she had fled to Paris with the jewels. In July 1913 Vicars sued the paper for libel; it admitted that the story was completely baseless and that the woman in question did not exist; Vicars was awarded damages of £5,000. Vicars left nothing in his will to his half-brother Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony, on the grounds that Mahony had repudiated a promise to recompense Vicars for the loss of income caused by his resignation.
Another theory was that the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) had smuggled the jewels to the United States.
A 1927 memo of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State, released in the 1970s, stated that W. T. Cosgrave "understands that the Castle jewels are for sale and that they could be got for £2,000 or £3,000."
In 1968 the Irish journalist Bulmer Hobson published an account of the theft which stated that the jewels had been stolen by Shackleton in complicity with Captain Richard Gorges, after they had plied Vicars with so much whiskey that he had passed out. Hobson claimed the jewels had been taken to Amsterdam by Shackleton, and pledged for £20,000, with the proviso that they not be broken up for three years. Both men were homosexual, and official fears that a witch-hunt might cause greater scandal (as had the Dublin Castle homosexual scandals of 1884), may have been a reason for the compromising of the investigation. In 1913 Shackleton was charged with defrauding the Scottish nobleman Lord Ronald Gower of his fortune.
A 2002 book suggests the jewels were stolen as a Unionist plot to embarrass the Liberal government, and later secretly returned to the Royal Family.
Folklore within the Genealogical Office of the Republic of Ireland, the successor to the Office of Arms, was that the jewels were never removed from the Clock Tower, but were merely hidden. In 1983, when the Genealogical Office vacated its structurally unsound premises inside the Clock Tower, Donal Begley, the Chief Herald of Ireland, supervised the removal of walls and floorboards, in case the jewels might be revealed, but they were not.
Fictional accounts
A 1967 book suggests that the 1908 Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans" was inspired by the theft; author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was a friend of Vicars, and the fictional Valentine Walters, who steals the Plans but is caught by Holmes, has similarities with Francis Shackleton.
Jewels, a Bob Perrin novel based on the theft, was published in 1977.
The Case of the Crown Jewels by Donald Serrell Thomas, a Sherlock Holmes story based on the theft, was published in 1997.
Notes
References
{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/op1255338-1001 |title=Appendix |series=Command papers |volume=Cd.3936 |access-date=31 October 2019 |via=Internet Archive |date=1908 |author=Viceregal Commission to investigate the circumstances of the loss of the regalia of the Order of Saint Patrick
Further reading
Peter Galloway, The Most Illustrious Order: The Order of Saint Patrick and its Knights. Unicorn Press, London, 1999. .
External links
1783 in Ireland
1907 in Ireland
Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom
British monarchy
Monarchy in Ireland
National symbols of Ireland
Unsolved crimes in Ireland
Individual thefts
Robberies in the United Kingdom | [
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218910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Princeton | Battle of Princeton | The Battle of Princeton was a battle of the American Revolutionary War, fought near Princeton, New Jersey on January 3, 1777, and ending in a small victory for the Colonials. General Lord Cornwallis had left 1,400 British troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood in Princeton. Following a surprise attack at Trenton early in the morning of December 26, 1776, General George Washington of the Continental Army decided to attack the British in New Jersey before entering the winter quarters. On December 30, he crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey. His troops followed on January 3, 1777. Washington advanced to Princeton by a back road, where he pushed back a smaller British force but had to retreat before Cornwallis arrived with reinforcements. The battles of Trenton and Princeton were a boost to the morale of the patriot cause, leading many recruits to join the Continental Army in the spring.
After defeating the Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776, Washington withdrew back to Pennsylvania. He subsequently decided to attack the British forces before going into winter quarters. On December 29, he led his army back into Trenton. On the night of January 2, 1777, Washington repulsed a British attack at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek. That night, he evacuated his position, circled around General Cornwallis' army, and went to attack the British garrison at Princeton.
On January 3, Brigadier General Hugh Mercer of the Continental Army clashed with two regiments under the command of Mawhood. Mercer and his troops were overrun, and Mercer was mortally wounded. Washington sent a brigade of militia under Brigadier General John Cadwalader to help them. The militia, on seeing the flight of Mercer's men, also began to flee. Washington rode up with reinforcements and rallied the fleeing militia. He then led the attack on Mawhood's troops, driving them back. Mawhood gave the order to retreat, and most of the troops tried to flee to Cornwallis in Trenton.
In Princeton, Brigadier General John Sullivan encouraged some British troops who had taken refuge in Nassau Hall to surrender, ending the battle. After the battle, Washington moved his army to Morristown, and with their third defeat in 10 days, the British evacuated Central Jersey. The battle (while considered minor by British standards) was the last major action of Washington's winter New Jersey campaign.
Background
Victories at Trenton
On the night of December 25–26, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, led 2,400 men across the Delaware River. After a nine-mile march, they seized the town of Trenton on the morning of December 26, killing or wounding over 100 Hessians and capturing 900 more. Soon after capturing the town, Washington led the army back across the Delaware into Pennsylvania. On December 29, Washington once again led the army across the river and established a defensive position at Trenton. On December 31, Washington appealed to his men, whose enlistments expired at the end of the year, "Stay for just six more weeks for an extra bounty of ten dollars." His appeal worked, and most of the men agreed to stay. Also that day, Washington learned that Congress had voted to give him wide-ranging powers for six months that are often described as dictatorial.
In response to the loss at Trenton, General Cornwallis left New York City and reassembled a British force of more than 9,000 at Princeton to oppose Washington. Leaving 1,200 men under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Mawhood at Princeton, Cornwallis left Princeton on January 2 in command of 8,000 men to attack Washington's army of 6,000 troops. Washington sent troops to skirmish with the approaching British to delay their advance. It was almost nightfall by the time the British reached Trenton. After three failed attempts to cross the bridge over the Assunpink Creek, beyond which were the primary American defenses, Cornwallis called off the attack until the next day.
Evacuation
During the night, Washington called a council of war and asked his officers whether they should stand and fight, attempt to cross the river somewhere, or take the back roads to attack Princeton. Although the idea had already occurred to Washington, he learned from Arthur St. Clair and John Cadwalader that his plan to attack Princeton was indeed possible. Two intelligence collection efforts, both of which came to fruition at the end of December 1776, supported such a surprise attack. After consulting with his officers, they agreed that the best option was to attack Princeton.
Washington ordered that the excess baggage be taken to Burlington where it could be sent to Pennsylvania. The ground had frozen, making it possible to move the artillery without it sinking into the ground. By midnight, the plan was complete, with the baggage on its way to Burlington and the guns wrapped in heavy cloth to stifle noise and prevent the British from learning of the evacuation. Washington left 500 men behind with two cannon to patrol, keep the fires burning, and to work with picks and shovels to make the British think that they were digging in. Before dawn, these men were to join up with the main army.
By 2:00 am, the entire army was in motion roughly along Quaker Bridge Road through what is now Hamilton Township. The men were ordered to march with silence. Along the way, a rumor was spread that they were surrounded, and some frightened militiamen fled for Philadelphia. The march was difficult, as some of the route ran through thick woods and it was icy, causing horses to slip and men to break through ice on ponds.
Plan of attack
As dawn came, the army approached a stream called Stony Brook. The road the army took followed Stony Brook for a mile farther until it intersected the Post Road from Trenton to Princeton. However, off to the right of this road, there was an unused road which crossed the farmland of Thomas Clark. The road was not visible from the Post Road and ran through cleared land to a stretch from which the town could be entered at any point because the British had left it undefended.
However, Washington was running behind schedule as he had planned to attack and capture the British outposts before dawn and capture the garrison shortly afterward. By the time dawn broke he was still two miles from the town. Washington sent 350 men under the command of Brigadier General Hugh Mercer to destroy the bridge over Stony Brook in order to delay Cornwallis's army when he found out that Washington had escaped. Shortly before 8:00 am, Washington wheeled the rest of the army to the right down the unused road. First in the column went General John Sullivan's division consisting of Arthur St. Clair's and Isaac Sherman's brigades. Following them were John Cadwalader's brigade and then Daniel Hitchcock's.
Mawhood's reaction
Cornwallis had sent orders to Mawhood to bring the 17th and 55th British regiments to join his army in the morning. Mawhood had moved out from Princeton to fulfill these orders when his troops climbed the hill south of Stony Brook and sighted the main American army. Unable to figure out the size of the American army because of the wooded hills, he sent a rider to warn the 40th British Regiment, which he had left in Princeton, then wheeled the 17th and 55th Regiments around and headed back to Princeton. That day, Mawhood had called off the patrol which was to reconnoiter the area from which Washington was approaching.
Mercer received word that Mawhood was leading his troops back to Princeton. Mercer, on orders from Washington, moved his column to the right in order to hit the British before they could confront Washington's main army. Mercer moved towards Mawhood's rear, but when he realized he would not be able to cut off Mawhood in time, he decided to join Sullivan. When Mawhood learned that Mercer was in his rear and moving to join Sullivan, Mawhood detached part of the 55th Regiment to join the 40th Regiment in the town and then moved the rest of the 55th, the 17th, fifty cavalry, and two artillery pieces to attack Mercer.
Battle
Mawhood overruns Mercer
Mawhood ordered his light troops to delay Mercer, while he brought up the other detachments. Mercer was walking through William Clark's orchard when the British light troops appeared. The British light troops' volley went high, which gave time for Mercer to wheel his troops around into battle line. Mercer's troops advanced, pushing back the British light troops. The Americans took up a position behind a fence at the upper end of the orchard. However, Mawhood had brought up his troops and his artillery. The American gunners opened fire first, and for about ten minutes, the outnumbered American infantry exchanged fire with the British. However, many of the Americans had rifles which took longer to load than muskets. Mawhood ordered a bayonet charge, and because many of the Americans had rifles, which could not be equipped with bayonets, they were overrun. Both of the Americans' cannon were captured, and the British turned them on the fleeing troops. Mercer was surrounded by British soldiers, and they shouted at him "Surrender, you damn rebel!" Declining to ask for quarter, Mercer chose to resist instead. The British, thinking they had caught Washington, bayoneted him and then left him for dead. Mercer's second in command, Colonel John Haslet, was shot through the head and killed.
Cadwalader's arrival
Fifty light infantrymen were in pursuit of Mercer's men when a fresh brigade of 1,100 militiamen under the command of Cadwalader appeared. Mawhood gathered his men who were all over the battlefield and put them into battle line formation. Meanwhile, Sullivan was at a standoff with the detachment of the 55th Regiment that had come to assist the 40th Regiment, neither daring to move towards the main battle for risk of exposing its flank. Cadwalader attempted to move his men into a battle line, but they had no combat experience and did not know even the most basic military maneuvers. When his men reached the top of the hill and saw Mercer's men fleeing from the British, most of the militia turned around and ran back down the hill.
Washington's arrival
As Cadwalader's men began to flee, the American guns opened fire onto the British, who were preparing to attack, and the guns were able to hold them off for several minutes. Cadwalader was able to get one company to fire a volley but it fled immediately afterwards. At this point, Washington arrived with the Virginia Continentals and Edward Hand's riflemen. Washington ordered the riflemen and the Virginians to take up a position on the right hand side of the hill, and then Washington quickly rode over to Cadwalader's fleeing men. Washington shouted, "Parade with us my brave fellows! There is but a handful of the enemy and we shall have them directly!". Cadwalader's men formed into battle formation at Washington's direction. When Daniel Hitchcock's New England Continentals arrived, Washington sent them to the right, where he had put the riflemen and the Virginians.
Washington, with his hat in his hand, rode forward and waved the Americans forward. At this point, Mawhood had moved his troops slightly to the left to get out of the range of the American artillery fire. Washington gave orders not to fire until he gave them the signal, and when they were thirty yards away, he turned around on his horse, facing his men and said "Halt!" and then "Fire!". At this moment, the British also fired, obscuring the field in a cloud of smoke. One of Washington's officers, John Fitzgerald, pulled his hat over his eyes to avoid seeing Washington killed, but when the smoke cleared, Washington appeared, unharmed, waving his men forward.
British collapse
On the right, Hitchcock's New Englanders fired a volley and then advanced again, threatening to turn the British flank. The riflemen were slowly picking off British soldiers while the American artillery was firing grapeshot at the British lines. At this point, Hitchcock ordered his men to charge, and the British began to flee. The British attempted to save their artillery, but the militia also charged, and Mawhood gave the order to retreat. The British fled towards the Post Road followed by the Americans. Washington reportedly shouted, "It's a fine fox chase my boys!" Some Americans had swarmed onto the Post Road in order to block a British retreat across the bridge, but Mawhood ordered a bayonet charge and broke through the American lines, escaping across the bridge. Some of the Americans, Hand's riflemen among them, continued to pursue the British, and Mawhood ordered his dragoons to buy them some time to retreat; however, the dragoons were pushed back. Some Americans continued to pursue the fleeing British until nightfall, killing some and taking some prisoners. After some time, Washington turned around and rode back to Princeton.
At the edge of town, the 55th Regiment received orders from Mawhood to fall back and join the 40th Regiment in town. The 40th had taken up a position just outside town, on the north side of a ravine. The 55th formed up to the left of the 40th. The 55th sent a platoon to flank the oncoming Americans, but it was cut to pieces. When Sullivan sent several regiments to scale the ravine, they fell back to a breastwork. After making a brief stand, the British fell back again, some leaving Princeton and others taking up refuge in Nassau Hall. Alexander Hamilton brought three cannons up and had them blast away at the building. Then some Americans rushed the front door, broke it down, and the British put a white flag outside one of the windows. 194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms.
Aftermath
After entering Princeton, the Americans began to loot the abandoned British supply wagons and the town. With news that Cornwallis was approaching, Washington knew he had to leave Princeton. Washington wanted to push on to New Brunswick and capture a British pay chest of 70,000 pounds, but Major Generals Henry Knox and Nathanael Greene talked him out of it. Instead, Washington moved his army to Somerset Courthouse on the night of January 3, then marched to Pluckemin by January 5, and arrived at Morristown by sunset the next day for winter encampment. After the battle, Cornwallis abandoned many of his posts in New Jersey and ordered his army to retreat to New Brunswick. The next several months of the war consisted of a series of small scale skirmishes known as the Forage War.
Casualties
General Howe's official casualty report for the battle stated 18 killed, 58 wounded and 200 missing. Mark Boatner says that the Americans took 194 prisoners during the battle, while the remaining 6 "missing" men may have been killed. A civilian eyewitness (the anonymous writer of A Brief Narrative of the Ravages of the British and Hessians at Princeton in 1776–1777) wrote that 24 British soldiers were found dead on the field. Washington claimed that the British had more than 100 killed and 300 captured. William S. Stryker follows Washington in stating that the British loss was 100 men killed, 70 wounded and 280 captured.
Washington reported his own army's casualties as 6 or 7 officers and 25 to 30 enlisted men killed, giving no figures for the wounded. Richard M. Ketchum states that the Americans had "30 enlisted men and 14 officers killed"; Henry B. Dawson gives 10 officers and 30 enlisted men killed; while Edward G. Lengel gives total casualties as 25 killed and 40 wounded. The Loyalist newspaper, New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, reported on January 17, 1777, that the American losses at Princeton had been 400 killed and wounded.
The colonnade on the Princetown Battlefield Monument marks the common grave of 15 Americans and 21 British killed. In addition, one British officer, Captain William Leslie, died of his wounds and was buried at Pluckemin, New Jersey.
Consequences
The British viewed Trenton and Princeton as minor American victories, but with these victories, the Americans believed that they could win the war. American historians often consider the Battle of Princeton a great victory, on par with the battle of Trenton, because of the subsequent loss of control of most of New Jersey by the Crown forces. Some other historians, such as Edward Lengel, consider it to be even more impressive than Trenton. A century later, British historian Sir George Otto Trevelyan wrote in a study of the American Revolution, when talking about the impact of the victories at Trenton and Princeton, that "It may be doubted whether so small a number of men ever employed so short a space of time with greater and more lasting effects upon the history of the world."
Legacy
Part of the battlefield is now preserved in Princeton Battlefield State Park, which was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961. Another section of the battlefield adjacent to the state park was embroiled in a development controversy. The Institute for Advanced Study, which owns the property, had planned a housing project on land where George Washington charged with his men during the battle. Historians, the Department of the Interior and archaeological evidence confirm the land's significance. Several national and local preservation organizations worked to prevent construction on the property, and the Princeton Battlefield Society had legal action pending as of summer 2016. On December 12, 2016, the Civil War Trust (now a division of the American Battlefield Trust) announced that through its Campaign 1776 project to preserve land at battlefields of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, it had reached an agreement to purchase almost 15 acres of land from the Institute for Advanced Study valued at $4.1 million. This purchase would increase the size of the state park by 16%. Seven of the planned single family dwellings would be replaced with townhouses and a total of 16 housing units would be constructed. The compromise arrangement was subject to approval by the Princeton Planning Board and Delaware and Raritan Canal Commission. The Trust had already acquired and preserved nine other acres of the Princeton battlefield. On May 30, 2018, the Trust announced that it had finalized the purchase after raising almost $3.2 million from private donors, which was matched by an $837,000 grant from the National Park Service and the Mercer County Open Space Assistance Program. The completed purchase ended the long dispute over how and whether the battlefield land would be developed.
The equestrian statue of George Washington at Washington Circle in Washington, D.C. depicts him at the Battle of Princeton. Sculptor Clark Mills said in his speech at the statue's dedication ceremony on February 22, 1860, "The incident selected for representation of this statue was at the battle of Princeton where Washington, after several ineffectual attempts to rally his troops, advanced so near the enemy's lines that his horse refused to go further, but stood and trembled while the brave rider sat undaunted with reins in hand. But while his noble horse is represented thus terror stricken, the dauntless hero is calm and dignified, ever believing himself the instrument in the hand of Providence to work out the great problem of liberty."
Eight current Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 111th Inf, 125th QM Co, 175th Inf, 181st Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one currently-active Regular Army Artillery battalion (1–5th FA ) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Princeton. There are thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
A famous story, possibly apocryphal, states that during the Battle of Princeton, Alexander Hamilton ordered his cannon to fire upon the British soldiers taking refuge in Nassau Hall. As a result, one of the cannonballs was shot through the head of the portrait of King George II that hung in the chapel, which was subsequently replaced with a portrait of George Washington. Tangentially, a few years earlier Hamilton had been refused accelerated study at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) housed in Nassau Hall. He attended King's College (now Columbia University) in New York, instead.
See also
New Jersey in the American Revolution
American Revolutionary War §British New York counter-offensive. The 'Battle of Princeton' placed in overall sequence and strategic context.
The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777
Footnotes
References
Online articles without authors
Further reading
Maloy, Mark. Victory or Death: The Battles of Trenton and Princeton, December 25, 1776 – January 3, 1777. Emerging Revolutionary War Series. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2018. .
External links
Battle of Princeton
Princeton Battlefield State Park official site
Virtual Tour of the park
Animated History Map of the Battle of Princeton
Conflicts in 1777
Battles of the New Jersey Campaign
Princeton, New Jersey
State parks of New Jersey
Battles involving the United States
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
1777 in New Jersey | [
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218914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isauria | Isauria | Isauria ( or ; ), in ancient geography, is a rugged isolated district in the interior of Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods, but generally covering what is now the district of Bozkır and its surroundings in the Konya Province of Turkey, or the core of the Taurus Mountains. In its coastal extension it bordered on Cilicia.
It derives its name from the contentious Isaurian tribe and twin settlements Isaura Palaea (Ἰσαυρα Παλαιά, Latin: Isaura Vetus 'Old Isaura') and Isaura Nea (Ἰσαυρα Νέα, Latin: Isaura Nova 'New Isaura').
Isaurian marauders were fiercely independent mountain people who created havoc in neighboring districts under Macedonian and Roman occupations.
History
Early
The permanent nucleus of Isauria was north of the Taurus range which lies directly to south of Iconium and Lystra. Lycaonia had all the Iconian plain; but Isauria began as soon as the foothills were reached. Its two original towns, Isaura Nea and Isaura Palaea, lay, one among these foothills (Doria) and the other on the watershed (Zengibar Kalesi), located at approximately 37°29′N 32°12′E near Bozkir.
In the 4th century BC, Isauria was the wild district about Isaura Palaea and the heads of the Calycadnus. When the capital, Isaura (also known as Isaura Vetus or Isaura Palaea), a strongly fortified city at the foot of Mt. Taurus, was besieged by Perdiccas, the Macedonian regent after Alexander the Great's death, the Isaurians set the place alight and let it perish in flames rather than submit to capture.
Roman rule
When the Romans first encountered the Isaurians (early in the 1st century BC), they regarded Cilicia Trachea as part of Isauria, which thus extended to the Mediterranean Sea; and this extension of the name continued to be in common use for two centuries. The whole basin of the Calycadnus was reckoned Isaurian, and the cities in the valley of its southern branch formed what was known as the Isaurian Decapolis.
The Isaurians were brought partially under control (76–75 BC) by the Romans. During the war of the Cilician and other pirates against Rome, the Isaurians took so active a part that the proconsul P. Servilius deemed it necessary to follow them into their rugged strongholds, and compel the whole people to submission, an exploit for which he received the title of Isauricus (75 BC).
In the year AD 6, Cassius Dio mentions that the Isaurians were marauding through the province of Asia until they were faced with open war and were defeated.
The Isaurians were afterwards placed for a time under the rule of Amyntas, king of Galatia; but it is evident that they continued to retain their predatory habits and virtual independence. In the 3rd century they sheltered the rebel emperor Trebellianus.
In the early 4th century, all Cilicia was detached by order of Diocletian for administrative purposes from the northern slope of Taurus, and we find a province called at first Isauria-Lycaonia, and later Isauria alone, extending up to the limits of Galatia, but not passing Taurus on the south. Pisidia, part of which had hitherto been included in one province with Isauria, was also detached, and made to include Iconium; Isauria received the eastern part of Pamphylia. The coastal Metropolis of Seleucia was designated as Isauria's provincial capital.
In the 4th century they were still described by Ammianus Marcellinus as the scourge of the neighbouring provinces of Asia Minor, with a major series of raids occurring from AD 404 to 409, including one campaign to eradicate them led by the Eastern Roman general Arbazacius, but they were said to have been effectually subdued in the reign of Justinian I.
Several Byzantine emperors were οf Isaurian descent: Zeno, whose native name was Tarasicodissa Rousoumbladadiotes, Leontios who reigned from 695 to 698, Leo III, who ascended the throne of Constantinople in 718, reigned until 741, and his son Constantine V. The empire used Isaurians as soldiers, generals and at one point they even formed part of the emperor's personal guard, the Excubitores. However, the population of Constantinople considered the Isaurians as barbarians, and emperor Anastasius I had to fight a long war against Isaurian rebels (Isaurian War, 492–497).
Later
The ruins of Isaura Palaea are mainly remarkable for their fine situation, fortifications and tombs. Those of Isaura Nea have disappeared, but numerous inscriptions and many sculpture stelae, built into the houses of Dorla, prove the site. It was the latter, and not the former town, that Servilius reduced by cutting off the water supply. J. R. S. Sterrett explored in the highland of Isauria in 1885 but it was not exhaustive. The site was identified by W. M. Ramsay in 1901.
Ramsay discovered there more than fifty Greek inscriptions, the greater number Christian, as well as magnificent tombs. These monuments date from the third, fourth, and fifth centuries.
Ecclesiastical history
It is argued that Paul evangelised in Claudiopolis, the only Roman colony in the region by that time.
The Isaurian church was originally under the authority of the Patriarch of Antioch, but was attached to the Patriarch of Constantinople in the late 7th or early 8th century.
Because Aetius, fl 451. is called in inscriptions bishop of Isauropolis and Isaura Palaea and as no Notitia episcopatuum makes mention of Isaura, or Isauropolis, Ramsay supposes that the Diocese of Isaura Nova was early joined with that of Leontopolis, the more recent name of Isaura Palaea which is mentioned in all the "Notitiae".
See also
Ancient regions of Anatolia
Olba (ancient city) – Hellenistic period city in Isauria.
References
Late Roman provinces
States and territories established in the 4th century
Provinces of the Byzantine Empire | [
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218924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsutomu%20Shimomura | Tsutomu Shimomura | is a Japanese-born American physicist and computer security expert. He is known for helping the FBI track and arrest hacker Kevin Mitnick. Takedown, his 1996 book on the subject with journalist John Markoff, was later adapted for the screen in Track Down in 2000.
Shimomura was a founder of semiconductor company Neofocal Systems, and served as CEO and CTO until 2016.
Biography
Born in Japan, Shimomura is the son of Osamu Shimomura, winner of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He grew up in Princeton, New Jersey, and attended Princeton High School.
At Caltech he studied under Nobel laureate Richard Feynman. After Caltech, he went on to work at Los Alamos National Laboratory, where he continued his hands-on education in the position of staff physicist with Brosl Hasslacher and others on subjects such as Lattice Gas Automata.
In 1989, he became a research scientist in computational physics at the University of California, San Diego, and senior fellow at the San Diego Supercomputer Center. Shimomura also became a noted computer security expert, working for the National Security Agency.
In 1992, he testified before Congress on issues regarding the privacy and security (or lack thereof) on cellular telephones.
Author Bruce Sterling described his first meeting with Shimomura in the documentary Freedom Downtime:
He is best known for events in 1995, when he assisted with tracking down the computer hacker Kevin Mitnick. In that year Shimomura also received prank calls which popularized the phrase "My kung fu is stronger than yours", equating it with hacking. Shimomura and journalist John Markoff wrote a book, Takedown, about the pursuit, and the book was later adapted into a movie with a very similar name, Track Down. Shimomura, himself, appeared in a brief cameo in the movie.
Shimomura worked for Sun Microsystems during the late 1990s.
Shimomura was a founder of privately held fabless semiconductor company Neofocal Systems, and served as CEO and CTO until 2016.
Criticism
Kevin Mitnick and others have raised legal and ethical questions concerning Shimomura's involvement in his case. California author Jonathan Littman wrote a 1996 book about the case called The Fugitive Game: Online with Kevin Mitnick, in which he presented Mitnick's side of the story, which was a very different version from the events written in Shimomura and Markoff's Takedown. In his book, Littman made allegations of journalistic impropriety against Markoff and questioned the legality of Shimomura's involvement in the matter, as well as suggesting that many parts of Takedown were fabricated by its authors for self-serving purposes. Mitnick's autobiography, Ghost in the Wires, further expands on concerns that Shimomura's involvement in the case was both unethical and illegal.
Writing credits
Takedown: The Pursuit and Capture of Kevin Mitnick, America's Most Wanted Computer Outlaw—By the Man Who Did It (with John Markoff), 1996, Hyperion Books.
French title: Cybertraque, 1998,
Dutch title: De klopjacht, 1996,
German Title: Data Zone - Die Hackerjagd im Internet, 1996,
Spanish Title: Takedown. Persecución y captura de Kevin Mitnick, el forajido informático más buscado de Norteamérica. Una crónica escrita por el hombre que lo capturó., 1997,
"Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security", January 1996 (co-authors: Shimomura, Bruce Schneier, Ronald L. Rivest, Matt Blaze, Whitfield Diffie, Eric Thompson, Michael Wiener) (pdf)
References
External links
Shimomura biography
Web site for the book
1996 Charlie Rose interview with Shimomura
Living people
American technology writers
1964 births
California Institute of Technology alumni
People from Princeton, New Jersey
Princeton High School (New Jersey) alumni
People associated with computer security
People from Nagoya
Japanese emigrants to the United States | [
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218926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Athletics%20Championships | World Athletics Championships | The World Athletics Championships are a biennial athletics competition organized by World Athletics (formerly IAAF, International Association of Athletics Federations).
The World Championships were started in 1976 in response to the International Olympic Committee dropping the men's 50 km walk from the Olympic programme for the 1976 Montreal Olympics, despite its constant presence at the games since 1932. The IAAF chose to host its own world championship event instead, a month and a half after the Olympics. It was the first World Championships that the IAAF had hosted separate from the Olympic Games (traditionally the main championship for the sport).
A second limited event was held in 1980, and the inaugural championships in 1983, with all the events, is considered the official start of the competition. Until 1980, the Olympic champions were also considered as reigning World champions.
At their debut, these championships were then held every four years, until 1991, when they switched to a two-year cycle since.
History
The idea of having an Athletics World Championships was around well before the competition's first event in 1983. In 1913, the IAAF decided that the Olympic Games would serve as the World Championships for athletics. This was considered suitable for over 50 years until in the late 1960s the desire of many IAAF members to have their own World Championships began to grow. In 1976 at the IAAF Council Meeting in Puerto Rico an Athletics World Championships separate from the Olympic Games was approved.
Following bids from both Stuttgart, West Germany and Helsinki, Finland, the IAAF Council awarded the inaugural competition to Helsinki, to take place in 1983 and be held in the Helsinki Olympic Stadium (where the 1952 Summer Olympics had been held).
Two IAAF world championship events preceded the inaugural edition of the World Championships in Athletics in 1983. The 1976 World Championships had just one event – the men's 50 kilometres walk which was dropped from the Olympic programme for the 1976 Summer Olympics and the IAAF responded by setting up their own contest. Four years later, the 1980 World Championships contained only two newly approved women's events, (400 metres hurdles and 3000 metres), neither of which featured on the programme for the 1980 Summer Olympics.
Over the years the competition has grown in size. In 1983 an estimated 1,300 athletes from 154 countries participated. By the 2003 competition, in Paris, it had grown to 1,907 athletes from 203 countries with coverage being transmitted to 179 different countries.
There has also been a change in composition over the years, with several new events, all for women, being added. By 2005, the only differences were men's competition in the 50 km walk, and equivalent events in women's 100 m hurdles and heptathlon to men's 110 m hurdles and decathlon.
The following list shows when new events were added for the first time.
1987, women's 10,000 m and 10 km walk were added.
1993, women's triple jump was added.
1995, women's 3,000 m was replaced by the 5000 m.
1999, women's pole vault and hammer were added and the women's 20 km walk replaced the 10 km walk.
2005, women's 3000 m steeplechase was added.
2017, women's 50 km walk was added.
2019, mixed 4 × 400 m relay was added.
Championships
All-time medal table
Updated after the 2019 World Athletics Championships.
Notes
is the name, under which Russian athletes competed in the 2017 and 2019 Championships. Their medals were not included in the official medal table.
All-time placing table
In the IAAF placing table the total score is obtained from assigning eight points to the first place and so on to one point for the eight placed finalists. Points are shared in situations where a tie occurs. However, the IAAF site shows all points rounded to the nearest integer.
Updated after the 2017 Championships
Notes
including points earned by athletes from East Germany (510 pts) and West Germany (191.5 pts) at the 1976, 1980, 1983 and 1987 Championships.
including points earned by Authorised Neutral Athletes (55.5 pts) at the 2017 Championships.
Multiple medalists
Men
Sixteen male athletes have won at least six medals.
Women
Twenty two female athletes have won at least six medals.
Multiple winners
Boldface denotes active athletes and highest medal count among all athletes (including these who not included in these tables) per type.
Men
All events
* including one medal in the relay event in which he participated in the heats only
Individual events
Women
All events
* including one medal in the relay event in which she participated in the heats only
*** including three medals in the relay events in which she participated in the heats only
**** including four medals in the relay events in which she participated in the heats only
Individual events
Athletes with most appearances
There are 61 athletes that have competed in at least eight editions.
* At the 1993 World Championships in Athletics in Stuttgart, Germany, Dragutin Topić completed as Individual World Championship Participant (IWP) as Athletic Federation of Yugoslavia was suspended by IAAF due to United Nations sanctions stemming from the Yugoslav wars.
World records
A total of 32 world records have been set or equalled at the competition: 17 by men, 13 by women, and 2 in the mixed relay.
The first world record to be set at the World Championships was by Jarmila Kratochvílová of Czechoslovakia, who ran 47.99 seconds to win the 1983 women's 400 m final.
A peak of five world records came at the 1993 Championships.
The most recent world record was in the Women's 400 metres hurdles in 2019, when Dalilah Muhammad of the United States set a time of 52.16. World records have become less common as the history of the event has expanded, with no world records set in the 1997, 2001, 2007 or 2013 editions.
American athletes have been the most successful with thirteen world records, followed by Jamaica and Great Britain on four each. Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt has broken the most world records at the competition, at four, while American Carl Lewis set three. Jonathan Edwards holds the distinction of breaking the world record twice in one championships: improving upon his own newly-set world record in the 1995 men's triple jump final. The men's 4 × 100 metres relay has yielded the most world records, with five set between 1983 and 2011.
Ben Johnson's time of 9.83 seconds at the 1987 World Championships men's 100 m final was initially considered to be a world record, but this was rescinded in 1989 after Johnson admitted to steroid use between 1981 and 1988.
Also, the 2009 Jamaican men's 4 × 100 metres relay team time of 37.31 seconds was retrospectively recognised to as the world record after the team's time of 37.10 at the 2008 Olympics was rescinded after the disqualification of Nesta Carter (who was not present in the World Championships team).
See also
IAAF Hall of Fame
IAAF Athlete of the Year
International Athletics Championships and Games
World Para Athletics Championships
List of World Athletics Championships medalists (men)
List of World Athletics Championships medalists (women)
Notes and references
External links
Official World Athletics site for World Championships
Results of past World Championships
Track and Field Results Almanac
Top medalists from World Athletics Championships
IAAF Statistics Book – IAAF World Championships London 2017
IAAF Statistics Book – IAAF World Athletics Championships Doha 2019
World Championships in Athletics
Recurring sporting events established in 1983 | [
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218930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railgun | Railgun | A railgun is a linear motor device, typically designed as a weapon, that uses electromagnetic force to launch high velocity projectiles. The projectile normally does not contain explosives, instead relying on the projectile's high speed, mass, and kinetic energy to inflict damage. The railgun uses a pair of parallel conductors (rails), along which a sliding armature is accelerated by the electromagnetic effects of a current that flows down one rail, into the armature and then back along the other rail. It is based on principles similar to those of the homopolar motor.
As of 2020, railguns have been researched as weapons utilizing electromagnetic forces to impart a very high kinetic energy to a projectile (e.g. APFSDS) rather than using conventional propellants. While explosive-powered military guns cannot readily achieve a muzzle velocity of more than ≈2 km/s, railguns can readily exceed 3 km/s. For a similar projectile, the range of railguns may exceed that of conventional guns. The destructive force of a projectile depends on its kinetic energy and mass at the point of impact and because of the potentially high velocity of a railgun-launched projectile, its destructive force may be much greater than conventionally launched projectiles of the same size. The absence of explosive propellants or warheads to store and handle, as well as the low cost of projectiles compared to conventional weaponry, come as additional advantages.
Not withstanding the above advantages, railguns are still very much at the research stage after decades of R&D, and it remains to be seen whether or not they will ever be deployed as practical military weapons. Any trade-off analysis between electromagnetic (EM) propulsion systems and chemical propellants for weapons applications must also factor in its durability, availability and economics, as well as the novelty, bulkiness, high energy demand and complexity of the pulsed power supplies that are needed for electromagnetic launcher systems.
Basics
The railgun in its simplest form differs from a traditional electric motor in that no use is made of additional field windings (or permanent magnets). This basic configuration is formed by a single loop of current and thus requires high currents (e.g., of order one million amperes) to produce sufficient accelerations (and muzzle velocities). A relatively common variant of this configuration is the augmented railgun in which the driving current is channelled through additional pairs of parallel conductors, arranged to increase ('augment') the magnetic field experienced by the moving armature. These arrangements reduce the current required for a given acceleration. In electric motor terminology, augmented railguns are usually series-wound configurations. Some railguns also use strong neodymium magnets with the field perpendicular to the current flow to increase the force on the projectile.
The armature may be an integral part of the projectile, but it may also be configured to accelerate a separate, electrically isolated or non-conducting projectile. Solid, metallic sliding conductors are often the preferred form of railgun armature but plasma or 'hybrid' armatures can also be used. A plasma armature is formed by an arc of ionised gas that is used to push a solid, non-conducting payload in a similar manner to the propellant gas pressure in a conventional gun. A hybrid armature uses a pair of plasma contacts to interface a metallic armature to the gun rails. Solid armatures may also 'transition' into hybrid armatures, typically after a particular velocity threshold is exceeded. The high current required to power a railgun can be provided by various power supply technologies, such as capacitors, pulse generators and disc generators.
For potential military applications, railguns are usually of interest because they can achieve much greater muzzle velocities than guns powered by conventional chemical propellants. Increased muzzle velocities with better aerodynamically streamlined projectiles can convey the benefits of increased firing ranges while, in terms of target effects, increased terminal velocities can allow the use of kinetic energy rounds incorporating hit-to-kill guidance, as replacements for explosive shells. Therefore, typical military railgun designs aim for muzzle velocities in the range of with muzzle energies of 5–50 megajoules
(MJ). For comparison, 50MJ is equivalent to the kinetic energy of a school bus weighing 5 metric tons, traveling at . For single loop railguns, these mission requirements require launch currents of a few million amperes, so a typical railgun power supply might be designed to deliver a launch current of 5 MA for a few milliseconds. As the magnetic field strengths required for such launches will typically be approximately 10 tesla (100 kilogauss), most contemporary railgun designs are effectively air-cored, i.e., they do not use ferromagnetic materials such as iron to enhance the magnetic flux. However, if the barrel is made of a magnetically permeable material, the magnetic field strength increases because the increase in permeability (μ = μ0*μr, where μ is the effective permeability, μ0 is the permeability constant and μr is the relative permeability of the barrel). This increases the force on the projectile.
Railgun velocities generally fall within the range of those achievable by two-stage light-gas guns; however, the latter are generally only considered to be suitable for laboratory use, while railguns are judged to offer some potential prospects for development as military weapons. A light gas gun, the Combustion Light Gas Gun in a 155 mm prototype form was projected to achieve 2500 m/s with a 70 caliber barrel. In some hypervelocity research projects, projectiles are 'pre-injected' into railguns, to avoid the need for a standing start, and both two-stage light-gas guns and conventional powder guns have been used for this role. In principle, if railgun power supply technology can be developed to provide safe, compact, reliable, combat survivable, and lightweight units, then the total system volume and mass needed to accommodate such a power supply and its primary fuel can become less than the required total volume and mass for a mission equivalent quantity of conventional propellants and explosive ammunition. Arguably such technology has been matured with the introduction of the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) (albeit that railguns require much higher system powers, because roughly similar energies must be delivered in a few milliseconds, as opposed to a few seconds). Such a development would then convey a further military advantage in that the elimination of explosives from any military weapons platform will decrease its vulnerability to enemy fire.
History
The concept of the railgun was first introduced by French inventor André Louis Octave Fauchon-Villeplée, who created a small working model in 1917 with the help of the Société anonyme des accumulateurs Tudor (now Tudor Batteries). During World War I, the French Director of Inventions at the Ministry of Armaments, Jules-Louis Brenton, commissioned Fauchon-Villeplee to develop a 30-mm to 50-mm electric cannon on July 25, 1918 after delegates from the Commission des Inventions witnessed test trials of the working model in 1917. However, the project was abandoned once World War I ended later that year on November 11, 1918. Fauchon-Villeplee filed for a US patent on 1 April 1919, which was issued in July 1922 as patent no. 1,421,435 "Electric Apparatus for Propelling Projectiles". In his device, two parallel busbars are connected by the wings of a projectile, and the whole apparatus surrounded by a magnetic field. By passing current through busbars and projectile, a force is induced which propels the projectile along the bus-bars and into flight.
In 1923, Russian scientist A. L. Korol’kov detailed his criticisms of Fauchon-Villeplee's design, arguing against some of the claims that Fauchon-Villeplee made about the advantages of his invention. Korol’kov eventually concluded that while the construction of a long-range electric gun was within the realm of possibility, the practical application of Fauchon-Villeplee's railgun was hindered by its enormous electric energy consumption and its need for a special electric generator of considerable capacity to power it.
In 1944, during World War II, Joachim Hänsler of Germany's Ordnance Office proposed the first theoretically viable railgun. By late 1944, the theory behind his electric anti-aircraft gun had been worked out sufficiently to allow the Luftwaffe's Flak Command to issue a specification, which demanded a muzzle velocity of and a projectile containing of explosive. The guns were to be mounted in batteries of six firing twelve rounds per minute, and it was to fit existing 12.8 cm FlaK 40 mounts. It was never built. When details were discovered after the war it aroused much interest and a more detailed study was done, culminating with a 1947 report which concluded that it was theoretically feasible, but that each gun would need enough power to illuminate half of Chicago.
During 1950, Sir Mark Oliphant, an Australian physicist and first director of the Research School of Physical Sciences at the new Australian National University, initiated the design and construction of the world's largest (500 megajoule) homopolar generator. This machine was operational from 1962 and was later used to power a large-scale railgun that was used as a scientific experiment.
In 1980, the Ballistic Research Laboratory (later consolidated to form the U.S. Army Research Laboratory) began a long-term program of theoretical and experimental research on railguns. The work was conducted predominantly at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and much of the early research drew inspiration from the railgun experiments performed by the Australian National University. Topics of research included plasma dynamics, electromagnetic fields, telemetry, and current and heat transport. While military research into railgun technology in the United States ensued continuously in the following decades, the direction and focus that it took shifted dramatically with major changes in funding levels and the needs of different government agencies. In 1984, the formation of the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization caused research goals to shift toward establishing a constellation of satellites to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles. As a result, the U.S. military focused on developing small guided projectiles that could withstand the high-G launch from ultra-high velocity plasma armature railguns. But after the publication of an important Defense Science Board study in 1985, the U.S. Army, Marine Corps, and DARPA were assigned to develop anti-armor, electromagnetic launch technologies for mobile ground combat vehicles. In 1990, the U.S. Army collaborated with the University of Texas at Austin to establish the Institute for Advanced Technology (IAT), which focused on research involving solid and hybrid armatures, rail-armature interactions, and electromagnetic launcher materials. The facility became the Army's first Federally Funded Research and Development Center and housed a few of the Army's electromagnetic launchers, such as the Medium Caliber Launcher.
Since 1993 the British and American governments have collaborated on a railgun project at the Dundrennan Weapons Testing Centre that culminated in the 2010 test where BAE Systems fired a 3.2 kg (7 pound) projectile at 18.4-megajoules []. In 1994, India's DRDO's Armament Research and Development Establishment developed a railgun with a 240 kJ, low inductance capacitor bank operating at 5 kV power able to launch projectiles of 3–3.5 g weight to a velocity of more than . In 1995, the Center for Electromagnetics at the University of Texas at Austin designed and developed a rapid-fire railgun launcher called the Cannon-Caliber Electromagnetic Gun. The launcher prototype was later tested at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, where it demonstrated a breech efficiency over 50 percent.
In 2010, the United States Navy tested a BAE Systems-designed compact-sized railgun for ship emplacement that accelerated a 3.2 kg (7 pound) projectile to hypersonic velocities of approximately , or about , with 18.4MJ of kinetic energy. It was the first time in history that such levels of performance were reached. They gave the project the motto "Velocitas Eradico", Latin for "I, [who am] speed, eradicate"—or in the vernacular, "Speed Kills".
An earlier railgun of the same design (32-megajoules) resides at the Dundrennan Weapons Testing Centre in the United Kingdom.
Low power, small scale railguns have also made popular college and amateur projects. Several amateurs actively carry out research on railguns.
Design
Theory
A railgun consists of two parallel metal rails (hence the name). At one end, these rails are connected to an electrical power supply, to form the breech end of the gun. Then, if a conductive projectile is inserted between the rails (e.g. by insertion into the breech), it completes the circuit. Electrons flow from the negative terminal of the power supply up the negative rail, across the projectile, and down the positive rail, back to the power supply.
This current makes the railgun behave as an electromagnet, creating a magnetic field inside the loop formed by the length of the rails up to the position of the armature. In accordance with the right-hand rule, the magnetic field circulates around each conductor. Since the current is in the opposite direction along each rail, the net magnetic field between the rails (B) is directed at right angles to the plane formed by the central axes of the rails and the armature. In combination to all with the current (I) in the armature, this produces a Lorentz force which accelerates the projectile along the rails, always out of the loop (regardless of supply polarity) and away from the power supply, towards the muzzle end of the rails. There are also Lorentz forces acting on the rails and attempting to push them apart, but since the rails are mounted firmly, they cannot move.
By definition, if a current of one ampere flows in a pair of ideal infinitely long parallel conductors that are separated by a distance of one meter, then the magnitude of the force on each meter of those conductors will be exactly 0.2 micro-newtons. Furthermore, in general, the force will be proportional to the square of the magnitude of the current and inversely proportional to the distance between the conductors. It also follows that, for railguns with projectile masses of a few kg and barrel lengths of a few m, very large currents will be required to accelerate projectiles to velocities of the order of 1000 m/s.
A very large power supply, providing on the order of one million amperes of current, will create a tremendous force on the projectile, accelerating it to a speed of many kilometres per second (km/s). Although these speeds are possible, the heat generated from the propulsion of the object is enough to erode the rails rapidly. Under high-use conditions, current railguns would require frequent replacement of the rails, or to use a heat-resistant material that would be conductive enough to produce the same effect. At this time it is generally acknowledged that it will take major breakthroughs in materials science and related disciplines to produce high-powered railguns capable of firing more than a few shots from a single set of rails. The barrel must withstand these conditions for up to several rounds per minute for thousands of shots without failure or significant degradation. These parameters are well beyond the state of the art in materials science.
Electromagnetic analysis
This section presents some elementary analysis of the fundamental theoretical electromagnetic principles that govern the mechanics of railguns.
If a railgun were to provide a uniform magnetic field of strength , oriented at right angles to both the armature and the bore axis, then, with an armature current and an armature length , the force accelerating the projectile would be given by the formula:
Here the force, current and field are all treated as vectors, so the above vector cross product gives a force directed along the bore axis, acting on the current in the armature, as a consequence of the magnetic field.
In most simple railguns, the magnetic field is only provided by the current flowing in the rails, i.e. behind the armature. It follows that the magnetic field will neither be constant nor spatially uniform. Hence, in practice, the force must be calculated after making due allowances for the spatial variation of the magnetic field over the volume of the armature.
To illustrate the principles involved, it can be useful to consider the rails and the armature as thin wires or "filaments". With this approximation, the magnitude of the force vector can be determined from a form of the Biot–Savart law and a result of the Lorentz force. The force can be derived mathematically in terms of the permeability constant (), the radius of the rails (which are assumed to be circular in cross section) (), the distance between the central axes of the rails () and the current () as described below.
First, it can be shown from the Biot–Savart law that at one end of a semi-infinite current-carrying wire, the magnetic field at a given perpendicular distance () from the end of the wire is given by
Note this is if the wire runs from the location of the armature e.g. from x = 0 back to and is measured relative to the axis of the wire.
So, if the armature connects the ends of two such semi-infinite wires separated by a distance, , a fairly good approximation assuming the length of the wires is much larger than , the total field from both wires at any point on the armature is:
where is the perpendicular distance from the point on the armature to the axis of one of the wires.
Note that between the rails is assuming the rails are lying in the xy plane and run from x = 0 back to as suggested above.
Next, to evaluate the force on the armature, the above expression for the magnetic field on the armature can be used in conjunction with the Lorentz Force Law,
To give the force as
This shows that the force will be proportional to the product of and the square of the current, . Because the value of μ0 is small () it follows that powerful railguns need large driving currents.
The above formula is based on the assumption that the distance () between the point where the force () is measured and the beginning of the rails is greater than the separation of the rails () by a factor of about 3 or 4 (). Some other simplifying assumptions have also been made; to describe the force more accurately, the geometry of the rails and the projectile must be considered.
With most practical railgun geometries, it is not easy to produce an electromagnetic expression for the railgun force that is both simple and reasonably accurate. For a more workable simple model, a useful alternative is to use a lumped circuit model, to describe the relationship between the driving current and the railgun force.
In these models the railgun is modeled on an electrical circuit and the driving force can be determined from the energy flow in the circuit. The voltage across the railgun breech is given by
So the total power flowing into the railgun is then simply the product . This power represents an energy flow into three main forms: kinetic energy in the projectile and armature, energy stored in the magnetic field, and energy lost via electrical resistance heating of the rails (and armature).
As the projectile travels along the barrel, the distance from the breech to the armature increases. Hence the resistance and inductance of the barrel also increase. For a simple model, the barrel resistance and inductance can be assumed to vary as linear functions of the projectile position, , so these quantities are modelled as
where is the resistance per unit length and is the inductance per unit length, or the inductance gradient. It follows that
where is the all-important projectile velocity, . Then
Now, if the driving current is held constant, the term will be zero. Resistive losses now correspond to a power flow , while the power flow represents the electromagnetic work done.
This simple model predicts that exactly half of the electromagnetic work will be used to store energy in the magnetic field along the barrel, , as the length of the current loop increases.
The other half of the electromagnetic work represents the more useful power flow - into the kinetic energy of the projectile. Since power can be expressed as force times speed, this shows the force on the railgun armature is given by
This equation also shows that high accelerations will require very high currents. For an ideal square bore single-turn railgun, the value of would be about 0.6 microHenries per metre (μH/m) but most practical railgun barrels exhibit lower values of than this. Maximizing the inductance gradient is but one of the challenges faced by the designers of railgun barrels.
Since the lumped circuit model describes the railgun force in terms of fairly normal circuit equations, it becomes possible to specify a simple time domain model of a railgun. Ignoring friction and air drag, the projectile acceleration is given by
where m is the projectile mass. The motion along the barrel is given by
and the above voltage and current terms can be placed into appropriate circuit equations to determine the time variation of current and voltage.
It can also be noted that the textbook formula for the high frequency inductance per unit length of a pair of parallel round wires, of radius r and axial separation d is:
So the lumped parameter model also predicts the force for this case as:
With practical railgun geometries, much more accurate two or three dimensional models of the rail and armature current distributions (and the associated forces) can be computed, e.g., by using finite element methods to solve formulations based on either the scalar magnetic potential or the magnetic vector potential.
Design considerations
The power supply must be able to deliver large currents, sustained and controlled over a useful amount of time. The most important gauge of power supply effectiveness is the energy it can deliver. As of December 2010, the greatest known energy used to propel a projectile from a railgun was 33 megajoules. The most common forms of power supplies used in railguns are capacitors and compulsators which are slowly charged from other continuous energy sources.
The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during shooting, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase, arcing develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limited some early research railguns to one shot per service interval.
The inductance and resistance of the rails and power supply limit the efficiency of a railgun design. Currently different rail shapes and railgun configurations are being tested, most notably by the U.S. Navy (Naval Research Laboratory), the Institute for Advanced Technology at the University of Texas at Austin, and BAE Systems.
Materials used
The rails and projectiles must be built from strong conductive materials; the rails need to survive the violence of an accelerating projectile, and heating because of the large currents and friction involved. Some erroneous work has suggested that the recoil force in railguns can be redirected or eliminated; careful theoretical and experimental analysis reveals that the recoil force acts on the breech closure just as in a chemical firearm. The rails also repel themselves via a sideways force caused by the rails being pushed by the magnetic field, just as the projectile is. The rails need to survive this without bending and must be very securely mounted. Currently published material suggests that major advances in material science must be made before rails can be developed that allow railguns to fire more than a few full-power shots before replacement of the rails is required.
Heat dissipation
In current designs massive amounts of heat are created by the electricity flowing through the rails, as well as by the friction of the projectile leaving the device. This causes three main problems: melting of equipment, decreased safety of personnel, and detection by enemy forces owing to increased infrared signature.
As briefly discussed above, the stresses involved in firing this sort of device require an extremely heat-resistant material. Otherwise the rails, barrel, and all equipment attached would melt or be irreparably damaged.
In practice, the rails used with most railgun designs are subject to erosion from each launch. Additionally, projectiles can be subject to some degree of ablation, and this can limit railgun life, in some cases severely.
Applications
Railguns have a number of potential practical applications, primarily for the military. However, there are other theoretical applications currently being researched.
Launch or launch assist of spacecraft
Electrodynamic assistance to launch rockets has been studied. Space applications of this technology would likely involve specially formed electromagnetic coils and superconducting magnets. Composite materials would likely be used for this application.
For space launches from Earth, relatively short acceleration distances (less than a few km) would require very strong acceleration forces, higher than humans can tolerate. Other designs include a longer helical (spiral) track, or a large ring design whereby a space vehicle would circle the ring numerous times, gradually gaining speed, before being released into a launch corridor leading skyward. Nevertheless, if technically feasible and cost effective to build, imparting hyper-velocity escape velocity to a projectile launching at sea level, where the atmosphere is the most dense, may result in much of the launch velocity being lost to aerodynamic drag. In addition, the projectile might still require some form of on-board guidance and control to realize a useful orbital insertion angle that may not be achievable based simply on the launcher's upward elevation angle relative to the surface of the earth, (see practical considerations of escape velocity).
In 2003, Ian McNab outlined a plan to turn this idea into a realized technology. Because of strong acceleration, this system would launch only sturdy materials, such as food, water, and – most importantly – fuel. Under ideal circumstances (equator, mountain, heading east) the system would cost $528/kg, compared with $5,000/kg on the conventional rocket. The McNab railgun could make approximately 2000 launches per year, for a total of maximum 500 tons launched per year. Because the launch track would be 1.6 km long, power will be supplied by a distributed network of 100 rotating machines (compulsator) spread along the track. Each machine would have a 3.3-ton carbon fibre rotor spinning at high speeds. A machine can recharge in a matter of hours using 10 MW power. This machine could be supplied by a dedicated generator. The total launch package would weigh almost 1.4 tons. Payload per launch in these conditions is over 400 kg. There would be a peak operating magnetic field of 5 T—half of this coming from the rails, and the other half from augmenting magnets. This halves the required current through the rails, which reduces the power fourfold.
NASA has proposed to use a railgun to launch "wedge-shaped aircraft with scramjets" to high-altitude at Mach 10, where it would then launch a small payload into orbit using conventional rocket propulsion. The extreme g-forces involved with direct railgun ground-launch to space may restrict the usage to only the sturdiest of payloads. Alternatively, very long rail systems may be used to reduce the required launch acceleration.
Weaponry
Railguns are being researched as weapons with projectiles that do not contain explosives or propellants, but are given extremely high velocities: (approximately Mach 7 at sea level) or more. For comparison, the M16 rifle has a muzzle speed of , and the 16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun that armed World War II American battleships has a muzzle speed of ), which because of its much greater projectile mass (up to 2,700 pounds) generated a muzzle energy of 360 MJ and a downrange kinetic impact of energy of over 160 MJ (see also Project HARP). By firing smaller projectiles at extremely high velocities, railguns may yield kinetic energy impacts equal or superior to the destructive energy of 5"/54 caliber Mark 45 Naval guns, (which achieve up to 10MJ at the muzzle), but with greater range. This decreases ammunition size and weight, allowing more ammunition to be carried and eliminating the hazards of carrying explosives or propellants in a tank or naval weapons platform. Also, by firing more aerodynamically streamlined projectiles at greater velocities, railguns may achieve greater range, less time to target, and at shorter ranges less wind drift, bypassing the physical limitations of conventional firearms: "the limits of gas expansion prohibit launching an unassisted projectile to velocities greater than about 1.5 km/s and ranges of more than from a practical conventional gun system."
Current railgun technologies necessitate a long and heavy barrel, but a railgun's ballistics far outperform conventional cannons of equal barrel lengths. Railguns can also deliver area of effect damage by detonating a bursting charge in the projectile which unleashes a swarm of smaller projectiles over a large area.
Assuming that the many technical challenges facing fieldable railguns are overcome, including issues like railgun projectile guidance, rail endurance, and combat survivability and reliability of the electrical power supply, the increased launch velocities of railguns may provide advantages over more conventional guns for a variety of offensive and defensive scenarios. Railguns have limited potential to be used against both surface and airborne targets.
The first weaponized railgun planned for production, the General Atomics Blitzer system, began full system testing in September 2010. The weapon launches a streamlined discarding sabot round designed by Boeing's Phantom Works at (approximately Mach 5) with accelerations exceeding 60,000 gn. During one of the tests, the projectile was able to travel an additional downrange after penetrating a thick steel plate. The company hopes to have an integrated demo of the system by 2016 followed by production by 2019, pending funding. Thus far, the project is self-funded.
In October 2013, General Atomics unveiled a land based version of the Blitzer railgun. A company official claimed the gun could be ready for production in "two to three years".
Railguns are being examined for use as anti-aircraft weapons to intercept air threats, particularly anti-ship cruise missiles, in addition to land bombardment. A supersonic sea-skimming anti-ship missile can appear over the horizon 20 miles from a warship, leaving a very short reaction time for a ship to intercept it. Even if conventional defense systems react fast enough, they are expensive and only a limited number of large interceptors can be carried. A railgun projectile can reach several times the speed of sound faster than a missile; because of this, it can hit a target, such as a cruise missile, much faster and farther away from the ship. Projectiles are also typically much cheaper and smaller, allowing for many more to be carried (they have no guidance systems, and rely on the railgun to supply their kinetic energy, rather than providing it themselves). The speed, cost, and numerical advantages of railgun systems may allow them to replace several different systems in the current layered defense approach. A railgun projectile without the ability to change course can hit fast-moving missiles at a maximum range of . As is the case with the Phalanx CIWS, unguided railgun rounds will require multiple/many shots to bring down maneuvering supersonic anti-ship missiles, with the odds of hitting the missile improving dramatically the closer it gets. The Navy plans for railguns to be able to intercept endoatmospheric ballistic missiles, stealthy air threats, supersonic missiles, and swarming surface threats; a prototype system for supporting interception tasks is to be ready by 2018, and operational by 2025. This timeframe suggests the weapons are planned to be installed on the Navy's next-generation surface combatants, expected to start construction by 2028.
BAE Systems was at one point interested in installing railguns on their Future Fighting Vehicle.
India has successfully tested their own railgun. Russia, China, Turkey's ASELSAN and Yeteknoloji are also developing railguns.
Helical railgun
Helical railguns are multi-turn railguns that reduce rail and brush current by a factor equal to the number of turns. Two rails are surrounded by a helical barrel and the projectile or re-usable carrier is also helical. The projectile is energized continuously by two brushes sliding along the rails, and two or more additional brushes on the projectile serve to energize and commute several windings of the helical barrel direction in front of and/or behind the projectile. The helical railgun is a cross between a railgun and a coilgun. They do not currently exist in a practical, usable form.
A helical railgun was built at MIT in 1980 and was powered by several banks of, for the time, large capacitors (approximately 4 farads). It was about 3 meters long, consisting of 2 meters of accelerating coil and 1 meter of decelerating coil. It was able to launch a glider or projectile about 500 meters.
Plasma railgun
A plasma railgun is a linear accelerator and a plasma energy weapon which, like a projectile railgun, uses two long parallel electrodes to accelerate a "sliding short" armature. However, in a plasma railgun, the armature and ejected projectile consists of plasma, or hot, ionized, gas-like particles, instead of a solid slug of material. MARAUDER (Magnetically Accelerated Ring to Achieve Ultra-high Directed Energy and Radiation) is, or was, a United States Air Force Research Laboratory project concerning the development of a coaxial plasma railgun. It is one of several United States Government efforts to develop plasma-based projectiles. The first computer simulations occurred in 1990, and its first published experiment appeared on August 1, 1993. As of 1993 the project appeared to be in the early experimental stages. The weapon was able to produce doughnut-shaped rings of plasma and balls of lightning that exploded with devastating effects when hitting their target. The project's initial success led to it becoming classified, and only a few references to MARAUDER appeared after 1993.
Tests
Full-scale models have been built and fired, including a bore, 9 megajoule kinetic energy gun developed by the US DARPA. Rail and insulator wear problems still need to be solved before railguns can start to replace conventional weapons. Probably the oldest consistently successful system was built by the UK's Defence Research Agency at Dundrennan Range in Kirkcudbright, Scotland. This system was established in 1993 and has been operated for over 10 years.
The Yugoslavian Military Technology Institute developed, within a project named EDO-0, a railgun with 7 kJ kinetic energy, in 1985. In 1987 a successor was created, project EDO-1, that used projectile with a mass of and achieved speeds of , and with a mass of reached speeds of . It used a track length of . According to those working on it, with other modifications it was able to achieve a speed of . The aim was to achieve projectile speed of .
China is now one of the major players in electromagnetic launchers; in 2012 it hosted the 16th International Symposium on Electromagnetic Launch Technology (EML 2012) at Beijing. Satellite imagery in late 2010 suggested that tests were being conducted at an armor and artillery range near Baotou, in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.
United States Armed Forces
The United States military have expressed interest in pursuing research in electric gun technology throughout the late 20th century, since electromagnetic guns don't require propellants to fire a shot as conventional gun systems do, significantly increasing crew safety and reducing logistics costs, as well as provide a greater range. In addition, railgun systems have shown to potentially provide higher velocity of projectiles, which would increase accuracy for anti-tank, artillery, and air defense by decreasing the time it takes for the projectile to reach its target destination. During the early 1990s, the U.S. Army dedicated more than $150 million into electric gun research. At the University of Texas at Austin Center for Electromechanics, military railguns capable of delivering tungsten armor-piercing bullets with kinetic energies of nine megajoules (9 MJ) have been developed. Nine megajoules is enough energy to deliver of projectile at —at that velocity, a sufficiently long rod of tungsten or another dense metal could easily penetrate a tank, and potentially pass through it, (see APFSDS).
Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division
The United States Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division demonstrated an 8 MJ railgun firing projectiles in October 2006 as a prototype of a 64 MJ weapon to be deployed aboard Navy warships. The main problem the U.S. Navy has had with implementing a railgun cannon system is that the guns wear out because of the immense pressures, stresses and heat that are generated by the millions of amperes of current necessary to fire projectiles with megajoules of energy. While not nearly as powerful as a cruise missile like a BGM-109 Tomahawk, that will deliver 3,000 MJ of energy to a target, such weapons would, in theory, allow the Navy to deliver more granular firepower at a fraction of the cost of a missile, and will be much harder to shoot down versus future defensive systems. For context, another relevant comparison is the Rheinmetall 120mm gun used on main battle tanks, which generates 9 MJ of muzzle energy.
In 2007 BAE Systems delivered a 32 MJ prototype (muzzle energy) to the U.S. Navy. The same amount of energy is released by the detonation of of C4.
On January 31, 2008, the U.S. Navy tested a railgun that fired a projectile at 10.64 MJ with a muzzle velocity of . The power was provided by a new 9-megajoule prototype capacitor bank using solid-state switches and high-energy-density capacitors delivered in 2007 and an older 32-MJ pulse power system from the US Army's Green Farm Electric Gun Research and Development Facility developed in the late 1980s that was previously refurbished by General Atomics Electromagnetic Systems (EMS) Division. It is expected to be ready between 2020 and 2025.
A test of a railgun took place on December 10, 2010, by the U.S. Navy at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. During the test, the Office of Naval Research set a world record by conducting a 33 MJ shot from the railgun, which was built by BAE Systems.
Another test took place in February 2012, at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. While similar in energy to the aforementioned test, the railgun used was considerably more compact, with a more conventional looking barrel. A General Atomics-built prototype was delivered for testing in October 2012.
In 2014 the U.S. Navy had plans to integrate a railgun that has a range of over onto a ship by 2016. This weapon, while having a form factor more typical of a naval gun, was to utilize components largely in common with those developed and demonstrated at Dahlgren. The hyper-velocity rounds weigh , are , and are fired at Mach 7.
A future goal was to develop projectiles that were self-guided – a necessary requirement to hit distant targets or intercept missiles. When the guided rounds are developed, the Navy is projecting each round to cost about $25,000, though developing guided projectiles for guns has a history of doubling or tripling initial cost estimates. Some high velocity projectiles developed by the Navy have command guidance, but the accuracy of the command guidance is not known, nor even if it can survive a full power shot.
The only U.S. Navy ships that can produce enough electrical power to get the desired performance are the threes (DDG-1000 series); they can generate 78 megawatts of power, more than is necessary to power a railgun. However, the Zumwalt has been cancelled and no further units will be built. Engineers are working to derive technologies developed for the DDG-1000 series ships into a battery system so other warships can operate a railgun. As of 2014 most destroyers can spare only nine megawatts of additional electricity, while it would require 25 megawatts to propel a projectile to the desired maximum range (i.e., to launch 32MJ projectiles at a rate of 10 shots per minute). Even if ships, such as the, can be upgraded with enough electrical power to operate a railgun, the space taken up on the ships by the integration of an additional weapon system may force the removal of existing weapon systems to make room available. The first shipboard tests was to be from a railgun installed on an (EPF), but this was later changed to land based testing.
Though the 23 lb projectiles have no explosives, their Mach 7 velocity gives them 32 megajoules of energy, but impact kinetic energy downrange will typically be 50 percent or less of the muzzle energy. The Navy looked into other uses for railguns, besides land bombardment, such as air defense; with the right targeting systems, projectiles could intercept aircraft, cruise missiles, and even ballistic missiles. The Navy is also developing directed-energy weapons for air defense use, but it will be years or decades before they will be effective.
The railgun would be part of a Navy fleet that envisions future offensive and defensive capabilities being provided in layers: lasers to provide close range defense, railguns to provide medium range attack and defense, and cruise missiles to provide long-range attack; though railguns will cover targets up to 100 miles away that previously needed a missile. The Navy may eventually enhance railgun technology to enable it to fire at a range of and impact with 64 megajoules of energy. One shot would require 6 million amps of current, so it will take a long time to develop capacitors that can generate enough energy and strong enough gun materials.
The most promising near-term application for weapons-rated railguns and electromagnetic guns, in general, is probably aboard naval ships with sufficient spare electrical generating capacity and battery storage space. In exchange, ship survivability may be enhanced through a comparable reduction in the quantities of potentially dangerous chemical propellants and explosives employed. Ground combat forces, however, may find that co-locating an additional electrical power supply on the battlefield for every gun system may not be as weight and space efficient, survivable, or convenient a source of immediate projectile-launching energy as conventional propellants, which are manufactured safely behind the lines and delivered to the weapon, pre-packaged, through a robust and dispersed logistics system.
In July, 2017, Defensetech reported that the Navy wished to push the Office of Naval Research's prototype railgun from a science experiment into useful weapon territory. The goal, according to Tom Beutner, head of Naval Air Warfare and Weapons for the ONR, was ten shots per minute at 32 megajoules. A 32 megajoule railgun shot is equivalent to about 23,600,000 foot-pounds, so a single 32 MJ shot has the same muzzle energy as about 200,000 .22 rounds being fired simultaneously. In more conventional power units, a 32 MJ shot every 6 s is a net power of 5.3 MW (or 5300 kW). If the railgun is assumed to be 20% efficient at turning electrical energy into kinetic energy, the ship's electrical supplies will need to provide about 25 MW for as long as firing continues.
As of 2020 the Navy had spent $500m on rail gun development over 17 years. The Navy was focusing on firing hypersonic projectiles from existing conventional guns already available in numbers. On June 1, 2021 The Drive reported that the US navy's proposed 2022 fiscal year budget had no funding for railgun research and development. Technical challenges could not be overcome, such as the massive forces of firing wearing out the barrel after only one or two dozen shots, and a rate of fire too low to be useful for missile defense. Priorities had also changed since railgun development started, with the Navy putting more focus on longer range hypersonic missiles compared to comparatively shorter range railgun projectiles.
Army Research Laboratory
Research on railgun technology served as a major area of focus at the Ballistic Research Laboratory (BRL) throughout the 1980s. In addition to analyzing the performance and electrodynamic and thermodynamic properties of railguns at other institutions (like Maxwell Laboratories’ CHECMATE railgun), BRL procured their own railguns for study such as their one-meter railgun and their four-meter rail gun. In 1984, BRL researchers devised a technique to analyze the residue left behind on the bore surface after a shot was fired in order to investigate the cause of the bore's progressive degradation. In 1991, they determined the properties required for developing an effective launch package as well as the design criteria necessary for a railgun to incorporate finned, long rod projectiles.
Research into railguns continued after the Ballistic Research Laboratory was consolidated with six other independent Army laboratories to form the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) in 1992. One of the major projects in railgun research that ARL was involved in was the Cannon-Caliber Electromagnetic Gun (CCEMG) program, which took place at the Center for Electromechanics at the University of Texas (UT-CEM) and was sponsored by the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center. As part of the CCEMG program, UT-CEM designed and developed the Cannon-Caliber Electromagnetic Launcher, a rapid-fire railgun launcher, in 1995. Featuring a 30-mm roundbore, the launcher was capable of firing three, five-round salvos of 185-g launch packages at a muzzle velocity of 1850 m/s and a firing rate of 5 Hz. Rapid-fire operation was achieved by driving the launcher with multiple 83544 peak pulses provided by the CCEMG compulsator. The CCEMG railgun included several features: ceramic sidewalls, directional preloading, and liquid cooling. ARL was responsible for assessing the performance of the launcher, which was tested at the ARL Transonic Experimental Facility in Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.
The U.S. Army Research Laboratory also monitored electromagnetic and electrothermal gun technology development at the Institute for Advanced Technology (IAT) at the University of Texas at Austin, one of five university and industry laboratories that ARL federated to procure technical support. It housed the two electromagnetic launchers, the Leander OAT and the AugOAT, as well as the Medium Caliber Launcher. The facility also provided a power system that included thirteen 1- MJ capacitor banks, an assortment of electromagnetic launcher devices and diagnostic apparatuses. The focus of the research activity was on designs, interactions and materials required for electromagnetic launchers.
In 1999, a collaboration between ARL and IAT led to the development of a radiometric method of measuring the temperature distribution of railgun armatures during a pulsed electrical discharge without disturbing the magnetic field. In 2001, ARL became the first to obtain a set of accuracy data on electromagnetic gun-launched projectiles using jump tests. In 2004, ARL researchers published papers examining the interaction of high temperature plasmas for the purpose of developing efficient railgun igniters. Early papers describe the plasma-propellant interaction group at ARL and their attempts to understand and distinguish between the chemical, thermal, and radiation effect of plasmas on conventional solid propellants. Using scanning electron microscopy and other diagnostic techniques, they evaluated in detail the influence of plasmas on specific propellant materials.
People's Republic of China
China is developing its own railgun system. According to a CNBC report from U.S. intelligence, China's railgun system was first revealed in 2011, and ground testing began in 2014. In 2015 when the weapon system gained the ability to strike over extended ranges with increased lethality. The weapon system was successfully mounted on a Chinese Navy ship in December 2017, with sea trials happening later.
In early February 2018, pictures of what is claimed to be a Chinese railgun were published online. In the pictures the gun is mounted on the bow of a Type 072III-class landing ship Haiyangshan. Media suggests that the system is or soon will be ready for testing. In March 2018, it was reported that China confirmed it had begun testing its electromagnetic rail gun at sea.
India
In November 2017, India's Defence Research and Development Organisation carried out a successful test of a 12 mm square bore electromagnetic railgun. Tests of a 30 mm version are planned to be conducted. India aims to fire a one kilogram projectile at a velocity of more than 2,000 meters per second using a capacitor bank of 10 megajoules. Electromagnetic guns and directed energy weapons are among the systems which Indian Navy aims to acquire in its modernisation plan up to 2030.
Issues
Major difficulties
Major technological and operational hurdles must be overcome before railguns can be deployed:
Railgun durability: To date, railgun demonstrations, while impressive, have not demonstrated an ability to fire multiple full power shots from the same set of rails. The United States Navy has claimed hundreds of shots from the same set of rails. In a March 2014 statement to the Intelligence, Emerging Threats and Capabilities Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee, Chief of Naval Research Admiral Matthew Klunder stated, "Barrel life has increased from tens of shots to over 400, with a program path to achieve 1000 shots." However, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) will not confirm that the 400 shots are full-power shots. Further, there is nothing published to indicate there are any high megajoule-class railguns with the capability of firing hundreds of full-power shots while staying within the strict operational parameters necessary to fire railgun shots accurately and safely. Railguns should be able to fire 6 rounds per minute with a rail life of about 3000 rounds, tolerating launch accelerations of tens of thousands of g's, extreme pressures and megaampere currents, but this is not feasible with current technology.
Projectile guidance: A future capability critical to fielding a real railgun weapon is developing a robust guidance package that will allow the railgun to fire at distant targets or to hit incoming missiles. Developing such a package is a real challenge. The U.S. Navy's RFP Navy SBIR 2012.1 – Topic N121-102 for developing such a package gives a good overview of just how challenging railgun projectile guidance is:
The package must fit within the mass (< 2 kg), diameter (< 40 mm outer diameter), and volume (200 cm3) constraints of the projectile and do so without altering the center of gravity. It should also be able to survive accelerations of at least 20,000 g (threshold) / 40,000 g (objective) in all axes, high electromagnetic fields (E > 5,000 V/m, B > 2 T), and surface temperatures of > 800 deg C. The package should be able to operate in the presence of any plasma that may form in the bore or at the muzzle exit and must also be radiation hardened owing to exo-atmospheric flight. Total power consumption must be less than 8 watts (threshold)/5 watts (objective) and the battery life must be at least 5 minutes (from initial launch) to enable operation during the entire engagement. In order to be affordable, the production cost per projectile must be as low as possible, with a goal of less than $1,000 per unit.
On June 22, 2015, General Atomics’ Electromagnetic Systems announced that projectiles with on-board electronics survived the whole railgun launch environment and performed their intended functions in four consecutive tests on June 9 and 10 June at the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. The on-board electronics successfully measured in-bore accelerations and projectile dynamics, for several kilometers downrange, with the integral data link continuing to operate after the projectiles impacted the desert floor, which is essential for precision guidance.
See also
Ram accelerator
Project Babylon
Non-rocket spacelaunch
List of caseless firearms
Electrothermal-chemical technology
Plasma railgun
Coilgun
V-3 cannon: another staged propulsion gun
, first ship to mount a railgun.
Teleforce, a similar device devised by Nikola Tesla which involved utilising projectiles accelerated to high velocities via electrostatic repulsion
References
External links
Watch the Navy's Railgun Fire From Every Angle The railgun takes the first shot of its commissioning series. includes a YouTube video from November 2016
Artillery by type
Electromagnetic components
Emerging technologies
Spacecraft propulsion | [
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218935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walpurgis%20Night | Walpurgis Night | Walpurgis Night (), an abbreviation of Saint Walpurgis Night (from the German ), also known as Saint Walpurga's Eve (alternatively spelled Saint Walburga's Eve), is the eve of the Christian feast day of Saint Walpurga, an 8th-century abbess in Francia, and is celebrated on the night of 30 April and the day of 1 May. This feast commemorates the canonization of Saint Walpurga and the movement of her relics to Eichstätt, both of which occurred on 1 May 870.
Saint Walpurga was hailed by the Catholic Christians of Germany for battling "pest, rabies, and whooping cough, as well as against witchcraft". Catholics prayed to God through the intercession of Saint Walpurga in order to protect themselves from witchcraft, as Saint Walpurga was successful in converting the local populace to Christianity. In parts of Europe, people continue to light bonfires on Saint Walpurga's Eve in order to ward off evil spirits and witches. Others have historically made Christian pilgrimages to Saint Walburga's tomb in Eichstätt on the Feast of Saint Walburga, often obtaining vials of Saint Walburga's oil.
Local variants of Walpurgis Night are observed throughout Northern and Central Europe in the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Lithuania, Finland, and Estonia. In Denmark and Norway, the tradition with bonfires to ward off the witches is observed as Saint John's Eve.
Background
The festival of Walpurgis Night is named after the English Christian missionary Saint Walpurga ( 710–777/9). The daughter of Saint Richard the Pilgrim and sister of Saint Willibald, Saint Walpurga (also known as Saint Walpurgis or Walburga) was born in Devon, England in A.D. 710. Born into a prominent Anglo-Saxon family, Saint Walpurga studied medicine and became a Christian missionary to Germany, where she founded a double monastery in Heidenheim. As such, Christian artwork often depicts her holding bandages in her hand. As a result of Saint Walpurga's evangelism in Germany, the people there converted to Christianity from heathenism. In addition, "the monastery became an education center and 'soon became famous as a center of culture'". Saint Walpurga was also known to repel the effects of witchcraft. Saint Walpurga died on 25 February 777 (some sources say 778 or 779) and her tomb, to this day, produces holy oil (known as Saint Walburga's oil), which is said to heal sickness; Benedictine nuns distribute this oil in vials to Christian pilgrims who visit Saint Walpurga's tomb.
The canonization of Walpurga and the movement of her relics to Eichstätt occurred on 1 May in the year 870, thus leading to the Feast of Saint Walpurga and its eve, Walpurgis Night, being popularly observed on this date. She quickly became one of the most popular saints in England, Germany, and France. When the bishop had Saint Walpurga's relics moved to Eichstätt, "miraculous cures were reported as her remains traveled along the route". Miracle cures were later reported from ailing people who anointed themselves with a fluid known as Walburga's oil that drained from the rock at her shrine at Eichstatt.
The date of her canonization came to be known as ("Saint Walpurga's night") in German. The name of the holiday is often shortened to (German), ("Valborg's Mass Eve", Swedish), (Finland Swedish), (Finnish), (Estonian), (Lithuanian), or (Latvian), and or (Czech). In English, it is known as Saint Walpurga's Night, Saint Walburga's Night, Walpurgis Night, Saint Walpurga's Eve, Saint Walburga's Eve, the Feast of Saint Walpurga or the Feast of Saint Walburga. The Germanic term is recorded in 1668 by Johannes Praetorius as or . An earlier mention of and is in the 1603 edition of the of Johann Coler, who also refers to the following day, 1 May, as , feast day of the apostles James the Less and Philip in the Western Christian calendar of saints.
In modern times, many Christians continue to make religious pilgrimages to Saint Walburga's tomb in Eichstätt on Saint Walburga's Day; in the 19th century, the number of pilgrims travelling to the Church of St. Walpurgis was described as "many thousand". Due to 1 May the date of Saint Walpurga's feast, it has become associated with other May Day celebrations and regional traditions, especially in Finland and Sweden. Given that the intercession of Saint Walpurga was believed to be efficacious against evil magic, medieval and Renaissance tradition held that, during Walpurgis Night, witches celebrated a sabbath and evil powers were at their strongest. In German folklore, Walpurgis Night was believed to be the night of a witches' meeting on the Brocken, the highest peak in the Harz Mountains, a range of wooded hills in central Germany. To ward off evil and protect themselves and their livestock, people would traditionally light fires on the hillsides, a tradition that continues in some regions today. In Bavaria, the feast day is sometimes called (), literally "Witches' Night", on which revelers dress as witches and demons, set off fireworks, dance and play loud music, which is said to drive the witches and winter spirits away.
Regional variations
Czech Republic
30 April is ('Burning of the witches') or ('The witches') in the Czech Republic. Huge bonfires up to tall with a witch figure are built and burnt in the evening, preferably on top of hills. Young people gather around. Sudden black and dense smoke formations are cheered as "a witch flying away". An effigy of a witch is held up and thrown into a bonfire to burn.
In some places, it is customary to burn a puppet representing a witch on the bonfire. It is still a widespread feast in the Czech Republic, practiced since the pagan times.
As evening advances to midnight and fire is on the wane, it is time to go search for a cherry tree in blossom. This is another feast, connected with 1 May. Young women should be kissed past midnight (and during the following day) under a blossoming cherry (or if unavailable, another blossoming) tree, as they "will not dry up" for an entire year. The First of May is celebrated then as "the day of those in love", in reference to the famous incipit of the poem Máj by Karel Hynek Mácha (; "Late evening, on the first of May— / The twilit May—the time of love", translation by Edith Pargeter)
England
In Lincolnshire, Walpurgis Night was observed in rural communities until the second half of the 20th century, with a tradition of hanging cowslips to ward off evil.
Estonia
In Estonia, is celebrated throughout the night of 30 April and into the early hours of 1 May, where 1 May is a public holiday called "Spring Day" (). is an important and widespread celebration of the arrival of spring in the country. Influenced by German culture, the night originally stood for the gathering and meeting of witches. Modern people still dress up as witches to wander the streets in a carnival-like mood.
The celebrations are especially vigorous in Tartu, the university town in southern Estonia. For Estonian students in student corporations (Estonian fraternities and sororities), the night starts with a traditional procession through the streets of Tartu, followed by visiting each other's corporation houses throughout the night.
Finland
In Finland, Walpurgis night (; ) is one of the four biggest holidays along with Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve, and Midsummer (). Walpurgis witnesses the biggest carnival-style festival held in Finland's cities and towns. The celebration, which begins on the evening of 30 April and continues on 1 May, typically centres on the consumption of sima, sparkling wine and other alcoholic beverages. Student traditions, particularly those of engineering students, are one of the main characteristics of . Since the end of the 19th century, this traditional upper-class feast has been appropriated by university students. Many high school alumni wear the black and white student cap and many higher education students wear student coveralls. One tradition is to drink sima, a home-made low-alcohol mead, along with freshly cooked tippaleipä.
In the capital, Helsinki, and its surrounding region, fixtures include the capping (on 30 April at 6 pm) of Havis Amanda, a nude female statue in Helsinki, and the biennially alternating publications of ribald matter called and , by engineering students of Aalto University. Both are sophomoric; but while is a standard magazine, is always a gimmick. Classic forms have included an printed on toilet paper and a bedsheet. Often, has been stuffed inside standard industrial packages, such as sardine cans and milk cartons. For most university students, starts a week before the day of celebration. The festivities also include a picnic on 1 May, which is sometimes lavisher, particularly in Ullanlinnanmäki in central Helsinki.
In Turku, it has become a tradition to cap the Posankka statue.
coincides with the socialist May Day parade. Expanding from the parties of the left, the whole of the Finnish political scene has adopted as the day to go out on stumps and agitate. This is not limited only to political activists; many institutions, such as the Lutheran Church of Finland, have followed suit, marching and making speeches. Left-wing activists of the 1970s still party on May Day. Carnivals are arranged, and many radio stations play leftist songs, such as The Internationale.
Traditionally, 1 May is celebrated by the way of a picnic in a park. For most, the picnic is enjoyed with friends on a blanket with food and sparkling wine. Some people arrange extremely lavish picnics with pavilions, white tablecloths, silver candelabras, classical music and extravagant food. The picnic usually starts early in the morning, where some of the previous night's party-goers continue their celebrations from the previous night.
Some student organisations reserve areas where they traditionally camp every year. Student caps, mead, streamers and balloons have their role in the picnic and the celebration as a whole.
Germany
On the Feast of Saint Walburga, "many thousand" people have made Christian pilgrimages to Saint Walburga's tomb in Eichstätt on the Feast of Saint Walburga, often obtaining vials of Saint Walburga's oil.
In Germany, ('Witches' Night'), the night from 30 April to 1 May, is the night when witches are reputed to hold a large celebration on the Brocken and await the arrival of spring and is held on the same night as Saint Walpurgis Night ().
A scene in Goethe's Faust Part One is called "," and one in Faust Part Two is called "Classical ." The last chapter of book five in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain is also called "." In Edward Albee's 1962 play Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, Act Two is entitled "."
From Bram Stoker's short story, Dracula's Guest, an Englishman (whose name is never mentioned) is on a visit to Munich before leaving for Transylvania. It is Walpurgis Night, and in spite of the hotelier's warning not to be late coming back, the young man later leaves his carriage and wanders toward the direction of an abandoned "unholy" village. As the carriage departs with the frightened and superstitious driver, a tall and thin stranger scares the horses at the crest of a hill.
In some parts of northern coastal regions of Germany, the custom of lighting huge fires is still kept alive to celebrate the coming of May, while most parts of Germany have a derived Christianized custom around Easter called "Easter fires" ().
In rural parts of southern Germany, it is part of popular youth culture to play pranks such as tampering with neighbours' gardens, hiding possessions, or spraying graffiti on private property.
In Berlin, traditional leftist May Day riots usually start at Walpurgis Night in the in . There is a similar tradition in the district of Hamburg, though in both cases, the situation has significantly calmed down in the past few years.
The Netherlands
As in all Germanic countries, was celebrated in areas of what is now the Netherlands. It has not been celebrated recently due to the national (Queen's Day) falling on the same date, though the new (King's Day) is on 27 April. The island of Texel celebrates a festival known as the '' (roughly translated as 'May-Blaze') on that same day, where bonfires are lit near nightfall, just as on Walpurgis, but with the meaning to drive away the remaining cold of winter and welcome spring. Occasional mentions to the ritual occur, and at least once a feminist called group co-opted the name to call for attention to the position of women (following the example of German women's organizations), a variety of the Take Back the Night phenomenon.
Still, in recent years a renewed interest in pre-Christian religion and culture has led to renewed interest in (Witch's Night) as well. In 1999, suspicions were raised among local Reformed party members in Putten, Gelderland of a Heksennacht festival celebrated by Satanists. The party called for a ban. That such a festival even existed, however, and that it was 'Satanic' was rejected by most others. The local Church in Dokkum, Friesland organized a Service in 2003 to pray for the Holy Spirit to, according to the church, counter the Satanic action.
Sweden
While the name Walpurgis is taken from the 8th-century British Dumnonian Christian missionary Saint Walburga, , as it is called in Swedish, also marks the arrival of spring. The forms of celebration vary in different parts of the country and between different cities. Walpurgis celebrations are not a family occasion but rather a public event, and local groups often take responsibility for organising them to encourage community spirit in the village or neighbourhood. Celebrations normally include lighting the bonfire, choral singing and a speech to honour the arrival of the spring season, often held by a local celebrity.
In the Middle Ages, the administrative year ended on 30 April. Accordingly, this was a day of festivity among the merchants and craftsmen of the town, with trick-or-treat, dancing and singing in preparation for the forthcoming celebration of spring. Sir James George Frazer in The Golden Bough writes, "The first of May is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts of Sweden. On the eve of the festival, huge bonfires, which should be lighted by striking two flints together, blaze on all the hills and knolls."
Walpurgis bonfires are part of a Swedish tradition dating back to the early 18th century. At Walpurgis (), farm animals were let out to graze and bonfires (, ) lit to scare away predators. In Southern Sweden, an older tradition, no longer practiced, was for the younger people to collect greenery and branches from the woods at twilight. These were used to adorn the houses of the village. The expected reward for this task was to be paid in eggs.
Choral singing is a popular pastime in Sweden, and on Walpurgis Eve virtually every choir in the country is busy. Singing traditional songs of spring is widespread throughout the country. The songs are mostly from the 19th century and were spread by students' spring festivities. The strongest and most traditional spring festivities are also found in the old university cities, such as Uppsala and Lund, where undergraduates, graduates, and alumni gather at events that last most of the day from early morning to late night on 30 April, or ("The Last Day of April") as it is called in Lund, or as it is called in Uppsala. For students, Walpurgis Eve heralds freedom. Traditionally the exams were over and only the odd lecture remained before term ends. On the last day of April, the students don their characteristic white caps and sing songs of welcome to spring, to the budding greenery and to a brighter future.
More modern Valborg celebrations, particularly among Uppsala students, often consist of enjoying a breakfast including champagne and strawberries. During the day, people gather in parks, drink considerable amounts of alcoholic beverages, barbecue, and generally enjoy the weather, if it happens to be favorable.
In Uppsala, since 1975, students honor spring by rafting on Fyris river through the center of town with rickety, homemade, in fact quite easily wreckable, and often humorously decorated rafts.
Several nations also hold "Champagne Races" (), where students go to drink and spray champagne or sparkling wine on each other. The walls and floors of the old nation buildings are covered in plastic for this occasion, as the champagne is poured around recklessly and sometimes spilled enough to wade in. Spraying champagne is, however, a fairly recent addition to the Champagne Race. The name derives from the students running down the slope from the Carolina Rediviva libra to drink champagney, toward the Student Natione.
In Linköping many students and former students begin the day at the park Trädgårdföreningen, in the field below Belvederen where the city laws permit alcohol, to drink champagne breakfast in a similar way to Uppsala. Later, at three o'clock, the students and public gather at the courtyard of Linköping Castle. Spring songs are sung by the Linköping University Male Voice Choir, and speeches are made by representatives of the students and the university professors.
In Gothenburg, the carnival parade, The Cortège, which has been held since 1909 by the students at Chalmers University of Technology, is an important part of the celebration. It is seen by around 250,000 people each year. Another major event is the gathering of students in Garden Society of Gothenburg to listen to student choirs, orchestras, and speeches. An important part of the gathering is the ceremonial donning of the student cap, which stems from the time when students wore their caps daily and switched from black winter cap to white summer cap.
In Umeå, there is an old tradition of having local bonfires. During recent years, however, there has also been a tradition of celebrating Walpurgis at the Umeå University campus. The university organizes student choir singing, as well as other types of entertainment and a speech by the president of the university. Different stalls sell hot dogs, candy, soft drinks, etc.
United States
The Church of Satan was founded on Sankt Walpurgisnacht in 1966. Founder Anton Szandor LaVey states in The Satanic Bible that besides one's own birthday, Walpurgisnacht ranks as an important Satanic holiday, noting the Eve of May has been memorialized as "symbolizing the fruition of the spring equinox", and chose the date well aware of the date's traditional association with witchcraft.
Additionally, The Satanic Temple celebrates Hexennacht as "a solemn holiday to honor those who were victimized by superstition".
See also
Allhallowtide
Bald Mountain (folklore)
Beltane
Diwali
Easter witch
May Day
Mefistofele
Noc Walpurgi, 2015 film
References
External links
The Favors of St. Walpurga - OSV
Photos of the traditional Walpurgis celebration in Uppsala, Sweden
Walpurgis Night Celebration Gråbo Sweden 2012 Video
April observances
Christian festivals and holy days
German folklore
International observances
May observances
Saints days
Supernatural legends
Traditions involving fire
Witchcraft in Germany
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218937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%20of%20Death%20%28Slayer%20song%29 | Angel of Death (Slayer song) | "Angel of Death" is the opening track on American thrash metal band Slayer's 1986 album Reign in Blood. The lyrics and music were written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman. They detail the Nazi physician Josef Mengele's human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II.
Although the lyrics describe Mengele's abuses rather than endorsing them, "Angel of Death" led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing and racism against the band, which they vigorously denied but which followed them throughout their early career. Despite the controversy and the resulting delay in the release of Reign in Blood, the song remains a live favorite, and has appeared on all of Slayer's live albums.
The song has been described as highly influential in the development of thrash metal or speed metal, and is highly regarded by some critics; AllMusic's Steve Huey called it a classic and the album "the pinnacle of speed metal". The half-time riff was sampled by Public Enemy in their 1988 song "She Watch Channel Zero?!."
Composition and origins
Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote "Angel of Death" after reading books about Nazi physician Josef Mengele while on tour with the band. He said that he remembered "stopping someplace where I bought two books on Mengele. I thought, 'This has gotta be some sick shit.' So when it came time to do the record, that stuff was still in my head—that's where the lyrics to 'Angel of Death' came from."
The lyrics are written both from Mengele's point of view and from that of a detached observer condemning his actions. They detail Mengele's surgical experiments on patients at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele's explorations were conducted on such groups as dwarfs and twins, and included both physical and psychological examinations. Among the tests he performed that are mentioned in "Angel of Death" are experimental surgeries performed without anesthesia, transfusion of blood between twins, isolation endurance, gassing, injections with lethal germs, sex change operations, the removal of organs and limbs, and abacination.
Controversy
The lyrics of "Angel of Death" delayed the release of Reign in Blood which was originally scheduled for April 1986. The band was signed to Def Jam Records, whose distributor, Columbia Records, refused to release the album due to its subject matter and artwork, which they believed were "too graphic". Reign in Blood was eventually distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986, but it did not appear on Geffen Records' official release schedule because of the controversy.
"Angel of Death" caused outrage among Holocaust survivors, as well as their families and the general public. The controversy led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing which have followed Slayer throughout their career. In 1987, Hanneman told the NME magazine:
People took Hanneman's interest in Nazi history and his collection of Nazi medals (his most prized item being a German Knight's Cross) as evidence of sympathizing. Hanneman objected, stating:
According to guitarist Kerry King: "Yeah, 'Slayer are Nazis, fascists, Communists'—all that fun shit. And of course we got the most flak for it in Germany. I was always like, 'Read the lyrics and tell me what's offensive about it. Can you see it as a documentary, or do you think Slayer's preaching fucking World War II?' People get this thought in their heads—especially in Europe—and you'll never talk them out of it."
The song drew accusations of racism, which the band has denied. The band members are often asked about the accusations in interviews, and have stated numerous times that they do not condone racism and are merely interested in the subject.
Hanneman also wrote "SS-3", a song about senior SS commander Reinhard Heydrich, which appeared on the band's 1994 album Divine Intervention. The song "Jihad" from their 2006 album Christ Illusion has drawn comparison to "Angel of Death". "Jihad" deals with the September 11, 2001, attacks, and is told from a terrorist's perspective. Araya expected the subject matter to create a similar backlash to that of "Angel of Death", but it did not materialize—in part, he believes, due to people's view that the song is "just Slayer being Slayer".
Music and structure
At 4 minutes and 51 seconds, "Angel of Death" is the longest track on the album, which is 29 minutes in total. It is one of the most structurally conventional songs on the album, featuring prominent verses and choruses, which most of the songs eschew. Araya's vocal performance begins with a piercing, wordless scream. "[G]uitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs [and] drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded" at 210 beats per minute.
When drummer Lombardo left Slayer in 1992, they recruited a full-time replacement in Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph. Bostaph made one mistake out of the nine songs the band trialled him with, on "Angel of Death". Before the "big double bass part" there is a lead section, which Bostaph could not understand, because he had to learn from live records recorded with Lombardo. Bostaph could not tell how many revolutions the guitar riff goes before the bass sequence. The band members told him there were eight, "perfecting" the song afterwards.
Reception
Although "Angel of Death" did not chart, it was highly praised by critics reviewing Reign in Blood. Clay Jarvas of Stylus Magazine observed how the song "smokes the asses of any band playing fast and/or heavy today. Lyrically outlining the horrors to come, while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record: fast, lean and filthy." Adrien Begrand of PopMatters remarked that "There's no better song to kick things off than the masterful 'Angel of Death', one of the most monumental songs in metal history."
Personnel
Tom Araya – vocals, bass
Kerry King – guitars
Jeff Hanneman – guitars
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Rick Rubin – production
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Andy Wallace – engineering
See also
List of anti-war songs
References
1986 songs
Cultural depictions of Josef Mengele
Obscenity controversies in music
Slayer songs
Song recordings produced by Rick Rubin
Songs about criminals
Songs about physicians
Songs about celebrities
Songs about the Holocaust | [
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218938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%20of%20Death | Angel of Death | Angel of Death may refer to:
People
Beverley Allitt (born 1968), English nurse who murdered four children in 1991
Richard Angelo (born 1962), New York nurse who poisoned 35 patients, killing 10
Charles Cullen (born 1960), American nurse suspected to be the most prolific serial killer in American history
Kristen Gilbert (born 1967), American nurse who murdered four patients in Massachusetts, U.S.
Donald Harvey (1952-2017), American orderly and convicted serial killer who claims to have murdered 87 people
Niels Högel (born 1976), German nurse and most prolific serial killer in peacetime Germany
Miyuki Ishikawa (1897–1987), Japanese midwife who murdered many infants throughout the 1940s
Genene Jones (born July 13, 1950), responsible for the deaths of up to 60 infants and children
Josef Mengele (1911–1979), German SS officer and Nazi concentration camp doctor
August Miete (1908-1987), German SS officer and Nazi extermination camp officer
Colin Norris (born 1976), Scottish nurse and serial killer
Robledo Puch (born 1952), Argentine serial killer
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794), French revolutionary organizer of the Reign of Terror
Harold Shipman (1946–2004), English doctor who murdered up to 250 elderly patients
Jane Toppan (1854–1938), American serial killer, nicknamed "Jolly Jane"
Elizabeth Wettlaufer (born 1967), Canadian nurse who murdered eight senior citizens
Orville Lynn Majors (1961-2017), American nurse who murdered at least 6 elderly patients, but may have murdered up 130 patients
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional characters
Adam, the Angel of Death, a character on Touched by an Angel succeeded by Andrew
Andrew, the Angel of Death, a character on Touched by an Angel preceding Adam
Azrael, the Angel of Death, a mentioned character on Lucifer (TV series)
Shachath, Angel of Death, a character on American Horror Story: Asylum
The Angel of Death, a character on Charmed
The Angel of Death, a character on Preacher (TV series)
The Angel of Death, a character on Supernatural (U.S. TV series)
Jaffar, known as the Angel of Death in the video game Fire Emblem: The Blazing Blade
Loki, The Angel of Death, a character in the film Dogma
Literature
Angel of Death (novel), a novel by Jack Higgins
Angel of Death, a novel by Alane Ferguson
Music
"Angel of Death" (Hank Williams song)
"Angel of Death" (Slayer song)
"Angel of Death" (Thin Lizzy song)
"Angel of Death", song by Angel Witch on Angel Witch (album)
"Angel of Death", a song by Helstar on the album Remnants of War
Angel of Death, a symphonic poem by the composer George Whitefield Chadwick (1918)
Television episodes
"Angel of Death" (NCIS), an episode of NCIS
"The Angel of Death" (Robin Hood), an episode of Robin Hood
"The Angel of Death", a season 6 episode of Dexter
Visual art
Angel of Death and the Sculptor, also known as Death and the Sculptor or the Martin Milmore Memorial, a sculpture by Daniel Chester French
The Angel of Death (1895), a painting by Simeon Solomon
Other arts, entertainment, and media
Angel of Death (web series)
Angel of Death, a dramatization of the life of Beverley Allitt, an English nurse who murdered four child patients
Broken Sword: The Angel of Death, a computer game
Angels of Death (video game), a Japanese horror computer game
The Angel of Death (wrestler) (1953–2007), American professional wrestler
Religion
Abaddon, also called Apollyon, a destroying angel in the Book of Revelation
Azrael, also known as Malak al-Maut, in Islam
Destroying angel (Bible), or angel of death
Gabriel, angel of death over kings
Michael (archangel), good angel of death
Mot (god), an angel of death from the Hebraic Book of Habakkuk
Nasirdin and Sejadin, angels of death in Yazidism
Psychopomp, a creature, spirit, angel, or deity in many religions, responsible for escorting souls to the afterlife
Samael, an important archangel in Talmudic and post-Talmudic lore
Santa Muerte, a sacred figure venerated primarily in Mexico
Shinigami, god or spirit of death in Japanese mythology
Saureil, an angel of death in Mandaeism
Yama, lord of death, in early Rigvedic Hinduism
Other uses
Angel of death (criminology), a type of serial killer
Amanita ocreata or angel of death, a species of poisonous mushroom
Lockheed AC-130 or Angel of Death, a gunship
See also
Alfredo Astiz (born 1951), Argentine Navy officer known as the "Blond Angel of Death"
Angel of Mercy (criminology), a caregiver who intentionally harms or kills persons under his care
Angels of Death (disambiguation)
Death (personification)
Death angel (disambiguation)
Destroying angel (disambiguation)
Exterminating Angel (disambiguation)
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218939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum%20of%20Theodoric | Mausoleum of Theodoric | The Mausoleum of Theodoric () is an ancient monument just outside Ravenna, Italy. It was built in 520 AD by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, as his future tomb.
Description
The mausoleum's current structure consists of two decagonal orders, one above the other made of Istrian stone, sourced from a quarry approximately away by land journey. The mausoleum's roof consists of a single carved stone in diameter weighing 230 tonnes. A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeral liturgies; an external stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the centre of the upper floor is a fragmentary ancient Roman porphyry tub, likely from a bath complex, in which Theodoric was buried. His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated.
Recognition
It was inscribed with seven other "Early Christian Monuments and Mosaics of Ravenna" buildings as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1996. According to the ICOMOS evaluation, "the significance of the mausoleum lies in its Gothic style and decoration, which owe nothing to Roman or Byzantine art, although it makes use of the Roman stone construction technique of opus quadratum, which had been abandoned four centuries before" and in the fact that "it is the only surviving example of a tomb of a king of this period."
See also
Ostrogothic Ravenna
Palace of Theodoric now lost, also in Ravenna
Sparlösa Runestone
Haus Potsdam
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
References
Further reading
Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 109, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
External links
Ravenna Turismo Timetable and information for visiting the mausoleum and other Ravenna monuments, in Italian, English and German.
Original text adopted from . No copyright notice has been found on the site so far. Please remove the text and the photo if you find one.
Revolving image of the upper floor. The dark color tub appears at the lower corner.
Download a free paper model of Theoderic's Mausoleum (www.papermodel.cz)
Theoderic
Monuments and memorials in Italy
Palaeo-Christian architecture in Ravenna
Buildings and structures completed in the 6th century
Rotundas in Europe
Tourist attractions in Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogothic art
Theoderic the Great | [
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218946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital%20velocity | Orbital velocity | Orbital velocity may refer to the following:
The orbital speed of a revolving body in a gravitational field.
The velocity of particles due to wave motion, such as those in wind waves
The equivalent velocity of a bound electron needed to produce its orbital kinetic energy | [
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218947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20Jeter | Derek Jeter | Derek Sanderson Jeter ( ; born June 26, 1974) is an American former professional baseball shortstop, businessman, and baseball executive. As a player, Jeter spent his entire 20-year Major League Baseball (MLB) career with the New York Yankees. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2020; he received 396 of 397 possible votes (99.75%), the second-highest percentage in MLB history (behind only Mariano Rivera) and the highest by a position player. He was the chief executive officer (CEO) and part owner of the league's Miami Marlins from September 2017 to February 2022.
A five-time World Series champion, Jeter is regarded as one of the primary contributors to the Yankees' success of the late 1990s and early 2000s for his hitting, base-running, fielding, and leadership. He is the Yankees' all-time career leader in hits (3,465), doubles (544), games played (2,747), stolen bases (358), times on base (4,716), plate appearances (12,602) and at bats (11,195). His accolades include 14 All-Star selections, five Gold Glove Awards, five Silver Slugger Awards, two Hank Aaron Awards, and a Roberto Clemente Award. Jeter was the 28th player to reach 3,000 hits and finished his career ranked sixth in MLB history in career hits and first among shortstops. In 2017, the Yankees retired his uniform number 2.
The Yankees drafted Jeter out of high school in 1992, and he debuted in the major leagues at age 20 in 1995. The following year, he became the Yankees' starting shortstop, won the Rookie of the Year Award, and helped the team win the 1996 World Series over the Atlanta Braves. Jeter continued to excel during the team's championship seasons of 1998–2000; he finished third in voting for the American League (AL) Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award in 1998, recorded multiple career-high numbers in 1999, and won both the All-Star Game MVP and World Series MVP Awards in 2000. He consistently placed among the AL leaders in hits and runs scored for most of his career, and served as the Yankees' team captain from 2003 until his retirement in 2014. Throughout his career, Jeter contributed reliably to the Yankees' franchise successes. He holds many postseason records, and has a .321 batting average in the World Series. Jeter has earned the nicknames "Captain Clutch" and "Mr. November" due to his outstanding play in the postseason.
Jeter was one of the most heavily marketed athletes of his generation and is involved in numerous product endorsements. As a celebrity, his personal life and relationships with other celebrities have drawn the attention of the media.
Early life
Derek Sanderson Jeter was born on June 26, 1974, in Pequannock Township, New Jersey, the son of accountant Dorothy (née Connors) and substance abuse counselor Sanderson Charles Jeter. His mother is of English, German, and Irish ancestry, while his father is African-American. They met while serving in the United States Army in Germany. His father played baseball at Fisk University in Tennessee as a shortstop, and holds a PhD. When Jeter was a child, his parents made him sign a contract every year that defined acceptable and unacceptable forms of behavior. Dorothy instilled a positive attitude in her son, insisting that he not use the word "can't." It was a baseball family, and Jeter's younger sister Sharlee (born 1979) was a softball star in high school.
The Jeters lived in New Jersey until Derek was four years old, at which point they moved to Kalamazoo, Michigan. At age five Jeter began playing little league baseball. The children lived with their parents during the school year and spent their summers with their grandparents in New Jersey. Attending New York Yankees games with his grandparents, Jeter became a passionate fan of the team. Watching star outfielder Dave Winfield inspired him to pursue a career in baseball.
Jeter attended Kalamazoo Central High School, where he ran cross country in the fall, played basketball in the winter and baseball in the spring. Jeter posted high batting averages for the school's baseball team; he batted .557 in his sophomore year and .508 as a junior. In his senior year, he batted .508 and compiled 23 runs batted in (RBIs), 21 walks, four home runs, a .637 on-base percentage (OBP), a .831 slugging percentage (SLG), 12 stolen bases (in 12 attempts), and only one strikeout.
Jeter received several honors after his senior season, including the Kalamazoo Area B'nai B'rith Award for Scholar Athlete, the 1992 High School Player of the Year Award from the American Baseball Coaches Association, the 1992 Gatorade High School Player of the year award, and USA Todays High School Player of the Year. He also received an All-State honorable mention in basketball. Jeter earned a baseball scholarship to attend the University of Michigan and play college baseball for the Michigan Wolverines.
Professional career
Draft
The Houston Astros held the first overall pick in the 1992 MLB draft. Hall of Fame pitcher Hal Newhouser, who worked for the Astros as a scout, evaluated Jeter extensively and lobbied team management to select him. Fearing Jeter would insist on a salary bonus of at least $1 million to forgo college for a professional contract, they chose Cal State Fullerton outfielder Phil Nevin, who signed for $700,000. Newhouser felt so strongly about Jeter's potential that he quit his job with the Astros in protest after they ignored his drafting advice.
The Yankees, who selected sixth, also rated Jeter highly. Yankees scout Dick Groch, assigned to scout in the Midwest, watched Jeter participate in an all-star camp held at Western Michigan University. Though Yankees officials were concerned that Jeter would attend college instead of signing a professional contract, Groch convinced them to select him, saying, "the only place Derek Jeter's going is to Cooperstown." The second through fifth picks were Paul Shuey, B. J. Wallace, Jeffrey Hammonds, and Chad Mottola; those five would combine for two All-Star Game appearances (Nevin and Hammonds). The Yankees drafted Jeter, who chose to turn pro, signing for $800,000.
Minor leagues (1992–1995)
Jeter played four seasons in Minor League Baseball, formally known as the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues (NAPBL). Jeter began the 1992 season with the Gulf Coast Yankees of the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League, based in Tampa, Florida. In his first professional game, Jeter failed to get a hit in seven at-bats, going 0-for-7, while striking out five times. Jeter continued to struggle during the rest of the season, batting .202 in 47 games. Manager Gary Denbo benched Jeter in the season's final game to ensure his average would not drop below .200, known in baseball as the Mendoza Line. Frustrated by his lack of success and homesick, Jeter accrued $400-per-month phone bills from daily calls to his parents.
The Yankees promoted Jeter to the Greensboro Hornets of the Class A South Atlantic League (SAL) to give him more at-bats. He batted .247 in his first 11 games with Greensboro, and struggled defensively, making nine errors in 48 chances. Weighing , Jeter had a scrawny appearance that did not match his reputation as the Yankees' future leader. Jorge Posada and Andy Pettitte, who played for the Hornets that season, at first questioned the hype surrounding Jeter, but recognized his talent and poise.
Jeter focused the next offseason on his fielding. Baseball America rated Jeter among the top 100 prospects in baseball before the 1993 season, ranking him 44th. Returning to the Hornets in 1993, his first full season of professional baseball, Jeter hit .295 with five home runs, 71 RBIs, and 18 stolen bases; SAL managers voted him the "Most Outstanding Major League Prospect" in the league. He finished second in the SAL in triples (11), third in hits (152), and 11th in batting average, and was named to the postseason All-Star team. Jeter committed 56 errors, a SAL record. Despite this, he was named the SAL's Best Defensive Shortstop, Most Exciting Player, and Best Infield Arm by Baseball America.
Coming off his strong 1993 season, Baseball America rated Jeter as the 16th-best prospect in baseball. Jeter played for the Tampa Yankees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), the Albany-Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League, and the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League during the 1994 season, combining to hit .344 with five home runs, 68 RBIs, and steal 50 bases across the three levels. He was honored with Minor League Player of the Year Awards by Baseball America, The Sporting News, and Topps/NAPBL. He was also named the most valuable player of the FSL.
Considered the fourth-best prospect in baseball by Baseball America heading into the 1995 season, Jeter was projected as the starting shortstop for the Yankees. However, he suffered mild inflammation in his right shoulder in the Arizona Fall League after the conclusion of the 1994 regular season. As a precaution, the Yankees signed Tony Fernández to a two-year contract. With Fernández the starting shortstop, the Yankees assigned Jeter to Class AAA. During the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, Gene Michael, the Yankees' general manager, offered Jeter the opportunity to work out for the MLB team with replacement players in spring training before the 1995 season. Jeter denied receiving the offer, and he did not cross the picket line.
Major leagues (1995–2014)
1995–1998
Early in the 1995 season, Fernández and infielder Pat Kelly were injured. Consequently, Jeter made his MLB debut on May 29, 1995. He was assigned uniform number 2, which was most recently worn by Mike Gallego from 1992 to 1994. Batting ninth, he went hitless in five at bats, striking out once. The following day, he recorded his first two major league hits and scored his first two career runs. Jeter batted .250 and committed two errors in 13 games before being demoted to Class AAA Columbus; Fernández replaced Jeter at shortstop. The Yankees advanced to the postseason in 1995. Jeter traveled with the team during the 1995 American League Division Series (ALDS), though he was not on the active roster. The Yankees lost to the Seattle Mariners.
After Fernández batted a disappointing .245 and appeared in only 108 games due to injuries in 1995, newly hired Yankees manager Joe Torre turned to Jeter for the 1996 season, hoping for a .250 batting average and dependable defense. Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, often skeptical of younger players, was unconvinced. After Clyde King, a close Steinbrenner advisor, observed Jeter for two days in spring training in 1996, he came away with the impression that Jeter was not yet ready to contribute at the major league level. To provide depth to the team at the shortstop position after an injury to Fernández, Steinbrenner approved a trade that would have sent pitcher Mariano Rivera to the Mariners for shortstop Félix Fermín, but Michael, by then the vice president of scouting, and assistant general manager Brian Cashman convinced Steinbrenner to give Jeter an opportunity.
Rated the sixth-best prospect in baseball by Baseball America heading into the 1996 season, Jeter started on Opening Day, the first Yankee rookie to start as shortstop for the team since Tom Tresh in 1962. He hit his first MLB home run that day. With his speed and ability to execute the hit and run, Jeter served as a complement to leadoff hitter Tim Raines while batting in the ninth spot in the batting order. By year's end Jeter far exceeded Torre's expectations – and anyone's – hitting .314 with 10 home runs, 104 runs scored, and 78 RBIs. He was named the unanimous AL Rookie of the Year, receiving all 28 first-place votes in only the fifth sweep in the honor's 50-year history.
The Yankees reached the 1996 postseason, and Torre batted Jeter in the leadoff spot based on his strong year-long performance. During Game 1 of the 1996 American League Championship Series (ALCS), the Yankees trailed the Baltimore Orioles 4–3 in the eighth inning when Jeter hit a fly ball to right field that was ruled a home run by the umpires after 12-year-old fan Jeffrey Maier reached over the wall to catch the ball. Though the ball would have remained in play if not for Maier, and could have been caught by Tony Tarasco, the home run stood as called, tying the game. It marked the first home run of Jeter's postseason career. The Yankees won the game and defeated the Orioles in five games. Overall, Jeter batted .361 in the 1996 postseason, helping to lead the Yankees offensively with Bernie Williams, as Wade Boggs, Paul O'Neill, and Tino Martinez struggled. The Yankees defeated the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 World Series to win their first championship since the 1978 World Series.
Following his Rookie of the Year campaign, considered the "new crop" of shortstops, along with Alex Rodriguez and Nomar Garciaparra, as the careers of older shortstops such as Cal Ripken Jr., Barry Larkin, Ozzie Smith, and Alan Trammell were concluding. Rodriguez, the first overall selection in the 1993 MLB draft, first contacted Jeter about his experiences as a high-first round pick. The two became friends to the extent that The New York Times journalist Jack Curry commented "[r]arely have two higher-profile opponents been as close." Rodriguez described Jeter as being "like my brother," even though they were on-field adversaries.
Before the 1997 season, Jeter and the Yankees agreed on a $540,000 contract with performance bonuses. Becoming the Yankees' leadoff batter, Jeter batted .291, with 10 home runs, 70 RBIs, 116 runs, and 190 hits. Though he hit two home runs during the 1997 American League Division Series, the Yankees lost to the Cleveland Indians, three games to two.
Jeter earned $750,000 for the 1998 season. That year, Jeter was selected for his first All-Star Game. In the regular season, he batted .324 with a league-leading 127 runs, 19 home runs, and 84 RBIs, for a team that won 114 games during the regular season and is widely considered to be one of the greatest of all time. In the playoffs, Jeter hit only .176 in the 1998 ALDS and ALCS, but batted .353 in the World Series, as the Yankees defeated the San Diego Padres in four games. At season's end, Jeter finished third in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award.
1999–2002
Eligible for salary arbitration for the first time before the 1999 season, Jeter was awarded a $5 million salary. Jeter led the AL in hits that season with 219, while finishing second in the league in batting average (.349) and runs scored (134), appearing in his second All-Star game that year. His season totals in batting average, runs, hits, runs batted in, doubles (37), triples (9), home runs (24), SLG (.552), and OBP (.438) are all personal bests. Jeter, who for part of the year hit third in the batting order, also drove in 102 runs, becoming only the second Yankee shortstop to do so, following Lyn Lary's 107 RBIs in 1931. In the postseason, Jeter batted .455 in the ALDS, .350 in the ALCS, and .353 in the World Series, as the Yankees defeated the Braves to win another championship, Jeter's third.
During the 1999–2000 offseason, the Yankees negotiated with Jeter, tentatively agreeing to a seven-year, $118.5 million contract. However, because Steinbrenner did not want to set a record for the largest contract, Steinbrenner waited while Juan González and the Detroit Tigers negotiated on a reported eight-year, $143 million contract extension. When that agreement fell through, so did Jeter's tentative deal. To avoid arbitration, Jeter and the Yankees agreed to a one-year deal worth $10 million.
Jeter batted a team-best .339 in the 2000 regular season and added 15 home runs, 73 RBIs, 119 runs scored, and 22 stolen bases. In the 2000 MLB All-Star Game, he recorded three hits, including a two-run single that gave his team the lead and victory. The performance earned him the All-Star Game MVP Award, the first time a Yankee won the award. During the postseason, he batted only .211 in the Division Series but rebounded to hit .318 in the Championship Series against the Seattle Mariners, and .409 in the World Series against the New York Mets. Jeter added two home runs, a triple, and two doubles in the World Series, including a leadoff home run on the first pitch of Game 4 and a triple later in the third inning. His home run in Game 5 tied the game and extended his World Series hitting streak to 14 games. The Yankees defeated the Mets in five games for their third consecutive title and fourth in Jeter's first five full seasons. Jeter won the World Series MVP Award, becoming the only player to win the All-Star Game MVP and World Series MVP Awards in the same season.
With one year remaining until he would become eligible for free agency, Jeter signed a ten-year, $189 million contract before the 2001 season to remain with the Yankees. Alex Rodriguez had signed a ten-year, $252 million contract with the Texas Rangers earlier in the offseason, setting the market for Jeter's negotiations. Jeter became the second-highest-paid athlete across all team sports and auto racing, trailing only Rodriguez. The $18.9 million average annual value of Jeter's contract was the third-highest in baseball, behind only Rodriguez ($25.2 million) and Manny Ramirez ($20 million).
In 2001, Jeter posted another strong season, batting .311 with 21 home runs, 74 RBIs, 110 runs scored, and 27 stolen bases, making his fourth All-Star appearance. Jeter made a notable defensive assist in Game 3 of the 2001 American League Division Series against the Oakland Athletics. With Jeremy Giambi on first base, Oakland right fielder Terrence Long hit a double off Yankees pitcher Mike Mussina into the right-field corner. As Giambi rounded third base and headed for home plate, Yankees right fielder Shane Spencer retrieved the ball and made a wild throw that missed cut-off man Tino Martinez and dribbled down the first-base line. Jeter ran from shortstop to grab the ball and flipped it backhanded to catcher Jorge Posada, rather than throwing it overhand. Posada tagged Giambi out on the leg just before he crossed home plate, preserving the Yankees' one-run lead. Facing elimination, the Yankees eventually won the game, as well as the series. The play, known as "The Flip," was later voted seventh in Baseball Weeklys 10 Most Amazing Plays of all time, and won the 2002 Best Play ESPY Award.
As a result of the September 11 attacks, the start of the playoffs was delayed and the season's end was extended past the usual October timeframe. The Yankees advanced to the 2001 World Series to face the Arizona Diamondbacks. Game 4 marked the first time that any non-exhibition MLB game had been played in the month of November. In extra innings, Jeter hit a game-winning home run off of Byung-hyun Kim. The words "Mr. November" flashed on the scoreboard, alluding to former Yankee Reggie Jackson's nickname, "Mr. October." Despite the home run, Jeter slumped at the plate; he denied injuries were a factor, though a fall into a photographer's box trying to catch a foul ball may have aggravated an earlier hamstring injury. Jeter batted .148 in the World Series, as the Yankees lost in seven games.
Jeter batted .297, with 18 home runs, 75 RBIs, 124 runs scored, 191 hits, and a career-best 32 stolen bases during the 2002 regular season. He led the majors in stolen base percentage (91.4%), getting caught only three times. He made his fifth All-Star appearance. In the 2002 postseason, the Anaheim Angels defeated the Yankees in the ALDS on their way to winning the World Series.
2003–2008
On Opening Day of the 2003 season, Jeter dislocated his left shoulder when he collided with Toronto Blue Jays catcher Ken Huckaby at third base. He was placed on the disabled list for six weeks and missed 36 games; he had never played fewer than 148 games in the prior seven full seasons. Jeter returned to bat .324, finishing third in batting average to Bill Mueller, who batted .326. Ramirez finished second.
Steinbrenner named Jeter the captain of the Yankees on June 3, 2003, following eight seasons without a captain after Don Mattingly retired in 1995. That postseason, Jeter batted .314 with two home runs, five RBIs, and 10 runs scored across 17 playoff games, including three hits in Game 3 of the 2003 World Series against the Florida Marlins – the only three hits Josh Beckett allowed during the game. Jeter committed a crucial error in a Game 6 loss, and the Marlins won the series in six games.
The Yankees acquired Rodriguez from the Texas Rangers during the 2003–04 offseason. Rodriguez had won two Gold Glove Awards at shortstop and was considered the best shortstop in baseball. Jeter—who had no Gold Gloves at the time—remained the team's starting shortstop while Rodriguez moved to third base. Rodriguez's fielding range allowed Jeter to cede ground to his right to Rodriguez and cheat to his left: fielding balls hit to his left is a weakness identified by scouts. The 2004 season began with Jeter mired in a slump, at one point getting only one hit in a span of 36 at-bats; through April, he batted .168. His batting average improved to .277 by the All-Star break in July.
Jeter made the All-Star team and finished the season with a .292 average; 23 home runs, the second-most of his career; 78 RBIs; 111 runs scored; and a career-best 44 doubles, which broke the Yankee single-season record for doubles by a shortstop, besting Tony Kubek's 38 in 1961. He batted .316 with a team-leading four RBIs as the Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in the 2004 ALDS. Jeter struggled in the 2004 ALCS, batting .200 with one extra base hit, as the Yankees lost the series to the Red Sox in seven games, despite winning the first three games.
In the 12th inning of a tied game on July 1, 2004, against their rivals, the Boston Red Sox, Trot Nixon hit a pop fly down the left field line. Jeter ran from his position at shortstop and made an over-the-shoulder catch. He launched himself over the third-base side railing and two rows of seats, receiving a lacerated chin and bruised face. The Yankees went on to win the game in the bottom of the 13th inning. This was voted the Play of the Year in the This Year in Baseball Awards competition, as voted on by fans at MLB.com. Following the 2004 season, Jeter was presented with his first Gold Glove Award; his diving catch on July 1 was cited as a reason for the award. Though Jeter was fourth among shortstops in fielding percentage and errors, two traditional fielding statistics, critics pointed to his lower ratings in the more advanced sabermetric statistics, such as range factor and ultimate zone rating (UZR).
Jeter was second in the AL in runs scored (122) in the 2005 season, and was third in the league in both at bats (654) and hits (202). Though his critics continued to see Jeter as a liability defensively, he won his second consecutive Gold Glove in 2005. Orlando Cabrera of the Angels had a higher fielding percentage and committed fewer errors, but voters noted that Jeter had more assists. Though Jeter batted .333 during the 2005 ALDS, the Yankees lost to the Angels.
For the 2006 season, the Yankees signed Johnny Damon to play center field and lead off, moving Jeter to the second position in the batting lineup. During the 2006 season, Jeter recorded his 2,000th career hit, becoming the eighth Yankee to reach the milestone. Jeter finished the season second in the AL in both batting average (.343) and runs scored (118), third in hits (214), and fourth in OBP (.417), earning his seventh All-Star selection. Jeter batted .500 with one home run in the 2006 ALDS, including a perfect 5-for-5 performance in Game 1, making him the sixth player to record five hits in one postseason game. The Yankees lost to the Detroit Tigers, three games to one.
Many expected Jeter would win the AL MVP Award for 2006. In a close vote, Jeter finished second in the voting to Justin Morneau of the Twins. It was his sixth top-10 finish in the MVP balloting in 11 full seasons through 2006. Though he lost the MVP Award, he won the Hank Aaron Award, given for superior offensive performance. He also won his third consecutive Gold Glove Award.
Though the Yankees continued to struggle with postseason failures, Jeter remained a consistent contributor. During the 2007 season, Jeter was third in the AL with 203 hits, his third consecutive season and sixth overall, with at least 200 hits. He also finished ninth in batting average (.322). He was selected for his eighth All-Star appearance. In the field, he was involved in turning a career-high 104 double plays. He struggled during the 2007 ALDS, batting 3-for-17 (.176) with one RBI, as the Indians defeated the Yankees.
Jeter hit his 400th career double on June 27, 2008, and his 200th home run on July 12. Jeter's slugging percentage (SLG) dropped to .410 in the 2008 season, his lowest mark since 1997. His offense took an upward turn after May as he hit .322 with a .824 OPS after June 1. Jeter was elected to his ninth All-Star game as the starting shortstop. He finished the season with a .300 batting average.
Jeter tied Lou Gehrig's record for hits at Yankee Stadium (1,269) with a home run off Tampa Bay Rays pitcher David Price on September 14, 2008. On September 16, he broke the record against Chicago White Sox pitcher Gavin Floyd. The Yankees were eliminated from postseason contention, the only full season in Jeter's career where he did not compete in the playoffs. Following the final game in Yankee Stadium history, Jeter made a speech at the request of the Yankees, thanking the Yankees fans for their support—a moment later voted by fans as the Moment of the Year in MLB.com's This Year in Baseball Awards:
2009–2013
For the 2009 season, Yankees manager Joe Girardi switched Jeter and Damon in the batting order, with Damon moving to second and Jeter to the leadoff role. Jeter batted .334, third-best in the AL, with a .406 OBP, an .871 OPS, 18 home runs, 66 RBIs, 30 stolen bases in 35 attempts, 107 runs scored, 72 walks, and 212 hits (second in MLB). Defensively, Jeter committed a career-low eight errors, and his .986 fielding percentage was his career best. The addition of Gold Glove-winning first baseman Mark Teixeira allowed second baseman Robinson Canó to shift his focus to his right, helping Jeter. During the season, the Sporting News named Jeter eighth on their list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball.
Jeter achieved two career hit milestones in the second half of the 2009 season. On August 16, 2009, against the Seattle Mariners, Jeter doubled down the right-field line for his 2,675th hit as a shortstop, breaking Luis Aparicio's previous major league record. Then, Jeter became the all-time hits leader as a member of the Yankees (2,722), passing Lou Gehrig on September 11, 2009. The hit was a single off Baltimore Orioles pitcher Chris Tillman in the third inning.
In the 2009 postseason, Jeter batted .355, including .407 in the 2009 World Series, as he won his fifth World Series championship. He was named Sportsman of the Year for 2009 by Sports Illustrated, and won the Roberto Clemente Award, Hank Aaron Award, his fourth Gold Glove Award and his fourth Silver Slugger Award. Jeter also finished third in the AL MVP voting, behind Minnesota's Joe Mauer and Yankee teammate Mark Teixeira. It was also the fifth championship for Pettitte, Posada, and Rivera, who along with Jeter were referred to as the "Core Four."
In 2010, Jeter, along with Posada and Rivera, became the first trio of teammates in any of the four major league sports in North America (MLB, NFL, NBA, or NHL) to play in at least 16 consecutive seasons on the same team as teammates. The 2010 season was statistically Jeter's worst in many respects. The Yankee captain batted .270 with a .340 OBP and .370 SLG, all career lows, as he hit more ground balls than usual. Despite this, Jeter was elected to start at shortstop in the All-Star Game. He rebounded to bat .342 in his last 79 at-bats after making adjustments to his swing with the help of Kevin Long, the Yankees hitting coach, who had successfully helped Nick Swisher and Curtis Granderson make adjustments that improved their production. With Long, Jeter changed the way he strode with his left leg. Following the season, Jeter won his fifth Gold Glove award. Jeter committed six errors during the season, his lowest total in 15 full seasons.
After the 2010 season, Jeter became a free agent for the first time in his career. At age 36, Jeter appeared to be in decline; Joe Sheehan of Baseball Prospectus suggested that Jeter, once a "good, not great" shortstop, had declined to become "below average" defensively, to the extent that he would likely need to change positions; Cashman later acknowledged that Jeter might need to shift to the outfield. Though Jeter stated that he wanted to remain with the Yankees, negotiations became tense. Jeter's agent, Casey Close, stated that he was "baffled" by the Yankees' approach to the negotiations, and Cashman, now the team's general manager, responded publicly that Jeter should test the open market to ascertain his value, which angered Jeter. According to reports, Jeter initially sought a four-year contract worth between $23 million and $25 million per season. He reached an agreement with the Yankees on a three-year contract for $51 million with an option for a fourth year. He spent the offseason working with Long on adjustments to his swing.
The adjustments left Jeter frustrated, as he batted .242 in the first month of the 2011 season. As he struggled, it appeared that the 2011 season was the continuation of Jeter's decline. Jeter broke Rickey Henderson's franchise record for stolen bases when he stole his 327th base against the Mariners on May 28, 2011. He suffered a calf injury on June 13 that required his fifth stint on the 15-day disabled list, and his first since 2003. At that point, he was batting .260 for the 2011 season with a .649 OPS. Rehabilitating from his injury in Tampa, Jeter worked on his swing with Denbo, his former minor league manager. With Denbo, Jeter returned to the mechanics he used in his minor league days. Following his activation from the disabled list, he hit .326 with an .806 OPS in his last 64 games of the season. Jeter finished the year with a .297 batting average, six home runs, 61 runs batted in, 84 runs, and 16 stolen bases. He credited the turnaround to his work with Denbo; Long acknowledged that his attempt to adjust Jeter's swing did not work.
On July 9, 2011, Jeter recorded his 3,000th career hit, a home run off of David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays. Jeter finished the day with five hits in five at-bats, the second player to have five hits on the day he achieved his 3,000th hit (the first was Craig Biggio). He also became the second player to hit a home run for his 3,000th hit, Wade Boggs having done so in 1999. The last of Jeter's five hits proved to be the game-winning hit. He is the only member of the 3,000 hit club to record all of his hits with the New York Yankees, and the only player to join the club as a Yankee. Jeter joined Honus Wagner as only the second regular shortstop to reach the 3,000 hit plateau. Only Ty Cobb, Hank Aaron, and Robin Yount were younger than Jeter on the day of their 3,000th hit. MLB and HBO produced Derek Jeter 3K, a documentary that profiled his path to 3,000 hits and originally aired on July 28, 2011.
Fatigued from the stress of chasing 3,000 career hits and wanting to rest his calf, Jeter opted not to attend the 2011 MLB All-Star Game. Jeter and Posada played their 1,660th game together on July 14, 2011, breaking the previous franchise record of 1,659 by Gehrig and Tony Lazzeri. Jeter played his 2,402nd game with the Yankees on August 29, 2011, breaking Mickey Mantle's record for most games played as a Yankee. He finished the 2011 season with 162 hits, his 16th consecutive season with 150 hits, which tied him with Pete Rose for the second-most consecutive 150-hit seasons, one behind Hank Aaron for the MLB record. Jeter was honored with the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award, given in recognition of charitable endeavors.
Despite continuing concerns about his age, the beginning of the 2012 season saw Jeter on a hot streak: he batted .420 through April 25. Rodriguez commented that Jeter is playing as he did in 1999, while Girardi said Jeter looks like he is 25 years old. In the 2012 MLB All-Star Game, Jeter recorded his 11th All-Star hit, passing Mantle for the most All-Star Game hits in Yankees history. Jeter went 1-for-2 in the game, moving into fourth all-time with a .458 average among players with a minimum of 12 plate appearances in the All-Star Game.
Jeter finished the 2012 season with the most hits in MLB (216). Against the Tampa Bay Rays on September 14 of that year, he moved into the Top 10 on the all-time hit list, surpassing Willie Mays by beating out an infield single for his 3,284th career hit. After hitting .364 in the 2012 ALDS, Jeter fractured his left ankle during Game 1 of the 2012 ALCS against the Detroit Tigers reaching for a ground ball, an injury which ended his season. Jeter had received a cortisone shot to treat a bone bruise in his left foot in September, which could have contributed to the break. Jeter had surgery on his broken left ankle on October 20, with an expected recovery time of four to five months.
While rehabilitating, Jeter suffered a small crack in the area of his previous ankle fracture. As a result, Jeter began the 2013 season on the disabled list. The Yankees activated Jeter on July 11, but after playing in one game, Jeter returned to the disabled list with a quadriceps strain. He returned to the Yankees lineup on July 28, hitting a home run on the first pitch off of Matt Moore of Tampa Bay. Jeter was again placed on the 15-day disabled list on August 5 due to a Grade 1 calf strain, and after a brief return to the lineup, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list for a third time on September 11 due to problems with his ankle, ending his season. On September 14, 2013, Jeter was transferred to the 60-day disabled list. Jeter batted .190 in only 17 games played during the 2013 season.
Final season (2014)
Jeter re-signed with the Yankees on a one-year, $12 million contract for the 2014 season. Jeter announced on his Facebook page on February 12, 2014, that the 2014 season would be his last. During his final season, each opposing team honored Jeter with a gift during his final visit to their city, which has included donations to Jeter's charity, the Turn 2 Foundation.
On July 10, Jeter recorded his 1,000th career multi-hit game, becoming the fourth player to do so. He was elected to start at shortstop in the 2014 All-Star Game, and batted leadoff for the AL. Jeter went 2-for-2, scored one run and received two standing ovations in the four innings he played at the 2014 All-Star Game. As a result, Jeter's .481 career All-Star batting average (13-for-27) ranked him fifth all-time (among players with at least 10 at-bats). At 40, Jeter also became the oldest player to have two or more hits in an All-Star Game. In July, Jeter broke Omar Vizquel's MLB career record of 2,609 games started at shortstop, and Gehrig's franchise career record of 534 doubles. On July 17, Derek scored the 1,900th run of his career becoming the 10th player in MLB history to do so. Jeter passed Carl Yastrzemski for seventh place on MLB's all-time career hit list on July 28 and on August 11 he passed Honus Wagner climbing to sixth on the all-time hits list.
The Yankees honored Jeter with a pregame tribute on September 7. Beginning with that day's game, the Yankees wore a patch on their hats and uniforms honoring Jeter for the remainder of the season. In the final week of Jeter's career, MLB Commissioner Bud Selig honored him as the 15th recipient of the Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award for being "one of the most accomplished shortstops of all-time."
During Jeter's final series at Yankee Stadium, Louisville Slugger announced they would retire their "P72" model baseball bat, the bat Jeter uses, though it will be sold under the name "DJ2," in Jeter's honor. The average ticket price for Jeter's final home game, on September 25, reached $830 on the secondary market. In his final game at Yankee Stadium, Jeter hit a walk-off single against Orioles pitcher Evan Meek to win the game, 6–5.
Jeter decided to play exclusively as the designated hitter in the final series of his career, at Fenway Park in Boston, so that his final memories of playing shortstop would be at Yankee Stadium. The Red Sox honored Jeter with a pregame ceremony including Red Sox retired stars Carl Yastrzemski, Jim Rice, Fred Lynn, Luis Tiant and Rico Petrocelli, the Boston Bruins' Bobby Orr, New England Patriots receiver Troy Brown and the Boston Celtics' Paul Pierce, while many Boston fans at Fenway Park loudly cheered for Jeter and gave him a standing ovation. In his final at-bat, he hit an RBI infield single against Clay Buchholz, before being substituted for pinch runner Brian McCann; he received an ovation from the Red Sox fans as he exited the field.
World Baseball Classic
Jeter started at shortstop for the United States national baseball team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic. He hit 9-for-20 (.450) and scored five runs in six games. Only teammate Ken Griffey Jr. (.524) and Cuba's Yoandy Garlobo (.480) had a higher batting average with a minimum of 20 at-bats. Jeter's play earned him recognition as the shortstop selection on the All-Tournament Team.
In the 2009 World Baseball Classic, Jeter again started at shortstop. He was named captain of the United States team by manager Davey Johnson, and he batted 8-for-29 (.276) in eight games. Jeter and the United States team faced the Yankees at Steinbrenner Field in an exhibition game, the only time Jeter played against the Yankees.
Player profile
Jeter is considered to be one of the most consistent baseball players of all time. He played fewer than 145 games a season only three times in his career: when he dislocated his left shoulder on Opening Day 2003 (119 games), when he injured his calf in 2011 (131 games), and in 2013 when he struggled with a myriad of injuries (17 games). For his career, he averaged 204 hits, 113 runs scored and 21 stolen bases per 162 games. He is currently sixth on the all-time hits list in MLB history. Highly competitive, Jeter once said, "If you're going to play at all, you're out to win. Baseball, board games, playing Jeopardy!, I hate to lose." Jeter has been viewed as one of the best players of his generation.
An aggressive hitter, Jeter swung at most pitches in the strike zone and many near it. Though right-handed hitters often pull the ball into left field, Jeter's signature inside-out swing, dubbed the "Jeterian Swing," resulted in most of his hits going to center and right field. Similarly, most of his home runs were hit to right field rather than to center or to left, as his swing took advantage of Yankee Stadium's close right-field fences.
Jeter is also known for his professionalism. In an age where professional athletes often find themselves in personal scandals, he mostly avoided major controversy in a high-profile career in New York City while maintaining a strong work ethic. Due to his style of play, opponents and teammates held him in high esteem. A clubhouse leader, Jeter often defused confrontations between teammates.
Postseason performance
Jeter is noted for his postseason performances and has earned the titles of "Captain Clutch," and "Mr. November" due to his outstanding postseason play. He had a career .309 postseason batting average, and a .321 batting average in the World Series. Except for 2008, 2013 and 2014, the Yankees qualified for the postseason every year of Jeter's major league career. He holds MLB postseason records for games played (158), plate appearances (734), at-bats (650), hits (200), singles (143), doubles (32), triples (5), runs scored (111), total bases (302) and strikeouts (135). Jeter is also fourth in home runs (20) and runs batted in (61), fifth in base on balls (66) and sixth in stolen bases (18).
Defense
Jeter won five Gold Glove Awards, trailing only Vizquel, Ozzie Smith, Luis Aparicio, Dave Concepción, and Mark Belanger for most by a shortstop. He was credited with positioning himself well and for a quick release when he threw the ball. One of his signature defensive plays is the "jump-throw," by which he leapt and threw to first base while moving towards third base.
Despite this, Jeter's defense was the subject of criticism from a number of sabermetricians, including Rob Neyer and the publication Baseball Prospectus. The 2006 book The Fielding Bible by John Dewan contains an essay by Bill James in which he concluded that Jeter "was probably the most ineffective defensive player in the major leagues, at any position" over his entire career. A 2008 study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania found that, from 2002 through 2005, Jeter was the worst defensive shortstop in MLB. Two sites that rely on advanced defensive statistics, FanGraphs.com and FieldingBible.com, rated Jeter below middle-of-the-pack status in 2010, despite his receiving his fifth Gold Glove Award that season.
Jeter committed 18 errors in 2007, his highest total since finishing with 24 in 2000. After the season, Cashman and his staff saw Jeter's defense as an area that needed to be addressed. At the Yankees' request, Jeter embarked on a rigorous training program to combat the effects of age, by focusing on lateral movement and first-step quickness. Jeter's ultimate zone rating (UZR) improved from worst in the AL for shortstops in 2007 to close to league average in 2008.
When asked to respond to criticism of his defense, Jeter replied: "I play in New York, man. Criticism is part of the game, you take criticism as a challenge." Jeter further asserted that many defensive factors cannot be quantified. The controversy over Jeter's fielding became a flash point for the debate over whether the analyses of statistics or subjective observation is the better method to assess a player's defensive ability and for criticism of the Gold Glove Award.
Personal life
Jeter maintains homes in Marlboro Township, New Jersey; Greenwood Lake, New York; and the Davis Islands neighborhood of Tampa, Florida. He previously owned a penthouse apartment in Manhattan's Trump World Tower. Jeter settled a tax dispute regarding his official residence with the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance in 2008. New York State alleged that Jeter should have paid state income tax from 2001 to 2003, as Jeter resided in the Manhattan apartment he bought in 2001; Jeter claimed to have established his residence in Tampa Bay, Florida, in 1994, and that he was still a resident of Florida at the time. Florida has no state income tax. Jeter and his wife (the former Hannah Davis) currently reside in Miami. In September 2020, the couple listed their waterfront Tampa home for $29 million. They subsequently listed their Greenwood Lake home in March 2021.
In December 2002, Yankees owner George Steinbrenner criticized Jeter for staying out until 3 a.m. at a birthday party during the 2002 season, saying that his star shortstop "wasn't totally focused" and that "it didn't sit well" with him. The two mocked the incident in a May 2003 Visa commercial, similar to the manner in which Steinbrenner and former Yankees manager Billy Martin made light of their feud in a Miller Lite commercial during the 1970s.
Jeter's personal life has been a frequent topic in gossip columns and celebrity magazines since his rookie year in 1996. He had a well-publicized relationship with singer-songwriter Mariah Carey from 1997 to 1998. Carey cowrote the song The Roof (Back in Time) about their first kiss. Jeter has also dated model Vida Guerra, former Miss Universe Lara Dutta, singer Joy Enriquez, television personality Vanessa Minnillo, and the actresses Jordana Brewster, Jessica Biel, and Minka Kelly.
Jeter is Catholic, having been raised in the faith, attending Catholic schools as a child and identifying with the faith while playing for the Yankees.
Jeter and model Hannah Davis, who had been dating since 2012, became engaged in 2015. In July 2016, the two married. On February 13, 2017, Hannah announced that she was pregnant with a daughter. Their first child, a daughter, was born in August 2017. Their second daughter was born in January 2019. Their third daughter was born in December 2021.
Business interests
During his injury-shortened 2013 season, Jeter arranged a partnership with Simon & Schuster to form an imprint called Jeter Publishing. He called it "the blueprint for postcareer." It will begin publishing nonfiction books for adults, children's picture books, elementary grade fiction, and books for children who are learning to read. Eventually, the partnership could lead to film and television productions.
On October 1, 2014, Jeter's new website, ThePlayersTribune.com, appeared online; it was billed as "a new media platform that will present the unfiltered voice of professional athletes, bringing fans closer to the games they love than ever before." It was reported by the Tampa Bay Business Journal in March 2015 that Jeter had partnered with Concessions Tampa to bid for a space within the Tampa International Airport, and plans to open a restaurant named after his website.
Jeter also serves as a brand development officer for Luvo Inc. and has investment interests in multi-channel video network company, Whistle Sports Network. He explored purchasing the Buffalo Bills football team in 2014.
Jeter joined the board of Rockefeller Capital Management in April 2021.
Miami Marlins
In July 2017, Jeter engaged in the bidding for ownership of the Miami Marlins. In August 2017, Jeter and Bruce Sherman finalized a deal to purchase the Miami Marlins. The sale was completed in September 2017, following unanimous approval of the other 29 MLB team owners. Though Jeter only owns a 4% stake in the franchise, he was named chief executive officer (CEO) of the team, and Sherman, the controlling owner, entrusted him to oversee day-to-day operations of the team.
On February 28, 2022, Jeter announced that he would no longer serve as CEO of the Marlins or hold any shares in the club.
Appearances outside of baseball
Philanthropy
Jeter created the Turn 2 Foundation, a charitable organization, in 1996. It was established to help children and teenagers avoid drug and alcohol addiction, and to reward those who show high academic achievement. In 2012, Jeter received an honorary doctorate from Siena College honoring him for his foundation's work.
Since 2009, Jeter has served as an ambassador for Weplay, a website designed to encourage children to get involved in sports. Jeter, along with Japanese baseball player Hideki Matsui, took part in a charity baseball game at Tokyo Dome to raise funds for survivors of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.
In 2018, Jeter donated furniture and household items to families forced to relocate by Hurricane Irma. In July 2019, Jeter donated $3.2 million from the Turn 2 Foundation to the Kalamazoo Public School District to renovate the school's baseball and softball complex.
Endorsements
Jeter has appeared in national ad campaigns for Nike, Gatorade, Fleet Bank, Ford, VISA, Discover Card, Florsheim, Gillette, Skippy, and XM Satellite Radio. He endorses a cologne named Driven, designed in collaboration with and distributed by Avon. Jeter has his own Jumpman shoe. To commemorate Jeter's final year, the Jordan brand made a tribute commercial titled "#RE2PECT," which had many baseball players (such as Jon Lester) and celebrities, even rival Boston Red Sox fans tip their caps.
In 2006, Jeter was the second-highest paid endorser in baseball, behind Ichiro Suzuki, who received endorsement deals in Japan. He was ranked as the most marketable player in baseball according to the 2003, 2005, and 2010 Sports Business Surveys. A 2011 list by the marketing firm Nielsen ranked Jeter as the most marketable player in baseball, accounting for personal attributes such as sincerity, approachability, experience, and influence.
Other appearances
Jeter has appeared on television as a guest actor in the sitcom Seinfeld in the episode titled, "The Abstinence" and Saturday Night Live, a late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show, in episode 7 during season 27. He had cameo appearances in the comedy films Anger Management and The Other Guys. Jeter was the subject of a 2005 segment on the TV news magazine 60 Minutes and a 2014 episode of Finding Your Roots, a Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) public television series. Jeter also appears as a character in the Broadway play Bronx Bombers. Jeter made an appearance alongside Peyton Manning to celebrate [[Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special|''Saturday Night Lives 40th Anniversary]] in February 2015.
Video games have featured Jeter on their cover, including 2K Sports' MLB 2K5, MLB 2K6, and MLB 2K7, Acclaim Entertainment's All-Star Baseball series of video games, and Gameloft's wireless phone baseball game, Derek Jeter Pro Baseball 2008. A wax figure immortalizes Jeter at the Madame Tussauds Wax Museum in New York, and a sculpture at the Louisville Slugger Museum & Factory in Louisville, Kentucky.
Career highlights
Honors
Kalamazoo Central High School inducted Jeter into its athletic hall of fame in 2003 and renamed its baseball field in his honor in 2011. In 2015, Jeter was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame. The Yankees retired Jeter's uniform number and unveiled a plaque in his honor that was installed at Monument Park in a pregame ceremony on May 14, 2017.
On January 21, 2020, Jeter was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame as part of its class of 2020 in his first year of eligibility, only one vote shy of being only the second unanimous selection in Hall of Fame history. His 99.7% of the vote was second only to Mariano Rivera (100%), and ahead of Ken Griffey (99.3%) in the history of Hall of Fame voting. He was formally enshrined in a ceremony on September 8, 2021, in Cooperstown, New York.
Awards
Statistical highlights
Led League Singles (1997, 1998)
Runs scored (1998)
Hits (1999, 2012)
League Top–Ten'''
Hits (1997–2002, 2004–2007, 2009, 2012)
Runs scored (1997–2006, 2009, 2012)
Batting average (1998–2001, 2003–2007, 2009, 2012)
Total bases (1999)
AL MVP voting (1997–2001, 2003–2009)
AL hitters (1997, 1999–2000, 2003, 2009)
See also
List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
List of Major League Baseball hit records
List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise
List of New York Yankees team records
New York Yankees award winners and league leaders
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Derek Jeter at the Baseball Hall of Fame
Derek Jeter at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
1974 births
Living people
2006 World Baseball Classic players
2009 World Baseball Classic players
African-American baseball players
African-American Catholics
Albany-Colonie Yankees players
American League All-Stars
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American philanthropists
Baseball players from Michigan
Baseball players from New Jersey
Baseball players from New York (state)
Catholics from Michigan
Catholics from New Jersey
Catholics from New York (state)
Columbus Clippers players
Gold Glove Award winners
Gulf Coast Yankees players
Greensboro Hornets players
Major League Baseball All-Star Game MVPs
Major League Baseball executives
Major League Baseball players with retired numbers
Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Major League Baseball shortstops
Miami Marlins executives
Miami Marlins owners
New York Yankees players
People from Marlboro Township, New Jersey
People from North Arlington, New Jersey
People from Pequannock Township, New Jersey
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players
Silver Slugger Award winners
Sportspeople from Kalamazoo, Michigan
Sportspeople from the Bronx
Tampa Yankees players
Trenton Thunder players
World Baseball Classic players of the United States
World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners | [
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218950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact%20of%20Steel | Pact of Steel | The Pact of Steel (, ), known formally as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, was a military and political alliance between Italy and Germany.
The pact was initially drafted as a tripartite military alliance between Japan, Italy and Germany. While Japan wanted the focus of the pact to be aimed at the Soviet Union, Italy and Germany wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France. Due to this disagreement, the pact was signed without Japan and became an agreement between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, signed on 22 May 1939 by foreign ministers Galeazzo Ciano of Italy and Joachim von Ribbentrop of Germany.
The pact consisted of two parts. The first section was an open declaration of continuing trust and co-operation between Germany and Italy. The second section, the "Secret Supplementary Protocol", encouraged a union of policies concerning the military and the economy.
Background
Germany and Italy fought against each other in World War I. Popularity and support for radical political parties (such as the Nazis of Adolf Hitler and the Fascists of Benito Mussolini) exploded after the Great Depression had severely hampered the economy of both countries.
In 1922, Mussolini secured his position as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy. His first actions made him immensely popular - massive programs of public works provided employment and transformed Italy's infrastructure. In the Mediterranean Mussolini launched a powerful navy, larger than the combined might of the British and French Mediterranean fleets.
When he was appointed Chancellor in 1933, Hitler initiated a huge wave of public works and secret rearmament. Fascism and Nazism shared similar principles and Hitler and Mussolini met on several state and private occasions in the 1930s. On 23 October 1936, Italy and Germany signed a secret protocol aligning their foreign policy for the first time on such issues as the Spanish Civil War, the League of Nations and the Abyssinia Crisis.
Japan
In 1931, Japanese forces invaded the region of Manchuria because of its rich grain fields and reserves of raw minerals. This, however, provoked a diplomatic clash with the Soviet Union, which bordered Manchuria. To combat this Soviet threat, the Japanese signed a Pact with Germany in 1936. The aim of the pact was to guard against any attack from Soviet Russia were it to move on China.
Japan elected to focus on anti-Soviet alliances instead of anti-Western alliances like Italy and Germany. Germany, however, feared that an anti-USSR alliance would create the possibility of a two-front war before they could conquer Western Europe. So when Italy invited Japan to sign the Pact of Steel, it demurred.
Clauses
Officially, the Pact of Steel obliged Germany and Italy to aid the other country militarily, economically or otherwise in the event of war, and to collaborate in wartime production. The Pact aimed to ensure that neither country was able to make peace without the agreement of the other. The agreement was based on the assumption that a war would not occur within three years. When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and war broke out on 3 September, Italy was not yet prepared for conflict and had difficulty meeting its obligations. Consequently, Italy did not enter World War II until June 1940, with a delayed invasion of Southern France.
Secret supplementary protocols
The secret supplementary protocols of the Pact of Steel, which were split into two sections, were not made public at the time of the signing of the Pact.
The first section urged the countries to quicken their joint military and economic cooperation whilst the second section committed the two countries to cooperate in "matters of press, the news service and the propaganda" to promote the power and image of the Rome-Berlin Axis. To aid in this, each country was to assign "one or several specialists" of their country in the capital city of the other for close liaisons with the Foreign Minister of that country.
Name change
After being told the original name, "Pact of Blood", would likely be poorly received in Italy, Mussolini proposed the name "Pact of Steel", which was ultimately chosen.
Dissolution
According to Article VII, the pact was to last 10 years, but this did not happen. In November 1942, the Axis forces in North Africa, led by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, were decisively defeated by the British and British Commonwealth forces at the Second Battle of El Alamein. In July 1943 the Western Allies opened up a new front by invading Sicily. In the aftermath of this, Mussolini was overthrown by 19 members of the Gran Consiglio who voted in favour of the Ordine Grandi. The new Italian government, under Field Marshal Pietro Badoglio, signed an armistice with the Allies in September and became a non-belligerent, thus effectively ending Italy's involvement in the pact.
Although a puppet government under Mussolini, the Italian Social Republic, was established in Northern Italy by Nazi Germany, Italy continued as a member of the pact in name only.
See also
Anti-Comintern Pact
Causes of World War II
Tripartite Pact
References
Notes
Bibliography
Print
Online
Media
1939 in Germany
1939 in Italy
20th-century military alliances
Germany–Italy relations
Military alliances involving Italy
Military alliances involving Nazi Germany
Treaties concluded in 1939
Treaties entered into force in 1939
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
World War II treaties
May 1939 events
Axis powers | [
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218955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erica%20arborea | Erica arborea | Erica arborea, the tree heath or tree heather, is a species of flowering plant (angiosperms) in the heather family Ericaceae, native to the Mediterranean Basin and Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa. It is also cultivated as an ornamental.
The wood, known as briar root (French: bruyère, Catalan: bruc, Portuguese: betouro, Spanish: brezo), is extremely hard and heat-resistant, and is used for making smoking pipes. Leaf fossils attributed to this species were described for the Mio-Pleistocene deposit of São Jorge in Madeira Island.
Description
Erica arborea is an upright evergreen shrub or small tree with a typical height in the wild of some , especially in Africa, but more typically in gardens. It bears dark green needle-like leaves and numerous small honey-scented bell-shaped white flowers. It is a calcifuge, preferring acid soil in an open sunny situation.
Distribution
There are disjunct populations in Africa including the Ethiopian Highlands, the mountains of Ruwenzori and the Cameroon Mountains. In Africa it is normally referred to as giant heather. It is native to the maquis shrublands surrounding the Mediterranean Basin north to Bulgaria and west to Portugal and the Canary and Madeira Islands. Naturalised populations occur in south-eastern Australia.
Cultivars
Several cultivars and hybrids have been developed for garden use, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
E. arborea 'Estrella Gold' (gold-tipped leaves)
E. arborea var. alpina
E. arborea var. alpina f. aureifolia 'Albert's Gold' (gold-leaved)
E. × veitchii 'Gold Tips' (E. arborea × E. lusitanica)
Other tall growing heaths, including the Portugal Heath (Erica lusitanica) and channel heath (Erica canaliculata) may also sometimes be called tree heath.
Uses
The wood, known as briar root, is extremely hard, dense and heat-resistant, and is primarily used for making smoking pipes, as it does not affect the aroma of tobacco. The football-sized tubers are harvested at the age of 30 to 60 years. They are cooked for several hours, then dried for several months before they are further processed.
The wood is also used for making jewellery, fountain pens and knife handles.
See also
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
References
External links
Adams, W.M., A.S. Goudie & A. R. Orme (eds.) (1996): The Physical Geography of Africa. Page 55. Oxford University Press.
arborea
Afromontane flora
Matorral shrubland
Flora of France
Flora of Bulgaria
Flora of Ethiopia
Flora of Italy
Flora of Portugal
Flora of Spain
Flora of the Canary Islands
Flora of Madeira
Flora naturalised in Australia
Pipe smoking
Garden plants of Europe
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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218958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentse%20Feesten | Gentse Feesten | The Gentse Feesten (; In Ghent dialect Gense Fieste "The Ghent Festival") is a music and theatre festival in the city of Ghent, Belgium. Besides stage events there are street acts such as mimes and buskers. The festival starts on the Friday before the third Sunday of July and lasts until and including the fourth Sunday of July. The date originally had no reference to July 21st, Belgium's national holiday, but that holiday is always included. The festival starts on "the (Fri)day before the Saturday before July 21st" and lasts ten days. The last day (always a Sunday) is known as de dag van de lege portemonnees ("the day of the empty wallets") alluding to the fact that many people have spent their last penny at the festival and is seen by the people of Ghent as "their" day while visitors leave.
History
The first Gentse Feesten was held in 1843, about 400 people attended. The intensity of the festivities changed throughout the years. The modern Gentse Feesten was started in the summer of 1969 by Ghent singer Walter De Buck and ex-wife Paula Monsart with people from Café Trefpunt.
In the beginning the festival consisted of one stage near the Saint Jacobs Church. Since the late eighties the festival has grown now covers the whole inner city of Ghent. Although the festival has become a mass event, it has retained some of the rebellious and anarchistic atmosphere of the early days.
About 2 million visitors attend the festival every year, making it one of the biggest cultural and popular festivals in Europe. The number of visitors on top nights surpasses 250,000. In a 2005 ranking by localfestivities.com, the Gentse Feesten was called the third biggest city festival in Europe, preceded by the Fallas in Valencia and the Oktoberfest in Munich.
Festivals within the Gentse Feesten
Traditionally the shows at the festival have been free, but in later years a number of side festivals have chosen the period of the Gentse Feesten to organize separate events.
Trefpunt Festival – In the late '60s The Gentse Feesten were reinvented by Trefpunt vzw and Walter De Buck. Since 2011 it has been called Trefpunt Festival with locations around the city centre: Bij Sint Jacobs, Baudelohof, and many others. Every year Trefpunt Festival brings more than 1000 musicians from all over the world who perform more than 200 concerts in blues, rock, funk, soul, jazz, world music, and folk.
Gent Jazz Festival (formerly Blue Note Festival and Blue Note Records Festival) (since 2002): jazz festival, held at Castle of Counts in its initial years and then moved to the Abbey of Byloke.
Comedy Festival Gent (since 2007): comedy festival at JOC Rabot, which also hosts a few English-speaking shows.
International Puppetbuskerfestival: festival for puppeteers spread over the whole city.
International Street Theater Festival (MiramirO):
Polé Polé Festival (since 2003): World music at the Korenlei and Graslei.
Ten Days Off (1995-2014): electronic dance music in the Vooruit. Around 20, 000 visitors in 2005. Ten Days Off's final edition was in 2014 and will not return starting 2015.
Boomtown (since 2002): Alternative music. Originally held at Oude Beestenmarkt. Due to renovations, the event wasn't organized in 2008 and moved to Kouter the year after. The festival would not return to its original square and remained at Kouter.
Ground Zero Festival (2009): Free no-nonsense music festival in Damberd Jazz-café on the Korenmarkt
Belgian Summer Sing (since 2008): international choral festival spread over the whole city.
References
External links
Photo-site Gentse Feesten...
Cultural festivals in Belgium
Street fairs
Culture of Ghent
Jazz festivals in Belgium
Tourist attractions in East Flanders
July events
Summer events in Belgium
Events in Ghent
Tourist attractions in Ghent | [
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218965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayreuth%20Festspielhaus | Bayreuth Festspielhaus | The Bayreuth Festspielhaus or Bayreuth Festival Theatre (, ) is an opera house north of Bayreuth, Germany, built by the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner and dedicated solely to the performance of his stage works. It is the venue for the annual Bayreuth Festival, for which it was specifically conceived and built. Its official name is .
Design
Wagner adapted the design of the Festspielhaus from an unrealised project by Gottfried Semper for an opera house in Munich, without the architect's permission, and supervised its construction. Ludwig II of Bavaria provided the primary funding for the construction. The foundation stone was laid on 22 May 1872, Wagner's 59th birthday. The building was first opened for the premiere of the complete four-opera cycle of (The Ring of the Nibelung), from 13 to 17 August 1876.
Only the entry façade exhibits the typical late-19th-century ornamentation, while the remainder of the exterior is modest and shows mostly undecorated bricks. The interior is mainly wood and has a reverberation time of 1.55 seconds. The Festspielhaus is one of the largest free-standing timber structures ever erected. Unlike the traditional opera house design with several tiers of seating in a horseshoe shaped auditorium, the Festspielhaus's seats are arranged in a single steeply-shaped wedge, with galleries or boxes along the back wall only. This is also known as continental seating. Many contemporary movie theaters have adopted this style of seating, which gives every seat an equal and uninterrupted view of the stage. The capacity of the Festspielhaus is 1,925 and has a volume of 10,000 cubic metres.
The Festspielhaus features a double proscenium, which gives the audience the illusion that the stage is further away than it actually is. The double proscenium and the recessed orchestra pit create – in Wagner's term – a "mystic gulf" between the audience and the stage. This gives a dreamlike character to performances, and provides a physical reinforcement of the mythic content of most of Wagner's operas. The architecture of Festpielhaus accomplished many of Wagner's goals and ideals for the performances of his operas including an improvement on the sound, feel, and overall look of the production.
The Festpielhaus was originally planned to open in 1873, but by that time Wagner had barely raised enough money to put up the walls of his theatre. He began to raise money by traveling and putting on concerts in various cities and countries throughout Europe. There are, however, some documents concerning the donation and aid (900 thaler) to Wagner for that matter by the Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire. Even after Ludwig began funding the project, Wagner had to continue putting on concerts to keep the building project financially afloat. The tours were very taxing on Wagner's health and would eventually be a key element to his death later on in 1883.
Orchestra pit
A significant feature of the Festspielhaus is its unusual orchestra pit. It is recessed under the stage and covered by a hood, so that the orchestra is completely invisible to the audience. This feature was a central preoccupation for Wagner, since it made the audience concentrate on the drama onstage, rather than the distracting motion of the conductor and musicians. The design also corrected the balance of volume between singers and orchestra, creating ideal acoustics for Wagner's operas, which are the only operas performed at the Festspielhaus. However, this arrangement has also made it the most challenging to conduct in, even for the world's best conductors. Not only is the crowded pit enveloped in darkness, but the acoustic reverberation makes it difficult to synchronise the orchestra with the singers. Conductors must therefore retrain themselves to ignore cues from singers.
The orchestra layout deployed at Bayreuth is unusual in three ways:
The first violins are positioned on the right-hand side of the conductor instead of their usual place on the left side. This is in all likelihood because of the way the sound is intended to be directed towards the stage rather than directly on the audience. This way the sound has a more direct line from the first violins to the back of the stage where it can be then reflected to the audience.
Double basses, cellos and harps (when more than one used, e.g. Ring) are split into groups and placed on either side of the pit.
The rest of the orchestra is located directly under the stage. This makes communication with the conductor vital as most of the players are unable to see or hear the singers, but creates the huge, rich sounds Wagner sought to compose.
Bayreuth Festival
The Festspielhaus remains the venue of the annual Bayreuth Festival, during which Wagner's later operas, such as the Ring cycle and Parsifal, are given on a repertory basis.
Recent history
In early 2012, Katharina Wagner mentioned the need for repairs to the building, with mention specifically of roof leaks and crumbling of the red brick facade. In 2014, funding for restoration was announced at a level of approximately €30 million, primarily from public funding shared between Germany and the state of Bavaria, with the German national government and the Bavarian state government holding majority shares.
Repairs were completed on 26 July 2015 and the building is fully restored.
See also
List of opera festivals
References
Further reading
External links
Music venues completed in 1876
Opera houses in Germany
Opera festivals
Richard Wagner
Buildings and structures in Bayreuth
Bayreuth Festival
Tourist attractions in Bavaria
Theatres completed in 1876
1876 establishments in Bavaria
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218968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel | Immanuel | Immanuel ( ‘Īmmānū’ēl, meaning, "God is with us"; also romanized: Emmanuel, Imanu'el; also አማኑኤል ('Amanuel') in Geʽez and Amharic, and Emmanouël or Εμμανουήλ in Koine Greek of the New Testament) is a Hebrew name that appears in the Book of Isaiah (7:14) as a sign that God will protect the House of David.
The Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 1:22–23) interprets this as a prophecy of the birth of the Messiah and the fulfillment of Scripture in the person of Jesus. Immanuel "God (El) with us" is one of the "symbolic names" used by Isaiah, alongside Shearjashub, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, or Pele-joez-el-gibbor-abi-ad-sar-shalom.
It has no particular meaning in Jewish messianism.
By contrast, the name based on its use in Isaiah 7:14 has come to be read as a prophecy of the Christ in Christian theology following Matthew 1:23, where Immanuel () is translated as (KJV: "God with us").
Isaiah 7–8
Summary
The setting is the Syro-Ephraimite War, 735-734 BCE, which saw the Kingdom of Judah pitted against two northern neighbors, the kingdoms of Israel (called Ephraim in the prophecy) and Syria (also known as Aram or Aram-Damascus or Syria-Damascus). tells how the kings of Ephraim and Syria attack Jerusalem when Ahaz refuses to join them in their anti-Assyrian alliance. Ahaz wishes to ask Assyria for help, but Isaiah, at God's command, takes his son Shear-jashub (a symbolic name meaning "a remnant shall return") and assures Ahaz that the two enemy kings will not succeed (). Isaiah tells Ahaz of the apparent sign by which he will know that this is a true prophecy: a young woman will give birth to a child whom she will name Immanuel (another symbolic name, meaning "God with us"), and the lands of the "two kings you dread" will be laid waste before the child is old enough to "reject the wrong and choose the right" ().
follows with a further prophecy that at some unspecified future date God will call up Assyria against Judah: "The Lord will cause to come upon you and your people and your ancestral house such days as have not been seen since Ephraim broke away from Judah—the king of Assyria" (verse ). Verses describe the desolation that will result: "In that day a man will save alive a young cow and two sheep…in that day every place where there used to be a thousand vines…will be turned over to thorns and briars" (verses ). continues the previous chapter: the prophet tells of the birth of another child, his own son named Maher-shalal-hash-baz (a third symbolic name), then predicts that after Ephraim and Syria are destroyed the Assyrians will come like a river in flood to "cover the breadth of your land, Immanuel" ().
A fourth, even longer, prophetic "name", is found in Isaiah 9:6 with "Pele-joez-el-gibbor-abi-ad-sar-shalom". This is generally translated fully in English Bible versions such as "his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace" (KJV).
Interpretation
, is on the surface set in the time of king Ahaz, and a prophecy concerning the two kings whom Ahaz dreads, namely Pekah and Rezin. The defeat and death of both these kings at the hands of the Assyrians is dated around 732 BCE, placing the birth of the Immanuel child late in the reign of Ahaz.
Scholars generally date the written version of these events from the reign of Ahaz's son Hezekiah some thirty years later, the purpose being to persuade Hezekiah not to join with other kings who intended to rebel against their joint overlord, Assyria. Isaiah points to the dreadful consequences that followed for Judah's northern neighbours, the kingdom of Israel and Aram-Damascus (Syria) when they rebelled in the days of Ahaz and brought the Assyrians down on themselves. In the event, Hezekiah ignored Isaiah and joined the rebels, and the prophet's warning came true: the Assyrians ravaged Judah and Hezekiah barely escaped with his throne. A century later, in the time of Josiah, the prophecy was revised to present Ahaz as the faithless king who rejected God's promise of protection for Jerusalem and the house of David, with the result that God brought Assyria to devastate the land until a new and faithful king (presumably Josiah) would arise.
Isaiah 7–8 mentions three children with symbolic names: Shear-jashub, meaning "a remnant shall return"; Immanuel, "God is with us"; and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, "the spoil speeds, the prey hastens". informs the reader that Isaiah and his children are signs ("Here am I, and the children the Lord has given me. We are signs and symbols in Israel from the Lord Almighty, who dwells on Mount Zion"). The meaning of these name-signs is not clear: Shear-jashub has been variously interpreted to mean that only a remnant of Ephraim and Syria will survive the Assyrian invasion, or that a remnant of Judah will repent and turn to God, while in it seems to mean that a remnant of Israel will return to the Davidic monarchy. Maher-shalal-hash-baz is more clearly related to the expected destruction of Ephraim and Syria. As for Immanuel, "God is with us", Isaiah might mean simply that any young pregnant woman in 734 BCE would be able to name her child "God is with us" by the time he is born; but if a specific child is meant, then it might be a son of Ahaz, possibly his successor Hezekiah (which is the traditional Jewish understanding); or, since the other symbolic children are Isaiah's, Immanuel might be the prophet's own son. However this may be, the significance of the sign changes, from Isaiah 7, where Immanuel symbolises the hope of imminent defeat for Syria and Ephraim, to Isaiah 8:8, where Immanuel is addressed as the people whose land is about to be overrun by the Assyrians.
Matthew 1:22–23
The Gospel of Matthew cites the prophecy of the sign of Immanuel from Isaiah, using a Greek translation rather than the original Hebrew. Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus from Abraham through David to Joseph, with Jesus as "the son of David", (Matthew 1:1) a member of the "house of David" () to whom the sign of Immanuel was given. Matthew 1:16 indicates that Jesus is not Joseph's natural son, and Matthew never refers to Joseph as Jesus's father. Verses turn to Mary, the future mother of Jesus, betrothed (engaged) to Joseph, but "found with child of the Holy Ghost" before she and Joseph "came together". (v.18) Joseph was about to break the engagement, but an angel appeared to him in a dream and told him of the child's divine origin, and Matthew 1:22–23 declares how this was the fulfillment of Scripture:
22 Now all this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying,
23 Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call his name Emmanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us.
The gospel of Matthew was written by an author who believed that Jesus was the promised Messiah, "God with us". At first, titles such as "Messiah" and "son of God" had described Jesus's future nature at the "deutera parousia", the Second Coming; but very soon he came to be recognised as having become the Son of God at the resurrection; then, in Mark, he becomes known as Son of God at his baptism; and finally Matthew and Luke add infancy narratives in which Jesus is the Son of God from the very beginning, long before being conceived of a virgin mother without a human father.
See also
Dominus vobiscum
Gott mit uns
Isaiah 7:14
List of synagogues named Emanu-El
Matthew 1:23
Theophory in the Bible
References
Bibliography
Book of Isaiah
Christian terminology
Gospel of Matthew
Hebrew-language names
Judaism in the New Testament
Matthew 1
Theophoric names | [
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218972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%20goose | Canada goose | The Canada goose (Branta canadensis), or Canadian goose, is a large wild goose with a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. It is native to the arctic and temperate regions of North America, and it is occasionally found during migration across the Atlantic in northern Europe. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom, Ireland, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, New Zealand, Japan, Chile, Argentina and the Falkland Islands. Like most geese, the Canada goose is primarily herbivorous and normally migratory; it tends to be found on or close to fresh water.
Extremely adept at living in human-altered areas, Canada geese have established breeding colonies in urban and cultivated habitats, which provide food and few natural predators. The success of this common park species has led to its often being considered a pest species because of its excrement, its depredation of crops, its noise, its aggressive territorial behavior toward both humans and other animals, and its habit of stalking and begging for food, the latter a result of humans disobeying artificial feeding policies toward wild animals.
Nomenclature and taxonomy
The Canada goose was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae. It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey species of the genus Anser.
Branta was a Latinised form of Old Norse , "burnt (black) goose" and the specific epithet canadensis is a New Latin word meaning "from Canada". According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first citation for the 'Canada goose' dates back to 1772. The Canada goose is also colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose".
The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or several subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004, the American Ornithologists' Union's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists' Union followed suit in June 2005.
The AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. The subspecies of the Canada goose were listed as:
Atlantic Canada goose (B. c. canadensis) (Linnaeus, 1758)
Interior Canada goose (B. c. interior) (Todd, 1938)
Giant Canada goose (B. c. maxima) (Delacour, 1951)
Moffitt's Canada goose (B. c. moffitti) (Aldrich, 1946)
Vancouver Canada goose (B. c. fulva) (Delacour, 1951)
Dusky Canada goose (B. c. occidentalis) (Baird, 1858)
Lesser Canada goose (B. c. parvipes) (Cassin, 1852)
The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada geese" were believed to be a partly hybrid population, with the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis, and B. c. parvipes. The holotype specimen of taverneri is a straightforward large pale cackling goose however, and hence the taxon is still valid today and was renamed "Taverner's cackling goose".
In addition, the barnacle goose (B. leucopsis) was determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose (B. sandvicensis) originated from ancestral Canada geese. Thus, the species' distinctness is well evidenced. Ornithologist Harold C. Hanson, who had rediscovered wild populations of the Giant Canada Goose, proposed splitting Canada and cackling goose into six species and 200 subspecies. The radical nature of this proposal has been controversial; Richard Banks of the AOU urges caution before any of Hanson's proposals are accepted. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature has suppressed Hanson's proposals, based on the criticisms of Banks and other ornithologists.
Description
The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap" distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a black breast and grey rather than brownish body plumage).
The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose, which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of Richardson's cackling goose, B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose, B. h. minima, is scarcely larger than a mallard. In addition to the size difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese" (i.e., the genera Anser and Branta), the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier, such as the spur-winged goose and Cape Barren goose.
Canada geese range from in length and have a wingspan. Among standard measurements, the wing chord can range from , the tarsus can range from and the bill can range from . The largest subspecies is B. c. maxima, or the giant Canada goose, and the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) is B. c. parvipes, or the lesser Canada goose. An exceptionally large male of race B. c. maxima, which rarely exceed , weighed and had a wingspan of . This specimen is the largest wild goose ever recorded of any species.
The male Canada goose usually weighs , averaging amongst all subspecies . The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at , averaging amongst all subspecies , and generally 10% smaller in linear dimensions than the male counterparts. The honk refers to the call of the male Canada goose, while the call refers to the female goose. The calls are similar, however, the is shorter and more high-pitched than the honk of males. When agitated or aggressively defending territory, Canada geese will typically initiate an encounter with a high-pitched hiss. Canada geese communicate with ten different vocalizations, each in response a different situation confronting them.
Distribution and habitat
This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a wide range of habitats. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada geese. Canada geese occur year-round in the southern part of their breeding range, including the northern half of the United States' eastern seaboard and Pacific Coast, and areas in-between. Between California and South Carolina in the southern United States and in northern Mexico, Canada geese are primarily present as migrants from further north during the winter.
By the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. The giant Canada goose subspecies was believed to be extinct in the 1950s until, in 1962, a small flock was discovered wintering in Rochester, Minnesota, by Harold Hanson of the Illinois Natural History Survey. In 1964, the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center was built near Jamestown, North Dakota. Its first director, Harvey K. Nelson, talked Forrest Lee into leaving Minnesota to head the center's Canada goose production and restoration program. Forrest soon had 64 pens with 64 breeding pairs of screened, high-quality birds. The project involved private, state, and federal resources and relied on the expertise and cooperation of many individuals. By the end of 1981, more than 6,000 giant Canada geese had been released at 83 sites in 26 counties in North Dakota. With improved game laws and habitat recreation and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations, especially of the subspecies B. c. occidentalis, may still be declining.
In recent years, Canada goose populations in some areas have grown substantially, so much so that many consider them pests for their droppings, bacteria in their droppings, noise, and confrontational behavior. This problem is partially due to the removal of natural predators and an abundance of safe, human-made bodies of water near food sources, such as those found on golf courses, in public parks and beaches, and in planned communities. Due in part to the interbreeding of various migratory subspecies with the introduced non-migratory giant subspecies, Canada geese are frequently a year-around feature of such urban environments.
Contrary to its normal migration routine, large flocks of Canada geese have established permanent residence along the Pacific coast of North America from British Columbia's Lower Mainland and Vancouver Island area south to the San Francisco Bay area of Northern California. There are also resident Atlantic coast populations, such as on Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia's James River regions, and in the Triangle area of North Carolina (Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill), and nearby Hillsborough. Some Canada geese have taken up permanent residence as far south as Florida, in places such as retention ponds in apartment complexes. In 2015, the Ohio population of Canada geese was reported as roughly 130,000, with the number likely to continue increasing. Many of the geese, previously migratory, reportedly had become native, remaining in the state even in the summer. The increase was attributed to a lack of natural predators, an abundance of water, and plentiful grass in manicured lawns in urban areas. Canada geese were eliminated in Ohio following the American Civil War, but were reintroduced in 1956 with 10 pairs. The population was estimated at 18,000 in 1979. The geese are considered protected, though a hunting season is allowed from September 1–15, with a daily bag limit of five. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources recommends a number of non-lethal scare and hazing tactics for nuisance geese, but if such methods have been used without success, they may issue a permit which can be used from March 11 through August 31 to destroy nests, conduct a goose roundup or exterminate geese.
Outside North America
Eurasia
Canada geese have reached Northern Europe naturally, as has been proved by ringing recoveries. The birds include those of the subspecies B. c. parvipes, and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on the Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia, and eastern China.
Canada geese have also been introduced in Europe, and had established populations in Great Britain in the middle of the 18th century, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Finland. Most European populations are not migratory, but those in more northerly parts of Sweden and Finland migrate to the North Sea and Baltic coasts. Semi-tame feral birds are common in parks, and have become a pest in some areas. In the early 17th century, explorer Samuel de Champlain sent several pairs of geese to France as a present for King Louis XIII. The geese were first introduced in Great Britain in the late 17th century as an addition to King James II's waterfowl collection in St. James's Park. They were introduced in Germany and Scandinavia during the 20th century, starting in Sweden in 1929. In Great Britain, they were spread by hunters, but remained uncommon until the mid-20th century. Their population grew from 2,200 to 4,000 birds in 1953 to an estimated 82,000 in 1999, as changing agricultural practices and urban growth provided new habitat. European birds are mostly descended from the nominate subspecies B. c. canadensis, likely with some contributions from the subspecies B. c. maxima.
New Zealand
Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They have become a problem in some areas by fouling pastures and damaging crops. They were protected under the Wildlife Act 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand, which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds.
Behaviour
Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturally migratory with the wintering range being most of the United States. The calls overhead from large groups of Canada geese flying in a V-shaped formation signal the transitions into spring and autumn. In some areas, migration routes have changed due to changes in habitat and food sources. In mild climates from southwestern British Columbia to California to the Great Lakes, some of the population has become nonmigratory due to adequate winter food supply and a lack of former predators.
Males exhibit agonistic behavior both on and off breeding and nesting grounds. This behavior rarely involves interspecific killing. One documented case involved a male defending his nest from a brant that wandered into the area; the following attack lasted for one hour until the death of the brant. The cause of death was suffocation or drowning in mud as a direct result of the Canada goose's pecking the head of the brant into the mud. Researchers attributed it to high hormone levels and the brant's inability to leave the nesting area.
Diet
Canada geese are primarily herbivores, although they sometimes eat small insects and fish. Their diet includes green vegetation and grains. The Canada goose eats a variety of grasses when on land. It feeds by grasping a blade of grass with the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eats beans and grains such as wheat, rice, and corn when they are available. In the water, it feeds from aquatic plants by sliding its bill at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plant-like algae, such as seaweed.
In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also sometimes hand-fed a variety of grains and other foods by humans in parks. Canada geese prefer lawn grass in urban areas. They usually graze in open areas with wide clearance to avoid potential predators.
Reproduction
During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find a mate. They are monogamous, and most couples stay together all of their lives. If one dies, the other may find a new mate. The female lays from two to nine eggs with an average of five, and both parents protect the nest while the eggs incubate, but the female spends more time at the nest than the male.
Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water such as streams, lakes, ponds, and sometimes on a beaver lodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down.
The incubation period, in which the female incubates while the male remains nearby, lasts for 24–32 days after laying. Canada geese can respond to external climatic factors by adjusting their laying date to spring maximum temperatures, which may benefit their nesting success.
As the annual summer molt also takes place during the breeding season, the adults lose their flight feathers for 20–40 days, regaining flight about the same time as their goslings start to fly.
As soon as the goslings hatch, they are immediately capable of walking, swimming, and finding their own food (a diet similar to the adult geese). Parents are often seen leading their goslings in a line, usually with one adult at the front, and the other at the back. While protecting their goslings, parents often violently chase away nearby creatures, from small blackbirds to lone humans who approach: first giving a warning hiss, and then attacking with bites and slaps of the wings. Canada geese are especially protective animals, and will sometimes attack any animal nearing their territory or offspring, including humans. Although parents are hostile to unfamiliar geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, called crèches.
The offspring enter the fledgling stage any time from 6 to 9 weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace.
Migration
Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November. The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops. Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the East Coast.
Canada geese fly in a distinctive V-shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,280 feet) for migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).
Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more quickly than the summer grounds. Elevated thyroid hormones, such as T3 and T4, have been measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in migration the thyroid gland sends out more T4 which help the body cope with the longer journey. The increased T4 levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T4 to help the goose's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the temperature at which the muscles work. Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such as corticosterone rise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.
Survival
The lifespan in the wild of geese that survive to adulthood ranges from 10 to 24 years. The British longevity record is held by a specimen tagged as a nestling, which was observed alive at the University of York at the age of 31.
Predators
Known predators of eggs and goslings include coyotes (Canis latrans), Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), large gulls (Larus species), common ravens (Corvus corax), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), carrion crows (in Europe, Corvus corone) and both brown (Ursus arctos) and American black bears (Ursus americanus).
Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and grey wolves (Canis lupus). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), and gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness toward humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive toward humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent problems to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.
Salinity
Salinity plays a role in the growth and development of goslings. Moderate to high salinity concentrations without fresh water results in slower development, growth, and saline-induced mortality. Goslings are susceptible to saline-induced mortality before their nasal salt glands become functional; the majority of such deaths occur before the sixth day of life.
Disease
Canada geese are susceptible to avian bird flus, such as H5N1. A study carried out using the HPAI virus, a H5N1 virus, found that the geese were susceptible to the virus. This proved useful for monitoring the spread of the virus through the high mortality of infected birds. Prior exposure to other viruses may result in some resistance to H5N1.
Relationship with humans
In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human-altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches. An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks. A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.
Since 1999, the United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services agency has been engaged in lethal culls of Canada geese primarily in urban or densely populated areas. The agency responds to municipalities or private land owners, such as golf courses, which find the geese obtrusive or object to their waste. Addling goose eggs and destroying nests are promoted as humane population control methods. Flocks of Canada geese can also be captured during molt and this method of culling is used to control invasive populations.
Canada geese are protected from hunting and capture outside of designated hunting seasons in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and in Canada under the Migratory Birds Convention Act. In both countries, commercial transactions such as buying or trading are mostly prohibited and the possession, hunting, and interfering with the activity of the animals are subject to restrictions. In the U.K., as with native bird species, the nests and eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the defined open season.
Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then peck or attack with their wings.
Aircraft strikes
Canada geese have been implicated in a number of bird strikes by aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the United States, the Canada goose is the second-most damaging bird strike to airplanes, with the most damaging being turkey vultures. Canada geese can cause fatal crashes when they strike an aircraft's engine. The FAA has reported 1,772 known civil aircraft strikes within the United States between 1990 and 2018. The total cost of these bird strikes to general and commercial aviation has been reported to exceed $130 million.
In 1995, a U. S. Air Force E-3 Sentry aircraft at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, struck a flock of Canada geese on takeoff, losing power in both port side engines. It crashed from the runway, killing all 24 crew members. The accident sparked efforts to avoid such events, including habitat modification, aversion tactics, herding and relocation, and culling of flocks. In 2009, a collision with a flock of migratory Canada geese resulted in US Airways Flight 1549 suffering a total power loss after takeoff, causing the crew of the aircraft to land the plane on the Hudson River with no loss of human life.
Cuisine
As a large, common wild bird, the Canada goose is a common target of hunters, especially in its native range. Drake Larsen, a researcher in sustainable agriculture at Iowa State University, described them to Atlantic magazine as "so yummy ...good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef." The British Trust for Ornithology, however, has described them as "reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds." The U.S. goose harvest for 2013–14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken.
Canada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation and slaughterhouses' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese in New York City parks culled by the New York City Department of Environmental Protection have been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania. As of 2011, the sale of wild Canada goose meat was not permitted in the U.K.; some landowners have lobbied for this ban to be withdrawn to allow them income from sale of game meat.
Population
In 2000, the North American population for the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds. A 20-year study from 1983 to 2003 in Wichita, Kansas, found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increased from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.
References
External links
Images and videos of the Canada goose on ARKive
RSPB Birds by Name: Canada goose
Canada Goose Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Canada Goose – BTO BirdFacts
Rediscovery report on Giant Canada Goose from 1963 (PDF)
Canada goose
Canada goose
Birds of Canada
Birds of the United States
Birds of Mexico
Birds of North America
Game birds
Canada goose
Canada goose
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218981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load%20%28computing%29 | Load (computing) | In UNIX computing, the system load is a measure of the amount of computational work that a computer system performs. The load average represents the average system load over a period of time. It conventionally appears in the form of three numbers which represent the system load during the last one-, five-, and fifteen-minute periods.
Unix-style load calculation
All Unix and Unix-like systems generate a dimensionless metric of three "load average" numbers in the kernel. Users can easily query the current result from a Unix shell by running the uptime command:
$ uptime
14:34:03 up 10:43, 4 users, load average: 0.06, 0.11, 0.09
The w and top commands show the same three load average numbers, as do a range of graphical user interface utilities. In Linux, they can also be accessed by reading the /proc/loadavg file.
An idle computer has a load number of 0 (the idle process isn't counted). Each process using or waiting for CPU (the ready queue or run queue) increments the load number by 1. Each process that terminates decrements it by 1. Most UNIX systems count only processes in the running (on CPU) or runnable (waiting for CPU) states. However, Linux also includes processes in uninterruptible sleep states (usually waiting for disk activity), which can lead to markedly different results if many processes remain blocked in I/O due to a busy or stalled I/O system. This, for example, includes processes blocking due to an NFS server failure or too slow media (e.g., USB 1.x storage devices). Such circumstances can result in an elevated load average which does not reflect an actual increase in CPU use (but still gives an idea of how long users have to wait).
Systems calculate the load average as the exponentially damped/weighted moving average of the load number. The three values of load average refer to the past one, five, and fifteen minutes of system operation.
Mathematically speaking, all three values always average all the system load since the system started up. They all decay exponentially, but they decay at different speeds: they decay exponentially by e after 1, 5, and 15 minutes respectively. Hence, the 1-minute load average consists of 63% (more precisely: 1 - 1/e) of the load from the last minute and 37% (1/e) of the average load since start up, excluding the last minute. For the 5- and 15-minute load averages, the same 63%/37% ratio is computed over 5 minutes and 15 minutes respectively. Therefore, it is not technically accurate that the 1-minute load average only includes the last 60 seconds of activity, as it includes 37% of the activity from the past, but it is correct to state that it includes mostly the last minute.
Interpretation
For single-CPU systems that are CPU bound, one can think of load average as a measure of system utilization during the respective time period. For systems with multiple CPUs, one must divide the load by the number of processors in order to get a comparable measure.
For example, one can interpret a load average of "1.73 0.60 7.98" on a single-CPU system as:
during the last minute, the system was overloaded by 73% on average (1.73 runnable processes, so that 0.73 processes had to wait for a turn for a single CPU system on average).
during the last 5 minutes, the CPU was idling 40% of the time on average.
during the last 15 minutes, the system was overloaded 698% on average (7.98 runnable processes, so that 6.98 processes had to wait for a turn for a single CPU system on average).
This means that this system (CPU, disk, memory, etc.) could have handled all of the work scheduled for the last minute if it were 1.73 times as fast.
In a system with four CPUs, a load average of 3.73 would indicate that there were, on average, 3.73 processes ready to run, and each one could be scheduled into a CPU.
On modern UNIX systems, the treatment of threading with respect to load averages varies. Some systems treat threads as processes for the purposes of load average calculation: each thread waiting to run will add 1 to the load. However, other systems, especially systems implementing so-called M:N threading, use different strategies such as counting the process exactly once for the purpose of load (regardless of the number of threads), or counting only threads currently exposed by the user-thread scheduler to the kernel, which may depend on the level of concurrency set on the process. Linux appears to count each thread separately as adding 1 to the load.
CPU load vs CPU utilization
The comparative study of different load indices carried out by Ferrari et al. reported that CPU load information based upon the CPU queue length does much better in load balancing compared to CPU utilization. The reason CPU queue length did better is probably because when a host is heavily loaded, its CPU utilization is likely to be close to 100% and it is unable to reflect the exact load level of the utilization. In contrast, CPU queue lengths can directly reflect the amount of load on a CPU. As an example, two systems, one with 3 and the other with 6 processes in the queue, are both very likely to have utilizations close to 100% although they obviously differ.
Reckoning CPU load
On Linux systems, the load-average is not calculated on each clock tick, but driven by a variable value that is based on the HZ frequency setting and tested on each clock tick. This setting defines the kernel clock tick rate in Hertz (times per second), and it defaults to 100 for 10ms ticks. Kernel activities use this number of ticks to time themselves. Specifically, the timer.c::calc_load() function, which calculates the load average, runs every ticks, or about every five seconds:
unsigned long avenrun[3];
static inline void calc_load(unsigned long ticks)
{
unsigned long active_tasks; /* fixed-point */
static int count = LOAD_FREQ;
count -= ticks;
if (count < 0) {
count += LOAD_FREQ;
active_tasks = count_active_tasks();
CALC_LOAD(avenrun[0], EXP_1, active_tasks);
CALC_LOAD(avenrun[1], EXP_5, active_tasks);
CALC_LOAD(avenrun[2], EXP_15, active_tasks);
}
}
The avenrun array contains 1-minute, 5-minute and 15-minute average. The macro and its associated values are defined in sched.h:
#define FSHIFT 11 /* nr of bits of precision */
#define FIXED_1 (1<<FSHIFT) /* 1.0 as fixed-point */
#define LOAD_FREQ (5*HZ+1) /* 5 sec intervals */
#define EXP_1 1884 /* 1/exp(5sec/1min) as fixed-point */
#define EXP_5 2014 /* 1/exp(5sec/5min) */
#define EXP_15 2037 /* 1/exp(5sec/15min) */
#define CALC_LOAD(load,exp,n) \
load *= exp; \
load += n*(FIXED_1-exp); \
load >>= FSHIFT;
The "sampled" calculation of load averages is a somewhat common behavior; FreeBSD, too, only refreshes the value every five seconds. The interval is usually taken to not be exact so that they do not collect processes that are scheduled to fire at a certain moment.
A post on the Linux mailing list considers its tick insufficient to avoid Moire artifacts from such collection, and suggests an interval of 4.61 seconds instead. This change is common among Android system kernels, although the exact expression used assumes an HZ of 100.
Other system performance commands
Other commands for assessing system performance include:
uptime the system reliability and load average
top for an overall system view
vmstat vmstat reports information about runnable or blocked processes, memory, paging, block I/O, traps, and CPU.
htop interactive process viewer
dstat, atop helps correlate all existing resource data for processes, memory, paging, block I/O, traps, and CPU activity.
iftop interactive network traffic viewer per interface
nethogs interactive network traffic viewer per process
iotop interactive I/O viewer
iostat for storage I/O statistics
netstat for network statistics
mpstat for CPU statistics
tload load average graph for terminal
xload load average graph for X
/proc/loadavg text file containing load average
See also
CPU usage
References
External links
Explanation using an illustrated traffic analogy.
Operating system technology
Articles with example C code | [
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218985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20Police%20Department | Los Angeles Police Department | The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), officially known as the City of Los Angeles Police Department, is the municipal police department of Los Angeles, California. With 9,974 police officers and 3,000 civilian staff, it is the third-largest municipal police department in the United States, after the New York City Police Department and the Chicago Police Department.
The LAPD has its headquarters at 100 W. 1st St., in the Civic Center, not far from the demolished Parker Center it replaced in 2009. The organization of the department is complex, including 21 divisions (stations) grouped in four bureaus in the Office of Operations; multiple divisions within the Detective Bureau in the Office of Special Operations; and specialized units such as SWAT, K-9, mounted police, air support and the Major Crimes Division all within the Counter-Terrorism and Special Operations Bureau. Further offices support the chief of police in areas such as constitutional policing and professional standards, while the Office of Support Services covers facilities management, personnel and training, among other areas.
Independent investigative commissions have documented a history of police brutality, corruption, and discriminatory policing within the LAPD. In 2001, the United States Department of Justice entered into a consent decree with the LAPD regarding systemic civil rights violations and lack of accountability that stretched back decades. As a result of major reforms, the consent decree was lifted in 2013.
History
The first specific Los Angeles police force was founded in 1853 as the Los Angeles Rangers, a volunteer force that assisted the existing L.A. County forces. The Rangers were soon succeeded by the Los Angeles City Guards, ada Jeremy another volunteer group. Neither force was particularly efficient and Los Angeles became known for its violence, gambling and vice.
The first paid force was created in 1869, when six officers were hired to serve under City Marshal William C. Warren. By 1900, under John M. Glass, there were 70 officers, one for every 1,500 people. In 1903, with the start of the Civil Service, this force was increased to 200.
The CBS radio show Calling All Cars hired LAPD radio dispatcher Jesse Rosenquist to be the voice of the dispatcher. Rosenquist was already famous because home radios could tune in to early police radio frequencies. As the first police radio dispatcher presented to the public ear, he was the voice that actors went to when called upon for a radio dispatcher role.
During World War II, under Clemence B. Horrall, the overall number of personnel was depleted by the demands of the military. Despite efforts to maintain numbers, the police could do little to control the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots.
Horrall was replaced by retired United States Marine Corps general William A. Worton, who acted as interim chief until 1950, when William H. Parker succeeded him and would serve until his death in 1966. Parker advocated police professionalism and autonomy from civilian administration. However, the Bloody Christmas scandal in 1951 led to calls for civilian accountability and an end to alleged police brutality.
The iconic television series Dragnet, with LAPD detective Joe Friday as the primary character, was the first major mass media representation of the department. Real LAPD operations inspired Jack Webb to create the series and close cooperation with department officers let him make it as realistic as possible, including authentic police equipment and sound recording on-site at the police station.
Due to Dragnets popularity, LAPD Chief Parker "became, after J. Edgar Hoover, the most well known and respected law enforcement official in the nation" at that time. In the 1960s, when the LAPD under Chief Thomas Reddin expanded its community relations division and began efforts to reach out to the African-American community, Dragnet followed suit with more emphasis on internal affairs and community policing than solving crimes, the show's previous mainstay.
Under Parker, the LAPD created the first SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) team in U.S. law enforcement. Officer John Nelson and then-Inspector Daryl Gates created the program in 1965.
Organization
The Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners, also known as the Police Commission, is a five-member civilian body that oversees the LAPD. The Chief of Police reports to the board and the rest of the department reports to the chief.
The Office of the Inspector General is an independent part of the LAPD that has oversight over the department's internal disciplinary process and reviewing complaints of officer misconduct. It was created by the recommendation of the Christopher Commission and it is exempt from civil service and reports directly to the Board of Police Commissioners. The current Inspector General is Mark P. Smith, who was formerly the Constitutional Policing Advisor for the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department. The OIG receives copies of every complaint filed against members of the LAPD as well as tracking specific cases along with any resultant litigation. The OIG also conducts audits on select investigations and conducts regular reviews of the disciplinary system in order to ensure fairness and equality. As well as overseeing the LAPD's disciplinary process, the Inspector General may undertake special investigations as directed by the Board of Police Commissioners.
The LAPD's Art Theft Detail "is the only full-time municipal law enforcement unit in the United States devoted to the investigation of art crimes." The longtime head and often sole member of the unit is Detective Don Hrycyk, who in 2014 was described as being a 40-year veteran of the department with twenty years as the only known full-time art detective in the United States.Sarah Cascone, Meet Don Hrycyk, the LAPD's Veteran Art Detective, ArtNet News (September 18, 2014). According to the LAPD, the unit has recovered over $121 million in stolen works since 1993. The Art Theft Detail is part of the Burglary Special Section of the Detective Bureau of the LAPD.
The Los Angeles Police Protective League (LAPPL) is the labor union for LAPD officers up to the rank of lieutenant.
The LAPD Cadet Program is the department's police explorer program. The program was formerly called the explorer program but was changed after the police commission broke off their partnership with the Boy scouts over policies barring gays, atheists, and agnostics from being troop leaders. The cadet program shifted focus from an old explorer program that tried to guide members to a career in law enforcement to a program that tries to give cadets a solid foundation in life and to help them prepare for careers by offering services such as tutoring and college scholarships. The cadets complete courses not only on law enforcement but also on citizenship, leadership, financial literacy and other different skill sets. Cadets work positions including ride alongs, crowd control, charity assistance, and working in stations. The cadet program has posts at all of the LAPD's regional divisions as well as specialized divisions including the Metropolitan Division and the communications division; as of 2014 there were 5,000 cadets.
Office of the Chief
The Office of the Chief of Police has the responsibility for assisting the Chief of Police in the administration of the department.
The Director of the Office of Constitutional Policing and Policy, currently Police Administrator III Lizabeth Rhodes reports directly to the Office of the Chief. This office was created as a result of the Department of Justice's federal consent decree. It develops the LAPD's policies and procedures, conducts internal auditing and programs to ensure compliance, handles litigation, forms and ensures compliance with the LAPD's long-term strategic plan and risk management strategies, and coordinates local, state, and federal government and legislative matters.
Office of Operations
The majority of the LAPD's approximately 10,000 officers are assigned within the Office of Operations, whose primary office is located in the new Police Administration Building. Headed by an Assistant Chief, currently Assistant Chief Beatrice Girmala, and the Assistant to the Director, who is a Commander, the office comprises four bureaus and 21 police stations, known officially as "areas" but also commonly referred to as "divisions". The Office of Operations also has a dedicated Homeless Coordinator reporting directly to the Assistant Chief. The Community Engagement Group also reports to the Assistant Chief.
The 21 police stations or "divisions" are grouped geographically into four command areas, each known as a "bureau". The latest areas, "Olympic" and "Topanga", were added on January 4, 2009.
The Office of Special Operations is an office that was created in 2010 by then-Chief Charlie Beck. Headed by an Assistant Chief, currently Assistant Chief Horace Frank, the office comprises the Detective Bureau, the Counter-Terrorism and Special Operations Bureau, and the Transit Services Bureau.
The Detective Bureau also houses the COMPSTAT (Computer Statistics) Division which maintains crime data. COMPSTAT is based on the NYPD CompStat unit that was created in 1994 by former LAPD Chief William Bratton, while he was still a NYPD Police Commissioner. He implemented the LAPD version on becoming Chief of Police in 2002.
The Counter-Terrorism and Special Operations Bureau provides the Los Angeles Police Department specialized tactical resources in support of operations during daily field activities, unusual occurrences and, especially, during serious disturbances and elevated terrorism threat conditions; it was created from the merger of the Counter-Terrorism and Criminal Intelligence Bureau with the Special Operations Bureau in 2010
The Transit Services Bureau supervises the Transit Services Group and the Traffic Group, responsible for overseeing the four Geographical Traffic Divisions.
Headquarters Building
Prior to 2009, LAPD headquarters was located at Parker Center, named after former chief William H. Parker, which stood at 150 N. Los Angeles St. in the Downtown Los Angeles Civic Center district. It was demolished in 2019.
A new headquarters replaced it in October 2009 and is located west in the purpose-built LAPD Headquarters Building at 100 W. 1st St., also in the Civic Center, occupying the entire block between Main, Spring, 1st and 2nd streets, immediately south of the Los Angeles City Hall. Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall (DMJM) were the architects.
The total cost of the new building complex including the data center, the Main Street Parking Structure, and the Aiso Public Parking Garage was $437 million. The main building is a across 10 floors, a café ("LA Reflections"), underground parking as well as a parking structure, racks for 50 bicycles, and a 400-seat civic auditorium. It is LEED-certified, uses energy-efficient mechanical systems, day-lighting, high-performance glass, and recycled or renewable building materials. The perimeter is lined with green space. The complex provides space for about 2,300 workers, which let the department consolidate functions here which had been spread out across multiple locations.
Rank structure and insignia
Demographics
Up to the Gates administration, the LAPD was predominantly white (80% in 1980), and many officers had resided outside the city limits. Simi Valley, the Ventura County suburb that later became infamous as the site of the state trial that immediately preceded the 1992 Los Angeles riots, has long been home to a large concentration of LAPD officers, most of them white. A 1994 ACLU study of officers' home zip codes, concluded that over 80% of police officers resided outside the city limits.
Hiring quotas began to change this during the 1980s, but it was not until the Christopher Commission reforms that substantial numbers of black, Hispanic, and Asian officers began to be hired on to the force. Minority officers can be found in both rank-and-file and leadership positions in virtually all divisions.
In 1910 the LAPD hired the first female police officer with the power to arrest in the United States, Alice Stebbins Wells. LAPD's first Latina officer, Josephine Serrano Collier, was hired in 1946. On the LAPD through the early 1970s, women were classified as "policewomen".
Through the 1950s, their duties generally consisted as working as matrons in the jail system, or dealing with troubled youths working in detective assignments. Rarely did they work any type of field assignment and they were not allowed to promote above the rank of sergeant.
A lawsuit by a policewoman, Fanchon Blake, from the 1980s instituted court-ordered mandates that the department was to begin actively hiring and promoting women police officers in its ranks. The department eliminated the rank of "policeman" from new hires at that time along with the rank of "policewoman". Anyone already in those positions was grandfathered in, but new hires were classified instead as "police officers", which continues to this day. In 2002, women made up 18.9% of the force.
In 1886, the department hired its first two black officers, Robert William Stewart and Roy Green. The LAPD was one of the first two police departments in the country to hire an African-American woman officer, Georgia Ann Robinson in 1919. Despite this, the department was slow at integration. During the 1965 Watts riots, only 5 of the 205 police assigned to South Central Los Angeles were black, despite the fact that it was the largest black community in Los Angeles. Los Angeles' first black mayor Tom Bradley was an ex-police officer and quit the department after being unable to advance past the rank of lieutenant like other black police officers in the department. When Bradley was elected mayor in 1972, only 5% of LAPD officers were black and there was only one black captain in the department, Homer Broome. Broome would break down racial barriers on the force going on to become the first black officer to obtain the rank of commander and the first black to command a police station, the Southwest Division which included historically black neighborhoods of South Central Los Angeles in 1975.
As of 2019, the Los Angeles Police Department had 10,008 officers sworn in. Of these, 81% (8,158) were male and 19% (1,850) female. The racial/ethnic breakdown:
48.8% or 4,882 was Hispanic/Latino (of any race)
30.9% or 3,090 was non-Hispanic White
9.62% or 962 was African American
7.66% or 766 was Asian
2.46% or 246 was Filipino American
remaining were Indian and Other Ethnicities.
The LAPD has grown over the years in the number of officers who speak languages in addition to English. There were 483 bilingual or multilingual officers in 1974, and 1,560 in 1998, and 2,500 in 2001 that spoke at least one of 32 languages. In 2001, a study was released that found that non-English-speaking callers to the 911 and non-emergency response lines often receive no language translation, often receive incomplete information, and sometimes receive rude responses from police employees. The issue of a lack of multilingual officers led to reforms including bonuses and salary increases for officers who are certified in second languages. Currently, over a third of LAPD officers are certified in speaking one or more languages other than English. The department also uses a device called the phraselator to translate and broadcast thousands of prerecorded phrases in a multitude of languages and is commonly used to broadcast messages in different languages from police vehicles.
Work environment and pay
LAPD patrol officers have a three-day 12-hour and four-day 10-hour work week schedule. The department has over 250 types of job assignments, and each officer is eligible for such assignments after two years on patrol. LAPD patrol officers almost always work with a partner, unlike most suburban departments surrounding the City of Los Angeles, which deploy officers in one-officer units in order to maximize police presence and to allow a smaller number of officers to patrol a larger area.
The department's training division has three facilities throughout the city, including Elysian Park, Ahmanson Recruit Training Center (Westchester), and the Edward Davis Training Center (Granada Hills).
From spring 2007 through the spring of 2009, new recruits could earn money through sign on bonuses ranging from $5,000 to $10,000. Those bonuses ended in 2009. Sign on bonuses were paid 1/2 after graduation from the academy, and 1/2 after completion of probation. Also, $2,000 could be added for sign ons from outside the Los Angeles area for housing arrangements. As of July 2009, new recruits earned starting salaries of $56,522–61,095 depending on education level, and began earning their full salary on their first day of academy training.
In January 2010, the starting base salary for incoming police officers was lowered by 20%. At the time If applicants had graduated from high school their starting salary would be $45,226, if they had at least 60 college units, with an overall GPA of 2.0 or better, their salary would start at $47,043, and if the applicant had fully completed a college degree, the salary would start at $48,880. In 2014 after negotiations between the city and the police officers union reached an agreement on police officer pay that would give pay increases to nearly 1,000 officers who joined the department since the salaries for incoming officers were cut. The agreement also raised starting salaries for officers to $57,420 with an additional increase to $60,552 after 6 months which would become effective in the beginning of 2015. The agreement would also change the current overtime payment system from a deferred payment system, which was implemented to cut costs, to a pay-as-you-go overtime system as well as increasing the overtime budget from $30 million to $70 million.
Resources
Aviation
The LAPD Air Support Division's resources consist of 19 helicopters ranging from 5 Bell 206 Jet Rangers to 14 Eurocopter AS350-B2's, and also has 1 Beechcraft King Air 200.
Main airship missions are flown out of downtown's Piper Tech center at the Hooper Heliport, located outside of Union Station. The LAPD also houses air units at Van Nuys Airport.
Body cameras
Beginning in September 2013, the LAPD started a trial program for the use of body worn cameras with 30 officers in the Skid Row area. Reports from the trial program indicated that the cameras functioned well and that they assisted in deescalating situations although there were some technical issues with the cameras along with slight issues with the cameras falling off of officers during movement. In November 2014, in a sign of body camera purchases to come, the department chose Taser International as the vendor for body cameras to be used by the LAPD after their use in the trial program earlier in the year. On December 16, 2014, Mayor Eric Garcetti announced that the city would purchase 7,000 body worn cameras from Taser for use by the department. Patrol officers are now equipped with the cameras, and are required to use these devices while on assignment. 700 of the cameras were deployed to patrol officers in the Central, Mission and Newton patrol areas of the city beginning in January 2015. $1.55 million was raised from private donors to start the body camera program for the initial rollout phase in order to ease budget constraints for the city with another $1 million coming from the National Institute of Justice, a branch of the Department of Justice. Before all of the cameras were deployed to patrol officers, the Police Commission created a policy that governs the use of the cameras and video footage while consulting with department and city officials along with outside organizations including other departments who already use body cameras. The commission has created a policy that officers would have to turn on the cameras whenever they arrest or detain someone for interrogation and that many public interactions such as domestic violence interviews would not be recorded. Prior to the rollout of any body worn cameras, officers were able to carry personally owned audio recording devices since 1994 if they filed an application and obtained the requisite permission.
Firearms
After World War II, the LAPD began to issue the Smith & Wesson Model 10. During the 1960s and 70s the department issued the S&W Model 15 Combat Masterpiece. These guns were modified to fire double-action only. Some specialized units (specifically Motor Officers) were issued the stainless steel version, the Model 67. In the 1980s, LAPD patrol officers began to be issued the Beretta 92F and Smith & Wesson Model 5906 semi-automatic 9mm pistols. Following the North Hollywood shootout of 1997, LAPD officers were also given the option of carrying the Smith & Wesson Model 4506 and 4566 service pistols. Qualified officers were also issued patrol rifles called UPR (Urban Police Rifle). When William Bratton was appointed Chief of the LAPD, he allowed his officers to carry the Glock pistol, the firearm carried in the two previous departments Bratton led (the New York City Police Department and the Boston Police Department).
As of 2021, the LAPD issues the Smith & Wesson M&P Pistol chambered in 9mm to all new officers.
Officers also have the option to choose from a variety of Glock, Kimber, Staccato or Beretta pistols, as well as Smith & Wesson, Colt, or Bushmaster AR-15 rifles.
The LAPD SWAT team carried the Kimber Custom TLE II in 2002, renaming it the Kimber LAPD SWAT Custom II. As of 2014, SWAT's primary weapons were the Heckler & Koch HK416, M4 Carbine, and FN SCAR rifles; the Colt 9mm and HK MP5 submachine guns; the Armalite AR-10, Remington 700, Barrett M82, and M14 sniper rifles; and the Benelli M4 Super 90 and Remington 870 shotguns. The LAPD also has 37mm launchers and modified "beanbag" firing guns.
The LAPD announced in 2009 that they would be increasing their number of a semi-automatic shotgun, the Benelli M4 Super 90; officers had to go through additional training and privately purchase the gun if they elect to switch from the standard pump-action Remington 870 which replaced the venerable Ithaca Model 37 "Deerslayer".
Awards and commendations
The department presents a number of medals to its members for meritorious service. The LAPD awards medals for bravery, service, unit citations, ribbons for assignment and time-specific service, and marksmanship:
Medal of Valor''':
The LAPD Medal of Valor is the highest law enforcement medal awarded to officers by the Los Angeles Police Department. The Medal of Valor is an award for bravery, usually awarded to officers for individual acts of extraordinary heroism performed in the line of duty at extreme and life-threatening personal risk.
Fallen officers
Since the establishment of the Los Angeles Police Department, 211 officers have died in the line of duty. In 2008, Randal Simmons became the first LAPD SWAT officer to be killed in the line of duty. There have been two memorials to fallen LAPD officers. One was outside Parker Center, the former headquarters, which was unveiled on October 1, 1971. The monument was a fountain made from black granite, its base inscribed with the names of the LAPD officers who died while serving the City of Los Angeles. The old monument located at Parker Center was destroyed in the process of being transported but was replaced by a new memorial at the current police headquarters building. The Los Angeles Police Department Memorial for Fallen Officers, dedicated on October 14, 2009, is made up of more than 2,000 brass alloy plaques, 207 of which are inscribed with the names of fallen police officers.
Two deaths are unsolved, both of off-duty officers: Fred Early, shot in 1972, and Michael Lee Edwards, shot in May 1974.
In addition to the numbers listed above, 8 police officers, and 2 other LAPD employees, died due to COVID-19 complications. A group of officers filed a lawsuit to try to stop a mandate for city employees to get vaccinated.
Public opinion
In a 2020 survey of Los Angeles residents, two-thirds said they believe the department is doing a good job maintaining public safety, while 88% supported community policing, 82% supported an unarmed response model, and 62% supported redirecting some money from the department to community initiatives. There were differences of opinion along racial lines, with three in five white and Asian residents and one in three black residents trusting the LAPD to "do what is right".
Controversies and misconduct
Over the years, the Los Angeles Police Department has been the subject of a number of scandals, police misconduct and other controversies. According to one study, during the lengthy tenure of William H. Parker as police chief (1950–1966), the LAPD was "outwardly racist", and the tenure of police chief Daryl Gates (1978–1992) was marked by "scandalous racist violence" among the LAPD. Following the Rampart Division CRASH scandal of the late 1990s and early 2000s, the United States Department of Justice entered into a consent decree with the LAPD regarding systemic civil rights violations and lack of accountability that stretched back decades, requiring major reforms. The consent decree was lifted in 2013. The executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California stated that the decree "accomplished its purpose by and large" and that the department "has made serious culture changes", but cautioned against backsliding and said there was more work to be done regarding racial disparities and treatment of the homeless.
1920s–1940s
Louis Oaks, a chief of the LAPD in the early 1920s, was a member of the Ku Klux Klan.
James E. Davis served two terms as LAPD police chief, heading the department from 1926 to 1929 and from 1933 to 1938. During his first term as chief, Davis called for violence against criminals while leading a Prohibition vice squad, and the department was known for controversies including accusations of conspiracy, blackmail, and murder. Davis also formed a Red Squad to combat labor unions; headed by Capt. William F. Hynes, the squad arrested hundreds participating in strikes. In March 1928, Christine Collins reported her nine-year-old son, Walter, missing. Five months later a boy named Arthur Hutchins came forth claiming to be Walter; when Mrs. Collins told the police that the boy was not her son, she was committed to a mental institution under a Section 12 internment. It was later determined that Walter had fallen victim to a child rapist/murderer in the infamous Wineville Chicken Coop Murders, and Arthur Hutchins admitted that he had lied about his identity in order to meet his favorite actor, Tom Mix. The widely publicized case was depicted in the 2008 film Changeling.
When Frank L. Shaw was elected mayor in 1933, he reappointed Davis as police chief, and the LAPD––already considered "nationally notorious" for police corruption––entered a new phase of widespread criminal activity. In 1936, Davis sent members of the LAPD to California's state borders, along Arizona, Nevada, and Oregon, to institute checkpoints blocking the entry of migrants, or "okies". The police began raids and mass arrests of populations including the homeless and disabled; those taken in by police were given the option of leaving California or serving a 180-day jail term. The so-called "bum blockade" ended after significant negative publicity, including a suit filed by the ACLU in federal court.
By 1937, the LAPD was leading a vast intelligence operation wiretapping politicians, judges, and federal agents. Some records of police surveillance were taken under subpoena after Harry Raymond, a former officer investigating corruption in the force, was the victim of a car bomb. During the trial that followed, LAPD captain Earl Kynette was found guilty of Raymond's attempted murder; Davis acknowledged that he had known Raymond was under police surveillance.
In the late 1930s, the LAPD engaged in widespread racial profiling of Mexican Americans. The LAPD and the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department used the 1942 "Sleepy Lagoon murder" of José Gallardo Díaz to justify a coordinated crackdown: the police identified primarily-Mexican American communities, cordoned them off with blockades, and carried out mass searches and arrests. The police detained hundreds of Mexican Americans before indicting 22 for murder. Twelve of the defendants were charged with murder and incarcerated; all convictions were later overturned. Members of the LAPD were accused of participating in anti-Mexican American violence during the Zoot Suit Riots that followed in 1943; despite the LAPD's insistence that the riots were caused by Mexican American crime, there was broad consensus that the riots were the result of racial discrimination.
1950s–1960s
Parker, who served as chief of the LAPD from August 9, 1950, until his death on July 16, 1966, was frequently criticized for racist remarks, his refusal to acknowledge police brutality, and his demands that the police not be subject to the same laws as citizens; the last of these contributed to ongoing conflicts with the FBI, with the agency refusing to train LAPD officers until after Parker's death. Parker adopted the rhetoric of Los Angeles as the "white spot" of America, first popularized by Los Angeles Times publisher Harry Chandler, and explicitly set it against the "black picture" of the nation. The Los Angeles City Council once confronted him with a recording in which he referred to Mexican Americans as not being far from "the wild tribes of Mexico"; in the 1960s, he claimed that "by 1970, 45% of the metropolitan area of Los Angeles will be Negro" and that the city should support a strong police force because "if you don't, come 1970, God help you"; he described Black participants in the 1965 Watts riots as acting like "monkeys in a zoo". The Los Angeles Police Department was not integrated until the 1960s.
Early in his tenure as police chief, Parker launched an extensive public relations campaign for the LAPD. In the 1950s, he was a credited consultant for police procedural drama Dragnet, even offering the show departmental support in providing case examples and fact-checking; he popularized the term "thin blue line" in both his speeches and in a TV show he conceived and produced for Los Angeles NBC network KNBC; he hired Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry as a speech writer; and he introduced the department's first press office. These efforts were seen as tied to his efforts to curry public favor and extend the reach of officers of the LAPD.
Bloody Christmas was the name given to the severe beating of seven civilians under LAPD custody on December 25, 1951. The attacks, which left five hispanic and two white young men with broken bones and ruptured organs, was only properly investigated after lobbying from the Mexican American community. The internal inquiry by chief Parker resulted in eight police officers being indicted for the assaults, 54 being transferred, and 39 suspended.
In 1962, the controversial LAPD shooting of seven unarmed members of the Nation of Islam resulted in the death of Ronald Stokes, and led to protests of the LAPD led by Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam.
1970s–1980s
In the 1970s and into the 1980s "biased policing", also known as racial profiling, was commonplace in the department. This policing alienated the department from minority residents and gained the department a reputation of abuse of power and bias against minority residents.
A major controversy erupted in 1979 over the shooting of Eula Love by two LAPD officers; no legal consequences befell the officers responsible.
Early in his tenure as Chief of Police, Daryl Gates re-instituted the use of the chokehold (placing an arm or flashlight over someone's throat) in order to subdue suspects. In 1982, this technique was used and led to the death of James Mincey Jr. Following Mincey's death, the Police Commission barred the use of chokeholds by officers unless in a life-threatening situation. An investigation found that sixteen people had died after being restrained by police chokeholds.
In 1986, Officer Stephanie Lazarus killed her ex-boyfriend's new wife. Despite the victim's father's insistence that Lazarus should be a suspect in the homicide, she was not considered by the police and the case went cold. In the 2000s, detectives revisiting cold cases deduced that Stephanie was a suspect. DNA evidence led to her arrest and conviction.
Also in 1986, the department purchased a 14-ton armored breaching vehicle, used to smash quickly through the walls of houses of suspects. The ACLU questioned the constitutionality of the vehicle, and the California Appellate Court later ruled the vehicle was unconstitutional, violating lawful search and seizure.
In 1988, African-American baseball sportscaster and retired Baseball Hall of Fame player Joe Morgan was detained at Los Angeles International Airport by LAPD and L.A. Airport Police officers after being falsely identified as a drug dealer. He was released when the LAPD realized their mistake. The city cleared the detective of wrongdoing, but Morgan subsequently filed a civil suit against both the LAPD and the city for the unlawful detention; the lawsuit was settled in 1993, and Morgan was awarded $800,000 by the Los Angeles City Council.
On August 1, 1988, as part of Chief Gates' Operation Hammer directed against gangs, SWAT teams raided four apartments at 39th Street and Dalton Avenue. According to an investigation by the department's Internal Affairs, the team leader, Captain Thomas Elfmont, directed his men to "hit" the apartments "hard", to "level" them, and to leave them "uninhabitable". The police detained 37 people, making seven arrests. They found six ounces of marijuana and a small amount of cocaine. The seven were beaten by the police and at the police station forced to whistle the theme to the Andy Griffith Show. Those who refused to comply were beaten again. Nobody was charged with a crime. The city paid four million dollars to settle the matter.
On September 4, 1988, LAPD officers raided the home of Roger Guydon looking for drugs. They found nothing. In 1991, Guydon won a $760,000 lawsuit against the city.
1990s–2000s: Rodney King, LA riots, consent decree
In April 1991, the Christopher Commission was formed in the wake of the Rodney King beating, by then-mayor of Los Angeles Tom Bradley. It was chaired by attorney Warren Christopher and was created to examine the structure and operation of the LAPD. The commission found that there were a significant number of LAPD officers who used excessive force and that the disciplinary structure was weak and ineffective. Fewer than a third of the suggested reforms were put into place.
In an effort to reduce drive-by shootings, LAPD initiated Operation Cul-de-Sac in 1991. This consisted of installing barriers on residential streets to block vehicle traffic. As a result, homicides and assaults were greatly reduced. The program ended after two years, with violent crime rates returning to their previous levels.
On July 1, 1992, John Daniels Jr., 36, a tow truck driver, was fatally shot by LAPD Officer Douglas Iversen as he was driving away from a service station in South Central. Iversen was charged with second-degree murder, and two separate juries were deadlocked on the charge. The case was dismissed by a judge. Daniels' family received a $1.2 million settlement after filing a lawsuit against the City of Los Angeles.
The Los Angeles riots of 1992, also known as the Rodney King uprising or the Rodney King riots, began on April 29, 1992, when a jury acquitted four LAPD police officers accused in the videotaped beating of Rodney King following a high-speed car pursuit on March 3, 1991. After seven days of jury deliberations, the jury acquitted all four officers of assault and acquitted three of the four of using excessive force. The evening after the verdict, thousands of people in the Los Angeles area rioted for over six days following the verdict. Widespread looting, assault, arson, and murder occurred, and property damages totaled one billion dollars. In all, 53 people died during the riots.
On October 12, 1996, LAPD Officers Rafael Pérez and Nino Durden entered the apartment of Javier Ovando. They shot Ovando in the back, paralyzing him from the waist down. They then planted a gun on the unarmed Ovando to make it appear he had attacked them. The two officers then perjured themselves. Ovando was sentenced to 23 years in custody based on their testimony. Later, one of the officers admitted his crime. Ovando was released, and in 2000, was paid $15 million for his injuries and imprisonment. The officers' actions led to the exposure of the Rampart scandal. By 2001, the resulting investigations would lead to more than 75 officers being investigated or charged, and over 100 criminal cases being overturned, due to perjury or other forms of misconduct, much based on the plea-bargain testimony of Perez.
Following the Rampart scandal, the United States Department of Justice entered into a consent decree with the LAPD regarding systemic civil rights violations and lack of accountability that stretched back decades. Many in the LAPD resisted federal oversight and proposed reforms, but entered into a consent decree when the DOJ threatened to sue the city and take complete control over the LAPD. Mayor Richard J. Riordan and the Los Angeles city council agreed to the terms of the decree on November 2, 2000. The federal judge formally entered the decree into law on June 15, 2001. In order to promote civil rights integrity, the legally binding decree placed emphasis on several areas, including management and supervisory measures, revising critical incident procedures, documentation, investigation and review, revising the management of gang units, revising the management of confidential informants, program development for response to persons with mental illness, improving training, increased integrity audits, increasing the operations of the Police Commission and the Inspector General, and increasing community outreach and public information.
Other provisions in the decree called for divisions to investigate all use of force (now known as Force Investigative Division) and conduct audits department-wide; the development of a risk management system; the creation of a field data capture system to track the race, ethnicity or national origin of the motorists and pedestrians stopped by the department; the creation of an Ethics Enforcement Section within the Internal Affairs Group; the transfer of investigative authority to Internal Affairs of all serious personnel complaint investigations; a nationwide study by an independent consultant on law enforcement dealing with the mentally ill, to help the department refine its own system; a study by an independent consultant of the department's training programs; and the creation of an informant manual and database.
The Consent Decree Bureau was the LAPD bureau charged with overseeing this process. Until 2009, the commanding officer of the Consent Decree Bureau, a civilian appointed by the chief of police, was Police Administrator Gerald L. Chaleff.
In 2006, the consent decree was extended by six years, as U.S. District Court Judge Gary Feess found that the LAPD had not implemented the reforms that it had committed to. The federal oversight of the LAPD was lifted in 2013.
On July 10, 2005, while under the influence of alcohol and cocaine, Jose Pena took his 19-month-old daughter, Suzie, hostage in his home. After police arrived, Pena threatened to kill her and himself after firing at others earlier. SWAT officers were called in. After negotiations to try and release Pena's daughter were unsuccessful, four SWAT officers entered the home and, during a gunfight, both Mr. Pena and his infant daughter were shot and killed by SWAT team members. One officer was shot and wounded by Pena. Suzie Pena's death was the first death of a hostage ever in LAPD SWAT history and the LAPD was criticized for their actions. An independent board of inquiry later cleared the SWAT officers of any wrongdoing. A judge later dismissed a lawsuit by the mother of Suzie Pena on the grounds that the officers acted reasonably in the case and no negligence was involved.
On May Day, 2007, immigrant rights groups held rallies in MacArthur Park in support of undocumented immigrants. The rallies were permitted and initially the protesters followed the terms of the permits but some of the protesters began blocking the street. After warnings by the LAPD, the protesters failed to disperse and the rally was declared an unlawful assembly. The LAPD only announced the declaration of the unlawful assembly in English leading to confusion by some in the crowd who only spoke Spanish. Police officers held a line to prevent protesters from entering the street and did not disperse the crowd until rocks, bottles, and other objects began to be thrown at the police. The officers began slowly advancing and fired rubber bullets and used batons to disperse crowd members who refused to comply with police orders to leave the area. Police were heavily criticized for firing rubber bullets at some journalists and hitting some with batons who did not disperse along with the crowds. Seventeen officers and two sergeants of the metropolitan division were recommended for punishment by a department internal review for their actions in the incident.
In 2008, Officer Russell Mecano offered to not arrest a woman in exchange for sex, and offered cash to another woman in exchange for sex. He was convicted and sentenced to more than eight years.
2010s–2020s
On July 22, 2012, Alesia Thomas, an African American woman, died in the back of a police car after being kicked in the upper thigh, groin, and abdomen. Her cause of death was ruled "undetermined" and the autopsy report mentioned cocaine intoxication as a "major" contributing factor, but also indicated that the struggle with officers "could not be excluded" as a contributing factor to her death. It was later revealed that Thomas was also bipolar. Later, LAPD officer Mary O'Callaghan was charged with assault over her actions in the case. As a result of these events, on September 1, 2012, civil rights activists requested an emergency meeting with LAPD Chief Charlie Beck to review arrest and use-of-force policies.
On August 18, 2012, Ronald Weekley Jr., a college student, was punched in the face while being arrested after being stopped for riding his skateboard on the wrong side of the street.
On August 21, 2012, Michelle Jordan, a registered nurse, was pulled over for holding her cell phone while driving. She was thrown to the ground twice in the course of being arrested after getting out of the car and refusing to comply with an officer's command to get back in the vehicle.
On February 7, 2013, the LAPD was involved in what Chief Beck called "a case of mistaken identity" when, during the manhunt for murderer and fired LAPD officer, Christopher Dorner, the LAPD and the Torrance Police Department fired upon pickup trucks at two separate locations, believing them to be Dorner. The first incident took place on the 19500 Block of Redbeam Avenue. LAPD officers fired numerous shots into the back of a blue pickup truck, allegedly without warning, and injured the two women inside. Twenty-five minutes later, the Torrance Police shot into the windshield of another pickup truck, narrowly missing the driver. In both cases the victims were not involved with the Dorner case. The Dorner case involved allegations of impropriety by other LAPD officers, as Dorner alleged that he had been fired for reporting brutality by his training officer. The manhunt was triggered by Dorner's alleged attacks against LAPD and ex-LAPD personnel. In 2013, the city of Los Angeles agreed to pay the two female victims of the first incident $2.1 million each to settle the matter. The city of Torrance agreed to pay the victim of the second incident $1.8 million.
In May 2014, after much controversy in their own city, the Seattle Police Department transferred two Draganflyer X6 UAVs to the LAPD. The LAPD stated that the only uses for the drones would be for narrow and prescribed circumstances such as hostage situations, but that they would not be put into use until the Board of Police Commissioners and the City Attorney crafted a policy for their use after the LA City Council ordered the policy creation. The decision to use the drones gained significant opposition from community activists including the ACLU and new groups founded after the announcement about drone use including Stop LAPD Spying Coalition and the Drone-Free LAPD, No Drones, LA! activist groups who protested outside of city hall against the use of drones by the LAPD.
On August 11, 2014, an African-American man named Ezell Ford was shot by two LAPD gang detectives after they made an investigative stop of Ford on the street. Ford was unarmed and the officers claimed that he got into a physical struggle with one of them and then reached for their gun, forcing them to fire on Ford, while some witnesses who claimed to have seen the incident alleged that there was no struggle. The autopsy report was ordered to be released by Mayor Eric Garcetti before the end of 2014.
On September 11, 2014, African-American actress Danièle Watts was temporarily detained by the LAPD when she and her boyfriend were in Studio City. Watts accused the officers who stopped her of racially profiling her because she was African-American and her boyfriend was Caucasian, claiming that they treated her as if she was a "prostitute" and that the officers had been disrespectful to her because she was African-American. LAPD Sergeant Jim Parker who was one of the two officers accused by Watts of misconduct, released a personal audio recording of the entire incident to TMZ. The recording showed that police had received a 911 call about lewd acts in a car and the couple who were described to have committed the lewd acts fit Watts' and her boyfriend's description. It also showed that when officers arrived on the scene, Watts' boyfriend cooperated with police but Watts refused to cooperate and identify herself, accused the officers of racism, and ignored officers requests and walked away from them leading to her being handcuffed and temporarily detained. Following the release of the recording, local civil rights activists called for Watts to apologize to the LAPD for falsely accusing them of racial profiling but Watts refused. The two officers were cleared of any wrongdoing by the department shortly after the release of the audio recordings.
In October 2014, the LAPD Office of the Inspector General released a report that members of the department had been using department computers to falsely inflate the number of officers and patrol cars that were on duty at any given time in a method known as "ghost cars". The report found that supervisors of various ranks would check officers into vacant assignments right before the department's computerized patrol software did its head count and then log the officers off when the count was done. The report found that the practice occurred in at least five out of 21 patrol divisions, and the report also highlighted the causes including understaffing in the LAPD.
In 2018, LAPD officers Louis Lozano and Eric Mitchell were fired for misconduct, making false statements, and violating the public's trust over their actions during an armed robbery in 2017. On April 15, 2017, Lozano and Mitchell were on duty when they received a call for an armed robbery at a nearby Macy's. Despite being close to the scene, the officers remained parked in an alleyway; Sergeant Jose Gomez, patrol sergeant for that shift, asked that the officers respond to the robbery, but they did not reply. While being questioned over the incident, Lozano and Mitchell claimed they could not hear the call due to loud music from a nearby park. When Sergeant Gomez reviewed their vehicle recordings, he found the officers were distracted by the mobile game Pokémon Go, and that they ignored the robbery call and left their patrol jurisdiction to continue playing the game. Lozano and Mitchell attempted to appeal their firing, arguing their vehicle recordings were used improperly as evidence, but the California Second District Court of Appeal rejected their appeal in January 2022.
In June 2020, following a campaign by a coalition of community groups including Black Lives Matter, Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti announced LAPD budget cuts of $150 million. Garcetti announced the funds would be redirected to community initiatives. Senator Kamala Harris supported Garcetti's decision to cut the LAPD's budget.
In 2020, the Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office announced that six LAPD officers had been charged with conspiracy and falsifying information in a false gang labeling scandal, with an additional 18 officers under investigation. The discovery of false accusations led to the review of hundreds of cases and the dismissal of a number of felony charges dating back to 2016.
On February 13, 2021, the LAPD announced in a series of tweets it was launching an internal investigation into the Harbor Division, after their employees allegedly passed around a Valentine's Day-themed e-card depicting George Floyd with the caption "You take my breath away", which made reference to Floyd's murder. The LAPD said it "will have zero tolerance for this type of behavior".
In September 2021, The Guardian reported that LAPD officers had been instructed by Chief Michel Moore to collect social media account information from all citizens they interview, whether or not they have been accused of committing a crime. Further, officers were asked to collect Social Security numbers and instructed to tell individuals that they "must be provided" under federal law, although it is unclear if this is true. In a response for comment, the LAPD stated that the field interview policy was "being updated". An updated policy instructs officers not to collect Social Security numbers.
On June 30, 2021, an LAPD bomb disposal squad detonated confiscated illegal fireworks in a residential neighborhood, injuring 17 people, causing extensive damage to nearby houses, and destroying the LAPD's bomb disposal truck. The explosion reportedly occurred when the bomb squad significantly underestimated the weight of the fireworks that were loaded into the truck's blast chamber. 42 pounds of fireworks were loaded into the blast chamber; however, it was only designed to sustain 15 pounds of explosives, with a maximum of 25 pounds (though this would disable the truck). The LAPD was criticized for carelessly handling explosives and detonating them in a neighborhood; Chief Moore publicly apologized during a news conference, informing reporters the bomb squad had begun implementing new procedures to prevent similar incidents in the future.
See also
Crime in Los Angeles
Gangster Squad (LAPD)
Law enforcement in Los Angeles County
List of law enforcement agencies in California
Los Angeles General Services Police
References
Further reading
Appier, Janis. Policing women: The sexual politics of law enforcement and the LAPD (Temple UP, 1998).
Brayne, Sarah. 2020. Predict and Surveil: Data, Discretion, and the Future of Policing. Oxford University Press.
Bultema, James A. Guardians of Angels: A History of the Los Angeles Police Department Anniversary Edition, 1869-2019 (2019) excerpt from 2013 edition
Cannon, Lou. Official negligence: How Rodney King and the riots changed Los Angeles and the LAPD (Westview Press, 1999).
Domanick, Joe. To protect and to serve: the LAPD's century of war in the city of dreams (Pocket, 1995).
Domanick, Joe. Blue: the LAPD and the battle to redeem American policing (Simon and Schuster, 2016). excerpt
Felker-Kantor, Max. Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD (U of North Carolina Press, 2018) online review
Gates, Daryl F., and Diane K. Shah. Chief: My life in the LAPD (Bantam, 1993).
Jenks, David A., J. Scott Carter, and Catherine A. Jenks. "Command Staff Leadership Training and Job Commitment in the LAPD." Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice 4.2 (2007). online
Lasley, James R., and Michael K. Hooper. "On racism and the LAPD: was the Christopher commission wrong?." Social Science Quarterly (1998): 378–389.
Maya, Theodore W. "To Serve and Protect or to Betray and Neglect: The LAPD and Undocumented Immigrants." UCLA Law Review 49 (2001): 1611+.
Reese, Renford. Leadership in the LAPD: Walking the tightrope'' (Carolina Academic Press, 2005).
Stone, Christopher, Todd S. Foglesong, and Christine M. Cole. "Policing Los Angeles under a consent degree: The dynamics of change at the LAPD" (Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management, Harvard Kennedy School, 2009) online.
External links
1869 establishments in California
Government agencies established in 1869
Municipal police departments of California | [
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218988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarlouis%20%28district%29 | Saarlouis (district) | Saarlouis (Sarrelouis in French) is a Kreis (district) in the middle of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are Merzig-Wadern, Sankt Wendel, Neunkirchen, Saarbrücken, and the French département Moselle.
History
The district was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The biggest part of the district was part of duchy of Lorraine which gradually came under French sovereignty (still as a part of the holy empire) between 1737 and 1766. Other villages were part of the county of Nassau-Saarbrücken. The territory of the city Saarlouis which was built to protect the border, came to France as part of the three Bishoprics. Other villages, which today are considered to be too small to form villages of their own were independent imperial territories. The district showed the fundamental problem of the whole empire: A strong influence of foreign rulers and micro-sized territories. After the Napoleonic wars the area went to Prussia, which in 1816 created the district as part of its Rhineland province. Between 1936 and 1945 it was called Saarlautern, when the Nazi government attempted to conceal the name's French origin.
Geography
The main river in the district is the Saar.
Coat of arms
The checked black-and-white top part of the coat of arms is taken from the coat of the Hohenzollern, to remember that the area belonged to the German Empire (which was ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty) directly. The bottom part is the coat of arms of the Lorraine, as Saarlouis belonged to Duchy of Lorraine 1100-1766. The star stands for the French fortress of Saarlouis, the origin of the city, which was built in a star form. The fleur-de-lis comes from the coat of arms of the city Saarlouis.
Towns and municipalities
Education
Primary schools
Römerschule Pachten
Philipp-Schmitt-School Dillingen
Odilienschule Dillingen
Primsschule Dieffeln
Primary school Landsweiler
Primary school Lebach
Primary school Steinbach
Nikolaus-Groß-School Lebach
Primary school "Im Vogelsang" Saarlouis
Primary school Römerberg Roden
Primary school "Im Alten Kloster" Fraulautern
Primary school Steinrausch
Primary school Prof. Ecker Lisdorf
Primary school in den Bruchwiesen Beaumarais
Primary school Bous
Primary school Ensdorf
Primary school Nalbach
Niedschule Hemmersdorf
Primary school Rehlingen
Primary school Gutberg Saarwellingen
Astrid-Lindgren-School Reisbach
Stefanschule Schmelz with Dependance Limbach
Johannesschule Hüttersdorf
Kirchbergschule Schwalbach
Bachtalschule Elm
Laurentiusschule Hülzweiler
St. Oranna Berus
St. Bonifatius Überherrn
Primary school Wallerfangen
Primary school Gisingen
Community schools
School at the Römerkastell Dillingen
Sophie Scholl Community School Dillingen
Theeltalschule Lebach
Nikolaus-Groß-School Lebach
Community School Saarlouis "In den Fliesen"
Martin Luther King School Saarlouis
Community school Wadgassen-Bous
Johannes Gutenberg School Schwalbach
School at Litermont Nalbach
Lothar Kahn School Rehlingen
School at the Waldwies Saarwellingen
Kettelerschule Schmelz
Johannes Gutenberg School Schwalbach
School at the Warndtwald Ueberherrn
Bisttal School Wadgassen / Bous
School at the Limberg, Wallerfangen
High schools
Albert Schweitzer High School Dillingen
Technical-scientific High School Dillingen
Geschwister-Scholl High School Lebach
Johannes-Kepler High School Lebach
High School at the Stadtgarten Saarlouis
Max Planck High School Saarlouis
Robert Schuman High School Saarlouis
Vocational schools
KBBZ Dillingen
TGBBZ Dillingen
BBZ Lebach
KBBZ Saarlouis
TGSBBZ Saarlouis
Nursing School DRK-Hospital Saarlouis
Special schools
AWO-Förderschule mental development leases
Anne Frank School Saarlouis
District Special School G Saarwellingen
State development school social development Wallerfangen
References
External links
Districts of the Saarland | [
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218993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Academy%20of%20Music | Royal Academy of Music | The Royal Academy of Music (RAM) in London, England, is the oldest conservatoire in the UK, founded in 1822 by John Fane and Nicolas-Charles Bochsa. It received its royal charter in 1830 from King George IV with the support of the first Duke of Wellington.
Famous academy alumni include Sir Simon Rattle, Sir Harrison Birtwistle, Sir Elton John and Annie Lennox.
The academy provides undergraduate and postgraduate training across instrumental performance, composition, jazz, musical theatre and opera, and recruits musicians from around the world, with a student community representing more than 50 nationalities. It is committed to lifelong learning, from Junior Academy, which trains musicians up to the age of 18, through Open Academy community music projects, to performances and educational events for all ages.
The academy's museum houses one of the world's most significant collections of musical instruments and artefacts, including stringed instruments by Stradivari, Guarneri, and members of the Amati family; manuscripts by Purcell, Handel and Vaughan Williams; and a collection of performing materials that belonged to leading performers. It is a constituent college of the University of London and a registered charity under English law.
History
The academy was founded by John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland, in 1822 with the help and ideas of the French harpist and composer Nicolas Bochsa. The academy was granted a royal charter by King George IV in 1830. The founding of the academy was greatly supported by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. He was a keen violinist himself and was determined to make the academy a success.
The academy faced closure in 1866; this was part of the reason for the founding of the Royal College of Music in neighbouring South Kensington. The academy's history took a turn for the better when its recently appointed Principal (and former pupil) William Sterndale Bennett took on the chairmanship of the academy's board of directors and established its finances and reputation on a new footing.
The academy's first building was in Tenterden Street, Hanover Square. Arnold Bax recalled it as an architectural rabbit warren. "The three eighteenth-century houses which the institution comprised were departitioned, one conjectured, with fearsome violence. Wherefore else the need for those torturous tunnellings, that labyrinthine intricacy of passages, the cul-de-sacs, and follies? It took the average new student about a month to get his or her bearings." In 1911 the institution moved to the current premises, designed by Sir Ernest George (which include the 450-seat Duke's Hall), built at a cost of £51,000 on the site of an orphanage. In 1976 the academy acquired the houses situated on the north side and built between them a new opera theatre donated by the philanthropist Sir Jack Lyons and named after him and two new recital spaces, a recording studio, an electronic music studio, several practice rooms and office space.
The academy again expanded its facilities in the late 1990s, with the addition of 1–5 York Gate, designed by John Nash in 1822, to house the new museum, a musical theatre studio and several teaching and practice rooms. To link the main building and 1–5 York Gate a new underground passage and the underground barrel-vaulted 150-seat David Josefowitz recital hall were built on the courtyard between the mentioned structures.
Campus and location
The academy's current facilities are situated on Marylebone Road in central London adjacent to Regent's Park.
Teaching
The Royal Academy of Music offers training from infant level (Junior Academy), with the senior Academy awarding the LRAM diploma, BMus and higher degrees to PhD/ DMus. The former degree GRSM, equivalent to a university honours degree and taken by some students, was phased out in the 1990s. All undergraduates now take the University of London degree of BMus.
Most academy students are classical performers: strings, piano, vocal studies including opera, brass, woodwind, conducting and choral conducting, composition, percussion, harp, organ, accordion, guitar. There are also departments for historical performance, musical theatre performance and jazz.
The academy collaborates with other conservatoires worldwide, including participating in the SOCRATES student and staff exchange programme. In 1991, the academy introduced a fully accredited degree in performance studies, and in September 1999, it became a full constituent college of the University of London, in both cases becoming the first UK conservatoire to do so.
The academy has students from over 50 countries, following diverse programmes including instrumental performance, conducting, composition, jazz, musical theatre, historical performance, and opera. The academy has an established relationship with King's College London, particularly the Department of Music, whose students receive instrumental tuition at the academy. In return, many students at the academy take a range of humanities choices at King's, and its extended academic musicological curriculum.
The Junior Academy, for pupils under the age of 18, meets every Saturday.
Library and archives
The academy's library contains over 160,000 items, including significant collections of early printed and manuscript materials and audio facilities. The library also houses archives dedicated to Sir Arthur Sullivan and Sir Henry Wood. Among the Library's most valuable possessions are the manuscripts of Purcell's The Fairy-Queen, Sullivan's The Mikado, Vaughan Williams' Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis and Serenade to Music, and the newly discovered Handel Gloria. A grant from the National Heritage Memorial Fund has assisted in the purchase of the Robert Spencer Collection—a set of Early English Song and Lute music, as well as a fine collection of lutes and guitars. The academy's museum displays many of these items. The Orchestral Library has approximately 4,500 sets of orchestral parts. Other collections include the libraries of Sir Henry Wood and Otto Klemperer.
Soon after violinist Yehudi Menuhin's death, the Royal Academy of Music acquired his personal archive, which includes sheet music marked up for performance, correspondence, news articles and photographs relating to Menuhin, autograph musical manuscripts, and several portraits of Paganini.
Harriet Cohen bequeathed a large collection of paintings, some photographs and her gold bracelet to the academy, with a request that the room in which the paintings were to be housed was named the "Arnold Bax Room". Noted for her performances of Bach and modern English music, she was a friend and advocate of Arnold Bax and also premièred Vaughan Williams' Piano Concerto—a work dedicated to her—in 1933. In 1886, Franz Liszt performed at the academy to celebrate the creation of the Franz Liszt Scholarship and in 1843 Mendelssohn was made an honorary member of the academy.
Student performances and festivals
Academy students perform regularly in the academy's concert venues, and also nationally and internationally under conductors such as the late Sir Colin Davis, Yan Pascal Tortelier, Christoph von Dohnányi, the late Sir Charles Mackerras and Trevor Pinnock. In summer 2012, John Adams conducted an orchestra which combined students from the academy and New York's Juilliard School at the Proms and at New York's Lincoln Center. Conductors who have recently worked with the orchestras include Semyon Bychkov, Daniel Barenboim, Sir Simon Rattle, Pierre-Laurent Aimard and Christian Thielemann. Famous people who have conducted the academy's orchestra also include Carl Maria Von Weber in 1826 and Richard Strauss in 1926.
For many years, the academy celebrated the work of a living composer with a festival in the presence of the composer. Previous composer festivals at the academy have been devoted to the work of Witold Lutosławski, Michael Tippett, Krzysztof Penderecki, Olivier Messiaen, Hans Werner Henze, Luciano Berio, Elliott Carter, as well as academy graduates, Alfred Schnittke, György Ligeti, Franco Donatoni, Galina Ustvolskaya, Arvo Pärt, György Kurtág and Mauricio Kagel.
In February–March 2006, an academy festival celebrated the violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini, who first visited London 175 years earlier in 1831. The festival included a recital by academy professor Maxim Vengerov, who performed on Il Cannone Guarnerius, Paganini's favourite violin. Academy instrumentalists and musical theatre students have also performed in a series of concerts with the academy alumnus Sir Elton John.
The students and ensembles of the Royal Academy of Music perform in other venues around London including Kings Place, St Marylebone Parish Church and the South Bank Centre.
Museum and collections
The academy's public museum is situated in the York Gate building, which is connected to the academy's building via a basement link. The museum houses the academy's collections, including a major collection of Cremonese stringed instruments dated between 1650 and 1740, a selection of historical English pianos from 1790 to 1850, from the famous Mobbs Collection, original manuscripts by Purcell, Mendelssohn, Liszt, Brahms, Sullivan and Vaughan Williams, musical memorabilia and other exhibits.
People
Alumni
Former students include Olga Athaide Craen, John Barbirolli, Judith Bingham, Harrison Birtwistle, Dennis Brain, Alan Bush, Doreen Carwithen, Rebecca Clarke, Jacob Collier, Clifford Curzon, Edward Gardner, Lesley Garrett, Evelyn Glennie, Eleanor Greenwood, Dorothy Howell, Katherine Jenkins, Elton John, Annie Lennox, Felicity Lott, Moura Lympany, Vanessa-Mae, Denis Matthews, Michael Nyman, Elsie Southgate, Eva Ruth Spalding, Florence Margaret Spencer Palmer, Ashan Pillai, Simon Rattle, Cecile Stevens, Arthur Sullivan, Eva Turner, Maxim Vengerov, Henry Wood and Carol Anne Williams.
Academics and staff
The current principal of the academy is Jonathan Freeman-Attwood, appointed in July 2008. The Patron is Queen Elizabeth II and the president is the Duchess of Gloucester. Diana, Princess of Wales, was the president of the academy from 1985 until 1997.
Prizes and honorary awards
The Royal Academy of Music publishes every year a list of persons who have been selected to be awarded one of the Royal Academy's honorary awards. These awards are for alumni who have distinguished themselves within the music profession (Fellow of the Royal Academy of Music, FRAM), distinguished musicians who are not alumni (Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music, Hon RAM), alumni who have made a significant contribution to the music profession (Associate of the Royal Academy of Music, ARAM) and to people who are not alumni but have offered important services to the institution (Honorary Associate of the Royal Academy of Music, Hon ARAM). Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Music (Hon FRAM) is awarded by the Governing Body of the academy. As a full member of the University of London, the academy can nominate people to the University of London honorary doctorate (Hon DMus).
The Royal Academy of Music manages the Royal Academy of Music Bach Prize (sponsored by the Kohn Foundation), a music award to musicians or scholars who have made an important contribution to the music of Johann Sebastian Bach.
The Gilbert Betjemann Prize is a gold medal awarded by the Royal Academy of Music "for operatic singing".
References
External links
Music schools in London
Performing arts education in London
University of London
Education in the City of Westminster
Educational institutions established in 1822
Charities based in London
Buildings and structures in Marylebone
1822 establishments in England
Grade II listed buildings in the City of Westminster | [
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218994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensated%20pulsed%20alternator | Compensated pulsed alternator | A compensated pulsed alternator, also known by the portmanteau compulsator, is a form of power supply.
As the name suggests, it is an alternator that is "compensated" (see below) to make it better at delivering pulses of electrical energy than a normal alternator.
Description and operation
The principle is very similar to an alternator, except the rotor is usually kept spinning by its inertia (having been "spun up" by an external motor, or the compulsator itself having been used in reverse as an AC motor) and the small matter of the "compensation". The compulsator is used like a capacitor, to gather energy from a low-power source and store it, then generate a high-power output for a short period.
The windings of a compulsator are different from those of a normal alternator in being designed for minimal inductance. This allows the current in the windings to change very rapidly, which is why this "compensation" makes it better at delivering pulses.
The kinetic energy of a rotating object depends on the mass of the object, the shape of the object, and the square of the speed of rotation. Therefore, compulsators tend to have very light rotors spinning very fast in order to store the most energy in the available mass, and because too much mass in the rotor causes problems with the magnitude of centripetal force required to prevent the rotor from flying apart.
Usage
Compulsators are popular choices for high-end railgun power supplies.
One possibility being considered is to build an electric tank using a conventional diesel engine for propulsion and to charge a compulsator. The compulsator would be used to power a railgun, and potentially other pulsed energy weapons (particularly electronic warfare systems); also, the compulsator could be used in non-pulsed mode to drive a tank with electric motors for limited periods as a kind of "quiet mode", which could be useful in urban combat.
References
Bibliography
M. D. Werst, B. G. Brinkman, L. Spann. Fabrication of a Compensated Pulsed Alternator For a Rapid Fire Railgun System, Center for Electromechanics, University of Texas at Austin, Third Symposium on Electromagnetic Launch Technology, Austin, TX, April 20-24, 1986, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 22, no. 6, November 1986, pp 1812-1816
External links
Jason Rollette's Compulsator page
FINAL DESIGN OF AN AIR CORE, COMPULSATOR DRIVEN 60 CALIBER RAILGUN SYSTEM
ADVANCED COMPULSATOR DESIGN
A RAPID FIRE, COMPULSATOR-DRIVEN RAILGUN SYSTEM
Power supplies
Energy storage | [
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219004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Salesbury | William Salesbury | William Salesbury also Salusbury (c. 1520 – c. 1584) was the leading Welsh scholar of the Renaissance and the principal translator of the 1567 Welsh New Testament.
Early life
Salesbury was born some time before 1520 (possibly as early as 1507) in the parish of Llansannan, Conwy. He was the second son of Ffwg Salesbury (d. 1520) and Annes, daughter of Wiliam ap Gruffydd ap Robin o Gochwillan. By 1540 he had moved to Plas Isa, Llanrwst; this had been the residence of both his father and his brother. He was probably educated locally, and was certainly influenced by the literary traditions of the Vale of Clwyd. He then studied at Oxford University, probably living in Broadgates Hall. Here he studied the Hebrew, Greek and Latin languages, and became familiar with the (banned) writings of Martin Luther and William Tyndale as well as the technology of printing. Here too he was caught up in the renaissance of learning. Mathias suggests that it was at Oxford that Salesbury left the Roman Catholic church and became a Protestant. Although there is no record of his either having taken a degree at Oxford or having gone on to one of the inns of court, it is known that in 1550 he was at Thavies Inn. Although he spent considerable time in London, there is no evidence of his having travelled abroad. His wife was Catrin Llwyd, sister of Ellis Price. She died around 1572.
Career
Brinley Jones describes the remarkable range of Salesbury's writings, "the product of a Renaissance humanist scholar, lexicographer, and translator". Mathias describes his motivations as making the Bible available to the Welsh people, and imparting knowledge to them in their own language. In 1547, Salesbury produced an English-Welsh dictionary called A dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe, printed by John Waley 'at London in Foster Lane' in 1547. Mathias conjectures that this may have been the first book to be printed in Welsh. Brinley Jones suggests that the dictionary has the appearance of a work-book, devised in the first place for Salesbury's own use. In 1550 his A and a introduction, how to pronounce the letters in the British tong (now commonly called Walsh)... was printed by Robert Crowley. A revised edition was printed "by Henry Denham for Humphrey Toy, at the of the Helmet in Paules church , The. xvij. of May. 1567." A short comparative study of Welsh sounds with Hebrew and Greek is included, plus an examination of the Latin element in Welsh (which he had first examined in the dictionary of 1547). Both of these books have become important sources for information about the spoken English of the sixteenth century. One of Salesbury's books of 1550, The Descripcion of the Sphere or Frame of the Worlde, has been described as the first science book in the English language.
Salesbury also published books in Welsh at the same time. In 1547 he published a collection of 930 Welsh proverbs made by Gruffudd Hiraethog (d. 1564), .
In 1550, he published . A case out of the law of Hoel da, of Wales in the of Lorde, hundred and passed: whereby it gathered that had lawfully married at that . This book, printed by Robert Crowley, was in Welsh and English; as the title indicates, it was an attempt to justify Protestant doctrine in favour of a clerical marriage to the Welsh and English by establishing precedent for it in the " law" of a Welsh king. (It was no doubt significant that the present royal family, the Tudors, had Welsh origins.) Also in 1550, a polemical text appeared under Crowley's imprint stating that it was "compiled" by Salesbury: The of the Popes Botereulx, commonly called the high . In this work, he took part in one the great controversies of the time, considering the doctrine of the sacrifice of the mass as show in the existence of stone altars in churches. A third Salesbury book with Crowley's imprint in 1551 is a translation of the epistle and gospel readings from the 1549 Book of Common Prayer: . Brinley Jones describes this as his first major contribution towards presenting the scriptures in Welsh.
As a convinced Protestant, Salesbury was obliged to spend most of the reign of Mary I, 1553–1558, in hiding and probably back in Llanrwst. As a consequence his writing and publishing came to a stop.
The belief of Erasmus and Luther that the Bible should be available to all in their native language was firmly advocated by Salesbury. He wrote 'Insist on having Holy Scripture in your language' (). With the succession of Elizabeth I, Salesbury went to work on this project. In 1563, an act of parliament ordered the bishops of Wales and Hereford to see that a Welsh translation of the Bible, Book of Common Prayer and administration of the sacraments be ready by 1 March 1567. Quite possibly a confederate in this project, Robert Crowley, Salesbury's former printer, was at this time a Canon of Hereford, having been instituted to the stall or prebend of "Pratum majus" in the cathedral of Hereford c. 1560–63.
Salesbury worked with Richard Davies, Bishop of St. David's, (1 Timothy, Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter) and Thomas Huet, Precentor of St David's, (Revelation) to prepare a translation of the New Testament from the original Greek into Welsh. Salesbury was responsible for a large part of the translation therefore, as well as being editor. This was published on 7 October 1567. As Mathias points out, Salesbury's translations were heavily criticised for being full of Latinisms and other orthographical peculiarities and consequently unintelligible to many of his contemporaries. However, Mathias is still able to describe them as fine translations, both as regards language and style. Moreover, Bishop William Morgan was to virtually adopt Salesbury's version of the New Testament into his Bible of 1588. Sir John Wynn of Gwydir believed that Richard Davies and Salesbury were also collaborating on a translation of the Old Testament but disagreed over the use of one word. Whatever the truth of this, work on the Old Testament did not proceed.
Salesbury also translated the English Book of Common Prayer into Welsh, which was published in 1567 as . Like the Welsh New Testament, this was published by Humphrey Toy.
Salesbury's last recorded work, ('Herbal'), was basically a paraphrase of some of the best-known herbals of the time, particularly Leonhard Fuchs's De historia stirpium. William Turner's A New Herball was another source. Most of the entries follow the same pattern—the name(s) in Latin, English, Welsh, a description, where the herbs are found, when they appear, and what properties they possess.
Death and legacy
It is likely that Salesbury died around 1580; the place of his burial is unknown. Brinley Jones considers him the outstanding example of the Welsh Renaissance scholar, broad in his range and interests, inquisitive and enquiring. Mathias concludes that it would be hard to find anybody who has rendered greater service to the Welsh nation than William Salesbury. His translation of the scriptures into Welsh laid the foundations of modern Welsh prose.
See also
Welsh Bible
References
Further reading
Andrew Breeze, "William Salesbury," The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660, Second Series, Detroit: Gale, 2003, pp. 260–273.
R. Brinley Jones, "Geirfa Rhethreg 1552–1632," Ysgrifau Beirniadol, vol. 9, 1976, 118–146.
James Pierce, "A Rare Scholar: The Life and Work of William Salesbury." Y Lolfa, 2016.
Isaac Thomas, "William Salesbury and his Testament", Cardiff : University of Wales Press, 1967 / Isaac Thomas, "William Salesbury a'i Destament", Caerdydd : Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, 1967.
W. Alun Mathias, "Llyfr Rhetoreg William Salesbury," Llen Cymru, vol. 1, 1951, pp. 259–268, and vol. 2, 1952, pp. 71–81.
Citations
1520s births
1580s deaths
Translators of the Bible into Welsh
History of Christianity in Wales
People from Denbighshire
Welsh non-fiction writers
Welsh translators
Welsh scholars and academics
Welsh language
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Welsh lexicographers
16th-century scholars
16th-century translators
16th-century Welsh writers
16th-century male writers
People from Llansannan
William
16th-century Anglican theologians | [
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219009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeppoSAX | BeppoSAX | BeppoSAX was an Italian–Dutch satellite for X-ray astronomy which played a crucial role in resolving the origin of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), the most energetic events known in the universe. It was the first X-ray mission capable of simultaneously observing targets over more than 3 decades of energy, from 0.1 to 300 kiloelectronvolts (keV) with relatively large area, good (for the time) energy resolution and imaging capabilities (with a spatial resolution of 1 arc minute between 0.1 and 10 keV). BeppoSAX was a major programme of the Italian Space Agency (ASI) with the participation of the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes (NIVR). The prime contractor for the space segment was Alenia while Nuova Telespazio led the development of the ground segment. Most of the scientific instruments were developed by the Italian National Research Council (CNR) while the Wide Field Cameras were developed by the Netherlands Institute for Space Research (SRON) and the LECS was developed by the astrophysics division of the European Space Agency's ESTEC facility.
BeppoSAX was named in honour of the Italian physicist Giuseppe "Beppo" Occhialini. SAX stands for "Satellite per Astronomia a raggi X" or "Satellite for X-ray Astronomy".
X-ray observations cannot be performed from ground-based telescopes, since Earth's atmosphere blocks most of the incoming radiation.
One of BeppoSAX's main achievements was the identification of numerous gamma-ray bursts with extra-galactic objects. (See the linked article for details.)
Launched by an Atlas-Centaur on 30 April 1996 into a low inclination (<4 degree) low-Earth orbit, the expected operating life of two years was extended to April 30, 2002 due to high scientific interest in the mission and the continued good technical status. After this date, the orbit started to decay rapidly and various subsystems were starting to fail making it no longer worthwhile to conduct scientific observations.
On April 29, 2003, the satellite ended its life falling into the Pacific Ocean.
Spacecraft characteristics
BeppoSAX was a three axes stabilized satellite, with a pointing accuracy of 1'. The main attitude constraint derived from the need to maintain the normal to the solar arrays within 30° from the Sun, with occasional excursions to 45° for some WFC observations. Due to the low orbit the satellite was in view of the ground station of Malindi for only a limited fraction of the time. Data was stored on-board on a tape unit with a capacity of 450 Mbits and transmitted to ground every orbit during station passage. The average data rate available to instruments was about 60 kbit/s, but peak rates of up to 100 kbit/s can be retained for part of each orbit. With the solar panels closed, the spacecraft was 3.6 m in height and 2.7 m in diameter. The total mass amounts to 1400 kg, with a payload of 480 kg.
The structure of the satellite consisted of three basic functional subassemblies:
the Service Module, in the lower part of the spacecraft, which housed all the subsystems and the electronic boxes of the scientific instruments.
the Payload Module, which housed the scientific instruments and the star trackers.
the Thermal Shade Structure, that enclosed the Payload Module.
The primary sub-systems of the satellite are:
The Attitude Orbital Control System (AOCS), that performed attitude determination and manoeuvred and operated the Reaction Control Subsystem in charge of orbit recovering. It included redundant magnetometers, Sun acquisition sensors, three star trackers, six gyroscopes (three of which are for redundancy), three magnetic torquers and four reaction wheels, all controlled by a dedicated computer. The AOCS ensured a pointing accuracy of 1' during source observations and manoeuvres with a slew rate of 10° per min.
The On Board Data Handler (OBDH) was the core for data management and system control on the satellite and it also managed the communication interfaces between the satellite and the ground station. Its computer supervised all subsystem processor activities, such as those of each instrument, and the communication busses.
Instrumentation
BeppoSAX contained five science instruments:
Low Energy Concentrator Spectrometer (LECS)
Medium Energy Concentrator Spectrometer (MECS)
High Pressure Gas Scintillation Proportional Counter (HPGSPC)
Phoswich Detector System (PDS)
Wide Field Camera (WFC)
The first four instruments (often called Narrow Field Instruments or NFI) point to the same direction, and allow observations of an object in a broad energy band of 0.1 to 300 keV (16 to 48,000 attojoules (aJ)).
The WFC contained two coded aperture cameras operating in the 2 to 30 keV (320 to 4,800 aJ) range and each covering a region of 40 x 40 degrees (20 by 20 degrees full width at half maximum) on the sky. The WFC was complemented by the shielding of PDS which had a (nearly) all-sky view in the 100 to 600 keV (16,000 to 96,000 aJ) band, ideal for detecting gamma-ray bursts (GRB).
The PDS shielding has poor angular resolution. In theory, after a GRB was seen in the PDS, the position was refined first with the WFC. However, due to the many spikes in the PDS, in practice a GRB was found using the WFC, often corroborated by a BATSE-signal. The position up to arcminute precision - depending on the signal to noise ratio of the burst - was found using the deconvoluted WFC-image. The coordinates were speedily sent out as an International Astronomical Union (IAU) and Gamma-ray burst Coordinate Network Circular. After this, immediate follow-up observations with the NFI and optical observatories around the world allowed accurate positioning of the GRB and detailed observations of the X-ray, optical and radio afterglow.
The MECS contained three identical gas scintillation proportional counters operating in the 1.3 to 10 keV (208 to 1602 aJ) range. On 6 May 1997 one of the three identical MECS units was lost when a fault developed in the High Voltage power supply.
The LECS was similar to the MECS units, expect that it had a thinner window that allows photons with lower energies down to 0.1 keV (16 aJ) to pass through and operated in a "driftless" mode which is necessary to detect the lowest energy X-rays as these would be lost in the low field regime near the entrance window of a conventional GSPC. The LECS data above 4 keV (641 aJ) is not usable due to calibration issues probably caused by the driftless design. The LECS and MECS had imaging capability, whereas the high-energy narrow field instruments were non-imaging.
The HPGSPC was also a gas scintillation proportional counter, operating at a high (5 atmospheres) pressure. High pressure equals high density, and dense photon-stopping material allowed detection of photons up to 120 keV (19,000 aJ).
The PDS was a crystal (sodium iodide / caesium iodide) scintillator detector capable of absorbing photons up to 300 keV (48,000 aJ). The spectral resolution of the PDS was rather modest when compared to the gas detectors, but the low background counting rate resulting from the low inclination BeppoSAX orbit and good background rejection capabilities meant that the PDS remains one of the most sensitive high-energy instruments flown.
Gallery
References
BeppoSAX Mission Overview, Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series, Vol. 122, April II 1997, 299-307
De Kort, N., Ruimteonderzoek, de horizon voorbij, Veen/SRON, 2003
Low Energy Concentrator Spectrometer (LECS) 0.1-10 keV, A&A Supplement series, Vol. 122, April II 1997, 309-326
Medium Energy Concentrator Spectrometer (MECS) 0.1-10 keV, A&A Supplement series, Vol. 122, April II 1997, 327-340
High pressure Gas Scintillator Proportional Counter (HPGSPC), A&A Supplement series, Vol. 122, April II 1997, 341-356
Phoswich Detection System (PDS) 15-300 keV, A&A Supplement series, Vol. 122, April II 1997, 357-369
Wide Field Camera 2-28 keV, A&A Supplement series, Vol. 125, November 1997, 557-572
Piro, L. e.a., SAX Observer's Handbook, 1995
External links
BeppoSAX Science Data Center
HEASARC BeppoSAX Guest Observer Facility
Satellites formerly orbiting Earth
Italian Space Agency
Satellites of Italy
Satellites of the Netherlands
Space telescopes
Spacecraft launched in 1996
Spacecraft which reentered in 2003
X-ray telescopes | [
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219011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadammanitta%20Ramakrishnan | Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan | M. R. Ramakrishna Panikkar (22 March 1935 – 31 March 2008), popularly known as Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan or Kadammanitta, was an Indian poet. He was born in Kadammanitta province of Pathanamthitta district, Kerala. His childhood experiences, especially the Patayani songs, had a strong influence on his literary work.
Early life
Ramakrishnan was born on 22 March 1935 to Meletharayil Raman Nair and Kuttiyamma. He completed schooling at his home village of Kadammanitta and at the nearby town of Pathanamthitta. He was influenced by the traditional religious art form of Patayani even from his childhood. After his degree studies, he went to Kolkata, and then reached Chennai. He was employed with the Postal Audits and Accounts department in 1959. He worked in Thiruvananthapuram from 1967 until his retirement in 1992.
Literary life
Ramakrishnan's poem Njan was published in 1965 in M. Govindan's Sameeksha magazine.
Kadammanitta played a role in reviving interest in poetry by holding thousands of recital sessions in every nook and corner of Kerala in the 1970s and 80s. His work has been widely appreciated for its force, energy and folk touch and gave a mass appeal and popularity making poetry enjoyable even to commonman. Ramakrishnan's close association with literary and cultural luminaries, which included M. Govindan, Ayyappa Paniker, M. V. Devan, P. K. Balakrishnan, O. N. V. Kurup, Kavalam Narayana Panicker, D.Vinayachandran and K. V. Thampi, helped him in the endeavour to give a popular image to Malayalam poetry recital. He had recited his fiery works at thousands of venues all over the state, besides editing a poetry journal Kerala Kavitha that attempted to take the essence of poetry from the academic cloisters to the realms of everyday life.
Other activities
A Communist, he was involved with the student federation as well as communist party during his college days. In 1992 he became the vice president of CPI-M's cultural wing, Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham (Progressive Association for Art and Letters), and in 2002 its president. In 1996, he was elected to Kerala state legislative assembly from Aranmula constituency in Pathanamthitta district. He was still continuing as the President of Purogamana Kala Sahithya Sangham when he died.
Death
Ramakrishnan died at 9'o clock in the morning of 31 March 2008 in a private hospital in Pathanamthitta, nine days after celebrating his 73rd birthday. He was undergoing treatment for myeloid leukaemia for the past three months. He was survived by his wife, Santha, daughter, Geetha Devi, and son, Geetha Krishnan. He was cremated with full state honours at the premises of his home in his birth village, after which he was called more.
Major works
Kurathi
Kadinjool Pottan
Misrathalam
Mazha Peyyunnu Maddhalam Kottunnu
Kadammanittayude Kavithakal
Vellivelicham
Sooryasila
Shantha
Kuppayilundoru Maanikyam
Ee Poochayaanente Dukham
Kunje Mulappaal Kudikkaruth
Awards
Kerala Sahithya Akademi Award 1982 (Kadammanittayude Kavithakal)
Asan Prize 1995 (Kadammanittayude Kavithakal)
Abu Dhabi Malayalam Samajam Award
New York Malayalam International Foundation Award
Muscat Kerala Samskarika Kendram Award
Basheer Puraskaram (2004)
Mahakavi Pandalam Keralavarma Poetry Award(2006)
See also
Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan Award
References
External links
Kadammanitta Foundation
Malayalam-language writers
Malayalam poets
People from Pathanamthitta
1935 births
2008 deaths
Recipients of the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award
20th-century Indian poets
Kerala MLAs 1996–2001
Indian male poets
Poets from Kerala
Deaths from cancer in India
People from Aranmula
20th-century Indian male writers | [
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219014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitburg-Pr%C3%BCm | Bitburg-Prüm | The Eifelkreis Bitburg-Prüm () is a district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is bounded by (from the west and clockwise) Luxembourg, Belgium and the districts of Euskirchen, Vulkaneifel, Bernkastel-Wittlich and Trier-Saarburg.
History
There are three different historical regions: the abbey and the city of Prüm have been directly subordinate to the Holy Roman Emperor in medieval times; later the free city became the principality of Prüm, occupying large portions in the north.
The southwest including the town of Bitburg was a part of the Duchy of Luxemburg from the 10th to the 15th century. Later it was a part of the Seventeen Provinces and hence under Spanish and then Austrian rule. After the Napoleonic Wars the region was handed over to Prussia.
The eastern parts of the district, including the town of Kyllburg, were part of the Prince-bishopric of Trier.
When Prussia gained all these regions about 1815, it established the three districts of Bitburg, Prüm and Trier. In 1970 the districts of Bitburg and Prüm were merged with parts of the former district of Trier in order to form the present district.
On 1 January 2007 the full name of the district was changed to be instead of .
Geography
The district covers the sparsely populated southwestern part of the Eifel Mountains. The portions along the western borders are occupied by a common German-Belgian nature park and a German-Luxembourgian nature park. A great number of rivers rise from the Schneifel in the northwest and from the Kyllwald in the east, and runs southward to the river Sauer (French: Sûre), which is an affluent of the Moselle.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
The red cross symbolising the close city of Trier
The golden tower from the arms of Bitburg
The silver lamb from the arms of Prüm
The blue and white pattern from the arms of Luxembourg
Towns and municipalities
{|
|-
! colspan=4|Verbandsgemeinden
|-
! colspan=4|1. Arzfeld
|- valign=top
|
Arzfeld1
Dackscheid
Dahnen
Daleiden
Dasburg
Eilscheid
Eschfeld
Euscheid
Großkampenberg
Hargarten
Harspelt
||
<li> Herzfeld
<li> Irrhausen
<li> Jucken
<li> Kesfeld
<li> Kickeshausen
<li> Kinzenburg
<li> Krautscheid
<li> Lambertsberg
<li> Lascheid
<li> Lauperath
<li> Leidenborn
||
<li> Lichtenborn
<li> Lierfeld
<li> Lünebach
<li> Lützkampen
<li> Manderscheid
<li> Mauel
<li> Merlscheid
<li> Niederpierscheid
<li> Oberpierscheid
<li> Olmscheid
<li> Pintesfeld
||
<li> Plütscheid
<li> Preischeid
<li> Reiff
<li> Reipeldingen
<li> Roscheid
<li> Sengerich
<li> Sevenig (Our)
<li> Strickscheid
<li> Üttfeld
<li> Waxweiler
|-
! colspan=4|2. Bitburger Land [seat: Bitburg]
|- valign=top
|
Badem
Balesfeld
Baustert
Bettingen
Bickendorf
Biersdorf am See
Birtlingen
Brecht
Brimingen
Burbach
Dahlem
Dockendorf
Dudeldorf
Echtershausen
Ehlenz
Enzen
Eßlingen
Etteldorf
||
Feilsdorf
Fließem
Gindorf
Gondorf
Gransdorf
Halsdorf
Hamm
Heilenbach
Hütterscheid
Hüttingen an der Kyll
Idenheim
Idesheim
Ingendorf
Kyllburg2
Kyllburgweiler
Ließem
Malberg
Malbergweich
||
Meckel
Messerich
Metterich
Mülbach
Nattenheim
Neidenbach
Neuheilenbach
Niederstedem
Niederweiler
Oberkail
Oberstedem
Oberweiler
Oberweis
Olsdorf
Orsfeld
Pickließem
Rittersdorf
Röhl
||
Sankt Thomas
Scharfbillig
Schleid
Seffern
Sefferweich
Seinsfeld
Steinborn
Stockem
Sülm
Trimport
Usch
Wettlingen
Wiersdorf
Wilsecker
Wißmannsdorf
Wolsfeld
Zendscheid
|-
! colspan=4|3. Südeifel
|- valign=top
|
Affler
Alsdorf
Altscheid
Ammeldingen an der Our
Ammeldingen bei Neuerburg
Bauler
Berkoth
Berscheid
Biesdorf
Bollendorf
Burg
Dauwelshausen
Echternacherbrück
Eisenach
Emmelbaum
Ernzen
Ferschweiler
||
Fischbach-Oberraden
Geichlingen
Gemünd
Gentingen
Gilzem
Heilbach
Herbstmühle
Holsthum
Hommerdingen
Hütten
Hüttingen bei Lahr
Irrel
Karlshausen
Kaschenbach
Keppeshausen
Körperich
Koxhausen
||
Kruchten
Lahr
Leimbach
Menningen
Mettendorf
Minden
Muxerath
Nasingen
Neuerburg1, 2
Niedergeckler
Niederraden
Niederweis
Niehl
Nusbaum
Obergeckler
Peffingen
Plascheid
||
Prümzurlay
Rodershausen
Roth an der Our
Schankweiler
Scheitenkorb
Scheuern
Sevenig bei Neuerburg
Sinspelt
Übereisenbach
Uppershausen
Utscheid
Waldhof-Falkenstein
Wallendorf
Weidingen
Zweifelscheid
|-
! colspan=4|4. Prüm
|- valign=top
|
Auw bei Prüm
Bleialf
Brandscheid
Buchet
Büdesheim
Dingdorf
Feuerscheid
Fleringen
Giesdorf
Gondenbrett
Großlangenfeld
||
<li> Habscheid
<li> Heckhuscheid
<li> Heisdorf
<li> Hersdorf
<li> Kleinlangenfeld
<li> Lasel
<li> Masthorn
<li> Matzerath
<li> Mützenich
<li> Neuendorf
<li> Niederlauch
||
<li> Nimshuscheid
<li> Nimsreuland
<li> Oberlascheid
<li> Oberlauch
<li> Olzheim
<li> Orlenbach
<li> Pittenbach
<li> Pronsfeld
<li> Prüm1, 2
<li> Rommersheim
<li> Roth bei Prüm
||
<li> Schönecken
<li> Schwirzheim
<li> Seiwerath
<li> Sellerich
<li> Wallersheim
<li> Watzerath
<li> Wawern
<li> Weinsheim
<li> Winringen
<li> Winterscheid
<li> Winterspelt
|-
! colspan=4|5. Speicher
|- valign=top
|
Auw an der Kyll
Beilingen
Herforst
||
<li> Hosten
<li> Orenhofen
<li> Philippsheim
||
<li> Preist
<li> Spangdahlem
<li> Speicher1
||
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|1seat of the Verbandsgemeinde; 2town
|}
References
External links
(German)
German-Belgian Nature Park Hohes Venn / Eifel (German, French)
German-Luxembourgian Nature Park Southern Eifel (German, English, French, Dutch)
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219015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Morgan%20%28Bible%20translator%29 | William Morgan (Bible translator) | William Morgan (1545 – 10 September 1604) was Bishop of Llandaff and of St Asaph, and the translator of the first version of the whole Bible into Welsh from Greek and Hebrew.
Life
Morgan was born in 1545 at Tŷ Mawr Wybrnant, in the parish of Penmachno, near Betws-y-Coed, North Wales (there is some doubt about the exact year of his birth, his memorial in Cambridge, for example, gives 1541). As his father was a tenant of the Gwydir estate, he was probably educated at Gwydir Castle, near Llanrwst, along with the children of the Wynn family. Morgan then attended St John's College, Cambridge where he studied a range of subjects including philosophy, mathematics and Greek. He graduated BA in 1568 and MA in 1571, before seven years of Biblical studies, including a study of the Bible in Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic and the works of the Church Fathers and contemporary Protestant theologians. He graduated BD in 1578 and DD in 1583. At Cambridge he was a contemporary of the Welsh poet Edmwnd Prys, who later assisted Morgan with his translation of the Bible.
In addition to his scholarly pursuits, Morgan was a clergyman of the Church of England, having been ordained in 1568 by the Bishop of Ely. His first clerical benefice was the parish of Llanbadarn Fawr, which he gained in 1572; in 1575 he moved to Welshpool, and then became vicar of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant in 1578, where he made his Bible translation. In 1579 he became rector of Llanfyllin, which he held concurrently with being vicar of nearby Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.
Morgan was still at Cambridge when William Salesbury published his Welsh New Testament in 1567. While he was pleased that this work was available, Morgan firmly believed in the importance of having the Old Testament translated into Welsh as well. He began work on his own translation of the Old Testament in the early 1580s and published this, together with a revision of Salesbury's New Testament, in 1588.
Following the publication of his Bible, Morgan worked on a revision of the Book of Common Prayer (which had also been translated by Salesbury), published in 1599. He also began work on a revision of the 1588 Bible, which contained a number of printing errors. This work was continued after Morgan's death by bishop Richard Parry and John Davies, and a revised version of the Bible was published in 1620. This edition is still known as William Morgan's translation, and it is this rather than the previous edition which became the standard Welsh Bible until the 20th century and continues to be used to this day. His achievement is now looked on as a major monument in the history of the Welsh language; it meant that the Welsh people could read the Bible in their first language at roughly the same time as their English neighbours had the privilege.
William Morgan was appointed Bishop of Llandaff in 1595 and was translated to the bishopric of St Asaph in 1601. He died on 10 September 1604.
Family
He married twice, first to Ellen Salesbury, before going to Cambridge, and later to Catherine, daughter of George ap Richard ap John. He had one son, Evan, who became vicar of his father's old parish of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.
Memorials and commemorations
Morgan's birthplace Tŷ Mawr Wybrnant is preserved by the National Trust as a historic house museum.
A slate plaque close to the gates of the Parish Church of St Dogfan in Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant commemorates Morgan. It was while at this church that he made his historic translations.
There is a memorial in St John's College Chapel, Cambridge, where Morgan was a student.
In 2019 it was announced that the new office building for the UK Government in Central Square, Cardiff, was to be named 'Tŷ William Morgan - William Morgan House', in Morgan's honour.
See also
Y Beibl cyssegr-lan
Welsh Bible
Notes
References
Sources
External links
William Morgan Bible on-line
Images of the entire 1588 Bible
1545 births
1604 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Bishops of Llandaff
Bishops of St Asaph
Doctors of Divinity
Translators of the Bible into Welsh
Welsh translators
16th-century Welsh writers
16th-century male writers
People from Penmachno
Bro Machno
16th-century Welsh Anglican bishops
17th-century Welsh Anglican bishops
Anglican biblical scholars
British biblical scholars | [
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219019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweep%20%28book%20series%29 | Sweep (book series) | Sweep (Released as Wicca in the UK and Ireland) is a series of young adult fantasy novels written by Cate Tiernan, the first of which, Book of Shadows, was published in 2001. The series follows a teenage girl, Morgan Rowlands, who discovers she is the descendant of a long line of witches, and possesses powerful magic of her own.
Plot
Book of Shadows, Book 1
Morgan Rowlands is a high school student living in the picturesque town of Widow's Vale. Morgan is an ordinary girl who lives an ordinary life. However, her life becomes unsettled upon meeting Cal Blaire. With his angelic face, gold-colored eyes, perfect body, and olive skin, Cal quickly becomes the center of every girl’s admiration, including Morgan and her best friend, Bree Warren, who breaks up with her boyfriend, Chris, and Raven (a girl who is popular because she wears heavy metal style and has tattoos).
Having gained popularity with his air of charisma and good looks, Cal manages to gather several dozen students from his new school to a “homecoming party”. During the party, Cal reveals his Wiccan origins by inviting his peers to join him in a circle to celebrate Mabon, one of the Wiccan Sabbats. Feelings of discomfort and surprise cause many of the guests to leave, but Bree and Morgan decide to stay for the circle. From that moment on, Morgan begins showing a knack for Witchcraft, which sparks Cal's interest. However, as the chemistry between Cal and Morgan becomes more and more apparent a rift in Bree and Morgan’s friendship emerges because of the incident at the pool party when he picks Morgan up in his arms. Later, as the Samhain gathering comes to a close, Cal and his friends form a coven called Cirrus. During this circle, Morgan discovers that she is a "blood witch": a person who is naturally born with magical powers.
The Coven, Volume 2
Upon learning that she is a blood witch, Morgan concludes that her parents are blood witches and confronts them. However, after her parents deny being witches, this leads Morgan to find out that she was adopted. She runs out of the house in a fierce rage finding comfort with Cal. From then on, Cal and Morgan's relationship develops. Cal tells Morgan they were meant to be together. He says he loves her, the rift between Morgan and Bree grows, and Morgan goes on a quest to find her origins. Due to Cal and Morgan's relationship, Bree and Raven, members of Cirrus, announce their leaving of the coven to a different coven which is headed by Sky Eventide. Morgan, in the end, meets Sky along with Hunter Niall. At Cal's house. Morgan immediately feels extremely wary around Hunter and Sky upon meeting them. While trying to get away from them, Morgan accidentally stumbles upon Selene's hidden library, where she finds her mother's Book of Shadows.
Blood Witch, Volume 3
Flustered from seeing Sky and Hunter in Cal's home, Morgan, wanting to get away from them, leaves the room and discovers a door hidden in the hallway. When entering the room, Morgan realizes that it is Selene's study. While glimpsing the thousands of books that mark the walls, Morgan becomes taken over by a sensation. Unconsciously, she pulls out a book with no title. Flipping through the pages she realizes that what she held was her mother's Book of Shadows. Amidst her overwhelming emotions, Cal and his mother, Selene Belltower, enter, perplexed about how she was able to enter the secret room. At first feeling guilty, but seeing the Book of Shadows is rightfully hers, Morgan confidently opposes Selene, and without any conflict Selene gives the book to Morgan. Morgan returns home. From this point on Cal's respect and feelings begin to grow for Morgan. Tensions rise and things start to become unclear as little bits and pieces of information arise. Morgan discovers that she is Woodbane, Hunter is Cal's brother and he is Seeker for the International Council of Witches investigating Selene and Cal. Morgan finds her birth mother's tools beneath their old house in Meshomah Falls, by scrying in the fire she sees her birth mother Maeve Riordan pointing under the house, so she drives there with her best friend Robbie to retrieve it. Further tensions erupt on Morgan's birthday during her time with Cal when Hunter arrives. Cal and Hunter break into an argument which ends up becoming a chase. Hunter announces his reason for being there which is to fulfill his duty as Seeker. Cal runs into the woods with Hunter following behind and Morgan following. Hunter and Cal then fight, resulting to the event of Hunter placing a braigh - a spelled chain meant to hurt witches - on Cal so that he is helpless. Cal begs Morgan to save him, so Morgan throws the athame that Cal gave her for her birthday at Hunter, sending him over the edge of the cliff and into the river.
Dark Magick, Volume 4
On Morgan’s 17th she killed a man. Her guilt at what happened makes her send a witch message to Sky telling her where to find Hunter and that he needed her help. Hours later on the cliff edge she into Sky. Sky says that she can no longer feel Hunter's presence.
At Practical Magick Alyce says that she needs to bind the tools she found to herself so others cannot easily use them and they will be stronger for her. In Maeve's BOS, she discovers hidden entries about her mother meeting a witch named Ciaran and falling in love with him.
Selene eagerly asks Morgan about Belwicket's tools and offers to show her how to use them and even share her power with them. When Morgan tells Selene that she has already bound the tools to her, Selene seems displeased and says that they can always do a spell to unbind them.
Cal's admits that he lied to her about not knowing what clan he was from. He tells her that his line is from a traditional practicing Woodbane clan unlike Belwicket. He then takes her to a secret room out in the pool-house that he calls his seómar. Morgan finds the room uncomfortable and claustrophobic and makes an excuse to leave. Cal tells her that some of his mother’s Woodbane friends want to meet her which fills her with fear she flees to Practical magic.
At Practical Magick, Hunter sitting at the small table. She decides the only way she can trust Hunter is if they connect minds. Morgan learns that Hunter was telling the truth about being a seeker for the council and that he was sent to investigate Cal and Selene for misuse of magick. She could feel Hunter searching her mind for any involvement in dark magick and finding none.
Sky enters and freaks out when she sees Morgan sitting with Hunter. She screams that if she hadn't got a witch message telling her where to find Hunter, that he would be dead. Morgan is furious with Sky for letting her believe Hunter was dead, and yells back that she had sent the message. Sky doesn't believe her because she says she isn't strong enough, but Hunter speaks up saying that she is.
Morgan tells Cal about Hunter being alive and he is angry. Hunter comes to her house to re-draw the protection sigils. They talk for a while and look at each other. Hunter grabs her chin and leans in to kiss her. A car door slams before he does, breaking the moment and she pushes a shocked Hunter back.
Morgan does a solo circle she sees visions of her ancestors passing the tools down from generation to generation until a vision of herself then turns and hands them to a tall girl with hazel eyes; her future daughter whom she will call Moira. When she opens her eyes, she finds Sky waiting they end up doing a táth meanma and scrying circle together. During the circle they see Cal and Selene with others discussing her. They say that she was Cals assignment and is his responsibility to bring into the fold, and he responds saying she will come.
Morgan asks Cal if Selene is trying to hurt her and if they are in a Woodbane coven trying to destroy non-woodbane witches. Cal tells her that they are múirn beatha dán's and that she needs to trust him. She says they are not and realizes that it’s true.
In an effort to distract him she tells him she knows that he slept with Bree and he finally admits that it did happen once, the news breaking Morgan's heart and she ends their relationship. Cal binds her with a spell and throws her into her own car. She sends witch messages to anyone she can think of begging for help. Cal brings her to his pool-house sanctuary and puts her inside and hits her with a ball of black energy knocking her unconscious.
When she awakens, she is locked in Cal's seómar She hears Selene asking what Cal is doing and he claims he is solving the problem. Cal was burning her alive, just like her mother. She hears Bree and Robbie are outside the burning pool-house looking for her, she yells that she is inside and they take Morgan's car and rams the wall making a hole Morgan can escape through.
Awakening, Volume 5
In Dark Magick Morgan was betrayed by the first boy she ever loved (Cal). Now Morgan must attempt to get on with her life. Morgan begins to study with Hunter, and slowly begins to realize her feelings for him. But dark magick seems to be surrounding them and someone close is to blame. Hunter and Morgan slowly start to get closer throughout the book. Hunter suspects that the dark magick is being used by David Redstone, owner of Practical Magick, and Morgan's friend. Morgan does everything she can to try and prove it was not him, but in the end, Hunter is right. The day before David gets stripped of his powers, Morgan and Hunter share a passionate kiss, and after Hunter strips David of his powers, he gives Morgan the stone Morganite, and it shows that Morgan is the thing/person that Hunter desires most in his heart.
Spellbound, Volume 6
Kithic and Cirrus merge and Morgan becomes aware of her feelings for Hunter. Throughout the book Morgan and Hunter's relationship develop with an occasional mishap. The two later find out that the severed brake lines and the sawed posts were the workings of Cal when he admits it upon their meeting at the old Methodist cemetery. Hunter and Cal at the cemetery prepare to fight when Morgan binds them with a spell. Keeping the binding spell on the two of them, she forces Hunter into her car and drives to Hunter's house where she releases him. If things couldn't get worse, Mary K., Morgan's sister is kidnapped by Selene. Morgan and Hunter go to Selene's and Cal's old house to battle it out with her. Just as Selene's magic was about to hit Morgan, Cal appears and steps in front of the dark magick, sacrificing himself for Morgan and ultimately proving to her that he had indeed renounced his mother's beliefs and that he really did love her. Selene falls to the ground, grieving over her son's dead body. While her guard is down, Hunter attempts to put the braigh around her wrists, but she is automatically enveloped by the darkness within her, causing the braigh to corrode. Just when all seems lost, the darkness exits her body, and the physical strain kills Selene. They leave the house, along with Mary K., who doesn't seem to recall any of the events that just occurred. Sky and another person, seemingly a member of the International Council of Witches, then arrive at the house and take Cal and Selene's body away. Morgan is undecided as to her feelings for Hunter.
The Calling, Volume 7
Morgan has a dream about a ritual sacrifice. The Witches Council thinks that it is a vision of the future. They suspect that it is a vision of an illegal sacrifice by a Woodbane coven, Amyranth, to obtain power. It is suspected that the sacrifice may in fact be a child of one of Amyranth's members. The council sends Hunter to New York, the place where the coven is suspected to operate, to investigate. Morgan goes with Hunter; however, she also wishes to discover more about her birth parents, something which can only be done in New York. At the invitation of Bree, they stay at the apartment of Bree's father. Robbie, Sky and Raven come along for the ride.
At a New York disco they meet Killian who turns out to be Ciaran's son. It is then believed that Killian is the target of the Amyranth sacrifice. Ciaran meets Morgan in a shop about witchcraft, and he decides to sacrifice her. He sets a trap for her to steal her powers, but when he finds out Morgan is his daughter he helps Hunter to stop the ritual before it is too late. During the time that the ritual is taking place, Morgan realizes that Hunter is her "mùirn beatha dàn"(soul mate). In the end of the book, Morgan breaks up with Hunter because she finds out that she is Ciaran's daughter, one of the most evil witches of the age, and also her mother's "mùirn beatha dàn", but he killed her, so Morgan believes that she's like poison, and being around Hunter is going to get him killed because both parents are Woodbane, the evil clan of the Seven Great Clans. Although her mother has renounced evil, her father is "the Wiccan version of Hitler."
Changeling, Volume 8
Morgan has broken up with Hunter and has found out that Ciaran is her true birth father, making Killian her half-brother. The council of witches sends Eoife, an elderly witch, to Morgan to ask her for her assistance for the rescue of the Starlocket coven, which the International Council of Witches thinks the mysterious dark wave will strike next. Morgan has to get close to Killian to get closer to Ciaran so she called Killian to Widow's Vale and asked him to contact Ciaran. She feels apprehensive and hesitant about facing Ciaran, but at the same time, has a strange urge to hug him since she has finally found her true father. She refuses to hug the same man that killed her mother Maeve Riordan and Angus, her lover, however. Near the end of the book, she shape shifts into a wolf, with Ciaran, and learns his true name, which can control him. Morgan is faced with a choice between the people she loves and the powerful and seemingly dark magick her father can teach her.
Strife, Volume 9
Morgan gets back together with Hunter, and during a family dinner with Hunter, Mary K finally finds out the truth about what Selene had done to her, and how Selene and Cal died. To make things worse, strange occurrences begin to happen in Morgan's presence. Books begin flying and light bulbs explode, and no one seems to know the cause - thus attributing the blame to Morgan. Morgan's school grades begin to slip and she finds herself having difficulty finding a balance between her school work and a life of Wicca. She is grounded because of it, meaning she cannot go to a circle. At the end, Sky leaves.
Seeker, Volume 10
The tenth book in the Sweep series is not from Morgan's point of view. Instead the book is in Hunter's point of view. Hunter was in a search for his parents who have been missing since Hunter was a child. Hunter receives information about the whereabouts of his parents, which inevitably lead him to Canada. There he finds his father, Daniel Niall, and discovers that his mother died just before Yule, when he was training Morgan. Hunter soon discovers that his father is talking to his mother (who is dead) using a Bith Dearc which is the use of what is considered to be a form of dark magick, against the wishes of Hunter's mother. Hunter must attempt to stop his father from doing this, while investigating a witch by the name of Justine Courceau, a witch collecting the true names of other witches, on the order of the International Council of Witches. He ends up kissing her, and then is faced with the fact that he has to tell Morgan about it.
Origins, Volume 11
Hunter brings his father back to Widows Vale
Hunter and Morgan reads the memoir of Rose MacEwan's which Hunter acquired while in Canada. Rose MacEwan is a Woodbane ancestor of Morgan and is the first person to have created a Dark Wave (a powerful piece of dark magick which can destroy entire covens). The story is written from Rose's point of view and follows her story as she falls in love, has her heart broken, and turns to dark magic as a means of revenge eventually creating the first Dark Wave, not actually realizing what she was doing at the time.
Eclipse, Volume 12
This book switches perspectives between Morgan and Alisa Soto, who discovers that she is a half-witch with significant power. Morgan, Hunter, Daniel Niall and Alisa join forces to combat a Dark Wave which is heading for them and will destroy themselves and their friends and families. Daniel discovers a way to counteract the dark wave, however any full witch would die in the process. Alisa soon discovers that her half-witch abilities may be the key to defeating the Dark Wave and saving everyone who she knows.
Reckoning, Volume 13
This book is entirely from Alisa Soto's perspective with the difficulties of finding out she is a blood witch and her weird powers and the added stress from her father and his pregnant girlfriend, Alisa's powers flood Hunter's house. After another heated confrontation with her father, Alisa runs away to Gloucester to meet her Uncle Sam. There she meets her mother's family and reconnects with her roots with the help of family friend Charlie. She finds out the family have been plagued by mysterious mishaps that had been attributed to a curse her great-great-great-great grandmother placed on the family (having lost her mind.)
Full Circle, Volume 14
This book is written from both Hunter and Morgan's points of view and begins tying up loose ends of the past 13 novels. Morgan begins sleep-walking in life-threatening situations and begins having visions of Cal, who is dead, trying to save her. Meanwhile Hunter is faced with a decision of whether or not he wants to work for International Witches Council anymore. The two soon find themselves battling an enemy they thought was dead. The story ends with Morgan boarding a plane to Scotland to join a Wiccan school. Hunter gives her a silver Claddagh ring, as a symbol of his love and devotion to her.
Night's Child, Volume 15
Unlike the previous installments of Sweep, this book is not written in first person. Morgan is now thirty-seven years old. Morgan's husband Colm Byrne, whom she married in April of the same year that Hunter Niall died in a storm at sea, was killed in a car crash whilst on a business trip to London. Morgan has otherwise lived in peace working as a healer for the New Charter, and preparing to become the High Priestess of the reformed coven of Belwicket. Morgan has a child, Moira whom she believes is Colm Byrne, her husband and her child, but in reality is not. Upon the actions of another coven, Ealltuinn, Morgan begins to realize that there are dark forces once again being built against her. As Morgan discovers that Hunter is still alive, she sets out to find him. She receives messages leading to Hunter's location. She rescues him by fighting yet another Dark Wave. She then discovers Moira in reality is Hunter's child.
Main characters
Morgan Rowlands
Morgan lives in Widow's Vale, New York and is a high-school junior when the series begins. She is introduced to Wicca when Cal Blaire comes to her school as a senior. The two develop an emotional relationship which only grows stronger during The Coven, in which Morgan discovers her heritage, powers, and family origins. Morgan loses her best friend, Bree Warren, when Cal's affection toward Morgan becomes apparent. They remain enemies until their friendship is rekindled in Awakening. In The Coven, a Seeker from the International Council of Witches comes to Widow's Vale to stop Cal and his mother from performing dark magick. The Seeker, Hunter Niall, is also Cal's half brother. Not fully understanding the situation Morgan almost kills Hunter while trying to protect Cal. Cal's intentions to get Morgan to join the dark side becomes apparent. Morgan fears this and refuses him. Cal fully realizing his feelings for he tries to save her by killing her. Morgan escapes death thanks to Hunter, Bree, and Robbie(another friend). Morgan later falls in love with Hunter and later finds out he is her muirn beatha dan, it is the Wiccan term for soul mate. From there onwards, Morgan uncovers more family secrets, allies, foes, and the full extent of her hereditary powers. Her birth mother had pyrokinetic powers, and Morgan inherited them from her. Pyrokinesis is a rare ability among blood witches. She can also shape-shift, another rare ability inherited from her birth father. In Eclipse, Ciaran says that Morgan is the Sgiùrs dàn, meaning "destroyer", who will drastically change the future and course for the Woodbane clan. By the fourteenth book, she overcomes the darkness, allowing her and Hunter to be together. However, in Night's Child, Hunter is assumed to have died. By this book, Morgan is 37 and a widow of Colm Byrne, a witch in her coven, Belwicket. She loves him, but not as much as she loved Hunter. She has a daughter named Moira who is Hunter's child. Morgan, Sky, and Moira set off to find Hunter on an island. Then a dark wave comes which they fight off. One year later, around Yule, Hunter asks for Morgan's hand in marriage for the second time. She says yes.
Cal Blaire
Cal, or Calhoun is a fairly main character for some of the books. His craft name is "Sgàth", which is Gaelic for "darkness". He is son to the legendary Selene Belltower and Daniel Niall, and half brother to Hunter, Alwyn and Linden Niall. He is 18 years old and described as tanned with shaggy dark hair; Morgan compares him to a God. He moves to Widow's Vale in "Book of Shadows" where he meets Morgan and her friends. He forms a coven, called "Cirrus", with Morgan and other students attending Widow's Vale High School. During their weekly circles he starts to realize Morgan's potential and when his mother, Selene Belltower, a witch of great dark power, comes to learn of Morgan's power and past, she orders Cal to get close to her. Everything is running smoothly for Cal, until his half brother, Hunter, a Seeker for the International Council of Witches arrives. Cal leads Morgan to believe that Hunter is evil and they get themselves into trouble when they come to a deadly confrontation with him. Cal soon falls for Morgan and realizing he can't protect her from his mother's plans for her he tried to kill her. He comes back in "Spellbound" to win back Morgan's heart but Hunter has already shown her Cal's true colors. At the end of this book he saves Morgan from his mother by sacrificing his life in love.
Hunter Niall
Hunter Niall is one of the important main characters in the Sweep series. His craft name is "Gìomanach" which means "Hunter". He is described as tall, thin and lean, with short blond hair and stunning green eyes.He is accused of killing one of his brothers from calling up a taibhs when really his brother had done it himself to find their parents. Hunter then joins the member of the International Council of Witches at the age of 17, half brother of Cal Blaire, son of Fiona and Daniel Niall, brother to Alwyn and Linden, cousin to Sky Eventide and Morgan's "mùirn beatha dàn" (soul mate) Their relationship doesn't start off well as Cal and Selene lead Morgan to believe he's evil. But Morgan is left conflicted when both Hunter and her mutually partaking in a tàth meànma (after Hunter survives falling off a cliff into a river with Morgan's athame in his neck, that Morgan, whilst trying to save Cal threw at Hunter) at Practical Magick and she sees he isn't who she thought he was. Once Cal leaves there is obvious chemistry between the pair and during the series Hunter evolves and develops into the central figure in Morgan's life. Hunter later proposes to Morgan and she says yes. He is then taken by evil witches which leaves Morgan to believe Hunter is dead. Morgan finds out Hunter is still alive so she and her daughter Moira, who believes she is the daughter of Colm Byrne (Morgan's late husband) but is really Hunter's daughter, go to save Hunter from the dark witches. After Hunter is saved he proposes to Morgan again and Morgan accepts.
Sky Eventide
Sky is Hunter's cousin and best friend who came with him to Widow's Vale to look out for him. She, too, is from England, and her craft name is "Athar", Gaelic for "sky". She leads the Widow's Vale coven "Kithic", which receives Bree and Raven as transfers from "Cirrus" after Bree's altercation with Morgan. Later the two covens combine. Sky is bisexual, and she falls in love with Raven, a classmate of Morgan's and a member of Cirrus and Kithic; the two maintain a tumultuous on-and-off relationship until Killian, Morgans half brother came by and destroyed their relationship slowly. Sky and Raven broke up and Sky went to England to visit her family after all, she needed that after what she faced in Widows Vale with Raven. Sky also helps Morgan through her Wiccan education and works at a record store. She is often described as an intense, reserved and arrogant person, but Hunter, who knows her best, describes her as loyal, wise and loving. She is constantly described as protective over Hunter and she, too, comes back in "Night's Child" to help Morgan and Moira to find him again.....
Alisa Soto
Alisa is a half-blood witch with the powers of a full-blood witch. Initially, she was afraid of Wicca, but when she finds out she is part witch, she forces herself to confront her powers. She finds her mother's Book of Shadows after Morgan receives it from the owner of the store "Practical Magick". Within the Book of Shadows, Alisa finds out that her mother, Sarah Curtis, had stripped herself of her powers in fear of them, which inadvertently resulted in Alisa inheriting those powers. It turns out that in Alisa's family, the firstborn female is cursed with uncontrollable telekinesis. Alisa also possesses this power and, as it is later revealed, so does her grandmother. Alisa meets her mother's family later in the series and even receives her mother's tools from her grandmother.
Ciaran MacEwan
Ciaran is the "mùirn beatha dàn"(soulmate) of Maeve Riordan (Morgan's birth mother)and also the birth father of Morgan. He later killed Maeve and her lover Angus when she refused to be with him. He is also in one of the most powerful Woodbane covens named "Amyranth" who perform dark magick. And he is the leader of the coven. He is known as one of the most dangerous witches in the world, and people are afraid of him. Ciaran captured Morgan and intended to kill her and steal her powers. One of his coven members found a watch on Morgan that he had given to Maeve as a present. As soon as Morgan had told him that she was Maeve's daughter it was unbearable for him to think that Maeve and Angus had borne a child. He performs tath meanma on Morgan and discovers that she is in fact his daughter. During the tath meanma, he witnessed Morgan's birth and her mother saying "You have your father's eyes." when in fact, Maeve's lover, Angus, had blue eyes and Morgan has brown, like Ciaran. In that moment Hunter comes in to save Morgan and Ciaran disappears with Hunter. The other coven members continued with the ritual. Hunter comes in again saved her with the help of Ciaran. The next time Morgan saw Ciaran was in Widows Vale they both shape-shifted into wolves. She had put a watch sigil on him to track him. After a while he contacted Morgan through a vision and said he would go to Widows Vale to meet her once again. When Ciaran went to Widows Vale he asked Morgan to join forces with him but she always declined. Until she called him and the night that she called him he was stripped of his powers.
Other characters
Bree Warren (Morgan's best friend and girlfriend to be of Robbie)
Robbie Gurevitch (Morgan's other best friend and boyfriend to be of Bree Warren)
Mary Grace Rowlands (Morgan's adoptive mother)
Sean Rowlands (Morgan's adoptive father)
Mary Kathleen Rowlands (Daughter of Mary Grace and Sean Rowlands, and Morgan's non-biological sister)
Maeve Riordan (Morgan's birth mother, Wiccan name Bradhadair meaning fire fairy, coven was Belwicket)
Daniel Niall (Father of Cal Blaire, Hunter, Linden and Alwyn uncle of sky eventide)
Fiona Niall (Mother of Hunter, Linden, and Alwyn)
Linden Niall (Son of Fiona and Daniel Niall)
Alwyn Niall (Daughter of Fiona and Daniel Niall)
Raven Meltzer (Promiscuous acquaintance of Morgan's)
Selene Belltower (Mother of Cal Blaire)
Angus Bramson (Maeve Riordan's thought to be lover but actually is just partners)
Alyce Fernbrake (Friend of Morgan and owner of the Practical Magick store)
David Redstone (Friend of Morgan and ex-owner of the Practical Magick store)
Killian MacEwan (Morgan's half brother and Ciaran's youngest son)
Kyle MacEwan (Morgan's other half brother and Ciaran's oldest son)
Iona MacEwan (Morgan's half sister and Ciaran's daughter)
Rose MacEwan (Morgan's ancestor and the first person to cast a dark wave)
Diarmuid (Rose MacEwan's lover)
Colm Byrne (Morgan's dead husband and Moira's supposive father)
Moira Byrne (Morgan and Hunter's daughter)
Katrina Byrne (Moira's adoptive grandmother)
Mackenna Riordan (Morgan's grandmother and former leader of Belwicket)
Sky Eventyde (Hunter's Cousin)
Sarah Curtis (Alisa's mother)
Justine Courceau (Hunter is assigned to her due to her misuse of magick)
Ian Delaney (boyfriend of Moira Byrne)
Lilith Delaney (mother of Ian high priestess of her coven)
charlie(boyfriend of alisa soto's cousin)
The Series
Footnotes
See also
Balefire
Circle Of Three
Daughters of the Moon
External links
Publisher cancels Wicca-themed children’s book series. Helsingin sanomat, international edition 9.6.2010.
Fantasy books by series
Witchcraft in written fiction
Contemporary fantasy novels | [
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219021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary%20action | Capillary action | Capillary action (sometimes called capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking) is the process of a liquid flowing in a narrow space without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, any external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a biological cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.
Etymology
Capillary comes from the Latin word capillaris, meaning "of or resembling hair." The meaning stems from the tiny, hairlike diameter of a capillary. While capillary is usually used as a noun, the word also is used as an adjective, as in "capillary action," in which a liquid is moved along — even upward, against gravity — as the liquid is attracted to the internal surface of the capillaries.
Transpiration
Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action, but primarily driven by water potential differences. If the water potential in the ambient air is lower than the water potential in the leaf airspace of the stomatal pore, water vapor will travel down the gradient and move from the leaf airspace to the atmosphere. This movement lowers the water potential in the leaf airspace and causes evaporation of liquid water from the mesophyll cell walls. This evaporation increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on the water in the cells. Because of the cohesive properties of water, the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots. As evaporation occurs at the leaf surface, the properties of adhesion and cohesion work in tandem to pull water molecules from the roots, through xylem tissue, and out of the plant through stomata. In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity can only be overcome by the decrease in hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere. Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem.
History
The first recorded observation of capillary action was by Leonardo da Vinci. A former student of Galileo, Niccolò Aggiunti, was said to have investigated capillary action. In 1660, capillary action was still a novelty to the Irish chemist Robert Boyle, when he reported that "some inquisitive French Men" had observed that when a capillary tube was dipped into water, the water would ascend to "some height in the Pipe". Boyle then reported an experiment in which he dipped a capillary tube into red wine and then subjected the tube to a partial vacuum. He found that the vacuum had no observable influence on the height of the liquid in the capillary, so the behavior of liquids in capillary tubes was due to some phenomenon different from that which governed mercury barometers.
Others soon followed Boyle's lead. Some (e.g., Honoré Fabri, Jacob Bernoulli) thought that liquids rose in capillaries because air could not enter capillaries as easily as liquids, so the air pressure was lower inside capillaries. Others (e.g., Isaac Vossius, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Louis Carré, Francis Hauksbee, Josia Weitbrecht) thought that the particles of liquid were attracted to each other and to the walls of the capillary.
Although experimental studies continued during the 18th century, a successful quantitative treatment of capillary action was not attained until 1805 by two investigators: Thomas Young of the United Kingdom and Pierre-Simon Laplace of France. They derived the Young–Laplace equation of capillary action. By 1830, the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss had determined the boundary conditions governing capillary action (i.e., the conditions at the liquid-solid interface). In 1871, the British physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin determined the effect of the meniscus on a liquid's vapor pressure—a relation known as the Kelvin equation. German physicist Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) subsequently determined the interaction between two immiscible liquids.
Albert Einstein's first paper, which was submitted to Annalen der Physik in 1900, was on capillarity.
Phenomena and physics
Capillary penetration in porous media shares its dynamic mechanism with flow in hollow tubes, as both processes are resisted by viscous forces. Consequently, a common apparatus used to demonstrate the phenomenon is the capillary tube. When the lower end of a glass tube is placed in a liquid, such as water, a concave meniscus forms. Adhesion occurs between the fluid and the solid inner wall pulling the liquid column along until there is a sufficient mass of liquid for gravitational forces to overcome these intermolecular forces. The contact length (around the edge) between the top of the liquid column and the tube is proportional to the radius of the tube, while the weight of the liquid column is proportional to the square of the tube's radius. So, a narrow tube will draw a liquid column along further than a wider tube will, given that the inner water molecules cohere sufficiently to the outer ones.
Examples
In the built environment, evaporation limited capillary penetration is responsible for the phenomenon of rising damp in concrete and masonry, while in industry and diagnostic medicine this phenomenon is increasingly being harnessed in the field of paper-based microfluidics.
In physiology, capillary action is essential for the drainage of continuously produced tear fluid from the eye. Two canaliculi of tiny diameter are present in the inner corner of the eyelid, also called the lacrimal ducts; their openings can be seen with the naked eye within the lacrymal sacs when the eyelids are everted.
Wicking is the absorption of a liquid by a material in the manner of a candle wick.
Paper towels absorb liquid through capillary action, allowing a fluid to be transferred from a surface to the towel. The small pores of a sponge act as small capillaries, causing it to absorb a large amount of fluid. Some textile fabrics are said to use capillary action to "wick" sweat away from the skin. These are often referred to as wicking fabrics, after the capillary properties of candle and lamp wicks.
Capillary action is observed in thin layer chromatography, in which a solvent moves vertically up a plate via capillary action. In this case the pores are gaps between very small particles.
Capillary action draws ink to the tips of fountain pen nibs from a reservoir or cartridge inside the pen.
With some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass, the intermolecular forces within the liquid exceed those between the solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms and capillary action works in reverse.
In hydrology, capillary action describes the attraction of water molecules to soil particles. Capillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet areas of the soil to dry areas. Differences in soil potential () drive capillary action in soil.
A practical application of capillary action is the capillary action siphon. Instead of utilizing a hollow tube (as in most siphons), this device consists of a length of cord made of a fibrous material (cotton cord or string works well). After saturating the cord with water, one (weighted) end is placed in a reservoir full of water, and the other end placed in a receiving vessel. The reservoir must be higher than the receiving vessel. Due to capillary action and gravity, water will slowly transfer from the reservoir to the receiving vessel. This simple device can be used to water houseplants when nobody is home. This property is also made use of in the lubrication of steam locomotives: wicks of worsted wool are used to draw oil from reservoirs into delivery pipes leading to the bearings.
In plants and animals
Capillary action is seen in many plants. Water is brought high up in trees by branching; evaporation at the leaves creating depressurization; probably by osmotic pressure added at the roots; and possibly at other locations inside the plant, especially when gathering humidity with air roots.
Capillary action for uptake of water has been described in some small animals, such as Ligia exotica and Moloch horridus.
Height of a meniscus
Capillary rise of liquid in a capillary
The height h of a liquid column is given by Jurin's law
where is the liquid-air surface tension (force/unit length), θ is the contact angle, ρ is the density of liquid (mass/volume), g is the local acceleration due to gravity (length/square of time), and r is the radius of tube.
As r is in the denominator, the thinner the space in which the liquid can travel, the further up it goes. Likewise, lighter liquid and lower gravity increase the height of the column.
For a water-filled glass tube in air at standard laboratory conditions, at 20°C, , and . Because water spreads on clean glass, the effective equilibrium contact angle is approximately zero. For these values, the height of the water column is
Thus for a radius glass tube in lab conditions given above, the water would rise an unnoticeable . However, for a radius tube, the water would rise , and for a radius tube, the water would rise .
Capillary rise of liquid between two glass plates
The product of layer thickness (d) and elevation height (h) is constant (d·h = constant), the two quantities are inversely proportional. The surface of the liquid between the planes is hyperbola.
Liquid transport in porous media
When a dry porous medium is brought into contact with a liquid, it will absorb the liquid at a rate which decreases over time. When considering evaporation, liquid penetration will reach a limit dependent on parameters of temperature, humidity and permeability. This process is known as evaporation limited capillary penetration and is widely observed in common situations including fluid absorption into paper and rising damp in concrete or masonry walls. For a bar shaped section of material with cross-sectional area A that is wetted on one end, the cumulative volume V of absorbed liquid after a time t is
where S is the sorptivity of the medium, in units of m·s−1/2 or mm·min−1/2. This time dependence relation is similar to Washburn's equation for the wicking in capillaries and porous media. The quantity
is called the cumulative liquid intake, with the dimension of length. The wetted length of the bar, that is the distance between the wetted end of the bar and the so-called wet front, is dependent on the fraction f of the volume occupied by voids. This number f is the porosity of the medium; the wetted length is then
Some authors use the quantity S/f as the sorptivity.
The above description is for the case where gravity and evaporation do not play a role.
Sorptivity is a relevant property of building materials, because it affects the amount of rising dampness. Some values for the sorptivity of building materials are in the table below.
See also
Bond number
Bound water
Capillary fringe
Capillary pressure
Capillary wave
Capillary bridges
Damp-proof course
Darcy's law
Frost flowers
Frost heaving
Hindu milk miracle
Krogh model
Mercury intrusion porosimetry
Needle ice
Surface tension
Washburn's equation
Water
Wick effect
Young–Laplace equation
References
Further reading
Fluid dynamics
Hydrology
Surface science
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219023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift%20%28bird%29 | Swift (bird) | The swifts are a family, Apodidae, of highly aerial birds. They are superficially similar to swallows, but are not closely related to any passerine species. Swifts are placed in the order Apodiformes with hummingbirds. The treeswifts are closely related to the true swifts, but form a separate family, the Hemiprocnidae.
Resemblances between swifts and swallows are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar life styles based on catching insects in flight.
The family name, Apodidae, is derived from the Greek ἄπους (ápous), meaning "footless", a reference to the small, weak legs of these most aerial of birds. The tradition of depicting swifts without feet continued into the Middle Ages, as seen in the heraldic martlet.
Taxonomy
Taxonomists have long classified swifts and treeswifts as relatives of the hummingbirds, a judgment corroborated by the discovery of the Jungornithidae (apparently swift-like hummingbird-relatives) and of primitive hummingbirds such as Eurotrochilus. Traditional taxonomies place the hummingbird family (Trochilidae) in the same order as the swifts and treeswifts (and no other birds); the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy treated this group as a superorder in which the swift order was called Trochiliformes.
The taxonomy of the swifts is complicated, with genus and species boundaries widely disputed, especially amongst the swiftlets. Analysis of behavior and vocalizations is complicated by common parallel evolution, while analyses of different morphological traits and of various DNA sequences have yielded equivocal and partly contradictory results.
The Apodiformes diversified during the Eocene, at the end of which the extant families were present; fossil genera are known from all over temperate Europe, between today's Denmark and France, such as the primitive swift-like Scaniacypselus (Early–Middle Eocene) and the more modern Procypseloides (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – Early Miocene). A prehistoric genus sometimes assigned to the swifts, Primapus (Early Eocene of England), might also be a more distant ancestor.
Species
There are around 100 species of swifts, normally grouped into two subfamilies and four tribes.
Cypseloidinae
Tribe Cypseloidini
Apodinae
Tribe Collocaliini – swiftlets
Tribe Chaeturini – needletails
Tribe Apodini – typical swifts
Description
Swifts are among the fastest of birds in level flight, and larger species like the white-throated needletail have been reported travelling at up to . Even the common swift can cruise at a maximum speed of 31 metres per second (). In a single year the common swift can cover at least 200,000 km, and in a lifetime, about two million kilometers; enough to fly to the Moon and back five times over.
The wingtip bones of swiftlets are of proportionately greater length than those of most other birds. Changing the angle between the bones of the wingtips and forelimbs allows swifts to alter the shape and area of their wings to increase their efficiency and maneuverability at various speeds. They share with their relatives the hummingbirds a unique ability to rotate their wings from the base, allowing the wing to remain rigid and fully extended and derive power on both the upstroke and downstroke. The downstroke produces both lift and thrust, while the upstroke produces a negative thrust (drag) that is 60% of the thrust generated during the downstrokes, but simultaneously it contributes lift that is also 60% of what is produced during the downstroke. This flight arrangement might benefit the bird's control and maneuverability in the air.
The swiftlets or cave swiftlets have developed a form of echolocation for navigating through dark cave systems where they roost. One species, the Three-toed swiftlet, has recently been found to use this navigation at night outside its cave roost too.
Distribution and habitat
Swifts occur on all the continents except Antarctica, but not in the far north, in large deserts, or on many oceanic islands. The swifts of temperate regions are strongly migratory and winter in the tropics. Some species can survive short periods of cold weather by entering torpor, a state similar to hibernation.
Many have a characteristic shape, with a short forked tail and very long swept-back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang. The flight of some species is characterised by a distinctive "flicking" action quite different from swallows. Swifts range in size from the pygmy swiftlet (Collocalia troglodytes), which weighs 5.4 g and measures long, to the purple needletail (Hirundapus celebensis), which weighs and measures long.
Behaviour
Breeding
The nest of many species is glued to a vertical surface with saliva, and the genus Aerodramus use only that substance, which is the basis for bird's nest soup. Other swifts select holes and small cavities in walls. The eggs hatch after 19 to 23 days, and the young leave the nest after a further six to eight weeks. Both parents assist in raising the young.
Swifts as a family have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs, resembling tubenoses in these developmental factors. Young birds reach a maximum weight heavier than their parents; they can cope with not being fed for long periods of time, and delay their feather growth when undernourished. Swifts and seabirds have generally secure nest sites, but their food sources are unreliable, whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful.
Feeding
All swifts eat insects, such as dragonflies, flies, ants, aphids, wasps and bees as well as aerial spiders. Prey is typically caught in flight using the beak. Some species, like the chimney swift, hunt in mixed species flocks with other aerial insectivores such as members of Hirundinidae (swallows).
Status
No swift species has become extinct since 1600, but BirdLife International has assessed the Guam swiftlet as endangered and lists the Atiu, dark-rumped, Seychelles, and Tahiti swiftlets as vulnerable; twelve other species are near threatened or lack sufficient data for classification.
Exploitation by humans
The hardened saliva nests of the edible-nest swiftlet and the black-nest swiftlet have been used in Chinese cooking for over 400 years, most often as bird's nest soup. Over-harvesting of this expensive delicacy has led to a decline in the numbers of these swiftlets, especially as the nests are also thought to have health benefits and aphrodisiac properties. Most nests are built during the breeding season by the male swiftlet over a period of 35 days. They take the shape of a shallow cup stuck to the cave wall. The nests are composed of interwoven strands of salivary cement and contain high levels of calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium.
See also
List of Apodiformes by population
List of birds by flight speed
International Swift Conference
References
Bibliography
Online copy to download
External links
Swift sounds on xeno-canto.org
Swift Conservation.Org free advice on the natural history and conservation of Apus apus the Common Swift
Taxa named by Ernst Hartert
Extant Eocene first appearances | [
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219026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koji%20Kondo | Koji Kondo | is a Japanese music composer, pianist, and music director who works for the video game company Nintendo. He is best known for his involvement in numerous contributions in the Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda series of video games, among others produced by the company. Kondo was hired by Nintendo in 1984, becoming the first person hired by them to specialize in musical composition for video games. Shortly after, Kondo was assigned as the sound designer on the 1985 game Super Mario Bros. His work on the game, especially the overworld musical theme, has often been cited as among the most memorable in video games.
Biography
Early life
Kondo was born in Nagoya, Japan, on August 13, 1961. He began taking lessons on the electronic organ from the age of five. He improved his skills in the instrument in a cover band that played jazz and rock music. Kondo studied at the Art Planning Department of Osaka University of Arts, but was never classically trained or academically dedicated to music.
With a love of arcade video games such as Space Invaders and the early Donkey Kong series, he said video games were the only place where he could find the kind of sound creation that he was looking for. He gained some experience in composing and arranging pieces, using the piano, and a computer by programming sounds in BASIC.
Career
In 1984, during Kondo's senior year, Nintendo sent his university a message recruiting for music composition and sound programming. He successfully applied for the job without requiring any demo tapes. He recalls, "I found my way to Nintendo by looking at the school's job placement board. You're supposed to apply to many different companies, but I saw the Nintendo ad, and had a love of making synthesizers, and loved games, and thought – that's the place for me. I interviewed with one company, Nintendo, and that's where I've been ever since." Kondo was the third person hired by Nintendo to create music and sound effects for its games, joining Hirokazu Tanaka and Yukio Kaneoka. However, he was the first at Nintendo to actually specialize in musical composition.
His first work at Nintendo was the audio design for the 1984 arcade game Punch-Out!!. As the Famicom had become popular in Japan by then, Kondo was assigned to compose music for the console's subsequent games at Nintendo's new development division, Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development (EAD). His second work at Nintendo was an instruction manual on how to program Japanese popular music into the Famicom using the peripheral Family BASIC. To conclude his first year at Nintendo, he created some of the music of Devil World, alongside Akito Nakatsuka. In 1985, Nintendo started marketing the Famicom abroad as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) to capitalize on the 1983 video game crash that had devastated Atari, Inc. and other companies. Super Mario Bros. was Kondo's first major score. The game's melodies were created with the intention that short segments of music could be endlessly repeated during the same gameplay without causing boredom. The main theme is iconic in popular culture and has been featured in more than 50 concerts, been a best-selling ringtone, and been remixed or sampled by various musicians.
Kondo's work on The Legend of Zelda scores has also become highly recognized. He produced four main pieces of background music for the first installment of the series; the overworld theme has become comparable in popularity with the Super Mario Bros. main theme. After the success of The Legend of Zelda, he provided the score for two Japanese-exclusive games, The Mysterious Murasame Castle (1986) and Shin Onigashima (1987). He created the soundtrack to Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic (1987), which was later rebranded outside Japan as Super Mario Bros. 2 in 1988.
Kondo returned to the Super Mario series to produce the scores to Super Mario Bros. 3 (1988) and the SNES launch title Super Mario World (1990). Koichi Sugiyama directed a jazz arrangement album of Super Mario World music and oversaw its performance at the first Orchestral Game Musical Concert in 1991. After finishing the soundtrack to Super Mario World, Kondo was in charge of the sound programming for Pilotwings (1990), while also composing the "Helicopter Theme" for it, and created the sound effects for Star Fox (1993). In 1995, he composed for the sequel to Super Mario World, Yoshi's Island. Until the early 2000s, Kondo would usually write all compositions by himself on a project, with The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time being the last one Kondo worked on alone. Since then, he has been collaborating with other staff members at Nintendo, advising and supervising music created by others, as well as providing additional compositions for games, including Super Mario Galaxy, The Legend of Zelda: Spirit Tracks, The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword and Super Mario 3D World. He also served as the sound director and lead composer of Super Mario Maker and its sequel, Super Mario Maker 2.
Concerts
Kondo attended the world premiere of Play! A Video Game Symphony at the Rosemont Theater in Rosemont, Illinois in May 2006, where his music from the Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda series was performed by a full symphony orchestra. He also attended and performed in a series of three concerts celebrating the 25th anniversary of The Legend of Zelda series in late 2011. He performed piano with the American rock band Imagine Dragons live at The Game Awards 2014 ceremony in December 2014.
Musical style and influences
Kondo's music for Super Mario Bros. was designed around the feeling of motion that mirrors the player's physical experience. This followed the philosophy of series creator and designer, Shigeru Miyamoto, who demanded that audio for the game be made "with substance" and are synchronized with elements of the game. As a result, Kondo based a number of the score around genres that are primarily used for dancing, such as Latin music and the waltz.
In the first The Legend of Zelda, Kondo juxtaposes the game's overworld theme with the theme that plays in dungeons. Kondo remarked on the importance of projecting distinct characters through music, so that players know almost immediately where they are within the game. Kondo used this contrast in other games he worked on, including Super Mario Bros.
Games
Music and sound design
Supporting roles
Awards
|-
| 2011
| Super Mario Galaxy 2
| British Academy Games Awards (Best Original Music)
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2014
| rowspan="2" | Super Mario 3D World
| British Academy Games Awards (Best Original Music)
|
|-
| Video Game Music Online (Best Soundtrack – Retro / Remixed)
|
|}
References
External links
1961 births
20th-century Japanese composers
20th-century Japanese male musicians
20th-century Japanese pianists
21st-century Japanese composers
21st-century Japanese male musicians
21st-century Japanese pianists
Chiptune musicians
Japanese male composers
Japanese male pianists
Japanese pianists
Living people
Mario (franchise) music
Musicians from Aichi Prefecture
Nintendo people
Osaka University of Arts alumni
People from Nagoya
Sound designers
Video game composers | [
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219033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellcats%20of%20the%20Navy | Hellcats of the Navy | Hellcats of the Navy is a 1957 American black-and-white World War II submarine film drama from Columbia Pictures, produced by Charles H. Schneer and directed by Nathan Juran. The film stars Ronald Reagan and his wife, billed under her screen name Nancy Davis, and Arthur Franz. This was the only feature film in which the Reagans acted together, either before or after their 1952 marriage.
The film's setting is the Pacific War. The film's storyline concerns Commander Casey Abbott, skipper of the submarine USS Starfish, being ordered to retrieve a new type of Japanese mine in the waters off the Asiatic mainland. When diver Wes Barton, Abbott's rival for the affections of Nurse Lieutenant Helen Blair, gets into a life-threatening situation, Abbott must keep his personal and professional lives separate when dealing with the crisis.
The story is based on the 1955 non-fiction book Hellcats of the Sea by Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood and Hans Christian Adamson.
Plot
Commander Casey Abbott (Ronald Reagan), commander of the submarine USS Starfish, is ordered to undertake a dangerous mission which sees him attempting to cut off the flow of supplies between China and Japan in the heavily mined waters off the Asiatic mainland. When a diver, who is Abbott's competitor for the affections of nurse Lieutenant Helen Blair (Nancy Davis) back home, gets into a dangerous situation, Abbott must struggle to keep his personal and professional lives separate in dealing with the crisis.
The results arouse ill feelings in the crew and especially Abbott's executive officer, Lt. Commander Landon (Arthur Franz), who asks his captain to let him air his views in confidence. The results lead Abbott to write in Landon's efficiency report that he should never be given command of a naval vessel, resulting in further ill will between the two.
Cast
Ronald Reagan as Commander Casey Abbott
Nancy Davis as Nurse Lt. Helen Blair
Arthur Franz as Lt. Cmdr. Don Landon
Robert Arthur as Freddy Warren
William Leslie as Lt. Paul Prentice
William 'Bill' Phillips as Carroll
Harry Lauter as Lt. Wes Barton
Michael Garth as Lt. Charlie
Joseph Turkel as Chick
Don Keefer as Jug
Production
Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz appears as himself to introduce the film, and he is later played in the story by actor Selmer Jackson. Retired Navy officer Charles A. Lockwood, chief author of the book on which this feature was based, is also portrayed briefly by an actor.
It was the second film Nathan Juran directed for producer Charles Schneer.
Reagan said in his autobiography that he was disappointed, overall, in the film, having expected a result more like Destination Tokyo, a major Warner Bros. submarine film made during World War II. The diminishing status of the feature films that Reagan was being offered, plus his increasing involvement with television, led to his leaving the big screen forever.
The United States Navy provided extensive cooperation by allowing portions of the film to be shot at Naval Base San Diego and aboard an actual U.S. submarine, possibly . The executive officer of the submarine was Lloyd Bucher, who would go on to command the during its capture by North Korea in 1968.
During the film's production, as USS Besugo was about to get underway, an argument ensued between the director and one of the unions. There was only a short window of opportunity to maneuver the boat away from the pier, as it was difficult for a submarine tied up in San Diego to get underway while a tide was running. Besugo was one of the first submarines to employ nylon rope lines, and when stretched, the lines could get about "as big around as a pencil" and become lethal if they broke under strain. The order was given to the helmsman to answer all bells. Reagan happened to be on deck practicing his dialog lines and hollering out, "Ahead one third, starboard back full ..." About this time, the nylon ropes were stretched to their breaking point when an officer gave the command, "All stop, ALL STOP, Goddammit, ALL STOP!" and Reagan, totally oblivious to what was going on, continued to practice his lines, rocking back and forth on his feet with his hands behind his back, as if nothing were wrong.
Among the stock music used in the film were excerpts from The Caine Mutiny March, composed by Max Steiner, the main title theme for the 1954 Columbia Pictures feature film The Caine Mutiny. That film was also about World War II U.S. Navy operations in the Pacific theater; Arthur Franz appears as well in the minor role of Lt. (jg) Paynter.
Film premiere
Hellcats of the Navy had its official premiere in San Diego, California, at the downtown Spreckels Theater. The film's stars were in attendance, as were local U. S. Navy brass and submariners. A program preceded the showing of the film. On a flatbed trailer in front of the theater were displayed one Mark 14 and one Mark 16 torpedo, the two types used by navy submarines during World War II.
DVD reviews
Glenn Erickson of DVD Talk reviewed the DVD release of Hellcats of the Navy and thought that although the direction was "competent", the script was "completely derivative and cornball". He went on to criticize the lack of realistic supporting characters and the film's use of obvious stock footage, especially that of a U. S. Navy patrol boat portraying a Japanese ship. Overall, he described the film itself as "fair". David Krauss of Digitally Obsessed described the production values as "bargain basement" and found that the cast's stiff performances alienated viewers. He gave the film a C for style and a B- for substance, although he also described the direction as "dry as a military briefing" on CNN.
Erick Harper at DVD Verdict has written that Hellcats followed a series of submarine war film clichés, like the "love triangle" and familiar elements of the action sequences. He compared parts of the film to the TV series Star Trek (which premiered almost a decade later), in that it follows a standard Hollywood formula for its plot. He described Ronald Reagan as "comfortable" and "believable", and said that the film was "worth checking out for the historical value, if nothing else".
See also
List of American films of 1957
Ronald Reagan filmography
Bibliography
, a non-fiction account of the U.S. Navy's Pacific submarine fleet's Operation Barney in World War II, of which Hellcats of the Navy is a fictionalized filmed version. The book's title implicitly compares the submarines to the Hellcats of the air, the Grumman F6F Hellcat carrier-based fighter aircraft.
See also
List of American films of 1957
References
External links
"Hellcats" and "Hell Pots"
1957 films
1950s war films
American films
American black-and-white films
Columbia Pictures films
English-language films
Films based on non-fiction books
Films directed by Nathan Juran
Films set in Asia
Ronald Reagan
Royal Navy in World War II films
Pacific War films
World War II submarine films
Films produced by Charles H. Schneer | [
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219038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frutiger%20%28typeface%29 | Frutiger (typeface) | Frutiger (pronounced ) is a series of typefaces named after its Swiss designer, Adrian Frutiger. Frutiger is a humanist sans-serif typeface, intended to be clear and highly legible at a distance or at small text sizes. A very popular design worldwide, type designer Steve Matteson described its structure as "the best choice for legibility in pretty much any situation" at small text sizes, while Erik Spiekermann named it as "the best general typeface ever".
Distinctive characteristics
Characteristics of this typeface are:
Lowercase square dot over the letter i; double-storey a, single-storey g. Wide, open apertures on letters such as a, e and s. Very high x-height, increasing its clarity.
Uppercase Wide A with a very low centre bar, though less obvious in bold weight. Q with a stroke below the circle only. Univers-like M, square and with centre strokes descending to the base of the letter.
Figures diagonal serif on the 1; closed 4.
Oblique The slanted version is an oblique in which the letterforms are slanted, rather than a true italic. Some versions not drawn by Frutiger do add a true italic (see Frutiger Next below).
The typeface in its original incarnation uses the Frutiger numbering system.
History
Frutiger is a sans-serif typeface by the Swiss type designer Adrian Frutiger. It is the text version of Frutiger's earlier typeface Roissy, commissioned in 1970/71 by the newly built Charles de Gaulle Airport at Roissy, France, which needed a new directional sign system, which itself was based on Concorde, a font Frutiger had created in the early 1960s.
The beginning of Frutiger starts from Concorde, a sans-serif font Frutiger was commissioned to design in 1961-4 by the minor metal type company Sofratype. Frutiger was asked to create a design that would not be too similar to his previous Univers, a reinvention of classic 19th-century typefaces. In practice the design was drawn by his colleague (and fellow Swiss in Paris) André Gürtler as Frutiger was busy. Frutiger wrote of it: "I felt I was on the right track with this grotesque; it was a truly novel typeface." Gürtler too wrote of feeling that the design was innovative: "this style didn't exist in grotesques at the time, except for Gill Sans." Despite Frutiger and Gürtler's enthusiasm, the design failed to sell well and was discontinued with the end of the metal type period: Frutiger wrote that Linotype, who bought Sofratype, "weren't aware of the fact that with Concorde they had a totally up-to-date typeface."
Some years later, Frutiger was commissioned to develop a typeface for Roissy Airport. Frutiger had earlier created an alphabet inspired by Univers and Peignot for Paris Orly Airport, but found the experience a failure due to lack of control and the insistence that all text be in capitals only. As a result, he proposed a modified version of Concorde, refining it following research into legibility. The Roissy typeface was completed in 1972. Impressed by the quality of the Roissy airport signage, the typographical director of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company approached Frutiger in 1974 to turn it into a typeface for print.
In designing the typeface's predecessors Concorde and Roissy, Frutiger's goal had been to create a sans-serif typeface with the rationality and cleanliness of Univers but the organic and proportional aspects of Gill Sans. According to Frutiger, "What was important, was total clarity – I would even call it nudity – an absence of any kind of artistic addition." Designing Frutiger as a print version of Roissy, this principle resulted in a distinctive and legible typeface. The letter properties originally suited to the needs of Charles de Gaulle: a modern appearance and legibility at various angles, sizes, and distances. Ascenders and descenders are very prominent, and apertures are wide to easily distinguish letters from one another. Improvements on Roissy included better spacing.
The Frutiger family was released publicly in 1976 by the Stempel type foundry in conjunction with Linotype. Frutiger became extremely popular for uses such as corporate and transportation branding. In 2008 it was the fifth best-selling typeface of the Linotype foundry.
Frutiger Linotype
This is a version of the original Frutiger font family licensed to Microsoft. This family consists of Frutiger 55, 56, 65, and 66. It does not include OpenType features or kerning, but it adds support to Latin Extended-B and Greek characters, with Frutiger 55 supporting extra IPA characters and spacing modifier letters. Unlike most Frutiger variants, Frutiger Linotype features old-style figures as the default numeral style.
Frutiger Linotype can be found in Microsoft products featuring Microsoft Reader and in the standalone Microsoft Reader package.
ASTRA-Frutiger
This is a variant of Frutiger used by ASTRA (acronym of the , the Swiss Federal Road Office) as the new font for traffic signs, replacing VSS in 2003. It is based on Frutiger 57 Condensed, but with widening ascenders and descenders, which are intended to give the eye a better hold than the earlier version did.
A family of two fonts were made, called ASTRA-Frutiger-Standard/standard and ASTRA-Frutiger-Autobahn/autoroute.
Frutiger Next
The Frutiger family was updated in 1997 for signage at the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. The new version, Frutiger Next, changed a number of details and added a true italic style in place of the oblique roman of the original.
Frutiger Next was commercially available in 2000 under Linotype. The family include six font weights, with a bonus Ultra Light weight in the OpenType version. It supports ISO Adobe 2, Adobe CE, and Latin Extended characters. OpenType features include small caps, old style figures, superscript and subscript, ordinals, proportional lining figures, and case forms. Font names are no longer numbered with the Frutiger system. Frutiger Black was renamed to Frutiger Next Heavy, and Frutiger Ultra Black was changed to Frutiger Next Black. Condensed fonts no longer include italic variants. In addition to italic type, characters such as the cent sign (¢), the copyright symbol (©), the ampersand (&), the at sign (@), the sharp S (ß), Omega (Ω), and the integral symbol (∫) were redesigned. Cyrillic letters had not been produced until Frutiger Next W1G.
While Frutiger Next added considerably to Frutiger's feature set, it added a modish 1990s true italic (not drawn by Frutiger) instead of the sharper oblique Frutiger preferred for sans-serif typefaces throughout his career, over Frutiger's objections. In his autobiography, Frutiger commented that in resigning himself to it "Maybe I was too soft to say what I really felt...I didn't have the strength and patience anymore."
Frutiger Next Greek (2005)
This is a variant of Frutiger Next designed with Eva Masoura for Linotype, originally published as a TDC2 2006 entry.
Frutiger Next W1G (2009)
This is an expanded version of Frutiger Next W1G. It added Greek (from Frutiger Next Greek) and Cyrillic character sets, but advertised OpenType features were reduced to superscript and subscript. Only an OpenType version has been produced.
Frutiger Arabic (2007)
This is a font family designed by Lebanese designer Nadine Chahine as a companion to Frutiger in consultation with Adrian Frutiger. It is based on the Kufic style, but incorporates aspects of Ruqʿah script and Naskh in the letter form designs, resulting in what Linotype called "humanist Kufi". The fonts consist of Basic Latin and ISO-Latin characters derived from the original Frutiger family, with Arabic characters supporting presentation forms A and B. Four font weights were produced.
Frutiger Serif (2008)
This is a serif font family designed by Adrian Frutiger and Akira Kobayashi. It is a re-envisioning of the metal type version of Meridien, a typeface first released by Deberny & Peignot during the 1950s.
The family consists of roman and italic fonts in five weights and two widths each.
Neue Frutiger (2009)
This is an expanded version of the original Frutiger family designed by Adrian Frutiger and Akira Kobayashi. Unlike the original family, the Frutiger numbering scheme is not used.
Initial release of the family has twenty fonts in ten weights and one width, returning to complementary obliques. It supports ISO Adobe, Adobe CE, and Latin Extended characters. OpenType features include subscript and superscript.
Neue Frutiger Condensed (2010)
On April 7, 2010, Monotype Imaging Holdings announced condensed versions of the Neue Frutiger fonts. Designed by Akira Kobayashi, the expansion of the family includes twenty fonts in the same weight and style combination as the original release, in OpenType Pro font format.
Neue Frutiger W1G (2011)
This version supports Greek and Cyrillic characters.
The family includes forty fonts in ten weights and two widths, with a complementary oblique.
Neue Frutiger 1450 (2013)
It is a version of Neue Frutiger compliant with the German standard DIN 1450, designed by Akira Kobayashi.
The family includes eight fonts, in four weights (book, regular, medium, bold) and one width, with a complementary oblique.
OpenType features include denominator/numerator, fractions, ligatures, localized forms, ordinals, proportional figures, subscript/superscript, scientific inferiors, stylistic alternates (two sets), ornaments, kerning.
Neue Frutiger World (2018)
In 2018, Monotype introduces Neue Frutiger World with several characters more than 150 languages, in Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, Armenian, Hebrew, Arabic, Thai and Vietnamese. Additionally, in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters.
Similar types
Adobe's Myriad and Microsoft's Segoe UI are two prominent typefaces whose similarities to Frutiger have aroused controversy. Frutiger described Myriad as 'not badly done' but said that the similarities had gone 'a little too far'. However, in an interview, Adrian Frutiger commended the work of Myriad's co-designer, Robert Slimbach: "except the unnecessary doubt concerning Myriad, his work is also very good." Additionally, the italic style of Myriad is cursive, while the original version of Frutiger uses a slanted Roman style rather than a true italic.
In the 1970s, Frutiger designed Icone, a wedge-serif design with mild stroke modulation, which has many similarities in basic letter structure to Frutiger, and in overall effect to Albertus.
In 2017, Italian type designer, Danilo de Marco designed Agané typeface, inspired from Frutiger typeface
Awards
Frutiger Next won the bukva:raz! competition in the Latin category.
Frutiger Next Greek won the TDC2 2006 award under the Type System / Superfamily category.
Use in branding
The Frutiger font is used as an official typeface by many institutions around the world. A number of these are listed here.
Universities and colleges
Cornell University uses Frutiger as its secondary typeface, along with Palatino.
The German Karlsruhe Institute of Technology uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
The London School of Economics service uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
Ohio University uses Frutiger as its official typeface, along with Galliard.
The University of Iceland uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
The University of Lausanne uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
Heriot-Watt University uses Frutiger as one of its official typefaces, along with Garamond.
The University of Miami uses Frutiger (Linotype) as its primary sans-serif typeface.
The University of Southern California uses Frutiger as its official typeface, along with Caslon 540.
National University of Singapore uses Frutiger as its primary typeface, with Times New Roman as its secondary.
California Institute of Technology uses Frutiger as one of its two "primary fonts," along with Adobe Garamond.
The University of Southern Denmark uses Frutiger as its secondary typeface, with Trajan as its primary.
Utrecht University uses this font in official communication, along with Bembo.
Companies and organizations
Alcatel-Lucent used Frutiger in its logo.
Amtrak uses Frutiger for signage and as a display type in printed documents, as well as for numbering on some of its fleet.
The Citizens Advice service uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
Connexions in the UK uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
The Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants in Hong Kong uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
Kieser Training AG and Kieser Training Australia use Frutiger as their official typeface.
England and Wales's National Health Service uses Frutiger as its standard typeface.
Polaroid used a slightly modified Frutiger in its logo.
Rotary International uses Frutiger as its official primary font.
UBS, a Swiss financial services company.
Since 2006, the World Health Organization uses the font in its logotype.
Other uses
Bay Area Rapid Transit, a rapid transit system serving the San Francisco Bay Area, uses Frutiger for all signage.
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey uses Frutiger 65 for signage and wayfinding at its airports. This font is also used for signage at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol and Port Columbus International Airport.
The Dutch emergency services use Frutiger for their vehicle striping.
The Finnish Defence Forces uses Frutiger as its official typeface.
The US National Park Service uses Frutiger as one of two fonts across the entire agency.
Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego, the transport authority in Warsaw, Poland uses Frutiger since the 2014 information system change caused by launching the second metro line
Michael Bierut commented on its common use in wayfinding systems: "Frutiger has been used so much for signage programs in hospitals and airports that seeing it now makes me feel that I'm about to get diagnosed with a brain tumor or miss the 7:00 to O'Hare."
Other 'Frutiger' fonts
A number of other designs by Frutiger carry his name without having any connection to the Frutiger typeface itself. They are listed here for reference.
Frutiger Stones (1998)
This is a family of casual fonts inspired by natural elements. Using polished pebbles as the boundary, the family consists of regular, positive, and negative fonts. Frutiger Stones Positive is Regular without the stone outline, while Negative is a reverse fill of the Regular.
Frutiger Symbols (1998)
This is a family of symbol fonts. The fonts contain plants, animals, and stars, as well as religious and mythological symbols. The naming convention follows Frutiger Stones.
Frutiger Capitalis (2005)
This is a family of casual fonts that consists of regular, outline, and signs fonts. Frutiger Capitalis Outline is the outline version of Frutiger Capitalis Regular. Frutiger Capitalis contains ornamental glyphs of religions, hand signs, and astrological signs.
See also
Typography
Public signage typefaces
Segoe UI Licensing Controversy
References
Bibliography
Meggs, Philip, and Rob Carter. Typographic Specimens: The Great Typefaces. Van Nostrand Reinhold: 1993, p. 163. .
Gibson, Jennifer. "Univers and Frutiger." Revival of the Fittest: Digital Versions of Classical Typefaces, Ed. Philip Meggs and Roy McKelvey. RC Publications: 2000, pp. 176–177. .
External links
ASTRA Frutiger Schrift
Stempel typefaces
Linotype typefaces
Humanist sans-serif typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1976
Typefaces designed by Adrian Frutiger
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219040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedtime%20for%20Bonzo | Bedtime for Bonzo | Bedtime for Bonzo is a 1951 American comedy film directed by Fred de Cordova, starring Ronald Reagan, Diana Lynn, and Peggy as Bonzo. It revolves around the attempts of the central character, psychology professor Peter Boyd (Reagan), to teach human morals to a chimpanzee, hoping to solve the "nature versus nurture" question. He hires a woman, Jane Linden (Lynn), to pose as the chimpanzee's mother while he plays father to it, and uses 1950s-era child rearing techniques.
A sequel was released called Bonzo Goes to College (1952), but featured none of the three lead performers from the original. Peggy died in a zoo fire two weeks after the premiere of Bedtime for Bonzo; another chimpanzee was hired for the second film whose name really was "Bonzo". Reagan did not want to work on the second film, as he thought the premise was unbelievable.
Plot
Ronald Reagan stars as psychology professor Peter Boyd, and climbs out on a ledge of a college campus building to rescue a suicidal chimpanzee, Bonzo. Meanwhile Dean Tillinghast (Herbert Heyes) is informed by former criminal Knucksy Breckenridge that Prof Boyd's father, aka "The Professor", aka "Silky", was an accomplished con-man and criminal, and that the two were bunkmates in prison. When Peter enters, he learns that his father also loved his mom. The dean then demands that the professor wants Peter to break his engagement to his daughter, Dr. Valerie Tillinghast (Lucille Barkley), due to the criminality in Boyd's family history, and his belief that criminal behavior is due to genetics rather than environment and upbringing. This sets the professor and the dean at loggerheads.
Boyd gets his colleague, friend, and Bonzo's handler Prof. Hans Neumann (Walter Slezak) to release Bonzo into his care so that Boyd can prove to the dean and his daughter that his father's criminal history is a product of environment rather than genetics by raising Bonzo in a good home. Boyd hires a nanny Jane Linden (Diana Lynn) to be a pseudo-mother for Bonzo. Jane and the Professor then try to raise Bonzo like a human baby in a normal household.
Jane and the professor agree on using the terms "Poppa" and "Momma" around Bonzo to foster a happy home environment. Boyd informs his fiancé Valerie about the experiment and how things are progressing, but balks on the idea of her coming to his home to look in on the project. Jane begins to have romantic feelings for Peter, but he doesn't realize it. One day while Momma teaches Bonzo to return a necklace that he'd taken from her, then when she leaves the room to look for something to prepare for dinner Bonzo inadvertently starts the vacuum cleaner, is startled by it, jumps out an open window and climbs a tree. When momma climbs the tree to get him, Bonzo jumps to the roof and makes his way back into the house and uses the phone to call for help. Emergency services dispatch a firetruck and then heads back outside and knocks down the ladder Momma used to climb the tree, leaving her stuck "up a tree". Poppa arrives on the scene, climbs the tree, but he too becomes trapped. The firemen arrive and help Peter and Jane back to the ground while Bonzo looks on; but, out of sight of firemen and police. During the commotion Valarie shows up, jumps to the wrong conclusions, and angerly returns the engagement ring.
Professor Neumann explains the entire situation and experiment to Jane. Jane then tells both professors that Bonzo was making progress, and informs them of Bonzo learning to return her necklace earlier. Later after the two professors are watch a film of Bonzo's progress, the dean then informs Neumann that Bonzo is being sold to Yale University for $2,500.00 for medical research. Neumann pleads with the dean to keep Bonzo, but the dean gives him until the following Monday to produce the chimpanzee. That evening Neumann, Peter, and Jane all have a birthday party for Bonzo, complete with cake and a cowboy outfit. After Bonzo is tucked in for the night, Peter learns from Hans that the experiment must soon come to an end.
Jane overhears the men talking about the end of the experiment, and hears that Peter will be letting her go. Jane expresses her emotions, storms out in tears, and then Hans informs a surprised Peter that Jane loves him. Bonzo overhears the disagreement and tries to enter Jane's room, but when she tells him that she doesn't want to see him anymore, thinking it's the professor at the door, Bonzo runs away on his tricycle. When he ends up in town, he sneaks into a jewelry store after seeing the sparkly necklaces in the window. Bonzo then grabs one, leaving his cowboy hat behind. Peter finds Bonzo, complete with the jewelry, while driving along the road. Peter then calls Hans to bring Jane to a meet, but Jane has left with a bus ticket out of town.
When Peter tries to get Bonzo to return the necklace, Bonzo refuses, so Hans and Bonzo head out to catch-up Jane. When Peter tries to return the necklace himself, he's nabbed by a cop, and hauled off to jail. Jane returns to the college, learns that Bonzo is to be shipped off for medical experiments, then she and Hans plead with the Dean to spare Bonzo. Hans forfeits his grant money, and keeps Bonzo, then he and Jane go to help rescue Peter. When Jane hands the stolen necklace to Bonzo and instructs him to "put these back", Bonzo jumps out the window, and everyone goes to the jewelry store to wait in hiding. Bonzo returns, and puts the necklace back in the window of the store. Bonzo has proven that being raised well results in good behavior, and Valarie congratulates Peter as he and Jane head out with Bonzo for their honeymoon.
Cast
Ronald Reagan as Professor Peter Boyd
Diana Lynn as Jane
Walter Slezak as Professor Hans Neumann
Lucille Barkley as Valerie Tillinghast
Jesse White as Babcock
Herbert Heyes as Dean Tillinghast
Herb Vigran as Lt. Daggett
Harry Tyler as Knucksy
Ed Clark as Foskick
Ed Gargan as Policeman
Brad Johnson as Student
Ann Tyrrell as Telephone Operator
Sean Eales
Reception
A. H. Weiler of The New York Times called the film "a minor bit of fun yielding a respectable amount of laughs but nothing, actually, over which to wax ecstatic." Variety described it as "a lot of beguiling nonsense with enough broad situations to gloss over plot holes ... Cameras wisely linger on the chimp's sequences and his natural antics are good for plenty of laughter." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post wrote, "If you can stomach all this, you'll find some giggles in this farce, which is okay when paying attention to the recently deceased chimp, but is perfectly terrible when trying to tell its story. Ronald Reagan, as the naive professor of things mental, must have felt like the world's sappiest straight man playing this silly role, and the others aren't much better off."
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 67%, based on 12 reviews, with an average rating of 5.83/10.
As President, Reagan screened the film for staff and guests at Camp David.
In popular culture
The film was later referenced in connection with Reagan in the 1986 Ramones song "My Brain Is Hanging Upside Down (Bonzo Goes to Bitburg)", in the Dead Kennedys' 1986 song "Rambozo the Clown", and in a track on a 1984 Jerry Harrison record, sampling Reagan and credited to "Bonzo Goes to Washington". A song unflattering to Reagan entitled "Bad Time for Bonzo" is featured on The Damned's fourth studio album, Strawberries. It was also referenced in a Calvin and Hobbes comic strip, Bloom County comic strip (October 11, 1981), as well as in the Strontium Dog comic story "Bitch", published in 2000 AD, which featured President Ronald Reagan being kidnapped out of his own era and taken into the far flung future setting of the comic. Other notable references include the 1966 Stan Freberg comedy album Freberg Underground, and the 1986 video of the British band Genesis's song "Land of Confusion". In the 1980s satirical British TV show Spitting Image, Reagan was shown as having appointed a dead taxidermied Bonzo as Vice President. In the ALF episode "Pennsylvania 6-5000", ALF is concerned about nuclear war, calls Air Force One over a shortwave radio and tells the president he wants to talk to him about his [nuclear] bombs. Reagan misinterprets this to mean the "Bonzo" film.
The movie is referenced in the MMORPG video game DC Universe Online. Following the two-player duo "Gorilla Grodd's Lab", the Flash quips at Gorilla Grodd "It's bedtime for Bonzo".
A song released by Nickelodeon for the 2004 presidential elections had a line mentioning that Reagan "acted with a chimp when he was a movie star".
The film was also referenced in the second season of the FX television series Fargo, when the character Karl Weathers (played by Nick Offerman) says he will not shake Ronald Reagan's hand, because "the man made a movie with a monkey, it wouldn't be dignified".
In the 2017 film War for the Planet of the Apes, a human soldier's helmet has the title of the film written on it.
In the final scene of the final episode of season 3 of 12 Monkeys, James Cole's father tells the young James, "bed time for Bonzo".
Throughout director Fred de Cordova's career as producer of The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson, Carson and guests would make frequent jokes and references to Bedtime for Bonzo as well as tie-ins in regards to Ronald Reagan becoming President of the United States.
References
External links
1951 films
1951 comedy films
American films
American comedy films
American black-and-white films
English-language films
Films about apes
Films directed by Frederick de Cordova
Universal Pictures films
Individual chimpanzees
Films scored by Frank Skinner | [
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219042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20supply | Power supply | A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The main purpose of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Other functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction, and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary interruption in the source power (uninterruptible power supply).
All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in the form of electric current from a source, and one or more power output or rail connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may come from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer to power their loads without wired connections. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.
General classification
Functional
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For example, a regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an unregulated power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be programmed by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or by means of a control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is both adjustable and regulated. An isolated power supply has a power output that is electrically independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies that share a common connection between power input and output.
Packaging
Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A bench power supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and development. Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure, sometimes consisting of only a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or other equipment. Rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard electronic equipment racks. An integrated power supply is one that shares a common printed circuit board with its load. An external power supply, AC adapter or power brick, is a power supply located in the load's AC power cord that plugs into a wall outlet; a wall wart is an external supply integrated with the outlet plug itself. These are popular in consumer electronics because of their safety; the hazardous 120 or 240 volt main current is transformed down to a safer voltage before it enters the appliance body.
Power conversion method
Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power converters process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components operating in their linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to DC pulses before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes (e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted to heat) when components operate in their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters are usually more efficient than linear converters because their components spend less time in linear operating regions.
Types
DC power supplies
An AC-to-DC power supply operates on an AC input voltage and generates a DC output voltage. Depending on application requirements the output voltage may contain large or negligible amounts AC frequency components known as ripple voltage, related to AC input voltage frequency and the power supply's operation. A DC power supply operating on DC input voltage is called a DC-to-DC converter. This section focuses mostly on the AC-to-DC variant.
Linear power supply
In a linear power supply the AC input voltage passes through a power transformer and is then rectified and filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The filtering reduces the amplitude of AC mains frequency present in the rectifier output and can be as simple as a single capacitor or more complex such as a pi filter. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by the power supply. In some applications, ripple can be entirely ignored. For example, in some battery charging applications, the power supply consists of just a transformer and a diode, with a simple resistor placed at the power supply output to limit the charging current.
Switched-mode power supply
In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by the load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help protect the device and the user from harm. In the event that an abnormal high-current power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are only able to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low power factors and have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced power line harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage may distort the line voltage waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result in poor power quality for other utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires and distribution equipment. Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when operating lower power factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer switch-mode power supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input filters or additional switching stages to reduce line interference.
Capacitive (transformerless) power supply
A capacitive power supply (transformerless power supply) uses the reactance of a capacitor to reduce the mains voltage to a smaller AC voltage. Typically, the resulting reduced AC voltage is then rectified, filtered and regulated to produce a constant DC output voltage.
The output voltage is not isolated from the mains. Consequently, to avoid exposing people and equipment from hazardous high voltage, anything connected to the power supply must be reliably insulated.
The voltage reduction capacitor must withstand the full mains voltage, and it must also have enough capacitance to support maximum load current at the rated output voltage. Taken together, these constraints limit practical uses of this type of supply to low-power applications.
Linear regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value, independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise on the output voltage.
AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and uses a transformer to step up or step down the voltage to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well. In some cases, the source voltage is the same as the output voltage; this is called an isolation transformer. Other AC power supply transformers do not provide mains isolation; these are called autotransformers; a variable output autotransformer is known as a variac. Other kinds of AC power supplies are designed to provide a nearly constant current, and output voltage may vary depending on impedance of the load. In cases when the power source is direct current, (like an automobile storage battery), an inverter and step-up transformer may be used to convert it to AC power. Portable AC power may be provided by an alternator powered by a diesel or gasoline engine (for example, at a construction site, in an automobile or boat, or backup power generation for emergency services) whose current is passed to a regulator circuit to provide a constant voltage at the output. Some kinds of AC power conversion do not use a transformer. If the output voltage and input voltage are the same, and primary purpose of the device is to filter AC power, it may be called a line conditioner. If the device is designed to provide backup power, it may be called an uninterruptable power supply. A circuit may be designed with a voltage multiplier topology to directly step-up AC power; formerly, such an application was a vacuum tube AC/DC receiver.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three phase systems. AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230 V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.
AC adapter
An AC adapter is a power supply built into an AC mains power plug. AC adapters are also known by various other names such as "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such as "wall wart". AC adapters typically have a single AC or DC output that is conveyed over a hardwired cable to a connector, but some adapters have multiple outputs that may be conveyed over one or more cables. "Universal" AC adapters have interchangeable input connectors to accommodate different AC mains voltages.
Adapters with AC outputs may consist only of a passive transformer (plus a few diodes in DC-output adapters), or they may employ switch-mode circuitry. AC adapters consume power (and produce electric and magnetic fields) even when not connected to a load; for this reason they are sometimes known as "electricity vampires", and may be plugged into power strips to allow them to be conveniently turned on and off.
Programmable power supply
A programmable power supply (PPS) is one that allows remote control of its operation through an analog input or digital interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Controlled properties may include voltage, current, and in the case of AC output power supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, semiconductor fabrication, and x-ray generators.
Programmable power supplies typically employ an integral microcomputer to control and monitor power supply operation. Power supplies equipped with a computer interface may use proprietary communication protocols or standard protocols and device control languages such as SCPI.
Uninterruptible power supply
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. Instantly here should be defined as the speed of electricity within conductors which is somewhat near the speed of light. That definition is important because transmission of high speed data and communications service must have continuity/NO break of that service. Some manufacturers use a quasi standard of 4 milliseconds. However, with high speed data even 4 ms of time in transitioning from one source to another is not fast enough. The transition must be made in a break before make method. The UPS meeting that requirement is referred to as a True UPS or a Hybrid UPS. How much time the UPS will provide is most often based on batteries and in conjunction with generators. That time can range from a quasi minimum 5 to 15 minutes to hours or even days. In many computer installations, it is only enough time on batteries to give the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to supply power during a utility power outage and the amount of battery time is then dependent upon how long it takes the generator to be on line and the criticality of the equipment served. Such a scheme is found in hospitals, data centers, call centers, cell sites and telephone central offices.
High-voltage power supply
A high-voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A special output connector is used that prevents arcing, insulation breakdown and accidental human contact. Federal Standard connectors are typically used for applications above 20 kV, though other types of connectors (e.g., SHV connector) may be used at lower voltages. Some high-voltage power supplies provide an analog input or digital communication interface that can be used to control the output voltage. High-voltage power supplies are commonly used to accelerate and manipulate electron and ion beams in equipment such as x-ray generators, electron microscopes, and focused ion beam columns, and in a variety of other applications, including electrophoresis and electrostatics.
High-voltage power supplies typically apply the bulk of their input energy to a power inverter, which in turn drives a voltage multiplier or a high turns ratio, high-voltage transformer, or both (usually a transformer followed by a multiplier) to produce high voltage. The high voltage is passed out of the power supply through the special connector and is also applied to a voltage divider that converts it to a low-voltage metering signal compatible with low-voltage circuitry. The metering signal is used by a closed-loop controller that regulates the high voltage by controlling inverter input power, and it may also be conveyed out of the power supply to allow external circuitry to monitor the high-voltage output.
Bipolar power supply
A bipolar power supply operates in all four quadrants of the voltage/current Cartesian plane, meaning that it will generate positive and negative voltages and currents as required to maintain regulation. When its output is controlled by a low-level analog signal, it is effectively a low-bandwidth operational amplifier with high output power and seamless zero-crossings. This type of power supply is commonly used to power magnetic devices in scientific applications.
Specification
The suitability of a particular power supply for an application is determined by various attributes of the power supply, which are typically listed in the power supply's specification. Commonly specified attributes for a power supply include:
Input voltage type (AC or DC) and range
Efficiency of power conversion
The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions
How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources)
Operating and storage temperature ranges
Commonly-used abbreviations used in power supply specifications:
SCP - Short circuit protection
OPP - Overpower (overload) protection
OCP - Overcurrent protection
OTP - Overtemperature protection
OVP - Overvoltage protection
UVP - Undervoltage protection
Thermal management
The power supply of an electrical system tends to generate heat. The higher the efficiency, the more heat is pulled away from the unit. There are many ways to manage the heat of a power supply unit. The types of cooling generally fall into two categories -- convection and conduction. Common convection methods for cooling electronic power supplies include natural air flow, forced air flow, or other liquid flow over the unit. Common conduction cooling methods include heat sinks, cold plates, and thermal compounds.
Overload protection
Power supplies often have protection from short circuit or overload that could damage the supply or cause a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are two commonly used mechanisms for overload protection.
A fuse contains a short piece of wire which melts if too much current flows. This effectively disconnects the power supply from its load, and the equipment stops working until the problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is replaced.
Some power supplies use a very thin wire link soldered in place as a fuse. Fuses in power supply units may be replaceable by the end user, but fuses in consumer equipment may require tools to access and change.
A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts the circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker can be reset and the power restored.
Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse. The advantage is it allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply continuously. Some such cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only.
Current limiting
Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off power if overloaded. The two types of current limiting used are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is common on lab bench PSUs, the latter is common on supplies of less than 3 watts output.
A foldback current limiter reduces the output current to much less than the maximum non-fault current.
Applications
Power supplies are a fundamental component of many electronic devices and therefore used in a diverse range of applications. This list is a small sample of the many applications of power supplies.
Computers
A modern computer power supply is a switch-mode power supply that converts AC power from the mains supply, to several DC voltages. Switch-mode supplies replaced linear supplies due to cost, weight, efficiency and size improvements. The diverse collection of output voltages also have widely varying current draw requirements.
Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles are those which rely on energy created through electricity generation. A power supply unit is part of the necessary design to convert high voltage vehicle battery power.
Welding
Arc welding uses electricity to join metals by melting them. The electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either be AC or DC. Arc welding requires high currents typically between 100 and 350 amperes. Some types of welding can use as few as 10 amperes, while some applications of spot welding employ currents as high as 60,000 amperes for an extremely short time. Welding power supplies consisted of transformers or engines driving generators; modern welding equipment uses semiconductors and may include microprocessor control.
Aircraft
Both commercial and military avionic systems require either a DC-DC or AC/DC power supply to convert energy into usable voltage. These may often operate at 400 Hz in the interest of weight savings.
Automation
This refers to conveyors, assembly lines, bar code readers, cameras, motors, pumps, semi-fabricated manufacturing and more.
Medical
These include ventilators, infusion pumps, surgical and dental instruments, imaging and beds.
See also
AC adapter
Capacitive power supply
Electricity generation
High voltage
Mains electricity by country
Motor–generator
Power cord
Sense (electronics)
Voltage regulator
Category:Power supply manufacturers
References
External links
Understanding Linear Power Supply Operation
Load Power Sources for Peak Efficiency, James Colotti, EDN 1979 October 5 | [
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219043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20America%20%281782%29 | USS America (1782) | America was the first ship of the line built for the Continental Navy, but she never saw service there, being given to France after launching.
History
On 20 November 1776, the Continental Congress authorized the construction of three 74-gun ships of the line. One of these was America, laid down in May 1777 in the shipyard of John Langdon on Rising Castle Island (now Badger's Island) in Kittery, Maine, across the Piscataqua River from Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
However, progress on her construction was delayed by a chronic scarcity of funds and a consequent shortage of skilled craftsmen and well seasoned timber. The project dragged on for over two years under the immediate supervision of Col. James Hackett as master shipbuilder and the overall direction of John Langdon. Then, on 6 November 1779, the Marine Committee named Captain John Barry as her prospective commanding officer and ordered him to "...hasten, as much as will be in your power, the completing of that ship...."
Nevertheless, the difficulties which previously had slowed the building of the warship continued to prevail during the ensuing months, and little had been accomplished by mid-March 1780 when Barry applied for a leave of absence to begin on the 23rd. However he did perform one notable service for the ship. In November 1777, after inspecting the unfinished vessel which was slated to become his new command, he strongly recommended against a proposal, then under consideration, to reduce her to a 54-gun frigate. His arguments carried the day, and the Marine Committee decided to continue the work of construction according to the ship's original plans.
All possibility of Barry's commanding America ended on 5 September 1780 when he was ordered to Boston to take command of the 36-gun frigate Alliance which had recently arrived from Europe. Over nine months later, on 23 June 1781, Congress ordered the Continental Agent of Marine, Robert Morris, to get America ready for sea and, on the 26th, picked Captain John Paul Jones as her commanding officer. Jones reached Portsmouth on 31 August and threw himself into the task of completing the man-of-war. However, before the work was finished, Congress decided on 3 September 1782 to present the ship to King Louis XVI of France to replace the ship of the line Magnifique, which had run aground and been destroyed on 11 August 1782 while attempting to enter Boston Harbor. The ship was also to symbolize the new nation's appreciation for France's service to and sacrifices in behalf of the cause of the American patriots.
Despite his disappointment over losing his chance to command the largest warship yet built in America, Jones remained in Portsmouth striving to finish the new ship. The home in which he boarded is now known as the John Paul Jones House and is a National Historic Landmark. His labors bore fruit on 5 November 1782 when America – held partially back by a series of ropes calculated to break in sequence to check the vessel's acceleration, lest she come to grief on the opposite bank of the river – slipped gracefully into the waters of the Piscataqua. After she had been rigged and fitted out, the ship – commanded by M. le Chevalier de Macarty Martinge (who had commanded Magnifique when she was wrecked) departed Portsmouth on 24 June 1783 and reached Brest, France, on 16 July. Armed with a main battery of 18-pounder at a time when French 74's carried 24-pdr and 36-pdr guns, America would have a relatively weak broadside compared to other French ships-of-the-line.
Little is known of her subsequent service under the French flag other than the fact it was brief. A bit over three years later, she was carefully examined by a survey committee which found her damaged by dry rot beyond economical repair, probably caused by her wartime construction from green timber. She was accordingly scrapped and a much larger America with nearly twice her weight of shot was built to take her place.
References
Howard Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: the Ships and Their Development (New York: Norton, 1949), pp. 80f.
External links
America – Battlecruisers.org
Ships of the Continental Navy
Ships of the line of the United States Navy
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
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219048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bingham%2C%207th%20Earl%20of%20Lucan | John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan | Richard John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan (born 18 December 1934 – disappeared 8 November 1974, declared dead 3 February 2016), commonly known as Lord Lucan, was a British peer who disappeared after being suspected of murder. He was an Anglo-Irish aristocrat, the eldest son of George Bingham, 6th Earl of Lucan by his wife Kaitlin Dawson. Lucan was an evacuee during the Second World War but returned to attend Eton College, and served with the Coldstream Guards in West Germany from 1953 to 1955. Having developed a taste for gambling, he became skilled at backgammon and bridge, and was an early member of the Clermont Club. Lucan's losses often exceeded his winnings, yet he left his job at a London-based merchant bank and became a professional gambler. He was known as Lord Bingham from April 1949 until January 1964, during his father's lifetime.
Lucan was considered for the role of James Bond in the cinematic adaptations of Ian Fleming's novels. He was known for his expensive tastes; he raced power boats and drove an Aston Martin. In 1963, Lucan married Veronica Duncan, with whom he had three children. The couple moved home to 46 Lower Belgrave Street in Belgravia in 1967, paying £17,500 for the house. After the marriage collapsed in late 1972, he moved out to a nearby property. A bitter custody battle ensued, which Lucan eventually lost. Apparently obsessed with regaining custody of the children, Lucan began to spy on his wife and record their telephone conversations. This fixation, combined with mounting legal and gambling losses, had a dramatic effect on Lucan's life and personal finances.
On the evening of 7 November 1974, Sandra Rivett, the nanny of Lucan's children, was bludgeoned to death in the kitchen of the Lucan family home. Lady Lucan was also attacked after going to investigate Rivett's whereabouts. She identified Lord Lucan as her assailant. Lucan had, by then, driven to visit a friend in Uckfield, East Sussex. Lucan then telephoned his mother and asked her to collect his children, saying there had been an incident at the family home; he also penned a letter. His car was later found abandoned in Newhaven, its interior stained with blood and its boot containing a piece of bandaged lead pipe similar to one found at the crime scene. By the time the police issued a warrant for his arrest a few days later, Lucan had vanished. At the inquest into Rivett's death, held in June 1975, the jury returned a verdict naming Lucan as her killer.
There has been continuing interest in Lucan's fate, with hundreds of alleged sightings being reported in various countries around the world, none of which has been substantiated. Despite a police investigation and widespread press coverage, Lucan has never been found. He was presumed dead in chambers on 11 December 1992, and was declared legally dead in October 1999. Finally, in 2016, a death certificate was issued, allowing the Barony of Bingham to be inherited by his son George.
Early life and education
Richard John Bingham was born on 18 December 1934 at 19 Bentinck Street, Marylebone, London, the second child and elder son of George Bingham, 6th Earl of Lucan, an Anglo-Irish peer, and his wife Kaitlin Elizabeth Anne Dawson. A blood clot found in his mother's lung forced her to remain in a nursing home, so John, as he became known, was initially cared for by the family's nurserymaid, Lucy Sellers. Aged three years, John attended a pre-prep school in Tite Street with his elder sister Jane. In 1939, with the Second World War approaching, the two were taken to the relative safety of Wales.
In 1940, joined by their younger siblings Sally and Hugh, the Lucan children travelled to Toronto in Canada, moving shortly thereafter to Mount Kisco, New York, United States. They stayed for five years with multi-millionairess Marcia Brady Tucker. John was enrolled at The Harvey School and spent summer holidays away from his siblings at a summer camp in the Adirondack Mountains.
While in the US, John and his siblings lived in grandeur and wanted for nothing, but on their return to England in February 1945 they were faced with the stark realities of wartime Britain. Rationing was still in force, their former home at Cheyne Walk had been bombed, and the family's house at 22 Eaton Square had had its windows blown out. Despite the family's noble ancestry, the 6th Earl and his wife were agnostics and socialists who preferred a more austere existence than that offered by Tucker, an extremely wealthy Christian. For a time, John suffered nightmares and was taken to a psychotherapist. As an adult he remained an agnostic, but ensured that his children attended Sunday school, preferring to give them a traditional childhood.
At Eton College, John developed a taste for gambling. He supplemented his pocket money with income from bookmaking, placing his earnings into a "secret" bank account, and regularly left the school's grounds to attend horse races. According to his mother, John's academic record was "far from creditable", but he became captain of Roe's House, before leaving in 1953 to undertake his National Service. He became a second lieutenant in his father's regiment, the Coldstream Guards, and was stationed mainly in Krefeld, West Germany. While there, he also became a keen poker player.
Career
On leaving the British Army in 1954, Lucan joined William Brandt's Sons and Co., a London-based merchant bank, on an annual salary of £500. In 1960 he met Stephen Raphael, a rich stockbroker who was a skilled backgammon player. They holidayed together in the Bahamas, went water-skiing, and played golf, backgammon and poker. Lucan became a regular gambler and an early member of John Aspinall's Clermont gaming club, located in Berkeley Square.
Lucan often won at games of skill like backgammon and bridge, but he also accumulated huge losses. On one occasion Lucan lost £8,000, or about two-thirds of the money he received annually from various family trusts. On another disastrous night at a casino he lost £10,000. His uncle by marriage, stockbroker John Bevan, helped him to pay that particular debt, and Lucan repaid his uncle two years later.
Lucan left Brandt's around 1960, shortly after he had won £26,000 playing chemin de fer. A colleague had been promoted before him, leading Lucan to leave his job in protest, saying, "Why should I work in a bank, when I can earn a year's money in one single night at the tables?". Lucan travelled to the US, where he played golf, raced power boats, and drove his Aston Martin around the West Coast. He also visited his elder sister Jane and his former guardian, Marcia Tucker. On his return to England he moved out of his parents' home in St John's Wood and into a flat in Park Crescent.
Personal life
Marriage
Lucan met his future wife, Veronica Duncan, early in 1963. She was born in 1937 to Major Charles Moorhouse Duncan and his wife, Thelma. Veronica's father had died in a car accident when she was young, after which the family moved to South Africa. Her mother remarried, and her family returned to England, where her new stepfather became manager of a hotel in Guildford. With her sister, Christina, she was educated at St Swithun's School, Winchester.
After displaying a talent for art Veronica went on to study at an art college in Bournemouth. The two sisters later shared a flat in London, where Veronica worked as a model and later as a secretary. Christina's marriage to the wealthy William Shand Kydd (half-brother to Peter Shand Kydd, stepfather to Diana Spencer, later Princess of Wales) introduced her to London high society, and it was at a golf-club function in the country that Veronica and Lucan first met.
News of their engagement appeared in The Times and The Daily Telegraph newspapers on 14 October 1963, and the two were married at Holy Trinity Church, Brompton, on 20 November. After a ceremony attended by Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (one of whose ladies-in-waiting had been a relative of Lady Lucan), but by few other prominent members of high society, the couple honeymooned in Europe, travelling first class on the Orient Express. Lucan's already embattled finances were given a welcome boost by his father, who provided him with a marriage settlement designed to finance a larger family home and any future additions to the Lucan family. Lucan repaid some of his creditors and purchased 46 Lower Belgrave Street in Belgravia, redecorating it to suit Veronica's tastes.
Two months after the wedding, on 21 January 1964, Lucan's father died of a stroke. In addition to a reputed £250,000 inheritance, Lucan acquired his father's titles: Earl of Lucan; Baron Lucan of Castlebar; Baron Lucan of Melcombe Lucan and Baronet Bingham of Castlebar. His wife became the Countess of Lucan.
The couple were to have three children:
Lady Frances Bingham, born on October 24th, 1964
Lord George Bingham, born on September 21st, 1967
Lady Camilla Bingham, born on June 30th, 1970.
Following the 1964 birth of their first daughter, Frances, from early in 1965 they employed a nanny, Lillian Jenkins, to look after her. Lucan tried to teach Veronica about gambling and traditional pursuits like hunting, shooting, and fishing. He bought her golf lessons; she later gave up the sport.
Lucan's daily routine consisted of breakfast at 9:00 am, coffee, dealing with the morning's letters, reading the newspapers, and playing the piano. He sometimes jogged in the park and took his Doberman Pinscher for walks. Lunch at the Clermont Club was followed by afternoon games of backgammon. Returning home to change into evening dress, the earl typically spent the remainder of the day at the Clermont, gambling into the early hours, watched sometimes by Veronica. In 1956, while still working at Brandt's, he had written of his desire to have "£2m in the bank", claiming that "motor-cars, yachts, expensive holidays, and security for the future would give myself and a lot of other people a lot of pleasure".
Lucan was described by his friends as a shy and taciturn man, but with his tall stature, "luxuriant guardsman's moustache," and masculine pursuits, his exploits made him popular. His profligacy extended to hiring private aircraft to take his friends to the races, asking a car dealer he knew to source an Aston Martin drophead coupé, drinking expensive Russian vodka and racing power boats. In September 1966 he unsuccessfully screen tested for a part in Woman Times Seven, prompting him to decline a later offer from film producer Albert R. Broccoli to screen test him for the role of James Bond.
As a professional gambler, Lucan was a skilled player, once rated amongst the world's top ten backgammon competitors. He won the St James's Club tournament and was Champion of the West Coast of America. He gained the moniker "Lucky" Lucan, but his losses easily outweighed his winnings, and in reality he was anything but lucky. Lucan had interests in thoroughbred horses; in 1968 he paid more in race entry fees than he received in winnings. Despite some arguments over money, Veronica remained largely ignorant of his losses, retaining the use of accounts at Savile Row tailors and various Knightsbridge shops.
Following the births of George and Camilla, Veronica suffered post-natal depression. Lucan became increasingly involved in her mental well-being, and in 1971 took her for treatment at a psychiatric clinic in Hampstead, where she refused to be admitted. Instead, she agreed to home visits from a psychiatrist and a course of antidepressants. In July 1972 the family holidayed in Monte Carlo, but Veronica quickly returned to England, leaving Lucan with their two elder children. The combined pressures of maintaining their finances, the costs of Lucan's gambling addiction, and Veronica's weakened mental condition took their toll on the marriage; two weeks after a strained family Christmas in 1972, Lucan moved into a small property in Eaton Row.
Separation
Some months later Lucan moved again, to a larger rented flat in nearby Elizabeth Street. Despite an early attempt by his wife at reconciliation, by that point all Lucan wanted from the marriage was custody of his children. In an effort to demonstrate that Veronica was unfit to look after them, Lucan began to spy on his family (his car was regularly seen parked in Lower Belgrave Street), later employing private detectives to perform the same task. He also canvassed doctors, who explained that his wife had not "gone mad", but was suffering from depression and anxiety.
Lucan told his friends that nobody would work for Veronica – she had sacked Jenkins, the children's long-term nanny, in December 1972. Of the series of nannies employed in the house, one, 26-year-old Stefanja Sawicka, was told by Veronica that Lucan had hit her with a cane and had, on one occasion, pushed her down the stairs. The countess apparently feared for her safety and told Sawicka not to be surprised "if he kills me one day."
Sawicka's time at the Lucan household ended late in March 1973. While with two of the children near Grosvenor Place, she was confronted by Lucan and two private detectives. They told her that the children had been made wards of court and that she must release them into his custody, which she did. Frances was collected from school later in the day. Veronica applied to the court to have the children returned, but concerned about the case's complexity, the judge set a date for the hearing three months ahead, for June 1973.
To defend herself against Lucan's claims about her mental state, Veronica booked herself a four-day stay at the Priory Clinic in Roehampton. While it was acknowledged that she still required some psychiatric support, the doctors reported that there was no indication that she was mentally ill. Lucan's case depended upon Veronica being unable to care for the children, but at the hearing he was instead forced to defend his own behaviour toward her. After several weeks of witnesses and protracted arguments in camera, on the advice of his lawyers he conceded the case. Unimpressed by Lucan's character, Mr Justice Rees awarded custody to Veronica. The earl was allowed access every other weekend.
Thus began a bitter dispute between the couple, involving many of their friends and Veronica's own sister. Lucan again began to watch his wife's movements. He recorded some of their telephone conversations with a small Sony tape recorder and played excerpts to any friends prepared to listen; he also told themand his bank managerthat Veronica had been "spending money like water". Lucan continued to pay her £40 a week and may have cancelled their regular food order with Harrods. He delayed payment to the milkman andknowing that Veronica was required by the court to employ a live-in nannythe childcare agency. With no income of her own, Veronica took a part-time job in a local hospital.
A temporary nanny, Elizabeth Murphy, was befriended by Lucan, who bought her drinks and asked her for information on his wife. He instructed his detective agency to investigate Murphy, looking for evidence that she was failing in her duty of care to his children. This they found; he dispensed with the detective agency's services when they presented him with bills amounting to several hundred pounds. Murphy was later hospitalised with cancer. Another temporary nanny, Christabel Martin, reported strange telephone calls to the house, some with heavy breathing and some from a man asking for non-existent people. Following a series of temporary nannies, Sandra Rivett started work in late 1974.
Gambling
Losing the court case proved devastating for Lucan. It had cost him an estimated £20,000, and by late 1974 his financial position was dire. As he drank more heavily and started chain-smoking, his friends began to worry. In drunken conversations with some of them, including Aspinall's mother, Lady Osborne, and her son, Lucan discussed murdering his wife. Greville Howard later gave a statement to the police describing how Lucan had talked of how killing his wife might save him from bankruptcy, how her body might be disposed of in the Solent and how he "would never be caught".
Lucan borrowed £4,000 from his mother and asked Tucker for a loan of £100,000. Having no luck there, he wrote to Tucker's son, explaining how he wished to "buy" his children from Veronica; the money was not forthcoming. He turned to his friends and acquaintances, asking anyone plausible to loan him money to fund his gambling addiction. The financier James Goldsmith guaranteed a £5,000 overdraft for him, which for years remained unpaid.
Lucan also applied to the discreet Edgware Trust. On request, he supplied details of his income, which was apparently around £12,000 a year from various family trusts. Lucan was required to provide a surety and received only £3,000 of the £5,000 he asked for. Much to their managers' consternation, his four bank accounts were overdrawn; Coutts, £2,841; Lloyds, £4,379; National Westminster, £1,290; Midland, £5,667. Even though by then he was playing for much lower stakes than had previously been the case, Lucan's gambling remained completely out of control. Ranson (1994) estimates that between September and October 1974 alone, the earl ran up debts of around £50,000. Taki Theodoracopulos, who recalled Lucan as a close friend for more than a decade, lent him £3,000 in cash three nights before the murder.
Despite these problems, from late October 1974 Lucan's demeanour appeared to change for the better. His best man, John Wilbraham, remarked that Lucan's apparent obsession over regaining his children had diminished. While having dinner with his mother he cast aside talk of his family problems and turned instead to politics. On 6 November he met his uncle John Bevan, apparently in good spirits. Later that day he met 21-year-old Charlotte Andrina Colquhoun, who said that "he seemed very happy, just his usual self, and there was nothing to suggest that he was worried or depressed". He also dined at the Clermont with racing driver Graham Hill.
At the time, casinos could open only between 2:00 pm and 4:00 am, so Lucan often gambled into the early hours of the morning. He took tablets to deal with his insomnia and therefore usually awoke around lunchtime. On 7 November though, he broke routine and called his solicitor early that morning, and at 10:30 am took a call from Colquhoun. They arranged to eat at the Clermont at about 3:00 pm, but Lucan failed to appear. Colquhoun drove past the Clermont and Ladbroke clubs, and past Elizabeth Street, but could not find Lucan's car anywhere. Lucan also failed to arrive for his 1:00 pm lunch appointment with artist Dominic Elwes and banker Daniel Meinertzhagen, again at the Clermont.
At 4:00 pm Lucan called at a chemist's on Lower Belgrave Street, close to Veronica's home, and asked the pharmacist there to identify a small capsule. It turned out to be Limbitrol 5, a drug for the treatment of anxiety and depression. Lucan had apparently made several similar visits since he separated from his wife; he never told the pharmacist where he got the drugs. At 4:45 pm he called a friend, literary agent Michael Hicks-Beach, and between 6:30 pm and 7:00 pm met with him at his flat on Elizabeth Street. Lucan wanted his help with an article on gambling he had been asked to write for an Oxford University magazine.
Lucan drove Hicks-Beach home at about 8:00 pm, not in his Mercedes-Benz, but in "an old, dark, and scruffy Ford", possibly a Ford Corsair he borrowed from Michael Stoop several weeks earlier. At 8:30 pm he called the Clermont to check on a reservation for dinner with Greville Howard and friends. Howard had called him at 5:15 pm and asked if he wished to come to the theatre, but Lucan had declined and made the alternative suggestion to meet at the Clermont at 11:00 pm. He failed to arrive and did not answer his telephone when called.
Murder
Sandra Rivett
Sandra Eleanor Rivett was born on 16 September 1945, the third child of Albert and Eunice Hensby. The family moved to Australia when she was two years old, but returned in 1955. Sandra was a popular child, described at school as "intelligent, although she does not excel academically". She worked for six months as an apprentice hairdresser before taking a job as a secretary in Croydon.
After a failed romance Sandra became a voluntary patient at a mental hospital near Redhill, Surrey, where she was treated for depression. She became engaged to a builder named John and took a job as a children's nanny for a doctor in Croydon. On 13 March 1964, she gave birth to a boy named Stephen, but, as her relationship with John was failing, she returned home to live with her parents and considered giving the baby up for adoption. Her parents took on the responsibility and adopted him in May 1965.
Sandra later worked at a home for the elderly before moving to Portsmouth to stay with her older sister. While there she met Roger Rivett; the two married on 10 June 1967 in Croydon. Roger was serving as a Royal Navy able seaman and later worked as a loader for British Road Services, while Sandra worked part-time at Reedham Orphanage in Purley. In mid-1973 he took a job on an Esso tanker, returning to their flat in Kenley a few months later, by which time Sandra was employed by a cigarette company in Croydon.
The marriage collapsed in May 1974 when, suspicious of Sandra's movements while he was away, Roger went to live with his parents. She was by then listed on the books of a Belgravia domestic agency and had been caring for an elderly couple in that district. A few weeks later she began to work for the Lucans.
Sandra normally went out with her boyfriend, John Hankins, on Thursday nights, but had changed her night off and had seen him the previous day. The two last spoke on the telephone at about 8:00 pm on 7 November. After putting the younger children to bed, at about 8:55 pm she asked Veronica if she would like a cup of tea, before heading downstairs to the basement kitchen to make one. As she entered the room, Sandra was bludgeoned to death with a piece of bandaged lead pipe. Her killer then placed her body into a canvas mailbag. Meanwhile, wondering what had delayed her nanny, Lady Lucan descended from the first floor to see what had happened. She called to Rivett from the top of the basement stairs and was herself attacked. As she screamed for her life, her attacker told her to "shut up."
Lady Lucan later claimed at that moment to have recognised her husband's voice. The two apparently continued to fight; she bit his fingers, and when he threw her face down to the carpet, managed to turn around and squeeze his testicles, causing him to release his grip on her throat and give up the fight. When she asked where Rivett was, Lucan was at first evasive, but eventually admitted to having killed her. Terrified, Lady Lucan told him she could help him escape if only he would remain at the house for a few days, to allow her injuries to heal.
Lucan walked upstairs and sent his daughter to bed, then went into one of the bedrooms. When Veronica entered to lie on the bed, he told her to put towels down first to avoid staining the bedding. Lucan asked her if she had any barbiturates and went to the bathroom to get a wet towel, supposedly to clean Veronica's face. Lady Lucan realised her husband would be unable to hear her from the bathroom and made her escape, running outside to a nearby public house, the Plumbers Arms.
Lucan may have arrived at the Chester Square home of Madelaine Florman (mother of one of Frances's school friends) sometime between 10:00 pm and 10:30 pm. Alone in the house, Florman ignored the door, but shortly afterwards she received an incoherent telephone call and put the receiver down. Bloodstains, which after forensic examination were found to be a mixture of blood groups A and B, were later discovered on her doorstep. Lucan certainly called his mother between 10:30 pm and 11:00 pm and asked her to collect the children from Lower Belgrave Street. According to the Dowager Countess, he spoke of a "terrible catastrophe" at his wife's home. He told her that he had been driving past the house when he saw Veronica fighting with a man in the basement. He had entered the property and found his wife screaming.
The location from which Lucan made this call, and possibly the call to Florman, remains unknown. The police forced their way into Lady Lucan's home and discovered Rivett's body before his wife was taken by ambulance to St George's Hospital. Lucan drove the Ford Corsair to Uckfield, East Sussex, to visit his friends, the Maxwell-Scotts. Susan Maxwell-Scott's meeting with Lucan was his last confirmed sighting.
Investigation
By the time Detective Chief Superintendent Roy Ranson arrived at Lower Belgrave Street early on 8 November, the divisional surgeon had pronounced Rivett dead, and forensic officers and photographers had been called to the property. Other than the front door, which the first two officers on the scene had kicked in, there was no sign of a forced entry. A bloodstained towel was found in Veronica's first-floor bedroom. The area around the top of the basement staircase was heavily bloodstained.
A bloodstained lead pipe lay on the floor. Pictures hanging from the staircase walls were askew and a metal banister rail was damaged. At the foot of the stairs, two cups and saucers lay in a pool of blood. Rivett's arm protruded from the canvas sack, which lay in a slowly expanding pool of blood. The light fitting at the bottom of the stairs was missing its bulb; one was noted nearby, on a chair. Blood was also found on various leaves in the adjoining rear garden.
Officers also searched 5 Eaton Row, into which Lucan had moved early in 1973, and after interviewing his mother (who had called to take the children to her home in St John's Wood), his last address at 72a Elizabeth Street. Nothing untoward was found; on the bed, a suit and shirt lay alongside a book on Greek shipping millionaires, and Lucan's wallet, car keys, money, driving licence, handkerchief and spectacles were on a bedside table. His passport was in a drawer and his blue Mercedes-Benz parked outside, its engine cold and its battery flat.
Ranson then visited Lady Lucan at St George's Hospital. Although heavily sedated, she was able to describe what had happened to her. A police officer was left to guard her should her assailant return. Rivett's body was taken to the mortuary, and a search was undertaken of all local basement areas and gardens, skips and open spaces.
After removing her corpse from the canvas sack and beginning the post mortem examination, pathologist Keith Simpson told Ranson he was certain that Rivett had been killed before her body was placed in the sack, and that in his opinion the lead pipe found at the scene could be the murder weapon. Her estranged husband, Roger, had an alibi for the night concerned and was eliminated from police inquiries. Other male friends and boyfriends were questioned and discounted as suspects. Rivett's parents confirmed that she had a good working relationship with Lady Lucan and was extremely fond of the children. Meanwhile, Lucan had yet to make an appearance, and so his description was circulated to police forces across the country. Newspapers and television stations were told only that Lucan was wanted by the police for questioning.
Hours earlier, Lucan had again called his mother, at about 12:30 am. He told her that he would be in touch later that day, but declined to speak with the police constable who had accompanied her to her flat; instead, he said he would call the police later that morning. Ranson discovered that Lucan had travelled to Uckfield when he was called by Ian Maxwell-Scott, who told him that Lucan had arrived at his home a few hours after the murder and spoken with his wife, Susan. While there, the earl had written two letters to his brother-in-law, Bill Shand Kydd, and posted them to his London address. Maxwell-Scott also called Shand Kydd at his country house near Leighton Buzzard and told him about the letters, prompting the latter to immediately drive to London to collect them. After reading them, and noting that they were bloodstained, he took them to Ranson.
When asked why she did not immediately inform the police of Lucan's presence, Susan said she had not seen any newspapers or television news, or listened to any radio broadcasts, that might have warned her of the importance of his visit. Meanwhile, Lucan's children were taken by their aunt, Lady Sarah Gibbs, to her home in Guilsborough, Northamptonshire, where they would remain for several weeks. On the day Lady Lucan was discharged from hospital, a High Court hearing confirmed that the children could return to live with her. Repeated press intrusions later forced the family to move to a friend's home in Plymouth.
The Ford Corsair that Lucan had been seen driving, and whose details had the previous day been circulated across the country, was found on 10 November in Norman Road, Newhaven, about from Uckfield. In its boot was a piece of lead pipe covered in surgical tape and a full bottle of vodka. The car was removed for forensic examination. Later statements from two witnesses suggest that it was parked there sometime between 5:00 am and 8:00 am on the morning of 8 November. Its owner, Michael Stoop, also received a letter from Lucan, delivered to his club, the St James's. However, Stoop threw the envelope away and it was therefore not possible to check its postmark to see where it had been sent from.
Ranson suspected a suicide, but a thorough search of Newhaven Downs was judged impossible. A partial search was made using tracker dogs, but all that was found were the skeletal remains of a judge who had disappeared years earlier. Police divers searched the harbour, and a partial search using infrared photography was undertaken the following year, to no avail. A warrant for Lucan's arrest, to answer charges of murdering Sandra Rivett and attempting to murder his wife, was issued on 12 November. Descriptions of his appearance, already issued to police forces across the UK, were then issued to Interpol.
Forensics
The forensic examination of the lead pipes found at the murder scene and in the Corsair's boot revealed traces of blood on the pipe from 46 Lower Belgrave Street. This proved to be a mixture of Lady Lucan's (blood group A) and Rivett's (B) blood. Hair belonging to Lady Lucan was also found on that pipe, but none belonging to Rivett. The pipe found inside the Corsair had neither blood nor hair on it. Home Office scientists were unable to prove conclusively that both pipes were cut from the same, longer, piece of piping, although they thought it likely.
The tape wrapped around both was similar, but those too could not be conclusively linked. The letters written to Kydd were stained with blood considered to be from both women. The letter to Stoop had no blood on it, but it was later proven that the paper it was written on had been torn from a writing pad found in the Corsair's boot.
An examination of the blood stains found inside 46 Lower Belgrave Street demonstrated that Rivett had been attacked in the basement kitchen, while Lady Lucan had been attacked at the top of the basement stairs. The blood stains found inside the Corsair were of the AB blood group; the report concluded that this might have been a mixture of blood from both women. Hair similar to Lady Lucan's was also found inside the car.
Media reaction
By the afternoon of 8 November, the newspapers' early editions carried photographs of the Lucans across their front pages, accompanied by headlines like "Body in sack ... countess runs out screaming", and "Belgravia murder – earl sought". A meeting that day at the Clermont, between Aspinall, Meinertzhagen, Kydd, Elwes, Charles Benson, and Stephen Raphael became the cause of much press speculation. Meinertzhagen and Raphael later insisted that the gathering was just a rational discussion between concerned friends, keen to share anything they knew about what had happened, but the relationship between the Metropolitan Police and Lucan's social circle was strained; some officers complained that an "Eton mafia" worked against them.
Susan Maxwell-Scott refused to add to her statement, and when Aspinall's mother, Lady Osborne, was asked if she could help locate Lucan's body, she replied, "The last I heard of him, he was being fed to the tigers at my son's zoo", prompting the police to search the house and the animal cages there. Police searched fourteen country houses and estates, including Holkham Hall and Warwick Castle, to no avail.
Amidst concerns expressed by the Labour MP Marcus Lipton that some people were "being a bit snooty" with the police, Benson wrote a letter to the editor to The Times asking him to either identify those people or "kindly withdraw his remarks". To their cost, Private Eye accused Goldsmith of being at the Clermont meeting, when he was actually in Ireland. Elwes went to see Lady Lucan in hospital and was reportedly deeply shocked both by her appearance and her statement, "Who's the mad one now?" Elwes was apparently unhappy at some of the negative press coverage of the countess, and was later ostracised by his friends for his part in an article critical of Lucan, which appeared in The Sunday Times Magazine. He committed suicide in September 1975.
Rivett's case made headlines around the world. Within days of the murder, newspapers reported on Lady Lucan's statement to the police, with claims that she had pretended to collude with her husband to ensure her safety. In January 1975 Lady Lucan gave an exclusive interview to the Daily Express. She also appeared in a murder reconstruction in the same newspaper, complete with posed photographs taken inside the house.
Inquest
The inquest into Sandra Rivett's death opened on 13 November 1974 and was led by the Coroner for Inner West London, Gavin Thurston. Two witnesses were called to the courtroom, which was packed with reporters; Roger Rivett, who confirmed that he had identified his wife's body, and the pathologist Keith Simpson, who confirmed that Rivett had died from being hit on the head with a blunt instrument. At Ranson's request, the hearing was then adjourned. Further adjournments were made on 11 December 1974 and 10 March 1975, before a full inquest was scheduled for 16 June 1975.
The hearing began with introductions from various legal representatives, including a lawyer hired for Lucan by his mother. Thurston introduced the jury to the case and explained their duties. He had selected 33 witnesses to be called over the following few days, including Lady Lucan, who each day wore a dark coat and white headscarf. Thurston questioned her on her relationship with Lucan, her marriage, her financial affairs, her employment of Rivett and what had happened on the night of the attack.
The Dowager Countess's Queen's Counsel attempted to ask Lady Lucan about the nature of their relationship or if she hated her husband, but Thurston ruled his line of questioning inadmissible. Woman Detective Constable Sally Blower, who had taken a statement from Lady Frances Lucan on 20 November 1974, read the young girl's words to the court. Frances had heard a scream, and a few minutes later had watched as her mother (blood on her face) and father had entered the room. Her mother had then sent her to bed. She later heard her father calling for her mother, asking where she was, and watched as he left the bathroom and walked downstairs. She also described how Rivett did not normally work on Thursday nights.
The landlord of the Plumbers Arms described how Lady Lucan had entered his bar covered "head to toe in blood" before she fell into "a state of shock". He claimed that she shouted, "Help me, help me, I've just escaped from being murdered!" and, "My children, my children, he's murdered my nanny!" Simpson outlined his post-mortem examination, concluding that death was caused by "blunt head injuries" and "inhalation of blood". He confirmed that the lead pipe found at the scene was most likely responsible for Rivett's injuries; some, to the left eye and mouth, he thought more likely to have been caused by punches from a clenched fist.
The last person to confirm seeing Lucan alive, Susan Maxwell-Scott, told the court that the earl looked "dishevelled", and his hair "a little ruffled". His trousers had a damp patch on the right hip. Lucan had told her that he was walking or passing by the Lower Belgrave Street residence when he saw Veronica being attacked by a man. He let himself in but slipped in a pool of blood at the bottom of the stairs. He told Maxwell-Scott that the attacker ran off, and that Veronica was "very hysterical" and accused him of having hired a hitman to kill her.
Once the hearing had ended, Thurston made a summary of the evidence presented and told the jury their options. At 11:45 am, their foreman announced "Murder by Lord Lucan". Lucan became the first member of the House of Lords to be named a murderer since 1760, when Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, was hanged for killing his bailiff. He was also the last person to be committed by a coroner to the Crown Court for unlawful killing; the coroner's power to do so was removed by the Criminal Law Act 1977.
Rivett's body, which had been held for several weeks following the murder, was released to her family and cremated at Croydon crematorium on 18 December 1974. A police spokesman cited Lady Lucan's desire not to upset the family as a reason for her non-attendance at the cremation.
Lucan's defence
Lucan's friends and family were critical of the inquest, which they felt offered a one-sided view of events. His mother told reporters that it did not serve "any useful purpose at all". Veronica's sister, Christina, said that she felt "great sadness and sorrow" at the verdict. Susan Maxwell-Scott continued to press the earl's claims of innocence and claimed to feel "awfully sorry" for the countess.
However, as Lucan remained absent, his description of "a traumatic night of unbelievable coincidence" came only from the letters he authored and the people he spoke with soon after Rivett's murder. While his fingerprints were not found at the scene, his assertions make no provision for the lead pipe discovered in the boot of the Corsair, the claims by some that he discussed murdering his wife, or the lack of a viable suspect for the man he claimed to have seen fighting her. No sign of a forced entry was found, and officers attempting to demonstrate that Lucan could have seen into the basement kitchen, from the street, could only do so by stooping low to the pavement.
The light in the basement of 46 Lower Belgrave Street was not working, making it even more difficult to see into the room; its lightbulb (which was tested and found to be in working order) was found removed from its holder and left lying on a chair. Furthermore, Lady Lucan claimed not to have entered the basement that night, contradicting the earl's version of events; his wife's account is supported by the forensic examination made of the blood splashes and stains around the property.
Some traces of Lady Lucan's blood were found in the basement, the rear garden and on the canvas sack used to store Rivett's body; this may have been due to contamination at the scene. The man Lucan claimed to have seen could not have left through the basement's front door as it was locked, and the rear door led to a walled garden through which no trace of an escape was found. No signs that the man left by the ground level front door were discovered, and no witnesses reported seeing any such person near 46 Lower Belgrave Street.
In contrast to his defenders, the national press were almost unanimous in their condemnation of Lucan. Their leader-writers ignored the threat of libel and identified him as Rivett's killer.
Bankruptcy and estate
As Lucan's bankruptcy proceeded, in August 1975 his creditors were informed that the missing earl had unsecured debts of £45,000 and preferential liabilities for £1,326. His assets were estimated at £22,632. The family silver was sold in March 1976 for around £30,000. His remaining debts were repaid by the Lucan family trust in the years immediately following his disappearance.
Lucan's family was granted probate over his estate in 1999, but no death certificate was issued, and his heir, George Bingham, was refused permission to take his father's title and seat in the House of Lords. Following the passage of the Presumption of Death Act 2013, Bingham began a new attempt to have his father declared dead, which proved successful in a High Court hearing at the Rolls Building on 3 February 2016. He therefore inherited his father's title, becoming the 8th Earl of Lucan.
Ultimate fate and reported sightings
The last confirmed sighting of Lucan was at about 1:15 am on 8 November 1974 as he exited the driveway of the Maxwell-Scott property in Stoop's Ford Corsair, and his ultimate fate remains a mystery. Ranson initially claimed that Lucan had "done the honourable thing" and "fallen on his own sword", a view repeated by many of Lucan's friends, including Aspinall, who said that he believed that the earl was guilty of Rivett's murder and that he had committed suicide by scuttling his motorboat and jumping into the English Channel with a stone tied to his body. Lady Lucan, who committed suicide in 2017, believed that her husband had killed himself "like the nobleman he was".
Ranson later changed his view, explaining that he considered it more likely that suicide was far from Lucan's thoughts, that a drowning at sea was implausible, and that the earl had moved to southern Africa. A detective who led a new investigation into Lucan's disappearance 32 years after the murder told the Telegraph that "the evidence points towards the fact that Lord Lucan left the country and lived abroad for a number of years". Susan Maxwell-Scott told author John Pearson that Lucan might have been helped out of the country by shadowy underground financiers before being judged too great a risk, killed, and buried in Switzerland. Advertising executive Jeremy Scott proposed a similar theory, as he was familiar with some of the Clermont Set.
Lucan's disappearance has captivated the public's imagination for decades, with thousands of sightings reported around the world. One of the earliest such sightings occurred shortly after the murder, but it turned out to be British politician John Stonehouse who had attempted to fake his own death. The police travelled to France in June the following year to hunt another lead, to no avail. A sighting in Colombia turned out to be an American businessman.
John Miller, a bounty hunter who previously kidnapped fugitive train robber Ronnie Biggs, claimed to have captured the earl in 1982 but was later exposed by the News of the World as a hoaxer. In 2003, a former Scotland Yard detective thought that he had tracked the earl to Goa, India, but the man whom he traced was actually Barry Halpin, a folk singer from Merseyside. In 2007, reporters in New Zealand interviewed a homeless British expatriate who neighbours claimed was the missing earl.
George Bingham responded to claims that the two eldest Lucan children were sent to Gabon in the early 1980s so that their father might secretly watch them "from a distance" and denied ever visiting the country. Lady Lucan dismissed the newspaper claims of sightings as "nonsense", reiterating that her husband "was not the sort of Englishman to cope abroad".
In 2020, a sighting was reported in Australia.
See also
List of fugitives from justice who disappeared
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Observer article on John Aspinall, regarding Lucan's fate –
For an account of the circumstances surrounding the murder see
Telegraph obituary of Charles Benson, of the Clermont Set –
For television docu-dramas on the case, see ; and
Observer article on Lucan's reading habits and political views –
For a television documentary on the case, see
Non-fiction
Fiction
External links
BBC Motion Gallery – contemporary footage of the case may be found here
Official Website of the Countess of Lucan – "Setting the record straight"
1934 births
1974 murders in the United Kingdom
20th-century English criminals
Coldstream Guards officers
Criminals from London
Earls of Lucan
English gamblers
English murderers
Murder in London
People declared dead in absentia
People educated at Eton College
People from Marylebone
Possibly living people
Year of death uncertain
20th-century British Army personnel | [
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219056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair%20City | Fair City | Fair City is an Irish television soap opera which has been broadcast on RTÉ One since 1989. Produced by the public service broadcaster Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ), it first aired on Monday 18 September 1989. It has won several awards and is both the most popular and the longest running Irish drama serial.
Plots centre on the domestic and professional lives of the residents of Carrigstown, a fictional suburb of the Northside part of the city of Dublin. The area encompasses a restaurant, pub, garage, corner shop, community centre, charity shop, surgery, boxing club (Esker/Carrigstown Boxing Club) and various businesses. Originally aired as one half-hour episode per week for a limited run, the show is now broadcast year round on RTÉ One in four episodes per week, all of which air at 20:00.
Fair City is the most watched drama in Ireland, with average viewing figures of 550,000. Devised by executive producer Margaret Gleeson and series producer Paul Cusack, it has remained a significant programme in terms of RTÉ's success and audience share, and also in the history of Irish television drama, tackling many controversial and taboo issues previously unseen on Irish television, such as rape.
Setting
Fair City is set in Carrigstown, a fictional suburb of the Northside part of the city of Dublin. "Carrick" is found in many real Irish locations (for instance: Carrickmacross, Carrickfergus, Carrick-on-Shannon, Carrick-on-Suir), and is derived from the Irish-language word carraig, meaning "rock". Many of the scenes take place around the main street in Carrigstown, with notable landmarks on the street including McCoy's pub, Phelan's corner shop (now Spar, formerly Doyle's), The Hungry Pig (formerly The Bistro), the Community Centre (formerly The Haven) and Vino's (formerly Rainbows Sandwich Bar). Other recurring settings include the Acorn Cabs dispatch centre, the shared office, the Helping Hand charity shop, the surgery and most recently the Peggy Tea coffee shop.
According to the RTÉ Guide, Carrigstown is bounded by Drumcondra to the north, the city centre to the south, East Wall to the east and Phibsboro to the west. Carrigstown takes its name from the village that grew up around the quarries in which granite was mined until the early 20th century – carraig, as noted above, being the Irish-language word for "rock".
Fair City occasionally makes use of real Dublin locations, such as Grafton Street, the Natural History Museum and Dublin Zoo. In 2011, filming took place for the first time outside of Dublin at the National Ploughing Championships. For the 1989 Dublin City Marathon, actors filmed short scenes taking part in the marathon that were edited into the programme in the following episode.
Characters
The series was originally focused on four families: the O'Hanlons, the Kellys, the Clarkes and the Doyles. Some of the earlier characters also included Lily Corcoran, her womanising nephew, Jack Flynn, Paul Brennan, now a billionaire, at the time worked for Jack Flynn, and Linda O'Malley, an acquaintance of Jack's, to whom he had promised fame as a singer.
During the 1990s, the Phelan, Doyle, and Molloy families were introduced and dominated storylines for that decade. Bela and Rita Doyle, along with their brood of six children and Rita's mother Hannah, were involved in many stories. The Phelan family originally consisted of Hughie and Natalie, but later a new branch of the family arrived including Hughie's mother Eunice, and his brother Christy, along with Christy's wife Renee, and their two children Floyd and Farrah. The Molloy family was introduced in the mid-1990s and consisted of patriarch Harry, his wife Dolores, and their two teenage children Wayne and Lorraine.
The Halpin family was gradually introduced in the early 2000s, starting with Damien Halpin, his mother Tess Halpin and younger siblings Laura and Mark. Since then, the show's focus has shifted to individual characters instead of family groupings. Notable characters introduced subsequently include Carol Meehan, Tracey Kavanagh, Ray O'Connell, and Jo Fahey.
Another change in recent years has been the introduction of ethnic minority characters such as Lana Dowling and the Udenze family. However, the Udenzes moved back to England after the father Gabriel was burnt to death in a fire, and Lana Dowling was kidnapped and murdered. In 2009 an Israeli character was introduced to the show – Avi Bar Lev, Avi hails from the town of Haifa in Israel. In 2013, Ama Chisenga, a devout Christian nurse from Zambia came to Carrigstown, and faced trouble with documentation for immigration. More recently in 2017, two Chilean brothers, Jake and Christiano, came to the show. Jake, who came first, was initially homeless, but later started a relationship with Ama. His gay brother Christiano soon followed, and both now run a coffee shop, Brewers, in the Carrigstown Arcade.
2012 brought the additions of the Dillon family – the Father Tommy, the Mother Judith and their three daughters Caoimhe Dillon, Neasa Dillon and Dearbhla Dillon, and their son Zak. The Bishops arrived in 2009, consisting of the mother Vivienne, her sons Decco, Denzo and Zumo and her daughter Charlotte. Vivienne's niece Sash Bishop was introduced in 2011 and the patriarch Paddy Bishop in 2013. The O'Briens came in 2014 – the father Eoghan, the mother Debbie and their daughter Katy and their son Michael.
Paul Brennan is the only character from the first episode currently in the show. Sarah Flood was axed in 2013 after 23 years playing Suzanne Doyle.
Former executive producer Niall Mathews believes the soap's success is due to the large cast and the fact that no single character or group of characters dominates. "Difficulties are inherent if you are dealing with just one family", he says. "Look at Dallas and Dynasty; both did well at the beginning, but because all the action was centred on a single family, the writers ran out of things to say."
Executive Producer Brigie de Courcy said: "I think the big thing that Fair City does that the other soaps don't quite do is that it is really rooted in the community."
Production
Running in parallel with the writing process is the production process, which includes: casting, wardrobe, make-up, design and construction of sets, purchase of props, finding locations, booking facilities, developing schedules, sound, and other administrative tasks involved in managing a large production.
Each week rehearsals for the four episodes take place on Saturday and Monday. Shooting takes place on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday. On Tuesday and Wednesday, the interior scenes are filmed at Studios A and C on RTÉ's Montrose campus. The exterior scenes are filmed on the lot within the grounds of the RTÉ Headquarters on Thursday and on location on Friday. Each day, 15 scenes are filmed. Scripts are prepared up to six months in advance, and episodes are shot six weeks before being aired. Four episodes are filmed every week. After shooting an episode, an editor will go through the episode scene by scene with the director. They will choose which shots to retain and which to cut.
From 1989 until 1994, all interior shots were filmed at Ardmore Studios, near Bray, County Wicklow. In 1994, production moved to studios at Montrose specifically adapted to cater for the show. Like Brookside, all exterior shots were initially filmed at real houses in a real cul-de-sac in Barron Place, Drumcondra and later in Booterstown. Due to the difficulties involved with shooting outside of a controlled environment (e.g. having to negotiate with residents, traffic noise, etc.), it was decided to build a streetscape, known as the lot. In 1992, the Fair City lot was built at Ardmore, where set designers replicated the facades and interiors of the original houses. In 1994, a new lot was built at the grounds of RTÉ. In 2018, production moved again for the first time in decades to the present lot in RTE. On each set appliances such as washing machines and gas cookers don't actually work most of the time.
The show has had four different opening sequences and five different theme tunes. The opening features several scenes of contemporary Dublin, while the closing credits shows a frozen image of the River Liffey.
Writing
The series is planned in various stages. The first stage is the development of story and plot, which is carried out by a team of writers. Once the stories have been fleshed out and agreed, a scene breakdown is created. The episodes are then assigned to script writers, who create the dialogue and stage directions for the actors.
Theme tune
Fair Citys original theme tune was composed by Adam Lynch and Hugh Drumm. They were asked to come up with a piece of music that would be "easy on the ear, have a certain warmth, conjure up a feeling of Dublin and manage to reflect the mood of the programme". The second theme tune was introduced in 1995, the third in 2005 and the fourth in 2008. The 1995 theme is an orchestral version of the original. The 2005 theme is an upbeat piano version of the 1995 one. The present theme, composed by Columb Farrelly and Andy O'Callaghan, is a jazzed up version of the original.
Imagery
Fair City'''s original opening sequence was designed by Carol Coffey. The second opening sequence was introduced in 1995 when the then executive producer John Lynch decided that the opening needed modernising. It was designed by John Hayes in collaboration with John Lynch. For 10 years, the opening remained unchanged, aside from the digital insertion of the Millennium Bridge. In order to be compatible with wide-screen format and show the changing face of Dublin, a new opening, designed by Michael McKeon, was introduced in 2005. The present opening, designed by Paul Gibney, was introduced in 2008.
Post-production
Each episode should run for 23 minutes (not counting ad breaks). If any episode runs over or under them, the executive producer and series editor will cut or add scenes where appropriate so that the episode ends up with the correct running time. As noted in the book Inside Fair City, the episode will "go back to the editing suite and a final edit will be done to produce the finished product that viewers will see on screen".
Budget
In 2016, Fair City cost RTÉ €53,500 per episode, which adds up to €10.7m annually. Fair City actors earned nearly €460 per day. 15 scriptwriters received €3,495 per episode and nine were paid €1,837. RTE said the writers were given "an additional 35pc of the basic fee per episode in respect of a further broadcast of the episode within seven days. These are rates agreed with the Irish Playwrights and Screenwriters Guild".
Social realism
The show has featured a number of gritty and controversial storylines reflecting major issues in Irish society, particularly from the mid-1990s. Former executive producer Niall Mathews said: "We don't hang out a banner saying we are dealing with rape and murder as issues. One of our characters gets raped and the story is how it affects her, her family and the community. We are not doing issue-driven programs. We use issues to illuminate the characters more than to illuminate the issues."
In 1996, three years after homosexuality was decriminalised in Ireland, male characters Eoghan and Liam moved in for a passionate embrace – only to be interrupted. It would have been the first gay kiss on Irish television. Nowadays Fair City deals with LGBT themes more openly and more regularly. Yvonne, one of the soap's main characters, is bisexual, and used to date Connie from Australia. They were to have been married in Northern Ireland. Laura, lesbian daughter of Tess Halpin, formed a relationship with social worker Emily, only to have it broken up by the jealous, bitter and deranged Lucy. Troy, the son of Leo Dowling (another major character), is openly gay. The programme's first transgender character was Ryan Donnelly, who debuted in 2017 and was played by the trans man Jack Murphy.
Also, in 1996, there was the false accusations story, in which schoolgirl Niamh Cassidy falsely accused her teacher Barry O'Hanlon of coming onto her after she seduced him and they had a passionate embrace. 1996 also saw the first murder on the show when Tony Kelly was killed by London criminal drug-dealers whom he owed money to.
In 1998, the show tackled the subject of rape, with the rape of Lorraine Molloy by Dr Jack Shanahan, who later committed suicide. Also, Kay McCoy began a relationship with Catholic priest Malachy Costello, who then left the priesthood and married Kay in 1999. Leo Dowling's wife Sandie slept with his son Dean after finding out that Leo was having an affair. Helen Doyle died in a car accident. Noeleen and Stephen McCoy were brainwashed by a religious cult called The Church of the Children of Eternal Light. Foster care was shown in 1999 when Kay and Malachy fostered teenager Lorcan Foley. A psychopathic nanny, Mona Fagan, kidnapped Paul Brennan and Nicola Prendergast's baby son Osin.
Abortion was portrayed in 2001 with a story which divided the country when Kay decided to abort her pregnancy against the wishes of the father Malachy. As an older mother Kay has amniocentesis tests done which reveal the child has trisomy-13 which means that the child would be born severely disabled and probably would not survive long after birth. The storyline was seen by the actors and producers as controversial and heart-breaking. They recognised the time sensitive nature of the decisions that had to be made and the potential impacts and worked to show it all. This storyline caused anti-abortion viewers to complain to the Justice Minister on the grounds that the story was hate speech against people with disabilities.
Drug addiction has also been portrayed a number of times. In 1997, Lorraine Molly became addicted to amphetamines to cram for her exams. One of Fair Citys best-known storylines took place in 2001, with crime lord Billy Meehan abusing his wife Carol and mistress Tracey McGuigan before being murdered by Carol's son Lorcan. Prostitution was also shown in 2001 when Tracey turned to prostitution in order to pay for drugs.
Prostate cancer awareness was raised in June 2002 in a storyline depicting Bela Doyle's battle with prostate cancer. Gambling addiction was depicted, with Malachy's gambling addiction. Mental health issues were confronted in December 2002 when Yvonne Doyle developed schizophrenia (which led to her taking a drug overdose in a suicide attempt). In 2003, storylines included teenage pregnancy (14-year-old Kira Cassidy giving birth to a baby girl, Juliet) and Heather Lyons' incestus relationship with her half-brother Floyd Phelan (though they didn't know they were half-siblings at first). An Accident and Emergency special was aired in March 2003.
Also, domestic abuse was highlighted with the Halpin family when Tess was murdered by her husband Marty following years of domestic abuse. The episode aired on 3 April 2003 and RTÉ had to set up a help-line following the episode. More recently in 2010, there was a domestic abuse storyline involving Tess's eldest son Damien. This time Damien's partner Suzanne was the abusive person in the relationship and this ultimately led to them breaking up. A week-long special dealt with date rape and teen suicide against the backdrop of the educational system.
In 2004, Fair City continued to feature issues such as eating disorders (Robin McKenna's bulimia) and teacher Sorcha Byrne's illicit affair with 19-year-old student Ross O'Rourke (which cultivated in Barry O'Hanlon being overcome by clinical depression and having a mental breakdown). Breast cancer awareness was raised (Nicola's battle with breast cancer). A three-week-long special dealt with Catholic Church politics, the legal system and the clerical sexual abuse of children.
Homelessness was shown in 2005 when Cleo Collins slept rough on the streets. Gangland killing was also featured in 2005 when Mick Mahoney killed Alex Yuschenko, a Ukrainian gang member, under the orders of his new boss crime lord Sylvester Garrigan (which led to his niece Ali O'Shea being held hostage by them in 2006). Also, accidental drug overdose was highlighted, with the death of Dolores Molloy's baby Jessica from an accidental Ecstasy overdose when Ross left some ecstasy tablets on the floor of the Molloy household. A two-week-long special looked at the murkier side of yuppie life against the backdrop of property speculation reflecting the Celtic Tiger.
In 2006, the gangland storyline was revisited, with a chain of bad fortune for Garrigan ultimately leading to his downfall. First, he was wounded in a drive-by shooting, which was an assassination attempt on his life by the Ukrainian gang in retaliation for killing Alex. Subsequently, a sting operation by undercover Garda Rory Goff found drugs that Lorcan was piggybacking on one of Garrigan's booze runs. Garrigan was furious that Lorcan had implicated him in drug-dealing and he ordered Lorcan to kill Rory. As Rory and Lorcan confronted each other, Lorcan fired the first shot, but Rory struck back with another, wounding them both in the process. Rory survived, but Lorcan's days were numbered. Lorcan made a deathbed confession to the Gardaí before he died in hospital. Garrigan was arrested and was never seen again, but he is assumed to be in prison. Tim Carney's domineering marriage with Olga was also featured. Racism was shown when the Udenze family were targeted by racists Pete Flanngan and Morgan Dalton.
In 2007, the show tackled the subject of bullying, with the bullying of Mark Halpin. Missing persons were also highlighted in 2007 with the disappearance of Lana Dowling. In 2008, the show dealt with the issue of euthanasia by featuring Floyd's death in a pact with Heather's husband Brendan. The Criminal Assets Bureau was shown when Carol lost her pub and nightclub which were purchased by Billy with his ill-gotten gains. In 2009 mental health issues were confronted such as Keith McGrath's desertion of the British Army and Bill Taylor's psychological torture over Annette Daly's alcoholism. 2009 also saw the show's first bisexual love triangle and lesbian storyline when Yvonne Doyle had an affair with her best friend Connie Boylan.
In 2010, Damien Halpin's unemployment reflects the Irish financial crisis. In addition the many scenes of domestic abuse towards Damien by his wife Suzanne have brought into the open the taboo subject of spousal abuse towards males. The series has been praised for this edgy and at times controversial storyline. It proved to be so popular that British soap opera Coronation Street later did their own version. Organ donor awareness was raised in 2011 when Lucy Mallon received a cornea transplant. Wearing pyjamas during the day was covered with Sash Bishop. Aside from this, soap opera staples of youthful romance, jealousy, rivalry, gossip and extramarital affairs are regularly featured. Late 2011/early 2012 saw Orla Kirwan and Caoimhe Dillon engage in numerous shoplifting sprees around Dublin. In April 2012, life in prison was covered, with prisoner Decco Bishop fearing for his life behind bars. Domestic violence has been a recurring theme in Fair City, most recently in 2013 with the introduction of the character Paddy Bishop, who is captured on screen flaking his wife Vivienne with a belt.
In December 2013, Yvonne Doyle is raped by Internet predator Martin Baxter. He later bombards her with calls and texts, and calls to her restaurant Vino's and threatens her, but she later reports him to the police. In January 2014, Paul Brennan finds himself the victim of a blackmail plot when Jane extorts €40,000 from him. In March 2014, Yvonne faces a trial which she is terrified about. Also, in February/March 2014, bullying is covered again with the bullying of Rachel Brennan by Amanda Ryan, who torments Rachel along with a group of girls. In April and May 2014, stalking is shown, with stalker Tommy Dillon's campaign of terror towards his ex-wife Judith. Tommy is eventually outed as the stalker and, in late May 2014, holds Judith hostage with a gun. In July 2014, Christy Phelan faces a health battle when he suffers a stroke. Katy O'Brien questions her sexuality and becomes the show's first character to come out on-screen.
In August 2015, Fair City took on the issue of miscarriage when couple Damien and Caoimhe lost their baby.
From May 2016 until May 2017, Fair City provided its longest storyline ever, "Who Kidnapped Katy?" The storyline focussed on Katy O'Brien, who was kidnapped and later held hostage in the garage of Ciarán Holloway, who had come to Carrigstown to seek revenge on Emmett O'Brien – Katy's brother – for apparently giving rise to his sister's death in South-East Asia whilst travelling. During this period, Katy had become extremely attached to Ciarán, and later defended his honour on television and to his family, in what would be described as the effects of Stockholm syndrome.
In August 2016, Fair City tackled the issue of child abuse when Carol's father Trigger arrives in Carrigstown and she is forced to face her dark past.
In October 2019, Fair City tackled the issue of domestic abuse in a gay relationship between Cristiano San Martin and Will Casey. The show highlighted abusive behaviour such as psychological and emotional manipulation and gaslighting as Will tormented Cristiano.
History
Concept and inspiration
In 1988, a year before Fair City hit the screens, the show was just a vague idea conceived by RTÉ when it decided that it needed an urban soap opera to compete with Coronation Street and EastEnders. RTÉ gave the job of creating this new soap to Margaret Gleeson. Gleeson, known for her work on Tolka Row and The Riordans, was appointed the show's first Executive Producer with Paul Cusack and David McKenna as producers. Tony Holland – co-creator of EastEnders – was brought in as a consultant. The target launch date was September 1989 and an initial run of 13 episodes was commissioned.
With the help of Cusack, McKenna and Holland, Gleeson devised the many components needed to make the initial thirteen-episode limited series. She created twenty-two original characters for the soap and cast actors for them. The show had a number of working titles – Glasfin and Northsiders – before settling on Fair City. Gleeson had nine weeks in which to shoot the whole thing.Fair City derives its title from the opening line of the traditional song "Molly Malone": "In Dublin's fair city, where the girls are so pretty..." and was the only English-language soap opera produced in Ireland until Red Rock was launched on TV3 on 7 January 2015. The show was launched with an hour-long pilot episode, written by Peter Sheridan, on 18 September 1989 and at the time was described as "the most ambitious production of its kind ever undertaken by RTÉ".
Early years: 1989–1994Fair City was not an instant success and was on shaky ground for a couple of seasons. Former executive producer John Lynch recalled: "My impression of it at the time was of nothing happening very fast, then you'd cut to a scene where nothing happened even faster, then there would be a shot of somebody riding a bicycle stuck in between, they were trying to copy Eastenders, but Tony Holland didn't realise that the Irish are less direct than the English."
RTÉ's Director of Television Production at the time described the situation:
"Now Fair City had run 17 episodes and there was a big question mark over its future. This had been for several reasons. One was the audience, by far the largest audience had been for the first show and the 17 or the 16 that followed showed a fairly relentless fall in audience figures. And if you're doing something like a soap actually you expect the reverse trend if it's working".
In 1990, RTÉ executives initially cancelled the show after the first season. However, they then decided to renew it for a second season. They brought in Irish writer Mary Halpin to drastically revamp the series.
Tony Tormey, who plays Paul Brennan, explains: "He [Tony Holland] just didn't have the Irish thing. The scripts were all in a different idiom. They were written in Londonese rather than Dublinese. It just didn't work so they cancelled it. But they stuck with it and brought Mary Halpin in. It was almost like starting again."
The introduction of strong story lines centring on the Doyle and Molloy families in the early 1990s began to gradually improve the soap's popularity and were overseen by new executive producer Niall Mathews, who was in charge from 1990 to 2008, apart from the period between 1994 and 1998. He oversaw the show's transformation from a minor, urban drama into one of Ireland's major soaps, challenging Glenroe in the ratings. In 1994 John Lynch became executive producer and during his time Fair City began dealing with gritty and controversial issues previously unseen on Irish television.
Later years: 2002–present
On 17 January 2002, Fair City reached its 1,000th episode. In 2004, the soap opera celebrated its fifteenth year by broadcasting an hour-long compilation episode entitled Fair City: The Ten Commandments. This episode showed clips of characters breaking the Ten Commandments. It also featured interviews with the cast, writers, creator and fans. On 30 November 2006, Fair City reached its 2,000th episode.
In 2008 veteran Executive Producer Niall Mathews bowed out of the show and was replaced by former Script Editor Brigie de Courcy. During her reign, the soap has received critical acclaim for its more credible, sophisticated and psychological stories. In September 2011, Fair City reached its 3,000th episode. In 2013, the serial's 24th anniversary was celebrated with an hour-long special, in which characters Damien, Caoimhe, Tommy and Luke were trapped in a fire at a factory.
Fair City celebrated its 25th anniversary in September 2014 by airing episodes such as Paul Brennan finding out that his wife Niamh is leaving him for Michael and Christy Phelan's death at the hands of his daughter Farrah's husband Max. In September 2016, the soap reached its 4,000th episode.
19 October 2017 saw the airing of the show's first two-hander episode featuring Paul and Niamh. An hour-long special was shown in September 2019 to celebrate the soap's 30th anniversary.
Broadcast format
The show was initially aired with one episode per week for a limited run (16 weeks). In 1990, RTÉ opted to recommission the soap and air one episode a week between September and June, taking a summer break. In 1994, its output was increased to twice weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 7pm. In 1996, the series started being broadcast all year around with one weekly episode during the summer months. In 1998 an extra episode was added and a fourth was added in 2001. In 2000, a second weekly episode was added in the summer. In 2003, the programme started airing four episodes all year-round from the summer of that year. In 2004, Friday's 8.30 pm episode was moved to Sunday nights at 8pm.
International screenings
Northern Ireland and Britain
Since early 2001 RTÉ One has also been available on most digital platforms in Northern Ireland through Sky and Virgin Media, Fair City is officially available on this service to audiences in this territory. Prior to 2001 in Northern Ireland, UTV aired episodes of the soap in the early and mid-90s during its daytime schedule. Episodes shown on UTV were seasons behind RTÉ. Prior to the arrival of digital terrestrial television in Europe, many viewers in Northern Ireland, Wales and North-western England could watch Fair City on RTÉ One, because some of those populations were able to receive Irish television through spillover, although signal spillover has reduced since the transition to digital.Fair City was shown on the Tara Television network in the United Kingdom via cable and Sky Digital from 1997 until the closure of the station in 2002. Classic episodes were shown in the daytime and repeated in the early evenings on weekdays, and current episodes were simulcast with RTÉ One. STV in Scotland announced that it would broadcast the show when the local STV channels rebranded as STV2. The series launched in April 2017 with a thirty-minute documentary entitled Fair City: The Story So Far before airing the Christmas Day episode from 2014.
International
The show is available to a global audience through RTÉ Player International.
Product placement
In 2011, BWG Foods, operators of the SPAR brand in Ireland, invested €900,000 in a three-year deal to have SPAR appear in Fair City. The new shop, formerly Christy Phelan's corner shop, was unveiled in an episode broadcast on 6 December 2011. It was RTÉ's first high-profile product placement deal, and followed the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland's decision to allow paid product placement on Irish television, in line with relaxed EU regulations. There are 450 SPAR outlets in the Republic of Ireland. RTÉ was obliged to inform viewers before each episode aired it contained product placement. RTÉ said that Fair Citys editor-in-chief would ensure there were no gratuitous references or prominence given to Spar that would not happen anyway.
COVID-19
Due to coronavirus-related lockdown issues, Fair City was taken off air for the first time in its history, with the last filmed episode broadcast on 12 April 2020. After a five-month break, the show returned on Sunday 6 September, three nights a week. The fictional character Renee Phelan got COVID-19 and recovered off air. RTÉ stated in January 2021 that it planned to commence testing actors and production staff for the virus.
Popularity and viewershipFair City enjoys consistently high official viewing statistics. The viewing figures for each episode are around 500,000 – 600,000 and rise to 700,000 or more for specials. The soap is hugely popular with viewers outside of Dublin. It attracts the highest audiences for any drama on Irish television, beating stalwart British imports such as Coronation Street, Emmerdale and EastEnders in the ratings. The launch show attracted 1.06 million viewers. On 21 November 2001, Fair City attracted 840,000 viewers who tuned in to see Billy Meehan being killed by Lorcan Foley. 660,000 viewers tuned in to watch Sylvester Garrigan get shot on 19 January 2006. 731,000 viewers watched on 23 November 2010 to see the latest development featuring battered husband Damien Halpin. The show was not an instant ratings success in the first couple of seasons, but became more favourable in subsequent seasons, when there were strong story lines centring on the Doyle and Molloy families.The Wire star Reg E. Cathey has expressed his interest in a part on the show, saying he would like to play "an American guy coming to meet his daughter who is now a big singer, someone like Laura Izibor".
In April 2017, Fair City began airing in Scotland on STV2 weekdays and an omnibus on STV at the weekend.
Critical reception
Reception to the pilot episode was positive from Eamon Dunphy of the Sunday Independent, Brendan Glacken of the Irish Times and Eddie Holt of the Irish Independent. However over time, the serial was not a critical success, but it has received acclaim recently for its more credible, sophisticated and psychological stories under executive producer Brigie de Courcy. Helena Sheehan has published academic accounts and analyses of its ups and downs.
Awards
The programme was nominated for an IFTA as 'Best Television Drama' in the years 2000 and 2003. Stuart Dunne, who portrayed Billy Meehan, was nominated for an IFTA as 'Best Actor in a Television Drama' in 2003.
Pat Nolan, who plays Barry O'Hanlon, won a Rose d'Or award in the 'Best Soap Actor' category at the international Rose d'Or Festival in Switzerland on 7 May 2005. The series has also been nominated for a TVNow Award as 'Favourite Soap' in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. Its first ever victory, in 2008, was matched by a second victory in 2009. Fair City won 'Best Soap in the International Entertainment' category, at the Mediamixx festival in Bulgaria in July 2007.
Controversy
RTÉ pays some Fair City cast members €432 a day, although the soap generates revenue in the region of €7m each year for RTÉ. Tommy O'Neill, the actor who plays Detective Deegan, was embroiled in a row with a taxi driver over a €10 fare in November 2011.
As a result of a storyline, school managers feared that students were starting "copycat" fight clubs in post primary schools around the country. RTÉ has also launched an investigation into how a convicted child sex offender appeared as an extra in the soap. Fair City was criticised by Down's Syndrome Ireland for using the derogatory term "mongo" on 20 January 2006 episode.
Broadcast availability
At the launch of the RTÉ Player, Fair City was provided for one month as part of the trial service. It was later removed as the actor's union (Equity Ireland) would not agree to terms to provide the show online. On 27 May 2011, RTÉ One +1 launched on Saorview without Fair City, during the broadcast of Fair City the following announcement was made "This programme is not available on Saorview". In May 2012, this changed; and Fair City is now available on both RTÉ One +1 and RTÉ Player.
Merchandise
In 2005, script writer Brian Gallagher wrote a book about the show, entitled Inside Fair City. A 20th anniversary DVD under the title Fair City: 20 Years in Carrigstown was released in 2009.
See also
List of Fair City characters
List of soap operas with LGBT characters
Ros na Rún, similarly long-running soap opera broadcast in the Irish language
References
External links
Official website
Fair City spoilers and news at Digital Spy'' (archive)
Fair City fans Facebook Fan Page
Fair City Fan Page
1989 Irish television series debuts
1980s Irish television series
1990s Irish television series
2000s Irish television series
2010s Irish television series
2020s Irish television series
Bisexuality-related television series
English-language television shows
Fictional populated places in Ireland
Irish television soap operas
RTÉ original programming
Social realism | [
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219057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Chippewa | USS Chippewa | USS Chippewa may refer to:
USS Chippewa (1813), was a schooner captured in 1813 from British forces, which later burned the ship in the same year.
was a 106-gun ship of the line for which construction began after the signing of a contract 15 December 1814, but the ship was never launched. Uncompleted, the ship was sold 1 November 1833.
, was a brig under the direction of Commodore Oliver Perry. The ship ran aground on an uncharted reef in the Bahamas and sank 12 December 1816.
, was a wooden screw steamer gunboat launched in 1861 and active in the American Civil War, then sold in 1865.
was an ocean tug commissioned in 1943 and decommissioned in 1947. She was sunk in 1990 in Florida to serve as an artificial reef.
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219058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodoni | Bodoni | Bodoni is the name given to the serif typefaces first designed by Giambattista Bodoni (1740–1813) in the late eighteenth century and frequently revived since. Bodoni's typefaces are classified as Didone or modern. Bodoni followed the ideas of John Baskerville, as found in the printing type Baskerville—increased stroke contrast reflecting developing printing technology and a more vertical axis—but he took them to a more extreme conclusion. Bodoni had a long career and his designs changed and varied, ending with a typeface of a slightly condensed underlying structure with flat, unbracketed serifs, extreme contrast between thick and thin strokes, and an overall geometric construction.
When first released, Bodoni and other didone fonts were called classical designs because of their rational structure. However, these fonts were not updated versions of Roman or Renaissance letter styles, but new designs. They came to be called 'modern' serif fonts; since the mid-20th century, they are also known as Didone designs.
Some digital versions of Bodoni are said to be hard to read due to "dazzle" caused by the alternating thick and thin strokes, particularly as the thin strokes are very thin at small point sizes. This is very common when optical sizes of font intended for use at display sizes are printed at text size, at which point the hairline strokes can recede to being hard to see. Versions of Bodoni that are intended to be used at text size are "Bodoni Old Face", optimized for 9 points; ITC Bodoni 12 (for 12 points); and ITC Bodoni 6 (for 6 points).
Massimo Vignelli stated that "Bodoni is one of the most elegant typefaces ever designed." In the English-speaking world, "modern" serif designs like Bodoni are most commonly used in headings and display uses and in upmarket magazine printing, which is often done on high-gloss paper that retains and sets off the crisp detail of the fine strokes. In Europe, they are more often used in body text.
Inspiration
Bodoni admired the work of John Baskerville and studied in detail the designs of French type founders Pierre Simon Fournier and Firmin Didot. Although he drew inspiration from the work of these designers,<ref>http://www.designmylife.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/bodonitypespecimen.pdf </ref> above all from Didot, no doubt Bodoni found his own style for his typefaces, which deservedly gained worldwide acceptance among printers.
Although to a modern audience Bodoni is best known as the name of a typeface, Bodoni was an expert printer who ran a prestigious printing-office under the patronage of the Duke of Parma, and the design of his type was permitted by and showcased the quality of his company's work in metal-casting, printing and of the paper made in Parma. The hairline serifs and fine strokes reflected a high quality of casting, since on poor-quality printing equipment serifs had to be large to avoid wear snapping them. The smooth finish of his paper allowed fine detail to be retained on the surface. Bodoni also took care in the composition of his printing, using hierarchy and borders to create an appearance of elegance, and his range of type sizes allowed him flexibility of composition.
Writing of meeting him in the year 1786, James Edward Smith said:
A very great curiosity in its way is the Parma printing-office, carried on under the direction of Mr. Bodoni, who has brought that art to a degree of perfection scarcely known before him. Nothing could exceed his civility in showing us numbers of the beautiful productions of his press...as well as the operations of casting and finishing the letters...his paper is all made
at Parma. The manner in which Mr. Bodoni gives his works their beautiful smoothness, so that no impression of the letters is perceptible on either side, is the only part of his business that he keeps secret.
The effective use of Bodoni in modern printing poses challenges common to all Didone designs. While it can look very elegant due to the regular, rational design and fine strokes, a known effect on readers is 'dazzle', where the thick verticals draw the reader's attention and cause them to struggle to concentrate on the other, much thinner strokes that define which letter is which.Cees W. De Jong, Alston W. Purvis, and Friedrich Friedl. 2005. Creative Type: A Sourcebook of Classical and Contemporary Letterforms. Thames & Hudson. (223) For this reason, using the right optical size of font has been described as particularly essential to achieve professional results. Fonts to be used at text sizes will be sturdier designs with thicker 'thin' strokes and serifs (less stroke contrast) and more space between letters than on display designs, to increase legibility. Optical sizes were a natural requirement of printing technology at the time of Bodoni, who had to cut each size of type separately, but declined as the pantograph, phototypesetting and digital fonts made printing the same font at any size simpler; a revival has taken place in recent years as automated font development has become possible. French designer Loïc Sander has suggested that the dazzle effect, common to all Didone designs, may be particularly common in designs produced in countries where designers are unfamiliar with how to use them effectively and where the fonts that are easily commercially available will tend to have been designed for headings. Modern Bodoni revivals intended for professional use such as Parmagiano and ITC Bodoni have a range of optical sizes, but this is less common on default computer fonts.
Foundry type revivals and variants
There have been many revivals of the Bodoni typeface; ATF Bodoni and Bauer Bodoni are two of the more successful.
ATF's Bodoni series created in 1909, was the first American release to be a direct revival of Bodoni's work. All variants were designed by Morris Fuller Benton who captured the flavour of Bodoni's original while emphasizing legibility rather than trying to push against the limits of printing technology. This revival is regarded as "the first accurate revival of a historical face for general printing and design applications". However, some details were less based on Bodoni than on the work of his French contemporary Firmin Didot, for example a 't' with a flat rather than slanted top.
Monotype:
Ludlow:
Damon Type Foundry offered a Bodoni under the name Bartlet.
Linotype and Intertype also produced matrices for machine composition that were somewhat narrower than the foundry type versions.
Haas Type Foundry produced a version which was then licensed to D. Stempel AG, Amsterdam Type Foundry, and Berthold.
The Bauer Type Foundry version was drawn by Heinrich Jost in 1926. The Bauer version emphasizes the extreme contrast between hairline and main stroke. The series included the following weights:
Cold type versions
As it had been a standard type for many years, Bodoni was widely available in cold type. Alphatype, Autologic, Berthold, Compugraphic, Dymo, Harris, Mergenthaler, MGD Graphic Systems, and Varityper, Hell AG, Monotype, all sold the face under the name Bodoni, while Graphic Systems Inc. offered the face as Brunswick and Star/Photon called their version BodoniStar.Digital versions
Digital revivals include Bodoni Antiqua, Bodoni Old Face, ITC Bodoni Seventy Two, ITC Bodoni Six, ITC Bodoni Twelve, Bodoni MT, LTC Bodoni 175, WTC Our Bodoni, Bodoni EF, Bodoni Classico, and TS Bodoni. Zuzana Licko's Filosofia is considered by some to be a revival of Bodoni, but it is a highly personal, stylish, and stylized spinoff, rather than a revival. Although intended to be usable at text sizes, it represents the early period of the designer's career when interletter spacing was yet to be conquered, so has found use primarily in advertising. A particularly carefully optically-sized Bodoni is Sumner Stone's ITC version in three sizes (6 point, 12 point, 72 point). Another important Bodoni optimized for book printing (9 point) is Günther Gerhard Lange's "Bodoni Old Face" from the Berthold library. Most other versions are best used at display sizes.
Poster Bodoni
Poster Bodoni is a variant created for posters, designed by Chauncey H. Griffith in 1929.
Applications
Poster Bodoni is used in Mamma Mia! posters.
A variation of Bodoni designed by Matthew Carter, called "Stilson" (originally "Postoni" during its period of exclusivity), is the primary headline font for The Washington Post newspaper.
Bodoni was the favorite typeset of Ted Hughes, UK Poet Laureate, 1984–1998.
Notes
References
Carter, Rob, Ben Day, and Philip Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: 1993. .
Dodd, Robin. From Gutenberg to Opentype. Hartley & Marks Publishers, Inc.: 2006. .
Friedl, Friedrich, Nicholas Ott, and Bernard Ott. Typography: an Encyclopedia Survey of Type Design and Techniques Throughout History. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc: 1998. .
Frey, David. X-Height FontHaus's Online Magazine. DsgnHaus, Inc. 2006.
Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface. Godine: 1990. .
Nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering'' Dover Publications: 1975.
External links
Libre Bodoni release
Modern serif typefaces
Typefaces with text figures
Public domain typefaces
Letterpress typefaces
Photocomposition typefaces
Digital typefaces
Typefaces with optical sizes
Typefaces designed by Chauncey H. Griffith | [
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219064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojibwe | Ojibwe | The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the US census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of the largest tribal populations among Native American peoples. In Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. They are one of the most numerous Indigenous Peoples north of the Rio Grande. The Ojibwe population is approximately 320,000 people, with 170,742 living in the United States , and approximately 160,000 living in Canada. In the United States, there are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 Saulteaux; and 8,770 Mississauga, organized in 125 bands. In Canada, they live from western Quebec to eastern British Columbia.
The Ojibwe language is Anishinaabemowin, a branch of the Algonquian language family.
They are part of the Council of Three Fires (which also include the Odawa and Potawatomi) and of the larger Anishinaabeg, which also include Algonquin, Nipissing, and Oji-Cree people. Historically, through the Saulteaux branch, they were a part of the Iron Confederacy with the Cree, Assiniboine, and Metis.
The Ojibwe are known for their birchbark canoes, birchbark scrolls, mining and trade in copper, as well as their cultivation of wild rice and maple syrup. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics.
European powers, Canada, and the United States have colonized Ojibwe lands. The Ojibwe signed treaties with settler leaders to surrender land for settlement in exchange for compensation, land reserves and guarantees of traditional rights. Many European settlers moved into the Ojibwe ancestral lands.
Etymology
The exonym for this Anishinaabe group is Ojibwe (plural: Ojibweg). This name is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa" or "Ojibway". The name "Chippewa" is an alternative anglicization. Although many variations exist in the literature, "Chippewa" is more common in the United States, and "Ojibway" predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U.S. since the late 20th century, more members have been using the generalized name Anishinaabe(-g).
The meaning of the name Ojibwe is not known; the most common explanations for the name derivations are:
ojiibwabwe (/o/ + /jiibw/ + /abwe/), meaning "those who cook/roast until it puckers", referring to their fire-curing of moccasin seams to make them waterproof. Some 19th century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies.
ozhibii'iwe (/o/ + /zhibii'/ + /iwe/), meaning "those who keep records [of a Vision]", referring to their form of pictorial writing, and pictographs used in Midewiwin sacred rites; or
ojiibwe (/o/ + /jiib/ + /we/), meaning "those who speak stiffly" or "those who stammer", an exonym or name given to them by the Cree, who described the Ojibwe language for its differences from their own.
Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of Lake Superior, which the French colonists called Sault Ste. Marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west. Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas.
Language
The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is still widely spoken, although the number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, most of the language's fluent speakers are elders. Since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; Central Algonquian is an area grouping, however, rather than a linguistic genetic one.
Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut. Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains.
The popularity of the epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1855, publicized the Ojibwe culture. The epic contains many toponyms that originate from Ojibwe words.
History
Precontact and spiritual beliefs
According to Ojibwe oral history and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwe originated from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River on the Atlantic coast of what is now Quebec. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the Americas. The identification of the Ojibwe as a culture or people may have occurred in response to contact with Europeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with groups, and tried to identify those they encountered.
According to Ojibwe oral history, seven great miigis (Cowrie shells) appeared to them in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) to teach them the mide way of life. One of the miigis was too spiritually powerful and killed the people in the Waabanakiing when they were in its presence. The six others remained to teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six established doodem (clans) for people in the east, symbolized by animals. The five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose). The six miigis then returned to the ocean as well. If the seventh had stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem.
At a later time, one of these miigis appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move farther west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new pale-skinned settlers who would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abenaki) of their safety to move inland, the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.
The first of the smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, where Mooniyaang (present-day Montreal) developed. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, i.e., Niagara Falls). At their "third stopping place", near the present-day city of Detroit, Michigan, the Anishinaabeg divided into six groups, of which the Ojibwe was one.
The first significant new Ojibwe culture-center was their "fourth stopping place" on Manidoo Minising (Manitoulin Island). Their first new political-center was referred to as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie).
Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwe divided into the "northern branch", following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the "southern branch", along its south shore.
As the people continued to migrate westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group". The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island () located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day Duluth/Superior cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the miigis being to go to the "place where there is food (i.e., wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred to as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or Zhaagawaamikong, French, Chequamegon) on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present La Pointe, Wisconsin.
The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" migrated along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the Pacific Northwest. Along their migration to the west, they came across many miigis, or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.
Contact with Europeans
The first historical mention of the Ojibwe occurs in the French Jesuit Relation of 1640, a report by the missionary priests to their superiors in France. Through their friendship with the French traders (coureurs des bois and voyageurs), the Ojibwe gained guns, began to use European goods, and began to dominate their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Fox to their west and south. They drove the Sioux from the Upper Mississippi region to the area of the present-day Dakotas, and forced the Fox down from northern Wisconsin. The latter allied with the Sauk for protection.
By the end of the 18th century, the Ojibwe controlled nearly all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, including most of the Red River area. They also controlled the entire northern shores of lakes Huron and Superior on the Canadian side and extending westward to the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota. In the latter area, the French Canadians called them Ojibwe or Saulteaux.
The Ojibwe were part of a long-term alliance with the Anishinaabe Odawa and Potawatomi peoples, called the Council of Three Fires. They fought against the Iroquois Confederacy, based mainly to the southeast of the Great Lakes in present-day New York, and the Sioux to the west. The Ojibwa stopped the Iroquois advance into their territory near Lake Superior in 1662. Then they formed an alliance with other tribes such as the Huron and the Odawa who had been displaced by the Iroquois invasion. Together they launched a massive counterattack against the Iroquois and drove them out of Michigan and southern Ontario until they were forced to flee back to their original homeland in upstate New York. At the same time the Iroquois were subjected to attacks by the French. This was the beginning of the end of the Iroquois Confederacy as they were put on the defensive. The Ojibwe expanded eastward, taking over the lands along the eastern shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay.
In 1745, they adopted guns from the British in order to repel the Dakota people in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. In the 1680s the Ojibwa defeated the Iroquois who dispersed their Huron allies and trading partners. This victory allowed them a "golden age" in which they ruled uncontested in southern Ontario.
Often, treaties known as "peace and friendship treaties" were made to establish community bonds between the Ojibwe and the European settlers. These established the groundwork for cooperative resource-sharing between the Ojibwe and the settlers. The United States and Canada viewed later treaties offering land cessions as offering territorial advantages. The Ojibwe did not understand the land cession terms in the same way because of the cultural differences in understanding the uses of land. The governments of the U.S. and Canada considered land a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned and sold. The Ojibwe believed it was a fully shared resource, along with air, water and sunlight—despite having an understanding of "territory". At the time of the treaty councils, they could not conceive of separate land sales or exclusive ownership of land. Consequently, today, in both Canada and the U.S., legal arguments in treaty-rights and treaty interpretations often bring to light the differences in cultural understanding of treaty terms to come to legal understanding of the treaty obligations.
In part because of its long trading alliance, the Ojibwe allied with the French against Great Britain and its colonists in the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War). After losing the war in 1763, France was forced to cede its colonial claims to lands in Canada and east of the Mississippi River to Britain. After Pontiac's War and adjusting to British colonial rule, the Ojibwe allied with British forces and against the United States in the War of 1812. They had hoped that a British victory could protect them against United States settlers' encroachment on their territory.
Following the war, the United States government tried to forcibly remove all the Ojibwe to Minnesota, west of the Mississippi River. The Ojibwe resisted, and there were violent confrontations. In the Sandy Lake Tragedy, several hundred Ojibwe died because of the federal government's failure to deliver fall annuity payments. The government attempted to do this in the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and the rise of popular opinion in the U.S. against Ojibwe removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to Kansas as part of the Potawatomi removal.
In British North America, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 following the Seven Years' War governed the cession of land by treaty or purchase . Subsequently, France ceded most of the land in Upper Canada to Great Britain. Even with the Jay Treaty signed between Great Britain and the United States following the American Revolutionary War, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty. As it was still preoccupied by war with France, Great Britain ceded to the United States much of the lands in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, parts of Illinois and Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota to settle the boundary of their holdings in Canada.
In 1807, the Ojibwe joined three other tribes, the Odawa, Potawatomi and Wyandot people, in signing the Treaty of Detroit. The agreement, between the tribes and William Hull, representing the Michigan Territory, gave the United States a portion of today's Southeastern Michigan and a section of Ohio near the Maumee River. The tribes were able to retain small pockets of land in the territory.
The Battle of the Brule was an October 1842 battle between the La Pointe Band of Ojibwe Indians and a war party of Dakota Indians. The battle took place along the Brule River (Bois Brûlé) in what is today northern Wisconsin and resulted in a decisive victory for the Ojibwe.
In Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for continued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources after land sales. The government signed numbered treaties in northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. British Columbia had not signed treaties until the late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times. The numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. The Ojibwe Nation set the agenda and negotiated the first numbered treaties before they would allow safe passage of many more British settlers to the prairies.
Ojibwe communities have a strong history of political and social activism. Long before contact, they were closely aligned with Odawa and Potawatomi people in the Council of the Three Fires. From the 1870s to 1938, the Grand General Indian Council of Ontario attempted to reconcile multiple traditional models into one cohesive voice to exercise political influence over colonial legislation. In the West, 16 Plains Cree and Ojibwe bands formed the Allied Bands of Qu'Appelle in 1910 in order to redress concerns about the failure of the government to uphold Treaty 4's promises.
Culture
The Ojibwe have traditionally organized themselves into groups known as bands. Most Ojibwe, except for the Great Plains bands, have historically lived a settled (as opposed to nomadic) lifestyle, relying on fishing and hunting to supplement the cultivation of numerous varieties of maize and squash, and the harvesting of manoomin (wild rice) for food. Historically their typical dwelling has been the wiigiwaam (wigwam), built either as a waginogaan (domed-lodge) or as a nasawa'ogaan (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark, juniper bark and willow saplings. In the contemporary era, most of the people live in modern housing, but traditional structures are still used for special sites and events.
They have a culturally-specific form of pictorial writing, used in the religious rites of the Midewiwin and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of petroforms, petroglyphs, and pictographs has been common throughout the Ojibwe traditional territories. Petroforms and medicine wheels have been used to teach important spiritual concepts, record astronomical events, and to use as a mnemonic device for certain stories and beliefs. The script is still in use, among traditional people as well as among youth on social media.
Some ceremonies use the miigis shell (cowry shell), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there is a vast, longstanding trade network across the continent. The use and trade of copper across the continent has also been proof of a large trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the Hopewell tradition. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads have also been traded over large distances precontact.
During the summer months, the people attend jiingotamog for the spiritual and niimi'idimaa for a social gathering (powwows) at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar.
The Ojibwe bury their dead in burial mounds. Many erect a jiibegamig or a "spirit-house" over each mound. An historical burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's doodem (clan sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwe graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwe communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.
Several Ojibwe bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-Lake Michigan areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwe tribal councils cooperate in the 1854 Treaty Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the waters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the Treaty 3 hunting and fishing rights related to the area around Lake of the Woods.
Cuisine
There is renewed interest in nutritious eating among the Ojibwe, who have been expanding community gardens in food deserts, and have started a mobile kitchen to teach their communities about nutritious food preparation. The traditional Native American diet was seasonally dependent on hunting, fishing and the foraging and farming of produce and grains. The modern diet has substituted some other types of food like frybread and "Indian tacos" in place of these traditionally prepared meals. The Native Americans loss of connection to their culture is part of the "quest to reconnect
to their food traditions" sparking an interest in traditional ingredients like wild rice, that is the official state grain of Minnesota and was part of the pre-colonial diet of the Ojibwe. Other staple foods of the Ojibwe were fish, maple sugar, venison and corn. They grew beans, squash, corn and potatoes and foraged for blueberries, blackberries, choke cherries, raspberries, gooseberries and huckleberries. During the summer game animals like deer, beaver, moose, goose, duck, rabbits and bear were hunted.
One traditional method of making granulated sugar known among the Anishinabe was to boil maple syrup until reduced and pour into a trough, where the rapidly cooling syrup was quickly processed into maple sugar using wooden paddles.
Kinship and clan system
Traditionally, the Ojibwe had a patrilineal system, in which children were considered born to the father's clan. For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Ojibwe society unless adopted by an Ojibwe male. They were sometimes referred to as "white" because of their fathers, regardless if their mothers were Ojibwe, as they had no official place in the Ojibwe society. The people would shelter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Ojibwe fathers.
Ojibwe understanding of kinship is complex and includes the immediate family as well as extended family. It is considered a modified bifurcate merging kinship system. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term with parallel cousins because they are all part of the same clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the person's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, ninooshenh is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—i.e., my parallel-aunt, but also "my parent's female cross-cousin". Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called aanikoobijigan. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and balance among all living generations, as well as of all generations of the past and of the future.
The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of doodemag (clans; singular: doodem) named primarily for animals and birds totems (pronounced doodem). The five original totems were Wawaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi ("Echo-maker", i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke ("Tender", i.e., Bear) and Moozwaanowe ("Little" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest – so large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain responsibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse from a different clan.
Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, or odoodemaan. The band was often identified by the principal doodem. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Ojibwe people is, "What is your 'doodem'?" ("Aaniin gidoodem?" or "Awanen gidoodem?") The response allows the parties to establish social conduct by identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to "Aanii (pronounced "Ah-nee").
Spiritual beliefs
The Ojibwe have spiritual beliefs that have been passed down by oral tradition under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a creation story and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwe because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonies.
The sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions, when oral history is recounted. Teaching lodges are common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. The traditional ways, ideas, and teachings are preserved and practiced in such living ceremonies.
The modern dreamcatcher, adopted by the Pan-Indian Movement and New Age groups, originated in the Ojibwe "spider web charm", a hoop with woven string or sinew meant to replicate a spider's web, used as a protective charm for infants. According to Ojibwe legend, the protective charms originate with the Spider Woman, known as Asibikaashi; who takes care of the children and the people on the land and as the Ojibwe Nation spread to the corners of North America it became difficult for Asibikaashi to reach all the children, so the mothers and grandmothers wove webs for the children, which had an apotropaic purpose and were not explicitly connected with dreams.
Funeral practices
Traditional
In Ojibwe tradition, the main task after a death is to bury the body as soon as possible, the very next day or even on the day of death. This was important because it allowed the spirit of the dead to journey to its place of joy and happiness. The land of happiness where the dead reside is called Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining. This was a journey that took four days. If burial preparations could not be completed the day of the death, guests and medicine men were required to stay with the deceased and the family in order to help mourn, while also singing songs and dancing throughout the night. Once preparations were complete, the body would be placed in an inflexed position with their knees towards their chest. Over the course of the four days it takes the spirit to journey to its place of joy, it is customary to have food kept alongside the grave at all times. A fire is set when the sun sets and is kept going throughout the night. The food is to help feed the spirit over the course of the journey, while the smoke from the fire is a directional guide. Once the four day journey is over, a feast is held, which is led by the chief medicine man. At the feast, it is the chief medicine man's duty to give away certain belongings of the deceased. Those who were chosen to receive items from the deceased are required to trade in a new piece of clothing, all of which would be turned into a bundle. The bundle of new cloths and a dish is then given to the closest relative. The recipient of the bundle must then find individuals that he or she believes to be worthy, and pass on one of the new pieces of clothing.
Contemporary
According to Lee Staples, an Ojibwe spiritual leader from the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, present day practices follow the same spiritual beliefs and remain fairly similar. When an individual dies, a fire is lit in the home of the family, who are also expected to continuously maintain the fire for four days. Over the four days, food is also offered to the spirit. Added to food offerings, tobacco is also offered as it is considered one of four sacred medicines traditionally used by Ojibwe communities. On the last night of food offerings, a feast is also held by the relatives which ends with a final smoke of the offering tobacco or the tobacco being thrown in the fire. Although conventional caskets are mainly used in today's communities, birch bark fire matches are buried along with the body as a tool to help light fires to guide their journey to Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining.
Ethnobotany
Plants used by the Ojibwe include Agrimonia gryposepala, used for urinary problems, and Pinus strobus, the resin of which was used to treat infections and gangrene. The roots of Symphyotrichum novae-angliae are smoked in pipes to attract game. Allium tricoccum is eaten as part of Ojibwe cuisine. They also use a decoction as a quick-acting emetic. An infusion of the alba subspecies of Silene latifolia is used as physic. The South Ojibwa use a decoction of the root Viola canadensis for pains near the bladder. The Ojibwa are documented to use the root of Uvularia grandiflora for pain in the solar plexus, which may refer to pleurisy. They take a compound decoction of the root of Ribes glandulosum for back pain and for "female weakness". The Ojibwe eat the corms of Sagittaria cuneata for indigestion, and also as a food, eaten boiled fresh, dried or candied with maple sugar. Muskrat and beavers store them in large caches, which they have learned to recognize and appropriate. They take an infusion of the Antennaria howellii ssp. neodioica after childbirth to purge afterbirth and to heal. They use the roots of Solidago rigida, using a decoction of root as an enema and take an infusion of the root for "stoppage of urine".
They use Abies balsamea; melting the gum on warm stones and inhaling the fumes for headache. They also use a decoction of the root as an herbal steam for rheumatic joints. They also combine the gum with bear grease and use it as an ointment for hair. They use the needle-like leaves in as part of ceremony involving the sweatbath, and use the gum for colds and inhale the leaf smoke for colds. They use the plant as a cough medicine. The gum is used for sores and a compound containing leaves is used as wash. The liquid balsam from bark blisters is used for sore eyes. They boil the resin twice and add it to suet or fat to make a canoe pitch. The bark gum is taken for chest soreness from colds, applied to cuts and sores, and decoction of the bark is used to induce sweating. The bark gum is also taken for gonorrhea. A decoction (tea) of powdered, dried Onoclea sensibilis root is used to stimulate milk flow in female patients.
Gallery
Bands
In his History of the Ojibway People (1855), William W. Warren recorded 10 major divisions of the Ojibwe in the United States. He mistakenly omitted the Ojibwe located in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of Canada. When identified major historical bands located in Michigan and Ontario are added, the count becomes 15:
These 15 major divisions developed into the following Ojibwe Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible. See also the listing of Saulteaux communities.
Aamjiwnaang First Nation
Aroland First Nation
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways
Bay Mills Indian Community
Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation
Burt Lake Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians
Caldwell First Nation
Chapleau Ojibway First Nation
Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point
Chippewas of Lake Simcoe and Huron (Historical)
Beausoleil First Nation
Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation
Chippewas of Rama First Nation (formerly known as Chippewas of Mnjikaning First Nation)
Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation
Chippewa of the Thames First Nation
Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory (Historical)
Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation
Saugeen First Nation
Chippewa Cree Tribe of Rocky Boys Indian Reservation
Curve Lake First Nation
Cutler First Nation
Dokis First Nation
Eabametoong First Nation
First Nation of Ojibwe California
Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians
Garden River First Nation
Henvey Inlet First Nation
Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg)
Islands in the Trent Waters
Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation
Koocheching First Nation
Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation
Lac La Croix First Nation
Lac Seul First Nation
Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation
Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe
Bad River Chippewa Band
Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Keweenaw Bay Indian Community
L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians
Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians
Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians
Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians
Removable St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Sokaogon Chippewa Community
St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana
Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians
Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians
Magnetawan First Nation
Minnesota Chippewa Tribe
Bois Forte Band of Chippewa
Bois Forte Band of Chippewa
Lake Vermilion Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Little Forks Band of Rainy River Saulteaux
Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Grand Portage Band of Chippewa
Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe
Cass Lake Band of Chippewa
Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa
Leech Lake Band of Pillagers
Removable Lake Superior Bands of Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation
White Oak Point Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe
Mille Lacs Indians
Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of Minnesota
Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indians
Snake and Knife Rivers Band of Chippewa Indians
White Earth Band of Chippewa
Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Otter Tail Band of Pillagers
Rabbit Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Removable Mille Lacs Indians
Removable Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa
Mississaugi First Nation
North Caribou Lake First Nation
Ojibway Nation of Saugeen First Nation
Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation
Osnaburg House Band of Ojibway and Cree (Historical)
Cat Lake First Nation
Mishkeegogamang First Nation (formerly known as New Osnaburgh First Nation)
Slate Falls First Nation
Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Historical)
Pikangikum First Nation
Poplar Hill First Nation
Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians
Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians
Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation
Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council
Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians
Saulteaux First Nation
Shawanaga First Nation
Southeast Tribal Council
Berens River First Nation
Bloodvein First Nation
Brokenhead First Nation
Buffalo Point First Nation (Saulteaux)
Hollow Water First Nation
Black River First Nation
Little Grand Rapids First Nation
Pauingassi First Nation (Saulteaux)
Poplar River First Nation
Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians
Wabaseemoong Independent Nation
Wabauskang First Nation
Wabun Tribal Council
Beaverhouse First Nation
Brunswick House First Nation
Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation
Matachewan First Nation
Mattagami First Nation
Wahgoshig First Nation
Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation
Wahnapitae First Nation
Walpole Island First Nation
Washagamis Bay First Nation
Whitefish Bay First Nation
Whitefish Lake First Nation
Whitefish River First Nation
Whitesand First Nation
Whitewater Lake First Nation
Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation
Notable historic Ojibwe people
Ojibwe people from the 20th and 21st centuries should be listed under their specific tribes.
Ah-shah-way-gee-she-go-qua (Aazhawigiizhigokwe, Hanging Cloud), 19th c. Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe woman warrior
Francis Assikinack (1824–1863), historian from Manitoulin Island
Stephen Bonga, Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter
George Bonga (1802–1880), Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter
Jeanne L'Strange Cappel (1873–1949), writer, teacher and clubwoman
George Copway (1818–1869), missionary and writer
Fr. Philip B. Gordon (1885–1948), Roman Catholic priest and activist from Gordon, Wisconsin
Margaret Bonga Fahlstrom (c.1797–1880), Ojibwe-African American woman in the early Methodist Episcopal Church in Minnesota
Hole in the Day (1825-1868), Chief of the Mississippi Band of the Minnesota Ojibwe
Peter Jones (1802–1856), Mississauga missionary and writer
Kechewaishke (Gichi-Weshkiinh, Buffalo) (ca. 1759–1855), chief
Edmonia Lewis (ca. 1844–1907), Mississauga Ojibwe/African-American sculptor
Maungwudaus, George Henry (1811–1888), performer, interpreter, mission worker, and herbalist
Medweganoonind, 19th-century Red Lake Ojibwe chief
Ozaawindib (Ozaawindib, Yellow Head), early 19th c. nonbinary warrior, guide
Keewaydinoquay Peschel (1919–1999), teacher, ethnobotanist
Chief Rocky Boy (fl. late 19th c.), chief
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (1800–1842), author, wife of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, born in Sault Ste. Marie
John Smith, Gaa-binagwiiyaas (ca. 1824–1922, chief, from Cass Lake, Minnesota
Alfred Michael "Chief" Venne (1879–1971), athletic manager and coach from Leroy, North Dakota
Waabaanakwad (White Cloud) (ca. 1830-1898), Gull Lake chief
William Whipple Warren (1825–1853), first historical writer of the Ojibwe people, territorial legislator
Zheewegonab (fl. 1780–1805), band leader among the northern Ojibwe
Cara Gee (1983-), Canadian actress
Ojibwe treaties
Chippewa Ottawa Resource Authority—1836CT fisheries
Grand Council of Treaty 3—Treaty 3
Grand Council of Treaty 8—Treaty 8
Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission—1837CT, 1836CT, 1842CT and 1854CT
Nishnawbe Aski Nation—Treaty 5 and Treaty 9
Red Lake Band of Chippewa—1886CT and 1889CT
Union of Ontario Indians—RS, RH1, RH2, misc. pre-confederation treaties
Treaties with France
La Grande Paix de Montréal (1701)
Treaties with Great Britain and the United Kingdom
Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764)
Treaty of Fort Niagara (1781)
Indian Officers' Land Treaty (1783)
The Crawford Purchases (1783)
Between the Lakes Purchase (1784)
Treaty of Peace with Sioux, Chippewa and Winnebago (1787)
Toronto Purchase (1787)
Indenture to the Toronto Purchase (1805)
The McKee Purchase (1790)
Between the Lakes Purchase (1792)
Chenail Ecarte (Sombra Township) Purchase (1796)
London Township Purchase (1796)
Land for Joseph Brant (1797)
Penetanguishene Bay Purchase (1798)
St. Joseph Island (1798)
Head-of-the-Lake Purchase (1806)
Lake Simcoe-Lake Huron Purchase (1815)
Lake Simcoe-Nottawasaga Purchase (1818)
Ajetance Purchase (1818)
Rice Lake Purchase (1818)
The Rideau Purchase (1819)
Long Woods Purchase (1822)
Huron Tract Purchase (1827)
Saugeen Tract Agreement (1836)
Manitoulin Agreement (1836)
The Robinson Treaties
Ojibewa Indians of Lake Superior (1850)
Ojibewa Indians of Lake Huron (1850)
Manitoulin Island Treaty (1862)
Treaties with Canada
Treaty No. 1 (1871)—Stone Fort Treaty
Treaty No. 2 (1871)
Treaty No. 3 (1873)—Northwest Angle Treaty
Treaty No. 4 (1874)—Qu'Appelle Treaty
Treaty No. 5 (1875)
Treaty No. 6 (1876)
Treaty No. 8 (1899)
Treaty No. 9 (1905–1906)—James Bay Treaty
Treaty No. 5, Adhesions (1908–1910)
The Williams Treaties (1923)
The Chippewa Indians
The Mississauga Indians
Treaty No. 9, Adhesions (1929–1930)
Treaties with the United States
Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785)
Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789)
Treaty of Greenville (1795)
Fort Industry (1805)
Treaty of Detroit (1807)
Treaty of Brownstown (1808)
Treaty of Springwells (1815)
Treaty of St. Louis (1816)—Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi
Treaty of Miami Rapids (1817)
Treaty of St. Mary's (1818)
Treaty of Saginaw (1819)
Treaty of Saúlt Ste. Marie (1820)
Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac (1820)
Treaty of Chicago (1821)
First Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825)
Treaty of Fond du Lac (1826)
Treaty of Butte des Morts (1827)
Treaty of Green Bay (1828)
Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829)
Treaty of Chicago (1833)
Treaty of Washington (1836)—Ottawa & Chippewa
Treaty of Washington (1836)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands
Treaty of Detroit (1837)
Treaty of St. Peters (1837)—White Pine Treaty
Treaty of Flint River (1837)
Saganaw Treaties
Treaty of Saganaw (1838)
Supplemental Treaty (1839)
Treaty of La Pointe (1842)—Copper Treaty
Isle Royale Agreement (1844)
Treaty of Potawatomi Creek (1846)
Treaty of Fond du Lac (1847)
Treaty of Leech Lake (1847)
Treaty of La Pointe (1854)
Treaty of Washington (1855)
Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Ottawa & Chippewa
Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Sault Ste. Marie Band
Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands
Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency (1859)
Treaty of Washington (1863)
Treaty of Old Crossing (1863)
Treaty of Old Crossing (1864)
Treaty of Washington (1864)
Treaty of Isabella Reservation (1864)
Treaty of Washington (1866)
Treaty of Washington (1867)
Gallery
See also
Amikwa people
First Nations
Timeline of First Nations history
History of Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
References
Notes
Bibliography
F. Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, repr. 1970)
H. Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors (1970)
R. Landes, Ojibwa Sociology (1937, repr. 1969)
R. Landes, Ojibwa Woman (1938, repr. 1971)
F. Symington, The Canadian Indian (1969)
Further reading
Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009
Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book.
Child, Brenda J. (2014). My Grandfather's Knocking Sticks: Ojibwe Family Life and Labor on the Reservation. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
Danziger, E.J., Jr. (1978). The Chippewa of Lake Superior. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Denial, Catherine J. (2013). Making Marriage: Husbands, Wives, and the American State in Dakota and Ojibwe Country. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
Densmore, F. (1979). Chippewa customs. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. (Published originally 1929)
Grim, J.A. (1983). The shaman: Patterns of religious healing among the Ojibway Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Gross, L.W. (2002). The comic vision of Anishinaabe culture and religion. American Indian Quarterly, 26, 436–459.
Howse, Joseph. A Grammar of the Cree Language; With which is combined an analysis of the Chippeway dialect. London: J.G.F. & J. Rivington, 1844.
Johnston, B. (1976). Ojibway heritage. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.
Long, J. Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader Describing the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians, with an Account of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages. London: Robson, 1791.
Nichols, J.D., & Nyholm, E. (1995). A concise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Treuer, Anton. Everything You Wanted to Know About Indians But Were Afraid to Ask. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012.
Treuer, Anton. The Assassination of Hole in the Day. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2011.
Treuer, Anton. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2010. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.
Treuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
Vizenor, G. (1972). The everlasting sky: New voices from the people named the Chippewa. New York: Crowell-Collier Press.
Vizenor, G. (1981). Summer in the spring: Ojibwe lyric poems and tribal stories. Minneapolis: The Nodin Press.
Vizenor, G. (1984). The people named the Chippewa: Narrative histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Warren, William W. (1851). History of the Ojibway People.
White, Richard (1991). The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Studies in North American Indian History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
White, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News.
Wub-e-ke-niew. (1995). We have the right to exist: A translation of aboriginal indigenous thought. New York: Black Thistle Press.
External links
Ojibwe Song Pictures, recorded by Frances Desmore
Ojibwe People's Dictionary
Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa—PBS documentary featuring the history and culture of the Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes (United States–focused).
Ojibwe migratory map from Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways
Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Mississaugi First Nation
Southeast Tribal Council
Wabun Tribal Council
Ojibwe Stories: Gaganoonididaa from the Public Radio Exchange
Algonquian ethnonyms
Algonquian peoples
Anishinaabe groups
Anishinaabe lands
First Nations in Alberta
First Nations in Manitoba
First Nations in Ontario
First Nations in Quebec
First Nations in Saskatchewan
Great Lakes tribes
Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands
Native American tribes in Michigan
Native American tribes in Minnesota
Native American tribes in Montana
Native American tribes in North Dakota
Native American tribes in Wisconsin
Native American tribes
Plains tribes
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219066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arial | Arial | Arial, sometimes marketed or displayed in software as Arial MT, is a sans-serif typeface and set of computer fonts in the neo-grotesque style. Fonts from the Arial family are packaged with all versions of Microsoft Windows from Windows 3.1 onwards, some other Microsoft software applications, Apple's macOS and many PostScript 3 computer printers. The typeface was designed in 1982, by Robin Nicholas and Patricia Saunders, for Monotype Typography. It was created to be metrically identical to the popular typeface Helvetica, with all character widths identical, so that a document designed in Helvetica could be displayed and printed correctly without having to pay for a Helvetica license.
The Arial typeface comprises many styles: Regular, Italic, Medium, Medium Italic, Bold, Bold Italic, Black, Black Italic, Extra Bold, Extra Bold Italic, Light, Light Italic, Narrow, Narrow Italic, Narrow Bold, Narrow Bold Italic, Condensed, Light Condensed, Bold Condensed, and Extra Bold Condensed. The extended Arial type family includes more styles: Rounded (Light, Regular, Bold, Extra Bold); Monospaced (Regular, Oblique, Bold, Bold Oblique). Many of these have been issued in multiple font configurations with different degrees of language support. The most widely used and bundled Arial fonts are Arial Regular, Italic, Bold, and Bold Italic; the same styles of Arial Narrow; and Arial Black. More recently, Arial Rounded has also been widely bundled.
In Office 2007, Arial was replaced by Calibri as the default typeface in PowerPoint, Excel, and Outlook.
Design characteristics
Embedded in version 3.0 of the OpenType version of Arial is the following description of the typeface:
In 2005, Robin Nicholas said, "It was designed as a generic sans serif; almost a bland sans serif."
Arial is a neo-grotesque typeface: a design based on nineteenth-century sans-serifs, but regularized to be more suited to continuous body text and to form a cohesive font family.
Apart from the need to match the character widths and approximate/general appearance of Helvetica, the letter shapes of Arial are also strongly influenced by Monotype's own Monotype Grotesque designs, released in or by the 1920s, with additional influence from 'New Grotesque', an abortive redesign from 1956. The designs of the R, G and r also resemble Gill Sans. The changes cause the typeface to nearly match Linotype Helvetica in both proportion and weight (see figure), and perfectly match in width. Monotype executive Allan Haley observed, "Arial was drawn more rounded than Helvetica, the curves softer and fuller and the counters more open. The ends of the strokes on letters such as c, e, g and s, rather than being cut off on the horizontal, are terminated at the more natural angle in relation to the stroke direction." Matthew Carter, a consultant for IBM during its design process, described it as "a Helvetica clone, based ostensibly on their Grots 215 and 216".
The styling of Arabic glyphs comes from Times New Roman, which have more varied stroke widths than the Latin, Greek, Cyrillic glyphs found in the font. Arial Unicode MS uses monotone stroke widths on Arabic glyphs, similar to Tahoma.
The Cyrillic, Greek and Coptic Spacing Modifier Letters glyphs initially introduced in Arial Unicode MS, but later debuted in Arial version 5.00, have different appearances.
History
IBM debuted two printers for the in-office publishing market in 1982: the 240-DPI 3800-3 laserxerographic printer, and the 600-DPI 4250 electro-erosion laminate typesetter. Monotype was under contract to supply bitmap fonts for both printers. The fonts for the 4250, delivered to IBM in 1983, included Helvetica, which Monotype sub-licensed from Linotype. For the 3800-3, Monotype replaced Helvetica with Arial. The hand-drawn Arial artwork was completed in 1982 at Monotype by a 10-person team led by Robin Nicholas and Patricia Saunders
and was digitized by Monotype at 240 DPI expressly for the 3800-3.
IBM named the font Sonoran Sans Serif due to licensing restrictions and the manufacturing facility's location (Tucson, Arizona, in the Sonoran Desert), and announced in early 1984 that the Sonoran Sans Serif family, "a functional equivalent of Monotype Arial", would be available for licensed use in the 3800-3 by the fourth quarter of 1984. There were initially 14 point sizes, ranging from 6 to 36, and four style/weight combinations (Roman medium, Roman bold, italic medium, and italic bold), for a total of 56 fonts in the family. Each contained 238 graphic characters, providing support for eleven national languages: Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. Monotype and IBM later expanded the family to include 300-DPI bitmaps and characters for additional languages.
In 1989, Monotype produced PostScript Type 1 outline versions of several Monotype fonts, but an official PostScript version of Arial was not available until 1991. In the meantime, a company called Birmy marketed a version of Arial in a Type 1-compatible format.
In 1990, Robin Nicholas, Patricia Saunders and Steve Matteson developed a TrueType outline version of Arial which was licensed to Microsoft.
In 1992, Microsoft chose Arial to be one of the four core TrueType fonts in Windows 3.1, announcing the font as an "alternative to Helvetica". Matthew Carter has noted that the deal was complex and included a bailout of Monotype, which was in financial difficulties, by Microsoft. Microsoft would later extensively fund the development of Arial as a font that supported many languages and scripts. Monotype employee Rod MacDonald noted:
As to the widespread notion that Microsoft did not want to pay licensing fees [for Helvetica], [Monotype director] Allan Haley has publicly stated, more than once, that the amount of money Microsoft paid over the years for the development of Arial could finance a small country.
Arial ultimately became one of several clones of PostScript standard fonts created by Monotype in collaboration with or sold to Microsoft around this time, including Century Gothic (a clone of ITC Avant Garde), Book Antiqua (Palatino) and Bookman Old Style (ITC Bookman).
Distribution
TrueType editions of Arial have shipped as part of Microsoft Windows since the introduction of Windows 3.1 in 1992; Arial was the default font.
From 1999 until 2016, Microsoft Office shipped with Arial Unicode MS, a version of Arial that includes many international characters from the Unicode standard. This version of the typeface was for a time the most widely distributed pan-Unicode font. The font was dropped from Microsoft Office 2016 and has been deprecated; continuing growth of the number of characters in Unicode and limitations on the number of characters in a font meant that Arial Unicode could no longer perform the job it was originally created for.
Arial MT, a PostScript version of the Arial font family, was distributed with Acrobat Reader 4 and 5.
PostScript does not require support for a specific set of fonts, but Arial and Helvetica are among the 40 or so typeface families that PostScript Level 3 devices typically support.
Mac OS X (now known as macOS) was the first Mac OS version to include Arial; it was not included in classic Mac OS. The operating system ships with Arial, Arial Black, Arial Narrow, and Arial Rounded MT. However, the default macOS font for sans-serif/Swiss generic font family is Helvetica. The bundling of Arial with Windows and macOS has contributed to it being one of the most widely distributed and used typefaces in the world.
In 1996, Microsoft launched the Core fonts for the Web project to make a standard pack of fonts for the Internet. Arial in TrueType format was included in this project. The project allowed anyone to download and install these fonts for their own use (on end user's computers) without any fee. The project was terminated by Microsoft in August 2002, allegedly due to frequent EULA violations. For MS Windows, the core fonts for the web were provided as self-extracting executables (.exe); each included an embedded cabinet file, which can be extracted with appropriate software. For the Macintosh, the files were provided as BinHexed StuffIt archives (.sit.hqx). The latest font version that was available from Core fonts for the Web was 2.82, published in 2000. Later versions (such as version 3 or version 5 which include many new characters) were not available from this project. A Microsoft spokesman declared in 2002 that members of the open source community "will have to find different sources for updated fonts. ... Although the EULA did not restrict the fonts to just Windows and Mac OS, they were only ever available as Windows .exe's and Mac archive files." The chief technical officer of Opera Software cited the cancellation of the project as an example of Microsoft resisting interoperability.
Arial variants
The known variants of Arial include:
Arial: Sometimes called Arial Regular to distinguish its width from Arial Narrow, it contains Arial (Roman text weight), Arial Italic, Arial Bold, Arial Bold Italic
Arial Unicode MS
Arial Black: Arial Black, Arial Black Italic. This weight is known for being particularly heavy. This is because the face was originally drawn as a bitmap, and to increase the weight, stroke widths for bold went from a single pixel width to two pixels in width. It only supports Latin, Greek and Cyrillic.
Arial Narrow: Arial Narrow Regular, Arial Narrow Bold, Arial Narrow Italic, Arial Narrow Bold Italic. This family is a condensed version.
Arial Rounded: Arial Rounded Light, Arial Rounded Regular, Arial Rounded Medium, Arial Rounded Bold, Arial Rounded Extra Bold. The regular versions of the rounded glyphs can be found in Gulim, Microsoft's Korean font set. Originally only available in bold form as Arial Rounded MT Bold, extra fonts appeared as retail products. In Linotype's retail version, only Arial Rounded Regular supports WGL character set.
Arial Special: Arial Special G1, Arial Special G2. They are included with Microsoft Encarta Virtual Globe 99, Expedia Streets and Trips 2000, MapPoint 2000.
Arial Light, Arial Medium, Arial Extra Bold, Arial Light Condensed, Arial Condensed, Arial Medium Condensed, Arial Bold Condensed: These fonts first appeared in the Linotype online stores. The condensed fonts do not have italic counterparts.
Arial Monospaced: In this monospaced variant, letters such as @, I (uppercase i), i, j, l (lowercase L), M, W are redesigned.
Arial Alternative
Arial Alternative Regular and Arial Alternative Symbol are standard fonts in Windows ME, and can also be found on Windows 95 and Windows XP installation discs, and on Microsoft's site. Both fonts are Symbol-encoded. These fonts emulate the monospaced font used in Minitel/Prestel teletext systems, but vectorized with Arial styling. These fonts are used by HyperTerminal.
Arial Alternative Regular contains only ASCII characters, while Arial Alternative Symbol contains only 2 × 3 semigraphics characters.
Code page variants
Arial Baltic, Arial CE, Arial Cyr, Arial Greek, Arial Tur are aliases created in the FontSubstitutes section of WIN.INI by Windows. These entries all point to the master font. When an alias font is specified, the font's character map contains different character set from the master font and the other alias fonts.
In addition, Monotype also sells Arial in reduced character sets, such as Arial CE, Arial WGL, Arial Cyrillic, Arial Greek, Arial Hebrew, Arial Thai.
Arial Unicode is a version supporting all characters assigned with Unicode 2.1 code points.
Arial Nova
Arial Nova's design is based on the 1982's Sonora Sans bitmapped fonts, which were in fact Arial renamed to avoid licensing issues. It was bundled with Windows 10, and is offered free of charge on Microsoft Store. It contains Regular, Bold and Light weights, corresponding italics and corresponding Condensed widths.
Monotype/Linotype retail versions
Arial
The TrueType core Arial fonts (Arial, Arial Bold, Arial Italic, Arial Bold Italic) support the same character sets as the version 2.76 fonts found in Internet Explorer 5/6, Windows 98/ME.
Version sold by Linotype includes Arial Rounded, Arial Monospaced, Arial Condensed, Arial Central European, Arial Central European Narrow, Arial Cyrillic, Arial Cyrillic Narrow, Arial Dual Greek, Arial Dual Greek Narrow, Arial SF, Arial Turkish, Arial Turkish Narrow.
In addition, Monotype also sells Arial in reduced character sets, such as Arial CE, Arial WGL, Arial Cyrillic, Arial Greek, Arial Hebrew, Arial Thai, Arial SF.
Arial WGL
It is a version that covers only the Windows Glyph List 4 (WGL4) characters. They are only sold in TrueType format.
The family includes Arial (regular, bold, italics), Arial Black, Arial Narrow (regular, bold, italics), Arial Rounded (regular, bold).
Ascender Corporation fonts
Ascender Corporation sells the font in Arial WGL family, as well as the Arial Unicode.
Arial in other font families
Arial glyphs are also used in fonts developed for non-Latin environments, including Arabic Transparent, BrowalliaUPC, Cordia New, CordiaUPC, Miriam, Miriam Transparent, Monotype Hei, Simplified Arabic.
Free alternatives
Arial is a proprietary typeface to which Monotype Imaging owns all rights, including software copyright and trademark rights (under U.S. copyright law, Monotype cannot legally copyright the shapes of the actual glyphs themselves). Its licensing terms prohibit derivative works and free redistribution.
There are some free software metric-compatible fonts used as free Arial alternatives or used for Arial font substitution:
Liberation Sans is a metrically equivalent font to Arial developed by Ascender Corp. and published by Red Hat in 2007, initially under the GPL license with some exceptions. Versions 2.00.0 onwards are published under SIL Open Font License. It is used in some Linux distributions as default font replacement for Arial. Liberation Sans Narrow is a metrically equivalent font to Arial Narrow contributed to Liberation fonts by Oracle in 2010, but is not included in 2.00.0. Google commissioned a variation named Arimo for Chrome OS.
URW++ produced a version of Helvetica called Nimbus Sans L in 1987, and it was eventually released under the GPL and AFPL (as Type 1 font for Ghostscript) in 1996. It is one of the Ghostscript fonts, free alternatives to 35 basic PostScript fonts (which include Helvetica).
FreeSans, a free font descending from URW++ Nimbus Sans L, which in turn descends from Helvetica. It is one of free fonts developed in GNU FreeFont project, first published in 2002. It is used in some free software as Arial replacement or for Arial font substitution.
TeX Gyre Heros, a free font descending from URW++ Nimbus Sans L, which in turn descends from Helvetica. It is one of free fonts developed by the Polish TeX Users Group (GUST), first published in 2007. It is licensed under the GUST Font License.
See also
Core fonts for the Web
List of fonts
:Category:Monotype typefaces – typefaces owned by or designed for Monotype Imaging
References
External links
Microsoft Typography: Arial, Arial Black, Arial Narrow, Arial Rounded MT, Arial Special G1/G2, Arial Narrow Special G1/G2, Arial Unicode MS
Linotype/Monotype Arial families: Arial, Arial WGL, Arial Arabic, Arial Nova, Arial OS, Arial Unicode
Fonts in Use
Monotype typefaces
Neo-grotesque sans-serif typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1982
Microsoft typefaces
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219072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk%20assessment | Risk assessment | Broadly speaking, a risk assessment is the combined effort of:
identifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and/or the environment (i.e. hazard analysis); and
making judgments "on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis" while considering influencing factors (i.e. risk evaluation).
Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment determines possible mishaps, their likelihood and consequences, and the tolerances for such events. The results of this process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion. Risk assessment is an inherent part of a broader risk management strategy to help reduce any potential risk-related consequences.
Need
Individual risk assessment
Risk assessment is necessary in individual cases, including patient and physician interactions. Individual judgements or assessments of risk may be affected by psychological, ideological, religious or otherwise subjective factors, which impact rationality of the process.
A systematic review of patients and doctors from 2017 found that overstatement of benefits and understatement of risks occurred more often than the alternative.
There is a tendency for individuals to be less rational when risks and exposures concern themselves as opposed to others. There is also a tendency to underestimate risks that are voluntary or where the individual sees themselves as being in control, such as smoking. A 2017 systematic review from the Cochrane collaboration suggests "well-documented decision aids" are helpful in reducing effects of such tendencies or biases. The ways statistics are expressed and communicated, both through words and numerically also impact the interpretation of benefit and harm. For example, a fatality rate may be interpreted as less benign than the corresponding survival rate.
Systems risk assessment
Risk assessment can also be made on a much larger "systems" scale, for example assessing the risks of a nuclear power plant (an interactively complex mechanical, electronic, nuclear, and human system) or a hurricane (a complex meteorological and geographical system). Systems may be defined as linear and nonlinear (or complex), where linear systems are predictable and relatively easy to understand given a change in input, and non-linear systems unpredictable when inputs are changed. As such, risk assessments of non-linear/complex systems tend to be more challenging.
In the engineering of complex systems, sophisticated risk assessments are often made within safety engineering and reliability engineering when it concerns threats to life, environment, or machine functioning. The agriculture, nuclear, aerospace, oil, railroad, and military industries have a long history of dealing with risk assessment. Also, medical, hospital, social service, and food industries control risks and perform risk assessments on a continual basis. Methods for assessment of risk may differ between industries and whether it pertains to general financial decisions or environmental, ecological, or public health risk assessment.
Concept
Rapid technological change, increasing scale of industrial complexes, increased system integration, market competition, and other factors have been shown to increase societal risk in the past few decades. As such, risk assessments become increasingly critical in mitigating accidents, improving safety, and improving outcomes. Risk assessment consists of an objective evaluation of risk in which assumptions and uncertainties are clearly considered and presented. This involves identification of risk (what can happen and why), the potential consequences, the probability of occurrence, the tolerability or acceptability of the risk, and ways to mitigate or reduce the probability of the risk. Optimally, it also involves documentation of the risk assessment and its findings, implementation of mitigation methods, and review of the assessment (or risk management plan), coupled with updates when necessary. Sometimes risks can be deemed acceptable, meaning the risk "is understood and tolerated ... usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss."
Part of the difficulty in managing risk is that both the quantities by which risk assessment is concerned—potential loss and probability of occurrence—can be very difficult to measure. The chance of error in measuring these two concepts is high. The risk with a large potential loss and a low probability of occurrence is often treated differently from one with a low potential loss and a high likelihood of occurrence. In theory, both are of near equal priority, but in practice, it can be very difficult to manage when faced with the scarcity of resources—especially time—in which to conduct the risk management process.
Mild Versus Wild Risk
Benoit Mandelbrot distinguished between "mild" and "wild" risk and argued that risk assessment and management must be fundamentally different for the two types of risk. Mild risk follows normal or near-normal probability distributions, is subject to regression to the mean and the law of large numbers, and is therefore relatively predictable. Wild risk follows fat-tailed distributions, e.g., Pareto or power-law distributions, is subject to regression to the tail (infinite mean or variance, rendering the law of large numbers invalid or ineffective), and is therefore difficult or impossible to predict. A common error in risk assessment and management is to underestimate the wildness of risk, assuming risk to be mild when in fact it is wild, which must be avoided if risk assessment and management are to be valid and reliable, according to Mandelbrot.
Mathematical conceptualization
To see the risk management process expressed mathematically, one can define total risk as the sum over individual risks, , which can be computed as the product of potential losses, , and their probabilities, :
Even though for some risks , we might have , if the probability is small compared to , its estimation might be based only on a smaller number of prior events, and hence, more uncertain. On the other hand, since , must be larger than , so decisions based on this uncertainty would be more consequential, and hence, warrant a different approach.
Financial decisions, such as insurance, express loss in terms of dollar amounts. When risk assessment is used for public health or environmental decisions, the loss can be quantified in a common metric such as a country's currency or some numerical measure of a location's quality of life. For public health and environmental decisions, the loss is simply a verbal description of the outcome, such as increased cancer incidence or incidence of birth defects. In that case, the "risk" is expressed as
If the risk estimate takes into account information on the number of individuals exposed, it is termed a "population risk" and is in units of expected increased cases per time period. If the risk estimate does not take into account the number of individuals exposed, it is termed an "individual risk" and is in units of incidence rate per time period. Population risks are of more use for cost/benefit analysis; individual risks are of more use for evaluating whether risks to individuals are "acceptable".
Quantitative risk assessment
In quantitative risk assessment, an annualized loss expectancy (ALE) may be used to justify the cost of implementing countermeasures to protect an asset. This may be calculated by multiplying the single loss expectancy (SLE), which is the loss of value based on a single security incident, with the annualized rate of occurrence (ARO), which is an estimate of how often a threat would be successful in exploiting a vulnerability.
The usefulness of quantitative risk assessment has been questioned, however. Barry Commoner, Brian Wynne and other critics have expressed concerns that risk assessment tends to be overly quantitative and reductive. For example, they argue that risk assessments ignore qualitative differences among risks. Some charge that assessments may drop out important non-quantifiable or inaccessible information, such as variations among the classes of people exposed to hazards, or social amplification. Furthermore, Commoner and O'Brien claim that quantitative approaches divert attention from precautionary or preventative measures. Others, like Nassim Nicholas Taleb consider risk managers little more than "blind users" of statistical tools and methods.
Assessment of risk
The process of risk assessment may be somewhat informal at the individual social level, managing economic and household risks, or a sophisticated process at the strategic corporate level. However, in both cases, ability to anticipate future events and create effective strategies for mitigating them when deemed unacceptable is vital.
At the individual level, a simple process of identifying objectives and risks, weighing their importance, and creating plans, may be all that's necessary. At the strategic organisational level, more elaborate policies are necessary, specifying acceptable levels of risk, procedures to be followed within the organisation, priorities, and allocation of resources. At the systematic level, management involved with the project produce project level risk assessments with the assistance of the available expertise as part of the planning process and set up systems to ensure that required actions to manage the assessed risk are in place. At the dynamic level, the personnel directly involved may be required to deal with unforeseen problems in real time. The tactical decisions made at this level should be reviewed after the operation to provide feedback on the effectiveness of both the planned procedures and decisions made in response to the contingency.
The first step in risk assessment is to establish the context. This restricts the range of hazards to be considered.
This is followed by identification of visible and implied hazards that may threaten the project, and determining the qualitative nature of the potential adverse consequences of each hazard. Without a potential adverse consequence, there is no hazard.
It is also necessary to identify the potential parties or assets which may be affected by the threat, and the potential consequences to them if the hazard is activated.
If the consequences are dependent on dose, i.e. the amount of exposure, the relationship between dose and severity of consequence must be established, and the risk depends on the probable dose, which may depend on concentration or amplitude and duration or frequency of exposure. This is the general case for many health hazards where the mechanism of injury is toxicity or repetitive injury, particularly where the effect is cumulative.
For other hazards, the consequences may either occur or not, and the severity may be extremely variable even when the triggering conditions are the same. This is typical of many biological hazards as well as a large range of safety hazards. Exposure to a pathogen may or may not result in actual infection, and the consequences of infection may also be variable. Similarly, a fall from the same place may result in minor injury or death, depending on unpredictable details. In these cases, estimates must be made of reasonably likely consequences and associated probability of occurrence.
In cases where statistical records are available, they may be used to evaluate risk, but in many cases, there are no data or insufficient data available to be useful. Mathematical or experimental models may provide useful input.
Dose dependent risk
Dose-Response Analysis, is determining the relationship between dose and the type of adverse response and/or probability or the incidence of effect (dose-response assessment). The complexity of this step in many contexts derives mainly from the need to extrapolate results from experimental animals (e.g. mouse, rat) to humans, and/or from high to lower doses, including from high acute occupational levels to low chronic environmental levels. In addition, the differences between individuals due to genetics or other factors mean that the hazard may be higher for particular groups, called susceptible populations. An alternative to dose-response estimation is to determine a concentration unlikely to yield observable effects, that is, a no effect concentration. In developing such a dose, to account for the largely unknown effects of animal to human extrapolations, increased variability in humans, or missing data, a prudent approach is often adopted by including safety or uncertainty factors in the estimate of the "safe" dose, typically a factor of 10 for each unknown step.
Exposure Quantification, aims to determine the amount of a contaminant (dose) that individuals and populations will receive, either as a contact level (e.g., concentration in ambient air) or as intake (e.g., daily dose ingested from drinking water). This is done by examining the results of the discipline of exposure assessment. As a different location, lifestyle, and other factors likely influence the amount of contaminant that is received, a range or distribution of possible values is generated in this step. Particular care is taken to determine the exposure of the susceptible population(s).
The results of these steps are combined to produce an estimate of risk. Because of the different susceptibilities and exposures, this risk will vary within a population. An uncertainty analysis is usually included in a health risk assessment.
Dynamic risk assessment
During an emergency response, the situation and hazards are often inherently less predictable than for planned activities (non-linear). In general, if the situation and hazards are predictable (linear), standard operating procedures should deal with them adequately. In some emergencies, this may also hold true, with the preparation and trained responses being adequate to manage the situation. In these situations, the operator can manage risk without outside assistance, or with the assistance of a backup team who are prepared and available to step in at short notice.
Other emergencies occur where there is no previously planned protocol, or when an outsider group is brought in to handle the situation, and they are not specifically prepared for the scenario that exists but must deal with it without undue delay. Examples include police, fire department, disaster response, and other public service rescue teams. In these cases, ongoing risk assessment by the involved personnel can advise appropriate action to reduce risk. HM Fire Services Inspectorate has defined dynamic risk assessment (DRA) as:
The continuous assessment of risk in the rapidly changing circumstances of an operational incident, in order to implement the control measures necessary to ensure an acceptable level of safety.
Dynamic risk assessment is the final stage of an integrated safety management system that can provide an appropriate response during changing circumstances. It relies on experience, training and continuing education, including effective debriefing to analyse not only what went wrong, but also what went right, and why, and to share this with other members of the team and the personnel responsible for the planning level risk assessment.
Fields of application
The application of risk assessment procedures is common in a wide range of fields, and these may have specific legal obligations, codes of practice, and standardised procedures. Some of these are listed here.
Human settlements
The importance of risk assessments to manage the consequences of climate change and variability is recalled in the global frameworks for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), adopted by the member countries of the United Nations at the end of the World Conferences held in Kobe (2005) and Sendai (2015). The Sendai framework for DRR brings attention to the local scale and encourages a holistic risk approach, which should consider all the hazards to which a community is exposed, the integration of technical-scientific knowledge with local knowledge, and the inclusion of the concept of risk in local plans to achieve a significant disaster reduction by 2030. Taking these principles into daily practice poses a challenge for many countries. The Sendai framework for DRR monitoring system highlights how little we know about the progress made over the past five years in local disaster risk reduction.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Exceptions aside, in the South of the Sahara, risk assessment is not yet an institutionalized practice. The exposure of human settlements to multiple hazards (hydrological and agricultural drought, pluvial, fluvial and coastal floods) is frequent and requires risk assessments on a regional, municipal, and sometimes individual human settlement scale. The multidisciplinary approach and the integration of local and technical-scientific knowledge are necessary from the first steps of the assessment. Local knowledge remains unavoidable to understand the hazards that threaten individual communities, the critical thresholds in which they turn into disasters, for the validation of hydraulic models, and in the decision-making process on risk reduction. On the other hand, local knowledge alone is not enough to understand the impacts of future changes and climatic variability and to know the areas exposed to infrequent hazards.
The availability of new technologies and open access information (high resolution satellite images, daily rainfall data) allow assessment today with an accuracy that only 10 years ago was unimaginable. The images taken by unmanned vehicle technologies allow to produce very high resolution digital elevation models and to accurately identify the receptors. Based on this information, the hydraulic models allow the identification of flood areas with precision even at the scale of small settlements. The information on loss and damages and on cereal crop at individual settlement scale allow to determine the level of multi-hazard risk on a regional scale. The multi-temporal high-resolution satellite images allow to assess the hydrological drought and the dynamics of human settlements in the flood zone.
Risk assessment is much more than an aid to informed decisions making about risk reduction or acceptance. It integrates early warning systems by highlighting the hot spots where disaster prevention and preparedness are most urgent. When risk assessment considers the dynamics of exposure over time, it helps to identify risk reduction policies that are more appropriate to the local context.
Despite these potentials, the risk assessment is not yet integrated into the local planning in the South of the Sahara which, in the best of cases, uses only the analysis of vulnerability to climate change and variability.
General health
There are many resources that provide health risk information.
The National Library of Medicine provides risk assessment and regulation information tools for a varied audience. These include:
TOXNET (databases on hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases),
the Household Products Database (potential health effects of chemicals in over 10,000 common household products),
TOXMAP (maps of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund and Toxics Release Inventory data).
The United States Environmental Protection Agency provides basic information about environmental health risk assessments for the public for a wide variety of possible environmental exposures.
The Environmental Protection Agency began actively using risk assessment methods to protect drinking water in the United States after the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The law required the National Academy of Sciences to conduct a study on drinking water issues, and in its report, the NAS described some methodologies for doing risk assessments for chemicals that were suspected carcinogens, recommendations that top EPA officials have described as perhaps the study's most important part.
Considering the increase in junk food and its toxicity, FDA required in 1973 that cancer-causing compounds must not be present in meat at concentrations that would cause a cancer risk greater than 1 in a million over a lifetime. The US Environmental Protection Agency provides extensive information about ecological and environmental risk assessments for the public via its risk assessment portal. The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) supports a qualitative risk framework for public health protection from chemicals that display environmental and biological persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity (PBT) and long range transport; most global chemicals that meet this criteria have been previously assessed quantitatively by national and international health agencies.
Small sub-populations
When risks apply mainly to small sub-populations, it can be difficult to determine when intervention is necessary. For example, there may be a risk that is very low for everyone, other than 0.1% of the population. It is necessary to determine whether this 0.1% is represented by:
all infants younger than X days or
recreational users of a particular product.
If the risk is higher for a particular sub-population because of abnormal exposure rather than susceptibility, strategies to further reduce the exposure of that subgroup are considered. If an identifiable sub-population is more susceptible due to inherent genetic or other factors, public policy choices must be made. The choices are:
to set policies for protecting the general population that are protective of such groups, e.g. for children when data exists, the Clean Air Act for populations such as asthmatics or
not to set policies, because the group is too small, or the costs too high.
Acceptable risk criteria
Acceptable risk is a risk that is understood and tolerated usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss.
The idea of not increasing lifetime risk by more than one in a million has become commonplace in public health discourse and policy. It is a heuristic measure. It provides a numerical basis for establishing a negligible increase in risk.
Environmental decision making allows some discretion for deeming individual risks potentially "acceptable" if less than one in ten thousand chance of increased lifetime risk. Low risk criteria such as these provide some protection for a case where individuals may be exposed to multiple chemicals e.g. pollutants, food additives, or other chemicals.
In practice, a true zero-risk is possible only with the suppression of the risk-causing activity.
Stringent requirements of 1 in a million may not be technologically feasible or may be so prohibitively expensive as to render the risk-causing activity unsustainable, resulting in the optimal degree of intervention being a balance between risks vs. benefit. For example, emissions from hospital incinerators result in a certain number of deaths per year. However, this risk must be balanced against the alternatives. There are public health risks, as well as economic costs, associated with all options. The risk associated with no incineration is the potential spread of infectious diseases or even no hospitals. Further investigation identifies options such as separating noninfectious from infectious wastes, or air pollution controls on a medical incinerator.
Intelligent thought about a reasonably full set of options is essential. Thus, it is not unusual for there to be an iterative process between analysis, consideration of options, and follow up analysis.
Auditing
For audits performed by an outside audit firm, risk assessment is a crucial stage before accepting an audit engagement. According to ISA315 Understanding the Entity and its Environment and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement, "the auditor should perform risk assessment procedures to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control". Evidence relating to the auditor's risk assessment of a material misstatement in the client's financial statements. Then, the auditor obtains initial evidence regarding the classes of transactions at the client and the operating effectiveness of the client's internal controls. Audit risk is defined as the risk that the auditor will issue a clean unmodified opinion regarding the financial statements, when in fact the financial statements are materially misstated, and therefore do not qualify for a clean unmodified opinion. As a formula, audit risk is the product of two other risks: Risk of Material Misstatement and Detection Risk. This formula can be further broken down as follows: inherent risk × control risk × detection risk.
Public health
In the context of public health, risk assessment is the process of characterizing the nature and likelihood of a harmful effect to individuals or populations from certain human activities. Health risk assessment can be mostly qualitative or can include statistical estimates of probabilities for specific populations. In most countries, the use of specific chemicals or the operations of specific facilities (e.g. power plants, manufacturing plants) is not allowed unless it can be shown that they do not increase the risk of death or illness above a specific threshold. For example, the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates food safety through risk assessment, while the EFSA does the same in EU.
An occupational risk assessment is an evaluation of how much potential danger a hazard can have to a person in a workplace environment. The assessment takes into account possible scenarios in addition to the probability of their occurrence and the results. The five types of hazards to be aware of are safety (those that can cause injury), chemicals, biological, physical, and ergonomic (those that can cause musculoskeletal disorders). To appropriately access hazards there are two parts that must occur. Firstly, there must be an "exposure assessment" which measures the likelihood of worker contact and the level of contact. Secondly, a "risk characterization" must be made which measures the probability and severity of the possible health risks.
Project management
In project management, risk assessment is an integral part of the risk management plan, studying the probability, the impact, and the effect of every known risk on the project, as well as the corrective action to take should an incident be implied by a risk occur. Of special consideration in this area are the relevant codes of practice that are enforced in the specific jurisdiction. Understanding the regime of regulations that risk management must abide by is integral to formulating safe and compliant risk assessment practices.
Information security
Information technology risk assessment can be performed by a qualitative or quantitative approach, following different methodologies. One important difference in risk assessments in information security is modifying the threat model to account for the fact that any adversarial system connected to the Internet has access to threaten any other connected system. Risk assessments may therefore need to be modified to account for the threats from all adversaries, instead of just those with reasonable access as is done in other fields.
NIST Definition: The process of identifying risks to organizational operations (including mission, functions, image, reputation), organizational assets, individuals, other organizations, and the Nation, resulting from the operation of an information system. Part of risk management incorporates threat and vulnerability analyses and considers mitigations provided by security controls planned or in place.
Cybersecurity
The Threat and Risk Assessment (TRA) process is part of risk management referring to risks related to cyber threats. The TRA process will identify cyber risks, assess risks' severities, and may recommend activities to reduce risks to an acceptable level.
There are different methodologies for performing TRA (e.g., Harmonized TRA Methodology), all utilize the following elements: identifying of assets (what should be protected), identifying and assessing of the threats and vulnerabilities for the identified assets, determining the exploitability of the vulnerabilities, determining the levels of risk associated with the vulnerabilities (what are the implications if the assets were damaged or lost), and recommending a risk mitigation program.
Megaprojects
Megaprojects (sometimes also called "major programs") are extremely large-scale investment projects, typically costing more than US$1 billion per project. They include bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, coastal flood protection, oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and defence systems. Megaprojects have been shown to be particularly risky in terms of finance, safety, and social and environmental impacts.
Software evolution
Studies have shown that early parts of the system development cycle such as requirements and design specifications are especially prone to error. This effect is particularly notorious in projects involving multiple stakeholders with different points of view. Evolutionary software processes offer an iterative approach to requirement engineering to alleviate the problems of uncertainty, ambiguity, and inconsistency inherent in software developments, including uncertainty, ambiguity, and inconsistency inherent in software developments.
Shipping industry
In July 2010, shipping companies agreed to use standardized procedures in order to assess risk in key shipboard operations. These procedures were implemented as part of the amended ISM Code.
Underwater diving
Formal risk assessment is a required component of most professional dive planning, but the format and methodology may vary. Consequences of an incident due to an identified hazard are generally chosen from a small number of standardised categories, and probability is estimated based on statistical data on the rare occasions when it is available, and on a best guess estimate based on personal experience and company policy in most cases. A simple matrix is often used to transform these inputs into a level of risk, generally expressed as unacceptable, marginal or acceptable. If unacceptable, measures must be taken to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, and the final outcome of the risk assessment must be accepted by the affected parties before a dive commences. Higher levels of risk may be acceptable in special circumstances, such as military or search and rescue operations when there is a chance of recovering a survivor. Diving supervisors are trained in the procedures of hazard identification and risk assessment, and it is part of their planning and operational responsibility. Both health and safety hazards must be considered. Several stages may be identified. There is risk assessment done as part of the diving project planning, on site risk assessment which takes into account the specific conditions of the day, and dynamic risk assessment which is ongoing during the operation by the members of the dive team, particularly the supervisor and the working diver.
In recreational scuba diving, the extent of risk assessment expected of the diver is relatively basic and is included in the pre-dive checks. Several mnemonics have been developed by diver certification agencies to remind the diver to pay some attention to risk, but the training is rudimentary. Diving service providers are expected to provide a higher level of care for their customers, and diving instructors and divemasters are expected to assess risk on behalf of their customers and warn them of site-specific hazards and the competence considered appropriate for the planned dive. Technical divers are expected to make a more thorough assessment of risk, but as they will be making an informed choice for a recreational activity, the level of acceptable risk may be considerably higher than that permitted for occupational divers under the direction of an employer.
Outdoor and wilderness adventure
In outdoor activities including commercial outdoor education, wilderness expeditions, and outdoor recreation, risk assessment refers to the analysis of the probability and magnitude of unfavorable outcomes such as injury, illness, or property damage due to environmental and related causes, compared to the human development or other benefits of outdoor activity. This is of particular importance as school programs and others weigh the benefits of youth and adult participation in various outdoor learning activities against the inherent and other hazards present in those activities. Schools, corporate entities seeking team-building experiences, parents/guardians, and others considering outdoor experiences expect or require organizations to assess the hazards and risks of different outdoor activities—such as sailing, target shooting, hunting, mountaineering, or camping—and select activities with acceptable risk profiles.
Outdoor education, wilderness adventure, and other outdoor-related organizations should, and are in some jurisdictions required, to conduct risk assessments prior to offering programs for commercial purposes.
Such organizations are given guidance on how to provide their risk assessments.
Risk assessments for led outdoor activities form only one component of a comprehensive risk management plan, as many risk assessments use a basic linear-style thinking that does not employ more modern risk management practice employing complex socio-technical systems theory.
Environment
Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) aims to assess the effects of stressors, usually chemicals, on the local environment. A risk is an integrated assessment of the likelihood and severity of an undesired event. In ERA, the undesired event often depends on the chemical of interest and on the risk assessment scenario. This undesired event is usually a detrimental effect on organisms, populations or ecosystems. Current ERAs usually compare an exposure to a no-effect level, such as the Predicted Environmental Concentration/Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PEC/PNEC) ratio in Europe. Although this type of ratio is useful and often used in regulation purposes, it is only an indication of an exceeded apparent threshold. New approaches start to be developed in ERA in order to quantify this risk and to communicate effectively on it with both the managers and the general public.
Ecological risk assessment is complicated by the fact that there are many nonchemical stressors that substantially influence ecosystems, communities, and individual plants and animals, as well as across landscapes and regions. Defining the undesired (adverse) event is a political or policy judgment, further complicating applying traditional risk analysis tools to ecological systems. Much of the policy debate surrounding ecological risk assessment is over defining precisely what is an adverse event.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity Risk Assessments evaluate risks to biological diversity, specially the risk of species extinction or the risk of ecosystem collapse. The units of assessments are the biological (species, subspecies or populations) or ecological entities (habitats, ecosystems, etc.), and the risk are often related to human actions and interventions (threats and pressures). Regional and national protocols have been proposed by multiple academic or governmental institutions and working groups, but global standards such as the Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems have been widely adopted, and are recognized or proposed as official indicators of progress toward international policy targets and goals, such as the Aichi targets and the Sustainable Development Goals.
See also
References
Footnotes
General references
Also published as December 4 cover title: "Why We Worry About the Wrong Things: The Psychology of Risk" |work=Time
External links
Current Intelligence Bulletin 69: NIOSH Practices in Occupational Risk Assessment National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), USA.
Guideline from the Dutch Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management on Performance based Risk Assessment
CIS RAM (Center for Internet Security® Risk Assessment Method)
Impact assessment
Probability assessment
Hazard analysis
Safety engineering
Reliability engineering
Occupational safety and health | [
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219080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%20Stadler | Anton Stadler | Anton Paul Stadler (28 June 1753, in Bruck an der Leitha – 15 June 1812, in Vienna) was an Austrian clarinet and basset horn player for whom Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote, amongst others, both his Clarinet Quintet (K 581) and Clarinet Concerto (K 622). Stadler's name is inextricably linked to Mozart's compositions for these two instruments.
Early life and career
Stadler was born in 1753 in a small town near Vienna; in 1756 his family moved into the city where his brother Johann was born. Even though both became famous as clarinet and basset horn players, the Journal des Luxus und der Moden described Anton in 1801 as 'a great artist on many wind instruments', and in a letter to Ignatz von Beecke, applying for a position in the Wallerstein orchestra (6 November 1781), Anton himself writes that they 'can also play a little violin and viol'. In the same letter he stated that both he and his brother 'could supplement orchestral skills with duets, concertos, wind octets and basset horn trios', the latter together with Raymund Griesbacher.
A concert on 21 March 1773 at the Kärntnertortheater, of which a programme survived, appears to mark the first public appearance of the two brothers in Vienna; further recorded appearances include a concert on 19 December 1775 and two concerts (12 and 14 March 1780) in which they took part in a concerto for five winds by Joseph Starzer. Pamela Poulin writes: Until 1782 Anton and Johann held various positions. According to the open account books of the imperial court of 1779 they were hired by the court on a per-service basis. A concert programme of 12 March identifies the brothers as being in the service of Count Carl of Palm. As of October 1780 Anton was employed by the Piaristen religious order of Maria Treu as a 'manorial musician'. In 1781 Anton was in the service of count Dimitri Galizin. In the same year Kaiser Joseph II designated their services as 'indispensable'.
Stadler and Mozart
Mozart's first encounter with Stadler may have been around 1781, following his own move to Vienna. In October 1781 he wrote of the first performance of the sextet version of his E-flat Serenade K 375: "The six gentlemen who executed it are poor beggars who, however, play quite well together, particularly the first clarinet and the two horns." On 8 February 1782 the Stadlers were invited to join the orchestra of the Viennese imperial court, and the following year they were members of the emperor's Harmonie, in which Stadler played second clarinet. Stadler's evident preoccupation with the chalumeau register is significant in view of Mozart's subsequent exploitation of its idiomatic potential.
The earliest documented evidence of Mozart's connection with Stadler dates from a year or two later. The clarinetist's playing evoked the following response in Johann Friedrich Schink's Litterarische Fragmente: My thanks to you, brave virtuoso! I have never heard the like of what you contrived with your instrument. Never should I have thought that a clarinet could be capable of imitating the human voice as it was imitated by you. Indeed, your instrument has so soft and lovely a tone that no one can resist it – and I have one, dear Virtuoso; let me thank you. I heard music for wind instruments today, too, by Herr Mozart, in four movements, viz. four horns, two oboes, two bassoons, two clarinets, two basset horns, a double bass, and at each instrument sat a master – oh, what a glorious effect it made – glorious and great, excellent and sublime! Schink here clearly refers to a performance of Mozart's Serenade for thirteen instruments K 361/370a, which probably formed part of Stadler's benefit concert at the National Court Theatre advertised in the Wienerblättchen of 22 March 1784: "Herr Stadler senior, in present service of His Majesty the Emperor, will hold a musical concert for his own benefit, at which will be given, among other well chosen pieces, a great wind piece of a very special kind composed by Herr Mozart." Barely more than a week after this first documented performance came the première of Mozart's Piano Quintet K 452 on 1 April, which included parts for both composer and clarinettist.
The arrival in Vienna of the Bohemian players Anton David and Vincent Springer proved an important catalyst for Mozart's basset horn writing. They had already generated considerable publicity as early as 1782, when their performance at Ludwigslust 'on largely unknown instruments which they call basset horns' was cited by C.F. Cramer the following year. Mozart's espousal of the basset horn really began in earnest in late 1783 when he produced over a period of two years thirteen works for that instrument:
the Notturni K 436, 437, 438, 439 and 346/439a
25 pieces for three basset horns K 439b
the Masonic funeral music K 477/479a
the Adagio in B-flat K 411/484a for two clarinets and three basset horns
the Adagio in F K 410/484d for two basset horns and bassoon
a fragment of a Quintet in B-flat for keyboard, oboe, clarinet, basset horn and bassoon (K 452a)
a fragment of an Allegro assai in B-flat for two clarinets and three basset horns (K 484b), possibly linked to K 411/484a
a fragment of an Adagio in F for clarinet and three basset horns (K 484c), possibly linked to K 580a
a fragment of an Allegro in F (K 484e), possibly for basset horn
The latter dates from the end of 1785. This remarkable activity was undoubtedly brought about by the availability of four excellent clarinet and basset horn players – the Stadlers, David and Springer – who in combination must have inspired the scoring of Mozart's Serenade K 361/370a, in addition to more ritualistic works such as the Adagio K 411/484a. Indeed, the basset horn came to be associated with Masonic ritual, for which its special character was ideally suited, and Anton Stadler was admitted to the 'Zum Palmbaum' ('Palm Tree') lodge on 27 September 1785. On 20 October of that year he and Mozart performed at a benefit concert (to pay for David's and Springer's journey home) organised by the Palm Tree and Three Eagles lodges of the Viennese Masonic order, and on 17 November Mozart's most important piece of Masonic music, the Maurerische Trauermusik K 477/479a, was performed during a Lodge of Sorrows for the deaths of two Brothers, Georg August, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Franz, Count Esterhazy of Galántha. For this piece Mozart used an extraordinary and fortuitous collection of musicians: the clarinet part was probably intended for Stadler and the contrabassoon part for Theodor Lotz. The initial scoring also included a single basset horn, but two more were added by Mozart, presumably to allow the participation of David and Springer. Stadler and Mozart appeared again at another benefit concert for the Bohemian pair at the Crowned Hope Lodge on 15 December 1785, for which the items included 'A Parthie [suite] composed by Brother Stadler for six wind instruments, for which the Hon. Brother Locz [sic] will play the great octave bassoon'; Stadler's Partita is no longer extant. Significantly, Mozart wrote nothing further for the basset horn after this concert until 1788, when he produced a piano concerto fragment (K 537b) and the Canzonetta K 549.
Mozart's Clarinet Trio K 498 was written for the pianist Francesca von Jacquin and must have been first played at the family house, with the participation of Stadler and the composer himself. It undoubtedly reflects the favourite techniques and idioms of each of the players, including Stadler's proficiency in the chalumeau register, as illustrated by accompaniment figuration and melodic figures including that part of the compass.
Mozart's opera La clemenza di Tito (K 621) was first heard in Prague on 6 September 1791. Although the orchestra was that of the Estates Theatre, Stadler travelled to Prague with Mozart, who included two arias with major solos for him: Sesto's "Parto, parto", which has a large basset clarinet solo, and Vitellia's "Non più di fiori", which has a basset horn solo of equal prominence.
Although the eloquence of Mozart's clarinet writing for Stadler testifies to a remarkable musical relationship, surviving evidence of their personal friendship remains fragmentary. In any case, Mozart's nickname for the clarinettist reveals a shared sense of humour; 'Notschibinitschibi' is a combination of two words – 'Notschibi' meaning a poor booby or miser and 'Nitschibi' a young man of follies. Still, much evidence remains to show that Stadler was at best irresponsible, and at worst, conniving. Constanze Mozart's sister, Sophie Haibel, recounted to Georg Nikolaus von Nissen how Stadler stole from Mozart, and a letter from Constanze to the publisher Johann André suggests that she and others held no high opinion of him. Furthermore, although Theodor Lotz made Stadler's basset clarinets (see below), Stadler later attributed their invention to himself, taking advantage of Lotz's premature death in 1792, only six months after Mozart's. Stadler never paid for the instruments, nor for K 622, which Nissen claims was commissioned from Mozart. It is distressing to see to what extent Mozart involved Stadler in his personal life and finances, considering how often the composer himself was in debt.
In the end, though, there can be no doubt that Stadler's character struck a chord deep in Mozart, who was very fond of him. For this we must be grateful: Mozart's close friendship with Stadler and Lotz have given clarinettists some of the most sublime music imaginable.
Stadler and the basset clarinet
A surviving programme for a concert on 20 February 1788 documents an important milestone in the history of Stadler and Mozart, heralding the arrival of a newly extended clarinet. It announces a concert at the Hoftheater at which Herr Stadler the elder, in the service of his majesty the Kaiser, will play a concerto on the Bass-Klarinet and a variation on the Bass-Klarinet, an instrument of new invention and manufacture of the court instrument maker Theodor Loz [sic]; this instrument has two more tones than the normal clarinet. Stadler's instrument is now known as a basset clarinet, a term coined by Jiři Kratochvil to reflect its kinship with the basset horn and to avoid confusion with the bass clarinet, whose orchestral career developed only during the 19th century. As for the variations advertised in Stadler's 1788 programme, a number of works have so far been identified, including Variations on different favourite themes and ten variations on You must not take amiss with me. A possible candidate for the other clarinet work might be another of Stadler's compositions, or perhaps a B-flat major Concerto attributed to Joseph Michl.
The "two more tones than the normal clarinet [the compass of which ends at low e]" mentioned in the concert programme can, however, not easily be unambiguously identified. The Lotz basset clarinet must be associated with Mozart's Quintet fragment in B-flat K 516c, 93 bars of a movement which in 1828 Nissen believed to have been originally complete. Basset notes occur only from bar 55, d then occurring 7 times, occasioning notation in the bass clef an octave below pitch, as in Mozart's basset horn writing. Similarly, the second clarinet part of Ferrando's aria 'Ah lo veggio' from Così fan tutte descends to d on a total of 7 occasions. Mozart's avoidance of the tonic c has led some writers to assume that d and e-flat were the extra notes on Lotz's instrument, but the obvious parallel with the basset horn makes c and d much more likely: Robert D. Levin reconstructed K 516c and believes that the missing portion must have contained several examples of low c.
It was for this extended clarinet that the Clarinet Concerto and possibly the Quintet for Clarinet and Strings were written. A concerto in D major for basset clarinet was written for Stadler by Franz Xaver Süssmayr, which remains as two incomplete manuscripts. It is now thought that the clarinet concerti by Joseph Leopold Eybler and Leopold Kozeluch were also written for Anton Stadler.
Later life and career
In a letter to Constanze from October 1791 Mozart writes of completing the final movement of K 622 ('Stadler's Rondo') and Stadler set out on a concert tour that lasted about four years, during which time he visited at least nine cities, performing more than a dozen times:
Prague, 16 October 1791
Berlin, 31 January and 23 March 1792
Warsaw, 4 May and 11 September 1792
Vilniu, 1793
Riga, 27 February 5 and 21 March 1794
St Petersburg, 13 May 1794
Lübeck, 16 and 27 September 1794
Hamburg, 29 November and 20 December 1794
Hannover, 12 September 1795
Making use of his status as a Royal Imperial Court Musician from Vienna he presumably also gave lessons. Reviews of Stadler's playing are generally flattering, such as comments in the Berlin Musikalisches Wochenblatt of 1792, where he is described as 'brilliant and accomplished; he also has acquired a precision which shows his confidence'.
By 1796 Stadler had returned to Vienna, taking up his post alongside his brother, and starting composing works for basset horn and clarinet, a number of which were published. In 1798 the Viennese composer Joseph Leopold Eybler complete a clarinet concerto, very probably for Anton Stadler, a fine three-movement work with a full orchestra complete with Harmonie (including clarinets), trumpets and timpani, in which the tutti sections demonstrate Eybler's fine compositional technique. In the concerto manuscript, two versions of the solo part are written on separate staves: they vary in their technical demands and it seems a player may have found the upper line too difficult (most of the passage work lies in the extreme high register, up to a3) and persuaded the composer to make a simplified version.
Stadler was invited by a Hungarian count, Georg Festitics, to help organize a school of music in Keszthely near the Plattensee. The result, Stadler's 50-page Musick Plan of 1800, represents a thoughtful and organized side of Stadler one might not have suspected to exist (the original is preserved in the National Hungarian Library in Budapest). The document, based on a set of questions provided by the count, recommends a rigorous education, combining performance, music theory and composition with schooling in a broad range of subjects. Examples of Stadler's priorities include study of the violin, singing and piano (also requiring students to learn to tune a piano), a 'general education' (because otherwise one becomes a 'half thing'), as well as an understanding of the psychology of performance. He also has wise words on how to behave in the profession, suggesting instrumentalists 'not to drown out singers, not hold back or press forward in tempo, not publicly censure another's chance mistake, nor ridicule their colleagues'. A list of repertoire and theoretical texts is found at the end of the document, and includes mention of a forthcoming method for the clarinet, to be written by Stadler himself. The Musick Plan serves to habilitate Stadler's reputation, at least partially.
After his four-year tour he left his wife for a young seamstress, Friederika Kabel, with whom he remained for the rest of his life. No doubt he spent money irresponsibly and continued to incur debts. He died of emaciation and was buried on 17 June 1812 on the old Catholic cemetery in Matzleinsdorf.
Works
The following list was compiled by Albert Rice.
For clarinet:
Trios caprices pour la clarinette seule (published in Vienna ca. 1808 and dedicated to Count Johann Esterházy, Master of the Crowned Hope Lodge and a clarinet student of Stadler's)
Trois fantaisies ou potpourris pour la clarinette seule (published in Vienna ca. 1809)
Variations sur différents themes favorites (Variations on different favourite themes) pour la clarinette seule (published in Vienna ca. 1810)
Six Duettinos progressives pour 2 Clarinettes (published in Vienna ca. 1808)
6 Duettinos concertantes pour 2 clarinettes (published in Vienna)
12 ländlerische Tänze für 2 Clarinettes (lost)
10 Variations über "Müsst ma nix in übel aufnehma" (You must not take amiss with me) für Clarinette (lost)
For basset horn:
18 Terzetten für 3 Bassetthörner. A notable recording is that by the Trio di Bassetto (Jean-Claude Veilhan, Eric Lorho & Jean-Louis Gauch) on period basset horns in F by L. Verjat (Paris) after A. Kirst (Potsdam) & Gilles Thomé (Paris) after R. Griesbacher (Vienna); K617 K617060 (1995).
For czakan:
6 Duettinos pour 2 Csákans ou csákan et Violon (nos. 1 and 2 published in Vienna in 1808)
7 Variations pour Csákan (published in Vienna ca. 1812)
7 Variations pour Csákan (published in Vienna ca. 1812)
9 Variations über "Müsst ma nix in übel aufnehma" für Csákan (lost)
3 Caprices pour Csákan ou Flûte double (lost)
For wind ensemble:
2 Märsche (lost)
12 deutsche Tänze mit Trios (lost)
References
Further reading
Michael Lorenz: "Unknown Stadler Documents (Part 1)", Wien 2020.
1753 births
1812 deaths
18th-century clarinetists
19th-century clarinetists
Austrian classical clarinetists
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] |
219085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steffen%20Tangstad | Steffen Tangstad | Steffen Tangstad (born 22 June 1959) is a Norwegian retired professional boxer and two time European Heavyweight Champion.
Tangstad fought Michael Spinks for the IBF Heavyweight title on 6 September 1986, losing as a result of a fourth round knock out.
That was Tangstad's final bout. He retired with a career record of 24 wins (14 by knockout), 2 losses and 2 draws.
After retiring from the boxing ring, Tangstad began a career in Norwegian television and was the CEO of the now defunct "Modern Sports & Events" (MSE), which was licensed to broadcast UFC pay-per-view events in Scandinavia.
In 2006, he participated in the second season of Skal vi danse?.
Professional boxing record
|-
|align="center" colspan=8|24 Wins (14 knockouts, 10 decisions), 2 Losses (2 knockouts), 2 Draws
|-
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Result
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Record
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Opponent
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Type
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Round
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|Loss
|24-2-2
|align=left| Michael Spinks
|TKO
|4
|06/09/1986
|align=left| Las Vegas Hilton, Las Vegas, Nevada
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|24-1-2
|align=left| John Westgarth
|SD
|12
|18/04/1986
|align=left| Randers Hallen, Randers
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|23-1-2
|align=left| Alfredo Evangelista
|PTS
|8
|10/01/1986
|align=left| Randers Hallen, Randers
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|22-1-2
|align=left| Reiner Hartmann
|KO
|7
|01/11/1985
|align=left| K.B. Hallen, Copenhagen
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|21-1-2
|align=left| Anders Eklund
|TKO
|4
|09/03/1985
|align=left| Copenhagen
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|21-0-2
|align=left| Lucien Rodriguez
|UD
|12
|09/11/1984
|align=left| K.B. Hallen, Copenhagen
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|20-0-2
|align=left| Winston Allen
|PTS
|8
|14/07/1984
|align=left| Crest Hotel, Bloomsbury, London
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|19-0-2
|align=left| Joe Bugner
|SD
|10
|18/02/1984
|align=left| Osterbro Stadium, Copenhagen
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|18-0-2
|align=left| Ken Lakusta
|PTS
|8
|13/01/1984
|align=left| Randers Hallen, Randers
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|17-0-2
|align=left| Guido Trane
|PTS
|8
|01/12/1983
|align=left| K.B. Hallen, Copenhagen
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|16-0-2
|align=left| Joe Tank Mooney
|TKO
|2
|24/10/1983
|align=left| Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|15-0-2
|align=left| Bashir Wadud
|PTS
|10
|08/09/1983
|align=left| Americana Congress Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|14-0-2
|align=left| Larry Roberson
|TKO
|5
|28/07/1983
|align=left| Americana Congress Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
| Draw
|13-0-2
|align=left| Buster Douglas
|PTS
|8
|16/10/1982
|align=left| Bismarck Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|13-0-1
|align=left| Walter Ware
|KO
|7
|07/09/1982
|align=left| Bismarck Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|12-0-1
|align=left| Ron Draper
|TKO
|7
|16/08/1982
|align=left| Bismarck Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|11-0-1
|align=left| Juergen Gries
|KO
|2
|25/06/1982
|align=left| Hanko
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|10-0-1
|align=left| Jimmy Cross
|TKO
|5
|30/04/1982
|align=left| McCormick Inn, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|9-0-1
|align=left| William Scott
|KO
|2
|19/02/1982
|align=left| McCormick Inn, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|8-0-1
|align=left| Man Banks
|KO
|2
|05/02/1982
|align=left| Civic Center, Danville, Illinois
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|7-0-1
|align=left| Larry Givens
|UD
|6
|15/12/1981
|align=left| McCormick Inn, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|6-0-1
|align=left| Jerry Brown
|KO
|1
|20/11/1981
|align=left| McCormick Inn, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|5-0-1
|align=left| Mike Lear
|KO
|2
|21/10/1981
|align=left| Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
||4-0-1
|align=left| Raymond White
|PTS
|6
|22/06/1981
|align=left| Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
||3-0-1
|align=left| Mike Kacher
|KO
|3
|04/05/1981
|align=left| Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|2-0-1
|align=left| Stan White Johnson
|KO
|1
|16/04/1981
|align=left| Hilton Hotel, Chicago
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|1-0-1
|align=left| Anthony Elmore
|KO
|2
|07/03/1981
|align=left| Chicago
|align=left|
|-
| Draw
|0-0-1
|align=left| Benji Smith
|PTS
|4
|01/10/1980
|align=left| Chateau Neuf, Oslo
|align=left|
|}
References
External links
1959 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Tønsberg
Heavyweight boxers
European Boxing Union champions
Norwegian male boxers | [
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219090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Tucker | Tony Tucker | Tony Craig Tucker (born December 27, 1958) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1980 to 1998. He won the IBF heavyweight title in 1987, and was the shortest-reigning world heavyweight champion at just 64 days. In an interview with Barry Tompkins, he referred to himself as the "invisible champion," due to the press and general public largely neglecting him. He is best known for giving Mike Tyson in his prime a relatively close fight, in which he, in words of Larry Merchant, "rocked Tyson" in the first round. However, Tyson went on to win a unanimous decision. As an amateur, he won the 1979 United States national championships, the 1979 World Cup, and a gold medal at the 1979 Pan American Games, all in the light heavyweight division.
Amateur career
Tony Tucker became a boxer under influence of his father Bob Tucker, also a former amateur boxer, who became his trainer and manager, put all his wealth into the development of his son's boxing career. Tony fought out of Grand Rapids, Michigan, competing almost entire his amateur career in the light heavyweight division with his billed weight at the 1979 Pan American Games exactly matching the weight limit of the division (178 lbs).
Robert Surkein, the national boxing chairman for the Amateur Athletic Union, said of Tucker: “Believe me, he's better than Leon Spinks. Spinks couldn't hold this kid's gloves at a comparable stage.” Rollie Schwartz, past national chairman of the AAU Boxing Commission, said of Tucker prior to the Olympics, "Tucker is a combination boxer and puncher, much akin to Joe Louis. He comes right at you. I'd take him tomorrow over the two so-called light Heavyweight champs."
Highlights
United States National Championships, Biloxi, Mississippi, April 1978:
1/8: Defeated Jerry Bennett by decision
1/2: Lost to Charles Singleton by decision
U.S. National Sports Festival, Fort Carson, Colorado, July 1978:
Finals: Lost to Elmer Martin by decision
United States National Championships, Lake Charles, Louisiana, May 1979:
1/2: Defeated Kelvin Anderson by decision
Finals: Defeated Andre McCoy by decision
Pan Am Trials, Toledo, Ohio, May–June 1979:
1/2: Defeated Elliott Chavis by decision
Finals: Defeated Andre McCoy by decision
Pan American Games, Roberto Clemente Coliseum, San Juan, Puerto Rico, July 1979:
1/4: Defeated Sixto Soria (Cuba) by majority decision, 4–1
1/2: Defeated Patrick Fennel (Canada) RSC 3
Finals: Defeated Dennis Jackson (Puerto Rico) by unanimous decision, 5–0
World Cup, Felt Forum, New York City, October 1979:
1/4: Defeated Benny Pike (Australia) by unanimous decision, 5–0
1/2: Defeated Kurt Seiler (West Germany) by unanimous decision, 5–0
Finals: Defeated Albert Nikolyan (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0
International Duals
February 1, 1979, Blackham Coliseum, Lafayette, Louisiana: Lost to Nikolay Yerofeyev (Soviet Union) by decision
February 11, 1979, Estadio Latinamericano, Havana, Cuba: Lost to Hermenegildo Báez (Cuba) by decision
February 24, 1979, Blackham Coliseum, Lafayette, Louisiana: Defeated Jacek Kucharczyk (Poland) by split decision, 2–1
February 10, 1980, Charlotte Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina: Defeated Orestes Pedroso (Cuba)
February 25, 1980, Blaisdell Arena, Honolulu, Hawaii: Defeated Ene Saipaia (Hawaii)
March 1980, Schwerin, East Germany: Lost to Herbert Bauch (East Germany) by walkover
March 1980, Schwerin, East Germany: Lost to Werner Kohnert (East Germany) by split decision, 1–2
March 1980, Rostock, East Germany: Lost to Jürgen Fanghänel (East Germany) DQ 1
1980 Olympics
Since 1979 Tony Tucker anticipated participating in the Moscow Olympics. Tucker was an alternate for the United States Olympic Team for the 1980 Summer Olympics (Lee Roy Murphy qualified as the prime.) President Jimmy Carter ordered to boycott the Olympics, which led the U.S. Team to cancel its participation in the Olympics, instead it embarked on a series of exhibitions in Europe. On March 14, 1980, en route to Poland, their plane Polish Airlines IL-62 crashed near Warsaw, with the U.S. boxing team aboard, consisting of 22 boxers, there were no survivors. Several people, including Tony Tucker, missed the flight and stayed in the United States due to various reasons, in Tucker's case an injury sustained just prior to the accident. At that point Tucker became religious, believing that God spared his life for a purpose, in order for him to become the heavyweight champion of the world. Shortly thereafter Tucker turned pro.
Tucker finished his amateur career having 121 fights under his belt, with a record of 115–6.
Professional career
After turning pro in 1980, Tucker's early fights were often shown on NBC, as part of a collection known as "Tomorrow's Champions".
Tucker's progress in the professional ranks was slow. He was injury prone, and he changed managers and trainers several times. Eventually his father Bob Tucker performed both roles. After enjoying a high-profile upon his professional debut, Tucker spent the majority of the 1980s boxing in off-TV bouts. In addition, he injured his knee in a bout against Danny Sutton, which caused him to miss a little over a year.
In June 1984, he scored a win by knocking out Eddie "The Animal" Lopez in 9 rounds on the undercard of the Tommy Hearns–Roberto Durán fight. It was the first time Lopez had ever been knocked down. In September 1984, he followed it up by outpointing Jimmy Young .
In September 1986, Tucker finally landed a big fight, against 242 lb James "Broad-Axe" Broad, for the USBA belt and a world title eliminator. Tucker won by unanimous decision.
IBF heavyweight champion
Home Box Office and Don King Productions orchestrated a heavyweight unification series for 1987, planning among its bouts a match between reigning IBF champion Michael Spinks and Tucker. Spinks refused to face Tucker, opting instead for a more lucrative bout with Gerry Cooney. The IBF withdrew its championship recognition of Spinks on February 19, mandating that Tucker (as the IBF's number 1-ranked contender) face its number 2 contender, Buster Douglas. Tucker won the bout, and the vacant IBF crown, via 10th-round technical knockout.
Tucker vs. Tyson
Tucker, as the winner of the IBF title, was obliged to immediately defend his title in a unification bout with WBA and WBC champion Mike Tyson, in what would be the tournament final, where Tucker was a 10-to-1 underdog. Before Tucker was managed by Emmanuel Steward, who received a negotiated percent of each payday. By that time for that same purpose a joint venture named Tucker Inc. was formed by his promoters Cedric Kushner (18% of total share), and Josephine Abercrombie with Jeff Levine (also 18%), partnering with Dennis Rappaport and Alan Kornberg (13%,) and lastly Emmanuel Steward (6%). His father Bob Tucker also secured a share in Tucker Inc. (12%)
Before the fight versus Tyson, Tucker had been on an eight-year-long winning streak, his last defeat was in 1979, while competing in amateurs.
Despite having a broken right hand, Tucker faced Tyson on August 1, 1987. Tyson defeated Tucker by unanimous decision to unify the three championship titles, in the process giving Tucker the distinction of having the shortest championship reign in the history of the Heavyweight division (64 days). According to the HBO Punch Statistics, Tucker landed 174 of 452 punches thrown, while Tyson landed 216 of 412, and in fact outjabbed Tucker, who had more than a 10-inch reach advantage (81½" to 71").
HBO host and boxing great Sugar Ray Leonard said: "What Tucker displayed tonight was the fact that he is a non-conformist. He did what a lot of us thought he couldn't do, and that's why I respect him so much, because he boxed, he clinched, he was very strategic, very tactical, very intelligent fighter."
Coincidentally, eight years later this exact scenario would unfold to give Tucker another title shot, as the WBA would withdraw its championship recognition of George Foreman on March 4, 1995, after Foreman refused to face Tucker (who was its designated number 1 contender). Unlike the 1987 scenario, this time Tucker would not earn a championship, as he would lose the match mandated by the WBA, against number 2-ranked contender Bruce Seldon.
Comeback
Tucker returned to boxing in 1989, and by 1992 was back in Don King's stable. He won the NABF belt with a split decision over the highly ranked Orlin Norris, and successfully defended it against future world champion Oliver McCall, winning another 12-round decision. He finished 1992 with a 6th-round TKO of Frankie Swindell and set himself up for another world title shot.
By 1993, Tucker had run his record up to 48–1 and in May of that year he challenged Lennox Lewis for the WBC world heavyweight title. Lewis won a 12-round unanimous decision, knocking down Tucker twice (for a first time in his career.) It was the first time in 34-year-old Tucker's career that he had been off his feet.
In 1995, George Foreman, who beat Michael Moorer in November 1994 to become the oldest heavyweight champion in history, refused to defend his WBA world heavyweight title against Tucker, choosing to fight German Axel Schulz. For the noncompliance with the rules the WBA officials stripped Foreman of the title. Tucker and Bruce Seldon fought for the vacant WBA belt in April 1995. Seldon won by TKO after 7 rounds when doctors stopped the fight due to Tucker's eye closing shut.
Tucker lost his shot at a rematch when later that year he was outpointed by a newly signed Don King heavyweight, British-Nigerian boxer Henry Akinwande, over ten rounds.
In 1996 he was outpointed by old rival Orlin Norris. He scored two low-key wins in California, and in 1997 traveled to the U.K. to challenge Herbie Hide for the vacant WBO title. Tucker was dropped three times and knocked out in round 2.
In 1998 Tucker challenged John Ruiz for his NABF belt. Despite a big 6th round where he had Ruiz in trouble, Tucker was eventually stopped in the 11th round.
He came back in May to knock out journeyman Billy Wright in one round, but later had his license revoked due to medical concerns about Tucker's vision.
Professional boxing record
References
External links
1958 births
Living people
Heavyweight boxers
African-American boxers
American male boxers
Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers
Boxers from Michigan
Sportspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan
International Boxing Federation champions
World heavyweight boxing champions
Boxers at the 1979 Pan American Games
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in boxing
Medalists at the 1979 Pan American Games
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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219091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chippewa%20Cree | Chippewa Cree | The Chippewa Cree Tribe (Officially in ) is a federally recognized tribe on the Rocky Boy Reservation in Montana who are descendants of Cree who migrated south from Canada and Chippewa (Ojibwe) who moved west from the Turtle Mountains in North Dakota in the late nineteenth century. The two different peoples spoke related but distinct Algonquian languages.
This tribe is the southernmost Cree tribe and the westernmost Chippewa (Ojibwe) tribe in North America.
Rocky Boy Indian Reservation is located in Hill and Chouteau counties in northeastern Montana, about from the Canada–United States border. It has a total land area of , which includes extensive off-reservation trust lands. The population was 3,323 at the 2010 census. The Bureau of Indian Affairs' Labor Force Report of 2005 reported 5,656 enrolled members of the tribe.
History
The Chief Asiniiwin (Chippewa) (English translation Stone Child, misnomer Rocky Boy, which conveys an incorrect meaning) and Chief Little Bear (Cree) and their bands were the founders of the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation in north central Montana. At the time, Chippewa-Cree lived throughout present-day Montana, on the Blackfeet and other reservations, as well as in the new towns developed by European-American settlers and immigrants. In January 1902 Asiniiwin petitioned President Theodore Roosevelt for a closed reservation so the landless Chippewa-Cree could settle and get an education. The members were counted in a 1909 census conducted by Thralls B. Wheat, a land allotment agent of the Department of the Interior. This census was certified by the agency in April 1909.
Reflecting the social turmoil of the time, many of Asiniiwin'''s people left the reservation within a decade; others had never relocated there, and their descendants live in towns throughout the Pacific Northwest. For instance, many bought plots of land on Hill 57, outside Great Falls, Montana. Congress passed legislation on September 7, 1916, () creating the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation. Those Chippewa-Cree living near Great Falls were not counted as members in the 1917 census of the reservation but were part of the tribe.
In May 1917 the Interior Department compiled another list of residents on the reservation. By then additional Native Americans had migrated there and others had left. Fewer than 45 of the 451 names listed on the "Tentative Roll of the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation" (1917) were Chippewa from the earlier 1909 roll. Many were Cree, descendants of Little Bear's (Imasees) band, and Métis, descendants of the Louis Riel band of mixed-race peoples from the Red River of the North area. According to tribal traditions of absorbing war captives and protecting all children of tribal women, if residents identified as Cree or Chippewa, they were listed as Native American, regardless of whether they had other ancestry. The 1917 roll was approved by the Department of the Interior in July 1917; it has since been the basis for tribal membership rolls and allotments.
The Cree and Métis migrants and their descendants have lived on the Rocky Boy Reservation under self-declared "adopted" status. They and their descendants provided for such "adopted" status in the Chippewa Cree Tribal Constitution, which was written in 1934–1935. It was certified by the Department of the Interior in 1935 under the Indian Reorganization Act. . The constitution provided that members of the tribe who were absent from the reservation for 10 years or more (a ten-year absentee provision) lost their tribal status and were no longer qualified for benefits and membership.
The Chippewa Cree Business Committee, the government of the tribe, recently repealed this provision of the Constitution. As the tribe's government, the Committee retains the authority to address membership issues. The Cree and Métis make up more than 90% of the enrolled members of the tribe.
Language
The principal language of the tribe is Cree, written in Eastern Cree syllabics. There are programs and courses dedicated to the preservation and teaching of the Cree language to the younger generation. There are also efforts to use revenue from sale of Official Tribal vehicle license plate would be used for installation of Cree signage in the community as well as investment in other language revitalization programs.
The status of the Chippewa (Ojibwe) language in the tribe is however dire, as there is only one speaker of the language alive in the Tribe, Mr. Duncan Standing Rock.
Economy
As part of its economic development, the tribe started a business "Plain Green Loans," for online lending to Native Americans who are underserved by the lack of banks on many reservations. Critics such as Delvin Cree (Turtle Mountain Chippewa), a reporter with The Tribal Independent,'' wrote in an opinion piece on Indianz.com that the tribe's practices of high-interest, short-term lending are generally classified as predatory lending. Such loans can result in annualized interest rates as high as 360 percent. Because the Chippewa Cree Tribe is a sovereign nation which enjoys tribal immunity, it is not subject to state laws which seek to prevent usury by regulating high-interest lending.
See also
Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana
References
External links
Cree history and past major key events
Cree governments
Cree in Montana
Ojibwe in Montana
Ojibwe governments
Native American tribes in Montana
Federally recognized tribes in the United States
Métis in Montana | [
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219092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridolfi%20plot | Ridolfi plot | The Ridolfi plot was a plot in 1571 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot was hatched and planned by Roberto Ridolfi, an international banker who was able to travel between Brussels, Rome and Madrid to gather support without attracting too much suspicion.
Background
Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, a cousin of Queen Elizabeth's and the wealthiest landowner in the country, had been proposed as a possible husband for Mary since her imprisonment in 1568. This suited Norfolk, who had ambitions and felt Elizabeth persistently undervalued him. In pursuit of his goals, he agreed to support the Northern Rebellion, though he quickly lost his nerve. Norfolk was imprisoned in the Tower of London for nine months and only freed under house arrest when he confessed all and begged for mercy. Pope Pius V, in his 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, excommunicated the Protestant Elizabeth and permitted all faithful Catholics to do all they could to depose her. The majority of English Catholics ignored the bull, but in response to it, Elizabeth became much harsher to Catholics and their sympathisers.
Plot
Roberto Ridolfi, a Florentine banker and ardent Catholic, had been involved in the planning of the Northern rebellion and had been plotting to overthrow Elizabeth as early as 1569. With the failure of the rebellion, he concluded that foreign intervention was needed to restore Catholicism and bring Mary to the English throne, and so he began to contact potential conspirators. Mary's advisor, John Lesley, the Bishop of Ross, gave his assent to the plot as the way to free Mary. The plan was to have the Duke of Alba invade from the Netherlands with 10,000 men, foment a rebellion of the northern English nobility, murder Elizabeth, and marry Mary to Thomas Howard. Ridolfi optimistically estimated half of all English peers were Catholic and could muster in excess of 39,000 men. Norfolk gave verbal assurances to Ridolfi that he was Catholic, though as a pupil of John Foxe, he remained a Protestant all his life. Both Mary and Norfolk, desperate to remedy their respective situations, agreed to the plot. With their blessing, Ridolfi set off to the Continent to gain Alba, Pius V, and King Philip II's support.
List of co-conspirators
Ridolfi's co-conspirators, some of them mentioned above, played an important role in the plot to overthrow Elizabeth:
Don Guerau de Espés: Spain's ambassador to England, who was expelled after the discovery of his involvement. Elizabeth had raised her concerns about de Espés' behaviour with Anna of Austria.
John Lesley: the Bishop of Ross, who was Mary Stuart's chief agent; he arranged meetings and delivered letters for Mary during her house arrest.
Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, who was Queen Elizabeth I's second cousin. He was to marry Mary Queen of Scots and together with her restore Catholic rule to the English and Scottish thrones. After the plot was discovered he was given a day-long trial that ended with his execution.
Mary, Queen of Scots: after it became clear that Elizabeth I was not going to restore her to the Scottish throne or return her to France, Mary plotted for her freedom. She wrote to Ridolfi denouncing the French and soliciting Spanish aid, while simultaneously professing friendship and loyalty to Elizabeth I and England. Giving her consent to the plot in March 1571, her role was to marry the Duke of Norfolk, with the plan that when the troops arrived in London she would be returned to the Scottish throne. However, when the plot was uncovered, her deep involvement in it altered Elizabeth's opinion of Mary; Elizabeth never spoke of restoring her to the throne again.
King Philip II, who welcomed Ridolfi to court and, with the council, discussed the plot's pros and cons. He supported overthrowing Elizabeth and later came to support the assassination. Philip, however, disapproved of the papal bull against Elizabeth because, according to Cyril Hamshere, he feared it would "prompt Elizabeth to take reprisals against Catholics."
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, who was the leader of the Spanish army stationed in the Netherlands and was to lead more than 10,000 men to Harwich or Portsmouth. His army was to invade England and make its way to London to establish Mary on the throne, while either detaining or assassinating Elizabeth I.
Pope Pius V, who made Ridolfi his papal agent in England in 1567. Pius was not only aware of the plot but gave his written approval in a letter for Ridolfi to take to Philip II.
Discovery
In 1571, Elizabeth's intelligence network was sending her information about a plot against her life. By gaining the confidence of Spain's ambassador to England, John Hawkins learned the details of the conspiracy and notified the government so as to arrest the plotters. Elizabeth was also sent a private warning by Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had learned of the plot against her. Charles Baillie, Ridolfi's messenger, was arrested on about 12 April 1571 at Dover for carrying compromising letters, and by the use of torture and prison informers such as William Herle, he was forced to reveal the cipher of the messages he carried.
On 29 August 1571, Norfolk's secretaries William Barker and Robert Higford entrusted to Thomas Browne, a Shrewsbury draper, what was purported to be a bag of silver coin for delivery to Laurence Bannister, one of Norfolk's officials in the north of England. Browne grew suspicious of the bag's weight, opened it, and discovered 600 pounds in gold from the French ambassador, destined for Scotland on Mary's behalf, and ciphered letters. Because he knew Norfolk was under suspicion, Browne reported his find to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, the Secretary of State. Higford and Barker were interrogated, the letters were partly deciphered, and a search for the cipher key at Howard House uncovered a ciphered letter from Mary Stuart hidden under a doormat.
Norfolk's servants were arrested and interrogated, and confessions were extracted from them by threats or application of torture. Sir Thomas Smith and Thomas Wilson were sent to confront Norfolk, who claimed the money was for his own private purposes. The deciphered letter, however, proved that he was lying. Unaware of his servants' confessions or the survival of letters which, contrary to his instructions, had not been burnt, he denied the charges against him. On 7 September, the queen's warrant for conveying him to the Tower of London arrived. Thereupon, the duke admitted a degree of involvement in the transmission of money and correspondence to Mary's Scottish supporters. In January 1572, Norfolk was tried and convicted on three counts of high treason, and on 2 June he was beheaded on Tower Hill.
Guerau de Spes, the Spanish ambassador, was expelled from the country in January 1571. Still abroad when the plot was discovered, Ridolfi never returned to England; he became a Florentine senator in 1600.
Ridolfi's role
Despite his plot's ultimate failure, Roberto Ridolfi's story is surprising and memorable. He'd played the relatively minor role of banker but nevertheless found himself at the centre of a major plot to overthrow the English government. Ridolfi had been jailed in 1568 because of a rumour that he had distributed money to dissenting nobles associated with the Northern Rebellion. The Pope did, in fact, give him 12,000 crowns for that purpose, but Ridolfi was released in 1570 because no evidence could be found to incriminate him. Even after his arrest and release, Ridolfi remained a spy for the Pope.
Ridolfi's banking connections helped him become acquainted with the Duke of Norfolk, and he became a supporter of a marriage between Norfolk and Mary, Queen of Scots, who would, if the plot succeeded, rule England and reinstate Catholicism there.
After Norfolk's release from prison in August 1570, Ridolfi "picked up the broken threads of Catholic intrigue". Ridolfi was in an advantageous position to orchestrate a Catholic rebellion in England, since he was employed by the Pope, France, and Spain, and had ties to the Catholic contingent in England. He could use banking as an excuse to travel among these groups for the purpose of conspiring. When he travelled to mainland Europe to inform King Phillip and the Pope of the plot, it is believed that he was still working for Elizabeth.
Plot failure
The Duke of Alba, the Spanish Viceroy in the Netherlands who was to lead the attack on England, felt Ridolfi was too garrulous to be the leader of a conspiracy, but Spanish Ambassador Don Guerau de Spes described Ridolfi as "A person of great truth and virtue and an intimate friend of mine." Ridolfi's talkative nature did eventually cause him trouble, as he was not very discreet and trumpeted his plan all over Europe. His boasting was partially responsible for the plot's failure, as he told it to Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany who immediately informed Elizabeth of the plot.
Aftermath
Ridolfi escaped execution, unlike some of his co-conspirators, and lived until 1612.
Modern criticism
According to historian Cyril Hamshere, retrospective critics of the conspiracy cited a number of reasons why the Ridolfi Plot would have been doomed to fail even if it had not been discovered prematurely. For one, the small number of Spanish soldiers (between 6000 and 10,000) would have been absurdly inadequate to the task of overthrowing the English government. Additionally, the vagueness of the invasion point was a logistical shortcoming. The plan was to land at either Harwich or Portsmouth, but Ridolfi apparently did not know exactly where Harwich was. Also dubious was Ridolfi's reliance on the Duke of Norfolk, who was regarded as a bad leader and was not even a Catholic. This did not make him an ideal co-conspirator, but, according to Hamshere, "his main merit lay in his title: in 1571 he was the only Duke in England".
Norfolk's Protestantism was but one irony of the Ridolfi Plot: Norfolk and Mary Queen of Scots had each been married three times before their proposed marriage to each other. Pope Pius was, apparently, willing to grant Mary an annulment of her marriage to her imprisoned husband, but the notion of two thrice wed royals leading England back to Catholicism is somewhat problematic, nonetheless.
Media representations
The Ridolfi Plot was covered in Mary Queen of Scots (1971), starring Vanessa Redgrave as Mary and Glenda Jackson as Elizabeth.
An altered and fictionalised version of the Ridolfi Plot was featured in the film Elizabeth (1998), starring Cate Blanchett as Elizabeth.
See also
Sir Francis Walsingham
Throckmorton Plot
Babington Plot
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Marie Stuart Society's account of the Ridolfi plot.
The Gunpowder Plot Society's account of the Ridolfi plot.
Timeline of Elizabeth's reign from 1570 to 1603.
1570 in Europe
Tudor rebellions
1570 in England
Elizabeth I
Mary, Queen of Scots
Attempted coups d'état
1570 in Christianity
16th-century anti-Protestantism | [
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219097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street%20Fighting%20Man | Street Fighting Man | "Street Fighting Man" is a song by the English rock band the Rolling Stones featured on their 1968 album Beggars Banquet. Called the band's "most political song", Rolling Stone ranked the song number 301 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
Background
In an interview with Marc Myers, Keith Richards said that he wrote most of the music for the song in late 1966 or early 1967, and got the "dry, crisp" sound that he wanted by strumming an acoustic guitar with an open tuning in front of a portable Philips cassette recorder microphone. The melody was influenced by the sound of police sirens.
Originally titled and recorded as "Did Everyone Pay Their Dues?", containing the same music but very different lyrics about adult brutality, "Street Fighting Man" is known as one of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards' most politically inclined works to date. Jagger allegedly wrote it about Tariq Ali after he attended a 1968 anti-war rally at London's US embassy, during which mounted police attempted to control a crowd of 25,000. He also found inspiration in the rising violence among student rioters on Paris' Left Bank, the precursor to a period of civil unrest in May 1968.
Jagger explained in a 1995 interview with Jann Wenner in Rolling Stone:
Richards said, only a few years after recording the track in a 1971 Rolling Stone interview with Robert Greenfield, that the song had been "interpreted thousands of different ways". He mentioned how Jagger went to the Grosvenor Square demonstrations in London and was even charged by the police, yet he ultimately claims, "it really is ambiguous as a song".
Recording
Recording on "Street Fighting Man" took place at Olympic Sound Studios from April until May 1968. With Jagger on lead vocals and both he and Richards on backing, Brian Jones performs the song's distinctive sitar and also tamboura. Richards plays the song's acoustic guitars as well as bass, the only electric instrument on the recording. Charlie Watts plays drums while Nicky Hopkins performs the song's piano which is most distinctly heard during the coda. Shehnai is performed on the track by Dave Mason. On the earlier, unreleased "Did Everybody Pay Their Dues" version, Rick Grech played a very prominent electric viola.
Watts said in 2003:
Richards commented on the recording:
Critical reception
The song opens with a strummed acoustic guitar riff. In his review, Richie Unterberger says of the song, "[I]t's a great track, gripping the listener immediately with its sudden, springy guitar chords and thundering, offbeat drums. That unsettling, urgent guitar rhythm is the mainstay of the verses. Mick Jagger's typically half-buried lyrics seem at casual listening like a call to revolution."
Unterberger continues, "Perhaps they were saying they wished they could be on the front lines, but were not in the right place at the right time; perhaps they were saying, as John Lennon did in the Beatles' "Revolution", that they didn't want to be involved in violent confrontation. Or perhaps they were even declaring indifference to the tumult."
Other writers' interpretations varied. In 1976, Roy Carr assessed it as a "great summer street-corner rock anthem on the same echelon as 'Summer in the City', 'Summertime Blues', and 'Dancing in the Street'." In 1979, Dave Marsh wrote that as part of Beggars Banquet, "Street Fighting Man" was the "keynote, with its teasing admonition to do something and its refusal to admit that doing it will make any difference; as usual, the Stones were more correct, if also more faithless, philosophers than any of their peers." In fact, the second line of the first verse alludes to "Dancing in the Street"; a similar line had been present in the aforementioned song, where "fighting" instead was "dancing".
Releases
Released as Beggars Banquets lead single in August 1968 in the US, "Street Fighting Man" was popular on release, but did not reach the Top 40 (reaching number 48) of the US charts in response to many radio stations' refusal to play the song based on what were perceived as subversive lyrics. "No Expectations", also from Beggars Banquet, was used as the single's B-side. As usual with Stones' album tracks in the 60s, the single did not see a release at the time in the UK. It was released in 1971 backed with "Surprise, Surprise", previously released in the UK on the various artists Decca LP compilation "14" in 1965.
The US single version was released in mono with an additional vocal overdub on the choruses, and thus is different from the Beggars Banquet album's stereo version. While many of the US London picture sleeves are rare and collectable, the sleeve for this single is particularly scarce and is considered their most valuable.
The album version of the song has been included on the compilations Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2) (1969), Hot Rocks 1964-1971 (1971), 30 Greatest Hits (1977), Singles Collection: The London Years (1989 edition), Forty Licks (2002), and GRRR! (2012). The US single version was included on the 2002 edition of Singles Collection: The London Years and on Stray Cats, a collection of singles and rarities released as part of the box set The Rolling Stones in Mono (2016).
A staple at Rolling Stones live shows since the band's American Tour of 1969, concert recordings of the song have been captured and released for the live albums Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out! (recorded 1969, released 1970), Stripped (1995; rereleased on Totally Stripped in 2016), Live Licks (recorded 2003, released 2004), and Hyde Park Live (2013).
Backlash in the United States
The song was released within a week of the violent confrontations between the police and anti-Vietnam War protesters at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Worried about the possibility of the song inciting further violence, Chicago radio stations refused to play the song. This was much to the delight of Mick Jagger, who stated: "I'm rather pleased to hear they have banned (the song). The last time they banned one of our records in America, it sold a million." Jagger said he was told they thought the record was subversive, to which he snapped: "Of course it's subversive! It's stupid to think you can start a revolution with a record. I wish you could."
Keith Richards weighed into the debate when he said that the fact a couple of radio stations in Chicago banned the record "just goes to show how paranoid they are". At the same time they were still requested to do live appearances and Richards said: "If you really want us to cause trouble, we could do a few stage appearances. We are more subversive when we go on stage."
Retrospective views
Bruce Springsteen would comment in 1985, after including "Street Fighting Man" in the encores of some of his Born in the U.S.A. Tour shows: "That one line, 'What can a poor boy do but sing in a rock and roll band?' is one of the greatest rock and roll lines of all time... [The song] has that edge-of-the-cliff thing when you hit it. And it's funny; it's got humour to it."
Jagger continues in the Rolling Stone interview when asked about the song's resonance thirty years on; "I don't know if it [has any]. I don't know whether we should really play it. I was persuaded to put it [on Voodoo Lounge Tour] because it seemed to fit in, but I'm not sure if it really has any resonance for the present day. I don't really like it that much." Despite this, the song has been performed on a majority of the Stones' tours since its introduction to their canon of work, and is usually played second to last before their usual closing track Jumpin' Jack Flash.
Personnel
According to authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon:
The Rolling Stones
Mick Jagger vocals, maracas
Keith Richards acoustic guitars, bass
Brian Jones sitar, tamboura
Charlie Watts drums
Additional personnel
Nicky Hopkins piano
Dave Mason shehnai, bass drum
Unidentified musician claves
Charts
Notes
References
Sources
Songs about streets
1968 singles
1968 songs
Decca Records singles
London Records singles
Oasis (band) songs
Obscenity controversies in music
Protest songs
Raga rock songs
Rage Against the Machine songs
Ramones songs
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Miller
Songs written by Jagger–Richards
The Rolling Stones songs | [
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219101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumpin%27%20Jack%20Flash | Jumpin' Jack Flash | "Jumpin' Jack Flash" is a song by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released as a non-album single in 1968. Called "supernatural Delta blues by way of Swinging London" by Rolling Stone magazine, the song was perceived by some as the band's return to their blues roots after the baroque pop and psychedelia heard on their preceding albums Aftermath (1966), Between the Buttons (1967) and especially Their Satanic Majesties Request (1967). One of the group's most popular and recognisable songs, it has featured in films and been covered by numerous performers, notably Thelma Houston, Aretha Franklin, Tina Turner, Peter Frampton, Johnny Winter, Leon Russell and Alex Chilton. To date, it is the band's most-performed song: they have played it over 1,100 times in concert.
It is one of their most popular songs, and it is on Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. It is also, according to Acclaimed Music, the 77th-best-ranked song on critics' all-time lists.
Inspiration and recording
Written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, recording on "Jumpin' Jack Flash" began during the Beggars Banquet sessions of 1968. Regarding the song's distinctive sound, guitarist Richards has said:
Richards has stated that he and Jagger wrote the lyrics while staying at Richards' country house, when they were awoken one morning by the clumping footsteps of his gardener Jack Dyer walking past the window. Surprised, Jagger asked what it was, and Richards responded: "Oh, that's Jack – that's jumpin' Jack." The lyrics evolved from there. Humanities scholar Camille Paglia speculated that the song's lyrics might have been partly inspired by William Blake's poem "The Mental Traveller": "She binds iron thorns around his head / And pierces both his hands and feet / And cuts his heart out of his side / To make it feel both cold & heat."
Jagger said in a 1995 interview with Rolling Stone that the song arose "out of all the acid of Satanic Majesties. It's about having a hard time and getting out. Just a metaphor for getting out of all the acid things." And in a 1968 interview, Brian Jones described it as "getting back to ... the funky, essential essence" following the psychedelia of Their Satanic Majesties Request.
In his autobiography, Stone Alone, Bill Wyman has said that he came up with the song's distinctive main guitar riff, working on it with Brian Jones and Charlie Watts before it was ultimately credited to Jagger and Richards. In Rolling with the Stones, Wyman credits Jagger with vocals, Richards with guitar and bass guitar, Jones with guitar, Watts with drums and himself with organ on the track with producer Jimmy Miller adding backing vocals.
According to the book Keith Richards: The Biography by Victor Bockris, the line "I was born in a crossfire hurricane", was written by Richards, and refers to his being born amid the bombing and air raid sirens of Dartford, England, in 1943 during World War II.
Release and aftermath
Released on 24 May 1968 in the UK by Decca Records and on 1 June in the US by London Records, "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (backed with "Child of the Moon") was the band's first UK release in five and a half months – this marked the group's longest gap between releases in the country up to that point. A major commercial success, reached the top of the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number three in the United States. It topped the US Cashbox chart for one week and the WLS 890 Hit Parade for four weeks. Some early London Records US pressings of the single had a technical flaw in them: about halfway through the song's instrumental bridge, the speed of the master tape slows down for a moment, before coming back to speed. The first Rolling Stones album on which the song appeared was their 1969 compilation album, Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2), one year after the single was released. Since then, it has appeared on numerous Stones compilations, including Hot Rocks 1964–1971 (1971), 30 Greatest Hits (1977), Singles Collection: The London Years (1989), Forty Licks (2002), GRRR! (2012) and Stray Cats, a collection of singles and rarities included as part of The Rolling Stones in Mono box set (2016).
The Rolling Stones have played "Jumpin' Jack Flash" during every tour since its release. It is the song the band have played in concert most frequently, and has appeared on the concert albums Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out! (recorded 1969, released 1970), Love You Live (recorded 1976, released 1977), Flashpoint (recorded 1990, released 1991), Shine a Light (recorded 2006, released 2008), Hyde Park Live (2013), Totally Stripped (recorded 1995, released 2016), and Havana Moon (2016), as well as, notably, The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus (recorded 1968, released 1996), featuring the only released live performance of the song with Brian Jones. Unlike most of that show, Jones is heard clearly, mixing with Richards's lead throughout the song. The intro is not usually played in concert and instead the song begins with the main riff. The open E or open D tuning of the rhythm guitar on the studio recording has also not been replicated in concert (with the possible exception of the 1968 NME awards show, no recording of which has ever surfaced). In the performance filmed for The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus in December 1968, Richards used standard tuning; and ever since the band's appearance at Hyde Park on 5 July 1969, he has played it in open G tuning with a capo on the fourth fret. Richards is particularly fond of the song's main riff, often crediting it as his favorite among all of his most revered guitar riffs.
In March 2005, Q magazine placed "Jumpin' Jack Flash" at number 2 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. VH1 placed it at number 65 in its show 100 Greatest Rock Songs.
It has placed in various positions on many "best of" lists including a ranking at 144 on Rolling Stones list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time", 7th on their list of the band's best songs, and the 77th most celebrated song according to Acclaimed Music.
A cover version of the song was composed to serve as the final mission of the Nintendo DS rhythm game Elite Beat Agents, in which the titular protagonists use their dancing skills to rally humanity against alien invaders who plan to outlaw all forms of music.
Music video
Two promotional videos were made in May 1968: one featuring a live performance, another showcasing the band lipsyncing. Mick Jagger is singing a clearly different vocal in the latter, and all the band wear makeup.
Personnel
According to authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon, except where noted:The Rolling Stones Mick Jagger lead vocals, backing vocals
Keith Richards backing vocals, acoustic guitar, bass, bass tom
Brian Jones electric rhythm guitar
Bill Wyman organ
Charlie Watts drumsAdditional musicians'''
Ian Stewart piano
Jimmy Miller backing vocals
Rocky Dijon maracas
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Aretha Franklin version
In 1986, the song's title was used for the Whoopi Goldberg film Jumpin' Jack Flash''. In addition to the Rolling Stones' version of the song, the film features Aretha Franklin's cover version for which Ronnie Wood and Richards played guitar, but Franklin played piano. This version is characterised by influences from the popular black music scene. Only the Rolling Stones' version is on the film's original soundtrack recording.
Personnel
Aretha Franklin – lead vocals, acoustic piano
Steve Jordan – drums
Alan Rogan – guitar
Ortheia Barnes – backing vocals
Margaret Branch – backing vocals
Brenda Corbett – backing vocals
Keith Richards – lead guitar
Ronnie Wood – guitar
Randy Jackson – bass guitar
Chuck Leavell – keyboards
Charts
Notes
References
Sources
External links
(2020 article) "The Story Behind the Song..."
1968 singles
1986 singles
The Rolling Stones songs
Decca Records singles
London Records singles
Arista Records singles
Aretha Franklin songs
Leon Russell songs
Peter Frampton songs
Guns N' Roses songs
Cashbox number-one singles
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Number-one singles in Germany
Number-one singles in New Zealand
Songs written by Jagger–Richards
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Miller
Music videos directed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg
1968 songs
Thelma Houston songs
Songs composed in B major
British hard rock songs | [
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219107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdelloidea | Bdelloidea | Bdelloidea (Greek βδέλλα, bdella, "leech") is a class of rotifers found in freshwater habitats all over the world. There are over 450 described species of bdelloid rotifers (or 'bdelloids'), distinguished from each other mainly on the basis of morphology. The main characteristics that distinguish bdelloids from related groups of rotifers are exclusively parthenogenetic reproduction and the ability to survive in dry, harsh environments by entering a state of desiccation-induced dormancy (anhydrobiosis) at any life stage. They are often referred to as "ancient asexuals" due to their unique asexual history that spans back to over 25 million years ago through fossil evidence. Bdelloid rotifers are microscopic organisms, typically between 150 and 700 µm in length. Most are slightly too small to be seen with the naked eye, but appear as tiny white dots through even a weak hand lens, especially in bright light. In June 2021, biologists reported the restoration of bdelloid rotifers after being frozen for 24,000 years in the Siberian permafrost.
Evolutionary relationships
The phylum Rotifera traditionally included three classes: Bdelloidea, Monogononta and Seisonidea. Prior to 1990, phylogenetic studies based on morphology seemed to indicate that the sister group to bdelloid rotifers was Monogononta, with seisonid rotifers as an early-diverging outgroup.
Modern molecular phylogenetic studies demonstrate that this classic understanding of 'Rotifera' is incomplete (paraphyletic), because it omits a fourth clade of closely related organisms: the Acanthocephala, or thorny-headed worms. Originally classified as a separate phylum, molecular and morphological evidence accumulated between 1994 and 2014 to indicate that Acanthocephala forms a monophyletic group with Bdelloidea, Monogononta and Seisonidea. To accommodate this finding, some authors extend the term 'Rotifera' to include the highly modified, parasitic 'acanthocephalan rotifers' alongside bdelloid, monogonont and seisonid rotifers. Others refer to the grouping of the four taxa as Syndermata, a term derived from their shared syncytial epidermis.
The position of Bdelloidea within Syndermata (or Rotifera) is not entirely clear. Alternative possible phylogenetic relationships within the clade are illustrated by the accompanying cladograms. As of 2014, the "most comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of syndermatan relationships" to date was based on transcriptome data from all four groups, and provided "strong support" for the hypothesis illustrated in the bottom left of the figure, in which Seisonidea and Acanthocephala are sister taxa. The study further indicated that the sister group to this taxon is Bdelloidea, whereas Monogononta is the outgroup to all three. This would mean that the closest living relatives of bdelloid rotifers are not monogonont rotifers, as previously believed, but seisonid rotifers and acanthocephalans, despite their highly modified morphology.
Classification and identification
Bdelloidea is a class of the phylum Rotifera, consisting of three orders: Philodinavida, Philodinida and Adinetida. These orders are divided into four families and about 450 species. Since these organisms are asexual the usual definition of a species as a group of organisms capable of creating fertile offspring is inapplicable, therefore the species concept in these organisms is based on a mixture of morphological and molecular data instead. DNA studies suggest that the diversity is much greater than the original morphological classifications suggest.
Bdelloids can only be identified by eye while they are alive because many of the characteristics significant to classification are related to feeding and crawling; however, genetic identification of bdelloids is possible on dead individuals. Once preserved, the individuals contract into "blobs" which restricts analysis. There are currently three morphological identification methodologies, two of which are considered dated: Bartoš (1951) and Donner (1965). The third method is a diagnostic key developed in 1995 by Shiel.
Morphology
There are three main regions of the body of bdelloids: head, trunk and foot. The adjacent image depicts each area to show how body parts can be very different although they are named the same depending on the species involved. Bdelloids typically have a well-developed corona, divided into two parts, on a retractable head.
Some identifiable features of the bdelloids include :
Well-developed foot glands
A mouth opening with a long oesophagus
Strong teeth (labelled by a tooth index)
Many cilia
Species-specific upper lip shape
Order-specific corona type
Philodinida consist of two ciliated discs
Adinetida consist of a ventral ciliated field
Philodinavida have a small corona
The bdelloid digestive and reproductive systems can be found within the trunk sections of their bodies, with the stomach being the most visible of the organs. In certain genera, (Habrotrocha, Otostephanos and Scepanotrocha) the bdelloid can actually be identified by the appearance of distinct spherical pellets within the stomach, which will be released as faeces. These pellets are a distinguishing characteristic since all the other genera release faeces as loose material.
Most bdelloids retract the foot while they eat, but there are four genera that lack a foot: Adineta, Bradyscela, Henoceros and Philodinavus. This affects not only how they feed but also how they crawl; for instance Adineta and Bradyscela slide whereas the other genera loop.
Behaviour
The behaviour of bdelloids can be split into four categories: feeding, locomotion, reproduction and stress-induced behaviours.
Feeding
The specific feeding behaviour of bdelloids is varied but most use rings of cilia in the corona organ to create currents of water which blow food through the mouth to the mastax organ which has been adapted specifically for grinding food. Food includes suspended bacteria, algae, detritus, and other things.
Locomotion
There appear to be three main methods of movement: free swimming, inch-worming along a substrate, or sessility. Inch-worming (or crawling) involves taking alternate steps with the head and tail, as do certain leeches, which gives the group their name (Greek βδέλλα or bdella, meaning leech). This video demonstrates how bdelloids move in three different situations: locomotion and feeding of bdelloid rotifers.
Reproduction
Bdelloids are of interest in the study of the evolution of sex because a male has never been observed, and females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction where embryos grow and develop without the need for fertilization; this is akin to the apomixis seen in some plants. Each individual has paired gonads. Despite having been asexual for millions of years, they have diversified into more than 450 species and are fairly similar to other sexually reproducing rotifer species.
However, a new study provided evidence for interindividual genetic exchange and recombination in Adineta vaga, a species previously thought to be anciently asexual.
Evolution of obligate parthenogenetic reproduction
In 2003, the mode of asexual reproduction in the bdelloid rotifers was wholly unknown. One theory of how obligate parthenogenesis arose in bdelloid rotifers was that parthenogenic lineages lost the ability to respond to sex-inducing signal, which is why these lineages retained their asexuality. The obligate parthenogenetic strains of bdelloid rotifers produce a sex-inducing signal but have lost the ability to respond to that signal. It was later discovered that the inability to respond to sex-inducing signals in obligate parthenogens was caused by simple Mendelian inheritance of the gene op.
Stress-induced behaviour
Bdelloids are able to survive environmental stresses by entering a state of dormancy known as anhydrobiosis which enables the organism to rapidly dehydrate and thus resist desiccation. While preparing for this dormant state many metabolic processes are adjusted to equate for the change in state; e.g. the production of protective chemicals. The bdelloid can remain in this state, which is known as a 'xerosome' until the return of a sufficient amount of water, at which point they will rehydrate and become active within hours. Hatching of the young will only occur when conditions are at their most favourable. These forms of dormancy are also known as cryptobiosis or quiescence. Bdelloids have been known to survive in this state for up to 9 years while waiting for favourable conditions to return. In addition to surviving desiccation through anhydrobiosis, desiccation stress on two bdelloid species actually helped to maintain fitness and even improved their species fecundity. The rotifers that were consistently kept hydrated fared worse than those desiccated and rehydrated.
Bdelloidea have evolved a unique mechanism to help overcome one of the major perils of asexual reproduction. According to the Red Queen hypothesis of co-evolution, obligate asexuals will be driven extinct by rapidly changing parasites and pathogens, because they cannot change their genotypes quickly enough to keep up in this never-ending race. In populations of bdelloid rotifers, however, many parasites are destroyed during periods of extended desiccation. Moreover, desiccated bdelloid rotifers are easily blown away from parasite-infested habitats by wind, and establish new, healthy populations elsewhere, which allows them to escape the Red Queen by moving in time and space instead of using sex to change their genotype.
When these creatures recover from desiccation, it has been shown that they undergo a potentially unique genetic process where horizontal gene transfer occurs, resulting in a significant proportion of the bdelloid genome, up to 10%, having been obtained through horizontal gene transfer from bacteria, fungi and plants. How and why horizontal gene transfer occur in bdelloids is under much debate at present; particularly with regards to possible connections between the foreign genes and the desiccation process as well as possible connections to bdelloids' ancient asexuality.
Bdelloid rotifers are extraordinarily resistant to damage from ionizing radiation due to the same DNA-preserving adaptations used to survive dormancy. These adaptations include an extremely efficient mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks. This repair mechanism was studied in two Bdelloidea species, Adineta vaga, and Philodina roseola. and appears to involve mitotic recombination between homologous DNA regions within each species.
Horizontal gene transfer
Large-scale horizontal transfer of bacterial, plant and fungal genes into bdelloid rotifers has been documented, and may represent an important factor in bdelloid evolution.
Gallery
References
External links
Introduction to rotifers
Rotifer World Catalog, by Jersabek C.D. & Leitner M.F.
The Weird Sisters
Bdelloids: No sex for over 40 million years
An Evolutionary Scandal, from Harvard Magazine
Who Needs Sex (or Males) Anyway?
Tiny Creature Comes Back To Life After 24,000 Years In Siberian Deep Freeze
Eurotatoria
Radiodurants
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219108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan%C4%8Devo | Pančevo | Pančevo (Serbian Cyrillic: Панчево, ; ; ; ; ) is a city and the administrative center of the South Banat District in the autonomous province of Vojvodina. It is located on the shores of rivers Tamiš and Danube, in the southern part of Banat region. Since the 2011 census 123,414 people have been living in the Pančevo administrative area. Pančevo is the fourth largest city in Vojvodina and the ninth largest in Serbia by population.
Pančevo was first mentioned in 1153 and was described as an important mercantile place. It gained the status of a city in 1873 following the disestablishment of the Military Frontier in that region. For most of its period, it was the part of the Kingdom of Hungary and after 1920 it became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed in 1929 to Yugoslavia. Since then with one interruption it was part of several Yugoslav states and after the dissolution of the latest in 2003, it is part of its successor state, Serbia. Pančevo is notable for being multi-ethnic, Serbs (and Germans until 1945) have been the dominant ethnic group since the 16th century and since 2011 they compose 80% of the total population of the city.
Pančevo is a city with rich cultural events and monuments, and in the past, it also used to be a filming location for many national and international movie productions. Since 2003 an international and multi-cultural carnival has been organized in the city. It is also the main economic center of the South Banat region and its economy is also mostly tied up to Belgrade's economy. HIP factory is located in Pančevo as well as UTVA which was heavily damaged during the bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999. Pančevo is also well known for its brewery and silk factory which were founded in the early 18th century, and as well as the light bulb factory which are all now defunct. Pančevo is also home to many historical objects, museums and parks.
Name
In Serbian and Macedonian, the town is known as Pančevo (Панчево), in Hungarian as Pancsova, in Slovak as Pánčevo, in Romanian as Panciova and in German as Pantschowa. The place name is probably derived from an old Slavonic term and meant location of marsh.
Geography
Pančevo is located on flat plains at , approximately 17 km NE of Pančevo bridge to Belgrade and 43 km NW of Smederevo. The altitude above sea level is 77 meters. The southern city quarters are located on the bank of the Danube, the western quarters to the bank of Tamiš. The Danube river islands Forkontumac and Čakljanac are southernmost part of urban area.
Climate
Pančevo has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa).
History
In the late 19th and early 20th century many archaeological artifacts of the Stone Age period were found, remains of settlements and places of burial from the times of Bronze Age (Urnfield culture) and Ancient Rome on the urban area. Most of the objects are exhibited at the National Museum of the town.
In 1154, Arabic Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi described region in his Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands as important mercantile place. Regional area was administered by Bulgarian Empire until early 11th century, then by Kingdom of Hungary until it became part of Ottoman Empire in 1521. During Turkish rule, region was part of the Temeşvar Eyalet and mostly populated by Serbs. In 1660, Evliya Çelebi described the town as quadrangular fortification being diameter of one hundred Turkish feet. During Austro-Turkish War, the fortification was conquered by mImperial troops under supreme command of Claude Florimond de Mercy in 1716. There is an impression of old city and its fortification recorded on maps from 1717 and 1720 which are located at National Széchényi Library and Institute of Military History in Budapest.
After the Treaty of Požarevac, urban area belonged to Habsburg Banat, and was Garrison place of temporarily stationed Regiments of Imperial Army. In December 1764, a military commission of Viennese Hofkriegsrat registered all people and number of more or less habitable houses, and Habsburg government encouraged massive immigration of German settlers for administrative furnishing and developing new district of Military Frontier. In January 1794, Francis II signed the charter of borough rights of Pančevo, there is no other real evidence like a deed of City founding. In 1852, fortification has been slighted for urban expanding. In 1873, the military frontier was abolished and Pančevo included into Torontál county of Austria-Hungary. In 1902, cadastral maps of the town were recorded which are located at the National Archives of Hungary.
After Austrian-Hungarian Armistice of Villa Giusti, region became part of provisional Torontalsko-tamiške županja and due to Treaty of Trianon finally Yugoslavian part, in 1922 structured into Belgrade oblast and since 1929 into Dunavska banovina from Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Effects of World War II on City life
In April 1941, Pančevo was occupied during occupying invasion of Yugoslavia]] by Germany. On April 12 1941, Wehrmacht soldiers committed a war crime massacre in the City when 36 Serbian people were murdered by hanging and shooting as reprisal for deaths of 9 volksdeutsche members of paramilitary formation Mannschaft, a member of SS Division Das Reich and a wounded comrade of that division, attacked by three men of Royal Yugoslavian Army before state surrender. On April 11 1941, Royal cavalry officers Stevan Rikanović, Saša Rakezić and Milan Orlić gave a signal during German parade that they did not accept the looming Yugoslavian defeat. They erected temporary scaffolding behind a wall of Catholic cemetery and fired to Nazi Mannschaft, who after overcoming of that unexpected surprise returned fire immediatly, assisted by two SS men who seated in near German Café. On April 6 1941, members of Mannschaft already daubed certain slogans on some graves in this cemetery, some gravestones were badly damaged too, but they put on grave of George Weifert a grave wreath with decorated swastika ribbon. Next following day, those Eugenics bastards marched through all streets, smashed windows of Serbian shops and taunted, spat and beat Serbian civilians because they must stay in their homes and it is not allowed them to go out. On April 17 1941, there was a power demonstration with deployment of Mannschaft units in front of City hall square, and incendiary speech by Kreisführer Otto Vogenberger from balcony of the building, who spoke about liberation of regional Germans from Yugoslavian slavery and announced three days of celebrations until birthday of our Führer. On April 20 1941, Kreisführer was personally gifted with a portrait of Hitler by Heinrich Knirr, who was visiting his beloved homeland. On May 1 1941, selected police men from Banatian State Guard publicly sworn in at same place with black uniforms and Totenkopf on collar, speaking words like protecting rights and lives of German people, although they had already been recruited in April.Propaganda photos and film of reprisal massacre were used decades after event to help chronicle the Wehrmacht complicity atrocities during the war, often manipulated in German-language tv documentaries.
During World War II in Yugoslavia, Pančevo was part of Autonomous Banat within German-occupied Serbia. Selected Danube Swabian men were recruited and conscripted in Mannschaft, in Waffen-SS, majority of them either in SS-Division Das Reich, in German Police or SS Freiwilligen Gebirgsjäger Division Prinz Eugen. More than 99.99 percent of local German women and youth were organized in formations Deutsche Frauenschaft, Deutsche Jugend inclusive DMB and dedicated to Nazism. In 1943, Südostdeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft issued a very treacherously census with the note for official use only: there are amazing fifty eight orthodox Germans in it, which is a phrase for collaborators from Romanian origin. On August 28 1944, top elite nazi funcionaries such as Vogenberger and Adelhardt, along with their valuable family members, were evacuated by special train via Novi Sad to Budapest on their own orders. Of course, they said goodbye with heroic speech like always in which they swore unconditional fidelity to final victory for Führer and fatherland. In 1944, after defeat of German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS during Belgrade Offensive by Allied Armies, one part of the German people left the city, together with defeated German army. In November 1944, in cooperation with OZNA, a KNOJ brigade was set up to denazify the region, consisting of 20 elite partisans who volunteered to execute symbolic deterrent measures under supreme command of Brigade commander Svetozar Rupić. All measures began for the first time in January 1945 after intensive research and determination of the execution sites.The rest of German people remained in the country. These people were sent into local imprisonments which existed until 1948. After dissolution, many people of German population left Yugoslavia because of economic reasons. Since 1945, the city belonged to the Srez Pančevo of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The city was the administrative center of the region from all these centuries to the present.
Administration
The administration of the municipality of Pančevo is structured in 9 local communities (Mesna zajednica, singular; abbreviation MZ) of seven villages, two towns and the city of Pančevo, structured in eight local communities of eight city districts with several quarters.
Administrative area structure
The administrative area differs to the historical administrative area. From 1946 to 1959, the historical municipality (Srez) was structured in 23 communities, including today's communities and the villages and cities of Baranda, Borča, Crepaja, Debeljača, Idvor, Kovačica, Opovo, Ovča, Padina, Sakule, Sefkerin, Uzdin and Vojlovica. The city district Vojlovica was added to the town in 1978.
City administrative structure
Demographics
Municipal area population
Demography of city population
Demography of municipal population by ethnicity
Culture
Cultural institutions and events
The oldest and most traditional cultural institution of the city is the Serbian Church Choral Society, founded in 1838 and the oldest still existing Choral Society of today's Serbia. Since its inception, probably the most famous of all honorable choirmasters is Davorin Jenko, who conducted the choir from 1863 to 1865. In the present, the choir is conducted for the fourth time in a continuous sequence by a woman. The most important Cultural Center of the city (Kulturni Centar Pančeva) is located in the former theater building of the city, founded in 1947 and named National Theater which realized play productions in cooperation with National Theater Novi Sad. In 1956, the political authorities of the town decided the creation of a cultural center which is representing variety of all Arts. The center has a gallery of Modern art, and it promotes continuous festivals like Biennial of Art (Bijenale umetnosti), the music festival Ethno.com and the Pančevački Jazz Festival with artists from all over the world. In addition, some theater productions are shown annually in cooperation with National Theater Belgrade and other famous institutions. In 2012, the center published all popular stories of Zigomar Comics in a collected edition. Since 1977, the House of Youth (Dom omladine) is venue of the event Rukopisi (Manuscripts) where young writers are presented each year. The facility also promotes many other events like FreeDOM Art Festival. There is also the continuous Film festival PAFF worth mentioning which has a good reputation beyond the region. In the past, the city has been filming location for many national and international movie productions, including well known movies such as La Tour, prends garde!, The Mongols, I Even Met Happy Gypsies, Balkan Express, Black Cat, White Cat and Coriolanus.
Since 2004, each year in June the Pančevački Carnival become the most important event of its kind in Serbia. The highlight of the event is the parade which goes through the center with more than over 3,000 international participants and up to 100,000 visitors annually. The city is a member of the Federation of European Carnival Cities.
The National Museum was founded in 1923 and it is located in former neoclassical city hall since several decades. The institution has a valuable permanent exhibition and it is one of the most important museums of Vojvodina. The Vajfert Brewery is located in the town's center and it is the oldest one of today's Serbia, founded in 1722 by Abraham Kepiš from Bratislava. The brewery was run by the Vajfert family for several generations and its most famous represent was Đorđe Vajfert. After closing in 2008 and a conflagration in 2010, the building complex was a ruin in recent years. In 2015, the city began to realize a concept for revitalizing the industrial heritage and in the following year, the Đorđe Vajfert Brewery Museum was opened in the presence of the Austrian and German ambassadors. In the same year, a new summer festival called Vajfert Days was held for the first time. The intention of the organizer is to promote the tourist, cultural, artistic and economic potential of the city. There is an archive of the city, founded in 1947 and it is located in former barracks of Austrian-Hungarian Army. The archive collects and preserves materials of town's history from all centuries.
Cultural monuments
Pančevo's Vojlovica monastery is one of the oldest monasteries of Vojvodina, the oldest sacral building complex of the city and declared Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance. In 1542, the monastery was first mentioned by hegumen Jeronomah Parfenije in a Serbian almanac of Božidar Vuković. The church of the monastery is dedicated to Archangels Michael and Gabriel and was transformed into neoclassical stile towards the end of 18th century. From 1942 to 1944, some Orthodox dignitaries such as Gavrilo V were temporarily imprisoned in the monastery and the entire building complex was observed by members of Deutsche Mannschaft including obligation to regularly report for Banater Staatswache. The oldest church in town is the Roman Catholic Church Saint Charles Borromeo, built from 1756 to 1757 and in 1768, the building was extended with a steeple which was equipped with a turret clock in 1868 to mark its centenary. Its column in the square in front of the building with statue of Abraham and Isaac was built in 1722. The building was previously used as a provisional church of a Minorite monastery. The religious order provided the military chaplains for the garrison of the Imperial Army. The Serbian Orthodox Church Assumption of Holy Virgin was built from 1807 to 1811. The iconostasis of the church was designed by the painter Konstantin Danil from 1828 to 1833. The urban Institute for Protection of Cultural Monuments supports the maintenance and restoration of Pančevo's Cultural Heritage.
Media
The weekly newspaper Pančevac is oldest one of still existing print media in Serbia, founded in 1869, weekly newspaper Libertatea is most widely used print media of Romanians in Serbia, its first edition has been published in May 1945. The most used local mass media is RTV Pančevo. The TV station started broadcasting its programs in 1992.
Economy
Pančevo is the economic center of South Banat District. There are many industrial companies in processing of oil, steel, aluminum, glass, corn, grain, in metalworking, in producing petrochemicals, fertilizer, commercial packaging, PET molding machines, clothes, grain mill products, bacon and other food, in construction of aircraft, thermal power stations and buildings of steel beams.
Pančevo's economy is tied up with Belgrade economy, as the distance between the cities is only 14 kilometers. The industrial site of NIS refinery is the largest one of all refineries in Serbia. In 1999, the industrial site was strategically bombed by NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.
Precise targets included the refinery, the town's airport, the Utva aircraft industry and HIP factory. The UNEP reported in studies about soil and groundwater contamination caused by NATO bombardment. The contamination is a long-term threat to natural environment and human health.
There are two protected natural resources located in surroundings of the city, the natural monument Ivanov's island (Serbian Ivanovačka ada) and the Nature Park Ponjavica.
The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):
Public transportation
The most important road that runs through Pančevo is the European route E70 which forms a bypass around the city center, connecting the city with Belgrade. The IB-14 highway to Smederevo via Kovin starts here, and so does the IIA-130 highway to Ečka. As the most important regional mode of transport on road is made available a bus route network for public passenger traffic by Autotransport Pančevo since 1948.
Having a relatively small population, Pančevo has no less than four passenger railway stations: Pančevo Glavna stanica, Pančevo Varoš, Pančevo Strelište and Pančevo Vojlovica. Apart from these, Serbian Railways also serve some important industries, such as NIS oil refinery and HIP Azotara. In April 1894, the city was connected to the European railways net.
The municipality lays on left bank downriver of Danube which is one of the Europe's main waterways. The new harbor was built in 1947, Tamiš discharges into Danube just outside the town of Pančevo.
Sports
There are some popular sporting clubs in town, the football (soccer) team FK Dinamo Pančevo, the women's football club ŽFK, the basketball club KK Tamiš and the American football team Pančevo Panthers. Currently, the most successful athlete is Slobodan Bitević who lives in the city.
Image gallery
International relations
Twin towns - sister cities
Pančevo is twinned with:
Bonyhád, Hungary
Boulogne-Billancourt, France
Byala Slatina, Bulgaria
Kumanovo, North Macedonia
Michalovce, Slovakia
Mrkonjić Grad, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Neapoli, Greece
Prijedor, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Ravenna Province, Italy
Reșița, Romania
Stavroupoli, Greece
Stupino, Russia
Voskresensk, Russia
Partnership
Tarragona, Spain
People
Vasa Živković (1819–1891), poet and priest
Dragomir Krančević (1847–1929), violinist
Đorđe Vajfert (1850–1937), industrialist and Governor of the National Bank of Serbia and later Yugoslavia
Ljubica Luković (1858–1915), President of Circle of Serbian Sisters
Ludwig von Graff (1851–1924), zoologist
Heinrich Knirr (1862–1944), painter of official portrait of Adolf Hitler
Jovan Erdeljanović (1874–1944), ethnologist
Milan Ćurčin (1880–1960), poet and editor
Milorad Bata Mihailović (1923–2011), painter
Alexis Guedroitz (1923–1992), professor of Russian language and literature
Olja Ivanjicki (1931–2009), artist
Stevan Bena (1935–2012), football player
Zlatoje Martinov (*1953), journalist and writer
Zoran Gajić (*1958), volleyball trainer
Milan Orlić (*1962), laureate of several literary awards
Aleksandar Zograf (*1963), cartoonist
Slobodan Beštić (*1964), actor
Milenko Topić (*1969), basketball player, World and European champion
Bobby Despotovski (*1971), Australian footballer
Marinika Tepić (*1974), politician
Mirjana Pović (*1981), Astrophysicist
Marina Munćan (*1982), athlete, Universiade champion
Dušan Borković (*1984), auto racing driver, two time European champion.
Nađa Higl (*1987), swimmer, World champion
Anja Crevar (*2000), swimmer, Gold medalist at the European Junior Championships
Kosta Novaković (*1996), strength & conditioning coach/rehab specialist, Serbian National Rowing Team Captain, "Little Miss Sunshine"
Nemanja Dangubić (*1993), basketball player
Articles
Bor
Pančevački Rit
List of cities in Serbia
References
External links
Official Website by the City of Pančevo
Official Website by Turistička organizacija Pančeva
ABC of Pančevo, city's first website started in 1997.
013info
The local entertainment portal Pancevo Online and its YouTubeChannel
Pančevo City
Pančevo Moj Kraj
News portal Južni Banat
Populated places in Serbian Banat
Populated places in South Banat District
Municipalities and cities of Vojvodina
South Banat District
Populated places on the Danube
Spatial Cultural-Historical Units of Great Importance
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219109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogononta | Monogononta | Monogononta is a class of rotifers, found mostly in freshwater but also in soil and marine environments. They include both free-swimming and sessile forms. Monogononts generally have a reduced corona, and each individual has a single gonad, which gives the group its name. Males are generally smaller than females, and are produced only during certain times of the year, with females otherwise reproducing through parthenogenesis.
Their mastax is not designed for grinding. They produce mictic and amictic eggs. The class contains 1,570 species.
References
External links
Rotifer World Catalog, by C.D. Jersabek & M.F. Leitner
Eurotatoria
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219110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seisonidae | Seisonidae | Seisonidae is a family of rotifers, found on the gills of Nebalia, a marine crustacean. Peculiar among rotifers, males and females are both present and equal in size. Males and females are similar with paired gonads. It is considered to have diverged from the other rotifers early on, and in one treatment is placed in a separate class Seisonoidea. They have a large and elongate body with reduced corona.
Their muscular system is similar to that of other rotifers: They have longitudinal muscles as well as open annular muscles.
Species
Two genera with total three species belong to Seisonidae:
Paraseison Plate, 1887
Paraseison annulatus (Claus, 1876) — ectoparasite of Nebalia
Seison Grube, 1861
Seison nebaliae Grube, 1861 – commensal of Nebalia
Seison africanus Sorensen, Segers & Funch, 2005 — host is unknown.
References
Pararotatoria
Rotifer families | [
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219112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabiscuit | Seabiscuit | Seabiscuit (May 23, 1933 – May 17, 1947) was a champion thoroughbred racehorse in the United States who became the top money-winning racehorse up to the 1940s. He beat the 1937 Triple-Crown winner, War Admiral, by 4 lengths in a two-horse special at Pimlico and was voted American Horse of the Year for 1938.
A small horse, at 15.2 hands high, Seabiscuit had an inauspicious start to his racing career, winning only a quarter of his first 40 races, but became an unlikely champion and a symbol of hope to many Americans during the Great Depression.
Seabiscuit has been the subject of numerous books and films, including Seabiscuit: the Lost Documentary (1939); the Shirley Temple film The Story of Seabiscuit (1949); a book, Seabiscuit: An American Legend (1999) by Laura Hillenbrand; and a film adaptation of Hillenbrand's book, Seabiscuit (2003), that was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.
Early days
Seabiscuit was foaled in Lexington, Kentucky, on May 23, 1933, from the mare Swing On and sire Hard Tack, a son of Man o' War. Seabiscuit was named for his father, as hardtack or "sea biscuit" is the name for a type of cracker eaten by sailors.
The bay colt grew up on Claiborne Farm in Paris, Kentucky, where he was trained. He was undersized, knobby-kneed, and given to sleeping and eating for long periods.
Initially, Seabiscuit was owned by the powerful Wheatley Stable and trained by "Sunny Jim" Fitzsimmons, who had taken Gallant Fox to the United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing. Fitzsimmons saw some potential in Seabiscuit but felt the horse was too lazy. Fitzsimmons devoted most of his time to training Omaha, who won the 1935 Triple Crown.
Seabiscuit was relegated to a heavy schedule of smaller races. He failed to win his first 17 races, usually finishing back in the field. After that, Fitzsimmons did not spend much time on him, and the horse was sometimes the butt of stable jokes. However, Seabiscuit began to gain attention after winning two races at Narragansett Park and setting a new track record in the second—Claiming Stakes race.
As a two-year-old, Seabiscuit raced 35 times (a heavy racing schedule), coming in first five times and finishing second seven times. These included three claiming races, in which he could have been purchased for $2,500, but he had no takers.
While Seabiscuit had not lived up to his racing potential, he was not the poor performer Fitzsimmons had taken him for. His last two wins as a two-year-old came in minor stakes races. The next season, started with a similar pattern. The colt ran 12 times in less than four months, winning four times. One of those races was a cheap allowance race on the "sweltering afternoon of June 29," 1936, at Suffolk Downs. That was where trainer Tom Smith first laid eyes on Seabiscuit. His owners sold the horse to automobile entrepreneur Charles S. Howard for $8,000 at Saratoga, in August.
1936/1937: The beginning of success
Howard assigned Seabiscuit to a new trainer, Tom Smith, who, with his unorthodox training methods, gradually brought Seabiscuit out of his lethargy. Smith paired the horse with Canadian jockey Red Pollard (1909–1981), who had experience racing in the West and in Mexico. On August 22, 1936, they raced Seabiscuit for the first time. Improvements came quickly, and in their remaining eight races in the East, Seabiscuit and Pollard won several times, including the Detroit Governor's Handicap (worth $5,600) and the Scarsdale Handicap ($7,300) at Empire City Race Track in Yonkers, New York.
In early November 1936, Howard and Smith shipped the horse to California by rail. His last two races of the year were at Bay Meadows racetrack in San Mateo, California. The first was the $2,700 Bay Bridge Handicap, run over . Despite starting badly and carrying the top weight of , Seabiscuit won by five lengths. At the World's Fair Handicap (Bay Meadows' most prestigious stakes race), Seabiscuit led throughout.
In 1937, the Santa Anita Handicap, California's most prestigious race, was worth over $125,000 ($ million in 2010) to the winner; it was known colloquially as "The Hundred Grander." In his first warm-up race at Santa Anita Park, Seabiscuit won easily. In his second race of 1937, the San Antonio Handicap, he suffered a setback after he was bumped at the start and then pushed wide; Seabiscuit came in fifth, losing to Rosemont.
The two met again in the Santa Anita Handicap a week later, where Rosemont won by a nose. The defeat was devastating to Smith and Howard and was widely attributed in the press to a jockey error. Pollard, who had not seen Rosemont over his shoulder until too late, was blind in one eye due to an accident during a training ride, a fact he had hidden throughout his career. A week after this defeat Seabiscuit won the San Juan Capistrano Handicap by seven lengths in track record time of 1:48 for the mile event.
Seabiscuit was rapidly becoming a favorite among California racing fans, and his fame spread as he won his next three races. With his successes, Howard decided to ship the horse east for its more prestigious racing circuit.
Seabiscuit's run of victories continued. Between June 26 and August 7, he ran five times, each time in a stakes race, and each time he won under steadily increasing handicap weights (imposts) of up to . For the third time, Seabiscuit faced off against Rosemont again, this time beating him by seven lengths. On September 11, Smith accepted an impost of for the Narragansett Special at Narragansett Park. On race day, the ground was slow and heavy, and unsuited to "the Biscuit", carrying the heaviest burden of his career. Smith wanted to scratch, but Howard overruled him. Never in the running, Seabiscuit finished third. His winning streak was snapped, but the season was not over; Seabiscuit won his next three races (one a dead heat) before finishing the year with a second-place at Pimlico.
In 1937, Seabiscuit won 11 of his 15 races and was the year's leading money winner in the United States. However, War Admiral, having won the Triple Crown that season, was voted the most prestigious honor, the American Horse of the Year Award.
Early five-year-old season
In 1938, as a five-year-old, Seabiscuit's success continued. On February 19, Pollard suffered a terrible fall while racing on Fair Knightess, another of Howard's horses. With half of Pollard's chest caved in by the weight of the fallen horse, Howard had to find a new jockey. After trying three, he settled on George Woolf, an already successful rider and old friend of Pollard's.
Woolf's first race aboard Seabiscuit was the Santa Anita Handicap, "The Hundred Grander" the horse had narrowly lost the previous year. Seabiscuit was drawn on the outside, and at the start was impeded by another horse, Count Atlas, angling out. The two were locked together for the first straight, and by the time Woolf disentangled his horse, they were six lengths off the pace. Seabiscuit worked his way to the lead but lost in a photo finish to the fast-closing Santa Anita Derby winner, Stagehand (owned by Maxwell Howard, not related to Charles), who had been assigned less than Seabiscuit.
Throughout 1937 and 1938, the media speculated about a match race between Seabiscuit and the seemingly invincible War Admiral (sired by Man o' War, Seabiscuit's grandsire). The two horses were scheduled to meet in three stakes races, but one or the other was scratched, usually due to Seabiscuit's dislike of heavy ground. After extensive negotiation, the owners organized a match race for May 1938 at Belmont, but Seabiscuit was scratched.
By June, Pollard had recovered, and on June 23, he agreed to work a young colt named Modern Youth. Spooked by something on the track, the horse broke rapidly through the stables and threw Pollard, shattering his leg and seemingly ending his career.
Howard arranged a match race for Seabiscuit against Ligaroti, a highly regarded horse owned by the Hollywood entertainer Bing Crosby and Howard's son, Lindsay, through Binglin Stable, in an event organized to promote Crosby's resort and Del Mar Racetrack in Del Mar, California. With Woolf aboard, Seabiscuit won that race, despite persistent fouling from Ligaroti's jockey. After three more outings and with only one win, he was scheduled to go head-to-head with War Admiral in the Pimlico Special in November, in Baltimore, Maryland.
Sent to race on the East Coast, on October 16, 1938, Seabiscuit ran second by two lengths in the Laurel Stakes to the filly Jacola, who set a new Laurel Park Racecourse record of 1:37.00 for one mile.
On November 1, 1938, Seabiscuit met War Admiral and jockey Charles Kurtsinger in what was dubbed the "Match of the Century." The event was run over at Pimlico Race Course. From the grandstands to the infield, the track was jammed with fans. Trains were run from all over the country to bring fans to the race, and the estimated 40,000 at the track were joined by 40 million listening on the radio. War Admiral was the favorite (1–4 with most bookmakers) and a nearly unanimous selection of the writers and tipsters, excluding a California contingent.
Head-to-head races favor fast starters, and War Admiral's speed from the gate was well known. Seabiscuit, on the other hand, was a pace stalker, skilled at holding with the pack before pulling ahead with late acceleration. From the scheduled walk-up start, few gave him a chance to lead War Admiral into the first turn. Smith knew these things and trained Seabiscuit to run against this type, using a starting bell and a whip to give the horse a Pavlovian burst of speed from the start.
When the bell rang, Seabiscuit broke in front, led by over a length after 20 seconds, and soon crossed over to the rail position. Halfway down the backstretch, War Admiral started to cut into the lead, gradually pulling level with Seabiscuit, then slightly ahead. Following advice he had received from Pollard, Woolf had eased up on Seabiscuit, allowing his horse to see his rival, then asked for more effort. Two hundred yards from the wire, Seabiscuit pulled away again and continued to extend his lead over the closing stretch, finally winning by four lengths despite War Admiral's running his best time for the distance.
As a result of his races that year, Seabiscuit was named American Horse of the Year for 1938, beating War Admiral by 698 points to 489 in a poll conducted by the Turf and Sport Digest magazine. Seabiscuit was the number one newsmaker of 1938. The only major prize that eluded him was the Santa Anita Handicap.
Injury and return
Seabiscuit was injured during a race. Woolf, who was riding him, said that he felt the horse stumble. The injury was not life-threatening, although many predicted Seabiscuit would never race again. The diagnosis was a ruptured suspensory ligament in the front left leg. With Seabiscuit out of action, Smith and Howard concentrated on their horse Kayak II, an Argentine stallion. In the spring of 1939, Seabiscuit covered seven of Howard's mares, all of which had healthy foals in spring of 1940. One, Fair Knightess's colt, died as a yearling.
Seabiscuit and a still-convalescing Pollard recovered together at Howard's ranch, with the help of Pollard's new wife Agnes, who had nursed him through his initial recovery. Slowly, both horse and rider learned to walk again (Pollard joked that they "had four good legs between" them). Poverty and his injury had brought Pollard to the edge of alcoholism. A local doctor broke and reset Pollard's leg to aid his recovery, and slowly Pollard regained the confidence to sit on a horse. Wearing a brace to stiffen his atrophied leg, he began to ride Seabiscuit again, first at a walk and later at a trot and canter. Howard was delighted at their improvement, as he longed for Seabiscuit to race again, but was extremely worried about Pollard, as his leg was still fragile.
Over the fall and winter of 1939, Seabiscuit's fitness seemed to improve by the day. By the end of the year, Smith was ready to return the horse to race training, with a collection of stable jockeys in the saddle. By the time of his comeback race, Pollard had cajoled Howard into allowing him the ride. After the horse was scratched due to soft going, the pair finally lined up at the start of the La Jolla Handicap at Santa Anita, on February 9, 1940. Seabiscuit was third, beaten by two lengths. By their third comeback race, Seabiscuit was back to his winning ways, running away from the field in the San Antonio Handicap to beat his erstwhile training partner, Kayak II, by two and a half lengths. Under , Seabiscuit equalled the track record for a mile and 1/16.
One race was left in the season. A week after the San Antonio, Seabiscuit and Kayak II both took the gate for the Santa Anita Handicap and its $121,000 prize. 78,000 paying spectators crammed the racetrack, most backing Seabiscuit. Pollard found his horse blocked almost from the start. Picking his way through the field, Seabiscuit briefly led. As they thundered down the back straight, Seabiscuit became trapped in third place, behind leader Whichcee and Wedding Call on the outside.
Trusting in his horse's acceleration, Pollard steered between the leaders and burst into the lead, taking the firm ground just off the rail. As Seabiscuit showed his old surge, Wedding Call and Whichcee faltered, and Pollard drove his horse on, taking "The Hundred Grander" by a length and a half from the fast-closing Kayak II under jockey Leon Haas. Pandemonium engulfed the course. Neither horse and rider, nor trainer and owner, could get through the crowd of well-wishers to the winner's enclosure for some time.
Retirement, later life, and offspring
On April 10, 1940, Seabiscuit's retirement from racing was officially announced. When he was retired to the Ridgewood Ranch near Willits, California, he was horse racing's all-time leading money winner. Put out to stud, Seabiscuit sired 108 foals, including two moderately successful racehorses: Sea Sovereign and Sea Swallow. Over 50,000 visitors went to Ridgewood Ranch to see Seabiscuit in the seven years before his death.
Death and interment
Seabiscuit died of a probable heart attack on May 17, 1947, in Willits, California, six days short of 14 years old. He is buried at Ridgewood Ranch in Mendocino County, California.
Legacy and honors
Awards and honorable distinctions
In 1958, Seabiscuit was voted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame.
In the Blood-Horse magazine List of the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century (1999), Seabiscuit was ranked 25th. War Admiral was 13th, and Seabiscuit's grandsire and War Admiral's sire, Man o' War, placed 1st.
Portrayals in film and television
Documentaries
American Experience: "Seabiscuit" (April 21, 2003)) is a documentary episode that aired as Season 15, Episode 11 of the PBS American Experience series.
ESPN SportsCentury: "Seabiscuit" (November 17, 2003), Seabiscuit was featured on ESPN's SportsCentury Greatest Athletes series.
The True Story of Seabiscuit (July 27, 2003) is a 45-minute made-for-TV documentary directed by Craig Haffner, written by Martin Gillam, and containing interviews and footage with William H. Macy, Seabiscuit, and Tobey Maguire, that aired on the USA Network.
Seabiscuit: the Lost Documentary (1939) by Seabiscuit's owner Charles Howard. The film was directed by Manny Nathan, and written by Nathan and Hazel Merry Hawkins. It stars Martin Mason, Doc Bond, Charles Howard as himself and his wife, Marcella. It was colorized and released in 2003 by Legend Films to coincide with interest around the movie.
Seabiscuit: America's Legendary Racehorse (2003) directed and produced by Nick Krantz.
Fiction films
Stablemates (1938), starring Wallace Beery and Mickey Rooney. Film producer Harry Rapf arranged a deal whereby he could film the $50,000 Hollywood Gold Cup, and actual footage of Seabiscuit running in the race was used. The field is headed by Seabiscuit for the "straight" race in the film.
Porky and Teabiscuit (1939) is Warner Bros.' Porky Pig cartoon take on Seabiscuit's underdog story.
The Story of Seabiscuit (1949), starring Shirley Temple in her penultimate film, is a fictionalized account featuring Sea Sovereign in the title role. An otherwise undistinguished film, it did include actual footage of the 1938 match race against War Admiral and the 1940 Santa Anita Handicap.
Seabiscuit (2003), Universal Studios' adaptation of Laura Hillenbrand's bestselling 2001 book, was nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture
The Making of Seabiscuit (December 16, 2003) is a documentary short directed by Laurent Bouzereau and starring Tobey Maguire, Jeff Bridges, Chris Cooper, and William Goldenberg, produced by DreamWorks SKG, Herzog Productions, Spyglass Entertainment, and Universal Studios, and distributed by Universal Studios Home Video.
Non-fiction books
Track writer B.K. Beckwith wrote Seabiscuit: The Saga of a Great Champion (1940), with a foreword by Grantland Rice, right after Seabiscuit's Santa Anita win and at the moment of the horse's retirement.
Ralph Moody wrote Come On, Seabiscuit! (1963), illustrated by Robert Riger, which was recently reprinted by the University of Nebraska Press.
Laura Hillenbrand's book Seabiscuit: An American Legend (2001) became a bestseller, and in 2003 it was adapted for film.
Postage stamp
In 2009, after an eight-year-long grassroots effort by Maggie Van Ostrand and Chuck Lustick, Seabiscuit was honored by the United States Postal Service with a stamp bearing his likeness. Thousands of signatures were obtained from all over the nation, and the final approval was given by Citizens Stamp Committee member Joan Mondale, wife of former Vice President Walter Mondale.
Statues
A statue of Seabiscuit (not life-sized) sits outside the main entrance of The Shops at Tanforan, a shopping mall built upon the former site of the Tanforan Racetrack. Seabiscuit was stabled there briefly in 1939, while preparing for his comeback.
In the 1940s, businessman and racehorse owner W. Arnold Hanger donated a statuette of Seabiscuit to the Keeneland library.
In 1941, a life-sized bronze statue of Seabiscuit by Frank Buchler, was installed at Santa Anita Park; it now stands in the walking ring at the track's "Seabiscuit Court"
On June 23, 2007, a statue of Seabiscuit was unveiled at Ridgewood Ranch.
In 1941, sculptor Hughlette "Tex" Wheeler cast two bronze statues from Seabiscuit: one stands at Santa Anita racetrack in Arcadia, CA; the other is in Saratoga Springs, outside the National Museum of Racing.
On July 17, 2010, a life-size statue of George Woolf and Seabiscuit was unveiled at the Remington Carriage Museum in Woolf's hometown of Cardston, Alberta. This coincided with the 100th anniversary of Woolf's birth, though not the actual date.
Pedigree
Notable races won
Seabiscuit ran 89 times at 16 different distances over the course of his career.
Brooklyn Handicap (1937)
San Antonio Handicap (1940)
Santa Anita Handicap (1940)
Notes
References
Further reading
Beckwith, B.K. (1940), Seabiscuit: The Saga of a Great Champion, with drawings by Howard Brodie, Wilfred Crowell, Inc., San Francisco.
Hillenbrand, Laura (2001), Seabiscuit: An American Legend.
Rasmussen, Zach (2013), Seabiscuit: An Unlikely Champion.
External links
Newsreel film of Seabiscuit v War Admiral
Seabiscuit Heritage Foundation. Livingston, Tracy (2005), retrieved June 26, 2005.
"Seabiscuit", Snopes.com (2005), retrieved June 18, 2015.
Seabiscuit, 1938 Horse of the Year
Seabiscuit, Hollywood film, 2003
The Story of Seabiscuit, Hollywood film, 1949
The Biscuit's pedigree
Quick online racing game, inc. The Biscuit
Article about the Seabiscuit-War Admiral match race
Youtube of the 1938 match race
Seabiscuit, an American Experience documentary film by Stephen Ives, shown on PBS
www.janiburon.com, website of author of Seabiscuit books
1933 racehorse births
1947 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
Horse racing track record setters
American Thoroughbred Horse of the Year
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Horse monuments
Thoroughbred family 5-j
Godolphin Arabian sire line | [
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219116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20national%20mottos | List of national mottos | This article lists state and national mottos for the world's nations. The mottos for some states lacking general international recognition, extinct states, non-sovereign nations, regions, and territories are listed, but their names are not bolded.
A state motto is used to describe the intent or motivation of the state in a short phrase. For example, it can be included on a country's flag, coat of arms, or currency. Some countries choose not to have a national motto.
Current sovereign countries
: There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God. (; )
: You, Albania, give me honor, give me the name Albanian ()
: By the people and for the people (; .
: Strength united is stronger ().
: No official motto.
: Each endeavouring, all achieving
: In Union and Liberty ().
: One Nation, One Culture (; ).
: No official motto. Formerly Advance Australia.
: No official motto.
: No official motto. Unofficial: The Land of Fire ()
: Forward, Upward, Onward Together
: No official motto.
: No official motto. National slogan and war cry: Victory to Bengal (; Jaya Banla).
: Pride and Industry
: No official motto. Unofficial motto: Long Live Belarus! (, Žyvie Biełaruś!)
: Unity makes strength (, , ).
: Under the shade I flourish ().
: Fellowship, Justice, Labour ().
: No official motto.
: Unity makes strength ().
: No official motto.
: Rain ().
: Order and progress ()
: Always in service with God's guidance ().
: Unity Makes Strength ().
: Unity, Progress, Justice ().
: Unity, Work, Progress ()
: Nation, Religion, King (; )
: Peace, Work, Fatherland ()
: From sea to sea ()
: Unity, Work, Progress ().
: Unity, Dignity, Work ().
: Unity, Work, Progress ()
: Through Reason Or By Force ()
: No official motto. Serve The People! () is the motto of the Communist Party of China and Chinese government.
: Freedom and order ().
: Unity, Solidarity, Development ().
: Justice, Peace, Work ().
: Unity, Work, Progress ().
: No official motto. De facto motto: Pure Life ().
: Unity, Discipline, Labor ().
: No official motto. Unofficial motto: God and Croats ().
: Fatherland or death ()
: No official motto
: Truth prevails ()
: No official motto. Royal motto of Margrethe II: God's help, the love of the people, Denmark's strength ().
: Unity, Equality, Peace (, ).
: After God, the Earth (Dominican Creole French: Après Bondié, C'est la Ter).
: God, Fatherland, Liberty ()
: Unity, Action, and Progress ()
: God, homeland, and freedom ().
: No official motto.
: God, Union, Liberty ()
: Unity, Peace, Justice ()
: State of Eritrea (, , also in English).
: No official motto.
: We are the fortress ()
: Currently no official motto. Formerly: Ethiopia holds up her hands unto God (; Itiyopia tabetsih edewiha habe Igziabiher), taken from Psalm 68:31.
: Fear God and honour the Queen ()
: No official motto. Unofficial motto used by National Coalition and Christian Democrats, two parties amounting to about 25% of votes together: Home, Religion and the Fatherland ().
: Liberty, equality, fraternity ()
: Union, Work, Justice ()
: Progress, Peace, Prosperity.
: Strength is in Unity! (; Dzala ertobashia).
: No official motto, in practice it is commonly referred as Unity and justice and freedom ().
Baden-Württemberg: Willkommen in The Länd
Berlin: We are one Berlin ()
Lower Saxony: always a good idea ().
: Freedom and Justice.
: Freedom or Death (; Eleftheria i thanatos).
: Ever Conscious of God We Aspire, and Advance as One People.
: Grow Free and Fertile ().
: Work, Justice, Solidarity ().
: Unity, Struggle, Progress ().
: One People, One Nation, One Destiny.
: Liberty, equality, fraternity ()
: Free, sovereign and independent ()
: Currently no official motto. Formerly With the help of God for Homeland and Freedom (), battle cry of Prince Francis II Rákóczi in the early 18th century.
: No official motto.
: Truth alone triumphs (, Satyameva Jayate).
: Unity in diversity (Old Javanese: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika).
: No official motto. De facto motto: Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic (; Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī).
: God is the Greatest (, Allahu Akbar).
: No official motto. Historical use: Ireland forever (, , also in English).
: No official motto. Unofficial: If you will it, it is no dream (; Im Tirtzu, Ein zo Agadah).
: No official motto. Unofficial: Union, Strength and Liberty! () was motto of the first Young Italy.
: Out of many, One People
: No official motto.
: God, Homeland, King (Jordanian Arabic: الله، الوطن، الملك; Allāh, Al-Waṭan, Al-Malīk).
: Freedom, Unity, Progress! ().
: All pull together ().
: Health, Peace and Prosperity ().
: No official motto. De facto motto: Strong and Prosperous Nation (; Gangseong Daeguk).
: To broadly Benefit Humanity/Devotion to Human Welfare (; Hongik Ingan).
: No official motto. Proposed motto: Honour, Duty, Homeland ().
: God, The Nation, The Emir ().
: No official motto.
: Peace, independence, democracy, unity and prosperity ()
: We are all for the Country, the Sublime and the Flag ().
: Peace, Rain, Prosperity ().
: The love of liberty brought us here
: No official motto.
: For God, Prince and Fatherland ().
: No official motto, Freedom, Unity, Prosperity () used on coins since 2015.
: We wish to remain what we are ()
: Love, Ancestral-land, Progress ().
: Unity and Freedom.
: Unity is strength ().
: State of the Mahal Dibiyat (; Al-Dawlat Al-Mahaldheebiya).
: One people, one goal, one faith ().
: Strength and consistency ().
: Accomplishment/Achievement through Joint Effort ().
: Fraternity, Justice (, ).
: Star and key of the Indian Ocean ().
: No official motto, The Homeland is First () is the motto of the Mexican Congress.
: Peace, Unity, Liberty.
: No official motto.
: With God's help ().
: No official motto.
: No official motto. Unofficial motto: May Montenegro be eternal! (). From the national anthem.
: God, the Country, the King (; Allāh, Al-Waṭan, Al-Malīk). Sovereign's motto: إن تَنصُروا اللهَ ينصُرُکُم (ʾIn tanṣurū 'Ilaha yanṣurukum) (Arabic: If you aid God, He will aid you)
: No official motto.
: Currently no official motto. Formerly: Happiness through harmony (; Samaggānaṃ tapo sukho).
: Unity, liberty, justice
: God's will first
: Mother and motherland are greater than heaven (; Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi)
: I will maintain (, ).
: No official motto, formerly Onward
: In God We Trust ()
: Fraternity, Work, Progress ().
: Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress.
: No official motto.
: No official motto.
: No official motto. Royal motto of Harald V: Everything for Norway () and Eidsvoll oath: United and loyal until the mountains of Dovre crumble ()
: No official national motto.
: Faith, Unity, Discipline (; Iman, Ittihad, Nazm).
: No official national motto.
: No official motto, Unofficial: From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free (; Min alnahr 'iilaa al-bahr, satakun Filastin huratan).
: For the benefit of the world ().
: Unity in Diversity.
: Peace and justice ().
: Steady and happy for the union ().
: For God, for the people, for nature and for the country ().
: No official motto. Unofficial mottos of Poland include: For our freedom and yours (); and God, Honour, Fatherland ().
: No official motto.
: No official motto.
: No official motto. Formerly Nothing without God (), which has been proposed to return. Before Nihil sine Deo, Toți în unu ("All for One") was used as the motto of Romania for a short period of time.
: No official motto at sovereignty level.
: Chuvash Republic (, ).
: Workers of the world, unite! ().
:Sakha Republic (, ).
Unofficial: We can! ().
: Unity, Work, Patriotism ()
: Liberty, Democracy, Unity (, ).
: Country Above Self.
: The land, the people, the light.
: Peace and justice ()
: God be the Foundation of Samoa ().
: Liberty ()
: Unity, Discipline, Work ().
: There is no God other than God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God (; Lā ʾilāha illā l-Lāh; Muḥammadu r-rasūlu l-Lāh).
: One people, one goal, one faith ().
: No official motto. Unofficial: Only Unity Saves the Serbs ().
: The end crowns the work ().
: Unity, freedom, justice.
: Onward Singapore ().
: Currently no official motto. Formerly (1939-1945) Faithful to Ourselves, Together Ahead! ().
: No official motto.
: To lead is to serve
: No official motto. Currently unoffically and formerly offically (1947-2012) Arise Somalis! ()
: Diverse people unite or Unity in Diversity (ǀXam: ǃke e꞉ ǀxarra ǁke).
: Justice, Liberty, Prosperity
: Further beyond ().
: No official motto.
: Victory is Ours (; An-Naṣr Linā).
: Justice, piety, loyalty ().
: No official national motto. Royal motto of Carl XVI Gustaf: For Sweden - in the time ().
: One for all, all for one ().
: Unity, Freedom, Socialism () Ba'ath Party.
: No official motto. Unofficial: Taiwan the Green (; pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tâi-oân Chhùi-chhiⁿ). Nationalism, Democracy, Welfare () is the motto of the Kuomintang and ROC government.
: Independence, Freedom, Homeland! ().
: Freedom and Unity ().
: No official motto. Unofficial: Nation, Religion, King (; Chat, Satsana, Phra Mahakasat)
: Work, liberty, homeland ().
: God and Tonga are my Inheritance ().
: Together we aspire, together we achieve.
: Freedom, Dignity, Order and Justice (; Ḥoṛiya, Kaṛama, 'Adāla, Niẓam).
: No official motto. Motto of the Parliament of Turkey: Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the People (). Other mottos: How happy is the one who says I am a Turk (), Either independence or death ().
: Independence, Neutrality, Stability! (/).
: Tuvalu for the Almighty ().
: For God and My Country (, also in English).
: No official motto. Glory to Ukraine! Glory to the heroes! () is the military greeting and de facto motto.
: God, Nation, President (; Allah, al-Waṭan, al-Ra'īs).
: No official motto. Sovereign's motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right) in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; In My Defens God Me Defend in Scotland.
: In God We Trust (official), E Pluribus Unum (Latin: Out of many, one) (de facto). See also list of U.S. state and territory mottos
: Liberty or Death ().
: The Strength is in The Justice! ( / )
: In God we stand ().
: No official motto. Pope Francis' personal motto: By Giving mercy and by choosing ().
: Currently no official motto. Historical: God and Federation ().
: Independence, Liberty, Happiness ().
: God, Homeland, Revolution, Unity (; Allāh, Al-Waṭan, Ath-Thawrah, Al-Waḥdah).
: One Zambia, One Nation
: Unity, Freedom, Work
Semi autonomous dependencies
: Unity, Strength and Endurance
: Samoa Muamua le Atua (Samoan)
: Semper progrediens (Latin)
: Hoc Signo Tuetur Pius, Hoc Signo Vincitur Inimicus (Latin)
: Antes morrer livres que em paz sujeitos (Portuguese)
: Quo fata ferunt (Latin: Whither the fates carry us)
: Research and Discovery
: In tutela nostra Limuria (Latin: "Limuria is in our charge")
: Vigilate (Latin: Be watchful)
: Kentoc'h mervel eget bezañ saotret (Breton: Rather death than dishonour)
: Océano (Spanish: Ocean)
: He hath founded it upon the seas
: Maju Pulu Kita (Cocos Islands Malay: Onward our island)
: No official motto.
: Traditional motto / unofficial; He hanga te Atu'a he pakea te ma'eha ote mori nei ite he nua ta'atoa (Rapa Nui: "May God let the clarity of this vital light be extended to all peoples")
: Sovereign's motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right).
: Desire the Right
: No official motto.
: Liberté, égalité, fraternité (French: Liberty, equality, fraternity)
: Tahiti Nui Māre'are'a (Tahitian: Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze)
: Hoc hic mysterium fidei firmiter profitemur (Latin: "Here, we firmly profess this mystery of faith")
: Montis Insignia Calpi () and Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti ()
: No official motto.
: No official motto.
: No official motto.
: Quocunque Ieceris Stabit (Latin: Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand)
: No official motto.
: No official motto. Unofficial motto/proverb: ھیچ دۆستێک جگە لە چیاکان (Kurdish: "No friends but the mountains"). Also used is the title of the regional anthem "Ey Reqîb" (Kurdish: "O, Enemy")
: Das Ilhas, As Mais Belas E Livres (Portuguese: Of the Islands, the Most Beautiful and Free)
: A people of excellence, moulded by nature, nurtured by God
: Terre de parole, terre de partage (French: Land of speech, land of sharing)
: No official motto.
: No official motto.
: Semper Ascendens (Latin: Always Ascending).
: Joannes est nomen ejus (Latin: "John is his name"). Taken from the Vulgate translation of Luke 1:63, referring to the fact that the island's former name was "San Juan" (now the capital's name) in honour of Saint John the Baptist.
: Florebo quocumque ferar (Latin: I will flourish wherever I am brought)
: Remis velisque (Latin: With oars and sails)
: Loyal and unshakeable
: A Mare Labor (Latin: From the Sea, Work)
: Sovereign's motto: In My Defens God Me Defend (Often shown abbreviated as IN DEFENS) and Nemo Me Impune Lacessit (Latin: No-one provokes me with impunity)
: An.Tu.Do. ANimus TUus DOminus (Latin: Courage is your lord).
: Semper progrediens (Latin: Always progressing)
: Leo terram propriam protegat (Latin: "Let the lion protect his own land")
: Tokelau mo te Atua (Tokelauan: Tokelau For The Almighty)
: Our faith is our strength
: No official motto.
: Nemo me impune lacessit (Latin: No-one cuts me with impunity)
: Cymru am byth (Welsh: Wales Forever, alternatively Long live Wales)
: Liberté, égalité, fraternité (French: Liberty, equality, fraternity)
: United In Pride And Hope: Zanzibar kwa Afrika; Zanzibar kwa ajili ya Dunia (Swahili: "Zanzibar for Africa — Zanzibar for the world")
: Islands of PeaceHistorical countries
: Indivisibiliter ac Inseparabiliter (Latin: "Indivisible and inseparable unity").
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic: ()
Kingdom of Bavaria: In Treue fest (German: "Steadfast in loyalty")
Republic of Biafra: Peace, Unity, Freedom: Пралетарыі ўсіх краін, яднайцеся! (Praletaryi ŭsich krain, jadnajciesja!) (Belarusian: Workers of the world, unite!)
: Independência ou Morte! (Portuguese: Independence or Death!)
: "King of Kings, Ruling Over Kings" (Greek: βασιλεὺς βασιλέων, βασιλεύων βασιλευόντων; Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn) under the Palaiologos dynasty.
: Deo vindice (Latin: With God as our defender/protector)
(1918–1993): Pravda vítězí (Czech), Pravda víťazí (Slovak), Veritas vincit (Latin), all meaning "Truth prevails"
: Eendracht maakt macht (Dutch: Unity makes strength)
ሞዓ አንበሰ ዘአምነባደ ይሁዳ (Moa Ambassa ze Imnegede Yehuda) (Ge'ez: Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah).
: Regna cadunt luxu surgunt virtutibus urbes! (Latin: Fall, you kingdoms of luxury, for the cities of virtue shall thrive!)
: Various mottos ranging from "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death." (French: Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ou la Mort) to "Unity, indivisibility of the Republic; liberty, equality, brotherhood or death" (French: Unité, Indivisibilité de la République ; Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité ou la mort).
: Montjoie Saint Denis! (French)
(1940–1944): Travail, Famille, Patrie (French: Work, Family, Homeland)
: Hoc hic mysterium fidei firmiter profitemur (Latin: Here is the mystery of faith that we strongly profess)
(1949–1990): Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (German: Unity and justice and freedom)
(1949–1990): Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch! (German: Workers of all countries, unite!)
(1871–1918): Gott mit uns (German: God with us)
(1933–1945): Ein Volk, Ein Reich, Ein Führer (German: One People, One Realm, One Leader.)
(1832–1924 and 1935–67): Ίσχύς μου ή άγάπη του λαού (Iskhis mou i ayapi tou laou) ()
: A.E.I.O.U. "All the world is subject to Austria" (German: Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan. Latin: Austria est imperare orbis universo)
: Ua Mau ke Ea o ka Āina i ka Pono (Hawaiian: The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness)
Imperial State of Iran: مرا داد فرمود و خود داور است (Marā dād farmūd-o khod dāvar ast) (Persian: Justice He bids me do, as He will judge me).
Kingdom of Italy: Foedere et Religione Tenemur (FERT) (Latin: We are held together by pact and by religion), Fortitudo Eius Rempublicam Tenet (FERT) (Latin: 'His bravery [or strength] preserves [or defends] the state')
: Per l'onore d'Italia (Italian: For the honor of Italy)
Ancient Japan: 養正之心ヲ弘ム (Yōsei-no kokoro-wo hiromu) (Japanese: "spread the spirit of nurturing rightness"), 積慶重暉 (Sekkei Chōki) (Japanese, "accumulate joyousness and stack brightness"), 掩ヒテ㆓ヲ㆒而為ス㆑ト (Ame-no-shita-wo ōhi-te ihe-to nasu) (Japanese, "cover and make it roof" aka Hakkō Ichiu (八紘一宇))
: 開国進取 (Kaikoku Shinshu) (Japanese: "Open nation and do enterprising") Charter Oath (1868–) -> 大東亜新秩序建設 (Dai-tōa Shin-chitsujo Kensetsu) (Japanese: "Establishing of Great East Asian New Order", it means "東亜に於ける国際正義の確立、共同防共の達成、新文化の創造、経済結合の実現を期す" ("Hoping for establishing international righteousness, co-preventing communism, creating new culture and actualizing economic connection in East Asia")) :ja:基本国策要綱 (1940–)
: 광명천지 (光明天地, Kwangmyeong Cheonji) "Let there be light across the land"
: Independencia, Unión, Religion (Spanish: "Independence, Union, Religion"), the three guarantees.
: Equidad en la Justicia (Spanish: "Equity in Justice")
: Libertate Unanimus, (Latin: United in Freedom)
: Quaerite Prime Regnum Dei (Latin: Seek ye first the kingdom of God)
: Pergo et Perago (Latin: I undertake and I achieve)
: دولت ابد مدت (Devlet-i Ebed-müddet) (Turkish: "The Eternal State")
Fourth Philippine Republic: Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa (Filipino: "One Country, One Spirit"). Abolished after the 1986 People Power Revolution.
: Pro fide, lege, et rege (Latin: "For Faith, Law, and King"); Si Deus nobiscum quis contra nos? (Latin: If God is with us, then who is against us?)
: In Hoc Signo Vinces (Latin: "By this sign you shall conquer"). In a legend retold in the national epic Os Lusiadas by Luís Vaz de Camões, the first King of Portugal saw the Quinas (the five blue inescutcheons with silver bezants), in a miracle, during the Battle of Ourique. The usage of this motto is well documented on coins, monuments and documents.
: Suum cuique (Latin: "To each his own") 1525–1947
: Sloboda se ne prodaje za sve zlato svijeta (Croatian: Freedom is not sold for all the gold in the world)
: Sit Nomine Digna (Latin: May she be worthy of the name)
: Съ нами Богъ! (S nami Bog!) (Russian: God is with us!) and За Вѣру, Царя и Отечество! (Za Veru, Tsarya i Otechestvo!) (Russian: For Faith, For Tsar, For Fatherland)
Russian State: Единая и Неделимая Россия! (Yedinaya i Nedelimaya Rossiya!) (Russian: United and Indivisible Russia!) and Симъ побѣдиши! (Sim pobedishi!) (Russian: In this, conquer!)
and previously Roman Republic: Senatus Populusque Romanus (Latin: The Senate and people of Rome, often abbreviated SPQR)
: Ex Unitate Vires (Latin: Union is Strength)
: Unité, Travail, Justice (French: Unity, Work, Justice)
Siam (1873-1910) : สพฺเพสํ สงฺฆภูตานํ สามคฺคี วุฑฺฒิ สาธิกา (Pāli: शब्बेसम् सम्घभुतनम् समग्घि भुद्धि सधिक, Sabbesaṃ saṃghabhūtānaṃ samagghī vuḍḍhi sadhikā, "Unity amongst those uniting brings about success and prosperity")
: Dum Spiro, Spero (Latin: "While I breathe, I hope")
: In my defens God me defend.
: Omnia Juncta in Uno (Latin: "All Joined into One")
: Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! (Proletarii vsekh stran, soyedinyaytes'!) (Russian: Proletarians of all nations, unite!) (Also translated into the languages of the other fourteen republics)
: Viva San Marco! (Venetian: Long Live Saint Mark!)
: Ðộc lập, Tự do, Hạnh phúc: 1954–67: Tổ quốc, Danh dự, Trách nhiệm (Vietnamese: Fatherland, Honor, Responsibility); 1967–75: Tổ quốc, Công minh, Liêm chính (Vietnamese: Fatherland, Justice, Integrity)
: Dreptate, Frăție (Romanian: "Justice, Brotherhood").
: To dwell together in unity Kingdom of Württemberg: Furchtlos und treu (German: Fearless and faithful)
: "Brotherhood and unity". (Serbo-Croatian: Братство и јединство / Bratstvo i jedinstvo, Macedonian: Братство и единство, Slovene: Bratstvo in enotnost, Albanian: Vllaznim-Bashkim, later Vëllazërim-Bashkim, Hungarian: Testvériség és egység, Romanian: Frăție și unitate)
: Paix — Justice — Travail'' (French: Peace — Justice — Work)
Notes
References
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219117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20emperor | Roman emperor | The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting with the granting of the title augustus to Octavian in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English it reflects his taking of the title augustus (and later basileus). Another title often used was caesar, used for heirs-apparent, and imperator, originally a military honorific. Early emperors also used the title princeps civitatis ('first citizen'). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably princeps senatus, consul, and pontifex maximus.
The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or invested with imperial titles by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors and divide administration of the empire between them.
The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. For the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of the republic, fearing any association with the kings of Rome prior to the Republic.
From Diocletian, whose tetrarchic reforms also divided the position into one emperor in the West and one in the East, until the end of the Empire, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic, but the contrast with "kings" was maintained: although the imperial succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy, so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted. Elements of the republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire.
The reign of Constantine the Great witnessed the removal of the Caput Mundi from Rome to Constantinople, formerly known as Byzantium, in 330 AD. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions of imperial territory by Germanic barbarian tribes. Romulus Augustulus is often considered to have been the last emperor of the West, until his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim recognized by the Eastern Empire to the title until his death in 480. Following Nepos' death, the Eastern emperor Zeno abolished the division of the position and proclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a reunited Roman Empire. The subsequent Eastern emperors ruling from Constantinople continued to style themselves "Emperor of the Romans" (later βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων in Greek), but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors. Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying during the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.
The "Byzantine" emperors from Heraclius in 629 and onwards adopted the monarchic title of basileus (), which became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Other rulers were then referred to as rēgas.
In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors were given divine status after death. With the eventual hegemony of Christianity, the emperor came to be seen as God's chosen ruler, as well as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth, although in practice an emperor's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge.
Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest, most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman emperor. From 1453, one of the titles used by the Ottoman Sultans was "Caesar of Rome" (Turkish: Kayser-i Rum), part of their titles until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922. A Byzantine group of claimant Roman emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, though they had used a modified title since 1282.
Eastern emperors in Constantinople had been recognized and accepted as Roman emperors both in the East, which they ruled, and by the papacy and Germanic kingdoms of the West until the deposition of Constantine VI and accession of Irene of Athens as Empress regnant in 797. Objecting to a woman ruling the Roman Empire in her own right and issues with the eastern clergy, the Papacy would then create a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the Holy Roman Emperors, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized as Roman emperors by the court in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medieval problem of two emperors.
Background and beginning
Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic, a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus and Cassius Dio. However, the majority of Roman writers, including Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor.
At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, but that the period when several officials, bestowed with equal power by the senate, would fight one another had come to an end.
Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. However, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senate's vote and approval.
Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity (dictator perpetuo) in 45 BC and had been "pontifex maximus" for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent and just prior to his assassination,
was the most powerful man in the Roman world.
In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir. On Caesar's death, Octavian inherited his adoptive father's property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar's death, Octavian's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian's supremacy.
In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government; the Senate not only requested he remain, but increased his powers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title of Augustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity). Augustus stayed in office until his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic. His "restoration" of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas and pious respect for tradition.
Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus' death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government.
Classical period
Rome had no single constitutional office, title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title "Roman emperor". Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era.
The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor. Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps senatus (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of pontifex maximus (chief priest of the College of Pontiffs). Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome.
These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige (dignitas) but the basis of an emperor's powers derived from his auctoritas: this assumed his greater powers of command (imperium maius) and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) as personal qualities, separate from his public office. As a result, he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment, was owed the obedience of private citizens (privati) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate's decision. He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including the tribunes of the people (ius intercedendi or ius intercessionis). His person was held to be sacred.
Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office; different togas were worn by different ranks; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple. A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta (of solid purple, richly embroidered) for the duration of the triumphal rite. During the Late Republic, the most powerful had this right extended. Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions. Later emperors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae, purple togas; hence the phrase "to don the purple" for the assumption of imperial dignity.
The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are imperator ("commander"), which emphasizes the emperor's military supremacy and is the source of the English word emperor; Caesar, which was originally a name but came to be used for the designated heir (as Nobilissimus Caesar, "Most Noble Caesar") and was retained upon accession. The ruling emperor's title was the descriptive Augustus ("majestic" or "venerable", which had tinges of the divine), which was adopted upon accession. In Greek, these three titles were rendered as autokratōr (""), kaisar (""), and augoustos ("") or sebastos ("") respectively. In Diocletian's Tetrarchy, the traditional seniorities were maintained: "Augustus" was reserved for the two senior emperors and "Caesar" for the two junior emperors – each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting, should anything befall his senior.
As princeps senatus (lit., "first man of the senate"), the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome; some emperors (such as Tiberius) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate. In modern terms, these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state. The office of princeps senatus, however, was not a magistracy and did not entail imperium. At some points in the Empire's history, the emperor's power was nominal; powerful praetorian prefects, masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions, other members of the Imperial household including Imperial mothers and grandmothers were the true source of power.
Imperator
The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic, when a victorious commander could be hailed as imperator in the field by his troops. The Senate could then award or withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistracy. In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that of Romulus, but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC. It was a title held with great pride: Pompey was hailed imperator more than once, as was Sulla, but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently – according to Dio, this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate, passed to Caesar's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it.
In 38 BC, Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command, and this precedent established the rule that the princeps should assume both the salutation and title of imperator. It seems that from then on Octavian (later the first emperor Augustus) used imperator as a first name (praenomen): Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator. From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus, but only with Vespasian did imperator (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known.
Princeps
The word princeps (plural principes), meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen(s) of the state. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers. It was the title most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only primacy, as opposed to another of his titles, imperator, which implies dominance. Princeps, because of its republican connotation, was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin (although the emperor's actual constitutional position was essentially "pontifex maximus with tribunician power and imperium superseding all others") as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored Republic; the Greek word basileus ("king") was modified to be synonymous with emperor (and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch.
In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ("lord"); later emperors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix (Invictus) Augustus: NN representing the individual's personal name; Pius Felix meaning "Pious and Blest"; and Invictus meaning "undefeated". The use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations "Principate" and "Dominate".
Evolution in Late Antiquity
In 293, following the Crisis of the Third Century which had severely damaged Imperial administration, Emperor Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism which had characterized the Augustan order in favor of a more frank autocracy. As a result, historians distinguish the Augustan period as the principate and the period from Diocletian to the 7th-century reforms of Emperor Heraclius as the dominate (from the Latin for "lord".)
Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the republic, however, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ("rule of four") in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of co-emperors, styled "Augustus", and junior emperors, styled "Caesar". When a co-emperor retired (as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian did in 305) or died, a junior "Caesar" would succeed him and the co-emperors would appoint new Caesars as needed.
The four members of the Imperial college (as historians call the arrangement) shared military and administrative challenges by each being assigned specific geographic areas of the empire. From this innovation, often but not consistently repeated over the next 187 years, comes the notion of an east–west partition of the empire that became popular with historians long after the practice had stopped. The two halves of empire, while often run as de facto separate entities day-to-day, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble imperium by the Romans of the time.
When emperor Theodosius I died, his sons Arcadius and Honorius, already proclaimed augusti, succeeded him. Eighty-five years later, following Germanic migrations which had reduced the empire's effective control across Brittania, Gaul and Hispania and a series of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Nepos out of Italy, the idea of dividing the position of emperor was formally abolished by Emperor Zeno (480).
The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and the position of emperor. The Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe, the Near East, India, and China. But many in Western Europe began to refer to the political entity as the "Greek Empire". The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in the now supreme Constantinople began to follow divergent paths, culminating in the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths. The position of emperor was increasingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship. Starting with Emperor Heraclius, Roman emperors styled themselves "King of Kings" (from the imperial Persian Shahanshah) from 627 and "Basileus" (from the title used by Alexander the Great) from 629. The later period of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as a matter of scholarly convention.
Titles and positions
Although these are the most common offices, titles, and positions, not all Roman emperors used them, nor were all of them used at the same time in history. The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity, and were usually held by persons other than the reigning emperor.
Augustus: (also "" or ""), "Majestic" or "Venerable"; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor
Autokrator: (, Autokratōr), (lit. "Self-ruler"); Greek title equivalent to imperator or commander-in-chief
Basileus: (), Greek for monarch, often translated as king, popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius
Caesar: (also ""), initially the cognomen of Julius Caesar, it was transformed into a title; an honorific name later used to identify an emperor-designate
Censor: a Republican office held jointly by two former consuls every five years for the purpose of conducting the lustrum that determined the role of citizens; the censor could audit all other magistrates and all state finances
Consul: the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder; the consul was the head of state within Rome. The last emperor to be bestowed the title by the Senate was Constans II, who was also the last emperor to visit Rome.
Dominus ("Lord" or "Master"): an honorific title mainly associated with the Dominate
Dominus Noster ("Our Lord"): an honorific title; the praenomen of later emperors.
Imperator ("Commander" or "Commander-in-Chief"): a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory
Imperator Destinatus ("Destined to be Emperor"): heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla
Invictus ("Unconquered"), an honorific title.
Nobilissimus: (, Nōbelissimos), ("Most Noble"), one of the highest imperial titles held by the emperor
Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland"): an honorific title
Perpetuus ("Universal"): an honorific title of later emperors
Pius Felix ("Pious and Blessed"): an honorific title
Pontifex Maximus ("Supreme Pontiff" or "Chief Priest"): in the Republican era, the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the College of Pontiffs, the religious body that oversaw the ancestral public religion of the Romans; Julius Caesar had become Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul, and the precedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidating supreme authority through this religious office was in general followed by his successors until the empire came under Christian rule
Princeps ("First Citizen" or "Leading Citizen"): an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals, associated mainly with the Principate
Princeps Iuventutis: ("Prince of Youth"), an honorific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate
Princeps Senatus: ("First Man of the Senate"), a Republican office with a five-year term
Sebastos: (), ("Venerable"); the Greek rendition of the imperial title Augustus
Sebastokrator: (, Sebastokratōr), ("Venerable Ruler); a senior court title from the compound words "sebastos" ("venerable", the Greek equivalent of the Latin Augustus) and "kratōr" ("ruler", the same element as is found in "autokratōr", "emperor")
Tribunicia Potestas: ("Tribunician Power"); the powers of a tribune of the people, including sacrosanctity and inviolability of his person, and the veto over any decision by any other magistrate, assembly, or the Senate (the emperor could not be a "tribune" because a tribune was a plebeian by definition, therefore the emperor had all the powers of a tribune without actually being one)
Powers
When Augustus established the Princeps, he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices, which in itself was a demonstration of his auctoritas ("authority"). As holding princeps senatus, the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session, declared the Senate's agenda, imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow, and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate. Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs, granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies, consecrate temples, control the Roman calendar (adding or removing days as needed), appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens, lead the Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion.
While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence, they did not include legal authority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power. The first was Tribunicia Potestas, or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office (which would have been impossible, since a tribune was by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia). This endowed the emperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person, and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, criminal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune, the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties. The emperor's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including the actual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of the tribune's power, the emperor would convoke the Council of the People, lay legislation before it, and served as the council's president. But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself. He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces.
To solve this problem, Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium. The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome, and imperium maius outside of Rome. While inside the walls of Rome, the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority, each being able to veto each other's proposals and acts, with the emperor holding all of the consul's powers. But outside of Rome, the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself. Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors, making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome's legions. With Imperium Maius, the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate. Also, Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consuls while in the provinces.
Normally, the powers vested in Augustus would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.
Lineages and epochs
Principate
The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar's heir and posthumously adopted son, Augustus, and his own heirs, the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan. This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor Nero – a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son – was deposed in 68.
Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69, commonly called the "Year of the Four Emperors". The last of these, Vespasian, established his own Flavian dynasty. Nerva, who replaced the last Flavian emperor, Vespasian's son Domitian, in 96, was elderly and childless, and chose therefore to adopt an heir, Trajan, from outside his family. When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor's example, adopting Hadrian as his own heir, and the practice then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century, producing the "Five Good Emperors" and the Empire's period of greatest stability.
The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir. A brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus, who established the Severan dynasty which, except for an interruption in 217–218 when Macrinus was emperor, held the purple until 235.
Crisis of the Third Century
The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era. It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession. Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-class families, while Thrax was born a commoner. He never visited the city of Rome during his reign, which marks the beginning of a series of "barracks emperors" who came from the army. Between 235 and 285 over a dozen emperors achieved the purple, but only Valerian and Carus managed to secure their own sons' succession to the throne; both dynasties died out within two generations.
Dominate
The accession on 20 November 284, of Diocletian, the lower-class, Greek-speaking Dalmatian commander of Carus' and Numerian's household cavalry (protectores domestici), marked major innovations in Rome's government and constitutional theory. Diocletian, a traditionalist and religious conservative, attempted to secure efficient, stable government and a peaceful succession with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. The empire was divided into East and West, each ruled by an Augustus assisted by a Caesar as emperor-in-waiting. These divisions were further subdivided into new or reformed provinces, administered by a complex, hierarchic bureaucracy of unprecedented size and scope. Diocletian's own court was based at Nicomedia. His co-Augustus, Maximian, was based at Mediolanum (modern Milan). Their courts were peripatetic, and Imperial progressions through the provinces made much use of the impressive, theatrical adventus, or "Imperial arrival" ceremony, which employed an elaborate choreography of etiquette to emphasise the emperor's elevation above other mortals. Hyperinflation of imperial honours and titles served to distinguish the Augusti from their Caesares, and Diocletian, as senior Augustus, from his colleague Maximian. The senior Augustus in particular was made a separate and unique being, accessible only through those closest to him. The overall unity of the Empire still required the highest investiture of power and status in one man.
The Tetrarchy ultimately degenerated into civil war, but the eventual victor, Constantine the Great, restored Diocletian's division of Empire into East and West. He kept the East for himself and founded his city of Constantinople as its new capital. Constantine's own dynasty was also soon swallowed up in civil war and court intrigue until it was replaced, briefly, by Julian the Apostate's general Jovian and then, more permanently, by Valentinian I and the dynasty he founded in 364. Though a soldier from a low middle-class background, Valentinian was made emperor by a conclave of senior generals and civil officials.
Theodosius I acceded to the purple in the East in 379 and in the West in 394. He outlawed paganism and made Christianity the Empire's official religion. He was the last emperor to rule over a united Roman Empire; the distribution of the East to his son Arcadius and the West to his son Honorius after his death in 395 represented a permanent division.
Decline of the Western Roman Empire
In the Western Roman Empire, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of a succession of Germanic tribal kings, until finally the Heruli Odoacer simply overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, shipped the imperial regalia to the Emperor Zeno in Constantinople and became King of Italy.
Though during his own lifetime Odoacer maintained the legal fiction that he was actually ruling Italy as the viceroy of Zeno, historians mark 476 as the traditional date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Italy (Sicily, the south part of the peninsula, Ravenna, Venice etc.), however, remained under actual imperial rule from Constantinople for centuries, with imperial control slipping or becoming nominal only as late as the 11th century. In the East, the Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Although known as the Byzantine Empire by contemporary historians, the Empire was simply known as the Roman Empire to its citizens and neighboring countries.
Post-classical assertions to the title
Survival of the Roman Empire in the East
The line of Roman emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire continued unbroken at Constantinople until the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade. In the wake of this action, four lines of Emperors emerged, each claiming to be the legal successor: the Empire of Thessalonica, evolving from the Despotate of Epirus, which was reduced to impotence when its founder Theodore Komnenos Doukas was defeated, captured and blinded by the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen III; the Latin Empire, which came to an end when the Empire of Nicaea recovered Constantinople in 1261; the Empire of Trebizond, whose importance declined over the 13th century, and whose claims were simply ignored; and the Empire of Nicaea, whose claims based on kinship with the previous emperors, control of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and possession of Constantinople through military prowess, prevailed. The successors of the emperors of Nicaea continued until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 under Constantine XI Palaiologos.
These emperors eventually normalized the imperial dignity into the modern conception of an emperor, incorporated it into the constitutions of the state, and adopted the aforementioned title Basileus kai autokratōr Rhomaiōn ("Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans"). They had also ceased to use Latin as the language of state after Emperor Heraclius (d. 641 AD). Historians have customarily treated the state of these later Eastern emperors under the name "Byzantine Empire". It is important to note, however, that the adjective Byzantine, although historically used by Eastern Roman authors in a metonymic sense, was never an official term.
Last Roman emperor
Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last reigning Roman emperor. A member of the Palaiologos dynasty, he ruled the remnant of the Eastern Roman Empire from 1449 until his death in 1453 defending its capital Constantinople.
He was born in Mystra as the eighth of ten children of Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš of Kumanovo. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the supervision of his parents. During the absence of his older brother in Italy, Constantine was regent in Constantinople from 1437 to 1440.
Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed the Conqueror made an offer to Constantine XI. In exchange for the surrender of Constantinople, the emperor's life would be spared and he would continue to rule in Mystra. Constantine refused this offer. Instead he led the defense of the city and took an active part in the fighting along the land walls. At the same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain the necessary unity between the Genovese, Venetian, and Byzantine troops. As the city fell on May 29, 1453, Constantine is said to have remarked: "The city is fallen but I am alive." Realizing that the end had come, he reportedly discarded his purple cloak and led his remaining soldiers into a final charge, in which he was killed. With his death, Roman imperial succession came to an end, almost 1500 years after Augustus.
Holy Roman Empire
The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in the West with the coronation of the king of the Franks, Charlemagne (Charles the Great), as Roman emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800. This coronation had its roots in the decline of influence of the Pope in the affairs of the Byzantine Empire at the same time the Byzantine Empire declined in influence over politics in the West. The Pope saw no advantage to be derived from working with the Byzantine Empire, but as George Ostrogorsky points out, "an alliance with the famous conqueror of the Lombards, on the other hand ... promised much".
The immediate response of the Eastern Roman emperor was not welcoming. "At that time it was axiomatic that there could be only one Empire as there could be only one church", writes Ostrogorsky. "The coronation of Charles the Great violated all traditional ideas and struck a hard blow at Byzantine interests, for hitherto Byzantium, the new Rome, had unquestionably been regarded as the sole Empire which had taken over the inheritance of the old Roman imperium. Conscious of its imperial rights, Byzantium could only consider the elevation of Charles the Great to be an act of usurpation."
Nikephoros I chose to ignore Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title, clearly recognizing the implications of this act. According to Ostrogorsky, "he even went so far as to refuse the Patriarch Nicephorus permission to dispatch the customary synodica to the Pope." Meanwhile, Charlemagne's power steadily increased: he subdued Istria and several Dalmatian cities during the reign of Irene, and his son Pepin brought Venice under Western hegemony, despite a successful counter-attack by the Byzantine fleet. Unable to counter this encroachment on Byzantine territory, Nikephoros' successor Michael I Rangabe capitulated; in return for the restoration of the captured territories, Michael sent Byzantine delegates to Aachen in 812 who recognized Charlemagne as Basileus. Michael did not recognize him as Basileus of the Romans, however, which was a title that he reserved for himself.
This line of Roman emperors was actually generally Germanic rather than Roman. These emperors used a variety of titles (most frequently "Imperator Augustus") before finally settling on Imperator Romanus Electus ("Elected Roman Emperor"). Historians customarily assign them the title "Holy Roman Emperor", which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their "Holy Roman Empire" as a separate institution. To Latin Catholics of the time, the Pope was the temporal authority as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Rome he was recognized as having the power to anoint or crown a new Roman emperor. The last man to be crowned by the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was Charles V. All his successors bore only a title of "Elected Roman Emperor".
This line of Emperors lasted until 1806 when Francis II dissolved the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the existence of later potentates styling themselves "emperor", such as the Napoleons, the Habsburg Emperors of Austria, and the Hohenzollern heads of the German Reich, this marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire.
See also
Imperial cult of ancient Rome
Interregnum
Justitium
Roman Emperors family tree
Julio-Claudian family tree
Severan dynasty family tree
Roman usurper
Lists
List of Roman emperors
List of Byzantine emperors
List of Roman usurpers
List of condemned Roman emperors
List of Imperial Roman victory titles
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, October 1, 1995. (hardcover).
External links
De Imperatoribus Romanis
Rulers of Rome
"Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't", by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.
UNRV.com
The Roman Law Library
List of Greatest Roman Emperors
Emperors of Rome
27 BC establishments
20s BC establishments in the Roman Empire
1453 disestablishments
15th-century disestablishments in the Byzantine Empire
Emperor, Roman
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219119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donation%20of%20Constantine | Donation of Constantine | The Donation of Constantine () is a forged Roman imperial decree by which the 4th-century emperor Constantine the Great supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope. Composed probably in the 8th century, it was used, especially in the 13th century, in support of claims of political authority by the papacy. In many of the existing manuscripts (handwritten copies of the document), including the oldest one, the document bears the title Constitutum domini Constantini imperatoris. The Donation of Constantine was included in the 9th-century collection Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals.
Lorenzo Valla, an Italian Catholic priest and Renaissance humanist, is credited with first exposing the forgery with solid philological arguments in 1439–1440, although the document's authenticity had been repeatedly contested since 1001.
Content
The text is purportedly a decree of Roman Emperor Constantine I, dated 30 March—a year mistakenly said to be both that of his fourth consulate (315) and that of the consulate of Gallicanus (317). In it "Constantine" professes Christianity (confessio) and entitles to Pope Sylvester several imperial insignia and privileges (donatio), as well as the Lateran Palace. Rome, the rest of Italy, and the western provinces of the empire are made over to the papacy.
The text recounts a narrative founded on the 5th-century hagiography the Acts of Sylvester. This fictitious tale describes the sainted Pope Sylvester's rescue of the Romans from the depredations of a local dragon and the pontiff's miraculous cure of the emperor's leprosy by the sacrament of baptism. The story was rehearsed by the Liber Pontificalis; by the later 8th century the dragon-slayer Sylvester and his apostolic successors were rewarded in the Donation of Constantine with temporal powers never in fact exercised by the historical Bishops of Rome under Constantine.
In his gratitude, "Constantine" determined to bestow on the seat of Peter "power, and dignity of glory, vigor, and imperial honor," and "supremacy as well over the four principal sees: Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, as also over all the churches of God in the whole earth". For the upkeep of the church of Saint Peter and that of Saint Paul, he gave landed estates "in Judea, Greece, Asia, Thrace, Africa, Italy and the various islands". To Sylvester and his successors he also granted imperial insignia, the tiara, and "the city of Rome, and all the provinces, places and cities of Italy and the western regions".
The Donation sought reduction in the authority of Constantinople; if Constantine had elevated Sylvester to imperial rank before the 330 inauguration of Constantinople, then Rome's patriarch had a lead of some fifteen years in the contest for primacy among the patriarchates. Implicitly, the papacy asserted its supremacy and prerogative to transfer the imperial seat; the papacy had consented to the translatio imperii to Byzantium by Constantine and it could wrest back the authority at will.
Origin
It has been suggested that an early draft of the Donation of Constantine was made shortly after the middle of the 8th century, in order to assist Pope Stephen II in his negotiations with Pepin the Short, who then held the position of Mayor of the Palace (i.e., the manager of the household of the Frankish king). In 754, Pope Stephen II crossed the Alps to anoint Pepin king, thereby enabling the Carolingian family to supplant the old Merovingian royal line. In return for Stephen's support, Pepin gave the pope the lands in Italy which the Lombards had taken from the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. It is also possible it originated in the chancery of Stephen's immediate successor Paul I. These lands would become the Papal States and would be the basis of the papacy's temporal power for the next eleven centuries.
Another interpretation holds that the Donation was not an official forgery directed at Constantinople, but was instead a ploy in Roman ecclesiastical politics to bolster the status of the Lateran, which does have historical Constantinian connections, against the rising status of the Vatican, and it may have been composed by a Greek monk working in a Roman monastery. In one study, an attempt was made at dating the forgery to the 9th century, and placing its composition at Corbie Abbey, in northern France.
German medievalist Johannes Fried draws a distinction between the Donation of Constantine and an earlier, also forged version, the Constitutum Constantini, which was included in the collection of forged documents, the False Decretals, compiled in the later half of the ninth century. Fried argues the Donation is a later expansion of the much shorter Constitutum. Christopher B. Coleman understands the mention in the Constitutum of a donation of "the western regions" to refer to the regions of Lombardia, Veneto, and Istria.
Medieval use and reception
What may perhaps be the earliest known allusion to the Donation is in a letter of 778, in which Pope Hadrian I exhorts Charlemagne – whose father, Pepin the Younger, had made the Donation of Pepin granting the Popes sovereignty over the Papal States – to follow Constantine's example and endow the Roman Catholic church. Otto III's chancery denied its authenticity.
The first pope to directly invoke the decree was Pope Leo IX, in a letter sent in 1054 to Michael I Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople. He cited a large portion of the document, believing it genuine, furthering the debate that would ultimately lead to the East–West Schism. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the Donation was often cited in the investiture conflicts between the papacy and the secular powers in the West.
The document's contents contradicted the Byzantines' notion that Constantine's translatio imperii transferred the seat of imperial authority from Rome to his foundation of Constantinople, named the "New Rome". Consequently, the Donation featured in the east–west dispute over ecclesiastical primacy between the patriarchal sees of Rome and New Rome. Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida also issued a version of the document to support the papacy's claims against the eastern emperors' and patriarchs' primacy.
By the 12th century the text existed in Greek translation, of which a 14th-century manuscript survives, and Byzantine writers were also using the Donation in their polemics; John Kinnamos, writing in the reign of eastern emperor Manuel I Komnenos, criticized western Staufer emperors as usurpers and denied the popes had the right to bestow the imperial office. Theodore Balsamon justified Michael Cerularius's behaviour in 1054 using the Donation as a rationale for his dismissal of the papal legation and the mutual excommunications that followed.
In 1248, the Chapel of St Sylvester in the Basilica of the Santi Quattro Coronati was decorated with fresco showing the story of the Roman baptism and Donation of Constantine.
In his Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, the poet Dante Alighieri wrote:
Investigation
During the Middle Ages, the Donation was widely accepted as authentic, although Holy Roman Emperor Otto III did possibly raise suspicions of the document "in letters of gold" as a forgery, in making a gift to the See of Rome. It was not until the mid-15th century, with the revival of Classical scholarship and textual criticism, that humanists, and eventually the papal bureaucracy, began to realize that the document could not possibly be genuine. Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa declared it to be a forgery and spoke of it as an apocryphal work.
Later, the Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla argued in his philological study of the text that the language used in manuscript could not be dated to the 4th century. The language of the text suggests that the manuscript can most likely be dated to the 8th century. Valla believed the forgery to be so obvious that he suspected that the Church knew the document to be inauthentic. Valla further argued that papal usurpation of temporal power had corrupted the church, caused the wars of Italy, and reinforced the "overbearing, barbarous, tyrannical priestly domination."
This was the first instance of modern, scientific diplomatics. Independently of both Cusa and Valla, Reginald Pecocke, Bishop of Chichester (1450–57), reached a similar conclusion. Among the indications that the Donation must be a fake are its language and the fact that, while certain imperial-era formulas are used in the text, some of the Latin in the document could not have been written in the 4th century; anachronistic terms such as "fief" were used. Also, the purported date of the document is inconsistent with the content of the document itself, as it refers both to the fourth consulate of Constantine (315) as well as the consulate of Gallicanus (317).
Pope Pius II wrote a tract in 1453, five years before becoming pope, to show that though the Donation was a forgery, the papacy owed its lands to Charlemagne and its powers of the keys to Peter; however, he did not publish it.
Contemporary opponents of papal powers in Italy emphasized the primacy of civil law and civil jurisdiction, now firmly embodied once again in the Justinian Corpus Juris Civilis. The Florentine chronicler Giovanni Cavalcanti reported that, in the very year of Valla's treatise, Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, made diplomatic overtures toward Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, proposing an alliance against the pope. In reference to the Donation, Visconti wrote: "It so happens that even if Constantine consigned to Sylvester so many and such rich gifts – which is doubtful, because such a privilege can nowhere be found – he could only have granted them for his lifetime: the empire takes precedence over any lordship."
Later, scholars further demonstrated that other elements, such as Sylvester's curing of Constantine, are legends which originated at a later time. Wolfram Setz, a recent editor of Valla's work, has affirmed that at the time of Valla's refutation, Constantine's alleged "donation" was no longer a matter of contemporary relevance in political theory and that it simply provided an opportunity for an exercise in legal rhetoric.
The bulls of Nicholas V and his successors made no further mention of the Donation, even when partitioning the New World, though the doctrine of "omni-insular" papal fiefdoms, developed out of the Donation's vague references to islands since Pope Nicholas II's grant of Sicily to Robert Guiscard, was deployed after 1492 in papal pronouncements on the overlapping claims of the Iberian kingdoms in the Americas and Moluccas, including Inter caetera, a bull that resulted in the Treaty of Tordesillas and the Treaty of Zaragoza. Valla's treatise was taken up vehemently by writers of the Protestant Reformation, such as Ulrich von Hutten and Martin Luther, causing the treatise to be placed on the index of banned books in the mid-16th century.
The Donation continued to be tacitly accepted as authentic until Caesar Baronius in his Annales Ecclesiastici (published 1588–1607) admitted that it was a forgery, after which it was almost universally accepted as such. Some continued to argue for its authenticity; nearly a century after Annales Ecclesiastici, Christian Wolff still alluded to the Donation as undisputed fact.
See also
Constantinianism
Caesaropapism
Donation of Sutri
Donation of Pepin
Investiture Controversy
Privilegium maius
Translatio imperii
Vatican City
List of late imperial Roman consuls
Legacy of the Roman Empire
Inter caetera
Treaty of Tordesillas and Treaty of Zaragoza
Notes
Further reading
Camporeale, Salvatore I. "Lorenzo Valla's Oratio on the Pseudo-Donation of Constantine: Dissent and Innovation in Early Renaissance Humanism." Journal of the History of Ideas (1996) 57#1 pp: 9-26. online
Delph, Ronald K. "Valla Grammaticus, Agostino Steuco, and the Donation of Constantine." Journal of the History of Ideas (1996) 57#1 pp: 55–77. online
Fried, Johannes, ed. Donation of Constantine and Constitutum Constantini: The Misinterpretation of a Fiction and Its Original Meaning (Walter de Gruyter, 2007)
Levine, Joseph M. "Reginald Pecock and Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine." Studies in the Renaissance (1973): 118–143. in JSTOR
McCabe, Joseph (1939). A History Of The Popes. Watts & Co.
Valla, Lorenzo. On the donation of Constantine (Harvard University Press, 2007), translation by G. W. Bowersock of 1440 version
Zinkeisen, F. "The Donation of Constantine as applied by the Roman Church." English Historical Review (1894) 9#36 pp: 625–632. in JSTOR
External links
Text of the Constitutum Donatio Constantini (Latin) at The Latin Library
Text of the Constitutum Donatio Constantini (Latin) at the Bibliotheca Augustana
Text of the Constitutum Constantini (Latin) at The Roman Law Library
Lorenzo Valla's Discourse on the Forgery of the Alleged Donation of Constantine
Medieval Christian controversies
Constantine the Great and Christianity
Canon law history
Document forgeries
History of the papacy
Papal States
Scientific skepticism
Political forgery | [
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219125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otrona | Otrona | Otrona Corporation was an early Colorado manufacturer of business portable CP/M and MS-DOS compatible computers.
Otrona Attaché and 8:16
The American company's first major product, the Otrona Attaché, came out in April 1982 and folded up to the size of a fat briefcase painted off-white with orange trim. When set up for use, the carrying handle swung under the chassis to prop it up for easier viewing. A keyboard could be removed from one end, revealing a small 5 inch monochrome CRT and two 360Kb "half-height" 5.25 inch floppy disk drives.
The system featured a Zilog Z80A microprocessor at running 4 MHz, used the CP/M version 2 operating system with 64K of RAM and, with installation of an 8086 microprocessor expansion card, a modified version of Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. The RAM can be upgraded to 640Kb and had several programs in ROM. It contained a single speaker for sound output (which could be set to give audible feedback when keys were pressed) and two RS422 serial ports for communication. It also supported monochrome bit-mapped graphics, and introduced the concept of desk accessory programs, such as a calendar. calculator and auto-run timer that could be run without closing a user application. This innovative application set, known as Valet, predated the appearance of similar functionality in the 1984 Macintosh.
The brainchild of Ron Lingeman, a gifted H-P alumnus, the Attache was significantly smaller, sleeker, lighter and faster than the Osborne 1 and other portable computers of the time. Unlike the Kaypro, Attache was not IBM compatible. The Attache was both more capable and more expensive than its competition in many ways. The Attache was meant to run on AC power; batteries were not part of the package but an external battery could be attached.
The 1983 "8:16" model included the 8086 coprocessor expansion board as a built-in option. Compatibility with the IBM PC was only partial, but allowed the popular Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet application to run on the Attache.
Otrona 2001
In May 1984, Otrona introduced the "2001" model an IBM PC compatible which had an Intel 8088 CPU as its primary microprocessor. This model was meant to be a lighter weight and technologically superior alternative to the mainstream IBM and Compaq luggable products of the day. Otrona engaged in a ground up development effort of the more, but not yet fully, PC compatible 2001 computer, incorporating a PC BIOS written by Steve Gray.
This model's larger CRT was hinged, pivoting upward for easier viewing while boasting twice the resolution of standard PC's. While retaining its low weight (for the time), it also offered a hard disk option, an Z80A CPU card for CP/M compatibility and, unlike the 8:16 model, provided greater PC compatibility with more than twice the speed of a standard PC. Despite the innovative packaging, added features and superior performance, this $3,995 product ended up costing more than anticipated to produce, and never had a chance to succeed as it pushed further the failure of Otrona that filed for bankruptcy shortly after its release.
Market acceptance of the IBM PC and lagging sales of the not quite PC compatible 8:16 and 2001 models created a revenue gap that was too deep to overcome. Otrona was caught in a catch 22 in which they could not buy parts needed to generate revenue with the 2001 and could not hit the revenue targets needed to draw on their credit line in order to buy the needed parts. By this time the banks and venture capitalists had invested heavily and taken a hard edged approach to further investment. Despite the pending success of the 2001, they declined to provide further funding. Otrona had simply not responded quickly enough to the new market conditions created by the introduction of the IBM PC.
Bankruptcy
After seven years of innovation, Otrona announced in September 1984 that it was ceasing production and gave immediate termination notices to its 175 employees. The company initially filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, hoping to find a way to recover, but refiled a few days later under Chapter 7 and its assets were subsequently liquidated.
About 5,000 of the Attache model were sold and can still be found occasionally in auctions and flea markets. The 2001 model barely made a mark at all and probably ranks as one of the rarest of the early PC clones.
References
External links
Otrona 2001 description
Otrona Attache page
Otrona Attache article
My Otrona Attache
American companies established in 1981
American companies disestablished in 1984
Computer companies established in 1981
Computer companies disestablished in 1984
Defunct computer companies of the United States | [
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219128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Maron | John Maron | John Maron (, Youhana Maroun; ; ) (628, Sirmaniyah or Sarmin, present Syria – 707, Kfarhy, Lebanon), was a Syriac monk, and the first Maronite Patriarch. He is revered as a saint by the Maronite Church and universal Catholic Church, and is commemorated on March 2. He died and was buried in Kfarhy near Batroun, in Lebanon, where a shrine is dedicated to him.
Jérôme Labourt, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia says that John Maron's "...very existence is extremely doubtful...if he existed at all, it was as a simple monk". French theologian Eusèbe Renaudot similarly held doubts regarding John Maron's existence. Other scholarship has assessed John Maron as having existed and served as Maronite Patriarch when invasions by Byzantine emperor Justinian II were repulsed and the Maronite people gained a greater degree of political independence.
Early life
Maronite history prior to the sixteenth century is problematic as so many points are obscure. According to Maronite sources, John was born in Sarum, a town located south of the city of Antioch. He was the son of Agathon and Anohamia. He was called John the Sarumite since his father was governor of Sarum. His paternal grandfather, Prince Alidipas, was the nephew of Carloman, a Frankish Prince, and governed Antioch. John was educated in Antioch and the Monastery of Saint Maron, studying mathematics, sciences, philosophy, theology, philology and scripture. He became a monk at the monastery, adding the name Maron to his own.
John studied Greek and patrology in Constantinople. Returning to Saint Maron's, he wrote on such diverse topics as teaching, rhetoric, the sacraments, management of Church property, legislative techniques, and liturgy. He composed the Eucharistic Prayer which still bears his name. As a young priest he engaged himself in ecumenical debates with the Monophysites. Noted as a teacher and preacher, he explained the doctrine of the Council of Chalcedon (which focused on the nature of Jesus as both God and human), wrote a series of letters to the faithful against Monophysitism which Beit-Marun then adopted, after which he purportedly travelled Syria to explain the heresy.
The first Maronite Patriarch
The Patriarch of Antioch, Anastasius II was martyred in 609. With the ongoing Byzantine–Sasanian War and general unrest in the area, Constantinople began to appoint a series of titular patriarchs. Maronite sources give the date of John Maron's election to Patriarch of Antioch and All the East as 685. John received the approval of Pope Sergius I, and became the first Maronite Patriarch.
Works
John Maron works are in Syriac:
On Faith
Questions to the Monophysites
See also
Maron
Lebanon
List of Maronite Patriarchs
Maronite Church
References
Sources
Michael Breydy: Johannes Maron. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Band 3, Bautz, Herzberg 1992, , Sp. 480–482.
Siméon Vailhé, «Origines religieuses des Maronites», Échos d'Orient, t. IV, 1900–1901, n° 2, p. 96-102, et n° 3, p. 154-162.
Michel Breydy, Jean Maron. Expose de la foi et autres opuscules. Syr. 209. CSCO (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium), Bd. 407, Peeters, Louvain 1988
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Honorius I". Encyclopædia Britannica, 8 Oct. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Honorius-I. Accessed 21 August 2021.
Moosa, Matti. “The Relation of the Maronites of Lebanon to the Mardaites and Al-Jarājima.” Speculum, vol. 44, no. 4, 1969, pp. 597–608. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2850386. Accessed 21 Aug. 2021.
LILIE, RALPH-JOHANNES. “Reality and Invention: Reflections on Byzantine Historiography.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 68, 2014, pp. 157–210. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24643758. Accessed 21 Aug. 2021.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Maronite church". Encyclopædia Britannica, 13 Dec. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maronite-church. Accessed 21 August 2021.
External links
John Maron at Catholic-Forum
Official Website of the Maronite Patriarchate
7th-century births
707 deaths
Religious writers
Syrian archbishops
Syrian Christian saints
Lebanese Maronite saints
8th-century archbishops
Maronite Patriarchs of Antioch
8th-century Christian saints
7th-century Maronite Catholic bishops
7th-century writers
7th-century archbishops
8th-century Maronite Catholic bishops
7th-century Semitic people
8th-century Semitic people | [
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219130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Murray%20%28saxophonist%29 | David Murray (saxophonist) | David Keith Murray (born February 19, 1955) is an American jazz saxophonist and composer who performs mostly on tenor and bass clarinet. He has recorded prolifically for many record labels since the mid-1970s.
Biography
Murray was born in Oakland, California, United States. He attended Pomona College, graduating in 1977. He was initially influenced by free jazz musicians such as Albert Ayler and Archie Shepp. He gradually evolved a more diverse style in his playing and compositions. Murray set himself apart from most tenor players of his generation by not taking John Coltrane as his model, choosing instead to incorporate elements of mainstream players Coleman Hawkins, Ben Webster and Paul Gonsalves into his mature style. Despite this, he recorded a tribute to Coltrane, Octet Plays Trane, in 1999. He played a set with the Grateful Dead at a show on September 22, 1993, at Madison Square Garden in New York City. His 1996 tribute to the Grateful Dead, Dark Star, was also critically well received.
Murray was a founding member of the World Saxophone Quartet with Oliver Lake, Julius Hemphill and Hamiet Bluiett. He has recorded or performed with musicians such as Henry Threadgill, James Blood Ulmer, Olu Dara, Tani Tabbal, Butch Morris, Donal Fox, McCoy Tyner, Elvin Jones, Sunny Murray (no relation), Ed Blackwell, Johnny Dyani, Fred Hopkins, and Steve McCall. David Murray's use of the circular breathing technique has enabled him to play astonishingly long phrases.
Awards
In 1980 David Murray was named Village Voice Musician of the Decade.
Murray was honoured with the Bird Award in 1986.
He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1989.
David Murray and his band earned a Grammy Award in 1989 in the Best Jazz Instrumental Group Performance category for Blues for Coltrane: A Tribute to John Coltrane.
In 1991 he was honoured with the Danish Jazzpar Prize.
Newsday named him Musician of the Year in 1993.
Discography
References
External links
On Instagram @theofficialdavidmurray
Unofficial David Murray website
-commentaires de CBS 2007 sur bordeauxsalsa.com
David Murray interview at allaboutjazz.com
1955 births
Living people
Musicians from Oakland, California
Jazz musicians from California
African-American saxophonists
American jazz saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz clarinetists
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
Free jazz clarinetists
Free jazz saxophonists
Avant-garde jazz clarinetists
American jazz bass clarinetists
Avant-garde jazz saxophonists
Post-bop clarinetists
Post-bop saxophonists
Pomona College alumni
Grammy Award winners
DIW Records artists
Enja Records artists
India Navigation artists
Red Baron Records artists
World Saxophone Quartet members
21st-century saxophonists
21st-century clarinetists
21st-century American male musicians
Mingus Dynasty (band) members
Justin Time Records artists
Motéma Music artists
Intakt Records artists
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
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] |
219137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDE | HDE | HDE may refer to:
HDE Controller X, a computer program
Hedge End railway station, in England
Henry Draper Extension, an astronomical catalogue
High dose estrogen, a hormonal therapy
Higher Diploma in Education
Home Defence Executive
Humanitarian Device Exemption | [
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219140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semyon%20Lavochkin | Semyon Lavochkin | Semyon Alekseyevich Lavochkin (; September 11, 1900 - June 9, 1960), was a Soviet aerospace engineer, Soviet aircraft designer who founded the Lavochkin aircraft design bureau. Many of his fighter designs were produced in large numbers for Soviet forces during World War II.
Biography
Lavochkin was born to a family of teachers in Smolensk. After graduation in 1918, he enlisted in the Red Army and served in the infantry in the Russian Civil War. In 1920, he began studies at the Moscow State Technical University, from which he graduated in 1927. He then served for two years as an intern at the design department of the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute under the direction of Andrei Tupolev, where he assisted in the design of the Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber. While at TsAGI, his colleagues included the French seaplane designer Paul Richard, as well as Mikhail Gurevich and Nikolay Kamov.
In the early 1930s, he transferred to the Central Design Office, where he was assigned work on stratospheric aircraft, balloons and pressurized cockpits. However, as he came increasingly interested in the design of fighter aircraft, he moved to the design office of Dmitry Pavlovich Grigorovich, whom he assisted in the development of the Grigorovich I-Z fighter.
In 1938, after combat experiences in the Spanish Civil War and at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol against the Japanese, it became clear that the Soviet fighter designs were lagging behind international standards. Lavochkin established his own design bureau in 1939. Starting with the LaGG-1, he produced thousands of fighters which formed the backbone of the Soviet Air Force during the Second World War. He is especially known for the La-5 and La-7, which are among the best Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II. The top Allied ace, Ivan Kozhedub shot down over 60 German airplanes, flying in fighters designed by Lavochkin. From 1941 to 1945 a total of over 22,000 Lavochkin fighters were produced.
However, Lavochkin's fortunes faded after the war. His La-9 and La-11 were the last piston-engined fighters in Soviet service, and were replaced after a short time by jets. Although he continued pioneering work in this field (the La-176 was the first Soviet supersonic aircraft), his aircraft consistently placed second in competitions with other design bureaux, notably that of Artem Mikoyan.
At the end of WWII, forward thinking and competition in jet engine driven planes in Soviet Union pushed Lavochkin to start development of rocket systems. The outcome of that decision was SA-2 Guideline and a Burya. The LA-350 (Burya) is notable for the first in the world production use of Titanium and a thruster cooling by use of reverse flow of propellent.
In 1944, Lavochkin was given the honorary rank of Major-General of Engineering/Technical Service. From 1950-1958, Lavochkin also served as a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. He also became an Academician of USSR Academy of Sciences in 1958. He died in 1960 due to a heart attack during a test of an air defense system in the Kazakh SSR at the age of 59 and was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery.
After his death the focus of the design office shifted to surface to air missiles (most notably the SA-2 Guideline), and to space projects.
Awards and honors
Hero of Socialist Labour, twice (1943, 1956)
Stalin Prizes;
1st class (1941, 1946, 1948)
2nd class (1943)
Order of Lenin, three times
Order of the Red Banner
Order of Suvorov 1st and 2nd classes
Medal for Combat Service
References
Pederson, Jay. International Directory of Company Histories, Vol.24, St James Press (1998)
Bull, Stephan. Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation, Greenwood (2004)
Gordon, Yefim. Soviet Air Power in World War II. Midland Publishing (2008)
Lavochkin
1900 births
1960 deaths
Russian aerospace engineers
Soviet aerospace engineers
20th-century Russian engineers
Soviet politicians
Bauman Moscow State Technical University alumni
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Stalin Prize winners
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 1st class
Russian Jews
Soviet Jews
Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute employees | [
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219144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressible%20flow | Compressible flow | Compressible flow (or gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in fluid density. While all flows are compressible, flows are usually treated as being incompressible when the Mach number (the ratio of the speed of the flow to the speed of sound) is smaller than 0.3 (since the density change due to velocity is about 5% in that case). The study of compressible flow is relevant to high-speed aircraft, jet engines, rocket motors, high-speed entry into a planetary atmosphere, gas pipelines, commercial applications such as abrasive blasting, and many other fields.
History
The study of gas dynamics is often associated with the flight of modern high-speed aircraft and atmospheric reentry of space-exploration vehicles; however, its origins lie with simpler machines. At the beginning of the 19th century, investigation into the behaviour of fired bullets led to improvement in the accuracy and capabilities of guns and artillery. As the century progressed, inventors such as Gustaf de Laval advanced the field, while researchers such as Ernst Mach sought to understand the physical phenomena involved through experimentation.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the focus of gas dynamics research shifted to what would eventually become the aerospace industry. Ludwig Prandtl and his students proposed important concepts ranging from the boundary layer to supersonic shock waves, supersonic wind tunnels, and supersonic nozzle design. Theodore von Kármán, a student of Prandtl, continued to improve the understanding of supersonic flow. Other notable figures (Meyer, , and Ascher Shapiro) also contributed significantly to the principles considered fundamental to the study of modern gas dynamics. Many others also contributed to this field.
Accompanying the improved conceptual understanding of gas dynamics in the early 20th century was a public misconception that there existed a barrier to the attainable speed of aircraft, commonly referred to as the "sound barrier." In truth, the barrier to supersonic flight was merely a technological one, although it was a stubborn barrier to overcome. Amongst other factors, conventional aerofoils saw a dramatic increase in drag coefficient when the flow approached the speed of sound. Overcoming the larger drag proved difficult with contemporary designs, thus the perception of a sound barrier. However, aircraft design progressed sufficiently to produce the Bell X-1. Piloted by Chuck Yeager, the X-1 officially achieved supersonic speed in October 1947.
Historically, two parallel paths of research have been followed in order to further gas dynamics knowledge. Experimental gas dynamics undertakes wind tunnel model experiments and experiments in shock tubes and ballistic ranges with the use of optical techniques to document the findings. Theoretical gas dynamics considers the equations of motion applied to a variable-density gas, and their solutions. Much of basic gas dynamics is analytical, but in the modern era Computational fluid dynamics applies computing power to solve the otherwise-intractable nonlinear partial differential equations of compressible flow for specific geometries and flow characteristics.
Introductory concepts
There are several important assumptions involved in the underlying theory of compressible flow. All fluids are composed of molecules, but tracking a huge number of individual molecules in a flow (for example at atmospheric pressure) is unnecessary. Instead, the continuum assumption allows us to consider a flowing gas as a continuous substance except at low densities. This assumption provides a huge simplification which is accurate for most gas-dynamic problems. Only in the low-density realm of rarefied gas dynamics does the motion of individual molecules become important.
A related assumption is the no-slip condition where the flow velocity at a solid surface is presumed equal to the velocity of the surface itself, which is a direct consequence of assuming continuum flow. The no-slip condition implies that the flow is viscous, and as a result a boundary layer forms on bodies traveling through the air at high speeds, much as it does in low-speed flow.
Most problems in incompressible flow involve only two unknowns: pressure and velocity, which are typically found by solving the two equations that describe conservation of mass and of linear momentum, with the fluid density presumed constant. In compressible flow, however, the gas density and temperature also become variables. This requires two more equations in order to solve compressible-flow problems: an equation of state for the gas and a conservation of energy equation. For the majority of gas-dynamic problems, the simple ideal gas law is the appropriate state equation.
Fluid dynamics problems have two overall types of references frames, called Lagrangian and Eulerian (see Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Leonhard Euler). The Lagrangian approach follows a fluid mass of fixed identity as it moves through a flowfield. The Eulerian reference frame, in contrast, does not move with the fluid. Rather it is a fixed frame or control volume that fluid flows through. The Eulerian frame is most useful in a majority of compressible flow problems, but requires that the equations of motion be written in a compatible format.
Finally, although space is known to have 3 dimensions, an important simplification can be had in describing gas dynamics mathematically if only one spatial dimension is of primary importance, hence 1-dimensional flow is assumed. This works well in duct, nozzle, and diffuser flows where the flow properties change mainly in the flow direction rather than perpendicular to the flow. However, an important class of compressible flows, including the external flow over bodies traveling at high speed, requires at least a 2-dimensional treatment. When all 3 spatial dimensions and perhaps the time dimension as well are important, we often resort to computerized solutions of the governing equations.
Mach number, wave motion, and sonic speed
The Mach number (M) is defined as the ratio of the speed of an object (or of a flow) to the speed of sound. For instance, in air at room temperature, the speed of sound is about . M can range from 0 to ∞, but this broad range falls naturally into several flow regimes. These regimes are subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic, and hypervelocity flow. The figure below illustrates the Mach number "spectrum" of these flow regimes.
These flow regimes are not chosen arbitrarily, but rather arise naturally from the strong mathematical background that underlies compressible flow (see the cited reference textbooks). At very slow flow speeds the speed of sound is so much faster that it is mathematically ignored, and the Mach number is irrelevant. Once the speed of the flow approaches the speed of sound, however, the Mach number becomes all-important, and shock waves begin to appear. Thus the transonic regime is described by a different (and much more complex) mathematical treatment. In the supersonic regime the flow is dominated by wave motion at oblique angles similar to the Mach angle. Above about Mach 5, these wave angles grow so small that a different mathematical approach is required, defining the hypersonic speed regime. Finally, at speeds comparable to that of planetary atmospheric entry from orbit, in the range of several km/s, the speed of sound is now comparatively so slow that it is once again mathematically ignored in the hypervelocity regime.
As an object accelerates from subsonic toward supersonic speed in a gas, different types of wave phenomena occur. To illustrate these changes, the next figure shows a stationary point (M = 0) that emits symmetric sound waves. The speed of sound is the same in all directions in a uniform fluid, so these waves are simply concentric spheres. As the sound-generating point begins to accelerate, the sound waves "bunch up" in the direction of motion and "stretch out" in the opposite direction. When the point reaches sonic speed (M = 1), it travels at the same speed as the sound waves it creates. Therefore, an infinite number of these sound waves "pile up" ahead of the point, forming a Shock wave. Upon achieving supersonic flow, the particle is moving so fast that it continuously leaves its sound waves behind. When this occurs, the locus of these waves trailing behind the point creates an angle known as the Mach wave angle or Mach angle, μ:
where represents the speed of sound in the gas and represents the velocity of the object. Although named for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach, these oblique waves were first discovered by Christian Doppler.
One-dimensional flow
One-dimensional (1-D) flow refers to flow of gas through a duct or channel in which the flow parameters are assumed to change significantly along only one spatial dimension, namely, the duct length. In analysing the 1-D channel flow, a number of assumptions are made:
Ratio of duct length to width (L/D) is ≤ about 5 (in order to neglect friction and heat transfer),
Steady vs. Unsteady Flow,
Flow is isentropic (i.e. a reversible adiabatic process),
Ideal gas law (i.e. P = ρRT)
Converging-diverging Laval nozzles
As the speed of a flow accelerates from the subsonic to the supersonic regime, the physics of nozzle and diffuser flows is altered. Using the conservation laws of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics, the following relationship for channel flow is developed (combined mass and momentum conservation):
,
where dP is the differential change in pressure, M is the Mach number, ρ is the density of the gas, V is the velocity of the flow, A is the area of the duct, and dA is the change in area of the duct. This equation states that, for subsonic flow, a converging duct (dA < 0) increases the velocity of the flow and a diverging duct (dA > 0) decreases velocity of the flow. For supersonic flow, the opposite occurs due to the change of sign of (1 − M2). A converging duct (dA < 0) now decreases the velocity of the flow and a diverging duct (dA > 0) increases the velocity of the flow. At Mach = 1, a special case occurs in which the duct area must be either a maximum or minimum. For practical purposes, only a minimum area can accelerate flows to Mach 1 and beyond. See table of sub-supersonic diffusers and nozzles.
Therefore, to accelerate a flow to Mach 1, a nozzle must be designed to converge to a minimum cross-sectional area and then expand. This type of nozzle – the converging-diverging nozzle – is called a de Laval nozzle after Gustaf de Laval, who invented it. As subsonic flow enters the converging duct and the area decreases, the flow accelerates. Upon reaching the minimum area of the duct, also known as the throat of the nozzle, the flow can reach Mach 1. If the speed of the flow is to continue to increase, its density must decrease in order to obey conservation of mass. To achieve this decrease in density, the flow must expand, and to do so, the flow must pass through a diverging duct. See image of de Laval Nozzle.
Maximum achievable velocity of a gas
Ultimately, because of the energy conservation law, a gas is limited to a certain maximum velocity based on its energy content. The maximum velocity, Vmax, that a gas can attain is:
where cp is the specific heat of the gas and Tt is the stagnation temperature of the flow.
Isentropic flow Mach number relationships
Using conservations laws and thermodynamics, a number of relationships of the form
can be obtained, where M is the Mach number and γ is the ratio of specific heats (1.4 for air). See table of isentropic flow Mach number relationships.
Achieving supersonic flow
As previously mentioned, in order for a flow to become supersonic, it must pass through a duct with a minimum area, or sonic throat. Additionally, an overall pressure ratio, Pb/Pt, of approximately 2 is needed to attain Mach 1. Once it has reached Mach 1, the flow at the throat is said to be choked. Because changes downstream can only move upstream at sonic speed, the mass flow through the nozzle cannot be affected by changes in downstream conditions after the flow is choked.
Non-isentropic 1D channel flow of a gas - normal shock waves
Normal shock waves are shock waves that are perpendicular to the local flow direction. These shock waves occur when pressure waves build up and coalesce into an extremely thin shockwave that converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. The waves thus overtake and reinforce one another, forming a finite shock wave from an infinite series of infinitesimal sound waves. Because the change of state across the shock is highly irreversible, entropy increases across the shock. When analysing a normal shock wave, one-dimensional, steady, and adiabatic flow of a perfect gas is assumed. Stagnation temperature and stagnation enthalpy are the same upstream and downstream of the shock.
Normal shock waves can be easily analysed in either of two reference frames: the standing normal shock and the moving shock. The flow before a normal shock wave must be supersonic, and the flow after a normal shock must be subsonic. The Rankine-Hugoniot equations are used to solve for the flow conditions.
Two-dimensional flow
Although one-dimensional flow can be directly analysed, it is merely a specialized case of two-dimensional flow. It follows that one of the defining phenomena of one-dimensional flow, a normal shock, is likewise only a special case of a larger class of oblique shocks. Further, the name "normal" is with respect to geometry rather than frequency of occurrence. Oblique shocks are much more common in applications such as: aircraft inlet design, objects in supersonic flight, and (at a more fundamental level) supersonic nozzles and diffusers. Depending on the flow conditions, an oblique shock can either be attached to the flow or detached from the flow in the form of a bow shock.
Oblique shock waves
Oblique shock waves are similar to normal shock waves, but they occur at angles less than 90° with the direction of flow. When a disturbance is introduced to the flow at a nonzero angle (δ), the flow must respond to the changing boundary conditions. Thus an oblique shock is formed, resulting in a change in the direction of the flow.
Shock polar diagram
Based on the level of flow deflection (δ), oblique shocks are characterized as either strong or weak. Strong shocks are characterized by larger deflection and more entropy loss across the shock, with weak shocks as the opposite. In order to gain cursory insight into the differences in these shocks, a shock polar diagram can be used. With the static temperature after the shock, T*, known the speed of sound after the shock is defined as,
with R as the gas constant and γ as the specific heat ratio. The Mach number can be broken into Cartesian coordinates
with Vx and Vy as the x and y-components of the fluid velocity V. With the Mach number before the shock given, a locus of conditions can be specified. At some δmax the flow transitions from a strong to weak oblique shock. With δ = 0°, a normal shock is produced at the limit of the strong oblique shock and the Mach wave is produced at the limit of the weak shock wave.
Oblique shock reflection
Due to the inclination of the shock, after an oblique shock is created, it can interact with a boundary in three different manners, two which are explained below.
Solid boundary
Incoming flow is first turned by angle δ with respect to the flow. This shockwave is reflected off the solid boundary, and the flow is turned by – δ to again be parallel with the boundary. It is important to note that each progressive shock wave is weaker and the wave angle is increased.
Irregular reflection
An irregular reflection is much like the case described above, with the caveat that δ is larger than the maximum allowable turning angle. Thus a detached shock is formed and a more complicated reflection occurs.
Prandtl–Meyer fans
Prandtl–Meyer fans can be expressed as both compression and expansion fans. Prandtl–Meyer fans also cross a boundary layer (i.e. flowing and solid) which reacts in different changes as well. When a shock wave hits a solid surface the resulting fan returns as one from the opposite family while when one hits a free boundary the fan returns as a fan of opposite type.
Prandtl–Meyer expansion fans
To this point, the only flow phenomena that have been discussed are shock waves, which slow the flow and increase its entropy. It is possible to accelerate supersonic flow in what has been termed a Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan, after Ludwig Prandtl and Theodore Meyer. The mechanism for the expansion is shown in the figure below.
As opposed to the flow encountering an inclined obstruction and forming an oblique shock, the flow expands around a convex corner and forms an expansion fan through a series of isentropic Mach waves. The expansion "fan" is composed of Mach waves that span from the initial Mach angle to the final Mach angle. Flow can expand around either a sharp or rounded corner equally, as the increase in Mach number is proportional to only the convex angle of the passage (δ). The expansion corner that produces the Prandtl–Meyer fan can be sharp (as illustrated in the figure) or rounded. If the total turning angle is the same, then the P-M flow solution is also the same.
The Prandtl–Meyer expansion can be seen as the physical explanation of the operation of the Laval nozzle. The contour of the nozzle creates a smooth and continuous series of Prandtl–Meyer expansion waves.
Prandtl–Meyer compression fans
A Prandtl–Meyer compression is the opposite phenomenon to a Prandtl–Meyer expansion. If the flow is gradually turned through an angle of δ, a compression fan can be formed. This fan is a series of Mach waves that eventually coalesce into an oblique shock. Because the flow is defined by an isentropic region (flow that travels through the fan) and an anisentropic region (flow that travels through the oblique shock), a slip line results between the two flow regions.
Applications
Supersonic wind tunnels
Supersonic wind tunnels are used for testing and research in supersonic flows, approximately over the Mach number range of 1.2 to 5. The operating principle behind the wind tunnel is that a large pressure difference is maintained upstream to downstream, driving the flow.
Wind tunnels can be divided into two categories: continuous-operating and intermittent-operating wind tunnels. Continuous operating supersonic wind tunnels require an independent electrical power source that drastically increases with the size of the test section. Intermittent supersonic wind tunnels are less expensive in that they store electrical energy over an extended period of time, then discharge the energy over a series of brief tests. The difference between these two is analogous to the comparison between a battery and a capacitor.
Blowdown type supersonic wind tunnels offer high Reynolds number, a small storage tank, and readily available dry air. However, they cause a high pressure hazard, result in difficulty holding a constant stagnation pressure, and are noisy during operation.
Indraft supersonic wind tunnels are not associated with a pressure hazard, allow a constant stagnation pressure, and are relatively quiet. Unfortunately, they have a limited range for the Reynolds number of the flow and require a large vacuum tank.
There is no dispute that knowledge is gained through research and testing in supersonic wind tunnels; however, the facilities often require vast amounts of power to maintain the large pressure ratios needed for testing conditions. For example, Arnold Engineering Development Complex has the largest supersonic wind tunnel in the world and requires the power required to light a small city for operation. For this reason, large wind tunnels are becoming less common at universities.
Supersonic aircraft inlets
Perhaps the most common requirement for oblique shocks is in supersonic aircraft inlets for speeds greater than about Mach 2 (the F-16 has a maximum speed of Mach 2 but doesn't need an oblique shock intake). One purpose of the inlet is to minimize losses across the shocks as the incoming supersonic air slows down to subsonic before it enters the turbojet engine. This is accomplished with one or more oblique shocks followed by a very weak normal shock, with an upstream Mach number usually less than 1.4. The airflow through the intake has to be managed correctly over a wide speed range from zero to its maximum supersonic speed. This is done by varying the position of the intake surfaces.
Although variable geometry is required to achieve acceptable performance from take-off to speeds exceeding Mach 2 there is no one method to achieve it. For example, for a maximum speed of about Mach 3, the XB-70 used rectangular inlets with adjustable ramps and the SR-71 used circular inlets with adjustable center cone.
See also
Incompressible flow
Conservation laws
Entropy
Equation of state
Gas kinetics
Heat capacity ratio
Isentropic nozzle flow
Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field
Prandtl–Meyer function
Thermodynamics especially "Commonly Considered Thermodynamic Processes" and "Laws of Thermodynamics"
References
External links
NASA Beginner's Guide to Compressible Aerodynamics
Virginia Tech Compressible Flow Calculators
Fluid mechanics
Aerodynamics | [
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219145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Draper%20Catalogue | Henry Draper Catalogue | The Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) is an astronomical star catalogue published between 1918 and 1924, giving spectroscopic classifications for 225,300 stars; it was later expanded by the Henry Draper Extension (HDE), published between 1925 and 1936, which gave classifications for 46,850 more stars, and by the Henry Draper Extension Charts (HDEC), published from 1937 to 1949 in the form of charts, which gave classifications for 86,933 more stars. In all, 359,083 stars were classified as of August 2017.
The HD catalogue is named after Henry Draper, an amateur astronomer, and covers the entire sky almost completely down to an apparent photographic magnitude of about 9; the extensions added fainter stars in certain areas of the sky. The construction of the Henry Draper Catalogue was part of a pioneering effort to classify stellar spectra, and its catalogue numbers are commonly used as a way of identifying stars.
History
The origin of the Henry Draper Catalogue dates back to the earliest photographic studies of stellar spectra. Henry Draper made the first photograph of a star's spectrum showing distinct spectral lines when he photographed Vega in 1872. He took over a hundred more photographs of stellar spectra before his death in 1882. In 1885, Edward Pickering began to supervise photographic spectroscopy at Harvard College Observatory, using the objective prism method. In 1886, Draper's widow, Mary Anna Palmer Draper, became interested in Pickering's research and agreed to fund it under the name Henry Draper Memorial. Pickering and his coworkers then began to take an objective-prism survey of the sky and to classify the resulting spectra.
A first result of this work was the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra, published in 1890. This catalogue contained spectroscopic classifications for 10,351 stars, mostly north of declination −25°. Most of the classification was done by Williamina Fleming. The classification scheme used was to subdivide the previously used Secchi classes (I to IV) into more specific classes, given letters from A to N. Also, the letter O was used for stars whose spectra consisted mainly of bright lines, the letter P for planetary nebulae, and the letter Q for spectra not fitting into any of the classes A through P. No star of type N appeared in the catalogue, and the only star of type O was the Wolf–Rayet star HR 2583.
Antonia Maury and Pickering published a more detailed study of the spectra of bright stars in the northern hemisphere in 1897. Maury used classifications numbered from I to XXII; groups I to XX corresponded to subdivisions of the Draper Catalogue types B, A, F, G, K, and M, while XXI and XXII corresponded to the Draper Catalogue types N and O. She was the first to place B stars in their current position, prior to A stars, in the spectral classification.
In 1890, the Harvard College Observatory constructed an observation station in Arequipa, Peru in order to study the sky in the Southern Hemisphere, and a study of bright stars in the southern hemisphere was published by Annie Jump Cannon and Pickering in 1901. Cannon used the lettered types of the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra, but dropped all letters except O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, used in that order, as well as P for planetary nebulae and Q for some peculiar spectra. She also used types such as B5A for stars halfway between types B and A, F2G for stars one-fifth of the way from F to G, and so forth.
Between 1910 and 1915, new discoveries increased interest in stellar classification, and work on the Henry Draper Catalogue itself started in 1911. From 1912 to 1915, Cannon and her coworkers classified spectra at the rate of approximately 5,000 per month. The catalogue was published in 9 volumes of the Annals of Harvard College Observatory between 1918 and 1924. It contains rough positions, magnitudes, spectral classifications, and, where possible, cross-references to the Durchmusterung catalogs for 225,300 stars. The classification scheme used was similar to that used in Cannon's 1901 work, except that types such as B, A, B5A, F2G, and so on, had been changed to B0, A0, B5, F2, and so on. As well as the classes O through M, P was used for nebulae and R and N for carbon stars.
Pickering died on February 3, 1919, leaving 6 volumes to be overseen by Cannon. Cannon found spectral classifications for 46,850 fainter stars in selected regions of the sky in the Henry Draper Extension, published in six parts between 1925 and 1936. She continued classifying stars until her death in 1941. Most of these classifications were published in 1949 in the Henry Draper Extension Charts (the first portion of these charts was published in 1937.) These charts also contained some classifications by Margaret Walton Mayall, who supervised the work after Cannon's death.
The catalogue and its extensions were the first large-scale attempt to catalogue spectral types of stars, and its construction led to the Harvard classification scheme of stellar spectra which is still used today.
Availability and usage
Stars contained in the main portion of the catalogue are of medium magnitude, down to about 9m (about as bright as the faintest stars visible with the naked eye). The extensions contain stars as faint as the 11th magnitude selected from certain regions of the sky. Stars in the original catalogue are numbered from 1 to 225300 (prefix HD) and are numbered in order of increasing right ascension for the epoch 1900.0. Stars in the first extension are numbered from 225301 to 272150 (prefix HDE), and stars from the extension charts are numbered from 272151 to 359083 (prefix HDEC). However, as the numbering is continuous throughout the catalog and its extensions, the prefix HD may be used regardless as its use produces no ambiguity. Many stars are customarily identified by their HD numbers.
The Henry Draper Catalogue and the Extension were available from the NASA Astronomical Data Center as part of their third CD-ROM of astronomical catalogues. Currently, the Catalogue and Extension are available from the VizieR service of the Centre de Données astronomiques (French for "Astronomical Data Center") at Strasbourg as catalogue number III/135A. Because of their format, putting the Henry Draper Extension Charts into a machine-readable format was more difficult, but this task was eventually completed by 1995 by Nesterov, Röser and their coworkers, and the charts are now available at VizieR as catalogue number III/182.
References
External links
The Henry Draper Catalogue and its extensions are available on line free of charge at the VizieR service of the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg:
Henry Draper Catalogue and Extension, A. J. Cannon and E. C. Pickering, CDS ID III/135A.
The Henry Draper Extension Charts: A catalogue of accurate positions, proper motions, magnitudes and spectral types of 86933 stars, V. V. Nesterov, A. V. Kuzmin, N. T. Ashimbaeva, A. A. Volchkov, S. Roeser, and U. Bastian, CDS ID III/182.
Astronomical catalogues of stars
1910s books
1920s books
1930s books
1940s books | [
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219147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlaams%20Blok | Vlaams Blok | Vlaams Blok (, or VB) was the name of a Belgian far-right and secessionist political party with an anti-immigration platform. Its ideologies embraced Flemish nationalism, calling for the independence of Flanders. The party originated from split within the Volksunie (VU) party after the right-wing separatist and national conservative wing became disgruntled with the compromise of accepting Belgian federalism over Flemish interests, and what they saw as the VU's move to the left. The former VU members created the Flemish National Party (VNP) and the Flemish People's Party (VVP) which formed an electoral alliance called Vlaams Blok in 1978, before merging to create Vlaams Blok as a political party in 1979. Vlaams Blok was the most notable militant right wing of the Flemish movement and its track record in the Flemish and Belgian parliament elections was strong, making it one of the most successful nationalist parties in Western Europe and it ultimately surpassed the People's Union in support. The party initially focused solely on the issues of Flemish autonomy and political freedom, which remained its core philosophy, but subsequently gained wider public support through broadening its campaigns to include immigration and law-and-order themes.
All significant Flemish political parties were reluctant to enter coalitions with the Vlaams Blok. Following a 1989 agreement, known as the cordon sanitaire, the party was effectively blocked from entering any level of government. The court of appeal in Ghent in April 2004 ruled that some of the party's organizations had breached the 1981 anti-racism law and that the party sanctioned discrimination. The ruling was made definite on 9 November 2004, and the party shortly after reorganised itself as the Vlaams Belang. By 2004, the party had arguably become the single most popular Flemish party in Belgium, supported by about one in four of the Flemish electorate, as well as being one of the most successful radical right-wing populist parties in Europe as a whole.
History
Background, Flemish Movement
The Vlaams Blok originated from the loose Flemish Movement, which historically has included an array of organisations seeking, to varying degrees, to promote Flanders. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Flemish nationalists operated within the established political parties, and had close ties with the political left. The early organised political expression of Flemish nationalism was triggered by World War I, and the introduction of universal suffrage and proportional representation in elections. The main party that initially represented the movement was the left-wing nationalist Front Party, founded by former soldiers and sympathizers from the trench wars in Flanders Fields disaffected with their French-speaking, often anti-Flemish, officers that had been unable to communicate with their troops. From the 1930s, the main party became the Flemish National Union which turned to collaborate with the Nazis during World War II, as they had promised them increased Flemish autonomy. These circumstances would compromise the re-emergence of Flemish nationalism after the war, although only a faction of the broader movement had actually pursued an agenda of collaboration.
The direct predecessor to the Vlaams Blok was the People's Union, which was founded in 1954 as the successor to the Christian Flemish People's Union electoral alliance, that had successfully run for election earlier the same year. The party had been careful to choose its leaders from nationalist circles that had not collaborated with the Nazis. The People's Union had successfully united various strands of Flemish nationalists into a coherent movement from federalists to separatists, however some Flemish separatists had been suspicious of the People's Union since its outset, and it became clear by the 1970s that the party had moved to a moderate left-liberal course, which led to the defection of its more radical members. The remaining nationalist hardliners finally rejected the party's participation in a new five-party government coalition in 1977, and particularly the Egmont pact, believing it had conceded too much to the francophone government parties.
Early years (1978–1988)
In late 1977, the rejection of the Egmont pact by the hardliner faction of the People's Union led to the establishment of two new (short-lived) parties; the radical nationalist Flemish National Party (VNP) and the national liberal Flemish People's Party (VVP), respectively led by Karel Dillen and Lode Claes. The parties contested the 1978 general elections in a coalition called "Vlaams Blok", where they won 1.4% of the vote and one seat in the Chamber of Representatives (taken by Dillen). On 28 May 1979, the VNP and VVP finally merged to form a new party named Vlaams Blok, and Dillen was nominated to be the party's leader for life. The party initially recruited its members from Flemish nationalist organisations, such as the Taal Aktie Komitee, Voorpost, Were Di, and the Order of Flemish Militants, while some local groups also simply turned into local branches of the Vlaams Blok. In its inception, the party was widely regarded as a conservative separatist party, rather than an extreme right-wing party.
The party did not have much electoral success at first, and was stable at one seat in the 1981 general elections. It stood candidates in very few communities, and was active almost entirely in the city of Antwerp. Having been founded mainly as a protest against the Egmont pact, the party revamped and broadened its platform after the pact collapsed. It did not make much progress in the 1985 general elections, and Dillen thus started the so-called "Operation Rejuvenation", allowing for an across-the-board change of the party leadership, integrating many leaders of nationalist youth and student organisations into the party council. The party's youth organisation, the Vlaams Blok Jongeren (VBJ), was founded in 1987 by among others Filip Dewinter and Frank Vanhecke.
Starting in 1983, the Vlaams Blok increasingly began focusing on immigration (inspired by the success of other European right-wing populist parties), and on the international day against racism in 1984 held its first conference to discuss the "foreigner problem." Towards the late 1980s, the party also became one of the first in Europe to flirt with an anti-Islam agenda (warning about what it called the “Islamization of Europe”) and address the issue of immigrants from majority Muslim societies, in particular Turkish and Moroccan migrant communities in Belgium. Vlaams Blok claimed that such communities were a threat to Flemish ethnic and cultural identity and were linked to crime. The same year, Dillen proposed a bill in the Chamber of Representatives to offer cash incentive for immigrants to return to their native country. In April 1987, a group around Roger Frankinouille of the only right-wing competitor to the Vlaams Blok, the anti-tax Respect for Labour and Democracy, switched to the party. The party campaigned for the 1987 general election with the slogan "Own people first" (Eigen volk eerst!, inspired by French National Front slogan "The French first"), and saw a slight victory, winning their first seat in Senate (taken by Dillen), and for the first time two seats in the Chamber (Dewinter and Annemans). The party's shift towards focusing on immigration was however criticised by some Vlaams Blok members, and ultimately also led to the defection of some top party figures. The party nevertheless made a clear choice of focussing on the immigration issue, which had, and would, give results in elections.
Rise of the party (1988–2004)
The electoral success of the Vlaams Blok began after the younger generation in the party shifted the party's emphasis from Flemish nationalism (separatism) to the immigration issue. In the 1988 local election in Antwerp the party first started to take off, going from 5.5% of the vote in the city to 17.7%, a success which drew much publicity. On 10 May 1989, based on the Antwerp success, the presidents of all major Belgian parties (including the People's Union) signed a cordon sanitaire (hygienic barrier), where the parties agreed to never conclude any political agreements with the Vlaams Blok, nor make immigration a political issue. While the Vlaams Blok itself also largely rejected cooperation with other parties, it did increasingly consider such cooperation, particularly in elections in 1994, 1999 and 2000, only to find themselves effectively blocked by the cordon sanitaire. Although intended to keep the Vlaams Blok from gaining political influence, many argued that the cordon sanitaire in reality helped the strong electoral surge for the party, as it was made into what could be seen as the only "true opposition," and the party was able to bolster its claims that the Belgian political establishment sought to suppress calls for more Flemish autonomy and deny the Flemish voters a voice in national affairs. The agreement was renewed in following years, and Vlaams Blok chairman Karel Dillen was used to call it the "insurance policy" of his party;
In December 1988, a major split occurred in the party, when a group who opposed the "Operation Rejuvenation" tried to squeeze the Dewinter-VBJ faction out of the party leadership. Led by Geert Wouters, he accused Dewinter's faction of being "Lepenists", and of attempting to sideline the Flemish question to rather favour the immigration question. Dillen however sided with Dewinter, and Wouters and his group left the party and founded the nationalist pressure group called the Nationalist Association-Dutch People's Movement. In 1989, the party won a seat in the Brussels city council, as well as in the European Parliament. There, the Vlaams Blok agreed to form a parliamentary group together with the French National Front and the German The Republicans, called the Technical Group of the European Right. The group lacked an ideological coherence (stemming in part from Le Pen's support for a Belgian state nationalism), and was largely organised on pragmatic grounds simply to get financial support.
In the 1991 general election, the Vlaams Blok for the first time surpassed the People's Union, going from two to 12 seats in the Chamber, and from one to five seats in the Senate, in what was afterwards referred to by its opponents as "Black Sunday". In the following years, the party saw a systematic upwards trend in all elections it participated in. In July 1992, the first Vlaams Blok motion was accepted in the Flemish Parliament, which rejected the right of francophone inhabitants in Flemish Brabant and Voeren to vote for Wallon institutions. In late 1992, it was announced that Neel, a popular Antwerp city councillor for 22 years for the Socialist Party went over to the Vlaams Blok, thereby causing the SP and CVP to lose their majority in the city council. In 1992, the party ideologue Filip Dewinter and chairman Karel Dillen established the party's comprehensive immigration program, titled the 70-point plan. The plan sought to close the borders towards non-European immigrants, gradually repatriate those already in the country, and implement an "own people first" principle in all policy areas. Over the course of the 1990s, the party however increasingly distanced itself from the plan as it had alienated the party from gaining political influence, until it was finally officially discarded in 2000.
In the 1994 European election, the party doubled its seats (Dillen and Vanhecke) with 12.6% of the vote, but failed to continue a European Right group, due to other nationalist parties having dropped out of the parliament, or refusing to join a group. National Front and Vlaams Blok MEPs nevertheless established an "alliance" called The Coordination of the European Right. In 1996, party leader Karel Dillen, who had been nominated to hold his position for life, stepped down and personally appointed Frank Vanhecke as his successor. The choice of Vanhecke was seen a compromise between the Flemish nationalist wing around Annemans and the Lepenist wing around Dewinter, thus avoiding a potential internal struggle. In 1999, elections were scheduled for the European Parliament, the Chamber of Representatives and Senate and the Flemish Parliament, where the Vlaams Blok overtook the position as the third largest Flemish party, winning more than 15% of the vote in all elections, and a total of 45 seats in the various parliaments. The Vlaams Blok also benefitted from the further collapse of the People's Union, which was brought on by the VU's more national conservative members becoming disgruntled with the centre-left faction who had taken control of its leadership.
The Vlaams Blok continued to be particularly strong in and around Antwerp, where it received as much as 33% of the vote in the 2000 local elections. In 2001, the party was forced to alter its political program, as according to the laws for party financing, it was not compatible with the European Treaty on Human Rights. In the 2004 Flemish Parliament election, the party finally became the single largest party group in parliament. The party was invited by the formateur for government discussions, only to find that its differences with the other parties was insurmountable, resulting in the three traditional parties forming a majority government, retaining the cordon sanitaire. By this time, the party had nevertheless become the very most popular Flemish party in Belgium, being supported by about one in four of the Flemish electorate.
Court of Cassation ruling (2004)
In October 2000, the Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism, together with the Dutch-speaking Human Rights League in Belgium registered a complaint at the Correctional Court, in which they claimed that three non-profit organisations connected to the Vlaams Blok (its education and research office and the "National Broadcasting Corporation") had violated the 1981 anti-racism law. The publications which were referred to included its 1999 election agenda and 1997 party platform. The challenged passages included those where the party called for a separate education system for foreign children, a special tax for employers employing non-European foreigners, and a restriction of unemployment benefits and child allowances for non-European foreigners.
In June 2001, the Brussels Correctional Court declared itself incompetent to hear the case, as it related to political misconduct. In February 2003, the Brussels Appellate Court followed and gave a similar judgement. The original plaintiffs then appealed, and the case was sent to the court of appeal in Ghent, which upheld the complaint; the Vlaams Blok non-profit organisations were fined, and it was deemed that the Vlaams Blok was an organisation that sanctioned discrimination. The Vlaams Blok lodged an appeal which was rejected, and in November 2004, the ruling was made definite, when it was upheld by the Court of Cassation. The ruling meant that the party would lose access to state funding and access to television, effectively shutting the party down.
Reactions
The whole trial was seen by some as a political trial, inspired by the Belgian establishment. The federal parliament had notably amended the Constitution in order to create legal possibilities to condemn the party. The Vlaams Blok also pointed at the problem of political nomination of judges, and again claimed that the lawsuit had been a political process coordinated with the Belgian Ministry of the Interior.
The leadership of the Vlaams Blok seized the occasion of the ban to dissolve the party, and start afresh under a new name. Five days later, on 14 November, the Vlaams Blok disbanded itself, and a new party with the name Vlaams Belang was established. (Other proposed names included the Flemish People's Party and Flemish Freedom Front.) The new party instituted a number of changes in its political program, carefully moderating some of the more extreme positions of the former Vlaams Blok. Nevertheless, the party leadership made it clear that the party would fundamentally remain the same.
Professor Lamine (KUL), a former Vlaams Blok member and "advisor" of the party's legal team, claimed that the party, for propaganda reasons, purposely undertook a weak defence, in order to lose the case; "For the party leaders, losing was much more interesting. Winning just wasn't an option." Lamine himself had earlier stated that the party should have carried the trial to the European Court of Human Rights, but Vlaams Blok senator Joris Van Hauthem had already stated in 2005, that; "If we had gone to Strasbourg [ECHR] based on procedural arguments, we might have had a case. But Lamine already put in a private claim to overturn the Appeals Court verdict, on the basis of substantive arguments. If Vlaams Belang were to put forth a claim against the verdict as well, at Strasbourg, the Court will bundle both cases. Then we would lose the case for sure. Lamine has thus given us the final blow."
Ideology
The main ideological and political strategies of the Vlaams Blok started out with its radical nationalist rejection of the People's Union compromise on the Flemish autonomy issue, later to be followed by focus on immigration and security, exploitation of corruption and other scandals, and defense of traditional values. While the party was legitimized first and foremost by its defense of Flemish interests and desire for Flemish independence, its voters were mainly motivated by anti-immigration, law and order and anti-establishment protest.
Flemish nationalism
The main issue for the party was Flemish nationalism, and most issues that were added later, were in some way also connected to this. The Flemish nationalism promoted by the party (volksnationalisme) was according to its program "based on the ethnic community being a naturally occurring entity whose cultural, material, ethical and intellectual interests need to be preserved." While the party primarily worked for an independent Flemish state (modeling the split on that of Czechoslovakia), it for a long time also promoted the idea that the new state should merge with the Netherlands, and establish a Dutch-speaking federation (Greater Netherlands). From the 1990s however, the latter idea was downplayed by the party, as the Netherlands then turned into a "permissive, multicultural and social-democratic state" according to one scholar (although this Dutch political situation would be sharply overturned in the 2000s).
Immigration, minorities
Immigration became an important issue for the Vlaams Blok from the late 1980s. Interconnected with the Flemish nationalism issue, immigrants were considered to be a threat to the Flemish ethnic community. In 1992, the party established its 70-point plan, which included measures to stop all immigration, return most immigrants to their native countries by force, and legally discriminate against residing migrants in respect of markets such as labour, housing and education. The party's opponents particularly saw its immigration program as a source of claims of racism, and the party thus in its latest years downplayed the relevance of the 70-point plan, and softened its written positions regarding immigration.
Concerns about crime and security was also linked to immigration, as the party particularly blamed Turks and Moroccans for various criminal activity, and sought a zero tolerance approach regarding law and order. The party was also strongly anti-Islamic from early on, and in its 1993 program regarded Islam as "a doctrine, which preaches holy war, assassination, forced conversions, oppression of women, slavery and extermination of "infidels", [which] will automatically lead to what we now call fundamentalism." The party was anti-Muslim and portrayed Muslims as fifth column of a cruel and expansionist religion, and after the 1990 Gulf War called on the government to introduce measures to keep Belgium from being Islamised. Academic Hans-Georg Betz has described Vlaams Blok as one of the first radical European populist parties to pursue and gain support through an anti-Islamic agenda.
The party was according to political scientist Cas Mudde only very rarely accused of anti-Semitism – and even then, it was strongly condemned by the party leadership. When Roeland Raes cast doubt on the scale of the Holocaust in a television interview in 2001 for instance, the party leadership immediately called an emergency meeting, distanced itself from him and forced him to resign. The party also took screening measures against its local candidates to reveal any possible extremist connections, and rather wanted to risk not being able to fill its lists, rather than filling them with extremists. Particularly, the party wanted to distance itself from Holocaust denial, as it actively sought to reach out to Jewish voters in Antwerp.
Social issues
In 2003, the Vlaams Blok was the only major Flemish party to vote against the legalization of same-sex marriage in Belgium. The party was not opposed to homosexuality and supported civil partnerships for same-sex couples, but regarded same-sex marriage as a step too far.
Anti-establishment
Another element in the ideology of the party was a populist fight against the political establishment, often manifested through political scandals which flourished in 1990s Belgium; including corruption, food and even pedophile scandals. These included the Agusta scandal and the Marc Dutroux affair. The usual suspects were politicians in the three traditional party families; especially the francophone parties.
Economy
The party had no strong economic preferences, and generally supported a mixed economy. While it supported privatisation and tax reductions for small and medium businesses, it also sometimes supported protectionism and defended the welfare state, especially if allocated to the native Flemish population.
Foreign policy
The party was the only major Belgian party that opposed Belgium's membership of the European Union, as well as the idea of a federal Europe itself. It however defended a con-federal Europe based on sovereign culturally homogeneous nation-states. The European issue was however not an issue the party promoted much.
It also favoured the abolition of the United Nations, citing; "The illogical composition of the Security Council. The unwieldy bureaucracy. The democratic deficit." The party did also not have any faith in such a world community or international legal system, questioning the entire logic behind the UN. It rejected the view of any international consensus about concepts as democracy, justice, freedom and human rights, especially since most of its member countries are non-Western and undemocratic.
International relations
The Vlaams Blok maintained good contacts with nationalist parties throughout Europe and other countries. The Vlaams Blok did traditionally have the closest contacts with Dutch and South African far-right groups, including the Dutch Centre Party '86, the Centre Democrats and Voorpost, and the South African Boerestaat Party. In the mid-1980s, it also established close relations particularly with the French National Front, as well as the German People's Union, The Republicans and National Democratic Party of Germany. In the 1990s, it supported the minor Dutch Block party, which had modeled itself directly on the Vlaams Blok.
The party also became very active in establishing contacts with post-communist parties in Eastern European countries, including the Croatian Party of Rights, Slovak National Party and IMRO – Bulgarian National Movement. While not keeping official contacts, it was in addition very supportive of left-wing nationalist parties such as the Scottish National Party, Irish Sinn Féin and Basque Herri Batasuna. Some of the parties it established contacts with most recently was the Freedom Party of Austria and the Italian Lega Nord, which after a period of distrust, maintained contacts since 2002.
Election results
Note that the election results in elections other than those for the Flemish Parliament (and the Dutch-speaking electoral college in the European Parliament) gives a somewhat wrong image of the party's support, given that the party only ran in Flanders, the one half of Belgium.
Chamber of Representatives
Senate
Flemish Parliament
European Parliament
Results in the Dutch-speaking electoral college is given in the parenthesis.
References
Bibliography
External links
Vlaams Blok website
Flanders Independent site
The Flemish Republic online newsletter for English-speaking people, a website of the Vlaams Blok
Supreme Court's decision of 9 November 2004, (pdf document), provisional version of the original decision in Dutch
Official Vlaams Blok party comment on the conviction
Euronat members
Defunct political parties in Belgium
Flemish Movement
Flemish political parties in Belgium
Anti-Islam political parties in Europe
Banned far-right parties
Right-wing populism in Belgium
Political parties established in 1979
Political parties disestablished in 2004
Pro-independence parties
Anti-Islam sentiment in Belgium | [
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219150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticinum | Ticinum | Ticinum (the modern Pavia) was an ancient city of Gallia Transpadana, founded on the banks of the river of the same name (now the Ticino river) a little way above its confluence with the Padus (Po).
It was said by Pliny the Elder to have been founded by the Laevi and Marici, two Ligurian tribes, while Ptolemy attributes it to the Insubres.
Its importance in Roman times was due to the extension of the Via Aemilia from Ariminum (Rimini) to the Padus (or Po) (187 BC), which it crossed at Placentia (Piacenza) and there forked, one branch going to Mediolanum (Milan) and the other to Ticinum, and thence to Laumellum where it divided once more, one branch going to Vercellae - and thence to Eporedia and Augusta Praetoria - and the other to Valentia - and thence to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin) or to Pollentia.
The branch to Eporedia must have been constructed before 100 BC. Ticinum is frequently mentioned by classical writers. It was a , but we learn little of it except that in the 4th century there was a manufacturer of bows and a mint there. The first Christian bishops of the city are identified as Juventius and Syrus.
In 271 the Emperor Aurelian defeated a retreating army of Juthungi at the Battle of Ticinum. Ticinum was the site of a mint, transferred from Mediolanum by Aurelian in 275, which remained active until closed by Constantine the Great in 326.
The city was pillaged by Attila in 452 and by Odoacer in 476, but rose to importance as a military centre in the Gothic period. At Dertona and here the grain stores of Liguria were placed, and Theodoric the Great constructed a palace, baths and amphitheatre and new town walls; while an inscription of Athalaric relating to repairs of seats in the amphitheatre is preserved (529). From this point, too, navigation on the Padus seems to have begun. Narses recovered it for the Eastern Empire, but after a long siege, the garrison had to surrender to the Lombards in 572.
Saint Damian of Pavia was bishop of the city from 680 to 710.
The name Papia, from which the modern name Pavia comes, does not appear until Lombard times, when it became the seat of the Lombard kingdom, and as such one of the leading cities of Italy. Cornelius Nepos, the biographer, appears to have been a native of Ticinum. Of Roman remains little is preserved; there is, for example, no sufficient proof that the cathedral rests upon an ancient temple of Cybele though the regular ground plan of the central portion, a square of some 1150 yards, betrays its Roman origin, and it may have sprung from a military camp. This is not unnatural, for Pavia was never totally destroyed; even the fire of 1004 can only have damaged parts of the city, and the plan of Pavia remained as it was. Its gates were possibly preserved until early in the 8th century.
The picturesque covered bridge, the Ponte Coperto or Ponte Vecchio, (bombed down in the Second World War and subsequently rebuilt in a similar shape and position), which joins Pavia to the suburb on the right bank of the river, was preceded by a Roman bridge, of which only one pillar, in blocks of granite from the Baveno quarries, exists under the remains of the central arch of the medieval bridge, the rest having no doubt served as material for the latter. The medieval bridge dates from 1351–1354.
References
Roman sites of Lombardy
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219151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highland%20cattle | Highland cattle | The Highland (; ) is a Scottish breed of rustic cattle. It originated in the Scottish Highlands and the Outer Hebrides islands of Scotland and has long horns and a long shaggy coat. It is a hardy breed, able to withstand the intemperate conditions in the region. The first herd-book dates from 1885; two types – a smaller island type, usually black, and a larger mainland type, usually dun – were registered as a single breed. It is reared primarily for beef, and has been exported to several other countries.
History
Highland cattle descend from the Hamitic Longhorn, which were brought to Britain by Neolithic farmers in the second millennium BC, as the cattle migrated northwards through Africa and Europe. Highland cattle were historically of great importance to the economy, with the cattle being raised for meat primarily and sold in England.
The 1885 herd book describes two distinct types of Highland cattle. One was the West Highland, or Kyloe, originating and living mostly in the Outer Hebrides, which had harsher conditions. These cattle tended to be smaller, to have black coats and, due to their more rugged environment, to have long hair. These cattle were named due to the practice of relocating them. The kyles are narrow straits of water, and the cattle were driven across them to get to market.
The other type was the mainland; these tended to be larger because their pastures provided richer nutrients. They came in a range of colours, most frequently dun or red. These types have now been crossbred so that there is no distinct difference.
Since the early 20th century, breeding stock has been exported to many parts of the world, especially Australia and North America.
It is estimated that there are now around 15,000 Highland cattle in the United Kingdom.
Scotland
Originally, small farmers kept Highlands as house cows to produce milk and for meat. The Highland cattle registry ("herd book") was established in 1885. Although a group of cattle is generally called a herd, a group of Highland cattle is known as a "fold". This is because in winter, the cattle were kept in open shelters made of stone called folds to protect them from the weather at night. They were also known as kyloes in Scots.
In 1954, Queen Elizabeth ordered Highland cattle to be kept at Balmoral Castle where they are still kept today.
Australia
Highland cattle were first imported into Australia by the mid-19th century by Scottish migrants such as Chieftain Aeneas Ronaldson MacDonell of Glengarry, Scotland. Arriving in Port Albert, Victoria, in 1841 with his clan, they apparently drove their Highland cattle to a farm at Greenmount, on the Tarra River, preceded by a piper. Samuel Amess, also from Scotland, who made a fortune in the Victorian goldfields and became Mayor of Melbourne in 1869, kept a small fold of black Highland cattle on Churchill Island. They were seen and survived in Port Victoria during the late 1800s, but other folds were believed to have died out in areas such as New South Wales. In 1988 the Australian Highland Cattle Society was formed. Since then, numbers have been growing and semen is being exported to New Zealand to establish the breed there.
Canada
Highland cattle were first imported into Canada in the 1880s. The Hon. Donald A. Smith, Lord Strathcona of Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Robert Campbell of Strathclair, Manitoba, imported one bull each. There were also Highland cattle in Nova Scotia in the 1880s. However, their numbers were small until the 1920s when large-scale breeding and importing began. In the 1950s cattle were imported from and exported to North America. The Canadian Highland Cattle Society was officially registered in 1964 and currently registers all purebred cattle in Canada. Towards the end of the 1990s, there was a large semen and embryo trade between the UK and Canada. However that has stopped, largely due to the BSE (mad cow disease) outbreaks in the United Kingdom. Today, Highland cattle are mainly found in eastern Canada. The population of Highland cattle for Canada and the United States of America combined is estimated at 11,000.
Denmark
The Danish Highland Cattle Society was established in 1987 to promote the best practices for the breeding and care of Highland cattle and to promote the introduction of the breed into Denmark.
Finland
The Highland Cattle Club of Finland was founded in 1997. Their studbooks show importation of Highland cattle breeding stock to Finland, dating back to 1884. The Finnish club states that in 2016, there were 13,000 Highland cattle in Finland.
United States
The first record of Highland cattle being imported to the United States was in the late 1890s. The American Highland Cattle Association was first organised in 1948 as the American Scotch Highland Breeders Association, and now claims approximately 1100 members. There are now eight regional Highland cattle associations in the U.S. as well.
Characteristics
They have long, wide horns and long, wavy, woolly coats. The usual coat colour is reddish brown, seen in approximately 60% of the population; some 22% are yellow, and the remainder pale silver, black or brindle/dun. The coat colours are caused by alleles at the MC1R gene (E locus) and the PMEL or SILV gene (D locus).
They have an unusual double coat of hair. On the outside is the oily outer hair—the longest of any cattle breed, covering a downy undercoat. This makes them well suited to conditions in the Highlands, which have a high annual rainfall and sometimes very strong winds.
Their skill in foraging for food allows them to survive in steep mountain areas where they both graze and eat plants that many other cattle avoid. They can dig through the snow with their horns to find buried plants.
Mature bulls can weigh up to 800 kilograms (1,800 pounds) and heifers can weigh up to 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds). Cows typically have a height of 90–106 centimetres (3–3.5 ft), and bulls are typically in the range of 106–120 centimetres (3.5–4 ft). Mating occurs throughout the year with a gestation period of approximately 277–290 days. Most commonly a single calf is born, but twins are not unknown. Sexual maturity is reached at about eighteen months. Highland cattle also have a longer expected lifespan than most other breeds of cattle, up to 20 years.
Cold tolerance
All European cattle cope relatively well with low temperatures but Highland cattle have been described as "almost as cold-tolerant as the arctic-dwelling caribou and reindeer". Conversely due to their thick coats they are much less tolerant of heat than zebu cattle, which originated in South Asia and are adapted for hot climates. Highland cattle have been successfully established in countries where winters are substantially colder than Scotland such as Norway and Canada.
Social behaviour
A fold of semi-wild Highland cattle was studied over a period of 4 years. It was found that the cattle have a clear structure and hierarchy of dominance, which reduces aggression. Social standing depends on age and sex, with older cattle being dominant to calves and younger ones, and males dominant to females. Young bulls will dominate adult cows when they reached around 2 years of age. Calves from the top ranking cow were given higher social status, despite minimal intervention from their mother. Playfighting, licking and mounting were seen as friendly contact.
Breeding occurred in May and June, with heifers first giving birth at 2–3 years old.
Head
Proportionate to body
Wide between eyes
Must naturally have horns, but may be trimmed in commercial rearing
Neck
Clear, without dewlap
Straight line to body
Back and body
The back must be rounded
The quarters must be wider than the hips
The legs must be short and straight
Hair
The hair must be straight and waved
Sources: Highland Cattle Society,
Use
The meat of Highland cattle tends to be leaner than most beef because Highlands are largely insulated by their thick, shaggy hair rather than by subcutaneous fat. Highland cattle can produce beef at a reasonable profit from land that would otherwise normally be unsuitable for agriculture. The most profitable way to produce Highland beef is on poor pasture in their native land, the Highlands of Scotland. The meat is also gaining popularity in North America as the beef is low in cholesterol.
Commercial success
The beef from Highland cattle is very tender, but the market for high-quality meat has declined. To address this decline, it is common practice to breed Highland "suckler" cows with a more favourable breed such as a Shorthorn or Limousin bull. This allows the Highland cattle to produce a crossbred beef calf that has the tender beef of its mother on a carcass shape of more commercial value at slaughter. These crossbred beef suckler cows inherit the hardiness, thrift and mothering capabilities of their Highland dams and the improved carcass configuration of their sires. Such crossbred sucklers can be further crossbred with a modern beef bull such as a Limousin or Charolais to produce high quality beef.
Showing
For show purposes, Highland cattle are sometimes groomed with oils and conditioners to give their coats a fluffy appearance that is more apparent in calves; it leads some outside the industry to call them "fluffy cows". Many also call the cows "hairy cows" due to their thick coats.
See also
List of domesticated Scottish breeds
List of cattle breeds originating in Scotland
References
Further reading
Cattle breeds
Cattle breeds originating in Scotland
Highland (council area)
Conservation Priority Breeds of the Livestock Conservancy | [
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] |
219155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right%20Now%21%20%28magazine%29 | Right Now! (magazine) | Right Now! was a right-wing British political magazine, which ran from 1993 to 2006. The magazine also featured arts coverage and cultural criticism. It proclaimed itself a magazine of "politics, ideas and culture".
It was initially edited by Michael Harrison (an associate of Lady Birdwood), and then from 1995 until closure by Derek Turner. Contributing editors included Allan Robertson and Christopher Luke of the London Swinton Circle and Stuart Millson of the Conservative Democratic Alliance. Its origins lay in the Revolutionary Conservative Caucus and with right-wing members of the Monday Club.
The magazine featured interviews with and articles by many politicians, thinkers and writers. These include Antony Flew, Roger Scruton, Pat Buchanan, Peter Brimelow, Frederick Forsyth, Charles Moore, Garry Bushell, Nick Griffin, Jean-Marie Le Pen, Alain de Benoist, Richard Lynn, J. Philippe Rushton, Thomas Fleming, Samuel T. Francis and C. B. Liddell.
Prominent Conservative politicians who contributed to, or were interviewed by, Right Now! include Norman Tebbit, Ann Widdecombe, John Redwood, Teddy Taylor, Teresa Gorman and Bill Cash.
The magazine was mentioned by then Foreign Secretary Robin Cook in 2000 in an attack on then Conservative Party leader William Hague's inability to contain "extremists" within the party; Cook criticised Hague for not shutting the magazine down.
Andrew Hunter, a former Conservative MP who defected to Ian Paisley's Democratic Unionist Party, was a long-time patron of the magazine. Hunter ceased links with the magazine in 2002, following pressure from Iain Duncan Smith, stating disagreement with an advert in the magazine for the Conservative Democratic Alliance which was critical of the Conservative Party.
References
1993 establishments in the United Kingdom
2006 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Bi-monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Conservatism in the United Kingdom
Conservative magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct political magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1993
Magazines disestablished in 2006 | [
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219157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative%20Democratic%20Alliance | Conservative Democratic Alliance | The Conservative Democratic Alliance (CDA) was a political pressure group from the United Kingdom. The CDA referred to itself as the "authentic voice of conservatism". It closed in December 2008.
Foundation and organisation
The CDA was formed mostly by disaffected members of the Conservative Monday Club, another right-wing pressure group, who disagreed with the club's response to the Conservative Party's severing of links with the club in 2001. The Daily Telegraph described the CDA as "a hardline offshoot of the Monday Club".
The group was described as "ultra-right" by the Commission for Racial Equality.
The group's chairman was Michael Keith Smith, commonly known as Mike Smith, who had been a member of the Conservative Monday Club since the early 1970s, and served on its Executive Council, 1986–1993.
Original members of the CDA's steering committee included:
Sam Swerling, a Conservative Party parliamentary candidate twice in 1974 and councillor (1978–82) on Westminster City Council.
Stuart Millson, an independent councillor for East Malling and Larkfield Parish Council, and founder, with Jonathan Bowden, of the short-lived Revolutionary Conservative Caucus.
Gregory Lauder-Frost, former Political Secretary, and Foreign Affairs Committee Chairman, of the Monday Club.
Politics
On 27 June 2002, The Daily Telegraph carried a letter from the CDA, signed by Mike Smith, attacking the Conservative Party and its chairman Francis Maude for "the sleaze, double-dealing, arrogance, incompetence, Europhilia, indifference and drift with which the party is still associated. "Voters", he wrote, "deserve a real alternative to Blairism and his 'straight kinda guy' chicanery. Mr. Maude and his C-Changing Tories are incapable of providing it." ("C-Change" was a now-defunct Tory modernising pressure group headed by Maude.)
The CDA often criticised free-market economics and Americanisation in the United Kingdom, both of which it perceived to be after-effects of Thatcherism. That may be seen as distinguishing it from Iain Duncan Smith's Conservative Party leadership, which CDA members often criticised as neoconservative. The CDA was also fervently opposed to the European Union and to close links with the George W. Bush administration.
Activities
The CDA held what was described as "a packed meeting of right-wingers" in a hotel at the Conservative Party conference in Bournemouth on 11 October 2002, chaired by Mike Smith, who accused Conservative Party Chief Whip David Maclean of gagging his party's MPs over the EU, declaring him "a disgrace to the party." The meeting was addressed by:
Roger Knapman, then leader of the UK Independence Party;
Ashley Mote, then a UKIP Member of the European Parliament and author of Overcrowded Britain – Our Immigration Crisis Exposed (2004);
John Gouriet, a founder with Norris McWhirter of The Freedom Association;
Derek Turner, editor of Right Now! and the Quarterly Review magazines;
Sam Swerling, a consultant solicitor, Law Lecturer and former Monday Club chairman, who described Theresa May, MP, as "a third-rate operator";
Adrian Davies, then chairman of the Freedom Party, a barrister-at-law, who said "the ideal candidate for the Conservatives now was a black, one-legged lesbian."
On 6 October 2004, the Conservative Democratic Alliance held another meeting as a fringe event at the Conservative Party Conference, again in Bournemouth, in tribute to Enoch Powell.
The CDA planned to field its own candidates against Conservative MPs with small majorities at the 2005 General Election, concentrating on Oliver Letwin, the then Shadow Treasury Spokesman and MP for West Dorset, whom they described as "simply not a Conservative at all".
In the event no candidates stood for the CDA at the 2005 General Election, and Letwin held his seat. However, CDA Chairman Michael Keith Smith stood as the UKIP candidate for Portsmouth North. Unsuccessful Tory candidate Penny Mordaunt and political commentator Richard North blamed Smith's intervention for the Tories' failure to win back the seat.
The CDA's June 2005 Summer Dinner in Fleet Street, London, was addressed by the 'metric martyr', Neil Herron, who led the campaign against the adoption of the metric system in the UK. The previous year Herron had stood as an independent candidate in European Elections for North East England, gaining almost 40,000 votes, over 5.1%.
The CDA produced a regular bulletin, and maintained a website with discussion forums (now defunct).
Controversies
An anti-Conservative Party advertisement for the CDA was published in Right Now!, containing the statement that the CDA was "horrified by Tory frontbench spokesmen advocating gay lifestyles and New Labour ideas". Andrew Hunter MP withdrew his patronage from the magazine due to the appearance of the advert, saying that he was 'appalled' by the "antics" of the CDA and that he no longer wanted to be associated with the magazine "in any way".
Michael Keith Smith later described the advertisement, written by former CDA supporter Peter Gibbs, as "regrettably homophobic". Smith branded the incident "an untoward event" and promised that CDA will take a more "forward-looking and inclusive role in future".
In 2002, Iain Duncan Smith expelled CDA Chairman Mike Smith from the Conservative Party for threatening to stand candidates against Conservatives. Mike Smith issued a writ claiming Breach of Natural Justice and the party was obliged to re-admit him to membership. Soon afterwards, Smith resigned from the Conservative Party, and stood in the May 2005 general election as the UKIP parliamentary candidate for Portsmouth North, where the Labour victory was claimed by the Conservative candidate to be a result of the UKIP candidacy, a claim also made by Richard North of the Bruges Group.
During 2008 Mike Smith rapidly changed his stance and announced on the CDA's forum that he had rejoined the Conservative Party: "After wide-ranging initial doubts, Mike Smith has now enthusiastically accepted David Cameron's reform agenda and returned to the Conservative Party from UKIP." As a result, the CDA Committee met in September 2008 and agreed that it would be best if the CDA were wound up. In December, Mike Smith announced on the CDA forums that the CDA would be disbanding as he himself had now come to support the Tories again and wanted to campaign for them in the run-up to the next UK general election. He circulated a letter to all members and supporters saying that the CDA would be effectively replaced by the Traditional Britain Group and urging their support.
Michael Keith Smith died at Portchester, Fareham in Hampshire, on 3 July 2010.
References
Political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Conservative political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom
2002 establishments in the United Kingdom
2008 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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219159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative%20Monday%20Club | Conservative Monday Club | The Conservative Monday Club (usually known as the Monday Club) is a British political pressure group, aligned with the Conservative Party, though no longer endorsed by it. It also has links to the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) in Northern Ireland.
Founded in 1961, in the belief that the Macmillan ministry had taken the party too far to the left, the club became embroiled in the decolonisation and immigration debate, inevitably highlighting the controversial issue of race, which has dominated its image ever since. The club was known for its fierce opposition to non-White immigration to Britain and its support for apartheid-era South Africa and Rhodesia. By 1971, the club had 35 MPs, six of them ministers, and 35 peers, with membership (including branches) totalling about 10,000.
In 1982, the constitution was re-written, with more emphasis on support for the Conservative Party, but it remained autonomous from the party. In-fighting over the club's traditional Tory agenda led to many resignations in 1991. In 2001, the Conservative Party formally severed relations with the club, which has ceased to exercise significant influence, with full membership below 600.
History
Foundation and early years
The club was founded on 1 January 1961, by four young Conservative Party members, Paul Bristol (a 24-year-old shipbroker and the club's first chairman, who left the club in 1968), Ian Greig (Membership Secretary until 1969), Cedric Gunnery (Treasurer until 1992), and Anthony Maclaren. The club was formed "to force local party associations to discuss and debate party policy". Its first general policy statement deplored the tendency of recent Conservative governments to adopt policies based upon expediency and demanded that instead Tory principles should be the guiding influence. It believed that the principles needing to be reasserted included the preservation of the constitution and existing institutions, the freedom of the individual, the private ownership of property, and the need for Britain to play a leading part in world affairs.
The club disliked what it regarded as the expediency, cynicism and materialism which motivated Harold Macmillan's government. In addition it was concerned that during this period "the left wing of the Party (had) gained a predominant influence over policy" and that as a result the Conservative Party had shifted to the left, so that "the floating voter could not detect, as he should, major differences between it and the Socialists" and, furthermore, "loyal Conservatives had become disillusioned and dispirited". The club's published aims stated that it "seeks to evolve a dynamic application of traditional Tory principles".
The group brought together supporters of White Rhodesia and South Africa; the main impetus for the group's formation was the Conservatives' new decolonisation policies, in particular as a general reaction to Macmillan's 'Wind of Change' speech made in South Africa. The club stated that Macmillan had "turned the Party Left", and its first pamphlet opposed these policies as indicative of the Conservative Party's move towards liberalism. The club is notable for having promoted a policy of voluntary, or assisted, repatriation for non-white immigrants.
The 5th Marquess of Salisbury (1893–1972), who had resigned from Macmillan's Cabinet over the Prime Minister's liberal direction, became its first president in January 1962, when he stated "there was never a greater need for true conservatism than there is today". By the end of 1963 there were eleven Members of Parliament in the Club, which then had an overall membership of about 300. The club was courted by many Conservative politicians, including the Conservative Party leader Sir Alec Douglas-Home who was guest-of-honour at the club's annual dinners of 1964 and 1969, and Enoch Powell, who, in a speech in 1968, said that "it was due to the Monday Club that many are brought within the Conservative Party who might otherwise be estranged from it".
That year Alan Clark joined the club and was soon chairman of its Wiltshire branch. Under its chairman from 1964 to 1969, Paul Williams, who until 1964 had been MP for Sunderland South, the club enjoyed significant growth and influence. Some argued that the club had a disproportionate influence within Conservative circles, especially after six of its members who were MPs joined the Cabinet in 1970.
Harold Wilson, twice Labour Prime Minister, described the club as "the guardian of the Tory conscience". Oxford political scholar Roger Griffin referred to the club as practising an anti-socialist and elitist form of conservatism.
Membership
By 1970, eighteen Members of Parliament were club members:
Geoffrey Rippon (Hexham)
Julian Amery (Brighton Pavilion)
Ronald Bell QC (South Buckinghamshire)
Harold Gurden (Selly Oak)
Teddy Taylor (Glasgow Cathcart)
John Peyton (Yeovil)
Paul Williams (Sunderland South)
Duncan Sandys (Streatham)
Joseph Hiley (Pudsey)
John Biggs-Davison (Chigwell)
Stephen Hastings (Mid Bedfordshire)
Victor Goodhew (St Albans)
Wilfred Baker (Banffshire)
Jasper More (Ludlow)
Jill Knight (Edgbaston)
Patrick Wall (Haltemprice)
Mark Woodnutt (Isle of Wight)
Sir Jerry Wiggin (Weston-super-Mare)
In the 1970 Conservative Party election victory, six MPs who were club members were given Cabinet positions. In addition, the following club members were elected that year:
Geoffrey Stewart-Smith (Belper)
Patrick Cormack (Cannock)
Anthony Fell (Great Yarmouth)
Robert Boscawen (Wells)
Harold Soref (Ormskirk)
William Benyon (Buckingham)
Roger White (Gravesend)
Peter Rost (South East Derbyshire)
Norman Tebbit (Epping)
Piers Dixon (Truro)
David James (North Dorset)
John Heydon Stokes (Oldbury and Halesowen)
Among sitting MPs who joined the club after that and other elections, along with those who became MPs were:
Alan Clark (Plymouth Sutton and Kensington & Chelsea)
Harvey Proctor (Basildon)
Sir Stephen McAdden (Southend East)
Richard Body (Holland with Boston)
Sir Ronald Russell (Wembley South)
George Gardiner (Reigate)
William Craig (Belfast East)
Gerald Howarth (Aldershot)
Evelyn King (South Dorset)
John Carlisle (Luton North)
Rhodes Boyson (Brent North)
The Hon. Archibald Hamilton (Epsom and Ewell)
Tim Janman (Thurrock)
Peter Bottomley (Worthing West)
Colin Campbell Mitchell (West Aberdeenshire)
Bernard Braine (Castle Point)
James Molyneaux (Lagan Valley)
John Taylor (Strangford)
Neil Hamilton (Tatton)
Robert Taylor (Croydon North West)
Nicholas Winterton (Macclesfield)
Ann Winterton (Congleton)
Peers of the House of Lords who were Monday Club members:
George Murray, 10th Duke of Atholl
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 6th Marquess of Salisbury
Dermot Chichester, 7th Marquess of Donegall
Patrick Maitland, 17th Earl of Lauderdale
Victor Montagu, 10th Earl of Sandwich
Charles Carnegie, 11th Earl of Southesk
John Wodehouse, 4th Earl of Kimberley
George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe
John Whyte-Melville-Skeffington, 13th Viscount Massereene
John Skeffington, 14th Viscount Massereene
Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton
Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley
Jonathan Guinness, 3rd Baron Moyne
Vernon Willey, 2nd Baron Barnby
Wavell Wakefield, 1st Baron Wakefield of Kendal
Other notable members:
General Sir Walter Walker KCB, CBE, DSO & bar
Sir Adrian FitzGerald, 24th Knight of Kerry
Sir Horace Cutler – Leader of Greater London Council from 1977–1981
Sir James Goldsmith
Sir Victor Raikes, former Conservative MP for Liverpool Garston (1931–1957)
Commander Anthony Courtney, former Conservative MP for Harrow East (1959–1966)
Juliet Rhys-Williams, Lady Rhys-Williams DBE
Vernon Willey, 2nd Baron Barnby
A number of other Monday Club members contested Labour-held seats, some of which had large majorities, and although the challenge was unsuccessful; their majorities were reduced. These included: Tim Keigwin, who almost unseated the Liberal leader Jeremy Thorpe at North Devon, Councillor John Pritchard of Bromley London Borough Council who contested Wrexham and Norwood and David Clarke, whose personal campaign assistant was the Chairman of the Club's Young Members' Group, Christopher Horne, and who failed by only 76 votes at Watford.
By 1971, the club "undoubtedly had the largest membership of any conservative group and included 55 different groups in universities and colleges, 35 Members of Parliament with six in the government, and 35 Peers". At the club's Annual General Meeting on 26 April 1971, in Westminster Central Hall, the Chairman, George Pole, announced that "our membership, including national, branches and universities is around 10,000."
MP John Biggs-Davison, in his foreword to Robert Copping's second book on the history of the club, stated that "by its principles [the club] has kept alive true Tory beliefs and held within its ranks many who contemplated defecting from the Conservative and Unionist Party". The club's chairman in June 1981, David Storey, described it as "an anchor to a ship", referring to the Conservative Party.
The Thatcher years
The club's revised constitution (21 May 1984) stated that "the objects of the Club are to support the Conservative & Unionist Party in policies designed:
to maintain loyalty to the Crown and to uphold the sovereignty of Parliament, the security of the realm, and defence of the nation against external aggression and internal subversion;
to safeguard the liberty of the subject and integrity of the family in accordance with the customs, traditions, and character of the British people;
to maintain the British constitution in obedience and respect for the laws of the land, freedom of worship and our national heritage;
to promote an economy consistent with national aspirations and Tory ideals;
to encourage members of the club to play an active part, at all levels, in the affairs of the Conservative and Unionist Party."
During the period that Margaret Thatcher led the Conservative Party, the Monday Club were prolific publishers of booklets, pamphlets, policy papers, an occasional newspaper, Right Ahead, and a magazine Monday World edited for some years by Sir Adrian FitzGerald, Bart., Sam Swerling, and later, Eleanor Dodd. In the October 1982 edition, MP Harvey Proctor called for the scrapping of the Commission for Racial Equality, Sir Patrick Wall commented on the Falklands War, James Molyneaux had an article "What Future for Ulster", and Dr. Harvey Ward had an article on "Zimbabwe Today". The September 1984 edition of Monday News carried the headline "Kinnock Talks to Terrorists", quoting former Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock's declaration to the African National Congress's Oliver Tambo that the ANC in South Africa could expect financial and material assistance from a future Labour government. Other attacks were made upon then-Greater London Council leader Ken Livingstone inviting Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams to visit London in 1982.
Old Guard departs
In 1988–89, a group of longstanding members, led by Gregory Lauder-Frost, the club's Foreign Affairs Committee chairman, succeeded in getting elected to the key posts on the Executive Council, with Dr. Mark Mayall as Deputy Chairman, and Lauder-Frost as the Political Secretary.
At the beginning of January 1991, the Monday Club News announced the abolition of the only salaried position, that of Director (then held by the Club's Treasurer, Cedric Gunnery, one of the Club's founders). Although this was due to the club's precarious financial state, some felt more sinister moves afoot. Negative news stories began emerging and resignations followed. An internal investigation followed. The chairman, David Storey, lost an almost unanimous vote of no confidence on 17 January 1991, and his membership was terminated by the club's Executive Council on 11 February on the grounds that "he has engaged in behaviour prejudicial to the best interests, reputation, objects, and other members of the Monday Club; by abusing his position as Chairman in encouraging members to leave the Monday Club and to join a new political group". Dr. Mayall became Acting Chairman until the May AGM when he was confirmed in that post by election. By 1992, the new team had the national (as opposed to branches) membership over 1600 again.
A criminal conviction for fraud, resulting in a 2-year prison sentence, forced Lauder-Frost's departure on 31 May 1992 and subsequently the club descended into infighting, with more departures and failed expulsion attempts resulting in huge legal bills. Dr. Mark Mayall's term as chairman expired in April 1993 and he left the group. Control passed effectively into the hands of Denis Walker, a former Minister for Education in the Rhodesian government. He changed the role of the club from a pressure group to a Conservative Party support group, bringing in a rule that all members must firstly be members of the party, something that prior to 1992 had been constantly opposed.
Organisation
Premises
The national club established its offices at 51–53 Victoria Street, a few minutes' walk from the Palace of Westminster. The club was, however, always a pressure group, remaining separate from the Conservative Party organisation. Around 1980, the Victoria Street building was cleared for demolition, and the club moved its offices to 122 Newgate Street, London, EC1, opposite the Old Bailey. High rents forced another move to 4 Orlando Road, Clapham Common, and finally, in 1991, the club's office was moved to an office belonging to W. Denis Walker, opposite Highams Park railway station in Waltham Forest, east London, with new telephone numbers, and a new Post Office Box number in central London. The newsletter stated that "it is our long-term aim to relocate back to the very heart of London".
Branches
In addition to the national club, which operated through an elected Executive Council and numerous policy groups or committees, there were semi-autonomous county branches, a Young Members Monday Club, and numerous university Monday Clubs, the most prominent and active being at the University of Oxford.
Policy committees
The Monday Club had various study groups (later renamed policy committees) including:
Immigration and Repatriation: notable chairmen being George Kennedy Young CB, MBE; Harvey Proctor MP; The Honourable Jonathan Guinness; John Bercow, later an MP and former Speaker of the House of Commons, was committee secretary 1981-82;
Africa and Rhodesia: Harold Soref MP
Home Affairs;
Aviation;
Economics: George Kennedy Young CB, MBE; Geoffrey Baber, Piers Dixon, MP
Taxation: David Rowell, LL.B.
Universities Group; Graham Webster-Gardiner, Richard Turnbull, Michael Clack
Young Members Group; Christopher Horne, the Conservative Party candidate in both 1974 General Elections in the Manchester Central and Meriden Constituencies, Dr. Anna Bramwell, David Rowell, Eleanor Dodd, John R. Pinniger, AVR Smith, Rod Morris.
Defence: The Honourable Archibald Hamilton MP; Major Sir Patrick Wall MP KBE, MC, VRD; Commander Anthony Courtney MP OBE; Rear-Admiral Martin Wemyss CB
Foreign Affairs: Geoffrey Stewart-Smith MP; The Earl of Kimberley, John Carlisle MP and Gregory Lauder-Frost.
Foreign affairs
Anti-communism
The club was anti-communist and had an active Defence Committee chaired for over 15 years by Sir Patrick Wall, MP, MC, and produced much literature on the perceived threat posed by Soviets and communists everywhere.
When it appeared that communism was failing in the Eastern Bloc, the club's Foreign Affairs Committee in 1990 called upon Members of Parliament to be ready and to argue for the German borders to be restored to the position they stood at on 1 January 1938, saying there must be no gains for communism. By challenging the Oder-Neisse line, the club was arguing for Germany should take back all of the parts of Poland and the Soviet Union that been part of Germany in 1938, through what was to happen to the Poles living in such cites as Wrocław (formerly the German city of Breslau), Szczecin (formerly the German city of Stettin), and the Russians living in Kaliningrad (formerly the German city of Königsberg) was left unexplained.
Club officers, including Gregory Lauder-Frost, Denis Walker, and Lord Sudeley, attended a Western Goals Institute dinner in September 1989 in honour of Salvadorian president Alfredo Cristiani, whose military was at the time fighting the FMLN.
The club also took a hard line on the return of White Russians by the British Army to Joseph Stalin's Red Army in 1945–6, who executed nearly all of them. In this respect it gave its support to Count Nikolai Tolstoy, historian and author of Victims of Yalta and The Minister and the Massacres, who was then being sued for libel, by holding a dinner for him at London's Charing Cross Hotel on 26 October 1988.
Africa
The club opposed what it described as the "premature" independence of Kenya, and the breakup of the Central African Federation, which was the subject of its first major public meeting in September 1961. It was fundamentally opposed to decolonisation, and defended white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia.
During the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) period in Rhodesia, the club strongly backed the White minority government of Ian Smith and the Rhodesian Front, being seen as its strongest supporters in Britain. In November 1963, the club had hosted a large reception for Smith at the Howard Hotel in London. That was followed the next year by receptions for Clifford Dupont and Moise Tshombe. The club continued its support for white minority rule in South Africa, with Lauder-Frost organising a large dinner in central London, on 5 June 1989, for its guest-of-honour Dr Andries Treurnicht, leader of the pro-apartheid Conservative Party of South Africa, and his delegation. Tim Janman, MP, and the Lord Sudeley were amongst those present from Parliament.
Croatia
The government of Franjo Tuđman in Croatia invited the Monday Club to send a delegation to observe its conflict with Serbia, in October 1991, when the war for Croatian independence from the tottering Yugoslavia was at its height, with the armies of both sides engaged in serious fighting. The Club delegation arrived just days after the Yugoslav Air Force bombing of the historic upper city in Zagreb. It was the first British political delegation to go to Croatia during the conflict.
European Union
Debate within the club was intense on the European issue. In the early days of the European Economic Community (EEC) one of the club's MPs, Geoffrey Rippon, was so pro-EEC that he was known as "Mr. Europe". Because of the divisions within the club on this issue the decision was taken not to have a policy on it. However, by 1980 the mood had changed. A club discussion paper in October 1980 was entitled "Do Tories Really want to Scrap 80% of Britain's Fishing Fleet", and the club adopted a firm anti-European Union (EU) position. Teddy Taylor, an anti-EEC MP, became chairman of the club's EEC Affairs Policy Committee and authored a club policy paper in December 1982 entitled "Proposals to Rescue the British Fishing Industry". The club's Scottish branch's newspaper, The Challenger, carried a further article against the EEC by Taylor in September 1985 entitled "Swallowing the Nation".
Enoch Powell also spoke against the EEC at one of the Monday Club's fringe meetings at the Conservative Party Conference at Blackpool on 8 October 1991, with Lauder-Frost presiding, which was filmed and broadcast on BBC TV's Newsnight that night. In 1992, the chairman, Dr. Mark Mayall, authored another club booklet entitled: Maastricht: The High Tide of European Federalism, a fierce attack on the EEC.
Immigration
In September 1972, the club held a "Halt Immigration Now!" public meeting in Westminster Central Hall, opposite Parliament, at which the speakers Ronald Bell, QC, MP, John Biggs-Davison, MP, Harold Soref, MP, and John Heydon Stokes, MP, (all club members) called on the government to halt all immigration, repeal the Race Relations Act, not the separate Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968, and start a full repatriation scheme. A resolution was drafted, approved by the meeting, and delivered to the Prime Minister, Edward Heath, who replied that "the government had no intention of repealing the Race Relations Act". When Reginald Maudling resigned from the Cabinet, the Liberal leader, Jeremy Thorpe, commented that "Mr. Heath has been left to wrestle with the Monday Club single-handed."
In October 1982, the Monday Club published its latest, slightly revised, policy on immigration. It called for:
Scrapping of the Commission for Racial Equality and Community Relations Councils.
Repeal of the race relations laws.
An end to the use of race or colour as criteria for the distribution of state benefits and loans.
An end to positive discrimination and all special treatment based upon race or colour.
An end to all further large-scale permanent immigration from the New Commonwealth.
An improved repatriation scheme with generous resettlement grants for all those from New Commonwealth countries who wish to take advantage of them.
The redesignation of the Ministry of Overseas Aid as a Ministry for Overseas Resettlement.
The club's position on immigration was reiterated in a letter in The Times from Lauder-Frost on the club's behalf in October 1991, in which he stated that the annual levels of immigration "were unacceptable" and called for "the strictest possible entry to Britain for those of other cultures".
Northern Ireland
Following an Official Irish Republican Army (IRA) bombing at Aldershot, Hampshire, in February 1972, club member and MP Jill Knight called for legislation to outlaw the Official IRA and its political wing, Official Sinn Féin. The club was opposed to the dismantling of the Stormont government in Northern Ireland and the imposition of direct rule.
Controversies and criticism
The Guardian claimed in 1968 that the organisation was "probably the nearest British equivalent to the American John Birch Society". It was claimed by opponents of the club that many members had drawn closer to the National Front, it being reported as early as 1973 that NF members were moving to take over branches of the club. The negative publicity led to a crisis culminating in a series of purges, mainly in Club branches.
In his Diaries, Alan Clark describes speaking to the Monday Club in 1982: "I really cannot bear the Monday Club. They are all mad, quite different from its heyday, when it was a right-wing pressure group at the time of Ted Heath's Government. Now they are a prickly residue in the body politic, a nasty sort of gallstone."
The playwright David Edgar described the Monday Club, in 1986, as "proselytis[ing] the ancient and venerable conservative traditions of paternalism, imperialism and racism."
On 24 February 1991, The Observer ran a lengthy article entitled "Far Right takes over the Monday Club", stating that a number of senior members had tendered their resignations in protest at the club's "takeover" by "extreme right-wingers", some of whom were also members of the Western Goals Institute. The Club's solicitors, Rubenstein, Callingham & Gale, sent a formal letter of protest to the editor of The Observer about the article, and demanded a right of reply for the Club. The editor agreed and Lauder-Frost, writing on behalf of the club, subsequently challenged the article's accusations in a Letter to the Editor, which was published the following Sunday. He denied that a takeover had occurred, claimed that none of the club's policies had changed and that its direction was consistent with its aims and historical principles.
After the defeats in the 1997 general election and 2001 general election, the Conservative Party began decisive moves towards becoming more centrist; the 2002–2003 party chairman and future Prime Minister, Theresa May, would later state that it had been perceived by voters as the "Nasty Party". The then party leader, Iain Duncan Smith, suspended the Monday Club's longstanding links with the party in October 2001, saying his party would have nothing to do with the organisation unless it stopped making "distasteful" remarks on race and immigration. Since 1993 new full members of the club must be members of the Conservative Party, though there is no such requirement for associate membership. Monday Club observers, such as Denis Walker, have attended Democratic Unionist Party conferences.
In 2002 the club was described as a "bastion on the Tory hard right" by BBC News Online. The club's agenda stresses support for what it calls "traditional Conservative values", including "resistance to 'political correctness.
Suspension of links by the Conservative Party (2001)
Faction fighting within the club following Lauder-Frost's departure led to a period of instability and a resulting loss of membership. The club's influence declined. Although the Monday Club was a completely autonomous pressure-group and not part of the Conservative Party organisation, Conservative Party chairman David Davis informed the club's National Executive in 2001 that links between it and the party were being severed until it stopped promoting several of its (long-held and established) policies such as the voluntary repatriation of ethnic minorities. Davis later told the media: "I have told them that until a number of things are concluded—particularly some concerns about the membership of the club, and a review of the club's constitution and a requirement that the club will not promulgate or discuss policies relating to race—the club is suspended from any association with the Conservative party". Three MPs, Andrew Hunter, Andrew Rosindell and Angela Watkinson, were ordered to resign from the club.
On 10 May 2002, the BBC reported that the club sought to restore its links with the Conservative Party. At the following club Annual General meeting in April 2002, members approved two motions proposed by Michael Keith Smith (also Chairman of the Conservative Democratic Alliance): one reaffirming the club's opposition to mass immigration, and another empowering Club officers to institute legal action against the Conservative Party following the club's 'suspension' by them. A third motion, asking the club to call for the sacking of John Bercow, then Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury, and former Monday Club member, for his "hypocrisy", was defeated.
The Times reported on 2 June 2006 that, as the club "is now slowly nudging back into the mainstream, many members feel that it is time to return to the fold".
The Monday Club, having changed its original raison d'être as a pressure group in 1993, and whose membership is now said to be back below 600, currently has very little influence on the agenda of the Conservative Party. Many of its former members joined the (now-defunct) Conservative Democratic Alliance and the Traditional Britain Group.
The group's website lists its priorities as the maintaining the monarchy and the Union; protecting the "family unit"; restoring law and order; opposition to Britain's membership in the EU; promoting a "sound economy" and a "robust defence capability"; opposition to "political correctness" and maintaining traditional values.
Monday Club publications
Notes
References
Copping, Robert, No Punches Pulled - Britain Today, Current Affairs Information Service (CAIS), Ilford, Essex, n/d but probably circa 1970 (P/B).
Copping, Robert, The Story of The Monday Club - The First Decade, (i) (Foreword by George Pole), Current Affairs Information Service, Ilford, Essex, April 1972 (P/B).
Copping, Robert, The Monday Club - Crisis and After, (foreword by John Biggs-Davison, MP), (ii) CAIS, Ilford, May 1975 (P/B).
Rose, Professor Richard, Politics in England - Persistence and Change, London, 1st published 1965. 4th edition 1985, p. 301,
Heffer, Simon, Like the Roman: The Life of Enoch Powell, London, 1998, (many references to the Monday Club).
Coxall, Bill, and Lynton Robins, Contemporary British Politics, Macmillan Press, Basingstoke, 1993 reprint, (P/B), Monday Club profile on p. 239.
External links
Parliament & Europe: 1967 Monday Club Pamphlet - UK Parliament Living Heritage
Conservative political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Political and economic think tanks based in the United Kingdom
Foreign policy and strategy think tanks based in the United Kingdom
Anti-communist organizations
Anti-immigration politics in the United Kingdom
Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom
1961 establishments in the United Kingdom
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219162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Halvorsen | Johan Halvorsen | Johan Halvorsen (15 March 1864 – 4 December 1935) was a Norwegian composer, conductor and violinist.
Life
Born in Drammen, he was an accomplished violinist from a very early age and became a prominent figure in Norwegian musical life. He received his musical education in Kristiania (now Oslo) and Stockholm, and was a concertmaster in Bergen before joining the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. He was a concertmaster in Aberdeen, then a professor of music in Helsinki, and finally became a student once again, in St Petersburg, Leipzig (with Adolph Brodsky), Berlin (with Adolf Becker), and Liège (with César Thomson).
Returning to Norway in 1893, he worked as conductor of the theatre orchestra at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen and of the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra. He became concertmaster of the Bergen Philharmonic in 1885, and principal conductor in 1893. In 1899 he was appointed conductor of the orchestra at the newly opened National Theatre in Kristiania, a position he held for 30 years until his retirement in 1929.
As well as theatre music, Halvorsen conducted performances of over 30 operas and also wrote the incidental music for more than 30 plays. Following his retirement from the theatre he finally had time to concentrate on the composition of his three symphonies and two well-known Norwegian rhapsodies.
Halvorsen's compositions were a development of the national romantic tradition exemplified by Edvard Grieg though written in a distinctive style marked by innovative orchestration. Halvorsen married Grieg's niece, and orchestrated some of his piano works, such as a funeral march which was played at Grieg's funeral. Five days after Halvorsen died, Grieg's cousin and widow Nina Grieg also died.
His best known works today are the Bojarenes inntogsmarsj (Entry March of the Boyars) and Bergensiana, along with his Passacaglia and Sarabande, duos for violin and viola based on themes by George Frideric Handel.
In early 2016, librarians at the University of Toronto announced that they had located the manuscript score of his violin concerto, performed only three times in 1909 and considered lost. The piece received its fourth performance, 107 years later, in 2016.
Selected compositions
Operetta
Mod Nordpolen, in 3 acts (1911); libretto by Vilhelm Dybwad
Incidental music
Gurre, Op. 17; music for the play by Holger Drachmann
Nordraakiana
Askeladden
Reisen til Julestjernen (Journey to the Christmas Star); music for the play by Sverre Brandt
Tordenskjold, Op. 18; music for the historical play by Jacob Breda Bull
Kongen (The King), Op. 19; music for the play by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson
Fossegrimen, Op. 21; music for the play by Sigurd Eldegard
Vasantasena; music for the old Indian play
The Merchant of Venice; music for the Shakespeare play
Much Ado about Nothing (1915); music for the Shakespeare play
Livet i skogen, Op. 33; music for William Shakespeare's As You Like It
Dronning Tamara (Queen Tamara); music for the play by Knut Hamsun
Macbeth (1920); music for the Shakespeare play
Orchestra
Bojarenes inntogsmarsj (Entry March of the Boyars) for orchestra (or concert band) (1895)
Festovertyre (Norwegian Festival Overture), Op. 16 (1899)
Nächtlicher Zug from Miniatures for string orchestra, Op. 29 No. 2 (1910); arrangement by the composer
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in Memoriam, Op. 30 (1910)
Norway's Greeting to Theodore Roosevelt, Op. 31 (1910)
Suite ancienne to the Memory of Ludvig Holberg, Op. 31 (1911)
Festmarsj (Festival March). Op. 32
Scène funèbre
Sérénade, Op. 33 (1913)
Bergensiana, Rococo Variations on an Old Melody from Bergen "Jeg tog min nystemte Cithar i Hænde" (I Took Up My Newly Tuned Zither) (1913)
Norske rapsodie No. 1 (Norwegian Rhapsody No. 1) in A major (1919–1920)
Springar
I went so lately to my bed
Halling - Springar
Norske rapsodie No. 2 (Norwegian Rhapsody No. 2) in G major (1919–1920)
Dance tune from Åmot
Han Ole
Springar
Symphony No. 1 in C minor (1923)
Symphony No. 2 "Fatum" in D minor (1924, revised 1928)
Symphony No. 3 in C major (1929)
Norske eventyrbylleder (Norwegian Fairy-tale Pictures), Op. 37 (1933); reworking of 1925 incidental music
Peik, prinsessen og stortrollet (Peik, the Princess and the Big Troll)
Prinsessen kommer ridende på bjørnen (The Princess Comes Riding on a Bear)
Trollenes inntog i berget det blå (Entry of the Trolls into the Town Hall)
Dans av småtroll (Dance of the Little Trolls)
Festovertyre (Norwegian Festival Overture), Op. 38
Elegi for string orchestra
Forspill til den hvite Ring
Rabnabryllaup uti Kraakjalund, Norwegian Folk-Song Arrangement for string orchestra
Concert band
Hallingdal Bataljon's Marsj (1882–1883)
Gatemarsj (Street March)
Norwegian Sea Picture
Salutation to the Royal Couple of Norway
Concertante
Air norvégien (Norwegian Air) for violin and orchestra, Op. 7 (1896/1903).
Veslemøy's Song for violin and orchestra (1898); dedicated to Kathleen Parlow
Norwegian Song "The Old Fisherman's Song" for violin and string orchestra, Op. 31 (1901, 1913)
Andante Religioso for violin and orchestra (1903)
Concerto in G minor for violin and orchestra, Op. 28 (1909); dedicated to Kathleen Parlow
Bryllupsmarsch, Norwegian Wedding March for violin and orchestra, Op. 32 No. 1
Danses norvégiennes No. 1 for violin and orchestra (1915)
Danses norvégiennes No. 2 for violin and orchestra (1915)
Chamber music
6 Stimmungsbilder (6 Mood Pieces) for violin and piano (1890)
Suite in G minor for violin and piano (1890)
Danses norvégiennes for violin and piano (1897)
Elegie (Andante) for violin and piano (1897)
Passacaglia in G minor on a Theme by George Frideric Handel (from Harpsichord Suite in G minor, HWV 432) for violin and viola (1897)
Sarabande con variazioni in D minor on a Theme by George Frideric Handel for violin and viola (1897)
Crépuscule for violin and piano (c. 1898)
Suite Mosaïque for violin and piano (1898)
Intermezzo orientale
Entr'acte
Scherzino – "Spurven" (The Sparrow)
Veslemøys sang (Veslemøy's Song)
Fête nuptial rustique (An Old-fashioned Wedding)
String Quartet in E, Op. 10
Little Dance Suite for violin and piano, Op. 22
Slåtter, Peasant Dances for violin solo (1903)
Miniatures, 5 Easy Pieces for 2 violins and piano, Op. 29 (1910)
To serenader (Two Serenades) for violin and piano
Norske viser og danse (Norwegian Folk Songs and Dances), 30 Folk Arrangements for violin and piano
Concert Caprice on Norwegian Melodies for 2 violins
Choral
Varde, Cantata for male chorus and orchestra, Op. 11 (1904); words by Per Sivle
Alrune for soprano solo, female chorus and chamber orchestra, Op. 20 No. 1
Kantate ved kroningen i Trondhjems Domkirke den 22 juni 1906 for soprano, baritone, mixed chorus, orchestra, harp and organ, Op. 27 (1906); words by Sigvald Skavlan
Bergensiana for mixed chorus
Media
References
External links
Johan Halvorsen — Beyond the Transitory
1864 births
1935 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male conductors (music)
19th-century conductors (music)
20th-century classical composers
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century Norwegian male musicians
Male conductors (music)
Musicians from Bergen
Norwegian classical composers
Norwegian conductors (music)
Norwegian male classical composers
Norwegian Romantic composers
Musicians from Drammen
Norwegian military musicians
20th-century Norwegian composers | [
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219165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom%20Party%20%28United%20Kingdom%29 | Freedom Party (United Kingdom) | The Freedom Party was a political party in the United Kingdom, active between 2000 and 2006.
History
The party was founded in December 2000 by former members of the British National Party (BNP), dubbed "ultra-Tories" by BNP leader Nick Griffin, who were disaffected with the party's refusal to moderate its position on race. They were expelled following a feud with the BNP leadership and allegations of financial irregularities and misconduct. Most prominent were two party activists in the West Midlands, husband and wife Steve Edwards (who became Freedom Party agent) and Sharron Edwards (formerly deputy chairman of the BNP and then deputy chairman of the Freedom Party). Adrian Davies was Party Chairman and Michael Newland was the treasurer. Most of the leadership were prominent in the Bloomsbury Forum, a right-wing discussion group.
The party was primarily anti-immigration, although it claimed to place more of an emphasis on culture rather than race. It was more mainstream on issues such as race than the British National Party, with which it had a stormy relationship. The party aimed to appeal to 'reasonable people'. It believed in a Keynesian approach to the economy, and was also protectionist.
In 2004 the Freedom Party was involved in founding the English Lobby, a pressure group and electoral coalition which campaigns for the recognition of St George's Day and the creation of an English Parliament. The Freedom Party has since withdrawn from the Lobby.
The Freedom Party first stood in 2001 for Staffordshire County Council in Wombourne South West. In May 2003, Sharron Edwards was elected in that ward with 640 votes (40.54%), holding her seat until 2007. The party's only candidate in the 2005 general election was Adrian Davies, who contested South Staffordshire. The death of a candidate led to the election there being postponed from May 5 to June 23. The Freedom Party polled 473 votes (1.7%).
The party was dissolved in 2006.
References
Political parties established in 2000
Defunct political parties in England
2000 establishments in the United Kingdom
Political parties disestablished in 2006
2006 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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219172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home%20counties | Home counties | The home counties are the counties of England that surround London. The counties are not precisely defined but Buckinghamshire and Surrey are usually included in definitions and Berkshire, Essex, Hertfordshire and Kent are also often included. Other counties further from London — such as Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, East Sussex and West Sussex — are not normally regarded as home counties, although on occasion may be thought of as such due to their proximity to London and their connection to the London regional economy.
Since the origin of the term "home counties" is uncertain and no exact definition exists, their composition is a matter of debate.
Etymology
The origin of the term "home counties" is uncertain. Marcus Crouch, writing in 1975, thought that it derived from the Home Counties Circuit of courts that since at least the 18th century had surrounded London. Looking further back, he suggested that it included the counties in which, since Tudor times, it has been possible for civil servants and politicians to have their country homes and still be able to travel into London without excessive delay when they were needed. A distant Anglo-Saxon origin has also been speculated.
Composition
The earliest use of the term cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1695. Charles Davenant, in An essay upon ways and means of supplying the war, wrote, "The Eleven Home Counties, which are thought in Land Taxes to pay more than their proportion, viz. Surry [sic] with Southwark, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridgshire, Kent, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, Berks, Bucks, and Oxfordshire."
Later definitions have tended to be more narrow and Bacon's Large Scale Atlas of London and Suburbs (revised edition c. 1912) includes Berkshire, Buckingham, Essex, Hertford, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey in the "maps of the home counties".
In reviewing S. P. B. Mais's The Home Counties (Batsford The Face of Britain series, 1942), Norah Richardson noted that "the home counties" was a term in constant use but hard to define, but that Mais's definition of "the five counties around London County - Middlesex, Hertfordshire, Essex, Kent and Surrey" could not be improved upon.
The term is sometimes understood to mean those counties which, on their borders closest to London, have been partly subsumed into London. Indeed, the former county of Middlesex has been almost wholly within London since 1965 as have parts of Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey, although the county continues to exist as a cultural and historic entity.
The third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (2010) defines the term as "the English counties surrounding London, into which London has extended. They comprise chiefly Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Hertfordshire." Parts of all of those historic counties are, since 1965, officially within London, although no part of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire or Sussex is. The county of Sussex is also wholly outside, and Berkshire almost wholly outside, the route of the M25 motorway, which is often treated as an unofficial perimeter of Greater London, and some definitions mention that those counties are not always included amongst the home counties, or that the term has been extended to include them.
A survey in 2019 by YouGov found that Buckinghamshire, Surrey and Berkshire were the most widely recognised as being in the home counties. Somewhat less well recognised were Hertfordshire, Kent and Essex. Few people considered Sussex (or the ceremonial counties of East and West Sussex) to be part of the home counties and relatively few people included Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire or Hampshire.
Inhabitants
The home counties have been characterised as being "inhabited on the whole by 'nice', comfortable, and conformist middle-class people" (1987) exemplified by the county of Surrey which has been described as possessing quintessential home counties characteristics of "a comfortable plasticized commuterland with respectable villas and neatly mown lawns interspersed with patches of mild scenery". In fiction, the character of Margot Leadbetter in the BBC sitcom The Good Life, set in Surbiton, formerly in Surrey, has been described by The Spectator as "a Home Counties Conservative to her fingertips", as have the characters of the Dursleys in the Harry Potter books.
Marcus Crouch, however, has made the point that the home counties have been more affected by migration from within and without the United Kingdom than any other region of the country, making them the most cosmopolitan region of England and meaning that there is no typical home counties inhabitant. One result of this diversity, he argues, is that local loyalties are shallower in the home counties than in, for instance, Yorkshire or parts of Scotland where there has been less population mobility.
Geography
Marcus Crouch has identified one of the principal characteristics of the home counties as being a shared chalk geology that is broadly mirrored north and south of the Thames.
Economy
The home counties are some of the wealthiest in Britain with the towns of Virginia Water, Esher and Weybridge, all in Surrey, ranked in one 2019 survey as having some of the highest average house prices in the country. However, a 2011 report described the perception that South East England, the official region of England in which most of the home counties are located, was universally wealthy as inaccurate and noted that 500,000 people in the region lived in areas that were within the 20% most deprived areas in the country with deprivation concentrated in coastal areas such as Margate (Kent) and Hastings (East Sussex). Significant areas of deprivation were also found in the urban areas of south Hampshire and Slough.
In official use
Multiple definitions of the term have been used in legislation and by official bodies. In the twentieth century, for instance, as follows: (the table includes all the areas mentioned above):
1908: The Home Counties Division of the Territorial Force comprised units recruiting in Middlesex, Kent, Surrey and Sussex.
1920: The London and Home Counties Electricity District consisted of the counties of London and Middlesex; and parts of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey.
1924: The London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee, covering the London Traffic Area: London, Middlesex, and parts of Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, and Surrey.
1926: The Home Counties (Music and Dancing) Licensing Act regulated activities in all parts of Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey within 20 miles of the City of London or City of Westminster.
1938: Green Belt (London and Home Counties) Act limited development in parts of Middlesex, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Surrey, Essex, Berkshire, and Hertfordshire.
1948: The Home Counties Brigade was formed to administer the infantry regiments of the City and County of London, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey, and Sussex.
See also
Bibliography of the home counties
London commuter belt
Metro-land
Suburbia
Notes
References
Sources
External links
The Association of British Counties
Why are the counties around London called the "Home counties"? The Guardian
Counties of England
Geography of London
Geography of Berkshire
Geography of Buckinghamshire
Geography of Essex
Geography of Hertfordshire
Geography of Kent
Geography of Surrey
Geography of Sussex
Greater London
Southern England
Vernacular geography | [
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219177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20conservatism | Social conservatism | Social conservatism is a political philosophy and variety of conservatism which places emphasis on traditional power structures over social pluralism. They also engaged with the economic insecurity of lower-class Protestant Americans, McCarthyism and other challenges to social institutions. Social conservatives often promoted the organisation and politicisation of social issues.
Sociologist Harry F. Dahms suggests that social conservatism relates to a "commitment" to traditional values concerned with family structures, sexual relations, patriotism, gun ownership and military invasions, describing Christian doctrinal conservatives (anti-abortion, anti-gay marriage) and gun-use conservatives (pro-NRA) as the two domains of ideology within. Social conservatives also value the rights of religious institutions to participate in the public sphere, thus supporting government-religious endorsement and opposing state atheism.
Social conservatism and other ideological views
Some social conservatives (such as George W. Bush and Michael Gerson) are otherwise free trade and market supporter on economic and fiscal issues. Social conservatives may sometimes support economic intervention where the intervention serves moral or cultural aims. Historian Jon Wiener has described social conservatism as historically the result of an appeal from "elitist preservationists" to lower-class workers to 'protect' wealth from immigration. Many social conservatives support a balance between protectionism and a free market. This concern for material welfare, like advocacy of traditional mores, will often have a basis in religion. Examples include the Christian Social Union of Bavaria, the Family First Party and Katter's Australian Party, and the communitarian movement in the United States.
There is more overlap between social conservatism and paleoconservatism, in that they both have respect for traditional social forms.
Social conservatism is not to be confused with economically interventionist conservatism, where conservative ideas are combined with Keynesian economics and a welfare state, which is practised by some European conservatives, e.g. one-nation conservatives in Britain or Gaullists in France.
Social conservatism by country
Canada
In Canada, social conservatism, though widespread, is not as prominent in the public sphere as in the United States. It is prevalent in all areas of the country but is seen as being more prominent in rural areas. It is also a significant influence on the ideological and political culture of the western provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia.
Compared to social conservatism in the United States, social conservatism has not been as influential in Canada. The main reason is that the neoconservative style of politics as promoted by leaders such as former Prime Ministers such as Paul Martin and Stephen Harper have focused on fiscal conservatism, with little or no emphasis on moral or social conservatism. Without a specific, large political party behind them, social conservatives have divided their votes and can be found in all political parties.
Social conservatives often felt that they were being sidelined by officials in the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada and its leadership of so-called "Red Tories" for the last half of the twentieth century and therefore many eventually made their political home with parties such as the Social Credit Party of Canada and the Reform Party of Canada. Despite the Reform Party being dominated by social conservatives, leader Preston Manning, seeking greater national support for the party, was reluctant for the party to wholly embrace socially conservative values. This led to his deposition as leader of the party (now called Canadian Alliance) in favor of social conservative Stockwell Day. The party's successor, the Conservative Party of Canada, despite having a number of socially conservative members and cabinet ministers, has chosen so far not to focus on socially conservative issues in its platform. This was most recently exemplified on two occasions in 2012 when the current Conservative Party of Canada declared they had no intention to repeal same-sex marriage or abortion laws.
Islamic world
Most Muslim countries are somewhat more socially conservative (such as Tajikistan, Malaysia and Indonesia) than neighbouring countries that are not Muslim. However, due to their interpretation of Islamic law also known as Shariah, they have some differences from social conservatism as understood in the nations of West Europe, North America and Oceania. Many people believe that the Islamic type of conservatism is more a part of Religious conservatism than Social conservatism.
Arab world
The Arab world has recently been more conservative in social and moral issues due to the Arab spring.
India
Hindu social conservatism
Hindu social conservatism in India in the twenty first century has developed into an influential movement. Represented in the political arena by the right-leaning Bharatiya Janata Party. Hindu social conservatism, also known as the Hindutva movement, is spearheaded by the voluntary non-governmental organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. The core philosophy of this ideology is nativism and sees Hinduism as a national identity rather than a religious one. Due to an inclination towards nativism, much of its platform is based on the belief that Islamic and Christian denominations in India are the result of occupations, and therefore these groups should be uprooted from the Indian subcontinent by converting their members back to Hinduism.
In terms of political positions, Hindu social conservatives in India seek to institutionalise a Uniform Civil Code (which is also a directive under Article 44 of the Constitution of India) for members of all religions, over the current scheme of different personal laws for different religions. For instance, polygamy is legal for Muslims in India but not Hindus.
Muslim social conservatism
There are several socially conservative Muslim organisations in India, ranging from groups such as the Indian Union Muslim League which aim to promote the preservation of Indian Muslim culture as a part of the nation's identity and history.
South Africa
Social conservatism had an important place in Apartheid South Africa ruled by the National Party. Pornography, gambling and other activities that were deemed undesirable were severely restricted. The majority of businesses were forbidden from doing business on Sunday.
Despite the legalisation of same-sex marriage and polygamy, in modern-day South Africa, the population remains heteronormative on issues such as homosexuality with 80% of the population against homosexuality.
United States
Social conservatism in the United States is a right-wing political ideology that opposes social progressivism. It is centered on the preservation of what adherents often call 'traditional' or 'family values', though the accepted aims of the movement often vary amongst the organisations it comprises, making it hard to generalise about ideological preferences. There are, however, a number of general principles to which at least a majority of social conservatives adhere, such as opposition to abortion and opposition to same-sex marriage.
The Republican Party is the largest political party with socially conservative ideals incorporated into its platform. Other socially conservative parties include the American Solidarity Party, the Constitution Party and the Prohibition Party.
Social conservatives are strongest in the South, where they are a mainstream political force with aspirations to translate those ideals using the party platform nationally. In recent decades, the supporters of social conservatism played a major role in the political coalitions of Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush.
Other areas
There are also Social Conservative movements in many parts of the world (in Latin America, East Europe, Balkans, Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean countries, Southeast Asia, Oceania, etc.).
List of social conservative political parties
Armenia
Prosperous Armenia
Australia
Democratic Labour Party
Katter's Australian Party
Pauline Hanson's One Nation
National Party of Australia
Austria
Freedom Party of Austria
Austrian People's Party
Christian Party of Austria
Belgium
Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams (Christian democrat)
New-Flemish Alliance (Nationalist)
Vlaams Belang (Nationalist)
Humanist Democratic Centre
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Alliance of Independent Social Democrats
Brazil
Alliance for Brazil
Social Christian Party
Brazilian Labour Renewal Party
Bulgaria
GERB
IMRO – Bulgarian National Movement
Bulgarian Socialist Party
Czech Republic
Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party
Denmark
Danish People's Party
El Salvador
Nuevas Ideas
Nationalist Republican Alliance
Estonia
Conservative People's Party
Faroe Islands
Centre Party
Finland
True Finns
Christian Democrats
France
Movement for France
National Rally
The Republicans
Germany
Alternative for Germany
Family Party of Germany
Alliance C – Christians for Germany
Georgia
Alliance of Patriots of Georgia
Greece
Greek Solution
Independent Greeks
New Democracy (Greece)
Other small parties
Hungary
Hungarian Justice and Life Party
Fidesz
Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)
Jobbik
India
Bharatiya Janata Party
Indian Union Muslim League
Shiv Sena
Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
National People's Party
Indian National Congress
Indonesia
Prosperous Justice Party
Gerindra
Ireland
Aontú
Renua Ireland
Israel
Shas
Agudat Yisrael
Degel HaTorah
The Jewish Home - HaBayit HaYehudi
National Union - Tkuma
Noam
Otzma Yehudit
New Hope
Likud
Italy
The People of Family (Il Popolo della Famiglia)
Christian Italy (Italia Cristiana)
Union of the Centre
Lega Nord
Brothers of Italy
National Movement for Sovereignty
Diventerà Bellissima
Japan
Liberal Democratic Party
Komeito
Latvia
National Alliance
Liechtenstein
Patriotic Union
Lithuania
Order and Justice
Luxembourg
Alternative Democratic Reform Party
Déi Konservativ
Malaysia
United Malays National Organization (UMNO)
Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU)
Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG)
Mexico
Social Encounter Party
National Action Party
Institutional Revolutionary Party
Moldova
Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova
Netherlands
Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA)
Christian Union (CU)
Political Movement Denk (Denk)
Reformed Political Party (SGP)
Forum for Democracy (FvD)
New Zealand
Conservative Party of New Zealand
New Zealand First
Nigeria
People's Democratic Party
Norway
Christian Democratic Party
The Christians Party
Progress Party (Norway)
Poland
Law and Justice
United Poland
The Republicans
Portugal
CDS – People's Party
Chega
Social Democratic Party
Romania
Social Democratic Party
People's Movement Party
Alliance for the Union of Romanians
Russia
United Russia
CPRF
LDPR
A Just Russia
Slovakia
Christian Democratic Movement
Direction – Social Democracy
Network
Slovak National Party
We Are Family
Kotleba – People's Party Our Slovakia
Slovenia
Slovenian Democratic Party
New Slovenia
Spain
Vox
People's Party
Serbia
Serbian Radical Party
Dveri
Healthy Serbia
Better Serbia
Democratic Party of Serbia
People's Freedom Movement
Serbian Party Oathkeepers
Serbian Right
South Africa
African Christian Democratic Party
South Korea
People Power Party (South Korea)
Democratic Party of Korea
People Party
Minsaeng Party
Sweden
Alternative for Sweden
Sweden Democrats
Christian Democrats
Switzerland
Swiss People's Party
Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland
Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland
Christian Social Party
Turkey
Justice and Development Party
Nationalist Movement Party
Felicity Party
Great Unity Party
Ukraine
Ukraine is Our Home
Nashi
Opposition Platform — For Life
United Kingdom
Heritage Party
UK Independence Party
Conservative and Unionist Party
Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)
Scotland Only
Scottish Family Party
Northern Ireland only
Democratic Unionist Party
Traditional Unionist Voice
Aontú
United States
Republican Party
Constitution Party
Prohibition Party
American Solidarity Party (social issues)
Christian Liberty Party
Social conservative factions of political parties
Christian Democratic Party (The Republicans)
Blue Labour (Labour Party)
Cornerstone Group (Conservative Party)
House Freedom Caucus (Republican Party)
Republican Study Committee (Republican Party)
Blue Dog Coalition (Democratic Party)
Paleoconservatism
Traditionalist conservatism
Social conservatism in Canada
Social conservatism in the United States
Pro-life movement
Family values
See also
Christian right
Social inertia: the prevention of social change
Social liberalism
Victorian morality
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Carlson, Allan, The Family in America: Searching for Social Harmony in the Industrial Age (2003)
Carlson, Allan, Family Questions: Reflections on the American Social Crisis (1991)
Fleming, Thomas, The Politics of Human Nature, (1988)
Gallagher, Maggie, The Abolition of Marriage: How We Destroy Lasting Love (1996)
Himmelfarb, Gertrude, The De-moralization Of Society (1996)
Hitchens, Peter, The Abolition of Britain. (1999)
Jones, E. Michael, Degenerate Moderns: Modernity As Rationalized Sexual Misbehavior. (1993)
Kirk, Russell, The Conservative Mind, 7th Ed. (2001)
Magnet, Myron, Modern Sex: Liberation and Its Discontents (2001)
Medved, Diane and Dan Quayle, The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong (1997)
Sobran, Joseph, Single Issues: Essays on the Crucial Social Questions (1983) .
External links
Conservatism
Right-wing ideologies
Conservatism
Conservatism
Political science terminology | [
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219178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish%20crow | Fish crow | The fish crow (Corvus ossifragus) is a species of crow associated with wetland habitats in the eastern and southeastern United States.
Taxonomy and etymology
The fish crow was given its binomial name by the Scottish ornithologist Alexander Wilson in 1812, in the fifth volume of his American Ornithology. The binomial is from Latin; Corvus means "raven", while ossifragus means "bone-breaker". It is derived from os or ossis, meaning "bone", and frangere, meaning "to break". The English-language common name fish crow also derives from Wilson, who ascribed the name to the crow's aquatic diet, as described to him by local fishermen. He distinguished the fish crow from John Bartram's great seaside crow by the former's diminutive size when compared to the American crow.
The fish crow's taxonomic relation to other species of the Corvus genus is still poorly understood, but DNA sequencing indicates that it is most closely related to the palm crow (C. palmarum) and the Jamaican crow (C. jamaicensis), with the three species forming a Nearctic clade. The Sinaloa crow (C. sinaloae) and Tamaulipas crow (C. imparatus) bear morphological similarities to and were once considered conspecific subspecies of the fish crow, but have since been recognized as distinct species.
Description
The fish crow is a small bird, with an average adult weight of in males and in females. The average male wingspan is similarly larger at , compared to in females. The total body length is between .
The fish crow is superficially similar to the American crow, but is smaller and has a silkier, smoother plumage by comparison. The upperparts have a blue or blue-green sheen, while the underparts have a more greenish tint to the black. The eyes are dark brown. The differences are often only really apparent between the two species when seen side by side or when heard calling. The bill is usually somewhat slimmer than the American crow, but is only readily distinguishable if both species are seen together.
Visual differentiation from the American crow is extremely difficult and often inaccurate. Nonetheless, differences apart from size do exist. Fish crows tend to have more slender bills and feet. There may also be a small sharp hook at the end of the upper bill. Fish crows also appear as if they have shorter legs when walking. More dramatically, when calling, fish crows tend to hunch and fluff their throat feathers.
The voice is the most outwardly differing characteristic for this species and other American crow species. The call of the fish crow has been described as a nasal "ark-ark-ark" or a begging "waw-waw". Birders often distinguish the two species (in areas where their range overlaps) with the mnemonic aid "Just ask him if he is an American crow. If he says "no", he is a fish crow." referring to the fact that the most common call of the American crow is a distinct "caw caw", while that of the fish crow is a nasal "nyuh unh". The fish crow also has a single call sounding like "cahrrr".
Distribution and habitat
This species occurs on the eastern seaboard of the United States from Rhode Island south to Key West, and west along the northern coastline of the Gulf of Mexico and follows many river systems inland for quite some distance. Coastal marshes and beaches, rivers, inland lakes and marshes, river banks, and the land immediately surrounding all are frequented.
Behavior
Diet
Food is taken mainly from the ground or shallow water where the bird hovers and plucks food items out of the water with its feet. The fish crow is omnivorous. It feeds on small crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimps, other invertebrates, stranded fish, and live fish if the situation favors their capture, eggs and nestlings of birds, small reptiles, the fruits of many trees, peanuts, and grains, as well as human scraps where available.
Breeding
The nest is usually built high in a tree and is often accompanied in nearby trees with other nests of the same species forming small, loose colonies. Usually, four or five eggs are laid. Pale blue-green in colour, they bear blotches of olive-brown. Fish crows build a new nest for each breeding attempt. A pair of fish crows were reported to have raised a young blue jay for multiple weeks.
Conservation
This species appears to be somewhat more resistant to West Nile virus than the American crow. Survival rates of up to 45% have been reported for fish crows, compared with near zero for American crows.
References
Further reading
External links
Differences between American and Fish Crows
Fish Crow videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Page from The Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Sound link
Fish crow call
Image link
Fish crow series
fish crow
Native birds of the Southeastern United States
Endemic birds of the Eastern United States
fish crow
Taxa named by Alexander Wilson (ornithologist) | [
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219183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Schr%C3%B6der%20%28CDU%29 | Gerhard Schröder (CDU) | Gerhard Schröder (11 September 1910 – 31 December 1989) (not to be confused with German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder) was a West German politician and member of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) party. He served as Federal Minister of the Interior from 1953 to 1961, as Foreign Minister from 1961 to 1966, and as Minister of Defence from 1966 until 1969. In the 1969 election he ran for President of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) but was outpolled by Gustav Heinemann.
Life
The son of a railway official, Schröder was born in Saarbrücken, then part of the Prussian Rhine Province. Having passed his Abitur exams, he went on to study law at the University of Königsberg and two semesters abroad at the University of Edinburgh, where he, according to his own accounts, became familiar with a British way of life. In 1932 he finished his studies in Bonn he had committed himself to the university group of the national liberal German People's Party.
Schröder passed the first and second Staatsexamen in 1932 and 1936. Having obtained his doctorate in 1934 he worked as a consultant at the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in Berlin. Still as a referendary in Bonn, he had joined the Nazi Party on 1 April 1933 and also the SA. He continued his career as a law firm employee and in 1939 obtained an attorney's certificate and worked as a tax lawyer. He left the NSDAP in May 1941 (a rather rare occurrence). In the same month and perhaps in connection, he married his wife, Brigitte Schröder née Landsberg, needing - she was half-Jewish - with an extraordinary permission by his Armed Forces superiors.
He held federal office as Minister of the Interior (1953–1961) and as Minister of Foreign Affairs (1961–1966) in the cabinets of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and of Ludwig Erhard. From 1966 to 1969 he served as Minister of Defence under Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger.
In 1969 Gerhard Schröder ran for the Office of the Federal President (supported by CDU and NPD), but he was beaten by Gustav Heinemann, the nominee of the SPD (supported by FDP), at the third ballot with 49.4% to 48.8% of the votes of the Federal Assembly.
In the years following his active political activity, Schröder maintained a private discussion circle of former politicians, diplomats and economic officials who philosophized about the global problems of the new era but no longer intervened politically in day-to-day business. He supported the Reagan administration and endorsed the SDI program.
His last appearance in the Bundestag was on 17 June 1984, when he held the ceremonial address of the commemoration ceremony of the June 1953 bloody uprising.
Schröder died on 31 December 1989 in his house on Sylt. After his death, the German Bundestag honored him on 12 January 1990 with a state act in the plenary hall. Gerhard Schröder was buried in the cemetery of the island church of St. Severin in Keitum, Sylt.
Decorations and awards
SA Sports Badge (1934)
Iron Cross, 2nd class (1942)
Black Wound Badge (1942)
Eastern Front Medal (1942)
Cholm Shield (1942) - awarded to German soldiers who participated in the defence of the occupied Soviet city of Kholm
Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (Großes Goldenes Ehrenzeichen am Bande) (1962)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (8 August 1965) (with Willy Brandt)
Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (1966)
References
External links
Martin Menke: Review of Torsten Oppelland, Gerhard Schroeder (1910-1989): Politik zwischen Staat, Partei und Konfession, H-German, H-Net Reviews, March 2004.
Photograph (Gerhard Schröder is the second person from the right).
1910 births
1989 deaths
People from Saarbrücken
German Protestants
Christian Democratic Union of Germany politicians
Sturmabteilung personnel
People from the Rhine Province
Foreign Ministers of Germany
Candidates for President of Germany
Defence ministers of Germany
Interior ministers of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for North Rhine-Westphalia
Members of the Bundestag 1976–1980
Members of the Bundestag 1972–1976
Members of the Bundestag 1969–1972
Members of the Bundestag 1965–1969
Members of the Bundestag 1961–1965
Members of the Bundestag 1957–1961
Members of the Bundestag 1953–1957
Members of the Bundestag 1949–1953
Recipients of the Grand Decoration with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1939), 2nd class
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Nazi Party members | [
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219184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarpfalz-Kreis | Saarpfalz-Kreis | Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate) is a Kreis (district) in the south-east of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Saarbrücken, Neunkirchen, Kusel, Kaiserslautern, Südwestpfalz, district-free Zweibrücken, and the French département Moselle.
History
After the Treaty of Versailles, the Saar basin was placed under the administration of the League of Nations for 15 years. The Palatinate area, then part of Bavaria, was therefore split in two parts. The part which went into the Saar became commonly known as Saarpfalz, and was administrated by the two Bezirksamt St. Ingbert and Homburg. The Saarpfalz district was created in 1974 when the St. Ingbert and Homburg districts were merged. Since 1997 the district has had a partnership with Henrico County, Virginia.
Coat of arms
The lion in the top left is the symbol of the Palatinate (Pfalz), the cross in the top right is the symbol of Trier, both owned a large part of the district in the past. The crosier is the bottom left represents the clerical possessions of the monasteries, while the silver lion in the bottom right is the symbol of the county of Homburg.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Districts of the Saarland
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219189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar%20rail | Altar rail | The altar rail (also known as a communion rail or chancel rail) is a low barrier, sometimes ornate and usually made of stone, wood or metal in some combination, delimiting the chancel or the sanctuary and altar in a church, from the nave and other parts that contain the congregation. Often a gate, or just a gap, at the centre divides the line into two parts. Rails are a very common, but not inevitable, feature of Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches. They are usually about two feet 6 inches high, with a padded step at the bottom, and designed so that the wider top of the rail can support the forearms or elbows of a kneeling person.
The altar rail is a modest substitute for earlier barriers demarcating the chancel, the area containing the altar, which was reserved (with greatly varying degrees of strictness) for officiating clergy (including boys as choristers and altar servers). Although it only emerged after the Protestant Reformation, it has been found convenient by both Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant churches (such as the Anglican, Lutheran and Methodist churches), although it is disliked by many Reformed and nondenominational churches.
History
Barriers of various kinds often mark off as especially sacred the area of a church close to the altar, which is largely reserved for ordained clergy. The templon was typical for the Late Antique period. In the Armenian Apostolic Church, curtains are still drawn to cut off that area during the holiest moments of the liturgy. In Eastern Orthodox and related rites, this evolved into a solid, icon-clad screen, called the iconostasis, that has three doorways which usually have doors and curtains that can be closed or drawn aside at various times.
Following the exposition of the doctrine of transubstantiation at the fourth Lateran Council of 1215, clergy were required to ensure that the blessed sacrament was to be kept protected from irreverent access or abuse; and accordingly the area of the church used by the lay congregation was to be screened off from that used by the clergy. Apart from the congregation, pet dogs were often taken to church, and a dog-proof barrier was needed (more recent rails often fail in this). Barriers demarcating the chancel, such as the rood screen, became increasing elaborate, but were largely swept away after both the Protestant Reformation and then the Counter-Reformation prioritized the congregation having a good view of what was happening in the chancel. Now the low communion rail is generally the only barrier; despite being essentially a Counter-Reformation invention, this has proved useful and accepted in the Protestant churches that dispense communion. However the screen enjoyed a small revival in the 19th century, after the passionate urgings of Augustus Pugin, who wrote A Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts, and others.
There were medieval structures like communion rails, but the various types of screen were much more common. A church in Hasle, Bornholm claims to have "a rare 15th-century altar rail"; perhaps, like other examples, this is in fact a sawn-off medieval screen. The origin of the modern form has been described by one historian as "nebulous", but it probably emerged from Italy in the 16th century, though the German Lutherans and the Church of England were not far behind in adopting it, perhaps without being aware of the Italian versions. In England the rail became one of the focuses of tussles between the High Church and Low Church factions, and in many churches they were added, removed and re-added at different times.
Archbishop Laud was a strong supporter of rails, but the common story that he introduced them to England is incorrect; he was trying to prevent Puritan clergy from continuing to remove them, and his pressure in favour of rails was bound up with his very controversial "altar policy", reasserting the placement of the altar in its medieval position. Matthew Wren, Laudian Bishop of Ely, was imprisoned during the whole of the English Commonwealth and had to defend himself against charges of enforcing altar rails, which he pointed out had been found in many English churches "time out of mind". In both Catholic churches and Anglican ones following Laudian instructions, the congregation was now asked to come up to the rails and receive communion kneeling at them, replacing a variety of earlier habits. This too was controversial in England, and the Laudian party did not push too hard for this in many dioceses.
In many of the parishes of the Lutheran Churches and the Methodist Churches the use of altar rails have remained more common. There is typically no specific regulation concerning their presence or use, although they remain a common feature even in newly constructed churches. Their continued popularity results from a preference on the part of many to assume a posture of kneeling to receive the Eucharist. For those sanctuaries without an altar rail, in some cases a portable rail with attached kneeler is used for those who wish to kneel to receive the Eucharist.
Catholic Church
Newly constructed Catholic churches rarely have altar rails, which were once general in parish churches, those of the late nineteenth century being particularly decorative. Communicants receiving the Eucharist knelt at the railings to be given communion by a priest; today they typically stand. After the Second Vatican Council, many parishes removed their altar rails, and an unfounded idea arose that the Council or the Holy See had ordered the change. Previously, only altar servers were allowed to join the clergy within the sanctuary during the celebration of the liturgy. Now, lay readers of Scripture and extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion enter the sanctuary during Mass.
Some Catholics and many architects and planners criticised some removals, often on liturgical, historical and æsthetic grounds. While in some states, the Roman Catholic Church has adopted a minimalist approach towards the removal of altar rails, in other countries, for example in Ireland, almost every re-ordering eliminated altar rails. Many Catholics resisted the changes: some took legal action to try to prevent the removal of altar rails and of other traditional features in pre-Vatican II sanctuaries. Not all liberal Catholics supported the changes to sanctuaries; some disputed the belief that the altar rails were a barrier, claiming that many churches were able to allow full participation by the laity in the revised Order of the Mass without removing altar rails.
The General Instruction of the Roman Missal states explicitly that the sanctuary "should be appropriately marked off from the body of the church either by its being somewhat elevated or by a particular structure and ornamentation".
While a diocesan bishop is competent to decide on concrete questions concerning the setting up or removal of altar rails in a church in the diocese committed to his pastoral care, he is required prudently to make that decision in accordance with the norms of law, taking into account the wishes of the faithful. Any decision taken by the bishop, however, may be appealed by hierarchical recourse to the competent instance of the Holy See which, in this case, is the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments.
Lutheran churches
Within Lutheranism, an altar rail is the common place for a pastor to hear a confession, which generally is required to receive the Eucharist for the first time.
Methodist churches
In many Methodist churches, communicants receive holy communion at the chancel rails, devoutly kneeling. The rite of confirmation, as well as the imposition of ashes on Ash Wednesday takes place at the chancel rail in many Methodist parishes. The chancel rail also serves as the place where many individuals go, during the part of the Methodist liturgy called the Altar Call or An Invitation to Christian Discipleship, to experience the New Birth and some people who have already had the New Birth go to the chancel rails to receive entire sanctification, while others go there repent of their sins, as well as pray; during this time a Methodist minister attends to each person at the chancel rail, offering spiritual counsel.
See also
Mourners' bench
Notes and references
Cox, J. Charles, English Church Fittings, Furniture and Accessories, 2008 reprint, Jeremy Mills Publishing, , 9781905217939, google books
Spurr, John, The Post-Reformation: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain, 1603-1714, 2014 reprint, Routledge, , 9781317882626, google books
External links
Altar Rail - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
Church architecture | [
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219196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%27s%20Scooter | Matt's Scooter | Matt's Scooter (1985 – June 30, 2014) was a Standardbred pacer and sire who was named Harness Horse of the Year in 1989. Matt's Scooter competed as a pacer in harness racing, winning the Meadowlands Pace, Prix d'Été, Confederation Cup, Messenger Stakes, American National Stakes, Breeders Crown, Driscoll Series, Mohawk Gold Cup, he was named Pacer of the Year in 1988 and 1989, and Harness Horse of the Year in 1989 by the United States Harness Association.
Background
Matt's Scooter was a bay ridgeling bred by Max Gerson of New York. He was sired by Direct Scooter out of Ellen's Glory by Meadow Skipper. As a yearling, he was bought for $17,500 by Gordon and Illa Rumpel of Calgary, and Charles Juravinski. He was trained by Harry Poulton at his base near Lake Scugog, Ontario.
Racing career
As two-year-old, Matt's Scooter was given a relatively light campaign winning three of his nine races. He was not an easy horse to handle: Poulton described him as "always bucking, kicking or doing something... he wanted to do everything 100 miles an hour".
In 1988, despite being ineligible for the Cane Pace and the Little Brown Jug, Matt's Scooter earned $1.78 million winning eleven of his twenty two races. His major victories included the Meadowlands Pace and the Messenger Stakes.
In Autumn 1988, he paced a mile in 1:48.2 at the Red Mile in Lexington, Kentucky, lowering the world record previously held by Niatross, by four-fifths of a second.
As a four-year-old he won 23 of his thirty races and earned $1.14 million.
Honors and awards
Matt's Scooter was named Pacer of the Year and best three-year-old in 1988. In the following year, he was again named best pacer and was awarded the title of Harness Horse of the Year. Matt's Scooter was inducted into the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame and the United States Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 2006.
Retirement and stud career
He was retired from racing after 4 years, and stood as a breeding stallion for Perretti Farms in Cream Ridge, New Jersey. He was pensioned from stud duty in 2011. Bob Marks of Perretti Farms said "His libido is willing, but with his hind suspensory, we're afraid he could hurt himself".
Matt's Scooter was euthanised at Mid-Atlantic Equine Clinic in Ringoes, New Jersey on June 30, 2014.
Pedigree
References
1985 racehorse births
2014 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
American Champion harness horses
Harness Horse of the Year winners
Harness racing in Canada
Harness racing in the United States
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Messenger Stakes winners | [
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219198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirokazu%20Tanaka | Hirokazu Tanaka | , also known as Chip Tanaka, is a Japanese musician, composer, sound designer, and executive who pioneered chiptune music. He is best known as one of Nintendo's in-house composers during the 8- and 16-bit era of video games. Tanaka also had a role in designing and programming the Famicom and Game Boy audio hardware, along with the NES Zapper, Game Boy Camera, and Game Boy Printer.
Tanaka's soundtrack credits include Metroid (1986), Kid Icarus (1986), Super Mario Land (1989), Tetris (1989), Mother (1989), Dr. Mario (1990), and EarthBound (1994). As the president of Creatures, he continues to be involved with Nintendo, more specifically the Pokémon franchise.
Biography
Early life
Born to a schoolteacher mother who had Tanaka undergo piano lessons, Tanaka recounted that he first began paying serious attention to music while in elementary school, and attempted to form a band during that time. His first band was formed when he was in middle school, a Beatles and Elton John cover group, which sometimes performed concerts at his school. He has held a longstanding obsession with reggae music. In his teens, he was also in a reggae band, which was known variously by the names the Shampoos or Roots Rockers. For the music event "Reggae Sunsplash" held in Osaka, the Shampoos were an opening act for Sly and Robbie on more than one occasion. Tanaka did meet the duo during those times. On The Shampoos, Tanaka described it as an obscure local band which did gigs in Tokyo about once or twice a year, and that it was "never a formal thing".
Employment at Nintendo
In 1980, after graduating from university with a degree in electronic engineering, Tanaka successfully applied for a job at Nintendo as a sound designer. He did not initially want to be an engineer, but Nintendo were accordingly scouting for "different sounds or toys or something at the time. I thought toys would be relatively stress-free, so I applied." The first game Tanaka worked on was Space Firebird (1980), where Tanaka was composer and constructed a new sound chip for particular sound effects. Following this, Tanaka worked on Donkey Kong (1981), providing the sound effects for Mario's footsteps and jumps. Usually, the same sound effect was repeated across many different actions, but Tanaka's approach differed where he invented subtle variations. He attempted to insert voice synthesis for the game's damsel-in-distress, but the idea was vetoed by then-Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi's daughter, who did not feel that the sample sounded like the exclamation "help me!". Tanaka noted that he learned "a lot" from series creator Shigeru Miyamoto due to his perfectionism and "level of commitment".
Donkey Kong 3 (1983) was the first game where Tanaka acted both as composer and sound effects designer. His approach to game composition carried on from his dub obsession: "For instance, if you listen to the music [in Wrecking Crew (1985)], you could recognize that some parts are drum and bass only. So that turned out to be an idea for working around the limitations of the game software. I figured that, to get the most out of the game music, a dub-based structure would be a really great solution. I'd play the melody in some parts, then cut it off and insert a part with just drums and bass, and vice versa. No one else was doing it, but it was what I wanted to do." Tanaka described what he remembered as a "typical day" at Nintendo in the brief period following the release of the Famicom home game console:
While working full-time at Nintendo on two or three games a year, and sometimes two simultaneously, Tanaka continued playing gigs in Osaka and Tokyo with the Shampoos. Sometime in the late 1980s, they recorded the 45 rpm "Thunder Dub" which prominently sampled the opening drumbeat from the Beatles' "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)" (1967). Tanaka did not personally see a difference between the music he composed for video games and the music he composed in his off time. For Metroid (1986), Tanaka acknowledged that games were becoming more complex, and his scores were becoming more like a film's, desiring in Metroid not to "repeat the same game-melody cliches," although he recalls that the game's soundtrack was not well-received within Nintendo because of its dark atmosphere. He was inspired by the film Birdy (1984) to create a game score that was dark until the very end, where the player would finally receive music with a strong melody. Despite disapproval from his Nintendo colleagues, Tanaka was allowed full creative freedom on projects, and even had a fluctuating role in influencing some games' content and play style. He remembers Nintendo's strict, repeated criticisms over the amount of "fun" a game would have, but that there was no financial pressure in creating games, nor were there sales quotas to meet. At the time of Dr. Mario (1990), Tanaka began observing an increasing number of "serious" game composers who had graduated from music schools. Dr. Mario was thus the first time Tanaka had asserted his musical personality in a game.
Tanaka was one of "about five or six" Nintendo-based developers who designed the Game Boy hardware. He was inspired to develop the Game Boy Camera from a product called ViewCam that was popular at the time — Tanaka also ran experiments on the possibility of watching television via the Game Boy.
Creatures Inc.
At the advice of EarthBound (1994) co-worker Tsunekazu Ishihara, Tanaka would join Creatures as a guest composer, where he would end up composing multiple songs for the first Japanese Pokémon anime. Despite the fact that his themes were not used in the West, they inspired best-selling singles and albums in Japan due to their popularity there. Tanaka was eventually forbidden by Nintendo to continue to write more songs for the anime due to their policy of not allowing employees to work for other companies, so he resigned at Nintendo and joined Creatures full-time in 1999.
Tanaka succeeded Ishihara to become the president of Creatures in 2001. Starting in the late 2000s, Tanaka began to perform at Japanese dance clubs under the name "Chip Tanaka". The moniker was suggested by a foreign acquaintance, as Tanaka thought "Hip Tanaka" was too attached to his time at Nintendo.
Influences
Tanaka has said that his tastes in his youth were typical of the time, listening to artists such as the Beatles and the Carpenters. His first exposure to dub music was through the 1978 album Negrea Love Dub by Linval Thompson while eating pasta at a restaurant with live music in Kyoto. It was the record's use of exaggerated tape delay which astounded Tanaka, who stopped eating every time he heard it occur: "I thought 'Is this music sick?' But the more I listened to it, that groove with the bass line and the mixer... I think the mixer takes full control of it, directly and instinctively. When I felt it, I thought 'This is amazing.' I was totally hooked." Tanaka explained his fascination with reggae music and his application for it in his game scores: "It wasn't proactive on my part. I was a music lover that happened to be working at Nintendo. ... The reason I like reggae, especially dub, is because there actually is vocal and guitar on it, let's say, but in the essence, it's strictly driven by drums and bass. That's what I love about it the most. ... I think I like how there's this raw aspect to it. The gritty, raw quality of the sound, let's say. That really caught my ears. And that deep bass sound, the "buuu..." That was something I never heard before in rock music. It drove me like no other genre in music."
Among specific musical influences, Tanaka has cited Brian Wilson, Randy Newman, Stackridge, Yabby U, the Flying Lizards, Prince, Lalo Rodriguez, My Bloody Valentine, Frank Zappa, Keiichi Suzuki, Hal Willner's various artists compilations, Sly Dunbar, Jah Wobble, and the Slits. The "hip" in "Hip Tanaka" came from hip hop, with his favorite artist of the genre being A Tribe Called Quest.
Works
Other works
Anime
Video games
References
External links
1957 births
Chiptune musicians
Dub musicians
Japanese chief executives
Japanese composers
Japanese male composers
Japanese reggae musicians
Japanese video game producers
Living people
Metroid
Nintendo people
Musicians from Kyoto
Video game composers | [
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219200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20Protection%20Commissioner | Data Protection Commissioner | The Office of the Data Protection Commissioner (Irish: An Coimisinéir Cosanta Sonraí) (DPC), also known as Data Protection Commission, is the independent national authority responsible for upholding the EU fundamental right of individuals to data privacy through the enforcement and monitoring of compliance with data protection legislation in Ireland. It was established in 1989.
Role and operations
The independent role and powers of the Data Protection Commissioner are as set out in legislation in the Data Protection Acts 1988 and 2003. These Acts transpose the Council of Europe 1981 Data Protection Convention (Convention 108) and the 1995 EU Data Protection Directive (Directive 95/46/EC). However, the latter was then replaced by the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which is directly applicable upon Members States such as Ireland.
Investigation of complaints
Complaints received from individuals who feel that their personal information is not being treated in accordance with the data protection law are investigated under section 10 of the Data Protection Acts. It is the statutory obligation of the Office to seek to amicably resolve complaints in the first instance. Where an amicable resolution cannot be achieved, the Commissioner may make a decision on whether, in her opinion, there has been a breach of the law. If the complainant or the data controller disagrees with the Commissioner's finding, they have the right to appeal the decision to the Circuit Court. The DPC's main priority, if a complaint is upheld, is that the data controller complies with the law and puts right the matter concerned. If an organization does not voluntarily cooperate with an investigation, the DPC has powers of compulsion to require such cooperation.
In 2015, the Office received 932 complaints that were opened for investigation. Investigations into 1,015 complaints were concluded.
NOYB (Not your own business), an austrian NGO has filed a complaint against the DPC in for corruption and possible bribery in 2021 under austrian law for an affair concerning Facebook.
Audits
Section 10 (1A) of the Acts provides that "the Commissioner may carry out or cause to be carried out such investigations as he or she considers appropriate in order to ensure compliance with the provisions of this Act and to identify any contravention thereof." These investigations often take the form of audits of selected organizations. The aim of an audit is to identify any issues of concern about the way the organization under scrutiny manages personal data.
In 2015, the DPC carried out 51 audits and inspections of organizations in the public and private sectors.
Enforcement
Offences under the Electronic Communications Regulations
All breaches of the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 for which the Office of the Data Protection Commissioner has responsibility are offences. The offences relate primarily to the sending of unsolicited marketing communications by electronic means. The offences are punishable by fines - up to €5,000 for each unsolicited message on summary conviction and up to €250,000 on conviction on indictment. The Office of the Data Protection Commissioner may bring summary proceedings for an offence under the Regulations.
Enforcement responsibility is shared with the Commission for Communications Regulation (ComReg).
References
Government agencies of the Republic of Ireland
Data protection authorities
Department of Justice (Ireland) | [
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219202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20code | Binary code | A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often "0" and "1" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.
In computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings. In a fixed-width binary code, each letter, digit, or other character is represented by a bit string of the same length; that bit string, interpreted as a binary number, is usually displayed in code tables in octal, decimal or hexadecimal notation. There are many character sets and many character encodings for them.
A bit string, interpreted as a binary number, can be translated into a decimal number. For example, the lower case a, if represented by the bit string 01100001 (as it is in the standard ASCII code), can also be represented as the decimal number "97".
History of binary codes
The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1689 and appears in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire. The full title is translated into English as the "Explanation of the binary arithmetic", which uses only the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese figures of Fu Xi. Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. Leibniz encountered the I Ching through French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet and noted with fascination how its hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical visual binary mathematics he admired. Leibniz saw the hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own religious belief.
Binary numerals were central to Leibniz's theology. He believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Leibniz was trying to find a system that converts logic verbal statements into a pure mathematical one. After his ideas were ignored, he came across a classic Chinese text called I Ching or ‘Book of Changes’, which used 64 hexagrams of six-bit visual binary code. The book had confirmed his theory that life could be simplified or reduced down to a series of straightforward propositions. He created a system consisting of rows of zeros and ones. During this time period, Leibniz had not yet found a use for this system.
Binary systems predating Leibniz also existed in the ancient world. The aforementioned I Ching that Leibniz encountered dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary system of the I Ching, a text for divination, is based on the duality of yin and yang. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa and Asia. The Indian scholar Pingala (around 5th–2nd centuries BC) developed a binary system for describing prosody in his Chandashutram.
The residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. In the 11th century, scholar and philosopher Shao Yong developed a method for arranging the hexagrams which corresponds, albeit unintentionally, to the sequence 0 to 63, as represented in binary, with yin as 0, yang as 1 and the least significant bit on top. The ordering is also the lexicographical order on sextuples of elements chosen from a two-element set.
In 1605 Francis Bacon discussed a system whereby letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text. Importantly for the general theory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: "provided those objects be capable of a twofold difference only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature".
George Boole published a paper in 1847 called 'The Mathematical Analysis of Logic' that describes an algebraic system of logic, now known as Boolean algebra. Boole's system was based on binary, a yes-no, on-off approach that consisted of the three most basic operations: AND, OR, and NOT. This system was not put into use until a graduate student from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Claude Shannon, noticed that the Boolean algebra he learned was similar to an electric circuit. Shannon wrote his thesis in 1937, which implemented his findings. Shannon's thesis became a starting point for the use of the binary code in practical applications such as computers, electric circuits, and more.
Other forms of binary code
The bit string is not the only type of binary code: in fact, a binary system in general, is any system that allows only two choices such as a switch in an electronic system or a simple true or false test.
Braille
Braille is a type of binary code that is widely used by the blind to read and write by touch, named for its creator, Louis Braille. This system consists of grids of six dots each, three per column, in which each dot has two states: raised or not raised. The different combinations of raised and flattened dots are capable of representing all letters, numbers, and punctuation signs.
Bagua
The bagua are diagrams used in feng shui, Taoist cosmology and I Ching studies. The ba gua consists of 8 trigrams; bā meaning 8 and guà meaning divination figure. The same word is used for the 64 guà (hexagrams). Each figure combines three lines (yáo) that are either broken (yin) or unbroken (yang). The relationships between the trigrams are represented in two arrangements, the primordial, "Earlier Heaven" or "Fuxi" bagua, and the manifested, "Later Heaven,"or "King Wen" bagua. (See also, the King Wen sequence of the 64 hexagrams).
Ifá, Ilm Al-Raml and Geomancy
The Ifá/Ifé system of divination in African religions, such as of Yoruba, Igbo, Ewe, consists of an elaborate traditional ceremony producing 256 oracles made up by 16 symbols with 256 = 16 x 16. An initiated priest "babalowo" who had memorized oracles, would request sacrifice from consulting clients and make prayers. Then, divination nuts or a pair of chains are used to produce random binary numbers, which are drawn with sandy material on an "Opun" figured wooden tray representing the totality of fate.
Through the spread of Islamic culture, Ifé/Ifá was assimilated as the "Science of Sand" (ilm al-raml), which then spread further and became "Science of Reading the Signs on the Ground" (Geomancy) in Europe.
This was thought to be another possible route from which computer science was inspired, as Geomancy arrived at Europe at an earlier stage (about 12th Century, described by Hugh of Santalla) than I Ching (17th Century, described by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz).
Coding systems
ASCII code
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), uses a 7-bit binary code to represent text and other characters within computers, communications equipment, and other devices. Each letter or symbol is assigned a number from 0 to 127. For example, lowercase "a" is represented by 1100001 as a bit string (which is "97" in decimal).
Binary-coded decimal
Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a binary encoded representation of integer values that uses a 4-bit nibble to encode decimal digits. Four binary bits can encode up to 16 distinct values; but, in BCD-encoded numbers, only ten values in each nibble are legal, and encode the decimal digits zero, through nine. The remaining six values are illegal and may cause either a machine exception or unspecified behavior, depending on the computer implementation of BCD arithmetic.
BCD arithmetic is sometimes preferred to floating-point numeric formats in commercial and financial applications where the complex rounding behaviors of floating-point numbers is inappropriate.
Early uses of binary codes
1875: Émile Baudot "Addition of binary strings in his ciphering system," which, eventually, led to the ASCII of today.
1884: The Linotype machine where the matrices are sorted to their corresponding channels after use by a binary-coded slide rail.
1932: C. E. Wynn-Williams "Scale of Two" counter
1937: Alan Turing electro-mechanical binary multiplier
1937: George Stibitz "excess three" code in the Complex Computer
1937: Atanasoff–Berry Computer
1938: Konrad Zuse Z1
Current uses of binary
Most modern computers use binary encoding for instructions and data. CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs represent sound and video digitally in binary form. Telephone calls are carried digitally on long-distance and mobile phone networks using pulse-code modulation, and on voice over IP networks.
Weight of binary codes
The weight of a binary code, as defined in the table of constant-weight codes, is the Hamming weight of the binary words coding for the represented words or sequences.
See also
Binary number
List of binary codes
Binary file
Unicode
Gray code
References
External links
Sir Francis Bacon's BiLiteral Cypher system, predates binary number system.
Table of general binary codes. An updated version of the tables of bounds for small general binary codes given in .
Table of Nonlinear Binary Codes. Maintained by Simon Litsyn, E. M. Rains, and N. J. A. Sloane. Updated until 1999.
cites some pre-ENIAC milestones.
Computer data
English inventions
Encodings
Gottfried Leibniz
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219204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco%20Moraz%C3%A1n | Francisco Morazán | José Francisco Morazán Quesada (; born October 3, 1792 – September 15, 1842) was a Central American politician who was president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1830 to 1839. Before he was president of Central America he was the head of state of Honduras. He rose to prominence at the Battle of La Trinidad on November 11, 1827. Morazán then dominated the political and military scene of Central America until his execution in 1842.
In the political arena, Francisco Morazán was recognized as a visionary and great thinker, as he attempted to transform Central America into one large and progressive nation. He enacted liberal reforms in the new Federal Republic of Central America, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Morazán also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing.
These reforms made him some powerful enemies, and his period of rule was marked by bitter infighting between liberals and conservatives. But through his military skills, Morazán was able to keep a firm grip on power until 1837, when the Federal Republic became irrevocably fractured. This was exploited by the conservative leaders, who rallied around the leadership of Rafael Carrera and in order to protect their own interests, ended up dividing Central America into five nations.
Personal life
Early years and education
José Francisco Morazán Quesada was born on October 3, 1792, in Tegucigalpa (then in the Captaincy General of Guatemala, now the capital of Honduras) during the waning years of Spanish colonial rule to Eusebio Morazán Alemán and Guadalupe Quesada Borjas, both members of an upper-class Creole family dedicated to trade and agriculture. His grandparents were Juan Bautista Morazán (a Corsican immigrant) and María Borjas Alvarenga. Thirteen days after his birth Morazán was baptized at San Miguel Arcángel church, by father Juan Francisco Márquez.
Francisco Morazán was, for the most part, a self-educated man. According to historian Ramon Rosa; he "had the misfortune of being born ... in that sad era of isolation and total darkness in which Honduras lacked schools ... therefore Morazan had to learn in private schools with an awful organization and sustained by parents' contributions." In 1804, his parents took advantage of the opening of a Catholic school in the village of San Francisco. At the age of twelve, José Francisco was sent there to learn to write and read, and to receive instruction in mathematics and drawing. The teachings he received were through Friar Santiago Gabrielino, appointed religious instructor to the Guatemalan priest José Antonio Murga.
In 1808 Francisco Morazán and his family moved to Morocelí where they worked the fields inherited by Mr Eusebio. In addition, young José Francisco also engaged in helping the town's mayor with his clerk duties. On 1813 the family moved back to Tegucigalpa. Once there, Mr. Eusebio placed his son under the tutorship of Leon Vasquez who taught him civil law, criminal procedure and Notaries.
Francisco now had access to a library where he learned French, which in turn, allowed him to familiarize himself with the works of Montesquieu, the social contract of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the French Revolution, the history of Europe, as well as the biographies of the Greek and Roman leaders. This dedication and spirit of improvement took Francisco to occasionally excel in his hometown, where he even represented the interest of some people before the colonial courts.
Marriage and family
Francisco Morazán married María Josefa Lastiri in the Cathedral of Comayagua on December 30, 1825. They had one daughter, Adela Morazán Lastiri, born in San Salvador in 1838. Lastiri belonged to one of the wealthiest families in province of Honduras. Her father was the Spanish trader Juan Miguel Lastiri, who played an important part in the commercial development of Tegucigalpa. Her mother was Margarita Lozano, member of a powerful Creole family in the city.
María Josefa was a widow who had first married the landowner Esteban Travieso, with whom she had 4 children. Upon his death, she inherited a fortune. Her fortune and the new circle of powerful and influential friends, that came out of this marriage only enhanced Morazán's own business, and thus his political and military projects.
Outside his marriage, Francisco Morazán fathered a son, Francisco Morazán Moncada, who was born on October 4, 1827, to Francisca Moncada, daughter of a well-known Nicaraguan politician named Liberato Moncada. Francisco Morazán Junior lived in the Morazán-Lastiri home and accompanied his father in Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Peru and finally in Costa Rica, where his father was executed. After the death of his father, Francisco Morazán Moncada settled in Chinandega, Nicaragua where he devoted himself to farming. He died in 1904 at age 77.
Morazán also had an adoptive son named José Antonio Ruiz. He was the legitimate son of Eusebio Ruiz and the Guatemalan lady Rita Zelayandía, who handed her son to General Morazán when he was 14 years old. José Antonio accompanied his adoptive father on military actions and became a brigadier general. He died in Tegucigalpa in 1883.
Early political and military career
After the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which included Honduras, became independent from Spain (on September 15, 1821) Francisco Morazán began to take an active part in politics and public administration. He worked at Tegucigalpa's City Hall as deputy mayor and public defender in civil and criminal court cases. Such activities allowed him to acquire a great knowledge of the structure and operation of the public administration of the province. This job also allowed him to get in close contact with the problems of post-colonial society.
In November 1821, shortly after the Captaincy had declared its independence from Spain, a group of dignitaries and politicians known as the 'Interim Advisory Board' sat in Guatemala City in the process of organizing a government to succeed Spanish colonial rule. On November 18, a note from General Agustin de Iturbide arrived in Guatemala City suggesting a union between the Captaincy and the Mexican Empire, pursuant to the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba. The members of the Interim Advisory Board, after reviewing the issue, stated they were not empowered nor deputized to decide on this matter, but suggested forums be held in different cities to hear the views of the people, and thus explore their willingness to go forward with the proposal. The question of annexation to Mexico caused divisions within each of the provinces as some cities were in favor and others against. In Honduras, Comayagua, through its Governor José Tinoco de Contreras, supported the idea of the annexation. But Tegucigalpa, the second most important city of the province, strongly opposed it. Tinoco then decided to take repressive actions against the authorities of that city.
In order to offset Tinoco's aggressiveness and to defend their independence, an army of volunteers organized in Tegucigalpa. It was during these events, that Francisco Morazán enlisted as a volunteer at the service of the authorities in Tegucigalpa. He was appointed captain of one of the companies, by decision of the organizers of the militias. Thus began Morazán's military life and his struggle against conservative interests.
Tegucigalpa could not maintain its opposition, however, and recognized its annexation to Mexico on August 22, 1822. The annexation to the Mexican Empire was short-lived, with the collapse of the Mexican Empire and the subsequent creation of the Federal Republic of Central America on April 1, 1823. That same year, the Constituent Congress in Guatemala appointed Morazán as a member of a commission to study the affairs of the Federation. That same commission determined the electoral districts, district boards and the departmental boards of the Federal Republic. A year later Morazán's uncle Dionisio de Herrera, was elected Head of State in Honduras. On September 28, 1824, he appointed Morazán as his secretary general.
Background of the Federal Republic
The Central American Federation (1824–38) comprised the republics of Central America—Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. United under a captaincy general in Spanish colonial times, they gained independence in 1821 and were briefly annexed to the Mexican empire formed by Agustín de Iturbide. On July 1, 1823, these nations regained their independence, and joined together in a loose federal state.
In the following year, the Constituent Congress of Central America met in Guatemala City, to decide which system of government to adopt for the young nation. In debates two different proposals emerged. The Liberal Party wanted a federalist government, similar to that of the United States of 1789. This type of government would provide every state significant autonomy of self-administration, freedom to create its own laws and reforms, among other things, but always under the supervision of the federal government, keeper of the constitution.
The Conservatives on the other hand, wanted a centralist government. In this system, the decisions and laws adopted by the central government would apply equally to all the other states. After debating the proposals, the Liberal majority prevailed, and the federalist system was adopted. On November 22, 1824, under the motto: "God, Union, Liberty", the new constitution was approved, and the nation was renamed the Federal Republic of Central America, appointing Manuel José Arce (1825–29) as the first president.
Rise to power
Battle of 'La Trinidad'
In 1826, the Federal Government headed by Manuel José Arce attempted to dissolve the federal congress and called a meeting to be held in Cojutepeque, on October 10, 1826, to elect an extraordinary congress. This unconstitutional move was rejected by the Honduran head of state, Dionisio de Herrera. But President Arce did not recognize Herrera's authority, claiming that Herrera's provisional mandate had expired, and that he was in power illegitimately. For this reason, the National Assembly had called for new elections in Honduras, but Herrera had ignored this decree and remained in power. For these reasons, but under the guise of protecting Copán's tobacco plantations owned by the federal government, Arce decided to oust Herrera. This mission was entrusted to colonel Justo Milla, who on April 9, 1827, commanded 200 men and seized Comayagua (the state capital) capturing Herrera and sending him to a Guatemalan prison.
While Milla was busy consolidating power in Comayagua, Morazán escaped from the federal troops. He left the besieged capital in the company of colonels Remigio Díaz and José Antonio Márquez, with the purpose of getting reinforcements in Tegucigalpa. Their plan was to return, and to liberate the state capital. Upon their return from Tegucigalpa, his men clashed with Milla's forces on the ranch 'La Maradiaga'. This confrontation, had no major consequences for either side; Milla remained in charge of Honduras, and Morazán left for Ojojona where he was captured and transferred to Tegucigalpa by order of Major Ramón Anguiano.
But Francisco Morazán managed to escape from his captors and left for La Unión, El Salvador, with the intention of emigrating to Mexico. In La Unión, he met Mariano Vidaurre, a special Salvadoran envoy to the government of Nicaragua. Vidaurre convinced him that, in that country, he could find the military support he needed to expel Milla from Honduran territory. He arrived in the city of Leon, Nicaragua, where he met with the commander-in-chief of the Nicaraguan armed forces, José Anacleto "Cleto" Ordóñez. For Morazán the meeting paid off; the Nicaraguan leader provided him with weapons and a contingent of 135 men. These men were joined by Colonel Zepeda's troops from El Salvador, and some columns of Honduran volunteers in Choluteca, Honduras.
When Justo Milla discovered the presence of Morazán in southern Honduras, he quickly moved his troops to Tegucigalpa, where he established his headquarters, meanwhile Morazán headed for Sabanagrande. At 9 am on a November 11, Morazán faced General Milla in the memorable battle of 'La Trinidad'. After five hours of intense fighting in a hill used by the Justo Milla forces, Morazan disguised a plan for attack at the flanks using the fresh and rested troops coming from El Salvador, at last moment the troop from El Salvador reached the hill and attacked the rear forces from Justo Milla, driving Milla's forces to the front shock army from Morazan. Milla's federal troops were crushed by Morazán's men. Milla and few of his officers survived and fled the scene of battle. Following this victory, Morazán marched to Comayagua where he was declared Honduras' new Chief of State.
Civil War
Following his victory at 'La Trinidad', Morazán emerged as the leader of the liberal movement and his military skills became known throughout Central America. For these reasons, Morazán received calls for help from liberals in El Salvador. As in Honduras, Salvadorans opposed the new congressmen and other government officials elected by the decree issued on October 10, 1826. They demanded their restitution, but President Manuel Arce argued that this move was necessary to re-establish the constitutional order. El Salvador responded by attempting to take-over the federal government through military force. President Arce, however, defeated the Salvadoran army in Arrazola on March 23, 1828. He then ordered 2,000 federal troops under the command of General Manuel de Arzu to occupy El Salvador. This event marked the beginning of the civil war.
Francisco Morazán accepted the challenge. He placed Diego Vigil as Honduras's new head of state and left for Texiguat, where he prepared the Salvadoran campaign. In April, 1828, Morazán headed to El Salvador with a force of 1,400 men. This group of militants, known as the "Army Protector of the Law", was composed of small groups of Hondurans, Nicaraguans, and Salvadorans, who brought their own tools of war; others had the support of Indians who served as infantry. Some volunteers continued his liberal convictions, others worked for a political leader, others simply hoped to get something for their efforts after the war ended. This was the combination of forces that joined Morazán in their fight against federal troops.
While the Salvadoran army battled the Federal forces in San Salvador, Morazán positioned himself in the eastern part of the state. On July 6, Morazán defeated Col. Vicente Dominguez's Federal troops at the 'El Gualcho' ranch in Nuevo Gualcho. In his memoirs, Morazán described the battle like this: "At 12 midnight I undertook my march... but the rain didn't let me turn the day, and I was forced to wait in El Gualcho.... At 3 o'clock in the morning, the rain stopped, I put two companies of hunters on the hill overlooking to the left of the ranch.... At 5 o'clock I learned the position occupied by the enemy.... I could not go back under these circumstances.... It was no longer possible to continue the march, without serious danger, a vast plain and the very presence of the enemy. Less I could defend myself in the ranch, placed under a height of more than 200 feet.... It was therefore necessary to accept the battle with all the advantages reached by the enemy.... I ordered the hunters to advance over the enemy to stop their movement.... While the force rose by a slope and narrow path, fire broke out.... But 175 inexperienced soldiers made impotent for quarter of an hour, the repeated attacks by the bulk of the enemy. The enthusiasm that produced in all the soldiers the heroism of these brave Hondurans, exceeded the number of the enemy. When the action became general on both sides, our right wing was forced to back down. And occupied the light artillery that supported it. But the reserve working on that side, re-established our line, recovered the artillery and ended the action.... The Salvadorans assistants... arrived in time to pursue the dispersed..." enemy soldiers.
Morazán kept on fighting around San Miguel, defeating every platoon dispatched by General Arzu from San Salvador. This prompted Arzu to leave Col. Montufar in charge of San Salvador and personally deal with Morazán. When the 'liberal caudillo' learned about this, he left for Honduras to recruit more troops. On September 20, Gen. Arzu was along the Lempa River with 500 men in pursuit of Morazán, when he learned that his forces had capitulated in Mejicanos. In the meantime, Morazán returned to El Salvador with a respectable army. Arzu feigning illness returned to Guatemala, leaving his forces under the command of lieutenant colonel Antonio de Aycinena. The colonel and his troops then marched towards Honduran territory, when they were intercepted by Morazán's men in San Antonio. On October 9 Aycinena was forced to surrender. With the capitulation of San Antonio, El Salvador was finally free of federal troops. On October 23, Morazán triumphantly entered the plaza of San Salvador. A few days later, he marched on Ahuachapán, to organize the army with which he intended to invade Guatemala.
Guatemala
In Ahuachapán Morazán made every effort to organize a large army. He asked the government of El Salvador to provide 4,000 men, but had to settle for 2,000. When he was in position to act in early 1829, he sent a division commanded by Juan Prem to enter Guatemalan territory and to take control of Chiquimula. The order was carried out by Prem in spite of the resistance offered by the enemy. Shortly after, Morazán placed a small force near Guatemala City under the command of Col. Gutierrez to force the enemy out of their trenches and to cause the defection of their troops. Col. Dominguez had left from Guatemala City with 600 infantrymen to attack Prem but he was informed about Gutierrez's small force. He changed his course of action and went after Gutierrez. This opportunity was seized by Prem who then moved from Zacapa and on to Dominguez's forces, defeating them on January 15, 1829. Prem then was ordered to march with 1400 men under his command to occupy the post of San José, near the capital city.
Meanwhile, the people of Antigua organized against the Guatemalan government and placed the department of Sacatepequez under Morazán's protection. This prompted Morazán to invade Guatemala with his 'Protector Army of the law'. Morazán situated his men in the village of Pinula near the capital city. Military operations on the capital began with small skirmishes in front of government fortifications. On February 15 one of Morazán's largest divisions under the command of Cayetano de la Cerda was defeated in Mixco by federal troops. Due to this defeat Morazán lifted the siege of the city and concentrated his forces in Antigua. A strong division of federal troops followed him from the capital under the command of Col. Pacheco, heading towards Sumpango and Tejar with the purpose of attacking Morazán in Antigua. But Pacheco spread his forces, leaving some of them in Sumpango. When he went into San Miguelito with a smaller army, he was beaten by Morazán. This incident raised the morale of Morazán's men once again.
After the victory of San Miguelito, Morazán's army grew larger when Guatemalan volunteers joined his ranks. On March 15 when Morazán was on his way to occupy his former positions, he was intercepted by Col. Prado's Federal troops at the 'Las Charcas' ranch. Morazán, with a superior position, crushed Prado's army. The battlefield was left full of dead bodies, prisoners and weapons, and Morazán moved on to recover his former positions in Pinula and Aceytuno, and to put Guatemala City under siege again.
General Verveer, plenipotentiary minister of the king of the Netherlands to the Central America Federation, attempted to mediate between the Government under siege and Morazán, but they could not reach an agreement. Military operations continued, with great success for the allied army. On April 12, Guatemala's Chief of State, Mariano Aycinena, capitulated and the next day the Central Plaza was occupied by Morazán's troops. Immediately thereafter President Arce, Mariano Aycinena, Mariano Beltranena, and all the officials who had had some role in the war were sent to prison. After these events, the General ran the country dictatorially, until senator Juan Barrundia took over on June 25, 1829.
Presidency
First term, 1830–34
Francisco Morazán won the popular vote of the 1830 presidential election, against the conservative challenger José del Valle. He was inaugurated on September 16. In his inaugural speech he declared: "The sovereign people send me, to place myself, in the most dangerous of their destinies. I must obey and fulfill, the solemn oath that I have just rendered. I offer, to uphold the Federal Constitution, which I defended as a soldier and as a citizen."
With Morazán's as president and governors sponsored by him, the liberals had consolidated power. The General was now in position to advance his liberal reforms. Through them, he attempted to dismantle what he felt were archaic Spanish institutions, and to give to his people a society based upon general education, religious liberty and social and political equality. In 1831 Morazán and Governor Mariano Galvez turned Guatemala into a testing ground for these 'enlightenment-like' policies. They oversaw the building of schools and roads, enacted free trade policies, invited foreign capital and immigrants, allowed secular marriage and divorce and freedom of speech, tried to make public lands available to the expanding cochineal economy, separated church from state, abolished tithes, proclaimed religious liberties, confiscated church property, suppressed religious orders, and removed education from church control, among other policies.
All of this new approved legislation struck a blow at the heart of the Guatemalan oligarchy. But more importantly, it stripped the Spanish clergy of their privileges, and curtailed their power. According to historian Mary Wilhelmine Williams: "The immediate reasons for the different enactments varied. Some laws were intended to protect the state from the clergy ... others aimed to help the recoup the public treasure, and at the same time sweep away aristocratic privilege; while still other legislation – especially that of latter date – was enacted for the punishment of opposition to earlier acts and of intrigues against the government" when Francisco Morazán first came to power. Back then, the General had to expel from the country archbishop Ramon Casaus and certain members of the monastic orders, because they were under suspicion of opposing independence. They used their influence against him and the Liberal Party during the civil war. They also had opposed the reforms, particularly those in the interest of general education which the Liberals were determined to push.
In March 1832, another conflict erupted in El Salvador. Chief of State, José María Cornejo had rebelled against some federal decrees, which prompted President Morazán to act. The commander in chief at the head of the Federal Troops marched on to El Salvador where they beat Cornejo's State Army on March 14. On the 28 of the same month, Morazán had occupied San Salvador. From that point forward, rumors about the need to reform the constitution began.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2KmxKhStcQkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Nociones+de+la+historia+del+salvador+reyes&cd=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false Nociones de la Historia Del Salvador], pp. 284,285</ref>
Second term, 1834–38
In 1834 at the request of Governor, Mariano Galvez, the General moved the capital city to Sonsonate and later to San Salvador. The same year, the first four years of Francisco Morazán's presidency had ended. According to the constitution, elections needed to be held in order to elect the next president of the Republic. Moderate, José Cecilio del Valle ran against the incumbent president; for this reason, General Francisco Morazán deposited the presidency on General Gregorio Salazar, so the federal congress could verify the fairness of the election.
When all the votes were counted, José del Valle had defeated Francisco Morazán. The Federal elections showed strong popular opposition to liberal reforms. Valle, however, died before taking office. Most historians agree that had he lived, he might have brought conciliation and harmony between the opposing forces (Liberals and Conservatives). On June 2, the Federal Congress called for new elections, which were won by Francisco Morazán. On February 14, 1835. General Morazán, was sworn as president for a second term.
End of the federation
In February 1837 there occurred in Central America a series of events that ignited a revolution that culminated with the fall of the Federation. An epidemic of cholera scourged Guatemala leaving approximately 1000 people dead and 3000 infected with the bacteria. The epidemic struck especially the poor and the Indians in the highlands of the state. At the time when it appeared, the Indians of the district of Mita, influenced by their priests, were much perturbed over the system of trial by jury (incomprehensible to them) which was being introduced. The disease spread rapidly and the government of Mariano Galvez, hoping to alleviate the situation, dispatched the available physicians, medical students and remedies for distribution. But these measures were of little help because the Indians continued to die.
The church viewed this as an opportunity to strike back at the liberal government of Mariano Galvez. The local priests spread the rumor that the government had poisoned the rivers and streams for the purpose of wiping out the indigenous population, and repopulating it with foreigners. In proof, they pointed to a recent grant of territory in Vera Paz made to a British colonization company. A cry was then raised by the frantic Indians against their supposed murderers. As the cholera continued to spread the Indians took to arms, killed whites and liberals, burned their houses, and prepared to confront Galvez's government.
The governor sent an army to try to stop the revolt. But the army's measures were so repressive, that it only made matters worse. By June Santa Rosa erupted, and from the village of Mataquescuintla emerged a young Rafael Carrera. Carrera was an illiterate, but shrewd and charismatic swineherd turned highwayman, whom the rebels wanted as their leader. The priests proclaimed to the natives that he was their protecting angel Rafael, descended from the heavens to take vengeance on the heretics, Liberals and foreigners and to restore their ancient dominion. They devised various tricks to favor the delusion, which were heralded as miracles. A letter was let down from the roof of one of the churches, in the midst of a vast congregation of Indians, which was supposed to come from the Virgin Mary, commissioning Carrera to lead a revolt against the government.
Under cries of "Long live religion!", and "Death to foreigners!", Carrera and his forces initiated a war against the government. Encouraged by these events the conservatives joined in. The liberal government called General Morazán for help. Francisco Morazán repeatedly defeated Carrera's forces and pacified the state, but he could never catch the Indian leader, as he simply retreated to the mountains and came back to re-occupy the key positions as soon as Morazán's troops left.Reyes 1885, p.286
By 1838 Morazán was presiding over a dying institution. Galvez had relinquished power, Congress tried to restore some life to the Federal Government by transferring control of their custom revenues. But Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica opposed this move and used it as an opportunity to leave the union. The Federation was dead. On February 1, 1839, Morazán had completed his second constitutional term as president, congress had dissolved and there was no legal basis to name his successor. In the end a failure at compromise, the power of the church, bitter infighting between conservatives and liberals, and the quest for personal glory were the main reasons for the downfall of the 'Federation'.
Chief of state
After Francisco Morazán's second term as President of the Federal Republic ended, he was left without political or military power. On July 13, 1839, however, the general was elected Chief of State of El Salvador.
When Rafael Carrera and the Guatemalan conservatives learned about Morazán's new role, they declared war on El Salvador. Francisco Morazán personified the 'Old Federation' itself and for that reason alone they vowed to defeat him. On July 24, Guatemala and Nicaragua signed a treaty of alliance against Morazán's government. Carrera called on the Salvadoran people to rise against their government. These calls resulted in small uprisings within El Salvador, but these were quickly put down without much effort by Morazán.
When Carrera's attempt failed, Morazán's enemies formed an army of Nicaraguan and Honduran troops. On September 25, 1839, these forces invaded El Salvador and faced Morazán's army during the battle of San Pedro Perulapán. The general only needed 600 Salvadorans to defeat 2,000 men commanded by generals Francisco Ferrera, Nicolás de Espinosa, and Manuel Quijano. After their defeat, the humiliated generals and their troops fled to neighboring states, leaving behind over three hundred dead.
Defeat
On March 18, 1840 Morazán made a last attempt to restore the 'Union'. He gathered what he thought were enough Salvadoran forces to face Carrera, and with them marched to Guatemala. Once positioned, Morazán moved in from the south, striking towards the capital. Carrera pulled most of his own force out of the capital, leaving only a small, very visible garrison inside. Morazán jumped in, slaughtered much of the bait, then found himself assaulted from all directions by Carrera's main force of about 5,000 men.
The battle became notorious for its savagery and revealed the ruthless side of Carrera. whose Indians sang Salve Regina, and shouted "Long Live Carrera!", "Death to Morazán!" By the next morning, Morazán was running out of ammunition. He then ordered an increase in fire from three corners of the plaza, in order to attract attention, while he himself slipped out through the fourth corner of the plaza with a small escort, to escape back to El Salvador.
This time, the general did not have the support he needed from the common people, as he had had in 1830. The 'Liberal reforms' had not produced enough results for the citizenry; moreover, they resented some of these reforms. This was the case with the Livingston Code, which changed the system of taxation, among other reforms. As for the 'Liberals', they were too busy fighting among themselves that even former liberal president, José Francisco Barrundia had joined Rafael Carrera. Morazán's defeat was so decisive that on March 27, he deposited the headquarters of the State in the hands of director José Antonio Canas and directed a proclamation to the people of El Salvador. Morazán did not want to cause any more problems for the Salvadorans. With Francisco Morazán's final defeat, the hopes of a Central American federation vanished.
Exile in South America
On April 8, 1840, General Francisco Morazán went into exile. He left from the port of La Libertad in El Salvador, and embarked on the schooner Izalco accompanied by 30 of his closest friends and war veterans. He stopped in Costa Rica where he sought and obtained political asylum for most of his companions. Seven continued on the journey to South America with him. Morazán landed at Chiriquí Province, then moved on to David, Chiriquí where his family awaited him. While in David, Morazán was informed by his friends of the fierce persecutions suffered by his supporters at the hands of Rafael Carrea and other Central American leaders. Outraged by this and by the chain of insults and slander against him by some members of the press, he wrote and published his famous 'Manifest of David' dated July 16, 1841.
While he was still in David, Morazán also received calls from his liberal colleagues in Costa Rica. Braulio Carrillo, governor of that state, had restricted individual liberties, placed limits on freedom of the press, and derogated the Political Constitution of 1825. He replaced it with a new constitutional charter, denominated "Law of Bases and Guarantees", where he declared himself 'Chief of State for Life'. Furthermore, Carrillo declared Costa Rica a free and independent state. However, Morazán wanted to stay away from Central America affairs, and travelled to Peru. Once in Lima, he received the invitation of Mariscal Agustín Gamarra to command a Peruvian division, at a time when his country was at war with Chile. But Morazán declined, because he found this war very confusing and troubling. Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Chile were all involved in a twelve-year war, which brought about a train of baneful stages of chaos, among all countries involved.
In Peru, Morazán was fortunate to find good friends with whom he shared the same ideals. These included Generals José Rufino Echenique and Pedro Bermudez. Around 1841, the English began to intervene in the Mosquito territory, located between Honduras and Nicaragua. This intervention prompted Morazán to end his self-imposed Peruvian exile, and he decided that it was time to return to Central America. With the financial backing of General Pedro Bermudez, he departed from Callao on board the "Crusader" in late December 1841. On that trip he was accompanied by General Cabañas and Saravia, and five other officers. He and his companions made stops in Guayaquil, Ecuador and Chiriqui where he met with his family before returning to Central America.
Return
On January 15, 1842, Morazán arrived in El Salvador. He made himself available to the Central American leaders for the common defense against the British intervention. On February 16, 1842, he told his countrymen that his return was a "duty" and a "irresistible national sentiment", not only for him but for all "those who have a heart for their homeland." But his offers were rejected, nonetheless.
After this episode, he put forth a plan to overthrow Costa Rican head of State Braulio Carrillo. Carrillo, a reformer responsible for the expansion of coffee production in Costa Rica, had taken the first steps towards ending Costa Rica's political links with Central America.
In La Union, El Salvador, Morazán hired three boats. He then travelled to Acajutla, San Salvador and Sonsonate where he was able to reactivate the local forces. From Acajutla, he left for the island of Martin Perez, located on the Gulf of Fonseca. There he organized a military contingent of about 500 men. On April 7 and without any mishap, Morazán's fleet of five vessels landed at Port of Caldera in Costa Rica.
When Braulio Carrillo was informed of the presence of Morazán in Costa Rica, he organized a military force under the command of General Vicente Villasenor. On April 9, 1842, Morazán issued a proclamation to the people of Costa Rica in which he stated that he was never indifferent to the "misfortunes" of the Costa Rican people. "Your cries", he said, "have for a long time hurt my ears, and I finally found the means to save you, even at the expense of my own life".
Morazán avoided an armed confrontation with the forces sent by Carrillo. Through negotiations, in which he offered Villaseñor higher positions onces the Federation was restored, he got him to betray his government. They signed "The Jocote Accord". This agreement provided for the integration of a single military body, the convening of a National Constituent Assembly, the ousting of Braulio Carrillo and other members of his administration, and the installation of a provisional government under the command of Francisco Morazán. On April 13, 1842, Morazán's forces entered the city of San José.
Thereafter Chief Carrillo was forced to accept the treaty. He approved it only when some modifications were added. He then turned the government over to Morazán and left the country. Morazán's first act was to open the doors of the state to Costa Rican and Central American political refugees. He then abolished the laws that Carrillo had imposed limiting trade and property, restored individual and political rights, devoted himself to urgent reforms, and convened the Constituent Assembly, which appointed him Supreme Chief of the Costa Rican State.
According to historian Gomez Carrillo, in the months that followed, Morazán concentrated on recruiting military personnel for the purpose of 'restoring the Central America motherland.' Thereafter, rumors of the possibility of war against the neighboring states spread. This troubled Costa Ricans; they feared Rafael Carrera would intervene in their affairs, specially after Guatemala broke ties with them. In addition they felt financially incapable of sustaining a war, and also considered it unnecessary. After all, the restoration of the 'Union' was a cause they didn't believe in. For all these reasons they decided to conspire against Morazán.
Death
On September 11, 1842, a popular movement opposed to Morazán erupted in San José. Led by Portuguese General Antonio Pinto Soares, 400 men attacked Morazán's guard of 40 Salvadorans. Morazán and his men managed to repel the attacks and retreat to their headquarters. The fighting continued bloody and relentless, and the insurgents increased to 1,000, while the number of the besieged diminished. Chaplain José Castro then proposed a capitulation to Morazán ensuring his life, but he refused. After 88 hours of fighting, Morazán and his closest collaborators resolved to break the siege. General José Cabañas with 30 men held the retreat, which made it possible for the others to flee towards Cartago.
But the insurrection had spread there too, so Morazán turned for help to his friend, Pedro Mayorga. But Mayorga betrayed him, and turned him over to his enemies along with generals, Vicente Villaseñor, José Saravia and José Trinidad Cabañas. Saravia committed suicide, Villaseñor attempted the same but survived. Subsequently, Morazán and Vicente Villaseñor were sentenced to death. On September 15, Morazán and Villaseñor were transferred to the central plaza in San José.
Before his execution, Morazán dictated his famous will to his son, Francisco. In it, he calls his death "murder" and declares, "I do not have enemies, nor the smaller resentment I take to the grave against my murderers, I forgive them and wish them the greatest good." When he was done, a chair was offered to him but he refused it. Seated next to him was Gen. Villaseñor, sedated and almost unconscious. Morazán then said, "Dear friend, posterity will do us justice" and crossed himself. A few minutes later, Morazán himself commanded the firing squad that ended his life and that of Villaseñor.
With his death, the nation lost a man described by José Martí as "a powerful genius, a strategist, a speaker, a true statesman, perhaps the only one Central America has ever produced". In 1848, the government of José María Castro sent Morazán's remains to El Salvador, fulfilling one of his last wishes.
Politics and the failed Federation
More than a man of ideas, Morazán was a man of action wrote biographer Rafael Eliodoro Valle. But his name cannot fail to brighten the history of ideas in Central America, because he knew how to instill in them; the power of his sincerity, the passion that inflamed him, and his faith in the future, like men of vision who always think big. Francisco Morazán pushed with his liberal and progressive ideas a series of revolutionary measures for the time. Thus, promoting education, immigration, established freedom of worship and the press. The first federal administration headed by Morazán was oriented to the peaceful reconstruction of the several States that comprised the republic.
When liberalism seemed to finally find the opportunity to implement its noblest principles, after a long process of integration as ideological tendency, as a political group and as a power option, the liberal regime was unable to achieve cohesion within the Central American society. The Liberals' sustained fight against the aristocracy and their quest to exclude conservatives from political life was not accompanied by a parallel effort to integrate other sectors such as indigenous people, (The bulk of the population) to the national modern project that they so vehemently postulated. The indigenous people never found the liberal proposal to be attractive enough, so as to break free from the deep rooted ancient order taught by the Church and the stability they have had for three centuries under the colonial regime.
According to writer, David Alejandro Luna, one of Morazán's biggest mistakes was to not design a plan to break the feudal estates where his secular enemies were sitting ... Morazán's fight was marred of romanticism, his strategic line tended to politically displace the oppressive aristocratic landowners of Central America, his tactics, however, disagreed with the political reality. Despite the strenuous efforts made by General Francisco Morazán from the presidency of the Republic. The clerical and aristocratic forces staged a strong anti-liberal building block taking advantage of the fanaticism and discontent that permeated large sections of the population, especially in the state of Guatemala.
Legacy
Francisco Morazán became a martyr and a symbol of the Republic of Central America. He gave his life however unsuccessfully, attempting to preserve the 'Union'. Now, more than 160 years after his death, Central America is still plagued by power struggles, corruption,Trasladan a cárcel de maxima seguridad a ex presidente Portillo La Tercera, 16/02/2010. Retrieved March 4, 2010. and poverty. More often than not, the five republics have emulated Carrera than Morazán; but the dream of The Great Central American Country is still alive. His image can be found in bills, logos, and stamps. Institutions, cities, departments, schools, and parks among other things bear Morazán's name, in order to preserve his legacy.
El Salvador was among the first countries to pay tribute to Morazán. On March 14, 1887. The National Assembly of the Republic of El Salvador replaced the name of the department of "Gotera" with "Morazán". So as "to perpetuate the name of the great leader of the Central American Union". In 1943, Honduras renamed the Tegucigalpa department, Francisco Morazán. On November 15, 1887, the town of Tocoy Tzimá became 'Morazán' in Guatemala. In 1945, Port Morazán was founded in Nicaragua.
Costa Rica, the country that he invaded and where he died honored him with a park in the center of its capital San Jose. However, in this country the legacy of Morazan is completely the opposite of what he would have wanted. The fear of getting dragged into Central American affairs that brought Morazan down is still a constant in the country. Immediately after Morazan's adventure it became the first country to formally end its relation with the Central American Federation. Today it is not a member of any political integration organism of Central America, like its Parliament or Court, and has even rejected the symbolic step of using a common design for its passport covers. Costa Rica's refusal has given birth then to the CA-4 concept, where Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua (Central America 4) have taken bigger steps towards integration.
In the political field the idea of integration is still preserved in the mind of many Central Americans. For example; the Central American Parliament, also known by the abbreviation "Parlacen" (from the Spanish Parlamento Centroamericano). This is a political institution devoted to the integration of the Central American countries. The Parlacen represents a modern version of the historic Federal Republic of Central America, though not including Costa Rica but it does include the Dominican Republic. Panama used to be a member but left during the government of President Martinelli.
In the past several unsuccessful attempts have been made to restore the 'Union' (1851, 1886, 1921)
Morazán's legacy is also present in the arts. The first play of record in El Salvador is titled "La Tragedy of Morazán" written by Francisco Díaz (1812–45) and dramatizing the life of the Central American president. The modern period of in Honduran theater began with Luis Andrés Zúñiga Portillo when he wrote "Los Conspiradores" (The Conspirators, 1916), a historic drama that honored the virtues of Francisco Morazán. In his book Canto General, Pablo Neruda also pays tribute to the 'Liberal Caudillo', with a poem to Central America.
Statues and busts of Francisco Morazán can be found in Chile, El Salvador, United States, Spain, and elsewhere. The most famous and controversial is the equestrian statue of Morazán located in Tegucigalpa's Central Park.
In the 1971 book Open Veins of Latin America, Uruguayan writer Eduardo Galeano mentions that this statue is that of French Marshal Michel Ney. According to Galeano, the statue was bought at a flea market, because the persons entrusted to buy it, spent the money in binges. Galeano later retracted. The story was also mentioned by Gabriel García Márquez in his 1982 Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Research by scholar Rafael Leiva Vivas debunked this tale, showing that the statue was contracted for, that French sculptor Léopold Morice's name appears on the base, and that sculptor and architect Francisco Durini was also involved (either as collaborator or intermediary).
The movie Morazán (2017), Honduras' very first submission to the Academy Awards (Foreign Language Film), depicts Morazán's last days.
A species of Honduran lizard, Anolis morazani'', is named in his honor.
References
Further reading
Biographies
Related history
External links
Exhibition: See Sword, Portraits, and Objects that Belonged to Morazán
Proyecto Casa de Morazán
José Francisco Morazán Quezada 2003
Character of General Morazán
1792 births
1842 deaths
People from Tegucigalpa
Presidents of Honduras
Presidents of El Salvador
Heads of state of the Federal Republic of Central America
Presidents of Costa Rica
19th-century Costa Rican people
Rafael Carrera
Executed presidents
People executed by Costa Rica by firing squad
Executed Honduran people
Burials in El Salvador | [
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219208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavochkin | Lavochkin | NPO Lavochkin (, OKB-301, also called Lavochkin Research and Production Association or shortly Lavochkin Association, LA) is a Russian aerospace company. It is a major player in the Russian space program, being the developer and manufacturer of the Fregat upper stage, as well as interplanetary probes such as Fobos-Grunt. As of 2015, it was headed by Sergei Lemeshevskii. On August 10, 2017 the Lavochkin Association's Board of Directors appointed Vladimir Kolmykov Director General of the enterprise.
Overview
The company develops and manufactures spacecraft such as the Fregat rocket upper stages, satellites and interplanetary probes. It is a contractor for a number of military programs, such as the Oko early warning satellite, Prognoz and Araks programmes as well as the civilian program Kupon. One of the company's most notable projects was the participation in the failed Fobos-Grunt sample return mission. NPO Lavochkin has also developed the Elektro–L series of new-generation weather satellites, as well as the Navigator standardised satellite platform, which will serve as the basis for several future Russian satellites.
History
The company was founded in 1937 as OKB-301, a Soviet aircraft design bureau (OKB). The head designer was . On October, 1945 Semyon Lavochkin was promoted for the head designer of the design bureau. It gained distinction for its family of piston-engined fighter aircraft during World War II, and later shifted to missile and jet fighter designs. Following the death of the head designer, the OKB-301 succumbed to the growing power of Vladimir Chelomey and became OKB-52 Branch No. 3 on 18 December 1962. Later, it turned to work on interplanetary probe designs for Luna sample return program, the Lunokhod program, Vega program, Phobos program, etc. The former OKB-301 became named NPO Lavochkin.
In January 2012, officials of Lavochkin faced administrative punishment for not taking into account of designing the computer system after the crash of Russia's Mars moon spacecraft Fobos-Grunt.
Projects
Aircraft
LaGG-1
LaGG-3
Gu-82
K-37
Gu-1
La-5
La-7 "Fin"
La-9 "Fritz"
La-11 "Fang"
La-15 "Fantail"
La-17
La-120
La-126
La-130
La-132
La-134
La-138
La-140
La-150
La-152
La-154
La-156
La-160
La-168
La-174
La-176
La-180
La-190
La-200
La-250 Anakonda
Rockets and missiles
S-25 Berkut (SA-1 "Guild") - surface-to-air missile
S-75 Dvina (SA-2 "Guideline") - surface-to-air missile
La-205 is V-300, a SAM for S-25 air defense system
La-350 Burya - intercontinental cruise missile
La-400 DAL - surface to air missile
Fregat - upper stage
Spacecraft
Astron
Elektro-L - satellite
Elektro-L No.1
Elektro-L No.2
Fobos-Grunt - space probe
Granat - satellite
Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment - space probe
Luna programme
Luna 9
Luna 10
Luna 11
Luna 12
Luna 13
Luna 14
Luna 15
Luna 16
Luna 17
Luna 18
Luna 19
Luna 20
Luna 21
Luna 22
Luna 23
Luna 24
Luna 25
Luna E-8 No.201
Luna E-8-5 No.402
Luna E-8-5 No.405
Luna E-8-5M No.412
Lunokhod programme
Lunokhod 1
Lunokhod 2
Mars program
Mars 2M No.521
Mars 2M No.522
Mars 4
Mars 5
Mars 5M
Mars 6
Mars 7
Mars-96
Oko - missile early warning satellite.
Spektr-R - space radio telescope satellite, dedicated to very Long Baseline Interferometry
Spektr-RG - space observatory satellite
US-K - satellite
US-KMO - satellite
US-KS - satellite
Venera program
Venera 3
Venera 4
Venera 5
Venera 7
Venera 8
Venera 9
Kosmos 167
Vega program
Vega 1
Vega 2
Future projects
Luna-Glob
Mars-Grunt - space probe
Designers and engineers
Georgy Babakin
Semyon Lavochkin
Yuri Koptev, later director of Roscosmos, worked at Lavochkin from 1965
See also
Babakin Space Centre
References
Further reading
William H Mott, Robert B Sheldon, L Philip Sheldon (2000). Laser Satellite Communication: The Third Generation. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 132.
GlobalSecurity.org - http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/npolav.htm
Aircraft manufacturers of the Soviet Union
Aerospace companies of the Soviet Union
Soviet and Russian space institutions
Rocket engine manufacturers of Russia
Roscosmos divisions and subsidiaries
Companies based in Moscow Oblast
Russian brands
Design bureaus | [
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219210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy%20protection | Copy protection | Copy protection, also known as content protection, copy prevention and copy restriction, describes measures to enforce copyright by preventing the reproduction of software, films, music, and other media.
Copy protection is most commonly found on videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, HD-DVDs, computer software discs, video game discs and cartridges, audio CDs and some VCDs.
Some methods of copy protection have also led to criticisms because it caused inconvenience for paying consumers, or it secretly installed additional or unwanted software to detect copying activities on the consumer's computer. Making copy protection effective while protecting consumer rights remains a problem with media publication.
Terminology
Media corporations have always used the term copy protection, but critics argue that the term tends to sway the public into identifying with the publishers, who favor restriction technologies, rather than with the users. Copy prevention and copy control may be more neutral terms. "Copy protection" is a misnomer for some systems, because any number of copies can be made from an original and all of these copies will work, but only in one computer, or only with one dongle, or only with another device that cannot be easily copied.
The term is also often related to, and confused with, the concept of digital rights management. Digital rights management is a more general term because it includes all sorts of management of works, including copy restrictions. Copy protection may include measures that are not digital. A more appropriate term may be "technological protection measures" (TPMs), which is often defined as the use of technological tools in order to restrict the use or access to a work.
Business rationale
Unauthorized copying and distribution accounted for $2.4 billion in lost revenue in the United States alone in the 1990s, and is assumed to be causing impact on revenues in the music and the video game industry, leading to proposal of stricter copyright laws such as PIPA.
Copy protection is most commonly found on videotapes, DVDs, computer software discs, video game discs and cartridges, audio CDs and some VCDs.
Many media formats are easy to copy using a machine, allowing consumers to distribute copies to their friends, a practice known as "casual copying".
Companies publish works under copyright protection because they believe that the cost of implementing the copy protection will be less than the revenue produced by consumers who buy the product instead of acquiring it through casually copied media.
Opponents of copy protection argue that people who obtain free copies only use what they can get for free and would not purchase their own copy if they were unable to obtain a free copy. Some even argue that free copies increase profit; people who receive a free copy of a music CD may then go and buy more of that band's music, which they would not have done otherwise.
Some publishers have avoided copy-protecting their products on the theory that the resulting inconvenience to their users outweighs any benefit of frustrating "casual copying".
From the perspective of the end user, copy protection is always a cost. DRM and license managers sometimes fail, are inconvenient to use, and may not afford the user all of the legal use of the product they have purchased.
The term copy protection refers to the technology used to attempt to frustrate copying, and not to the legal remedies available to publishers or authors whose copyrights are violated. Software usage models range from node locking to floating licenses (where a fixed number licenses can be concurrently used across an enterprise), grid computing (where multiple computers function as one unit and so use a common license) and electronic licensing (where features can be purchased and activated online). The term license management refers to broad platforms which enable the specification, enforcement and tracking of software licenses. To safeguard copy protection and license management technologies themselves against tampering and hacking, software anti-tamper methods are used.
Floating licenses are also being referred to as Indirect Licenses, and are licenses that at the time they are issued, there is no actually user who will use them. That has some technical influence over some of their characteristics. Direct Licenses are issued after a certain user requires it. As an example, an activated Microsoft product, contains a Direct License which is locked to the PC where the product is installed.
From business standpoint, on the other hand, some services now try to monetize on additional services other than the media content so users can have better experience than simply obtaining the copied product.
Technical challenges
From a technical standpoint, it seems impossible to completely prevent users from making copies of the media they purchase, as long as a "writer" is available that can write to blank media. All types of media require a "player"—a CD player, DVD player, videotape player, computer or video game console—which must be able to read the media in order to display it to a human. Logically, a player could be built that reads the media and then writes an exact copy of what was read to the same type of media.
At a minimum, digital copy protection of non-interactive works is subject to the analog hole: regardless of any digital restrictions, if music can be heard by the human ear, it can also be recorded (at the very least, with a microphone and tape recorder); if a film can be viewed by the human eye, it can also be recorded (at the very least, with a video camera and recorder). In practice, almost-perfect copies can typically be made by tapping into the analog output of a player (e.g. the speaker output or headphone jacks) and, once redigitized into an unprotected form, duplicated indefinitely. Copying text-based content in this way is more tedious, but the same principle applies: if it can be printed or displayed, it can also be scanned and OCRed. With basic software and some patience, these techniques can be applied by a typical computer-literate user.
Since these basic technical facts exist, it follows that a determined individual will definitely succeed in copying any media, given enough time and resources. Media publishers understand this; copy protection is not intended to stop professional operations involved in the unauthorized mass duplication of media, but rather to stop "casual copying".
Copying of information goods which are downloaded (rather than being mass-duplicated as with physical media) can be inexpensively customized for each download, and thus restricted more effectively, in a process known as "traitor tracing". They can be encrypted in a fashion which is unique for each user's computer, and the decryption system can be made tamper-resistant.
Methods
For information on individual protection schemes and technologies, see List of copy protection schemes or relevant category page.
Computer software
Copy protection for computer software, especially for games, has been a long cat-and-mouse struggle between publishers and crackers. These were (and are) programmers who defeated copy protection on software as a hobby, add their alias to the title screen, and then distribute the "cracked" product to the network of warez BBSes or Internet sites that specialized in distributing unauthorized copies of software.
Early ages
When computer software was still distributed in audio cassettes, audio copying was unreliable, while digital copying was time consuming. Software prices were comparable with audio cassette prices. To make digital copying more difficult, many programs used non-standard loading methods (loaders incompatible with standard BASIC loaders, or loaders that used different transfer speed).
Unauthorized software copying began to be a problem when floppy disks became the common storage media. The ease of copying depended on the system; Jerry Pournelle wrote in BYTE in 1983 that "CP/M doesn't lend itself to copy protection" so its users "haven't been too worried" about it, while "Apple users, though, have always had the problem. So have those who used TRS-DOS, and I understand that MS-DOS has copy protection features".
1980s Locksmith
Pournelle disliked copy protection and, except for games, refused to review software that used it. He did not believe that it was useful, writing in 1983 that "For every copy protection scheme there's a hacker ready to defeat it. Most involve so-called nibble/nybble copiers, which try to analyze the original disk and then make a copy". IBM's Don Estridge agreed: "I guarantee that whatever scheme you come up with will take less time to break than to think of it." While calling piracy "a threat to software development. It's going to dry up the software", he said "It's wrong to copy-protect programs ... There ought to be some way to stop [piracy] without creating products that are unusable."
Copy protection sometimes caused software to not run on clones, such as the Apple II-compatible Laser 128. The back and forth struggle between copy protection engineers and nibble copiers continued until the Apple II became obsolete and was replaced by the IBM PC and its clones.
In 1989 Gilman Louie, head of Spectrum Holobyte, stated that copy protection added about $0.50 per copy to the cost of production of a game. Other software relied on complexity; Antic in 1988 observed that WordPerfect for the Atari ST "is almost unusable without its manual of over 600 pages!". (The magazine was mistaken; the ST version was so widely pirated that the company threatened to discontinue it.)
To limit reusing activation keys to install the software on multiple machines, it has been attempted to tie the installed software to a specific machine by involving some unique feature of the machine. Serial number in ROM could not be used because some machines do not have them. Some popular surrogate for a machine serial number were date and time (to the second) of initialization of the hard disk or MAC address of Ethernet cards (although this is programmable on modern cards). With the rise of virtualization, however, the practice of locking has to add to these simple hardware parameters to still prevent copying.
Early video games
During the 1980s and 1990s, video games sold on audio cassette and floppy disks were sometimes protected with an external user-interactive method that demanded the user to have the original package or a part of it, usually the manual. Copy protection was activated not only at installation, but every time the game was executed.
Several imaginative and creative methods have been employed, in order to be both fun and hard to copy. These include:
The most common method was requiring the player to enter a specific word (often chosen at random) from the manual. A variant of this technique involved matching a picture provided by the game to one in the manual and providing an answer pertaining to the picture (Ski or Die, 4D Boxing and James Bond 007; the Stealth Affair used this technique). Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space (in the floppy version but not the CD version) required the user to input an astronaut's total duration in space (available in the manual) before the launch of certain missions. If the answer were incorrect, the mission would suffer a catastrophic failure.
Manuals containing information and hints vital to the completion of the game, like answers to riddles (Conquests of Camelot, King's Quest 6), recipes of spells (King's Quest 3), keys to deciphering non-Latin writing systems (Ultima series, see also Ultima writing systems), maze guides (Manhunter), dialogue spoken by other characters in the game (Wasteland, Dragon Wars), excerpts of the storyline (most Advanced Dungeons and Dragons games and Wing Commander I), or a radio frequency to use to communicate with a character to further a game (Metal Gear Solid).
Some sort of code with symbols, not existing on the keyboard or the ASCII code. This code was arranged in a grid, and had to be entered via a virtual keyboard at the request "What is the code at line 3 row 2?". These tables were printed on dark paper (Maniac Mansion, Uplink), or were visible only through a red transparent layer (Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade), making the paper very difficult to photocopy. Another variant of this method—most famously used on the ZX Spectrum version of Jet Set Willy—was a card with color sequences at each grid reference that had to be entered before starting the game. This also prevented monochrome photocopying. It had been thought that the codes in the tables were based on a mathematical formula which could be calculated by using the row, line and page number if the formula was known, a function of the disk space requirement of the data. Later research proved that this wasn't the case.
The Secret of Monkey Island offered a rotating wheel with halves of pirate's faces. The game showed a face composed of two different parts and asked when this pirate was hanged on a certain island. The player then had to match the faces on the wheel, and enter the year that appeared on the island-respective hole. Its sequel had the same concept, but with magic potion ingredients. Other games that employed the code wheel system include Star Control.
Zork games such as Beyond Zork and Zork Zero came with "feelies" which contained information vital to the completion of the game. For example, the parchment found from Zork Zero contained clues vital to solving the final puzzle. However, whenever the player attempts to read the parchment, they are referred to the game package.
The Lenslok system used a plastic prismatic device, shipped with the game, which was used to descramble a code displayed on screen.
Early copies of The Playroom from Broderbund Software included a game called "What is Missing?" in which every fifth time the program was booted up, the player would see a pattern and have to refer to the back of the manual to find which of 12 objects from the spinner counting game would match the pattern seen on the back of the manual in order to open the game.
All of these methods proved to be troublesome and tiring for the players, and as such greatly declined in usage by the mid-1990s, at which point the emergence of CDs as the primary video game medium made copy protection largely redundant, since CD copying technology was not widely available at the time.
Some game developers, such as Markus Persson, have encouraged consumers and other developers to embrace the reality of unlicensed copying and utilize it positively to generate increased sales and marketing interest.
Videotape
Starting in 1985 with the video release of The Cotton Club (Beta and VHS versions only), Macrovision licensed to publishers a technology that exploits the automatic gain control feature of VCRs by adding pulses to the vertical blanking sync signal. These pulses do not affect the image a consumer sees on their TV, but do confuse the recording-level circuitry of consumer VCRs. This technology, which is aided by U.S. legislation mandating the presence of automatic gain-control circuitry in VCRs, is said to "plug the analog hole" and make VCR-to-VCR copies impossible, although an inexpensive circuit is widely available that will defeat the protection by removing the pulses. Macrovision had patented methods of defeating copy prevention, giving it a more straightforward basis to shut down manufacture of any device that descrambles it than often exists in the DRM world. While used for pre-recorded tapes, the system was not adopted for television broadcasts; Michael J. Fuchs of HBO said in 1985 that Macrovision was "not good technology" because it reduced picture quality and consumers could easily bypass it, while Peter Chernin of Showtime said "we want to accommodate our subscribers and we know they like to tape our movies".
Notable payloads
Over time, software publishers (especially in the case of video games) became creative about crippling the software in case it was duplicated. These games would initially show that the copy was successful, but eventually render themselves unplayable via subtle methods.
Many games use the "code checksumming" technique to prevent alteration of code to bypass other copy protection. Important constants for the game - such as the accuracy of the player's firing, the speed of their movement, etc. - are not included in the game but calculated from the numbers making up the machine code of other parts of the game. If the code is changed, the calculation yields a result which no longer matches the original design of the game and the game plays improperly.
Superior Soccer had no outward signs of copy protection, but if it decided it was not a legitimate copy, it made the soccer ball in the game invisible, making it impossible to play the game.
In Sid Meier's Pirates, if the player entered in the wrong information, they could still play the game, but with substantially increased difficulty.
As a more satirical nod to the issue, if the thriller-action game Alan Wake detects that the game is cracked or a pirated copy, it will replace tips in loading screens with messages telling the player to buy the game. If a new game is created on the copied game, an additional effect will take place. As a more humorous nod to "piracy", Alan Wake will gain a black Eyepatch over his right eye, complete with a miniature Jolly Roger.
While the copy protection in Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders was not hidden as such, the repercussions of missing the codes was unusual: the player ended up in jail (permanently), and the police officer gave a lengthy and condescending speech about software copying.
In case of copied versions of The Settlers III, the iron smelters only produced pigs (a play on pig iron); weaponsmiths require iron to produce weapons, so players couldn't amass arms.
Bohemia Interactive Studio developed a unique and very subtle protection system for its game Operation Flashpoint: Cold War Crisis. Dubbed FADE, if it detects an unauthorized copy, it does not inform the player immediately but instead progressively corrupts aspects of the game (such as reducing the weapon accuracy to zero) to the point that it eventually becomes unplayable. The message "Original discs don't FADE" will eventually appear if the game is detected as being an unauthorized copy.
FADE is also used in ArmA II, and will similarly diminish the accuracy of the player’s weapons, as well as induce a “drunken vision” effect, where the screen becomes wavy, should the player be playing on an unauthorized copy.
This system was also used in Take On Helicopters, where the screen blurred and distorted when playing a counterfeit copy, making it hard to safely pilot a helicopter.
The IndyCar Series (2003 video game) also utilizes FADE technology to safeguard against piracy by making races very difficult to win on a pirated version. The penultimate section of the game’s manual states:
Copying commercial games, such as this one, is a criminal offense and copyright infringement.
Copying and re-supplying games such as this one can lead to a term of imprisonment.
Think of a pirated game as stolen property.
This game is protected by the FADE system. You can play with a pirated game- but not for long. The quality of a pirated game will degrade over time.
Purchase only genuine software at legitimate stores.
Batman: Arkham Asylum contained code that disabled Batman's glider cape, making some areas of the game very difficult to complete and a certain achievement/trophy impossible to unlock (gliding continuously for over 100m).
The PC version of Grand Theft Auto IV has a copy protection that swings the camera as though the player was drunk. If the player enters a vehicle it will automatically throttle, making it difficult to steer. It also damages the vehicle, making it vulnerable to collisions and bullets. An update to the game prevented unauthorised copies from accessing the in-game web browser, making it impossible to finish the game as some missions involve browsing the web for objectives.
EarthBound is well-documented for its extensive use of checksums to ensure that the game is being played on legitimate hardware. If the game detects that it is being played on a European SNES, it refuses to boot, as the first of several checksums has failed. A second checksum will weed out most unauthorized copies of the game, but hacking the data to get past this checksum will trigger a third checksum that makes enemy encounters appear much more often than in an authorized copy, and if the player progresses through the game without giving up (or cracks this protection), a final checksum code will activate before the final boss battle, freezing the game and deleting all the save files. A similar copy protection system was used in Spyro: Year of the Dragon, although it only uses one copy protection check at the beginning of the game (see below).
In an unauthorized version of the PC edition of Mass Effect, the game save mechanism did not work and the in-game galactic map caused the game to crash. As the galactic map is needed to travel to different sections of the game, the player became stuck in the first section of the game.
If an unauthorized version of The Sims 2 was used, the Build Mode would not work properly. Walls could not be built on the player's property, which prevented the player from building any custom houses. Some furniture and clothing selections would not be available either.
A March 2009 update to the BeeJive IM iPhone app included special functionality for users of the unauthorized version: the screen would read "PC LOAD LETTER" whenever the user tried to establish a connection to any IM service, then quickly switch to a YouTube clip from the movie Office Space.
Red Alert 2 and The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-Earth have a copy protection system that completely wipes out the player's forces briefly after a battle begins on an unlicensed copy. However, some who purchased the latter have encountered a bug that caused this copy protection scheme to trigger when it was not supposed to.
If a player pirated the Nintendo DS version of Michael Jackson: The Experience, vuvuzela noises will play over the notes during a song, which then become invisible. The game will also freeze if the player tries to pause it.
Older versions of Autodesk 3ds Max use a dongle for copy protection; if it is missing, the program will randomly corrupt the points of the user's model during usage, destroying their work.
Older versions of CDRWIN used a serial number for initial copy protection. However, if this check was bypassed, a second hidden check would activate causing a random factor to be introduced into the CD burning process, producing corrupted "coaster" disks.
Terminate, a BBS terminal package, would appear to operate normally if cracked but would insert a warning that a pirated copy was in use into the IEMSI login packet it transmitted, where the sysop of any BBS the user called could clearly read it.
Ubik's Musik, a music creation tool for the Commodore 64, would transform into a Space Invaders game if it detected that a cartridge-based copying device had attempted to interrupt it. This copy protection system also doubles as an easter egg, as the message that appears when it occurs is not hostile ("Plug joystick in port 1, press fire, and no more resetting/experting!").
The Amiga version of Bomberman featured a multitap peripheral that also acted as a dongle. Data from the multitap was used to calculate the time limit of each level. If the multitap was missing, the time limit would be calculated as 0, causing the level to end immediately.
Nevermind, a puzzle game for the Amiga, contained code that caused an unlicensed version of the game to behave as a demo. The game would play three levels sampled from throughout the game, and then give the message "You have completed three levels; however there are 100 levels to complete on the original disc."
In Spyro: Year of the Dragon a character named Zoe will tell the player outside the room containing the balloon to Midday Garden Home and several other areas that the player is using an unlicensed copy. This conversation purposely corrupts data. When corrupted, the game would not only remove stray gems and the ability to progress in certain areas but also make the final boss unbeatable, returning the player to the beginning of the game (and removing the save file at the same time) after about 8 seconds into the battle.
The Atari Jaguar console would freeze at startup and play the sound of an enraged jaguar snarling if the inserted cartridge failed the initial security check.
The Lenslok copy protection system gave an obvious message if the lens-coded letters were entered incorrectly, but if the user soft-reset the machine, the areas of memory occupied by the game would be flooded with the message "THANK YOU FOR YOUR INTEREST IN OUR PRODUCT. NICE TRY. LOVE BJ/NJ" to prevent the user examining leftover code to crack the protection.
An update to the sandbox game Garry's Mod enabled a copy protection mechanism that outputs the error "Unable to shade polygon normals" if the game detects that it has been copied. The error also includes the user's Steam ID as an error ID, meaning that users can be identified by their Steam account when asking for help about the error over the Internet.
The Atari version of Alternate Reality: The Dungeon would have the player's character attacked by two unbeatable "FBI Agents" if it detected a cracked version. The FBI agents would also appear when restoring a save which was created by such a version, even if the version restoring the save was legal.
VGA Planets, a play-by-BBS strategy game, contained code in its server which would check all clients' submitted turns for suspect registration codes. Any player deemed to be using a cracked copy, or cheating in the game, would have random forces destroyed throughout the game by an unbeatable enemy called "The Tim Continuum" (after the game's author, Tim Wissemann). A similar commercial game, Stars!, would issue empty turn updates for players with invalid registration codes, meaning that none of their orders would ever be carried out.
On a copied version of the original PC version of Postal, as soon as the game was started, the player character would immediately shoot himself in the head.
In Serious Sam 3: BFE, if the game code detects what it believes to be an unauthorized copy, an invincible scorpion-like monster is spawned in the beginning of the game with high speeds, melee attacks, and attacks from a range with twin chainguns making the game extremely difficult and preventing the player from progressing further. Also in the level "Under the Iron Cloud", the player's character will spin out-of-control looking up in the air.
An unauthorized copy of Pokémon Black and White and their sequels will run as if it were normal, but the Pokémon will not gain any experience points after a battle. This has since been solved by patching the game's files.
If Ace Attorney Investigations 2 detects an illegitimate or downloaded copy of the game, it will convert the entire game's text into the game's symbol based foreign language, Borginian, which cannot be translated in any way.
The unlicensed version of indie game Game Dev Tycoon, in which the player runs a game development company, will dramatically increase the piracy rate of the games the player releases to the point where no money can be made at all, and disable the player's ability to take any action against it
In the stand-alone expansion to Crytek's Crysis, Crysis Warhead, players who pirated the game will have their ammunition replaced with chickens that inflict no damage and have very little knockback, rendering ranged combat impossible.
In Crytek's Crysis 3, if a player used an unlicensed copy of the game, he is not able to defeat the last boss (The Alpha Ceph), thus making it impossible to beat the game.
In Mirror's Edge, copy protection will prevent its player character, Faith, from sprinting, making it impossible for players to jump over long gaps and progress further on a pirated copy.
The usage of copy protection payloads which lower playability of a game without making it clear that this is a result of copy protection is now generally considered unwise, due to the potential for it to result in unaware players with unlicensed copies spreading word-of-mouth that a game is of low quality. The authors of FADE explicitly acknowledged this as a reason for including the explicit warning message.
Anti-piracy
Anti-piracy measures are efforts to fight against copyright infringement, counterfeiting, and other violations of intellectual property laws.
It includes, but is by no means limited to, the combined efforts of corporate associations (such as the RIAA and MPAA), law enforcement agencies (such as the FBI and Interpol), and various international governments to combat copyright infringement relating to various types of creative works, such as software, music and films. These measures often come in the form of copy protection measures such as DRM, or measures implemented through a content protection network, such as Distil Networks or Incapsula. Richard Stallman and the GNU Project have criticized the use of the word "piracy" in these situations, saying that publishers use the word to refer to "copying they don't approve of" and that "they [publishers] imply that it is ethically equivalent to attacking ships on the high seas, kidnapping and murdering the people on them".
Certain forms of Anti-Piracy (such as DRM), are considered by consumers to control the use of the products content after sale.
In the case MPAA v. Hotfile, Judge Kathleen M. Williams granted a motion to deny the prosecution the usage of words she views as "pejorative". This list included the word "piracy", the use of which, the motion by the defense stated, would serve no purpose but to misguide and inflame the jury. The plaintiff argued the common use of the terms when referring to copyright infringement should invalidate the motion, but the Judge did not concur.
Anti-piracy in file sharing
Today copyright infringement is often facilitated by the use of file sharing. In fact, infringement accounts for 23.8% of all internet traffic in 2013. In an effort to cut down on this, both large and small films and music corporations have issued DMCA takedown notices, filed lawsuits, and pressed criminal prosecution of those who host these file sharing services.
See also
Core dump
Digital rights management
Digital watermarking
Floating licensing
Cheat cartridge
License manager
List of copy protection schemes
Software anti-tamper
Sony BMG CD copy protection scandal
Tamper resistance
Trade group efforts against file sharing
References
External links
V-Max Copy Protection on the C64
Copy Protection in depth
Evaluating New Copy-Prevention Techniques for Audio CDs
Disk Preservation Project Discusses and analyzes protections used on old floppy-based systems.
Comprehensive article on video game piracy and its prevention.
Several algorithms used to generate serial keys
Copy Protection Analysis on the C64
Details on the RapidLok tracks copy protection system used on many releases
Digital rights management
Software licenses
Warez
Compact Disc and DVD copy protection
Computer access control | [
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219211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg%20v.%20Ohio | Brandenburg v. Ohio | Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court interpreting the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The Court held that the government cannot punish inflammatory speech unless that speech is "directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action". Specifically, the Court struck down Ohio's criminal syndicalism statute, because that statute broadly prohibited the mere advocacy of violence. In the process, Whitney v. California (1927) was explicitly overruled, and doubt was cast on Schenck v. United States (1919), Abrams v. United States (1919), Gitlow v. New York (1925), and Dennis v. United States (1951).
Background
Clarence Brandenburg, a Ku Klux Klan (KKK) leader in rural Ohio, contacted a reporter at a Cincinnati television station and invited him to cover a KKK rally that would take place in Hamilton County in the summer of 1964. Portions of the rally were filmed, showing several men in robes and hoods, some carrying firearms, first burning a cross and then making speeches. One of the speeches made reference to the possibility of "revengeance" against "Niggers", "Jews", and those who supported them and also claimed that "our President, our Congress, our Supreme Court, continues to suppress the white, Caucasian race", and announced plans for a march on Congress to take place on the Fourth of July. Another speech advocated for the forced expulsion of African Americans to Africa and Jewish Americans to Israel.
Brandenburg was charged with advocating violence under Ohio's criminal syndicalism statute for his participation in the rally and for the speech he made. In relevant part, the statute – enacted in 1919 during the First Red Scare – proscribed "advocat[ing] ... the duty, necessity, or propriety of crime, sabotage, violence, or unlawful methods of terrorism as a means of accomplishing industrial or political reform" and "voluntarily assembl[ing] with any society, group or assemblage of persons formed to teach or advocate the doctrines of criminal syndicalism".
Convicted in the Court of Common Pleas of Hamilton County, Brandenburg was fined $1,000 and sentenced to one to ten years in prison. On appeal, the Ohio First District Court of Appeal affirmed Brandenburg's conviction, rejecting his claim that the statute violated his First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment right to freedom of speech. The Supreme Court of Ohio dismissed his appeal without opinion.
The rather cursory way in which the Ohio courts dismissed Brandenburg's constitutional arguments is unsurprising in light of the state of First Amendment law in the pre-Brandenburg era. Although Yates v. United States (1957) had overturned the convictions of mid-level Communist Party members in language that seemed suggestive of a broader view of freedom of expression rights than had been accorded them in Dennis v. United States (1951), all Yates purported to do was construe a federal statute, the 1940 Smith Act. Thus, Dennis reading of the First Amendment remained in force: advocacy of law violation, even as an abstract doctrine, could be punished under law consistent with the free speech clause.
Decision
The U.S. Supreme Court reversed Brandenburg's conviction, holding that government cannot constitutionally punish abstract advocacy of force or law violation. The majority opinion was per curiam, issued from the Court as an institution, rather than as authored and signed by an individual justice. The earlier draft had originally been prepared by Justice Abe Fortas before he was forced to resign in the midst of an ethics scandal, and it would have included a modified version of the clear and present danger test. In finalizing the draft, Justice Brennan eliminated all references to it by substituting the "imminent lawless action" language. Justices Black and Douglas concurred separately.
Per curiam opinion
The per curiam majority opinion overturned the Ohio Criminal Syndicalism statute, overruled Whitney v. California (1927), and articulated a new test – the "imminent lawless action" test – for judging what was then referred to as "seditious speech" under the First Amendment:
In Schenck v. United States (1919) the Court had adopted a "clear and present danger" test that Whitney v. California (1927) subsequently expanded to a "bad tendency" test: if speech has a "tendency" to cause sedition or lawlessness, it may constitutionally be prohibited. Dennis v. United States (1951), a case dealing with prosecution of alleged Communists under the Smith Act for advocating the overthrow of the government, used the clear and present danger test while still upholding the defendants' convictions for acts that could not possibly have led to a speedy overthrow of the government.
The per curiam opinion cited Dennis v. United States (1951) as though it were good law and amenable to the result reached in Brandenburg. However, Brandenburg completely did away with Dennis central holding and held that "mere advocacy" of any doctrine, including one that assumed the necessity of violence or law violation, was per se protected speech. It may be that principles of stare decisis figured in the Court's decision to avoid overruling the relatively recent Dennis, but the distance between the two cases' approach is obvious and irreconcilable.
The Brandenburg test (also called the "imminent lawless action" test)
The three distinct elements of this test (intent to speak, imminence of lawlessness, and likelihood of lawlessness) have distinct precedential lineages.
Judge Learned Hand was possibly the first judge to advocate the intent standard, in Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten (1917), reasoning that "[i]f one stops short of urging upon others that it is their duty or their interest to resist the law, it seems to me one should not be held to have attempted to cause its violation". However, the Brandenburg intent standard is more speech-protective than Hand's formulation, which contained no temporal element of imminence.
The imminence element was a departure from earlier rulings. Brandenburg did not explicitly overrule the bad tendency test, but it appears that after Brandenburg, the test is de facto overruled. The Brandenburg test effectively made the time element of the clear and present danger test more defined and more rigorous. Applying the Brandenburg test in Hess v. Indiana (1973) the Supreme Court held that the prerequisite for speech which is not protected by the First Amendment is that the speech in question must lead to “imminent disorder”.
Concurrences
Justice Hugo Black, renowned civil libertarian and First Amendment absolutist, filed a short concurrence indicating his agreement with Justice William O. Douglas's longer opinion and pointing out that the per curiams reliance on Dennis was more symbolic than actual.
Justice Douglas's concurrence reflected the absolutist position that only he and Black, among Supreme Court justices, ever fully subscribed to, namely that the phrase "no law" in the First Amendment ought to be interpreted very literally, and that all speech is immune from prosecution, regardless of the governmental interests advanced in suppressing some particular instance of speech. He briefly traced the history of the "clear and present danger" test, illustrating how it had been used over the years since its debut in Schenck to dismiss dozens of what Douglas viewed as legitimate First Amendment claims.
A short section of Douglas's opinion indicated that he might be open to allowing the government greater latitude in controlling speech during time of "declared war" (making clear that he was not referring to the then-current Vietnam War), although he only phrased that possibility in terms of doubt (as opposed to his certainty that the clear and present danger test was irreconcilable with the First Amendment during time of peace).
Douglas also argued for the legitimate role of symbolic speech in First Amendment doctrine, using examples of a person ripping up a Bible to celebrate the abandonment of his faith or tearing a copy of the Constitution in order to protest a Supreme Court decision, and assailed the previous term's United States v. O'Brien, which had allowed for the prosecution of a man for burning his draft card. In all these situations, Douglas argued, an action was a vital way of conveying a certain message, and thus the action itself deserved First Amendment protection.
Finally, Douglas dealt with the classic example of a man "falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic". In order to explain why someone could be legitimately prosecuted for this, Douglas called it "a classic case where speech is brigaded with action". In the view of Douglas and Black, this was probably the only sort of case in which a person could be prosecuted for speech.
Subsequent developments
The Brandenburg test was the Supreme Court's last major statement on what government may do about inflammatory speech that seeks to incite others to lawless action. It resolved the debate between those who urged greater government control of speech for reasons of security and those who favored allowing as much speech as possible and relying on the marketplace of ideas to reach a favorable result, leaving the law in a state along the lines of that which Justices Louis Brandeis, and, post-Schenck, Oliver Wendell Holmes advocated in several dissents and concurrences during the late 1910s and early 1920s.
The Brandenburg test remains the standard used for evaluating attempts by the government to punish inflammatory speech, and it has not been seriously challenged since it was laid down in 1969. Very few cases have actually reached the Court during the past decades that would test the outer limits of Brandenburg. The most significant application of Brandenburg came four years after in Hess v. Indiana.
Brandenburg has come under criticism in the twenty-first century. Lyrissa Lidsky, a scholar of the law, stated that "Brandenburg's sanguine attitude toward the prospect of violence rests on an assumption about the audiences of radical speech. Brandenburg assumes that most citizens ... simply are not susceptible to impassioned calls to violent action by radical speakers." It has also become more common for lower federal courts to apply the test loosely, especially in circumstances related to online terrorist recruitment.
See also
Clear and present danger
Imminent lawless action
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 395
Shouting fire in a crowded theater
Threatening the president of the United States
Abrams v. United States,
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire,
Cohen v. California,
Dennis v. United States,
Feiner v. New York,
Hess v. Indiana,
Korematsu v. United States,
Kunz v. New York,
Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten, (1917)
National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie,
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul,
Sacher v. United States,
Schenck v. United States,
Terminiello v. Chicago,
Virginia v. Black,
Whitney v. California,
Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump#House's brief, Trump's answer, House's replication
The case was mentioned in the 2000 made-for-television movie, Deliberate Intent, starring Ron Rifkin, James McDaniel and Timothy Hutton.
References
External links
Brandenburg v. Ohio from C-SPAN's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
United States Free Speech Clause case law
1969 in United States case law
American Civil Liberties Union litigation
History of racism in Ohio
Hate speech case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
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22398566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuautitl%C3%A1n%20de%20Garc%C3%ADa%20Barrag%C3%A1n | Cuautitlán de García Barragán | Cuautitlán de García Barragán is a town and municipality, in Jalisco in central-western Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 1178.67 km².
As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 16,408.
References
Tequesquitlán
Municipalities of Jalisco
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219217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gus%20Van%20Sant | Gus Van Sant | Gus Green Van Sant Jr. (born July 24, 1952) is an American film director, producer, photographer, and musician who has earned acclaim as both an independent and mainstream filmmaker. His films typically deal with themes of marginalized subcultures, in particular homosexuality; Van Sant is considered one of the most prominent auteurs of the New Queer Cinema movement.
Van Sant's early career was devoted to directing television commercials in the Pacific Northwest. He made his feature-length cinematic directorial debut with Mala Noche (1985). His second feature, Drugstore Cowboy (1989), was highly acclaimed, and earned him screenwriting awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association and New York Film Critics Circle and the award for Best Director from the National Society of Film Critics. His next film, My Own Private Idaho (1991), was similarly praised, as was the black comedy To Die For (1995), the drama Good Will Hunting (1997), and the biographical film Milk (2008); for the latter two, Van Sant was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director and both films received Best Picture nominations.
In 2003, Van Sant's film about the Columbine High School massacre, Elephant, won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Van Sant also received the festival's Best Director Award that same year, making him one of only two filmmakers—the other being Joel Coen—to win both accolades at the festival in the same year. Though most of Van Sant's other films received favourable reviews, such as Finding Forrester (2000) and Paranoid Park (2007), some of his efforts, such as the art house production Last Days (2005) and the environmental drama Promised Land (2012), have received more mixed reviews from critics, while his adaptation of Tom Robbins's Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1993), his 1998 remake of Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, and The Sea of Trees (2015), were critical and commercial failures.
In addition to directing, Van Sant has written the screenplays for several of his earlier works, and is the author of a novel, Pink. A book of his photography, 108 Portraits, has also been published, and he has released two musical albums.
He is gay and lives in the Los Feliz section of Los Angeles, California.
Early life
Van Sant was born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, the son of Betty (née Seay) and Gus Green Van Sant Sr; Gus's father was a clothing manufacturer and traveling salesman, who rapidly worked his way into middle class prosperity, holding executive marketing positions that included being president of the White Stag Manufacturing Company's Apparel Operation. As a result of his father's job, the family moved continually during Van Sant's childhood.
His paternal family is of partial Dutch origin; the name "Van Sant" is derived from the Dutch name "Van Zandt". The earliest Van Zandt arrived in the New Netherland area in the early 17th century, around what is now New York City.
Van Sant is an alumnus of Darien High School in Darien, Connecticut, and The Catlin Gabel School in Portland, Oregon. One constant in the director's early years was his interest in visual arts (namely, painting and Super-8 filmmaking); while still in school he began making semi-autobiographical shorts costing between 30 and 50 dollars. Van Sant's artistic leanings took him to the Rhode Island School of Design in 1970, where his introduction to various avant-garde directors inspired him to change his major from painting to cinema.
Career
1982–1989: Early career
After spending time in Europe, Van Sant went to Los Angeles in 1976. He secured a job as a production assistant to filmmaker Ken Shapiro, with whom he developed a few ideas, none of which came to fruition. In 1981, Van Sant made Alice in Hollywood, a film about a naïve young actress who goes to Hollywood and abandons her ideals. It was never released. During this period, Van Sant began to spend time observing the denizens of the more down-and-out sections of Hollywood Boulevard. He became fascinated by the existence of this marginalized section of L.A.'s population, especially in context with the more ordinary, prosperous world that surrounded them. Van Sant would repeatedly focus his work on those existing on society's fringes, making his feature film directorial debut Mala Noche.
It was made two years after Van Sant went to New York to work in an advertising agency. He saved $20,000 during his tenure there, enabling him to finance the majority of his tale of doomed love between a gay liquor store clerk and a Mexican immigrant. The film, which was taken from Portland street writer Walt Curtis' semi-autobiographical novella, featured some of the director's hallmarks, notably an unfulfilled romanticism, a dry sense of the absurd, and the refusal to treat homosexuality as something deserving of judgment. Unlike many gay filmmakers, Van Sant—who had long been openly gay—declined to use same-sex relationships as fodder for overtly political statements, although such relationships would frequently appear in his films.
Shot in black-and-white, the film earned Van Sant almost overnight acclaim on the festival circuit, with the Los Angeles Times naming it the year's best independent film. The film's success attracted Hollywood interest, and Van Sant was briefly courted by Universal; the courtship ended after Van Sant pitched a series of project ideas (including what would later become Drugstore Cowboy and My Own Private Idaho) that the studio declined to take interest in.
Van Sant moved back to Portland, Oregon, where he set up house and began giving life to the ideas rejected by Universal. He directed Drugstore Cowboy about four drug addicts robbing pharmacies to support their habit. The film met with great critical success and revived the career of Matt Dillon.
1990–1995: Indie and arthouse success
Drugstore Cowboys exploration of the lives of those living on society's outer fringes, as well as its Portland setting, were mirrored in Van Sant's next effort, the similarly acclaimed My Own Private Idaho (1991). Only with the success of Cowboy was Van Sant now given license to make Idaho (a film he had originally pitched that was knocked back several times because the studios deemed the script 'too risky'. New Line Cinema now gave Van Sant the green light, and he went on a mission to get the Idaho script into the hands of River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves his preferred choice for the two young leads. After months of struggle with agents and managers over the content of the script, Van Sant finally secured Phoenix and Reeves, who played the roles of Mike Waters and Scott Favor, respectively.
Centering around the dealings of two male hustlers (played by Phoenix and Reeves), the film was a compelling examination of unrequited love, alienation, and the concept of family (a concept Van Sant repeatedly explores in his films). The film won him an Independent Spirit Award for his screenplay (he had won the same award for his Drugstore Cowboy screenplay), as well as greater prestige. The film also gained River Phoenix best actor honors at the Venice Film Festival among others. In addition, it helped Reeves—previously best known for his work in the Bill and Ted movies—to get the critical respect that had previously eluded him.
Van Sant's next film, a 1993 adaptation of Tom Robbins' Even Cowgirls Get the Blues, was an excessive flop, both commercially and critically. Featuring an unusually large budget (for Van Sant, at least) of $8.5 million and a large, eclectic cast including Uma Thurman, John Hurt, Keanu Reeves and a newcomer in the form of River Phoenix's younger sister Rain (at Phoenix's suggestion), the film was worked and then reworked, but the finished product nonetheless resulted in something approaching a significant disaster.
Van Sant's 1995 film To Die For helped to restore his luster. An adaptation of Joyce Maynard's novel, the black comedy starred Nicole Kidman as a murderously ambitious weather girl; it also stars Matt Dillon as her hapless husband and, the third Phoenix sibling in as many projects, Joaquin Phoenix, as her equally hapless lover (River had died from a drug overdose a year and half earlier). It was Van Sant's first effort for a major studio (Columbia), and its success paved the way for further projects of the director's choosing. The same year, he served as executive producer for Larry Clark's Kids; it was a fitting assignment, due to both the film's subject matter and the fact that Clark's photographs of junkies had served as reference points for Van Sant's Drugstore Cowboy.
1997–2003: Mainstream breakout
In 1997, Van Sant gained mainstream recognition and critical acclaim thanks to Good Will Hunting, which starred and was written by Matt Damon and Ben Affleck. The film—about a troubled, blue-collar mathematical genius—was a huge critical and commercial success. It was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Director for Van Sant. It also won two, including Best Screenplay for Damon and Affleck, and Best Supporting Actor Oscar for Robin Williams, who, in his acceptance speech, referred to Van Sant as "being so subtle you're almost subliminal." Van Sant, Damon and Affleck parodied themselves and the film's success in Kevin Smith's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back.
The success of Good Will Hunting afforded Van Sant the opportunity to remake the Alfred Hitchcock classic Psycho. As opposed to reinterpreting the 1960 film, Van Sant opted to recreate the film shot-for-shot, in color, with a cast of young Hollywood A-listers. His decision was met with equal parts curiosity, skepticism, and derision from industry insiders and outsiders alike, and the finished result met with a similar reception. It starred Anne Heche, Vince Vaughn and Julianne Moore, and met with a negative critical reception and did poorly at the box office.
In 2000, Van Sant directed Finding Forrester, about a high-school student (Rob Brown) from the Bronx unlikely becoming a friend of a crusty, reclusive author (Sean Connery). Critical response was generally positive and became a box office success.
In addition to directing, he devoted considerable energy to releasing two albums and publishing a novel, Pink, which was a thinly veiled exploration of his grief over River Phoenix's death.
2003–present: Return to arthouse cinema
Van Sant traveled to the deserts of Argentina, Utah, and Death Valley for the production of 2002's Gerry, a loosely devised, largely improvised feature in which stars Matt Damon and Casey Affleck—both playing characters named Gerry—wander through the desert, discussing Wheel of Fortune, video games, and nothing in particular. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.
It took Gerry over a year to make it to theaters, in which time Van Sant began production on his next film, Elephant. Approached by HBO and producer Diane Keaton to craft a fictional film based on the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, the director chose to shoot in his hometown of Portland, employing dozens of untrained, teen actors. As well as melding improvisational long takes like those in Gerry with Harris Savides' fluid camerawork, the film was also influenced by Alan Clarke's 1989 film of the same name (see Elephant). The finished film provoked strong reactions from audiences at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival. At the Cannes festival, the jury awarded Elephant with their top prize, the Palme d'Or, and Van Sant with his first Best Director statue from the festival. The success of Elephant led Van Sant to show the U.S. premiere of Elephant as a fundraiser for Outside In, an organization working to help youth living on the streets of Portland, Oregon.
In 2005, Van Sant released Last Days, the final component of what he refers to as his "Death Trilogy", (the other parts being Gerry and Elephant). It is a fictionalized account of what happened to Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain in the days leading up to his death. In 2006, Van Sant began work on Paranoid Park based on the book by Blake Nelson, about a skateboarding teenager who accidentally causes someone's death. The film was released in Europe in February 2008. He also directed the "Le Marais" segment of the omnibus film Paris, je t'aime.
Released in 2008, Van Sant's Milk is a biopic of openly gay San Francisco politician Harvey Milk, who was assassinated in 1978. The film received eight Oscar nominations at the 81st Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning two for Best Actor in a Leading Role for Sean Penn, who starred as Milk, and Best Original Screenplay for writer Dustin Lance Black. Van Sant was nominated for Best Director. Van Sant later stated that his experience with Sean Penn on the film was "amazing".
His 2011 project Restless was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, and starred Henry Hopper and Mia Wasikowska.
Van Sant's film, Promised Land, was released on December 28, 2012. The film stars Frances McDormand, Matt Damon, and John Krasinski—the latter two co-wrote the screenplay based on a story by Dave Eggers. Filmed in April 2012, the production company, Focus Features, selected the release date so that the film is eligible to qualify for awards consideration.
Following Promised Land, Van Sant directed a film titled Sea of Trees, which starred Matthew McConaughey and Ken Watanabe. The film tells the story of a man who travels to the infamous Aokigahara suicide forest in Japan to kill himself, only to encounter another man wishing to kill himself as well, with whom he then embarks on a "spiritual journey". The film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival but was met with harsh critical reception at the Cannes, being booed and laughed at.
In December 2016, it was announced Van Sant would direct Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot, a biopic about cartoonist John Callahan, starring Joaquin Phoenix, Rooney Mara, Jonah Hill, Jack Black and Mark Webber. Principal photography began in March 2017.
Other work
Van Sant released two musical albums: Gus Van Sant and 18 Songs About Golf. Van Sant played himself in episodes of the HBO series Entourage and the IFC series Portlandia.
Van Sant directed the pilot for the Starz television program Boss, starring Kelsey Grammer. Van Sant went onto The Bret Easton Ellis Podcast to discuss filmmaking, writing, film history and their collaborations that never got made (The Golden Suicides) and the one that did (The Canyons).
Archive
The moving image collection of Gus Van Sant is held at the Academy Film Archive. The archive has preserved many of Van Sant's short films, including The Happy Organ, Ken Death Gets Out of Jail, Five Ways to Kill Yourself, and others.
Awards and nominations
Career Achievement
Provincetown International Film Festival Filmmaker on the Edge Award (2002)
Drugstore Cowboy (1989)
Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)
Independent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)
National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director
National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)
New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)
My Own Private Idaho (1991)
Venice Film Festival Official Selection
Toronto Festival of Festivals FIPRESCI Prize Good Will Hunting (1997)
Berlin Film Festival Official Selection
Academy Award nomination for Best Director [film won for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Screenplay]
Directors Guild of America (DGA) nomination for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
Satellite Award nomination for Best Director
Finding Forrester (2000)
Berlin Film Festival Prize of the Guild of German Art House Cinemas'''
Elephant (2003)
Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or
Cannes Film Festival Prix de la mise en scène
Last Days (2005)
Cannes Film Festival Official Selection
Paranoid Park (2007)
Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director
Cannes Film Festival "Prix du 60ème anniversaire" (also acknowledging his body of works)
Milk (2008)
Academy Award nomination for Best Director [film won Best Actor in a Leading Role and Best Original Screenplay]
Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director
Broadcast Film Critics Association Award nomination for Best Director
The Cinema for Peace Award for the Most Valuable Film of the Year
Directors Guild of America (DGA) nomination for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
Satellite Award nomination for Best Director
Filmography
Feature films
Short films
Fun with a Bloodroot (1967) 2 min 20 sec, 8 mm color
The Happy Organ (1971) 20 min, 16 mm black and white
Little Johnny (1972) 40 sec, 16 mm black and white
1/2 of a Telephone Conversation (1973) 2 min, 16 mm black and white
Late Morning Start (1975) 28 min, 16 mm color
The Discipline of DE (1978) 9 min, 16 mm black and white, adaptation of William S. Burroughs' short story, narrated by Ken Shapiro
Alice in Hollywood (1981) 45 min, 16 mm color
My Friend (1982) 3 min, 16 mm black and white
Where'd She Go? (1983) 3 min, 16 mm color
Nightmare Typhoon (1984) 9 min, 16 mm black and white
My New Friend (1984) 3 min, 16 mm color
Ken Death Gets Out of Jail (1985) 3 min, 16 mm black and white
Five Ways to Kill Yourself (1986) 3 min, 16 mm black and white
Thanksgiving Prayer (1991) 2 min, 35 mm color, written by and starring William S. Burroughs
Four Boys in a Volvo (1996) 4min, color
Paris, je t'aime (2006) segment "Le Marais"
To Each His Own Cinema (2007) segment "First Kiss" (3 min)
8 (2008) segment "Mansion on the Hill"
Music videos
"Thanksgiving Prayer" by William Burroughs (1990)
"Fame '90" by David Bowie (1990)
"I'm Seventeen" by Tommy Conwell & The Young Rumblers (1991)
"Under the Bridge" by Red Hot Chili Peppers (1992)
"Bang Bang Bang" by Tracy Chapman (1992)
"Runaway" by Deee-Lite (1992)
"The Last Song" by Elton John (1992)
"San Francisco Days" by Chris Isaak (1993)
"Just Keep Me Moving" by k.d. lang (1993)
"Creep" (alternative version) by Stone Temple Pilots (1993)
"Understanding" by Candlebox (1995)
"Ballad of the Skeletons" by Allen Ginsberg with Paul McCartney, Philip Glass, Lenny Kaye et al. (1996)
"Weird" by Hanson (1998)
"Who Did You Think I Was" (turntable version) by John Mayer Trio (2005)
"Desecration Smile" by Red Hot Chili Peppers (2007)
"Ain't it Funny" by Danny Brown (2016)
Recordings
The Elvis of Letters (1985) with William S. Burroughs
Millions of Images (1990) with William S. Burroughs
Executive producer
Kids (1995)
Speedway Junky (1999)
Tarnation (2003)
Wild Tigers I Have Known (2006)
Lightfield's Home Videos (2006)
Howl (2010)
Virginia (2010)
Act Up! (2012)
Laurence Anyways (2012)
Revolution (2013)
I Am Michael (2015)
Age Out (2018)
Actor
Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001) as Himself
Entourage- Season 5, Episode 12: Return to Queens Blvd. (2008) as Himself
The Canyons (2013) as Dr. Campbell
Television
The Devil You Know (2015) – Director, executive producer
When We Rise'' (2017), an American miniseries written by Dustin Lance Black – Director of first two-hour part
Boss Season1 Ep 1 Director
See also
List of LGBT people from Portland, Oregon
List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area
List of Rhode Island School of Design people
References
Further reading
External links
1952 births
Living people
American people of Dutch descent
Artists from Oregon
Censorship in the arts
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners
Directors of Palme d'Or winners
Gay artists
American gay writers
German-language film directors
LGBT screenwriters
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
Rhode Island School of Design alumni
Photographers from Oregon
Film directors from Oregon
LGBT people from Oregon
LGBT people from Kentucky
English-language film directors
Film directors from Kentucky
Catlin Gabel School alumni
Filmmakers from Portland, Oregon
Darien High School alumni
LGBT film directors
People from Los Feliz, Los Angeles | [
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219218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashby%20Canal | Ashby Canal | The Ashby-de-la-Zouch Canal is a long canal in England which connected the mining district around Moira, just outside the town of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, with the Coventry Canal at Bedworth in Warwickshire. It was opened in 1804, and a number of tramways were constructed at its northern end, to service collieries. The canal was taken over by the Midland Railway in 1846, but remained profitable until the 1890s, after which it steadily declined. Around passed through the Leicestershire coal field, and was heavily affected by subsidence, with the result that this section from Moira, southwards to Snarestone, was progressively closed in 1944, 1957 and 1966, leaving of navigable canal.
The abandoned section is the subject of a restoration project and was the first canal where a new section had been authorised under the Transport and Works Act 1992. The Transport and Works Order was obtained by Leicestershire County Council, as some of the original route had been infilled and built over, and restoration therefore involved construction on a new route through the centre of Measham. It is hoped that all but the final section of the canal can be re-opened. An isolated section near Moira Furnace and the National Forest visitor centre was opened between 1999 and 2005, and is the location for an annual trailboat festival.
Route
The canal starts at a junction with the Coventry Canal just outside Bedworth and travels north-east for about 7 miles (11 km) through the town of Hinckley. It then continues to run north through largely rural and remote countryside for another 15 miles (24 km) until reaching its terminus at Snarestone. Near Sutton Cheney Wharf, it passes the foot of Ambion Hill, the site of the Battle of Bosworth Field. At Shackerstone, it passes the station that is the headquarters of the Battlefield Line Railway.
History
Origins
In the last half of the eighteenth century there had been an increasing need for transport to exploit the coal reserves at Ashby Wolds and lime from the quarries north of Ashby-de-la-Zouch. The first proposal was for a canal running from Burton-on-Trent on the upper River Trent to Marston on the Coventry Canal. A second suggestion was for a canal from Ashby Wolds to the Coventry Canal at Griff. Both proposals were made in December 1781. The first was opposed by the Coventry company, though the second was not. Robert Whitworth had estimated the cost of the project at £46,396, but the scheme was dropped a year later. William Jessop proposed a canal and tramway between Breedon and the Trent, with a connecting link to the Trent and Mersey Canal in 1787, which also came to nothing. A proposal in 1790 was well received at the time, but opposition afterwards prevented a bill being submitted to Parliament. Another proposal for a canal northwards to the Trent at Burton was actively discussed between 1791 and 1793. There was wide support for a canal to Griff in 1792, but the muted support of Penn Assheton Curzon, a local landowner and Member of Parliament, led to it being dropped.
In October 1792, Robert Whitworth revised his plan from 1781. The proposal featured a level canal from Griff, near Nuneaton, to Ashby Wolds, which would cost £63,402. From there it would climb to a summit which would be supplied with water by a steam pumping engine. After a further , the summit level would descend through to level branches, which would serve collieries at Ticknall, Coleorton, Cloud Hill, near Breedon-on-the-Hill, and Staunton Harold. The cost of this section would be £82,143. The plans were checked by Jessop, and formed the basis for a bill to authorise a company with powers to raise £150,000 of capital. Hard negotiation with Curzon and the Coventry Canal was required, during which the junction with the Coventry Canal was moved from Griff to Marston, but the bill finally became an Act of Parliament in May 1794. Whitworth and his son, also called Robert, were appointed as engineers in July, and construction began. (Robert Whitworth was later remembered with the naming in 2002 of Whitworth Avenue on the new George Wimpey development in Hinckley, which overlooks the Ashby Canal).
Construction
By October 1796, it had become obvious that the costs of construction had been seriously underestimated. In addition, around one quarter of the shareholders had not honoured their pledges, and so the company had less capital than expected. The company decided that the only solution was to replace the branch canals with tramways. For a brief time at the start of 1797, the company investigated the possibility of extending the canal to the River Trent at Burton-on-Trent, and building tramways from the quarries to the river. Amalgamation with the Trent Navigation was considered, but the plans failed due to the lack of capital. In May 1797, Robert Whitworth Jr. became ill, and the Whitworths were replaced by Thomas Newbold. An investigation at that time into the state of the collieries at Ashby Wolds revealed that they were unlikely to be producing coal by the time the canal opened. By March the following year, the top section from Ashby Wolds to Market Bosworth was operational.
The company had been considering the option of building tramways since 1793, and finally asked Newbold to investigate the possible lines for railways which would serve the canal at Ashby Wolds in June 1798. They then asked Benjamin Outram to advise, and he reported in September. He suggested running the lines to Willesley Basin rather than Ashby Wolds, as this route would cost over £8,000 less. The lines as built ran from the basin through Ashby to a junction at Old Parks, where one branch ran through Lount to Cloud Hill, replacing the proposed canal and its diversion through Coleorton. The other branch led from Old Parks to Ticknall, with branches to the quarries between Calke Abbey and Staunton Harold. The total length of the lines was around .
In 1799, Outram had discussions with the company about the gauge of the tramways, and although lines at Crich and for the Derby Canal used a gauge of , he recommended that it should be made wider, at , forecasting that, within a few years, railways would be the principal mode of transport for merchandise. The wider gauge would increase the cost of tunnels and bridges, but only by £785 on a final contract price of £29,500. His quotation was accepted, although repeated requests by Outram for his contract to be signed were ignored.
Outram's engineer for the line was John Hodgkinson who was experienced in the work, but problems arose because the committee insisted that it should proceed on all sections of the line simultaneously, which made supervision difficult. Moreover, perennially short of money, they were dilatory in making decisions and providing funds, which caused Outram problems at his Butterley Works as he was having to refuse contracts, so that he could be ready to provide the canal with material, as and when it was authorised. During this period of delay, the labour costs and the price of iron also rose. Even though Outram's experience of his treatment by the canal proprietors must have spoilt his satisfaction on the completion of the lines, they were arguably a major achievement and a model for railways in the future.
Later history
The tramways were completed towards the end of 1802, and the level section of the canal from Marston to Moira was opened on 19 April 1804. The only lock was a stop lock at Marston, to protect the water supplies. By this time, the finances were not in good shape, as failures of the shareholders to honour calls on the shares had resulted in the company borrowing £21,539 to complete the work, and the mines were still not producing coal at a rate which would have made the canal profitable. The final cost of construction was around £184,070. The main source of traffic was from the pits at Moira, which steadily expanded, particularly in the 1820s, enabling the loans to be paid off between 1820 and 1827, and the first dividend to be paid in 1828. In 1819, the company and the Coventry Canal agreed to convert the stop lock between the canals so that it was only suitable for narrow boats, and they shared the cost of conversion. The reasons for this are unclear, since wide-beamed boats continued to operate on the canal, but could not move further afield. Profitability was improved after the company sent Crossley, their engineer, on a fact-finding tour of local canals in 1822. He investigated tolls for coal, and the system of drawbacks which some of them used. Such a system was them implemented on the Ashby, whereby coal travelling the whole length of the canal was subject to a refund or drawback on the tolls. The effect was immediate, with the amount of coal qualifying for the drawback rising five-fold between 1824 and 1828, from 4,367 to 22,011 tons, and reaching 37,316 tons in 1837.
In 1823, there were calls for tramways to be built from the head of the canal to Swadlincote and Church Gresley. It took the committee two and a half years to decide to proceed, and the Swadlincote Railway was opened on 21 July 1827. It was built with double tracks, and used edge rails, similar to modern railways, rather than the "L"-shaped tram plates of the Willesley system. The cost of £4,262 was financed by a mortgage, which was paid off less than a year after opening. The Ticknall branch was extended in 1829, when a line from it to Dimsdale was authorised and built. The Coleorton Railway, which was run by an independent company, and used edge rails, opened in 1833. Negotiations between the two companies resulted in a connecting line being built between Cloud Hill and Worthington Rough, which used a type of rail called a "rib rail", where the vertical flange of Outram's "L"-shaped rail was made much wider, so that wagons with flanged wheels could use it as an edge rail. The Ashby engineer was asked to prepare a quotation for the conversion of the entire Willesley system to rib rails in 1837, but there is no record as to whether this work was carried out.
Railway ownership
In 1845, the Midland Railway were planning to build the Atherstone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch and Burton-on-Trent railway, and offered to buy the canal for £110,000. They agreed to maintain the canal until the railway was built, but there was no longer-term agreement on its future. Since most of the coal which used the canal travelled onwards via the Coventry Canal and the Oxford Canal, these companies faced a big drop in toll revenues, and fought hard to get the Midland Railway's bill amended. As well as a commitment to maintaining the canal, they also had a clause added which allowed the Coventry Canal to undertake maintenance and charge the railway for the work if the railway company failed in their obligations. An Act of Parliament was passed in 1846, which authorised the takeover, but the railway line as envisioned was not built. It was nearly 30 years later that serious railway competition arrived, when the London and North Western Railway and the Midland Railway jointly opened the Ashby and Nuneaton Joint Railway from Overseal to Nuneaton in 1873. The following year, the Midland reused the section of tramway from Ashby to Worthington, Leicestershire, enlarging the Old Parks tunnel, as part of a line that ran through Melbourne to Derby. The remainder of the tramway lines were kept for local use, with the branch to Ticknall closing in 1915.
The canal continued to carry significant tonnages, which gradually decreased, from 138,117 tons in 1862 to 113,659 tons in 1882. After that, the decline was more rapid, dropping to 33,329 tons by 1893. By the 1890s, the railway owners had reduced maintenance on the canal, knowing that the Coventry Canal were unlikely to invoke their powers under the 1846 Act, since they too were in trouble. On 2 January 1918, there was a major breach in the canal when an embankment some below Moira collapsed. The cost of reinstatement was £9,864, and the canal reopened on 23 July 1919. The upper section was increasingly affected by subsidence from the coal mining. Despite this, the Moira Coal Company shipped 20,807 tons along the canal in 1943, and the total tonnage on the canal that year was 43,733 tons. The owners, by now the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), tried to give the canal to the Coventry Canal company in 1944, but they refused it unless there was money to fund the maintenance. The section from Moira to Donisthorpe was promptly abandoned, allowing the Moira Coal Company to mine under its course. Another were closed in 1957, under an Act of Parliament obtained by the British Transport Commission, and the Measham to Snarestone section was closed in 1966, even though coal was regularly loaded there.
Traces of the old railway can still be seen, particularly towards Ticknall. A low embankment, still with some stone sleeper blocks crosses a field and a tunnel passes under the drive to Calke Abbey. There is also an arch bridge in Ticknall village where the line ran into the quarries.
Restoration
The closure of the canal north of Snarestone in 1966 led to the formation of the Ashby Canal Association, to ensure that no more was closed and to work towards the reopening of the northern section. In 1992, the engineering consultants W. S. Atkins produced a feasibility study for the restoration of the canal between Snarestone and Moira, which concluded that there were no obstacles which could not be resolved. They also recommended that the reconstruction should be suitable for broad-beam boats, rather than narrow boats, as this would have ecological advantages. By 1997, Leicestershire County Council had bought much of the route, and had located two funding packages worth over £1 million. However, they failed to reach agreement with one landowner over the purchase of a parcel of land, and because the deadlines were not met, the funding was lost. They therefore resolved to obtain an order under the Transport and Works Act 1992, which would allow them to use compulsory purchase powers if necessary. In order to promote and assist the restoration of the canal north of Snarestone, the Ashby Canal Trust was set up in 2000. It is a limited company, with directors representing the Ashby Canal Association, the Canal & River Trust, Hinckley and Bosworth Borough Council, the Inland Waterways Association, Leicestershire County Council and North West Leicestershire District Council.
Since the mining industry in the area has ceased, there have been fewer problems with subsidence, and the current plans are to re-open the canal to the National Forest visitor centre at Moira, about short of its original terminus at Spring Cottage. Between 1999 and 2005, a stretch of the canal near Moira was restored and re-filled with water, passing the historic Moira Furnace, a blast furnace from the 19th century which has been converted to provide visitor facilities including a craft centre, museum and cafe. The restored stretch is some long, and includes a new lock built to overcome the problems caused by mining subsidence. Below the restored section, the way forward has been blocked by the construction of the A42 main road across the canal's formation. In November 2004, a public enquiry was held in connection with the application for a Transport and Works Order. Most objections were withdrawn, leaving one from English Nature, which was accommodated by including a provision for off-line nature reserves, and the Order was granted in October 2005.
The Order allows Leicestershire County Council to purchase land and construct of canal from Snarestone to Measham. Initially, this would follow the original route, but would diverge near Measham, to use the track of a redundant railway. The new canal would pass through Measham Station and cross the High Street on an aqueduct. The Transport and Works Act Order was introduced by the British Parliament in 1992 as a way of simplifying the legal processes for railway and canal projects, and works which interfere with navigation rights. Although a number of railway projects had previously been authorised under this legislation, the Ashby Canal Order obtained by Leicestershire County Council was the first time that construction of a canal had been authorised in this way. Purchase of the land between Snarestone and Measham had been completed by 2010. Re-construction of the first of the infilled section began on 26 February 2009, after a grant from the East Midlands Development Agency was secured. The £0.5 million project involved the provision of a stop lock, a new slipway, an improved winding hole and a wetland nature reserve, running parallel to the canal and connected to it. The stop lock chamber marks the division between the part of the canal owned by the Canal & River Trust, and that owned by Leicestershire County Council, although no gates have been fitted while the length of canal beyond the chamber is short.
Progress
On 23 June 2011, Leicestershire County Council reached agreement with UK Coal for them to extract coal and fireclay at their Minorca Opencast site near Measham. As part of the planning gain, UK Coal will alter Gallows Lane to allow the new canal to pass under it, will provide a water storage lake, reducing the cost of the next phase by £1 million, and will provide £1.28 million to fund the reconstruction of the section north of Snarestone. They will also make available any clay removed from the site which is suitable for puddling the new section of waterway. Work on the extension towards Measham has been undertaken by contractors and volunteers, including members of the Waterway Recovery Group. In 2015, bridge 62, once known as Faulks Bridge, was reinstated, and a winding hole was constructed just beyond it, enabling boats to use the new section. The bridge is located about from the site of Gilwiskaw Aqueduct, which will be the next major structure to reinstate.
In 2013, parts of the restoration were threatened when the plans for the route of High Speed 2 (HS2), a high-speed rail link which would connect London to Birmingham, Manchester and York, were published. The new line would have cut through the middle of Measham, where a major development consisting of 450 houses, together with restoration of of the original route of the canal and the construction of a canal basin, was put on hold. Revised plans, published on 15 November 2016, routed the railway further to the east, crossing the line of the canal on a viaduct. As a result, the chairman of the Ashby Canal Association, Peter Oakden, expected work on the development to start in the summer of 2017, and was hopeful that the extension of the canal to link up with the Measham Wharf development could be completed by 2021, before any work on the rail link was likely to begin. However on 17 July 2017 the revised route of HS2 was rejected by the Secretary of State and a new final route within of the original 2013 proposal was confirmed. This route runs through the planned area for the 450 houses, causing the developers to cancel the development, and therefore the canal reinstatement in Measham, as unviable. In the longer term however, the latest HS2 route through Measham and the consequential moving of the A42 dual carriageway, should allow bridges to be built, funded by the HS2 project, for the canal to cross under both HS2 and the A42 when reinstated between Measham and Moira.
In 2020, the process of transferring the Transport and Works Order from Leicestershire County Council to the Ashby Canal Association was almost complete when it was interrupted by the onset of the covid-19 pandemic. Once the transfer is completed, the association can proceed with further restoration work.
Site of Special Scientific Interest
The stretch between Carlton Bridge, north of Market Bosworth, and Turnover Bridge, north of Snarestone is a 15.4 hectare biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in Leicestershire, designated in 1989.
The site has diverse aquatic flora and invertebrates, and the submerged plants are of particular interest. These include mare's tail, spiked water-milfoil and perfoliate pondweed. Nine species of dragonfly have been recorded, and there are also water shrews and the nationally rare water beetle Haliplus mucronatus.
Coordinates
See also
Ashby Canal Association
Ashby Canal Trust
Moira Furnace
Ticknall Tramway
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Ashby Canal Association
Derby Photos - Ticknall Tramway Bridge
Science and Society Ticknall Tramway
BBC Leicester - Significant restoration for canal, video of new stop lock
images & map of mile markers seen along the Ashby canal
Canals in England
Early British railway companies
History of Leicestershire
Canals in Leicestershire
Canals in Warwickshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Leicestershire
Horse-drawn railways
Canals opened in 1804 | [
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219219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dear%20John | Dear John | Dear John may refer to:
Dear John letter, a break-up letter to an absent boyfriend or husband
Film and television
Dear John (1964 film), a 1964 Swedish film
Dear John (British TV series), a 1986–1987 British sitcom
Dear John (American TV series), a 1988–1992 American sitcom, originally based on the British show
Dear John (2010 film), a film based on the Nicholas Sparks novel (see below)
Literature
Dear John (novel), a 2007 novel by Nicholas Sparks
"Dear John", a column written for The Stage (UK) newspaper by John Byrne
Dear John: The Road to Pelindaba, 2018 book about Mark Constantine's search for his father
Music
"Dear John" (Hank Williams song), the A-side of the 1951 single "Cold, Cold Heart"
"A Dear John Letter" or "Dear John", a 1953 song by Ferlin Husky and Jean Shepard
"Dear John", a song by Pat Boone, Dot Records 7" 45-16152, reached #44 in US charts in 1960
"Dear John", a song by the Scottish hard rock band Nazareth, from their self-titled debut album (1971)
"Dear John" by John Lennon, from John Lennon Anthology (1980)
"Dear John" (Status Quo song) (1982)
"Dear John", a song by Elton John from Jump Up! (1982)
"Dear John" (Eddi Reader song) from her 1984 eponymous album
"Dear John", an instrumental on the Freddie Hubbard album Bolivia (1991)
"Dear John", a song by Cyndi Lauper from her 1993 album Hat Full of Stars
"Dear John", a song by Klymaxx from One Day (1994)
"Dear John", a song by Styx from their 1997 album Return to Paradise
Dear John, a 1999 album by Ilse DeLange
"Dear John Letter", a song by Whitney Houston from her 2002 album Just Whitney...
"Dear John", a song by Aimee Mann from The Forgotten Arm (2005)
"Dear John", a song by Ryan Adams from his 2005 album Jacksonville City Nights
"dearjohn", a song by Musiq Soulchild from the 2008 album OnMyRadio
Dear John, a 2009 album by Loney, Dear
"Dear John", a song by Amerie from In Love & War (2009)
"Dear John" (Taylor Swift song) (2010)
"Dear John", a 2010 song by Jessie James Decker
"Dear John", a song by James from their 2016 album Girl at the End of the World
See also
"Dear John Letter (To the Devil)", a song by Keith Green from No Compromise
"Dear Johnny", a song by Poe from Haunted | [
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219222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Bates | Ralph Bates | Ralph Bates (12 February 1940 – 27 March 1991) was an English film and television actor, known for his role in the British sitcom Dear John and the original Poldark drama series.
Biography
Bates was born in Bristol, England. His parents were both psychiatrists, his mother was French and he was a great-great-grandson of French scientist Louis Pasteur.
He held dual-nationality and was bilingual, and was educated at Trinity College Dublin. He read French there, before winning a scholarship to Yale Drama School. The course completed, Bates returned to Ireland to make his stage debut in Shaw's You Never Can Tell at The Gate Theatre, Dublin, in 1963. A career in repertory theatre soon followed and the young actor gained experience in productions ranging from Hedda Gabler to raucous comedies.
Later, Bates carved a niche in the world of horror films and played important roles or the lead in several Hammer Horror productions, such as Taste the Blood of Dracula, The Horror of Frankenstein, Lust for a Vampire, and Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde, in which he played a doctor who mistakenly transforms himself into a beautiful siren.
He portrayed Caligula in the series The Caesars and alongside Cyd Hayman in a passionate French tale of murder and mystery - Crime of Passion series. After playing Thomas Culpeper in an episode of The Six Wives of Henry VIII (1970), he went on to star in the BBC drama series, Moonbase 3 (1973) and Poldark, in which he played villainous George Warleggan. The series ran for 29 episodes, starting in 1975. He also played communist Paul Vercors in the final season of the drama series Secret Army. Because of his French ancestry and dark looks, he was often chosen to play a Frenchman on television, as for instance in a second series episode of ITV comedy drama Turtle's Progress. Bates also appeared in the television movie Minder on the Orient Express, again as a Frenchman.
It looked, for some time, as if he might remain typecast in sinister roles, but he was offered a part in a comedy series by the writer John Sullivan, which saw Bates cast in a more sympathetic role as the newly divorced member of a singles group. Dear John (1986–87), ran for two series, and gave him chance to display a talent for comic roles. Around the same time, he appeared in the Yorkshire Television sitcom Farrington of the F.O. (1986) with Angela Thorne and Joan Sims.
Private life
Bates was divorced from the actress Joanna Van Gyseghem, and survived by his second wife, actress Virginia Wetherell (married 1973–1991). The couple had one daughter, actress Daisy Bates (b. 1974), and a son William Bates (b. 1977), an actor and musician.
Death
Bates was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, and died in London at age 51 from the disease.
The Ralph Bates Pancreatic Cancer Research Fund is a registered charity, number 1007819.
Filmography
References
External links
1940 births
1991 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
English male film actors
English male television actors
Male actors from Bristol
Yale School of Drama alumni
20th-century English male actors | [
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