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219225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRA%20%28disambiguation%29 | NRA (disambiguation) | The NRA is the National Rifle Association of America, a gun rights advocacy group based in the United States.
NRA may also refer to:
Organizations
Asia
National Revolutionary Army, the National Army of the Republic of China from 1925
National Railway Administration, the national railway regulator of China
New Revolutionary Alternative, an anarchist organization in Russia
Nuclear Regulation Authority, in Japan
Africa
National Reconstruction Alliance, a political party in Tanzania
National Resistance Army, in Uganda
South African National Roads Agency
Europe
National Roads Authority of Ireland
Neutelings Riedijk Architects, in the Netherlands
United Kingdom
National Register of Archives
National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom
National Rivers Authority, a forerunner of the Environment Agency of England and Wales
National Rounders Association, in the List of international sports federations
United States
National Recovery Administration, a former agency established in 1933
National Reform Association (1864), an organization seeking to amend the U.S. Constitution to include a Christian amendment
National Restaurant Association, a restaurant industry business association
Science and technology
Norepinephrine releasing agent, a type of drug
Nuclear reaction analysis, a nuclear method of nuclear spectroscopy in materials science
Other uses
National recreation area, a designation for a protected area in the US
Nonresident alien, in US immigration law
New Red Arrow, brand name applied to the Japanese Seibu 10000 series train
New Rubinelle Army, a faction in the video game Advance Wars: Days of Ruin
See also
National Rifle Association (disambiguation) | [
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219231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanafi | Hanafi | The Hanafi school () is one of the four traditional major Sunni schools (maddhab) of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). Its eponym is the 8th-century Kufan scholar, Abū Ḥanīfa an-Nu‘man ibn Thābit, a tabi‘i of Persian origin whose legal views were preserved primarily by his two most important disciples, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al-Shaybani.
Under the patronage of the Abbasids, the Hanafi school flourished in Iraq and spread eastwards, firmly establishing itself in Khorasan and Transoxiana by the 9th-century, where it enjoyed the support of the local Samanid rulers. Turkic expansion introduced the school to the Indian subcontinent and Anatolia, and it was adopted as the chief legal school of the Ottoman Empire.
The Hanafi school is the maddhab with the largest number of adherents, followed by approximately one third of Muslims worldwide. It is prevalent in Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Egypt, the Balkans, the Levant, Central Asia, and Bangladesh, in addition to parts of Russia, China, India, and Iran. The other primary Sunni legal schools are the Maliki, Shafi`i and Hanbali schools.
Methodology
Hanafi usul recognises the Quran, hadith, consensus (ijma), legal analogy (qiyas), juristic preference (istihsan) and normative customs (urf) as sources of the Sharia. Abu Hanifa is regarded by modern scholars as the first to formally adopt and institute qiyas as a method to derive Islamic law when the Quran and hadiths are silent or ambiguous in their guidance; and is noted for his general reliance on personal opinion (ra'y).
Nevertheless the usage of Ra'y as one of the sources of their jurisprudence, the Hanafite scholars still prioritize the textual approach of the Sahabah for their jurisprudence, as careful examination by modern Islamic jurisprudence researcher Ismail Poonawala, has found that the influence of the hadiths narrated by Zubayr regarding Rajm (stoning) execution as a form of punishment towards adulterers to be within Abu Hanifa's rulings in the Hanafite school of thought for such kinds of punishments' validity and furthermore, how to implement the punishment in accordance with the prophet's teachings due to self-confession of the accused. This Hanafite stoning law which is based on hadiths narrated by Zubayr arguably has historical and profound influence as various governments have implemented Hanafite code of law in their state laws from the late medieval to modern period:
Fatawa 'Alamgiri: Fatawa 'Alamgiri is an Islamic edict book first implemented as state law in India during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Later, the British Raj also implemented this law in an effort to better control their Indian Muslim subjects. Meanwhile in the modern era, the local Hanafi scholarly community Jameah Mahmoodiyah in South Africa and the Deobandi movement in India still use it to this day.
Qanun: The Ottoman Empire through their Qanun law which is not dissimilar from Fatawa 'Alamgiri was formed and canonized as state law by Suleiman the Magnificent. This law indirectly influenced their ally, the Sultanate of Aceh, who also had its own version of Rajm (stoning) law in their law codex. This codex even became the autonomical legal codex of modern-day Aceh province, as the province recognizes Sharia law based on Qanun which they call Qanun Jinayat. This Hanafite law of Rajm (stoning) in Aceh has survived to the 21st century as it was officially recognized by the Indonesian government in 2014, in addition to the Selangor state of Malaysia recognizing it in 1995 as an autonomical law, While the fundamentalist Taliban faction also reportedly used their own variant of Hanafite Qanun, a sub-branch of the Afghani Qanun which regulates the family matters, including the punishment for adulterers was named Qanun-i Izdisaj, which also contains the traditional Hanafite-Qanunite stoning punishment for adulterers.
The foundational texts of Hanafi madhab, credited to Abū Ḥanīfa and his students Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al-Shaybani, include Al-Fiqh al-Akbar (theological book on jurisprudence), Al-Fiqh al-Absat (general book on jurisprudence), Kitab al-Athar (thousands of hadiths with commentary), Kitab al-Kharaj and Kitab al-Siyar (doctrine of war against unbelievers, distribution of spoils of war among Muslims, apostasy and taxation of dhimmi).
Istihsan
The Hanafi school favours the use of istihsan, or juristic preference, a form of ra'y which enables jurists to opt for weaker positions if the results of qiyas lead to an undesirable outcome for the public interest (maslaha). Although istihsan did not initially require a scriptural basis, criticism from other schools prompted Hanafi jurists to restrict its usage to cases where it was textually supported from the 9th-century onwards.
History
As the fourth Caliph, Ali had transferred the Islamic capital to Kufa, and many of the first generation of Muslims settled there. The Hanafi school of law based many of its rulings on the earliest Islamic traditions as transmitted by Sahaba residing in Iraq. Thus, the Hanafi school came to be known as the Kufan or Iraqi school in earlier times. Ali and Abdullah, son of Masud, formed much of the base of the school, as well as other personalities such as Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, and Zayd ibn Ali. Many jurists and historians had lived in Kufa including one of Abu Hanifa's main teachers, Hammad ibn Sulayman.
The 5th Sunni sheikh & 6th Shi'ite Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a descendant of the Islamic Nabi (Prophet) Muhammad) was reportedly a teacher of Sunni Imams Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, who in turn was a teacher of Imam Ash-Shafi‘i, who in turn was a teacher of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni Fiqhs are connected to Ja'far, whether directly or indirectly.
In the early history of Islam, Hanafi doctrine was not fully compiled. The fiqh was fully compiled and documented in the 11th century.
The Turkish rulers were some of the earliest adopters of the relatively more flexible Hanafi fiqh, and preferred it over the traditionalist Medina-based fiqhs which favored correlating all laws to Quran and Hadiths and disfavored Islamic law based on discretion of jurists. The Abbasids patronized the Hanafi school from the 10th century onwards. The Seljuk Turkish dynasties of 11th and 12th centuries, followed by Ottomans, adopted Hanafi fiqh. The Turkic expansion spread Hanafi fiqh through Central Asia and into Indian subcontinent, with the establishment of Seljuk Empire, Timurid dynasty, Khanates, Delhi Sultanate, Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Empire. Throughout the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb, the Hanafi based Fatawa-e-Alamgiri served as the legal, juridical, political, and financial code of most of South Asia.
Sunni Schools:
Hanbali School: Named after Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (Died 855)
Hanafi School: Named after Abu Hanifa (Died 767)
Shafi 'i: Named after Al-Shafi'l (Died 819)
Maliki: Named After Malik Bin Anas (Died 795)
Shi'a Schools:
Zaydi School: Named after Zayd Ibn Ali (Died 740)
Ja'Fari School: Named after Ja'far al-Sadiq (Died 765)
During the early periods of time that Islam was just being found up (mainly the first 250 years), there were around 100+ school of thoughts.
List of Hanafi scholars
Abu Hanifa
Abu Yusuf
Muhammad al-Shaybani
Ibn al-Mubarak
Abu Ja'far al-Ṭaḥāwī
Yahya ibn Ma'in
Abu Hafs Umar an-Nasafi
Al-Marghinani
Al-Maydani
Abu Mansur Al Maturidi
Ali al-Qari
Ali Hujwiri
Rumi
Farid al-Din Attar
Ibn Abidin
Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari
See also
Islamic schools and branches
Maturidi
List of major Hanafi books
List of Hanafis
Notes
References
Further reading
Branon Wheeler, Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafī Scholarship (Albany, SUNY Press, 1996).
Nurit Tsafrir, The History of an Islamic School of Law: The Early Spread of Hanafism (Harvard, Harvard Law School, 2004) (Harvard Series in Islamic Law, 3).
Behnam Sadeghi (2013), The Logic of Law Making in Islam: Women and Prayer in the Legal Tradition, Cambridge University Press, Chapter 6, "The Historical Development of Hanafi Reasoning",
Theory of Hanafi law: Kitab Al-Athar of Imam Abu Hanifah, Translator: Abdussamad, Editors: Mufti 'Abdur Rahman Ibn Yusuf, Shaykh Muhammad Akram (Oxford Centre of Islamic Studies),
Hanafi theory of war and taxation: Majid Khadduri (1966), The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's, Johns Hopkins University Press,
External links
Hanafiyya Bulend Shanay, Lancaster University
Kitab al-siyar al-saghir (Summary version of the Hanafi doctrine of War) Muhammad al-Shaybani, Translator - Mahmood Ghazi
The Legal Aspects of Marriage according to Hanafi Fiqh Islamic Quarterly London, 1985, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 193–219
Al-Hedaya, A 12th century compilation of Hanafi fiqh-based religious law, by Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani, Translated by Charles Hamilton
Development of family law in Afghanistan: The role of the Hanafi Madhhab Central Asian Survey, Volume 16, Issue 3, 1997
Sunni Islam
Schools of Sunni jurisprudence
Sunni Islamic branches | [
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219232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanbali | Hanbali | The Hanbali school () is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (madhahib) of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Iraqi scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), and was institutionalized by his students. The Hanbali madhhab is the smallest of four major Sunni schools, the others being the Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi`i.
The Hanbali school derives sharia primarily from the Qur'an, the Hadiths (sayings and customs of Muhammad), and the views of Sahabah (Muhammad's companions). In cases where there is no clear answer in sacred texts of Islam, the Hanbali school does not accept istihsan (jurist discretion) or 'urf (customs of a community) as a sound basis to derive Islamic law, a method that Hanafi and Maliki Sunni madh'habs accept. Hanbali school is the strict traditionalist school of jurisprudence in Sunni Islam. It is found primarily in the countries of Saudi Arabia and Qatar, where it is the official Fiqh. Hanbali followers are the demographic majority in four emirates of UAE (Sharjah, Umm al-Quwain, Ras al-Khaimah and Ajman). Large minorities of Hanbali followers are also found in Bahrain, Syria, Oman and Yemen and among Iraqi and Jordanian bedouins.
The Hanbali school experienced a reformation during the 18th-century Wahhabi movement. Historically the school was small; during the 18th to early-20th century Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Al Saud greatly aided its propagation around the world by way of their interpretation of the school's teachings. As a result of this, the school's name has become a controversial one in certain quarters of the Islamic world due to the influence he is believed by some to have had upon these teachings, which cites Ahmad Ibn Hanbal as a principal influence along with the thirteenth-century Hanbali reformer Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyah. However, it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism," as there is evidence, according to the same authors, that "the older Hanbalite authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of the Wahhabis," as medieval Hanbali literature is rich in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics. Historically, the Hanbali school was treated as simply another valid interpretation of Shariat (Islamic law), and many prominent medieval Sufis, such as Abdul Qadir Gilani, were Hanbali jurists and mystics at the same time.
History
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school of thought (madhab), was a disciple of the Sunni Imam Al-Shafi‘i, who was reportedly a student of Imam Malik ibn Anas, who was a student of the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, like Imam Abu Hanifa. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni Fiqh are connected to Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq from the Bayt (Household) of Muhammad, whether directly or indirectly.
Like Al-Shafi'i and Dawud al-Zahiri, Ahmad was deeply concerned with the extreme elasticity being deployed by many jurists of his time, who used their discretion to reinterpret the doctrines of Qur'an and Hadiths to suit the demands of Caliphs and wealthy. Ibn Hanbal advocated for a literal interpretation of Qur'an and Hadiths. Influenced by the debates of his time, he was known for rejecting religious rulings (fatwas) from the 'Ijma (consensus) of jurists of his time, which he considered to be speculative theology (Kalam). He associated them with the Mu'tazilis, whom he despised. Ibn Hanbal was also hostile to the discretionary principles of rulings in jurisprudence (Usul al-fiqh) mainly championed by the people of opinion, which was established by Abu Hanifa, although he did adopt al-Shafi'i's method in usul al-fiqh. He linked these discretionary principles with kalam. His guiding principle was that the Quran and Sunnah are the only proper sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and are of equal authority and should be interpreted literally in line with the Athari creed. He also believed that there can be no true consensus (Ijma) among jurists (mujtahids) of his time, and preferred the consensus of Muhammad's companions (Sahaba) and weaker hadiths. Imam Hanbal himself compiled Al-Musnad, a text with over 30,000 saying, actions and customs of Muhammad.
Ibn Hanbal never composed an actual systematic legal theory on his own, and was against setting up juristic superstructures. He believed that legal rulings must be derived by referring directly to the Qur'an and Sunnah; instead of referring to a body of religious jurisprudence. However; his followers would later establish a systematic legal methodology some generations after Ibn Hanbal's death. Much of the work of preserving the school based on Ibn Hanbal's method was laid by his student Abu Bakr al-Khallal; his documentation on the founder's views eventually reached twenty volumes. The original copy of the work, which was contained in the House of Wisdom, was burned along with many other works of literature during the Mongol siege of Baghdad. The book was only preserved in a summarized form by the Hanbali jurist al-Khiraqi, who had access to written copies of al-Khallal's book before the siege.
Relations with the Abbasid Caliphate were rocky for the Hanbalites. Led by the Hanbalite scholar Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari, the school often formed mobs of followers in 10th-century Baghdad who would engage in violence against fellow Sunnis suspected of committing sins and all Shi'ites. During al-Barbahari's leadership of the school in Baghdad, shops were looted, female entertainers were attacked in the streets, popular grievances among the lower classes were agitated as a source of mobilization, and public chaos in general ensued. Their efforts would be their own undoing in 935, when a series of home invasions and mob violence on the part of al-Barbahari's followers in addition to perceived deviant views led to the Caliph Ar-Radi publicly condemning the school in its entirety and ending its official patronage by state religious bodies.
At some point between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Hanbali scholars began adopting the term “Salafi". The influential 13th century Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyya advocated Salafi thought as a theological endeavour and his efforts would create a lasting impact on the subsequent followers of the Hanbali school.
Principles
Sources of law
Like all other schools of Sunni Islam, the Hanbali school holds that the two primary sources of Islamic law are the Qur'an and the Sunnah found in Hadiths (compilation of sayings, actions and customs of Muhammad). Where these texts did not provide guidance, Imam Hanbal recommended guidance from established consensus of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), then individual opinion of Muhammad's companions, followed in order of preference by weaker hadiths, and in rare cases qiyas (analogy). The Hanbali school, unlike Hanafi and Maliki schools, rejected that a source of Islamic law can be a jurist's personal discretionary opinion or consensus of later generation Muslims on matters that serve the interest of Islam and community. Hanbalis hold that this is impossible and leads to abuse. The Hanbali school also rejects taqlid (blind adherence to scholarly opinions) and encourages the practice of Ijtihad (independent reasoning) through the study of Quran and Hadith.
Ibn Hanbal rejected the possibility of religiously binding consensus (Ijma), as it was impossible to verify once later generations of Muslims spread throughout the world, going as far as declaring anyone who claimed as such to be a liar. Ibn Hanbal did, however, accept the possibility and validity of the consensus of the Sahaba. the first generation of Muslims. Later followers of the school, however, expanded on the types of consensus accepted as valid, and the prominent Hanbalite Ibn Taymiyyah expanded legal consensus to later generations while at the same time restricting it only to the religiously learned. Analogical reasoning (Qiyas), was likewise rejected as a valid source of law by Ibn Hanbal himself, with a near-unanimous majority of later Hanbalite jurists not only accepting analogical reasoning as valid but also borrowing from the works of Shafi'ite jurists on the subject.
Ibn Hanbal's strict standards of acceptance regarding the sources of Islamic law were probably due to his suspicion regarding the field of Usul al-Fiqh, which he equated with speculative theology (kalam). While demanding strict application of Qur'an and Hadith, Hanbali Fiqh is nonetheless flexible in areas not covered by Scriptures. In issues where the Qur'an and the Hadiths were ambigous or vague; the Hanbali Fuqaha (jurists) engaged in Ijtihad to derive rulings. Additionally, the Hanbali madh'hab accepted the Islamic principle of Maslaha ('public interest') in solving the novel issues. In the modern era, Hanbalites have branched out and even delved into matters regarding the upholding (Istislah) of public interest (Maslaha) and even juristic preference (Istihsan), anathema to the earlier Hanbalites as valid methods of determining religious law.
Theology
Ibn Hanbal taught that the Qur'an is uncreated due to Muslim belief that it is the word of God, and the word of God is not created. The Muʿtazilites taught that the Qur'an, which is readable and touchable, is created like other creatures and created objects. Ibn Hanbal viewed this as heresy, replying that there are things which are not touchable but are created, such as the Throne of God. Unlike the other three schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi), the Hanbali madhab remained largely traditionalist or Athari in theology and it was primarily Hanbali scholars who codified the Athari school of thought.
Distinct rulings
Wudu – One of the seven things which nullifies the minor purification includes, touching a person of the opposite sex for the purpose of carnal desire. This ruling is similar to the Maliki opinion, however the Shafi'i opinion is that merely touching will break the wudu, while the Hanafi opinion is that merely touching does not break the wudu.
Al-Qayyam – One position of the school according to Kashshaf al-Qina` of al-Buhuti, and al-Mughni of Ibn Qudama is the same as that of Imam Abu Hanifa and his students; to place one’s hands below the navel. Another position is that hands are positioned above the navel or on the chest while standing in prayer, not similar to the Hanafis, though others state a person has a choice i.e. either above the navel or near the chest
Ruku – The hands are to be raised (Rafa al-Yadayn) before going to ruku, and standing up from ruku, similar to the Shafi'i school. While standing up after ruku, a person has a choice to place their hands back to the position as they were before. Other madh'habs state the hands should be left on their sides.
Tashahhud – The finger should be pointed and not moved, upon mentioning the name of Allah.
Taslim – Is considered obligatory by the Madh'hab.
Salat-ul-Witr – Hanbalis pray Two Rak'ats consecutively then perform Tasleem, and then One Rak'at is performed separately. Dua Qunoot is recited after the Ruku' during Witr, and Hands are raised during the Dua.
In the absence of a valid excuse, it is obligatory (at least for adult men) to pray in congregation rather than individually.
The majority of the Hanbali school considers admission in a court of law to be indivisible; that is, a plaintiff may not accept some parts of a defendant's testimony while rejecting other parts. This position is also held by the Zahiri school, though it is opposed by the Hanafi and Maliki schools.
Reception
The Hanbali school is now accepted as the fourth of the mainstream Sunni schools of law. It has traditionally enjoyed a smaller following than the other schools. In the earlier period, Sunni jurisprudence was based on four other schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Zahiri; later on, the Hanbali school supplanted the Zahiri school's spot as the fourth mainstream school. Hanbalism essentially formed as a traditionalist reaction to what they viewed as bid'ah (innovations) on the part of the earlier established schools.
Historically, the school's legitimacy was not always accepted. Muslim exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, founder of the now extinct Jariri school of law, was noted for ignoring the Hanbali school entirely when weighing the views of jurists; this was due to his view that the founder, Ibn Hanbal, was merely a scholar of Hadith (prophetic traditions) and was not a Faqih (jurist) at all. The Hanbalites, led by Al-Barbahari, reacted by stoning Tabari's home several times, inciting riots so violent that Abbasid authorities had to subdue them by force. Upon Tabari's death, the Hanbalites formed a violent mob large enough that Abbasid officials buried him in secret, in an attempt to prevent further riots. Similarly, the Andalusian Malikite Jurist and theologian Ibn 'Abd al-Barr made a point to exclude Ibn Hanbal's views from the books on Sunni Muslim jurisprudence.
Eventually, the Mamluk Sultanate and later the Ottoman Empire codified Sunni Islam as four schools, including the Hanbalite school at the expense of the Zahirites. The Hanafis, Shafi'is and Malikis agreed on important matters and recognized each other's systems as equally valid; this was not the case with the Hanbalites, who were recognized as legitimate by the older three schools but refused to return the favor.
Differences with other Sunni schools
In contrast to the Hanafis and the Malikis, in the absence of a 'Ijma (juristic consensus), the opinion of a Sahabi (companion of Prophet Muhammad) is given priority over Qiyas (analogical reasoning, which early Hanbalis rejected) or al-'urf (customs of a land) which is completely rejected by Hanbalis. While Hanbalis require a unanimous consensus, Hanafis tend to follow the consensus of Kufa and Malikis that of al-Madina.
Zahiris, a less mainstream school, is sometimes seen as the closest to Hanbalis and Hanafis. However the similarities are only true for early Zahiris who followed the Athari creed. The branch that was largely instigated by Ibn Hazm which developed in al-Andalus, al-Qarawiyyin and later became the official school of the state under the Almohads, differed significantly from Hanbalism. It did not follow the Athari and Taqlid schools and opted for "logical Istidlal" (deductive demonstration/inference) as a way to interpret scripture that wasn't clear literally. Hanbalis rejected kalam as a whole and believed in the supremacy of the text over the mind and did not engage in dialectic debates with the Mu'tazila. Ibn Hazm, on the other hand, engaged in these debates and believed in logical reasoning rejecting most of Mu'tazila claims as sophism and absurd. Ibn Hazm, also scrutinised hadith corpus more severely. He adopted an attitude where he'd reject hadiths if he discovered something suspicious about the lives of those who reported it, or in the case where a narrator in the Sanad (transmission chain) is not a widely known figure. In doing so, he was aided by his vast historical knowledge.
By the end of the classical era, the other three remaining schools had codified their laws into comprehensive jurisprudential systems; enforcing them far and wide. However, the Hanbalis stood apart from the other three madh'habs; by insisting on referring directly back to the Qur’an and Sunnah, to arrive at legal rulings. They also opposed the codification of Sharia (Islamic law) into a comprehensive system of jurisprudence; considering the Qur'an and Hadith to be the paramount sources.
Relationship with Sufism
Sufism, often described as the inner mystical dimension of Islam, is not a separate "school" or "sect" of the religion, but, rather, is considered by its adherents to be an "inward" way of approaching Islam which complements the regular outward practice of the five pillars; Sufism became immensely popular during the medieval period in practically all parts of the Sunni world and continues to remain so in many parts of the world today. As Christopher Melchert has pointed out, both Hanbalism and classical Sufism took concrete shapes in the ninth and early tenth-centuries CE, with both soon becoming "essential components of the high-medieval Sunni synthesis." Although many Hanbali scholars today, identifying themselves with various Salafi movements and the contemporary manifestation of the Wahhabi movement within Hanbalism, shun Sufism and its practices such as the Ziyarat (vistations of the graves of Awliyaa), which they deem heretical innovations in religion; the Hanbali school of Sunni law had a very intimate relationship with Sufism throughout Islamic history.
There is evidence that many medieval Hanbali scholars were very close to the Sufi martyr and saint Hallaj, whose mystical piety seems to have influenced many regular jurists in the school. Many later Hanbalis, meanwhile, were often Sufis themselves, including figures not normally associated with Sufism, such as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. Both these men, sometimes considered to be completely anti-Sufi in their leanings, were actually initiated into the Qadiriyya order of the celebrated mystic and saint Abdul Qadir Gilani, who was himself a renowned Hanbali Faqih. As the Qadiriyya Tariqah is often considered to be the largest and most widespread Sufi order in the world, with many branches spanning from Turkey to Pakistan, one of the largest Sufi branches is effectively founded on Hanbali school. Other prominent Hanbalite scholars who praised Sufism include Ibn 'Aqil, Ibn Qudamah, Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, etc.
Although Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab is sometimes regarded as a denier of Sufism, both he and his early disciples acclaimed Tasawwuf; believing it to be an important discipline in Islamic religion. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab prescribed various Sufi spiritual exercises to his followers for attaining Zuhd (asceticism), in accordance with Qur'an and Hadith. Extolling the virtuous Sufi Awliya (saints) who attained Ma'rifa (highest stage of mystical awareness in Sufism) as exemplars to his followers, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab stated: " “From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).” For indeed those who are concerned with the piety of the heart are often associated with a lack of ma‘rifah, which would necessitate abstinence from wrong and make jihad necessary. And those who are in-depth in knowledge at times mention such wickedness and doubts that place them in err and deviation... So, His love itself is the basis of His worship, and assigning equals (shirk) in love is the basis of polytheism in His worship... This is why the ‘arif Sufi shaykhs would advise many to pursue knowledge. Some of them would say: “A person only leaves a single Sunnah due to the pride in him.” "
List of Hanbali scholars
Abu Dawood (d. 275 A.H.) Famous compiler of Sunan Abu Dawood.
Abu Bakr al-Khallal – Jurist responsible for the school's early codification.
Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari (d. 329 A.H.), an Iraqi traditionist and a jurist, author of the book Sharh al-Sunnah (disputed).
Ibn Battah al-Ukbari (d. 387 A.H.), an Iraqi theologian and jurisconsult, author of the book Al-Ibaanah.
Abū 'Abdullāh Muhammad Ibn Manda (d. 395 A.H.), hadīth master, biographer and historian from Isfahan.
Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la (d. 458 A.H.)
Ibn Aqil (d. 513 A.H.)
Awn ad-Din ibn Hubayra (d. 560 A.H.)
Abdul Qadir Gilani (d. 561 A.H.)
Abu-al-Faraj Ibn Al-Jawzi (d. 597 A.H.) – A famous jurist, exegete, critic, preacher and a prolific author, with works on nearly all subjects.
Hammad al-Harrani (d. 598A.H.) – A jurist, critic and preacher who lived in Alexandria under the reign of Salahudin.
Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi (d. 600 A.H.) – A prominent hadith master from Damascus and the nephew of Ibn Qudamah.
Ibn Qudamah (d. 620A.H.) – One of the major Hanbali authorities and the author of the profound and voluminous book on Law, al-Mughni, which became popular amongst researchers from all juristic backgrounds. One of two individuals referred to as Shaykh al-Islām within the Hanbali school.
Diya al-Din al-Maqdisi (d. 643 A.H.)
Ibn Hamdan, Ahmad al-Harrani (d. 695 A.H.) - A jurist and judge born and raised in Harran and later practiced in Cairo
Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyah (d. 728 A.H.) – A well-known figure in the Islamic history, known by his friends and foes for his expertise and controversial views in Islamic sciences.
Ibn Muflih al Maqdisi (d. 763 A.H.)
Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 751 A.H.) – The closest companion and a student of Ibn Taymiyah, also a respected jurist in his own right.
Ibn Rajab (d. 795 A.H.) – A prominent jurist, traditionist, ascetic and preacher, who authored several important works, largely commenting upon famous collections of traditions.
al-Bahūtī (d. 1051 A.H.)
Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab – A controversial Hanbali jurist and traditionalist, patronym of the Wahhabi movement.
Ibn Humaid (d. 1295 A.H.) – A Hanbali jurist, traditionist, historian.
Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz (d. 1419 A.H.) – Former Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia.
Ibn al-Uthaymeen (d. 1421 A.H.) – A leading jurist, grammarian, linguist, and a popular preacher.
Abdullah Ibn Jibreen – A leading scholar of Saudi Arabia and was a former member of the Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fataawa in Saudi Arabia.
Saleh Al-Fawzan – A well known scholar in Saudi Arabia and prolific author. He is currently a member of the Permanent Committee.
Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais – The leading imam and khateeb of the Grand mosque chief of presidency of Haramain Committee, Saudi Arabia.
Saud Al-Shuraim – The Imam and khateeb of the Grand Mosque Mecca and a professor of Islamic law at Umm al-Qura University.
See also
Outline of Islam
Adhan
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic views on sin
Salat
Wudu
References
Further reading
Abd al-Halim al-Jundi, Ahmad bin Hanbal Imam Ahl al-Sunnah, published in Cairo by Dar al-Ma'arif
Dr. 'Ali Sami al-Nashshar, Nash'ah al-fikr al-falsafi fi al-islam, vol. 1, published by Dar al-Ma'arif, seventh edition, 1977
Makdisi, George. "Hanābilah". Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. Vol. 6. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 3759–3769. 15 vols. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Thomson Gale. (Accessed December 14, 2005)
Dar Irfan Jameel. "Introduction to Hanbali School of Jurisprudence".
Vishanoff, David. "Nazzām, Al-." Ibid.
Iqbal, Muzzafar. Chapter 1, "The Beginning", Islam and Science, Ashgate Press, 2002.
Leaman, Oliver, "Islamic Philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, v. 5, pp. 13–16.
External links
Hanbali-forum Files Hanbali Fiqh by Shaykh Musa Furber
Hanbaliyyah at Overview of World Religions
Madhhab
Schools of Sunni jurisprudence
Sunni Islamic branches
Sunni Islam | [
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219235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankt%20Wendel%20%28district%29 | Sankt Wendel (district) | Sankt Wendel is a Kreis (district) in the north of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are Trier-Saarburg, Birkenfeld, Kusel, Neunkirchen, Saarlouis, and Merzig-Wadern.
History
The district was created in 1834 when Prussia bought the Lichtenberg area from Saxony-Coburg. After the World War I, the Saar area came under special rulership of the League of Nations, and thus the Sankt Wendel district was split into two parts. The northern part, the Restkreis Sankt Wendel, was merged into the district Birkenfeld, the southern part stayed in the Saarland in its reduced size.
Geography
The district is located in the Saar-Hunsrück natural area, a hilly area with elevations between 200 and 600 meters.
The main river in the district is the Nahe. The Bostalsee is the biggest tourist lake in the south-west of Germany, covering an area of about 1.2 km².
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: Im silber und blau geteilten Schild ein rot bezungter und rot bewehrter Löwe mit gewechselten Farben, belegt mit einem goldenen Herzschild, darin eine rote heraldische Lilie.The district’s arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Per fess argent and azure a lion rampant counterchanged armed and langued gules surmounted by an inescutcheon Or charged with a fleur-de-lis of the third.The lion charge is actually to be interpreted as a composite of two lions, with the blue part in the upper field representing the charge borne by the Counts of Veldenz, a branch of the House of Wittelsbach, while the silver part in the lower field represents Nassau-Saarbrücken. The two counties had the most important landholds in the district. The inescutcheon (inset shield) in the middle bears a fleur-de-lis charge taken from the town of Sankt Wendel in tinctures drawn from the arms of Lorraine.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Tourism website
Districts of the Saarland | [
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219239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aikikai | Aikikai | The Aikikai is the original school of Aikido. It is centered on the Aikikai Foundation in Japan, and its figurehead is the Doshu (the family heir of the founder of Aikido). It is represented globally through the International Aikido Federation.
Aikikai Foundation
The is the original aikido organization. It has been an incorporated entity in Japan since 1940 under the name , then re-registered under the name "Aikikai" after the ban on Aikido practice was lifted by the GHQ in 1948. It is headed by the doshu, the living successor of the founder of aikido. In its name, Kai (会) simply means assembly or club.
The Aikikai Foundation operates Hombu dojo, which is also named Aikido World Headquarters. It is sometimes called the Aikikai Hombu to distinguish it from the headquarters of later aikido organisations. It is located in Tokyo. The term "Hombu" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to the upper echelons of instructors at Hombu dojo, or to the Aikikai Foundation itself.
The Aikikai Foundation also currently manages one satellite dojo, the historical Iwama dojo in Ibaraki (about 100 km northeast of Tokyo).
The Aikikai Foundation sends instructors around Japan on a continual basis. It also issues certificates of grading and instructor titles legitimated by the Doshu throughout the world.
In April 2012, the Aikikai Foundation became "Public Interest Incorporated Associations (Japan)"
Dōshu
Dōshu (道主 / どうしゅ) literally translates as 'Master of the Way'. It is the title denoting the head of the Aikikai, although the same term could be used as a title within other disciplines. In Japanese, its most common meaning is specific to the Aikikai Foundation.
The system of having the heir of a martial arts school be the previous headmaster's son (either natural or adopted for the sake of succession) was common in koryū (traditional schools) and such heirs often are referred to as iemoto. Other arts commonly use the title Sōke for the headmaster.
Founder (開祖 Kaiso) Morihei Ueshiba (lived 1883-1969) originated the art of Aikido. As such he was also the first dōshu, but is more commonly referred to as O-sensei (grand teacher).
Second dōshu (二代道主) Kisshomaru Ueshiba (lived 1921–1999) took over the leadership of the organisation and assumed the title of dōshu in 1969 upon the death of his father Morihei Ueshiba. Kisshomaru was the first person in aikido to be widely referred to as dōshu. He was succeeded by his son Moriteru.
Third dōshu (三代道主) Moriteru Ueshiba (born 1951) is the current dōshu. He is grandson of the founder of aikido and assumed the title of dōshu in 1999.
Moriteru is expected to be succeeded as doshu by his son, Mitsuteru Ueshiba (born 1981), who is currently referred to as "Waka(若) Sensei".
Hombu Dōjō
The Hombu Dōjō in Tokyo is the headquarters of the Aikikai.
The Hombu Dōjō is officially named Aikido World Headquarters, and is entirely operated by the Aikikai Foundation. It is sometimes called the Aikikai Hombu to distinguish it from the headquarters of later aikido organisations. Hombu (本部) is a common word meaning "headquarters".
Hombu Dōjō has about 30 instructors, and most are shihan. The instructors include the Doshu and Hiroshi Tada 9th dan.
The location of Hombu Dōjō is in Wakamatsu-cho, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan. (This same location was formerly the Ushigome District of Shinjuku.)
The dōjō was established in April 1931 by the founder of Aikido. It was originally named Kobukan Dōjō (, imperial warrior training hall) but was called Hombu Dōjō after World War II.
In 1967 the original single-story wooden structure was replaced by a five-story modern building. Training takes place in three rooms which total about 250 tatami in area. The main training area has 105 tatami mats (170m2). The other two training areas, containing 72 and 42 tatami mats respectively, are often used for beginner's classes, children's classes, women's classes, or fixed term and enrollment "academy" (Gakko) courses.
Classes are held seven days a week. Beginner's and regular classes are open to all Aikido practitioners that are or become Aikikai members.
Aikikai school of Aikido
Within Japan, there are about 1800 other training locations affiliated with the Hombu. These are united under the All-Japan Aikido Federation.
Overseas, there are about 100 foreign aikido organisations recognised by the Hombu. These are ostensibly national aikido organisations that each represent many dojos and many students. The gradings of students in these organisations are certified specifically by the Hombu. (The Hombu has procedures for examinations and recommendations of aikido grades and instructor titles, and ideally this ensures a degree of international consistency and serves to prevent local instructors from boastfully exaggerating their own ranks.) However, regardless of recognition, all foreign aikido groups remain organisationally independent from the Aikikai Foundation.
The students of recognised dojo worldwide are loosely referred to collectively as the Aikikai school of aikido, although this "school" is not an official organisation. Their aikido technique may be referred to as Aikikai style, although this encompasses a wider spectrum of technical styles characteristically than later (and smaller) schools of aikido.
International Aikido Federation
The International Aikido Federation was formed in 1976 to serve as the primary global aikido organisation. It is an umbrella organisation with member organisations from more than 40 nations (for example, the All-Japan Aikido Federation is one member). All members must be recognised by the Hombu, so the IAF exclusively represents the Aikikai school. The IAF is a nominally democratic organisation but special roles are given to the Doshu and a council of senior instructors, to safeguard the "technical and moral" integrity of aikido. The IAF currently admits only one member organisation per country and gives each such member equal vote (it was modelled on the UN; it does not necessarily give every Aikikai student equal representation).
Aikikai style of aikido
Aikikai is not one style of aikido but instead, encompasses a diversity of technical styles. This is associated with the broad base of first generation instructors, who each had their own interpretation of the art, and other influences. Nonetheless Aikikai is often described as a style for comparison with separate aikido organisations. Aikikai is described as the most traditional; Aikikai has stayed loyal to the Ueshiba house and is sometimes called Ueshiba Aikido. It has retained many of the aspects which Morihei Ueshiba valued, such as the non-competitive training system (as contrasted with Tomiki's development). Spiritual interpretations are not emphasised compared to in Ki Society.
Morihei Ueshiba's own style evolved significantly over his lifetime. The pre-war aikibudo techniques taught by Morihei Ueshiba were generally closer to aikijujutsu whilst flowing technique was more emphasised as he became older, and this is reflected in the aikido of people who studied at different periods in time.
Seiseki Abe said: "As far as the Aikido [O-Sensei] practiced in his later years, even young girls, old people and children could do [the techniques]. That is a big difference. I suppose you could say that it was a difference in the severity or the strictness of the training. Before the war, it was severity and strong technique, as opposed to the (kind of) techniques that invigorate our partners as we have now."
Kazuo Chiba has implied that the style of training in Hombu concentrated less on physical rigor because of its demographic: "A large portion of the membership at Iwama Dojo consisted of local farmers, hard workers who spent all day in the fields. They had thick bones and great physical strength, combined with a peculiar local character known as "Mito kishitsu," a type of manliness close to gallantry.
Altogether, it was quite an opposite culture from Hombu Dojo in Tokyo. Because it is in the capital of Japan, Hombu’s membership consists of white-collar workers, intellectuals, businessmen, politicians and university students."
It has been noted by aikido researchers affiliated with other styles that many of the senior teachers at the Aikikai spent little time training under Morihei Ueshiba, and that Kisshomaru Ueshiba and Koichi Tohei were largely responsible for the Aikikai curriculum and following Tohei's departure, Kisaburo Osawa. As a result, it has been argued that the teachings of the Aikikai are derived from those of the first Doshu, Kisshomaru, and that the art promulgated by the Aikikai differs from that taught by Morihei Ueshiba.
References
External links
"The travelling Aikidoka's guide to practice at Hombu Dojo". Information and answers to frequently asked questions about travelling to Tokyo in order to train at the Aikikai Hombu Dojo.
Aikido organizations
Foundations based in Japan
Buildings and structures in Shinjuku
Educational institutions established in 1940
International sports organizations
Sports organizations of Japan
Public Interest Incorporated Associations (Japan)
1940 establishments in Japan | [
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219242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamaulipas%20crow | Tamaulipas crow | The Tamaulipas crow (Corvus imparatus) is a crow found in northeastern Mexico and southern Texas.
Description
It is a relatively small and sleek looking crow, in length. It has very glossy dark, bluish plumage, which appears soft and silky. The bill is quite slender and black, as are the legs and feet. The Chihuahuan raven, a much larger and very different bird, is the only crow it commonly occurs alongside.
Taxonomy
The Sinaloa crow (Corvus sinaloae) appears to be genetically extremely close to this bird and can be considered the western form of it though the voice is quite different, indeed a third species, the fish crow (Corvus ossifragus) of the southeastern United States appears to be very closely related to them also and the three may be considered a superspecies.
Distribution and habitat
Occurring in a relatively small area in northeastern Mexico, it inhabits near desert scrub and bushland and includes farms, small towns and villages in its range. It also occurs in more humid woodland in open areas but does not appear to be found in the higher mountains or along the seashore. It is a sociable bird often forming large flocks, moving together in close groups. Its northern range reaches Brownsville in southern Texas where it has been known to nest.
Behaviour
Diet
Food would appear to be mainly insects taken on the ground though eggs and nestlings are taken in trees as well as many fruits and berries.
Nesting
The nest is similar to the American crow but smaller and is built in a tree or large bush.
Voice
The voice of this crow is unusual and unlike most other species of the genus Corvus. It has a low croaking sound rather like a frog and a call that is described as a soft "gar-lik".
References
External links
Bird eating White Mulberries
Bird calling
Two stuffed museum birds
Tamaulipas Crow photo gallery VIREO
Tamaulipas crow
Birds of the Rio Grande valleys
Birds of Mexico
Tamaulipas crow | [
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219243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right%20to%20keep%20and%20bear%20arms | Right to keep and bear arms | The right to keep and bear arms (often referred to as the right to bear arms) is a right for people to possess weapons (arms) for the preservation of life, liberty, and property.
Background
The Bill of Rights 1689 allowed Protestant citizens of England to "have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law" and restricted the ability of the English Crown to have a standing army or to interfere with Protestants' right to bear arms "when Papists were both Armed and Imployed contrary to Law" and established that Parliament, not the Crown, could regulate the right to bear arms.
Sir William Blackstone wrote in the 18th century that the right to have arms was auxiliary to the "natural right of resistance and self-preservation" subject to suitability and allowance by law. The term arms, as used in the 1600s, refers to the process of equipping for war. It is commonly used as a synonym for weapon.
Inclusion of this right in a written constitution is uncommon. In 1875, 17 percent of national constitutions included a right to bear arms. Since the early twentieth century, "the proportion has been less than 9 percent and falling". In an article titled "U.S. Gun Rights Truly Are American Exceptionalism," a historical survey and comparative analysis of constitutions dating back to 1789, Tom Ginsburg and colleagues "identified only 15 constitutions (in nine countries) that had ever included an explicit right to bear arms. Almost all of these constitutions have been in Latin America, and most were from the 19th century".
Countries recognizing the right to keep and bear arms
Americas
Guatemala
While protecting the right to keep arms, Guatemalan constitution specifies that this right extends only to "weapons not prohibited by law".
Honduras
The constitution of Honduras doesn't protect the right to keep and bear arms.
Although not explicitly mentioned in the legislation, every person is entitled to receive a license to keep and carry arms by Honduran Statute law, provided that they fulfill the conditions required by the law.
Mexico
Mexican constitution of 1857 first included right to be armed. In its first version, the right was defined in similar terms as it is in the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. A new Mexican constitution of 1917 relativized the right, stating that its utilization must be in line with local police regulations.
Another change was included in 1917 Constitution. Since then, Mexicans have the right to be armed only within their home and further utilization of this right is subject to statutory authorization in Federal law.
United States
Generally, where modern constitutions refer to arms at all, the purpose is "to allow the government to regulate their use or to compel military service, not to provide a right to bear them". Constitutions which historically guaranteed a right to bear arms are those of Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua and the United States of America. Nearly all of the Latin American examples were modeled on that of the United States. At present, out of the world's nearly 200 constitutions, three still include a right to bear arms: Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States; of these three, only that of the United States does not include explicit restrictive conditions. Until 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court had never struck down a law aimed at regulating guns. The first ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court on the second amendment, United States v. Cruikshank in 1876, permitted states to restrict firearm ownership by minorities, ruling the first and second amendment only applied to the federal government, not state governments and laws. This ruling was overturned in 2008, as a result of the case of District of Columbia v. Heller and, two years later, McDonald v. Chicago, the U.S. Supreme Court held that states could not restrict the ownership of handguns for self-defense within the home.
Europe
Czech Republic
Historically, the Czech lands were at the forefront of the spreading of civilian firearms ownership. In the 1420s and 1430s, firearms became indispensable tools for the mostly peasant Hussite armies, whose amateur combatants, including women, fended off a series of invasions of professional crusader armies of well-armored warriors with cold weapons. Throughout and after the Hussite wars, firearms design underwent fast development and their possession by civilians became a matter of course.
First firearms regulation was enacted in 1517 as a part of general accord between the nobles and burghers and later in 1524 as a standalone Enactment on Firearms (zřízení o ručnicích). The 1517 law explicitly stated that "all people of all standing have the right to keep firearms at home" while at the same time enacting a universal carry ban. The 1524 enactment set out a process of issuing of permits for carrying of firearms and detailed enforcement and punishment for carrying without such a permit. Carrying later became permitless again until 1852, when Imperial Regulation No. 223 reintroduced carry permits. This law remained in force until the 1939 German invasion.
Since its inception during the Hussite revolution, the right to keep firearms endured over five-hundred years until the Nazi gun ban during the German occupation in the 20th century. Firearms possession later became subject to government permission during the communist dictatorship with only those deemed loyal to the communist party being able to be armed. After the return of liberty, the Czech Republic instated a shall issue permitting process, under which all residents can keep and bear arms subject to the fulfillment of regulatory conditions.
In the Czech Republic, every resident that meets conditions laid down in Act No. 119/2002 Coll. has the right to have a firearms license issued and can then obtain a firearm. Holders of D (exercise of profession) and E (self-defense) licenses, which are also shall-issue, can carry up to two concealed firearms for protection. The right to be armed is statutorily protected.
A proposal to have right to keep and bear arms included in the constitution was entered in the Czech Parliament in December 2016. The proposal was approved by vote of 139 to 9 on 28 June 2017 by the Chamber of Deputies. It later failed to reach necessary support in Senate, where only 28 out of 59 Senators present supported it (constitutional majority being 36 votes ). A new proposal was entered by 35 Senators in September 2019 and then approved on 21 July 2021, adding a new sentence, according to which "the right to defend one's own life or the life of another person even with the use of a weapon is guaranteed under the conditions set by the law."
Switzerland
The Swiss have a statutory right to bear arms under Article 3 of the 1997 Weapons Act.
Switzerland practices universal conscription, which requires that all able-bodied male citizens keep fully automatic firearms at home in case of a call-up. Every male between the ages of 20 and 34 is considered a candidate for conscription into the military, and following a brief period of active duty will commonly be enrolled in the militia until age or an inability to serve ends his obligation. Until December 2009, these men were required to keep their government-issued selective fire combat rifles and semi-automatic handguns in their homes as long as they were enrolled in the armed forces. Since January 2010, they have had the option of depositing their personal firearm at a government arsenal. Until September 2007, soldiers received 50 rounds of government-issued ammunition in a sealed box for storage at home; after 2007 only about 2,000 specialist troops are allowed to keep the ammunition at home.
In a referendum in February 2011, voters rejected a citizens' initiative that would have obliged members of the armed services to store their rifles and pistols on military compounds and required that privately owned firearms be registered.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there is no automatic right to bear arms, although citizens may possess certain firearms on obtaining an appropriate licence. Ordinary members of the public may own sporting rifles and shotguns, subject to licensing, while handguns, automatic, and centerfire semi-automatic weapons are illegal to possess without special additional conditions.
When not attended, all licensed firearms must be stored securely (locked) and separate from their ammunition. Regulations for airguns are less stringent and air pistols with a muzzle energy not exceeding 6 foot-pounds force (8.1 joules) and other airguns with a muzzle energy not exceeding 12 ft⋅lbf (16 J) do not require any certificates or licensing, although the same storage requirement applies.
The first serious control on firearms was established with the passing of the Firearms Act 1920, handgun restrictions being added in response to the 1996 Dunblane Massacre in which 18 people died.
Historically the English Bill of Rights 1689 allowed:
Since 1953, it has been a criminal offence in the United Kingdom to carry a knife (with the exception of non-locking folding knives with a cutting edge of 3 inches (7.62 centimetres) or less) or any "offensive weapon" in a public place without lawful authority (e.g. police or security forces) or reasonable excuse (e.g. tools that are needed for work). The cutting edge of a knife is separate to the blade length. The only manner in which an individual may carry arms is on private property or any property to which the public does not have a lawful right of access, as the law only creates the offence when it occurs in public, e.g., a person's own home, private land, the area in a shop where the public have no access, etc. Furthermore, Section 141 Criminal Justice Act 1988 specifically lists all offensive weapons that cannot technically be owned – even on private property – by way of making it illegal to sell, trade, hire, etc. an offensive weapon to another person.
Furthermore, the law does not allow an offensive weapon or ordinary item intended or adapted as an offensive weapon to be carried in public before the threat of violence arises. This would only be acceptable in the eyes of the law if the person armed themselves immediately preceding or during an attack (in a public place). This is known as a "weapon of opportunity" or "instantaneous arming".
Other
Sharia law
Under Sharia law, there is an intrinsic freedom to own arms. However, in times of civil strife or internal violence, this right can be temporarily suspended to keep peace and prevent harm, as mentioned by Imam ash-Shatibi in his works on Maqasid ash-Shari'ah (The Intents and Purposes of Shari'ah). Citizens not practicing Islam are prohibited from bearing arms and are required to be protected by the military, the state for which they pay the jizyah. In exchange they do not need to pay the zakat.
Yemen
Yemen recognizes statutory right to keep and bear arms. Firearms are both easily and legally accessible.
Gun violence and the politics of the right to bear arms
Legal restrictions on the right to keep and bear arms are usually put in place by legislators in an attempt to reduce firearms-based violence and crime. Their actions may be the result of necessity, or due to political groups moving to push for such regulations. The Brady, Snowdrop Campaigns, and the Million Mom March are examples of campaigns calling for tighter restrictions on the right to keep and bear arms.
Accident statistics are hard to obtain, but much data is available on the issue of gun ownership and gun related deaths. The United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) has made comparisons between countries with different levels of gun ownership and investigated the correlation between gun ownership levels and gun homicides, and between gun ownership levels and gun suicides. A strong correlation is seen in both. The narrow focus on the effect of gun ownership levels on gun homicides or gun suicides, however, is misleading because the technically strongest research indicates that gun levels do not affect the total number of homicides or the total number of suicides – gun levels only affect the share of homicides or suicides committed with guns.
During the 1989 and 1992 International Crime Surveys, data on gun ownership in eighteen countries have been collected on which WHO data on suicide and homicide committed with guns and other means are also available. The results presented in a previous paper based on the fourteen countries surveyed during the first ICS and on rank correlations (Spearman's rho), suggested that gun ownership may increase suicides and homicides using firearms, while it may not reduce suicides and homicides with other means. In the present analysis, four additional countries covered by the 1992 ICS only have been included, and Pearson's correlation coefficients have been used. The results confirm those presented in the previous study.
UNICRI also investigated the relationship between gun ownership levels and other forms of homicide or suicide to determine whether high gun ownership added to or merely displaced other forms of homicide or suicide. They reported that "widespread gun ownership has not been found to reduce the likelihood of fatal events committed with other means. Thus, people do not turn to knives and other potentially lethal instruments less often when more guns are available, but more guns usually means more victims of suicide and homicide." Speculating on possible causes the researchers concluded that "all we know is that guns do not reduce fatal events due to other means, but that they go along with more shootings. Although we do not know why exactly this is so, we have a good reason to suspect guns to play a—fatal—role in this".
The research reporter found that guns were the major cause of homicides in 3 of the 14 countries it studied; Northern Ireland, Italy, and the United States. Although the data seem to indicate that reducing the availability of one significant type of arms—firearms—leads to reductions both in gun crimes and gun suicides and in overall crimes and overall suicides, the author did caution that "reducing the number of guns in the hands of the private citizen may become a hopeless task beyond a certain point", citing the American example.
In contrast to the 1993 study however, a more recent study by UNICRI researchers from 2001 examined the link between household gun ownership and overall homicide, overall suicide, as well as gun homicide and gun suicide rates amongst 21 countries. Significant correlations between household gun ownership and rates of gun suicides for both genders, and gun homicide rates involving female victims were found. There were no significant correlations detected for total homicide and suicide rates, as well as gun homicide rates involving male victims. Public health critic and gun rights proponent Miguel Faria writing in Surgical Neurology International contends that to keep and bear arms have not only constitutional protection but also that firearms have beneficial aspects that have been ignored by the public health establishment in which he played a part; that guns are beneficial in personal self-defense, collective defense, as well as in protecting life and property.
See also
Index of gun politics articles
List of countries by gun ownership
Overview of gun laws by nation
Right of self-defense
Knife legislation
Notes
References
Further reading
American phraseology
Civil rights and liberties
Gun politics
Human rights by issue | [
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219246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Henry | Matthew Henry | Matthew Henry (18 October 166222 June 1714) was a Nonconformist minister and author, who was born in Wales but spent much of his life in England. He is best known for the six-volume biblical commentary Exposition of the Old and New Testaments.
Life
Matthew Henry was the second son born to Philip and Kathrine Henry. He was born prematurely at his mother's family estate, Broad Oak, a farmhouse on the borders of Flintshire and Shropshire. He was baptized the next day by the local parish rector. His father, Philip Henry, a Church of England cleric, had just been ejected under the Act of Uniformity 1662. As a young child, he was frequently afflicted with fevers. Unlike most of those who had been ejected, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was able to provide his son a good education. Henry's sister was diarist Sarah Savage.
Early life
By the age of nine, Henry was able to write Latin and read part of the Greek new testament. He was tutored in grammar by William Turner in 1668 who was temporarily staying at Broad Oak. His father provided much of Henry's early education at home. Henry practiced writing by copying his father's sermons and as a child he exhibited a natural public speaking ability. In 1680, at eighteen, his father sent him to a school in Islington, London to be tutored by the Nonconformist minister Thomas Doolittle. Henry later transferred to Gray's Inn, in the heart of the capital, to study law. While at Gray's Inn, he also studied French and literature. He soon gave up his legal studies for theology. Henry was invited by his friend George Illidge, to give his first sermon to a congregation at Nantwich. Having been well received he returned to speak two more times that summer.
Chester
In 1686, he was offered an invitation by a local Nonconformist minister to move to Chester, England and establish a congregation. He was initially hesitant to accept, not wanting to take away members from an already established minister but upon Harvey's insistence he accepted. Henry was ordained on 9 May 1687 by a group of six Nonconformist ministers. He presented a paper written in Latin as part of his ordination. He then became minister of a new Presbyterian congregation at Chester. The congregation grew under his leadership and in 1699 he oversaw the construction of a new building. While in Chester, Henry founded the Presbyterian Chapel in Trinity Street. After becoming established in Chester, he began to travel around to nearby cities speaking. He became a member of the local Chester union of ministers. Henry said of living in Chester "I cannot think of leaving Chester, until Chester leaves me."
After moving to Chester, he married Kathrine Hardware on 19 July 1687, after her mother initially objected to the marriage. Kathrine Hardware's parents then moved to Chester and Henry and his wife lived with them. Shortly after the birth of their first child, Kathrine died of smallpox on 14 February 1689, at age 25. He named the infant Kathrine after the mother, but the child died 15 months later. He continued to live with the Hardwares after the death of his wife and continued his ministerial duties.
He was introduced to Mary Warburton, a relative of Mrs. Hardware. On 8 July 1690 he married Mary Warburton in Chester. His second child, Elizabeth was born on 2 April 1691, and died in infancy in July 1692. A third child, born in 1693, died three weeks after birth.
At age 26 in 1688, the amount of speaking engagements started to impact his health. He was frequently subject to fevers. A letter from his father instructed him "....in your earnestness [when speaking], keep the reins upon it." His impassioned speaking style was well received by his listeners and contributed to his growing popularity. On occasion, he could move his audience to tears. He became a popular speaker and received constant invitations to speak and give lectures. He traveled almost weekly to different cities to speak.
He spent significant amounts of time studying and writing his sermons and lectures in advance. Henry preferred to use an expository speaking style. For each speaking engagement, he would employ different base texts to expand upon his general topic. His approach to teaching was "Choose for your pulpit subjects the plainest, and most needful truths; and endeavor to make them plainer." When writing, he would remain close to the literal interpretation of biblical passages. These writings would later form the basis on which he developed his commentary.
Between the years of 1687–1712, Matthew Henry continued to live in Chester, England. In 1694, Esther Henry was born to Matthew Henry and his wife. Esther lived to adulthood. On 24 June 1697 his daughter Ann was born. This child also died in infancy in 1698 in a local Measles outbreak. Henry was very saddened at her death. Ann was his fourth child to have died in infancy. Matthew Henry and Mary Warburton had their first son in 1700 and named him Philip and he kept his mother's name. Another child, Elizabeth, was born in 1701. In August 1703, he had another daughter; this one he named Sarah after his older sister. Two more children were born who survived to adulthood: Theodosia in 1708 and Mary in 1711.
Journey to London
In 1698, Henry traveled to London to speak for the first time since moving to Chester. On the trip to London, he made speaking stops in Nantwich, Newcastle, Lichfield and other towns on the way. Towards the end of this time period, he was frequently invited to speak in London where he eventually moved. He traveled to London again to speak in 1704 and this time Mary accompanied him. Up until this time, his health had been quite good despite the pace at which he worked. In August 1704 he fainted while he was speaking but quickly resumed speaking. The next two days he traveled to Nantwich and then to Haslington. Upon his return to Chester, he was bed ridden with a fever for three weeks.
Hackney
He moved again in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney after accepting an invitation to take over the ministry of the Hackney congregation. He began work there on 18 May 1712 with a congregation of less than one hundred members. He would also travel to Wapping, Rotherhithe and other surrounding areas and give evening lectures before returning to the duties of the Hackney congregation. Henry also began giving catechetical lectures in London. His Expositions of the old and New Testaments was nearing the publication stage and was a contributing motive to the move to Hackney. In 1713, his health began declining after a return visit to Chester.
Death
In 1713, he began suffering from frequent attacks of nephritis. He continued to maintain his frequent speaking engagements and work on his commentary. On 21 June 1714 Henry was on a speaking tour around Chester and was returning to Hackney. While en route, he was thrown off his horse but denied injury and insisted on making it to Nantwich where he was scheduled to speak. His traveling companions noted a lack of energy. That evening he could no longer travel and stopped at the Queen's Aid House. On 22 June 1714, he died of apoplexy.
Literary work
Henry's well-known six-volume Exposition of the Old and New Testaments (170810) or Complete Commentary provides an exhaustive verse-by-verse study of the Bible, covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the New Testament. Thirteen other non-conformist ministers finished the sixth volume of Romans through Revelation after Henry's death, partly based on notes taken by Henry's hearers. The entire Commentary was re-edited by George Burder and John Hughes in 1811.
Henry's commentaries are primarily exegetical, dealing with the scripture text as presented, with his prime intention being explanation for practical and devotional purposes. Henry recommended Matthew Poole's Synopsis Criticorum for a more technical analysis.
Henry's Commentary identifies the "man of sin", the focus of latter day apostasy, and the Antichrist as the papacy in his interpretation of 2 Thessalonians 2:3. The commentary lists three "blasphemous titles" which it states have been attached to the "bishops of Rome." This anti-papist passage in the Commentary was not directly authored by Henry, but occurs in the sixth volume on Romans to Revelation, completed posthumously by his 13 friends.
Famous evangelical Protestant preachers used and heartily commended the work, such as George Whitefield and Charles Spurgeon, with Whitefield reading it through four timesthe last time on his knees. Spurgeon stated, "Every minister ought to read it entirely and carefully through once at least." John Wesley published an abbreviated edition of the Commentary and wrote of Henry:
He is allowed by all competent judges, to have been a person of strong understanding, of various learning, of solid piety, and much experience in the ways of God. And his exposition is generally clear and intelligible, the thoughts being expressed in plain words: It is also found, agreeable to the tenor of scripture, and to the analogy of faith. It is frequently full, giving a sufficient explication of the passages which require explaining. It is in many parts deep, penetrating farther into the inspired writings than most other comments do. It does not entertain us with vain speculations, but is practical throughout: and usually spiritual too teaching us how to worship God, not in form only, but in spirit and in truth.
Several abbreviated editions of the Commentary were published in the twentieth century; more recently, Martin H. Manser edited The New Matthew Henry Commentary: The Classic Work with Updated Language.
Quotations
Perhaps his best-known quotation is about the relationship between men and women, from the story of the creation of Eve, in the Book of Genesis:The woman was made of a rib out of the side of Adam; not made out of his head to rule over him, nor out of his feet to be trampled upon by him, but out of his side to be equal with him, under his arm to be protected, and near his heart to be beloved.
The quote is inspired by the words of Peter Lombard in his book Sentences:she {Eve} was formed not from just any part of his body {Adam’s body}, but from his side, so that it should be shown that she was created for the partnership of love, lest, if perhaps she had been made from his head, she should be perceived as set over man in domination; or if from his feet, as if subject to him in servitude. Therefore, since she was made neither to dominate, nor to serve the man, but as his partner, she had to be produced neither from his head, nor from his feet, but from his side, so that he would know that she was to be placed beside himself.
Memorial
In 1860, a memorial was erected in Chester to commemorate Henry. This consists of an obelisk designed by Thomas Harrison that incorporates a bronze medallion by Matthew Noble. The obelisk originally stood in the churchyard of StBridget's Church, and was moved in the 1960s to stand on a roundabout opposite the entrance to Chester Castle.
Bibliography
The Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. Matthew Henry: Containing in Addition to Those Heretofore Published (1833)
An Account of the Life and Death of Mr. Philip Henry (1712)
The Communicant's Companion (1828)
Directions for Daily Communion with God (1866)
A Method for Prayer (1834)
A Scripture-catechism, in the Method of the Assemblies (1714)
The Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. Matthew Henry (1830)
A Discourse on Meekness and Quietness of Spirit (1836)
The Pleasantness of a Religious Life (1714)
See also
Phillip Henry
Sarah Savage
References
External links
Matthew Henry Concise Commentary on the Whole Bible
Matthew Henry Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible
17th-century Presbyterian ministers
1662 births
1714 deaths
Bible commentators
People from Chester
English evangelicals
English Presbyterian ministers
People from Flintshire
People from London
Welsh evangelicals
Welsh Presbyterian ministers | [
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219249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate | Protectorate | A protectorate is a state that is controlled and protected by another sovereign state. It is a dependent territory that has been granted local autonomy over most internal affairs while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being its direct possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty. Under certain conditions as of Egypt under British rule (1882–1914) e.g., a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a "veiled protectorate".
A protectorate is different from a colony as they have local rulers, are not directly possessed and rarely experience colonization by the suzerain state. A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a protected state, not a protectorate.
History
Protectorates form one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.
Typology
Foreign relations
In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the protector. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.
Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations Trust Territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.
Protected state
A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.
For political and pragmatic reasons, the relationship of protection is not usually advertised, but described in euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.
International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.
Colonial protection
Multiple regions like the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos and similar were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions regarding protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a condition similar to a colony, but the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.
In fact, protectorates were declared despite not being duly entered into by the traditional states supposedly being protected, or only by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, a logic disrespectful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain its protectorates' status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation, convenient only for the colonizer or protector, of adjacent territories, over which it held () sway by protective or "raw" colonial logic.
Amical protection
In amical protection as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain, the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.
Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states and to smaller states that had no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection towards other much weaker states.
In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".
Argentina's protectorates
Liga Federal (1815–1820)
Peru (1820–1822)
Riograndense Republic (1836-1845)
Juliana Republic (1839-1845)
Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)
Paraguay (1876)
De facto
Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
National Territory of Misiones (1865–1954)
National Territory of the Gran Chaco (1874–1884)
National Territory of the Patagonia (1878–1884)
National Territory of the Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands (1884–1991)
Brazil's protectorates
Republic of Acre (1899-1903)
British Empire's protectorates and protected states
Americas
(1655–1860; over Central America's Miskito Indian nation)
Europe
Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
Ionian islands (1815-1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
British Cyprus (1871–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown Colony 1922–60)
South Asia
Cis-Sutlej states (1809–1862)
(1816–1923; protected state)
Princely states (1857–1947; vassal states)
(1861–1947)
Maldive Islands (1887–1965)
(1879–1919; protected state)
(1910–1947; protected state)
Western Asia
British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based in Bushire, Persia
, protected state (1880–1971)
Sheikhdom of Kuwait, protected state (1899–1961)
Qatar (1916–1971)
; precursor state of the UAE, protected states (1892–1971)
Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
Ajman (1820–1971)
Dubai (1835–1971)
Fujairah (1952–1971)
Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
Sharjah (1820–1971)
Kalba (1936–1951)
Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
(1892–1977; informal, protected state)
Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen
Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)
Kathiri
Mahra
Qu'aiti
Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)
Hawra
Irqa
Western Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962–1967), including Aden Colony
Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)
Beihan
Dhala and Qutaibi
Fadhli
Lahej
Lower Yafa
Audhali
Haushabi
Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
Lower Aulaqi
Alawi
Aqrabi
Dathina
Shaib
Africa
(1884–1960)
Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)
Protectorate (1889–1964)
Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964) ( British Central Africa Protectorate from 1889 until 1907)
(1890–1963)
Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1965)
Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962)
East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)
Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961)
Nigeria* (1914-1960)
Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
Swaziland (1903–1968)
Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901-1957)
Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)
Kenya Protectorate* (1920–1963)
(1922–1936)
(1924–1964)
*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name
De facto
Khediviate of Egypt (1882–1913)
Oceania
(1884–1888)
Tokelau (1877–1916)
Cook Islands (1888–1893)
(1892–1916)
British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
Niue (1900–1901)
(1900–1970)
East and Southeast Asia
(protected state) (1904-1908; 1912–1921)
British North Borneo (1888–1946)
(1888–1984)
(1888–1946)
Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
(1895–1946)
(1888–1895)
Sungai Ujong (1874–1888)
Jelebu (1886–1895)1946)
(1888–1895)
(1874–1895)
(1874–1895)
Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
(1914–1946)
Muar (1897–1909)
(1909–1946)
Kulim (1894–1909)
(1909–1946)
(1909–1946)
(1909–1946)
China's protectorates
Han dynasty:
Protectorate of the Western Regions
Tang dynasty:
Protectorate General to Pacify the West
Protectorate General to Pacify the North
Protectorate General to Pacify the East
Yuan dynasty:
Goryeo (1270–1356)
Qing dynasty:
Tibet
Dutch Empire's protectorates
Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present Indonesia)
Trumon Sultanate (1770?), Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869), Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862), Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865), Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858) and Indragiri Sultanate (1838?) in Sumatra
Jogjakarta Sultanate (13 February 1755), Mataram Empire and Surakarta Sunanate (26 February 1677), Duchy of Mangkunegara (24 February 1757) and Duchy of Paku Alaman (22 June 1812) in Java.
Sumbawa Sultanate (?) and Bima Sultanate (8 December 1669) in Lesser Sunda Islands.
Pontianak Sultanate (16 August 1819), Sambas Sultanate (1819), Kubu Sultanate (4 June 1823), Landak Sultanate (?), Mempawah Sultanate (?), Matan Sultanate (?), Sanggau Sultanate (?), Sekadau Sultanate (?), Simpang Sultanate (?), Sintang Sultanate (1822), Sukadana Sultanate (?), Kota Waringin Sultanate (?), Kutai Kertanegara Sultanate (8 August 1825), Gunung Tabur Sultanate (?) and Bulungan Sultanate (?) in Borneo.
Gowa Sultanate (1669), Bone Sultanate (?), Sidenreng Sultanate (?), Soppeng Sultanate (?), Butung Sultanate (?), Muna Sultanate (?) and Banggai Sultanate (?) in Celebes.
Ternate (12 October 1676) and Batjan Sultanate (?) in The Moluccas.
Kaimana Sultanate (?) in Dutch New Guinea.
France's protectorates and protected states
Africa
The legal regime of "protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state in the area later covered by French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained as the lowest level authority figure in the French Cercles, with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.
Benin traditional states
Independent of Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
Central African Republic traditional states:
French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
Burkina Faso was since 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper Volta (Haute-Volta)
Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan
Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
Comoros 21 April 1886 French protectorate (Anjouan) until 25 July 1912 when annexed.
Present Djibouti was originally, since 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
Mauritania on 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritanian several traditional states:
Adrar emirate since 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), since 1905 under French protectorate.
Brakna confederation's emirate
Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez; this fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.
The northern part of Morocco was under Spanish protectorate in the same period.
Traditional Madagascar States
Kingdom of Imerina under French protectorate, 6 August 1896. French Madagascar colony, 28 February 1897.
Tunisia (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty
Americas
Second Mexican Empire (1863-1867), established by Emperor Napoleon III during the Second French intervention in Mexico and ruled by the Austrian-born, French puppet monarch Maximilian I
Asia
French Indochina until 1953/54:
Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
Cambodia 11 August 1863
Laos 3 October 1893
Vietnam 6 June 1884
Europe
Rhenish Republic (1923–1924)
Saar Protectorate (1947–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.
Oceania
French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several others were immediately annexed). All eventually were annexed by 1889.
Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871
Wallis and Futuna:
Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.
Germany's protectorates
The German Empire used the word , literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:
German New Guinea (1884–1914), now part of Papua New Guinea
German South West Africa (1884–1914), present-day Namibia
Togoland (1884–1914), now part of Ghana and Togo
North Solomon Islands (1885–1914), now part of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
Wituland (1885–1890), now part of Kenya
Ruanda-Urundi (1894–1916)
German Samoa (1900–1914), present-day Samoa
Marshall Islands
Nauru, various officials posted with the Head Chiefs
Gando Emirate (1895-1897)
Gulmu (1895-1897)
Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945)
Denmark (1940–1943)
India's protectorates
Bhutan (1947–present; protected state).
Kingdom of Sikkim (1950–1975), later acceded to India as State of Sikkim.
Italy's protectorates and protected states
The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1943)
Monaco under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
Ethiopia : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
Benadir Coast in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian Somaliland.
Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).
Japan's protectorates
Korean Empire (1905–1910)
Manchukuo (1932–1945)
Mengjiang (1939–1945)
Poland's protectorates
Kaffa (1462–1475)
Portugal's protectorates
Cabinda (Portuguese Congo) (1885–1974), Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".
Kingdom of Kongo (1857–1914)
Gaza Empire (1824–1895), now part of Mozambique
Angoche Sultanate (1903–1910)
Russia's and the Soviet Union's protectorates
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1783–1801)
Kingdom of Imereti (1804–1810)
Revolutionary Serbia (1807–1812)
Principality of Serbia (1826–1856), now part of Serbia
Moldavia (1829–1856), now part of Moldova, Romania and Ukraine
Wallachia (1829–1856)
Emirate of Bukhara (1873–1920)
Khanate of Khiva (1873–1920)
Uryankhay Krai (1914)
Second East Turkestan Republic (1944-1949), now part of Xinjiang, China
De facto
Some sources mention following states as de facto Russian protectorates:
South Ossetia (2008–present)
Transnistria (1992–present)
Abkhazia (1994–present)
Donetsk People's Republic (2015–present)
Luhansk People's Republic (2015–present)
Republic of Artsakh (2020-present)
Spain's protectorates
Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April 1958).
Turkey's and the Ottoman Empire's protectorates and protected states
Aceh Sultanate (1569–1903)
Maldives (1560–1590)
Cossack Hetmanate (1669–1685)
De facto
Northern Cyprus (1983–present)
United Nations' protectorates
UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (1999–2002)
United States' protectorates and protected states
Liberia (1822–1847)
Republic of Texas (1836-1845)
Cuba (1898–1934)
Republic of Negros (1899–1901)
Republic of Zamboanga (1899–1903)
Sultanate of Sulu (1903–1915)
Philippines (1935–1946), under the provisions of the Tydings–McDuffie Act, the territory would become self-governing although its military and foreign affairs would be under the United States.
Contemporary usage by the United States
Some agencies of the United States government, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency, still use the term protectorate to refer to insular areas of the United States such as Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. This was also the case with the Philippines and (it can be argued via the Platt Amendment) Cuba at the end of Spanish colonial rule. Liberia was the only African nation that was a colony for the United States but the government had no control over the land as it was controlled by the privately owned American Colonization Society. It was, however, a protectorate from January 7, 1822, until the Liberian Declaration of Independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia was founded and established as a homeland for freed African-Americans and ex-Caribbean slaves who left the United States and the Caribbean islands with help and support from the American Colonization Society. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.
Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979)
Puerto Rico
Northern Mariana Islands
Guam
U.S. Virgin Islands
De facto
Territory of Alaska (1867–1958)
Territory of Hawaii (1898–1959)
Haiti (1915–1934)
Dominican Republic (1916–1924)
Joint protectorates
Republic of Ragusa (1684–1798), a joint Habsburg Austrian–Ottoman Turkish protectorate
The United States of the Ionian Islands and the Septinsular Republic were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see Provveditore) Ionian islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos), officially under joint protectorate of the Allied Christian Powers, a British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
See also
British Protected Person
Client state
European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
EUFOR Althea
High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina
League of Nations mandate
List of countries without armed forces
Peace Implementation Council
Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)
Puerto Rico
Timeline of national independence
Tribute
Notes
References
Bibliography
French
Colonialism
Constitutional state types
Client state | [
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219255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaloa%20crow | Sinaloa crow | The Sinaloa crow (Corvus sinaloae) is a crow native to western Mexico.
Description
Visually, it is nearly identical to and the same length (34–38 cm) as the Tamaulipas crow (Corvus imparatus). It has the same purple-glossed, silky, black plumage with a black bill, legs, and feet. The two species differ markedly in voice.
Distribution and habitat
It occurs on the Pacific slope from southern Sonora south to Manzanillo. The crow inhabits coastal regions where it forages on the seashore, semi-desert, open woodlands, river banks and hills up to 300 metres or more. It is very common around coastal towns and villages.
Diet
Food is taken both on the ground and in trees. On the seashore it can be found turning over objects to find its food and it will take a wide range of invertebrates such as small shellfish, crabs, and insects. Fruits of many types are also taken and eggs and nestlings are also on the menu when opportunity arises.
Breeding
Often, this bird will nest in a thorny tree or a tall coconut palm where its nest is said to be similar to the American crow though smaller.
Voice
The voice is radically different from the Tamaulipas crow in that it is quite high-pitched, jay-like, and clear: "ceow". That of the Tamaulipas crow is a surprisingly low, gruff, frog-like croak.
Image links
Nice profile of bird
References
Sinaloa crow
Endemic birds of Western Mexico
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219257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen%20von%20B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk | Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk | Eugen Ritter von Böhm-Bawerk (; born Eugen Böhm, 12 February 185127 August 1914) was an Austrian economist who made important contributions to the development of the Austrian School of Economics and neoclassical economics. He served intermittently as the Austrian Minister of Finance between 1895 and 1904. He also wrote extensive criticisms of Marxism.
Biography
While studying to be a lawyer at the University of Vienna, Böhm-Bawerk read Carl Menger's Principles of Economics and became an adherent of his theories, although he never studied under him. Joseph Schumpeter saw Böhm-Bawerk as "so completely the enthusiastic disciple of Menger that it is hardly necessary to look for other influences." During his time at the Vienna University, he became good friends with Friedrich von Wieser, who later became his brother-in-law. After Vienna, he studied political economy and social science at the universities of Heidelberg, Leipzig and Jena, under Karl Knies, Wilhelm Roscher and Bruno Hildebrand.
After completing his studies in 1872, he entered the Austrian Ministry of Finance, holding various posts until 1880, when he became qualified as a Privatdozent of political economy at Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services to the University of Innsbruck, where he remained until 1889, becoming a professor in 1884. During this time, he published the first two out of the three volumes of his masterpiece, Capital and Interest.
In 1889 Böhm-Bawerk became a counsellor in the Ministry of Finance in Vienna and represented the government in the lower house on all questions of taxation. He drafted a proposal for direct-tax reform. The Austrian system at the time taxed production heavily, especially during wartime, which resulted in huge disincentives to investment. Böhm-Bawerk's proposal called for a modern income tax, which was soon approved and met with success in the next few years.
Böhm-Bawerk briefly became Austrian Minister of Finance in 1895. After a second brief period in the position, after his third appointment to the post he remained in it from 1900 to 1904. There he fought continually for strict maintenance of the legally fixed gold standard and a balanced budget. In 1902 he eliminated the sugar subsidy, which had been a feature of the Austrian economy for nearly two centuries. He finally resigned in 1904, when increased fiscal demands from the army threatened to unbalance the budget. The economic historian Alexander Gerschenkron criticized his "penny pinching, 'not-one-heller-more policies'," and criticised Böhm-Bawerk's unwillingness to spend heavily on public works. Joseph Schumpeter praised Böhm-Bawerk's efforts toward "the financial stability of the country." His image appeared on the one-hundred schilling banknote from 1984 until the euro was introduced in 2002.
In 1897, Böhm-Bawerk became Ambassador to the German court. In 1899, he was elevated to the upper chamber (House of Peers). In 1907 he became vice-president and in 1911 president of the Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academy of Sciences).
He wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx's economics in the 1880s and 1890s, and several prominent Marxists—including Rudolf Hilferding—attended his seminar in 1905–06. He returned to teaching in 1904, with a chair at the University of Vienna. His many students there included Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig von Mises and Henryk Grossman. He died in 1914.
George Reisman has called him the second most important Austrian economist "after Ludwig von Mises." And further:
[It's] entirely conceivable to me that Mises might have described Böhm-Bawerk as the most important Austrian economist.
Published work
The first volume of Capital und Capitalzins (Capital and Interest), which Ludwig von Mises decreed to be "the most eminent contribution to modern economic theory," was entitled Geschichte und Kritik der Capitalzinstheorien (sometimes referred to as History and Critique of Interest Theories, translated in 1890 as A Critical History of Economical Theory) (Universitätsverlag Wagner, 1884). It is an exhaustive study of the alternative treatments of interest: use theories, productivity theories, abstinence theories, and so on.
Included is a critique of Marx's exploitation theory. Böhm-Bawerk argued that capitalists do not exploit their workers; they actually help employees by providing them with an income well in advance of the revenue from the goods they produce, stating, "Labor cannot increase its share at the expense of capital." In particular, he argued that the Marxist theory of exploitation ignores the dimension of time in production, which he discussed in his theory of roundaboutness, and that a redistribution of profits from capitalist industries will undermine the importance of the interest rate as a vital tool for monetary policy. From this criticism it follows, according to Böhm-Bawerk, that the whole value of a product is not produced by the worker, but that labor can only be paid at the present value of any foreseeable output.
Karl Marx and the Close of His System (1896) examined Marx's analysis of value, claiming the basic error in Marx's system to have resulted from a self-contradiction of Marx's law of value, namely how the rate of profit and the prices of production of the third volume of Marx's Capital contradict Marx's theory of value in the first volume. He also attacks Marx for downplaying the influence of supply and demand in determining permanent price, and for deliberate ambiguity with such concepts.
Böhm-Bawerk's Positive Theorie des Capitales (Universitätsverlag Wagner, 1889) (translated by William Smart as Positive Theory of Capital (1892)), offered as the second volume of Capital and Interest, elaborated on the economy's time-consuming production processes and the interest payments they entail. Further Essays on Capital and Interest (1921) was the third volume, which originated with appendices to the second volume. Book III (part of the second volume), Value and Price, develops Menger's ideas of marginal utility outlined in his Principles of Economics, to argue that the idea of subjective value is related to marginalism, in that things only have value insofar as people want such goods. To illustrate the principle, Böhm-Bawerk used the practical example of a farmer who is left with five sacks of corn after harvest to provide for his needs until the next harvest:
Böhm-Bawerk's critique of Marx's theories was put under intense scrutiny by Marxian economists such as Nikolai Bukharin. In his Economic Theory of the Leisure Class (1927), Bukharin argued that Böhm-Bawerk's axiomatic assumptions of individual freedom in his subjectivist theories are fallacious in that economic phenomena can only be understood under the prism of a coherent, contextualised, and historical analysis of society, such as Marx's. By contrast, Austrian economists have regarded his critique of Marx as definitive.
Many of Böhm-Bawerk's works were brought out in the United States by the Chicago industrialist and avid libertarian Frederick Nymeyer, through Libertarian Press, the US arm of the Austrian School of Economics.
Between 1880 and 1947 Böhm-Bawerk worked on the imputation theory first explained by Carl Menger between 1840 and 1921. It states that factor prices are determined by output prices. Böhm-Bawerk provided a variation of the theory that targeted the entrepreneurs, breaking up into three cases: 1. where the factor combination a + b exists such that neither a nor b as isolated piece produces any value at all. Thus if a or b were to be a loss, the other part of the "group" becomes wholly valueless. This implies that every factor can have the value of the whole group or alternatively can have no value (Kauder 179). 2. Where the combination a + b + c exists such that every piece has alternatively two values with a low utility or a lower utility. Then the two values are considered the maximum and minimum. Where a maximum is the group value and the minimum is the value of each individual entity being utilized separately. "Assume that the remaining glove can be used for polishing silverware. Then the maximum is the value of the whole pair minus the use as a polisher, and the minimum is the value as a polisher" (Kauder 179). 3. This just states how two complementary goods can find employment outside the original combination and the original combination can be preserved by replacing productive elements, which have been lost with other factors.
See also
List of Austrian scientists
List of Austrians
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Miscellaneous
Biography of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk by Roger Garrison. The article has more detail on his intellectual contribution, especially on the theory of interest.
Works
1851 births
1914 deaths
Writers from Brno
People from the Margraviate of Moravia
Moravian-German people
Austrian knights
Finance Ministers of Austria
Austrian economists
19th-century economists
19th-century Austrian male writers
Austrian School economists
University of Vienna alumni
University of Innsbruck faculty
Critics of Marxism
Politicians from Brno | [
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219268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population%20genetics | Population genetics | Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and population structure.
Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics. Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, laboratory, and field work. Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept.
What sets population genetics apart from newer, more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution, such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics, is its emphasis on such genetic phenomena as dominance, epistasis, the degree to which genetic recombination breaks linkage disequilibrium, and the random phenomena of mutation and genetic drift. This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data.
History
Population genetics began as a reconciliation of Mendelian inheritance and biostatistics models. Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural or sexual selection implausible. The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. According to this principle, the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.
The next key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change allele frequencies in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, J. B. S. Haldane, worked out the mathematics of allele frequency change at a single gene locus under a broad range of conditions. Haldane also applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as peppered moth evolution and industrial melanism, and showed that selection coefficients could be larger than Fisher assumed, leading to more rapid adaptive evolution as a camouflage strategy following increased pollution.
The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in animal breeding experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932 Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks.
The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked. John Maynard Smith was Haldane's pupil, whilst W. D. Hamilton was influenced by the writings of Fisher. The American George R. Price worked with both Hamilton and Maynard Smith. American Richard Lewontin and Japanese Motoo Kimura were influenced by Wright and Haldane.
Modern synthesis
The mathematics of population genetics were originally developed as the beginning of the modern synthesis. Authors such as Beatty have asserted that population genetics defines the core of the modern synthesis. For the first few decades of the 20th century, most field naturalists continued to believe that Lamarckism and orthogenesis provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world. During the modern synthesis, these ideas were purged, and only evolutionary causes that could be expressed in the mathematical framework of population genetics were retained. Consensus was reached as to which evolutionary factors might influence evolution, but not as to the relative importance of the various factors.
Theodosius Dobzhansky, a postdoctoral worker in T. H. Morgan's lab, had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by Russian geneticists such as Sergei Chetverikov. He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of microevolution developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of macroevolution observed by field biologists, with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species. Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that, contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists, these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity, with marked differences between sub-populations. The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form. Many more biologists were influenced by population genetics via Dobzhansky than were able to read the highly mathematical works in the original.
In Great Britain E. B. Ford, the pioneer of ecological genetics, continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to empirically demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic polymorphisms such as human blood types. Ford's work, in collaboration with Fisher, contributed to a shift in emphasis during the modern synthesis towards natural selection as the dominant force.
Neutral theory and origin-fixation dynamics
The original, modern synthesis view of population genetics assumes that mutations provide ample raw material, and focuses only on the change in frequency of alleles within populations. The main processes influencing allele frequencies are natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and recurrent mutation. Fisher and Wright had some fundamental disagreements about the relative roles of selection and drift.
The availability of molecular data on all genetic differences led to the neutral theory of molecular evolution. In this view, many mutations are deleterious and so never observed, and most of the remainder are neutral, i.e. are not under selection. With the fate of each neutral mutation left to chance (genetic drift), the direction of evolutionary change is driven by which mutations occur, and so cannot be captured by models of change in the frequency of (existing) alleles alone.
The origin-fixation view of population genetics generalizes this approach beyond strictly neutral mutations, and sees the rate at which a particular change happens as the product of the mutation rate and the fixation probability.
Four processes
Selection
Natural selection, which includes sexual selection, is the fact that some traits make it more likely for an organism to survive and reproduce. Population genetics describes natural selection by defining fitness as a propensity or probability of survival and reproduction in a particular environment. The fitness is normally given by the symbol w=1-s where s is the selection coefficient. Natural selection acts on phenotypes, so population genetic models assume relatively simple relationships to predict the phenotype and hence fitness from the allele at one or a small number of loci. In this way, natural selection converts differences in the fitness of individuals with different phenotypes into changes in allele frequency in a population over successive generations.
Before the advent of population genetics, many biologists doubted that small differences in fitness were sufficient to make a large difference to evolution. Population geneticists addressed this concern in part by comparing selection to genetic drift. Selection can overcome genetic drift when s is greater than 1 divided by the effective population size. When this criterion is met, the probability that a new advantageous mutant becomes fixed is approximately equal to 2s. The time until fixation of such an allele depends little on genetic drift, and is approximately proportional to log(sN)/s.
Dominance
Dominance means that the phenotypic and/or fitness effect of one allele at a locus depends on which allele is present in the second copy for that locus. Consider three genotypes at one locus, with the following fitness values
s is the selection coefficient and h is the dominance coefficient. The value of h yields the following information:
Epistasis
Epistasis means that the phenotypic and/or fitness effect of an allele at one locus depends on which alleles are present at other loci. Selection does not act on a single locus, but on a phenotype that arises through development from a complete genotype. However, many population genetics models of sexual species are "single locus" models, where the fitness of an individual is calculated as the product of the contributions from each of its loci—effectively assuming no epistasis.
In fact, the genotype to fitness landscape is more complex. Population genetics must either model this complexity in detail, or capture it by some simpler average rule. Empirically, beneficial mutations tend to have a smaller fitness benefit when added to a genetic background that already has high fitness: this is known as diminishing returns epistasis. When deleterious mutations also have a smaller fitness effect on high fitness backgrounds, this is known as "synergistic epistasis". However, the effect of deleterious mutations tends on average to be very close to multiplicative, or can even show the opposite pattern, known as "antagonistic epistasis".
Synergistic epistasis is central to some theories of the purging of mutation load and to the evolution of sexual reproduction.
Mutation
Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation in the form of new alleles. In addition, mutation may influence the direction of evolution when there is mutation bias, i.e. different probabilities for different mutations to occur. For example, recurrent mutation that tends to be in the opposite direction to selection can lead to mutation–selection balance. At the molecular level, if mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G, then genotypes with A will tend to evolve. Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution. For example, according to the phenotype-first theory of evolution, mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment.
Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes. If selection would favor either one out of two mutations, but there is no extra advantage to having both, then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population.
Mutation can have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. Most loss of function mutations are selected against. But when selection is weak, mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution. For example, pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost. This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias, and/or because the function had a cost, and once the benefit of the function disappeared, natural selection leads to the loss. Loss of sporulation ability in a bacterium during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias, rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability. When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size, indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift.
Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination. This leads to copy-number variation within a population. Duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies caused by random sampling. That is, the alleles in the offspring are a random sample of those in the parents. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and are equally likely to make an allele more common as less common.
The effect of genetic drift is larger for alleles present in few copies than when an allele is present in many copies. The population genetics of genetic drift are described using either branching processes or a diffusion equation describing changes in allele frequency. These approaches are usually applied to the Wright-Fisher and Moran models of population genetics. Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele, after t generations in many replicated populations, starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the variance in allele frequency across those populations is
Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. No population genetics perspective have ever given genetic drift a central role by itself, but some have made genetic drift important in combination with another non-selective force. The shifting balance theory of Sewall Wright held that the combination of population structure and genetic drift was important. Motoo Kimura's neutral theory of molecular evolution claims that most genetic differences within and between populations are caused by the combination of neutral mutations and genetic drift.
The role of genetic drift by means of sampling error in evolution has been criticized by John H Gillespie and Will Provine, who argue that selection on linked sites is a more important stochastic force, doing the work traditionally ascribed to genetic drift by means of sampling error. The mathematical properties of genetic draft are different from those of genetic drift. The direction of the random change in allele frequency is autocorrelated across generations.
Gene flow
Because of physical barriers to migration, along with the limited tendency for individuals to move or spread (vagility), and tendency to remain or come back to natal place (philopatry), natural populations rarely all interbreed as may be assumed in theoretical random models (panmixy). There is usually a geographic range within which individuals are more closely related to one another than those randomly selected from the general population. This is described as the extent to which a population is genetically structured.
Genetic structuring can be caused by migration due to historical climate change, species range expansion or current availability of habitat. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations or species, breaking down the structure. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer. Population genetic models can be used to identify which populations show significant genetic isolation from one another, and to reconstruct their history.
Subjecting a population to isolation leads to inbreeding depression. Migration into a population can introduce new genetic variants, potentially contributing to evolutionary rescue. If a significant proportion of individuals or gametes migrate, it can also change allele frequencies, e.g. giving rise to migration load.
In the presence of gene flow, other barriers to hybridization between two diverging populations of an outcrossing species are required for the populations to become new species.
Horizontal gene transfer
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among prokaryotes. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis may also have occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains. Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.
Linkage
If all genes are in linkage equilibrium, the effect of an allele at one locus can be averaged across the gene pool at other loci. In reality, one allele is frequently found in linkage disequilibrium with genes at other loci, especially with genes located nearby on the same chromosome. Recombination breaks up this linkage disequilibrium too slowly to avoid genetic hitchhiking, where an allele at one locus rises to high frequency because it is linked to an allele under selection at a nearby locus. Linkage also slows down the rate of adaptation, even in sexual populations. The effect of linkage disequilibrium in slowing down the rate of adaptive evolution arises from a combination of the Hill–Robertson effect (delays in bringing beneficial mutations together) and background selection (delays in separating beneficial mutations from deleterious hitchhikers).
Linkage is a problem for population genetic models that treat one gene locus at a time. It can, however, be exploited as a method for detecting the action of natural selection via selective sweeps.
In the extreme case of an asexual population, linkage is complete, and population genetic equations can be derived and solved in terms of a travelling wave of genotype frequencies along a simple fitness landscape. Most microbes, such as bacteria, are asexual. The population genetics of their adaptation have two contrasting regimes. When the product of the beneficial mutation rate and population size is small, asexual populations follow a "successional regime" of origin-fixation dynamics, with adaptation rate strongly dependent on this product. When the product is much larger, asexual populations follow a "concurrent mutations" regime with adaptation rate less dependent on the product, characterized by clonal interference and the appearance of a new beneficial mutation before the last one has fixed.
Applications
Explaining levels of genetic variation
Neutral theory predicts that the level of nucleotide diversity in a population will be proportional to the product of the population size and the neutral mutation rate. The fact that levels of genetic diversity vary much less than population sizes do is known as the "paradox of variation". While high levels of genetic diversity were one of the original arguments in favor of neutral theory, the paradox of variation has been one of the strongest arguments against neutral theory.
It is clear that levels of genetic diversity vary greatly within a species as a function of local recombination rate, due to both genetic hitchhiking and background selection. Most current solutions to the paradox of variation invoke some level of selection at linked sites. For example, one analysis suggests that larger populations have more selective sweeps, which remove more neutral genetic diversity. A negative correlation between mutation rate and population size may also contribute.
Life history affects genetic diversity more than population history does, e.g. r-strategists have more genetic diversity.
Detecting selection
Population genetics models are used to infer which genes are undergoing selection. One common approach is to look for regions of high linkage disequilibrium and low genetic variance along the chromosome, to detect recent selective sweeps.
A second common approach is the McDonald–Kreitman test which compares the amount of variation within a species (polymorphism) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites; one assumed to be neutral. Typically, synonymous sites are assumed to be neutral. Genes undergoing positive selection have an excess of divergent sites relative to polymorphic sites. The test can also be used to obtain a genome-wide estimate of the proportion of substitutions that are fixed by positive selection, α. According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution, this number should be near zero. High numbers have therefore been interpreted as a genome-wide falsification of neutral theory.
Demographic inference
The simplest test for population structure in a sexually reproducing, diploid species, is to see whether genotype frequencies follow Hardy-Weinberg proportions as a function of allele frequencies. For example, in the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles denoted A and a at frequencies p and q, random mating predicts freq(AA) = p2 for the AA homozygotes, freq(aa) = q2 for the aa homozygotes, and freq(Aa) = 2pq for the heterozygotes. In the absence of population structure, Hardy-Weinberg proportions are reached within 1-2 generations of random mating. More typically, there is an excess of homozygotes, indicative of population structure. The extent of this excess can be quantified as the inbreeding coefficient, F.
Individuals can be clustered into K subpopulations. The degree of population structure can then be calculated using FST, which is a measure of the proportion of genetic variance that can be explained by population structure. Genetic population structure can then be related to geographic structure, and genetic admixture can be detected.
Coalescent theory relates genetic diversity in a sample to demographic history of the population from which it was taken. It normally assumes neutrality, and so sequences from more neutrally-evolving portions of genomes are therefore selected for such analyses. It can be used to infer the relationships between species (phylogenetics), as well as the population structure, demographic history (e.g. population bottlenecks, population growth), biological dispersal, source–sink dynamics and introgression within a species.
Another approach to demographic inference relies on the allele frequency spectrum.
Evolution of genetic systems
By assuming that there are loci that control the genetic system itself, population genetic models are created to describe the evolution of dominance and other forms of robustness, the evolution of sexual reproduction and recombination rates, the evolution of mutation rates, the evolution of evolutionary capacitors, the evolution of costly signalling traits, the evolution of ageing, and the evolution of co-operation. For example, most mutations are deleterious, so the optimal mutation rate for a species may be a trade-off between the damage from a high deleterious mutation rate and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.
One important aspect of such models is that selection is only strong enough to purge deleterious mutations and hence overpower mutational bias towards degradation if the selection coefficient s is greater than the inverse of the effective population size. This is known as the drift barrier and is related to the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution. Drift barrier theory predicts that species with large effective population sizes will have highly streamlined, efficient genetic systems, while those with small population sizes will have bloated and complex genomes containing for example introns and transposable elements. However, somewhat paradoxically, species with large population sizes might be so tolerant to the consequences of certain types of errors that they evolve higher error rates, e.g. in transcription and translation, than small populations.
See also
References
External links
Population Genetics Tutorials
Molecular population genetics
The ALlele FREquency Database at Yale University
EHSTRAFD.org - Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database
History of population genetics
How Selection Changes the Genetic Composition of Population, video of lecture by Stephen C. Stearns (Yale University)
National Geographic: Atlas of the Human Journey (Haplogroup-based human migration maps)
Population genetics
Evolutionary biology
Statistical genetics | [
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219270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Between%20Time%20and%20Timbuktu | Between Time and Timbuktu | Between Time and Timbuktu is a television film directed by Fred Barzyk and based on a number of works by Kurt Vonnegut. Produced by National Educational Television and WGBH-TV in Boston, Massachusetts, it was telecast March 13, 1972 as a NET Playhouse special. The television script was also published in 1972, illustrated with photographs by Jill Krementz and stills from the television production.
The first draft of the script was written by David Odell, with contributions from Bob Elliott and Ray Goulding, and the film's director. Vonnegut himself served as an "advisor and contributor to the script." The primary title refers to a collection of poetry written by one of the main characters in Vonnegut's second novel, The Sirens of Titan.
Cast
The televised production of the play starred William Hickey as Stony Stevenson. The rest of the cast included:
Bruce Morrow as Contest Announcer
Dortha Duckworth as Mrs. Stevenson (Stony's mother)
Ray Goulding as Walter Gesundheit
Bob Elliott as Bud Williams, Jr. (the ex-astronaut)
Franklin Cover as Col. Donald "Tex" Pirandello
Russell Morash as Sandy Abernethy
John Devlin as Dr. Bobby Denton
Kevin McCarthy as Bokonon
Edie Lynch as Island Girl
Jerry Gershman as Soldier
James Sloyan as Dr. Paul Proteus
George Serries as Prosecutor
Ashley Westcott as Deaf Juror
John Peters as Drunk
Helen Stenborg as Miss Martin
Hurd Hatfield as Dr. Hoenikker
Dolph Sweet as General
Hariet Hamilton as Lead Caroler
Sam Amato as Policeman
Benay Venuta as Diana Moon Glampers
Carlton Power as First Stagehand
Jean Sanocki as Larry
Jack Shipley as News Announcer
Alexis Hoff as Ballerina
Avind Haerum as Harrison Bergeron
Frank Dolan as Short Order Cook
Susan Sullivan as Nancy
Charles White as Lionel J. Howard
Philip Bruns as Announcer
Ariane Munker as Wanda June
Page Johnson as Hitler
MacIntyre Dixon as Cemetery Gardener
See also
List of American films of 1972
References
External links
I have seen the future -- and it slurps: A two part conversation between Kurt Vonnegut and Adrian Mitchell (BBC Two, 1972) which bracketed a broadcast of Between Time and Timbuktu
1972 films
1970s fantasy comedy-drama films
Films about astronauts
Films based on works by Kurt Vonnegut
American films based on plays
PBS original programming
Works by Kurt Vonnegut
American fantasy comedy-drama films
American films
American television films
1972 comedy films
1972 drama films
1970s English-language films | [
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219276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20martin | House martin | {{safesubst:#invoke:RfD||2=Housemartin|month = February
|day = 12
|year = 2022
|time = 13:30
|timestamp = 20220212133044
|content=
REDIRECT Delichon
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219277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codon%20usage%20bias | Codon usage bias | Codon usage bias refers to differences in the frequency of occurrence of synonymous codons in coding DNA. A codon is a series of three nucleotides (a triplet) that encodes a specific amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain or for the termination of translation (stop codons).
There are 64 different codons (61 codons encoding for amino acids and 3 stop codons) but only 20 different translated amino acids. The overabundance in the number of codons allows many amino acids to be encoded by more than one codon. Because of such redundancy it is said that the genetic code is degenerate. The genetic codes of different organisms are often biased towards using one of the several codons that encode the same amino acid over the others—that is, a greater frequency of one will be found than expected by chance. How such biases arise is a much debated area of molecular evolution. Codon usage tables detailing genomic codon usage bias for organisms in GenBank and RefSeq can be found in the HIVE-Codon Usage Tables (HIVE-CUTs) project, which contains two distinct databases, CoCoPUTs and TissueCoCoPUTs. Together, these two databases provide comprehensive, up-to-date codon, codon pair and dinucleotide usage statistics for all organisms with available sequence information and 52 human tissues, respectively.
It is generally acknowledged that codon biases reflect a balance between mutational biases and natural selection (mutation–selection balance) for translational optimization. Optimal codons in fast-growing microorganisms, like Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast), reflect the composition of their respective genomic transfer RNA (tRNA) pool. It is thought that optimal codons help to achieve faster translation rates and high accuracy. As a result of these factors, translational selection is expected to be stronger in highly expressed genes, as is indeed the case for the above-mentioned organisms. In other organisms that do not show high growing rates or that present small genomes, codon usage optimization is normally absent, and codon preferences are determined by the characteristic mutational biases seen in that particular genome. Examples of this are Homo sapiens (human) and Helicobacter pylori. Organisms that show an intermediate level of codon usage optimization include Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode worm), Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (sea urchin), and Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress). Several viral families (herpesvirus, lentivirus, papillomavirus, polyomavirus, adenovirus, and parvovirus) are known to encode structural proteins that display heavily skewed codon usage compared to the host cell. The suggestion has been made that these codon biases play a role in the temporal regulation of their late proteins.
The nature of the codon usage-tRNA optimization has been fiercely debated. It is not clear whether codon usage drives tRNA evolution or vice versa. At least one mathematical model has been developed where both codon usage and tRNA expression co-evolve in feedback fashion (i.e., codons already present in high frequencies drive up the expression of their corresponding tRNAs, and tRNAs normally expressed at high levels drive up the frequency of their corresponding codons). However, this model does not seem to yet have experimental confirmation. Another problem is that the evolution of tRNA genes has been a very inactive area of research.
Contributing factors
Different factors have been proposed to be related to codon usage bias, including gene expression level (reflecting selection for optimizing the translation process by tRNA abundance), guanine-cytosine content (GC content, reflecting horizontal gene transfer or mutational bias), guanine-cytosine skew (GC skew, reflecting strand-specific mutational bias), amino acid conservation, protein hydropathy, transcriptional selection, RNA stability, optimal growth temperature, hypersaline adaptation, and dietary nitrogen.
Evolutionary theories
Mutational bias versus selection
Although the mechanism of codon bias selection remains controversial, possible explanations for this bias fall into two general categories. One explanation revolves around the selectionist theory, in which codon bias contributes to the efficiency and/or accuracy of protein expression and therefore undergoes positive selection. The selectionist model also explains why more frequent codons are recognized by more abundant tRNA molecules, as well as the correlation between preferred codons, tRNA levels, and gene copy numbers. Although it has been shown that the rate of amino acid incorporation at more frequent codons occurs at a much higher rate than that of rare codons, the speed of translation has not been shown to be directly affected and therefore the bias towards more frequent codons may not be directly advantageous. However, the increase in translation elongation speed may still be indirectly advantageous by increasing the cellular concentration of free ribosomes and potentially the rate of initiation for messenger RNAs (mRNAs).
The second explanation for codon usage can be explained by mutational bias, a theory which posits that codon bias exists because of nonrandomness in the mutational patterns. In other words, some codons can undergo more changes and therefore result in lower equilibrium frequencies, also known as “rare” codons. Different organisms also exhibit different mutational biases, and there is growing evidence that the level of genome-wide GC content is the most significant parameter in explaining codon bias differences between organisms. Additional studies have demonstrated that codon biases can be statistically predicted in prokaryotes using only intergenic sequences, arguing against the idea of selective forces on coding regions and further supporting the mutation bias model. However, this model alone cannot fully explain why preferred codons are recognized by more abundant tRNAs.
Mutation-selection-drift balance model
To reconcile the evidence from both mutational pressures and selection, the prevailing hypothesis for codon bias can be explained by the mutation-selection-drift balance model. This hypothesis states that selection favors major codons over minor codons, but minor codons are able to persist due to mutation pressure and genetic drift. It also suggests that selection is generally weak, but that selection intensity scales to higher expression and more functional constraints of coding sequences.
Consequences of codon composition
Effect on RNA secondary structure
Because secondary structure of the 5’ end of mRNA influences translational efficiency, synonymous changes at this region on the mRNA can result in profound effects on gene expression. Codon usage in noncoding DNA regions can therefore play a major role in RNA secondary structure and downstream protein expression, which can undergo further selective pressures. In particular, strong secondary structure at the ribosome-binding site or initiation codon can inhibit translation, and mRNA folding at the 5’ end generates a large amount of variation in protein levels.
Effect on transcription or gene expression
Heterologous gene expression is used in many biotechnological applications, including protein production and metabolic engineering. Because tRNA pools vary between different organisms, the rate of transcription and translation of a particular coding sequence can be less efficient when placed in a non-native context. For an overexpressed transgene, the corresponding mRNA makes a large percent of total cellular RNA, and the presence of rare codons along the transcript can lead to inefficient use and depletion of ribosomes and ultimately reduce levels of heterologous protein production. In addition, the composition of the gene (e.g. the total number of rare codons and the presence of consecutive rare codons) may also affect translation accuracy. However, using codons that are optimized for tRNA pools in a particular host to overexpress a heterologous gene may also cause amino acid starvation and alter the equilibrium of tRNA pools. This method of adjusting codons to match host tRNA abundances, called codon optimization, has traditionally been used for expression of a heterologous gene. However, new strategies for optimization of heterologous expression consider global nucleotide content such as local mRNA folding, codon pair bias, a codon ramp, codon harmonization or codon correlations. With the number of nucleotide changes introduced, artificial gene synthesis is often necessary for the creation of such an optimized gene.
Specialized codon bias is further seen in some endogenous genes such as those involved in amino acid starvation. For example, amino acid biosynthetic enzymes preferentially use codons that are poorly adapted to normal tRNA abundances, but have codons that are adapted to tRNA pools under starvation conditions. Thus, codon usage can introduce an additional level of transcriptional regulation for appropriate gene expression under specific cellular conditions.
Effect on speed of translation elongation
Generally speaking for highly expressed genes, translation elongation rates are faster along transcripts with higher codon adaptation to tRNA pools, and slower along transcripts with rare codons. This correlation between codon translation rates and cognate tRNA concentrations provides additional modulation of translation elongation rates, which can provide several advantages to the organism. Specifically, codon usage can allow for global regulation of these rates, and rare codons may contribute to the accuracy of translation at the expense of speed.
Effect on protein folding
Protein folding in vivo is vectorial, such that the N-terminus of a protein exits the translating ribosome and becomes solvent-exposed before its more C-terminal regions. As a result, co-translational protein folding introduces several spatial and temporal constraints on the nascent polypeptide chain in its folding trajectory. Because mRNA translation rates are coupled to protein folding, and codon adaptation is linked to translation elongation, it has been hypothesized that manipulation at the sequence level may be an effective strategy to regulate or improve protein folding. Several studies have shown that pausing of translation as a result of local mRNA structure occurs for certain proteins, which may be necessary for proper folding. Furthermore, synonymous mutations have been shown to have significant consequences in the folding process of the nascent protein and can even change substrate specificity of enzymes. These studies suggest that codon usage influences the speed at which polypeptides emerge vectorially from the ribosome, which may further impact protein folding pathways throughout the available structural space.
Methods of analysis
In the field of bioinformatics and computational biology, many statistical methods have been proposed and used to analyze codon usage bias. Methods such as the 'frequency of optimal codons' (Fop), the relative codon adaptation (RCA) or the codon adaptation index (CAI) are used to predict gene expression levels, while methods such as the 'effective number of codons' (Nc) and Shannon entropy from information theory are used to measure codon usage evenness. Multivariate statistical methods, such as correspondence analysis and principal component analysis, are widely used to analyze variations in codon usage among genes. There are many computer programs to implement the statistical analyses enumerated above, including CodonW, GCUA, INCA, etc. Codon optimization has applications in designing synthetic genes and DNA vaccines. Several software packages are available online for this purpose (refer to external links).
References
External links
Composition Analysis Toolkit : estimating codon usage bias and its statistical significance
HIVE-Codon Usage Table database
Codon Usage Database
CodonW
GCUA - General Codon Usage Analysis
Graphical Codon Usage Analyser
JCat - Java Codon Usage Adaptation Tool
INCA - Interactive Codon Analysis software
ACUA - Automated Codon Usage Analysis Tool
OPTIMIZER - Codon usage optimization
HEG-DB - Highly Expressed Genes Database
E-CAI - Expected value of Codon Adaptation Index
CAIcal -Set of tools to assess codon usage adaptation
scRCA - Automatic determination of translational codon usage bias
Online Synonymous Codon Usage Analyses with the ade4 and seqinR packages
Genetic Algorithm Simulation for Codon Optimization
Molecular biology
Gene expression | [
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219279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo%2C%20Puerto%20Rico | Arecibo, Puerto Rico | Arecibo () is a city and municipality on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, located north of Utuado and Ciales; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta and Florida. It is about west of San Juan, the capital city. Arecibo is the largest municipality in Puerto Rico by area, and is part of the San Juan, Caguas and Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is spread over 18 barrios and Arecibo Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the city). Its population in 2020 was 87,754.
The Arecibo Observatory, which housed the Arecibo telescope, the world's largest radio telescope until July 2016, is located in the municipality. The Arecibo telescope collapsed on December 1, 2020. Arecibo is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Arecibo.
Etymology and nicknames
The name Arecibo comes from the Taíno chief Xamaica Arasibo, cacique of the yucayeque (Taíno settlement) of Abacoa where the Spanish town of Arecibo was settled in 1556. The word Arasibo itself most likely comes from the Taíno words ara, possibly meaning or related to "people", and siba, most likely meaning "rock" or "stone". This name also lends itself to the name of the river which flows through the municipality into the Atlantic Ocean.
Some of the city's nicknames are: Villa del Capitán Correa ("Villa of Captain Correa"), after Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, a Spanish soldier who famously and successfully defended the city from a British invasion; La Muy Leal ("the very loyal [one]") after the title often granted to Spanish colonial cities; and Diamante del Norte ("Diamond of the North") due to the city's location in the northern coast of the island.
History
When the Spanish arrived, they found the area occupied by the indigenous Taíno, led by Xamaica Arasibo, Cacique (chief) of the yucayeque (town) then named Abacoa.
Spanish colonists settled Arecibo in 1556, which they named for the cacique. It was their fourth settlement on the island, after Caparra (which later became San Juan), San German, and Coamo. Arecibo was officially founded as a town<ref>[https://enciclopediapr.org/en/encyclopedia/arecibo-municipality/#1465331233922-61915a4b-ef14 "Arecibo: Founding and History.] Accessed 11 September 2019.</ref> by the Spanish crown on May 1, 1616, under the governorship of Captain Felipe de Beaumont y Navarra, when the King of Spain granted the land (and the Taino living there) to Lope Conchillos. .
For some time the island was competed for by other European powers. On August 5, 1702, Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, a member of the Spanish Army, successfully defended Arecibo from a British Navy invasion led by rear-admiral William Whetstone. Commanding two British Navy ships and 40 men, Whetstone tried to take control of the city. Correa ambushed his forces, killing 22 British seamen and driving them off. The Spanish defenders suffered only one death and three wounded soldiers. This gave the city its nickname The Village of Captain Correa (La Villa del Capitan Correa)
In 1778, Arecibo, by royal decree, was awarded the "Villa" status, though it was not integrated as such until 1802. In 1850 it was awarded the "Muy Leal" (very loyal) title. Over time, large part of its territory became separate municipalities. These include Manati, Barceloneta, Florida, Utuado, Jayuya, Hatillo, Camuy, Quebradillas and Isabela. In 1982, it was promoted to city status, though it continued to be known by its previous nickname.
Hurricane Maria
Hurricane Maria on September 20, 2017, triggered extensive flooding, and damage to infrastructure with over 3,000 people losing their homes. Two hospitals were damaged and the hurricane caused deaths as well.
Geography
Arecibo is located in the Northern Coastal Plain region of Puerto Rico, extending inland into the Northern Karst region. It lies on the Atlantic Ocean; north of Utuado; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta and Florida. The city occupies an area of 127 square miles (330 km2), of which, , is water.
The Rio Grande de Arecibo is the main river in the municipality, running through the middle of it. South of the municipality, in the karst region, it forms the Dos Bocas Lake, a primary source of water for Northern Puerto Rico. Several rivers feed the Rio Grande, including the Tanama River. Caño Santiago is an artificial canal created in the 19th century by partially diverting the Tanama River's waters tobarrios a small temporary stream, to supply water to poor neighborhoods in Arecibo, discharging into the Arecibo River near its own mouth. In the 1950s it was modified to pass slightly more south of the city center. Poor maintenance, sediment and pollution has turned the canal once again into a temporary stream. East of the river lies Caño Tiburones, an important marshland area that provides habitat for many kinds of birds and wildlife.
Arecibo has two forest reserves. Cambalache State Forest is located along the Barceloneta municipal limits, while Rio Abajo State Forest is located between Arecibo and Utuado. Caves include Cueva Ventana, which overlooks the valley formed by the Rio Grande de Arecibo, and Cueva del Indio (Cave of the Indian), where paintings made by prehistoric indigenous peoples have been seen.
Environmental impact studies have been done to consider remedies for flooding that often occurs in Arecibo.
Barrios
Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Arecibo is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a small barrio referred to as , near the center of the municipality.
Arecibo barrio-pueblo including Jareales subbarrio
Arenalejos
Arrozal
Cambalache
Carreras
Domingo Ruíz
Dominguito
Esperanza
Factor
Garrochales
Hato Abajo
Hato Arriba
Hato Viejo
Islote
Miraflores
Río Arriba
Sabana Hoyos
Santana
Tanamá
Sectors
Barrios (which for US census purposes, are like minor civil divisions) in turn are further subdivided into smaller local populated place areas/units called sectores (sectors in English). The types of sectores may vary, from normally sector to urbanización to reparto to barriada to residencial, among others.
Special Communities
(Special Communities of Puerto Rico) are marginalized communities whose citizens are experiencing a certain amount of social exclusion. A map shows these communities occur in nearly every municipality of the commonwealth. Of the 742 places that were on the list in 2014, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Arecibo:
and .
Climate
Tropical monsoon climate, occasionally also known as a tropical wet climate or tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate in climate classification, is a relatively rare type of climate. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Am". (Tropical Monsoon Climate).
Tourism
Landmarks and places of interest
The Arecibo Harbor is managed by the Puerto Rico Ports Authority.
Arecibo is one of the oldest colonial towns in Puerto Rico (1616). Among its historic buildings is the Cathedral of Saint Philip the Apostle, built beginning in the late 18th century. The first church, built in the middle of the 17th century, was destroyed by an earthquake in 1787. Construction of its replacement began soon after, although it was not completed until 1846. Four days after its dedication, another earthquake seriously damaged it. Repairs were not completed until 1882. The 1918 earthquake damaged the vault so badly that it was replaced by a flat concrete roof; a vaulted ceiling of composition board was placed inside.
The cathedral of Arecibo is Puerto Rico's second-largest church after the Cathedral of San Juan. The plan is rectangular with three naves; the side naves are cut short to allow large flanking chapels, which occupy almost half the length of the church. The apse is semicircular, and has an unusual half-dome covering it. The facade is a triangular composition of three stages. The top stage, a short central tower, is a later addition, according to local architects and historians. Neoclassic ornamentation is used in an academic fashion on the lowest stage, but the other two show a less traditional use of bands and pilasters. The Renaissance-style windows are uncommon in Puerto Rican churches, but the central tower over the entrance is a common motif used throughout the island.
The City Hall, built in 1866, served as jail to revolutionaries of El Grito de Lares in 1868. In the 1918 earthquake, the frontal section of the building was destroyed. When repairs were made, a tower and clock were added to the building. In 1978, the building was restored to its original form.
The City Hall of Arecibo is typical of these regional seats of government. It is relatively modest in size, of stuccoed masonry, with an academically correct composition, having a pedimented center pavilion which projects slightly. The lower story is rusticated, with arched openings; the three doorways in the center giving the effect of a loggia. The upper windows all have segmental pediments and balconies; the central trio share one long balcony. Architectural detailing is modest, but the building is graceful and charming.
In 1898 the Spaniards built the Punta Los Morrillos Lighthouse. It was automated in 1964 and is still in use. A small park, Arecibo Lighthouse and Historical Park, has been established around it.
The Arecibo Observatory was the home of Arecibo telescope, once the largest single-aperture radio telescope ever constructed and one of the world's most powerful radar-radio telescopes. The observatory's purpose was to support scientific studies. It attracted several Hollywood directors who have filmed there; most recently GoldenEye and Contact. The radio telescope was used in 1974 to send the Arecibo message to space. The telescope collapsed in 2020.
Casa Ulanga was originally a residence built by Spanish immigrant Francisco Ulanga, and has served multiple uses over the years. It was used as a bank, store, city hall of Arecibo, hospital, jail, tribunal, and is now operated as the Arecibo Cultural Center.
is an archeological site where Taíno drawings can be found.
The "Birth of the New World" is a statue depicting Christopher Columbus and is located in Islote, Arecibo. . The statue is the work of Russian sculptor Zurab Tsereteli, and it is the tallest statue in the Americas.
Other places of interest in Arecibo include:
The Cambalache Forest Reserve
Dos Bocas Lake which is a reservoir located between the municipalities of Arecibo and Utuado.
Paseo Victor Rojas (Victor Rojas Walk) also known as or simply , was built in 1881 where the Fort San Miguel's ruins once were
Manuel "Petaca" Iguina Coliseum which is home of the Arecibo Captains basketball team.
Museum of Art and History of Arecibo which has art fom local artists and shows the city's history
Arecibo beaches include Los Morillos, Los Negritos, Poza del Obispo, and Las Tunas. Beach in Arecibo is considered a dangerous beach.
To stimulate local tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico, the Puerto Rico Tourism Company launched the Voy Turistiendo (I'm Touring) campaign in 2021. The campaign featured a passport book with a page for each municipality. The Arecibo passport page lists , , and the Arecibo Light House and Historical Park, as places of interest.
Culture
Festivals and events
Arecibo celebrates its patron saint festival in May. The is a religious and cultural celebration that generally features parades, games, artisans, amusement rides, regional food, and live entertainment.
Other festivals and events celebrated in Arecibo include:
Bicycle competition – January
(Parachuting festival) – February
Arecibo Carnival – February
Folklore Festival – July
Beach festival – July
Artisan Fair – September
Cetí Festival – November
Centennial of the Puerto Rican flag – December
Sports
Arecibo has two professional sports franchises, the Lobos de Arecibo in baseball and the Capitanes de Arecibo in BSN basketball. The Lobos won the 1983 national baseball championship and the 1983 Caribbean World Series, the only time the franchise won both titles. At that time, they had MLB prospect Dickie Thon, then also of the Houston Astros, on their roster. Thon then suffered a life-threatening and career-affecting eye injury during an Astros game in 1984. The Lobos won a championship again in 1996.
The Capitanes won their first ever championship in 1959. After that, the Capitanes have not had much luck in their basketball tournaments, but in 2002, they started to turn things around, reaching the semifinals. However, they lost the series to the Vaqueros by losing four straight games, after having a 3–0 game lead in the series. The Capitanes won the National Superior Basketball championship in 2005 beating the Vaqueros of Bayamón in four games. This was the first championship in 46 years. In 2007 they got to the finals, losing in the overtime on the seventh game of the series against Los Cangrejos de Santurce. In 2008 Arecibo won the tournament championship again, against the Gigantes of Carolina. In 2010, they won again against Los Vaqueros of Bayamon.
Radio stations
WCMN-FM – Hot 102 107.3 FM (re-transmitter)
WCMN-AM – NotiUno 1280 AM
WNIK-FM – Super K 106 FM
WNIK-AM – Radio Unica
WMIA-AM – MIA Radio Arecibo 1070 AM
Economy
Arecibo's economy is diverse with pharmaceuticals, agriculture and fishing. Vaqueria Ceiba Del Mar is located in Arecibo and is one of the largest on the island of Puerto Rico. They also have operations in Hatillo. After Hurricane Maria, the farm had to consolidate their three operations into one.
Business
Arecibo's main shopping mall is Plaza del Atlantico as well as the one situated in the neighboring town of Hatillo, Plaza del Norte.
In 2021, Hilton was constructing a hotel in Arecibo.
Industrial
Arecibo is home to Fortune 500 corporations such as Merck, General Electric. Other important companies are Thermo King Corporation, Eaton, Los Cidrines, Expressway Eco Printing, Arecibo Tropical Flag and ABB.
Demographics
According to the 2010 Census the municipality of Arecibo is 99% Hispanic of which 78% identifies as white (of European descent), 4.6% black (Afro-Puerto Rican descent), and 1.2% with two or more races. The majority of the population is mostly of Spanish descent, but there has been intermarriage with more recent groups from other parts of Europe, with some having Middle Eastern, French, Italian, American or of other descent. People who are multi-racial may also have ancestors more than one of the European groups, and among more than one African nation as well.
Puerto Rico was ceded by Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 and became a territory of the United States. In 1899, the United States conducted its first census of Puerto Rico finding that the population of Arecibo was 36,910.
Government
All municipalities in Puerto Rico are administered by a mayor, elected every four years. The current mayor of Arecibo is Carlos (Tito) Ramírez Irizarri, of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). He was elected at the 2020 general elections.
The city belongs to the Puerto Rico Senatorial district III, which is represented by two Senators. In 2012, José Pérez Rosa (PNP) and Angel Martínez (PNP) were elected as District Senators, and they were re-elected in 2016. In 2020 Elizabeth Rosa Vélez (PPD) and Rubén Soto Rivera (PPD) were elected as District Senators and are the current Senators of this Senatorial district.
Symbols
The has an official flag and coat of arms. The flag and coat of arms were adopted in 1968 with Resolution 12 passed by the government of Arecibo.
Flag
The flag of Arecibo derives its composition and colors from the coat of arms of the city. It is divided vertically in two equal parts. The left side is blue having a belt that stands for "Captain Correa", a local military hero from Spanish times. The right side is made up of blue and yellow diamonds alternating in a checkerboard pattern referring to the coat of arms of Felipe de Beaumont y Navarra, governor of Puerto Rico (1614–1620) and founder of the city. The crown represents The Cacique (chieftain) Arasibo (Fransico Jamaica Arasibo). The turtles represent the ancientness of the city (the third city of Puerto Rico) also because of the indigenous people of the region and that the hunting of turtles was a source of wealth. The towers were a form to describe the population of a settlement. Three towers represent a municipality, four towers represent a village, and five towers represent a city.
Coat of arms
The shield is divided by diagonal lines in golden and blue rhombuses with a blue stripe in the superior part, in which resides an opened five-point crown and which is adorned with drawings characterizing the art of the Taínos. The people of Arecibo also honored Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa by including a gold colored belt in their coat of arms with the words "Muy Leal", which means "Very Faithful", in representation of Correa. This combination of symbols represents the Indian Cacique (Chieftain) from whom the population's name derives, the governor that erected the town and the hero Captain Correa who defended the town from a British invasion.
Nicknames
Arecibo is known as "La Villa del Capitán Correa" (Captain Correa's Villa) after the Puerto Rican hero Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa of the Spanish Army, who drove off a British Navy invasion by ambushing forces led by rear-admiral William Whetstone. Arecibo is also known as "El Diamante Del Norte"'' (The Diamond of the North).
Transportation
Arecibo has a small noncommercial airport, named Antonio (Nery) Juarbe Pol Airport, which currently has no commercial airline flights.
PR-22 (unsigned Interstate PR-2) passes through the city, but bypasses downtown. Downtown can be accessed via PR-2, PR-10 and PR-129.
There are 51 bridges in Arecibo.
The collapsed during Hurricane Georges in 1998 but was rebuilt. Despite it being an important bridge leading into the urban downtown center of Arecibo, it was closed again in early 2017 due to damage caused by the sea and reopened in 2021 after repairs.
Education
The first school in Arecibo was established on October 12, 1805.
Today, Arecibo is home to several public and private schools distributed through its barrios. Public education is handled by the State Department of Education. There are also several colleges and universities located in the city including:
University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo
Interamerican University of Puerto Rico
Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico
National University College
It also has several other technical institutions like ICPR Junior College.
Notable people
The following is a list of notable people from Arecibo:
Antonio de los Reyes Correa – military hero
Arasibo – Taino Cacique
Cayetano Coll y Cuchí – the first President of Puerto Rico House of Representatives
Cayetano Coll y Toste – historian
Delma S. Arrigoitia – author
Edna Coll – educator
Francisco Gonzalo Marín – poet who fought for Cuba's independence
Isabel Cuchí Coll – journalist
José Coll y Cuchí – politician; founder of Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
Luisa Capetillo – union leader/civil rights activist
Manuel Zeno Gandía – author
María Cadilla – educator
Melba Acosta – Secretary of Treasury of PR
Myrta Silva – singer
René Marqués – playwright
Iann Dior – Rapper and singer
Gallery
See also
Roman Catholic Diocese of Arecibo
Arecibo Observatory
References
External links
Puerto Rico Government Directory
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1556
1556 establishments in the Spanish West Indies
16th century in Puerto Rico | [
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219280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terje%20R%C3%B8d-Larsen | Terje Rød-Larsen | Terje Rød-Larsen (born 22 November 1947) is a Norwegian diplomat, politician, and sociologist.
Rød-Larsen came to wide international prominence as a key figure in the 1990s negotiations that led to the Oslo Accords—the first-ever agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) -- when he served as the Director of the Fafo institute.Jones, Chris, "'Argo' and the new play 'Oslo' are stories about heroes nobody knows," April 21, 2017, Chicago Tribune retrieved May 6, 2017Rogers, J.T. (playwright), Theater: "'Oslo' and the Drama in Diplomacy", June 17, 2016, The New York Times retrieved May 6, 2017
In 1993, Rød-Larsen was appointed Ambassador and Special Adviser for the Middle East Peace process to the Norwegian Foreign Minister, and the following year, he became the United Nations Special Coordinator in the Occupied Territories at the rank of Under-Secretary-General.
Rød-Larsen briefly served as the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Planning and Cooperation of Norway in the Jagland cabinet in 1996. He had to resign after a tax affair regarding him, came to public attention.
Rød-Larsen then returned to the United Nations, where he again became an Under-Secretary-General, serving as the UN Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process and Personal Representative of the Secretary-General to the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Palestinian Authority from 1999 to 2004.
From 2004 to 2020, Rød-Larsen has been the president of the International Peace Institute (IPI), based in New York City, adjacent to the United Nations, which the IPI works with extensively. He resigned in 2020 over previously undisclosed links to Jeffrey Epstein.
Biography
Rød-Larsen grew up in Bergen and studied social sciences, culminating in a Ph.D. in sociology. He taught at Norwegian universities until 1981, when he helped found FAFO, a research organization funded by the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions.
Early Middle East work
In 1989 Rød-Larsen moved to Cairo, when his wife Mona Juul, who worked for the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was stationed there. He continued to work for FAFO, as the organization had become more internationally oriented during the 1980s. Rød-Larsen performed a detailed sociological study of living conditions in the West Bank, Gaza and Eastern Jerusalem. In the course of this work, Rød-Larsen made contacts that proved to be useful in secret negotiations between Israel and the PLO.
Oslo Accords
When serving as the Director of the Fafo institute in the early 1990s, Rød-Larsen became a key figure in the 1990s negotiations that led to the Oslo Accords -- the first-ever agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He served a pivotal role in the negotiations not only overtly, but in secret back-channel maneuvers and communications -- largely arranged and facilitated by him and his wife, Norwegian diplomat Mona Juul. She was able to facilitate high-level contacts with the Norwegian foreign minister, Johan Jørgen Holst, who was instrumental in reaching the Oslo Accords -- leading to the peace agreement signing on September 13, 1993 in Washington D.C.
The 2016-2017 Broadway play, Oslo, by noted playwright J. T. Rogers, is a widely-praised dramatization of the previously unheralded secret work of Rød-Larsen and his wife, and others, in developing the back-channel communications that (reportedly) saved the Oslo negotiations from collapsing.
The same year Rød-Larsen became formally employed by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a special advisor on Middle Eastern affairs.
Mid-1990s to Mid-2000s
From 1994 to 1996, Rød-Larsen served as former Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali's first "Special Coordinator in the Occupied Territories."
In 1996, Rød-Larsen served briefly as minister of administration in the government of Thorbjørn Jagland, before being forced to resign as the result of a tax scandal.
In 9/9/1999, Rød-Larsen was appointed as UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan's personal representative to the PLO and Palestinian Authority on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. He was also the UN Special Coordinator for peace negotiations in the Middle East. He subsequently left the post in 2004 to become President of the International Peace Academy, a NYC-based think tank, and was also designated as UN Special Representative (Date of Appointment : 3/1/2005) for the implementation of Security Council Resolution 1559, which calls for Syrian withdrawal of Lebanon and the disarmament of Hezbollah.
2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict
16 August
Rød-Larsen was sent by U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan to Lebanon and Israel to follow up on the implementation of the cease-fire resolution, the United Nations announced on 16 August 2006.
20 August
On this date Rød-Larsen told reporters. "There is a golden opportunity for Lebanon to solidify its democracy, to assert it authority, to produce a situation where Lebanon can be reconstructed and where Lebanese can live peacefully with its neighbors in prosperity. All this is at hand."
22 August
The United Nations special envoy to Syria and Lebanon said on 22 August 2006 it could take the Lebanese army and international troops two to three months to fill a "security vacuum" in southern Lebanon and warned that "unintended" acts could spark renewed fighting.
"There is now a security vacuum which the Lebanese government is trying to fill" with the help of international forces, said Terje Rød-Larsen. "But I think realistically, up to a point, you will have such a vacuum in Lebanon for the next two, three months," he added. "The situation is still extremely fragile... Unintended incidents can kick off renewed violence, which might escalate and spin out of control."
Controversy
In 2020 media revealed that he Rød-Larsen had borrowed 130,000 USD from Jeffrey Epstein. During the week that preceded 18 October 2020, the Norwegian Foreign Ministry requested that Rød-Larsen clarify the ties between Epstein and Rød-Larsen. On 21 October Dagens Næringsliv said that [sometime] after [the money was borrowed], Rød-Larsen directed IPI to pay 100,000 dollars to Epstein, although an audit by accounting firm KPMG found no payment was made. On 29 October 2020, Rød-Larsen resigned the presidency of the foundation (IPI).
References
External links
Innlegg: Fredsmeglingens fallgruver [Received articles: The pitfalls of peace-brokering]. 7 May 2021. Dagens Næringsliv
Rød-Larsen's wife, Mona Juul's house bugged, Nettavisen, 20 January 2004.
Rød-Larsen at the UN, 13 July 2004.
Rød-Larsen overseeing Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon, 17 March 2005.
Foreign ministry to investigate money to Rød-Larsen, 24 April 2002
Rød-Larsen wanted to become United Nations-chief (Rød-Larsen ville bli FN-sjef)
1947 births
Living people
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
Diplomats from Bergen
Norwegian sociologists
Norwegian officials of the United Nations | [
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219283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac%20Orthodox%20Church | Syriac Orthodox Church | The Syriac Orthodox Church (; , ), officially known as the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, and informally as the Jacobite Church, is an Oriental Orthodox church that branched from the Church of Antioch. The bishop of Antioch, known as the patriarch, heads the church, claiming apostolic succession through Saint Peter () in the , according to sacred tradition. The church upholds miaphysite doctrine in Christology, and employs the Divine Liturgy of Saint James, associated with James, the brother of Jesus. Classical Syriac is the official and liturgical language of the church.
The church gained its hierarchical distinctiveness in 512, when pro-Chalcedonian patriarch Flavian II of Antioch was deposed by Byzantine emperor Anastasius I, and a synod was held at Laodicea in Syria in order to choose his successor, a prominent miaphysite theologian Severus the Great (d. 538). His later deposition (in 518) was not recognized by the miaphisite party, and thus a distinctive (autocephalous) miaphysite patriarchate was established, headed by Severus and his successors. During the sixth century, myaphisite hierarchical structure in the region was further straightened by Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578), while the pro-Chalcedonian faction would form to become the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch (part of the wider Eastern Orthodox Church).
Mor Hananyo Monastery was the headquarters of the church from until 1932. The patriarchate was transferred to Homs due to the effects of World War I. The current see of the church is the Cathedral of Saint George, Bab Tuma, Damascus, Syria, since 1959. Since 2014, Ignatius Aphrem II is the current patriarch of Antioch. The church has archdioceses and patriarchal vicariates in countries covering six continents. Being an active member of World Council of Churches, the church participates in various ecumenical dialogues with other churches.
Name and identity
Syriac-speaking Christians have referred to themselves as "Ārāmāyē/Āṯūrāyē/Sūryāyē" in native Aramaic terms based on their ethnic identity. In most languages besides English, a unique name has long been used to distinguish the church from the polity of Syria. In Arabic (the official language of Syria), the church is known as the "Suryania Church" as the term "Suryani" identifies the Syriac language and people. Chalcedonians referred to the church as "Jacobite" (after Jacob Baradaeus) since the schism that followed the 451 Council of Chalcedon. English-speaking historians identified the church as the "Syrian Church". The English term "Syrian" was used to describe the community of Syriacs in ancient Syria. In the 15th century, the term "Orthodox" (from Greek: "orthodoxía"; "correct opinion") was used to identify churches that practiced the set of doctrines believed by the early Christians. Since 1922, the term "Syrian" started being used for things named after the Syrian Federation. Hence, in 2000, the Holy Synod ruled that the church be named as "Syriac Orthodox Church" after the Syriac language, the official liturgical language of the church.
The church is not ethnically exclusive, but two main ethnic groups in the community contest their ethnic identification as "Assyrians" and "Arameans". "Suryoye" is the term used to identify the Syriacs in the diaspora. The Syriac Orthodox identity included auxiliary cultural traditions of the pagan Assyrian Empire and Aramean kingdoms. Church traditions crystallized into ethnogenesis through the preservation of their stories and customs by the 12th century. Since the 1910s, the identity of Syriac Orthodoxy in the Ottoman Empire was principally religious and linguistic.
In recent works, Assyrian-American historian Sargon Donabed has pointed out that parishes in the USA were originally using Assyrian designations in their official English names, also noting that in some cases those designations were later changed to Syrian, and then to Syriac, while several other parishes still continue to use Assyrian designations.
History
Early history
The church claims apostolic succession through the pre-Chalcedonian Patriarchate of Antioch to the Early Christian communities from Jerusalem led by Saint Barnabas and Saint Paul in Antioch, during the Apostolic era, as described in the Acts of the Apostles; "The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch" (New Testament, ). Saint Peter was selected by Jesus Christ (New Testament, ) and is venerated as the first bishop of Antioch in after the Incident at Antioch.
Saint Evodius was Bishop of Antioch until 66 AD and was succeeded by Saint Ignatius of Antioch. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" () was by Ignatius of Antioch, in around 100 AD. In A.D 169, Theophilus of Antioch wrote three apologetic tracts to Autolycus. Patriarch Babylas of Antioch was considered the first saint recorded as having had his remains moved or "translated" for religious purposes—a practice that was to become extremely common in later centuries. Eustathius of Antioch supported Athanasius of Alexandria who opposed the followers of the condemned doctrine of Arius (Arian controversy) at the First Council of Nicaea. During the time of Meletius of Antioch the church split due to his being deposed for Homoiousian leanings—which became known as the Meletian Schism and saw several groups and several claimants to the See of Antioch.
Patriarchate of Antioch
Given the antiquity of the Bishopric of Antioch and the importance of the Christian community in the city of Antioch, a commercially significant city in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire, the First Council of Nicaea (325) recognized the Bishopric as one of main regional primacies in Christendom, with jurisdiction over the administrative Diocese of the Orient, thus laying the foundation for the creation of the "Patriarchate of Antioch and All of the East". Because of the significance attributed to Ignatius of Antioch in the church, most of the Syriac Orthodox patriarchs since 1293 have used the name of Ignatius in the title of the Patriarch preceding their own Patriarchal name.
Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon (451) resulted in a long struggle for the Patriarchate between those who accepted and those who rejected the council. In 512, pro-Chalcedonian patriarch Flavian II of Antioch was deposed by Emperor Anastasius I (d. 518), and new patriarch Severus of Antioch (d. 538) was chosen to succeed him. On 6 November 512, at the synod of Laodicea in Syria, a prominent miapyhsite theologian Severus the Great was elected, and consecrated on 16 November at the Great Church of Antioch. In 518, he was exiled from Antioch, by new emperor Justin I (d. 527), who tried to enforce a uniform Chalcedonian orthodoxy throughout the empire. Those who belonged to the pro-Chalcedonian party accepted newly appointed patriarch Paul, who took over the see of Antioch. The miaphisite patriarchate was thus forced to move from Antioch with Severus the Great who took refuge in Alexandria. The non-Chalcedonian community was divided between "Severians" (followers of Severus), and aphthartodocetae, and that division remained unresolved until 527. Severians continued to recognize Severus as the legitimate miaphysite Patriarch of Antioch until his death in 538, and then proceeded to follow his successors.
Bishop Jacob Baradaeus (died 578) is credited for ordaining most of the miaphysite hierarchy while facing heavy persecution in the sixth century. In 544, Jacob Baradeus ordained Sergius of Tella continuing the non-Chalcedonian succession of patriarchs of the Church of Antioch. That was done in opposition to the government-backed Patriarchate of Antioch held by the pro-Chalcedonian believers leading to the Syriac Orthodox Church being known popularly as the "Jacobite" Church, while the Chalcedonian believers were known popularly as Melkites—coming from the Syriac word for king (malka), an implication of the Chalcedonian Church's relationship to the Roman Emperor (later emphasised by the Melkite Greek Catholic Church). Because of many historical upheavals and consequent hardships that the Syriac Orthodox Church had to undergo, the patriarchate was transferred to different monasteries in Mesopotamia for centuries. John III of the Sedre was elected and consecrated Patriarch after the death of Athanasius I Gammolo in 631 A.D., followed by the fall of Roman Syria and the Muslim conquest of the Levant. John and several bishops were summoned before Emir Umayr ibn Sad al-Ansari of Hims to engage in open debate regarding Christianity and represent the entire Christian community, including non-Syriac Orthodox communities, such as Greek Orthodox Syrians. The Emir demanded translations of the Gospels into Arabic to confirm John's beliefs, which according to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian was the first translation of the Gospels into Arabic.
Transfer to new locations
During 1160, the patriarchate was transferred from Antioch to Mor Hananyo Monastery (Deir al. Zaʿfarān) in southeastern Anatolia near Mardin, where it remained until 1933 and re-established in Homs, Syria, due to the adverse political situation in Turkey. In 1959, the patriarchate was transferred to Damascus. The mother church and official seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church are now situated in Bab Tuma, Damascus, capital of Syria.
Middle Ages
The eighth-century hagiography Life of Jacob Baradaeus is evidence of a definite denominational and social differentiation between the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites (Syriac Orthodox). The longer hagiography shows that the Syriac Orthodox (called "Syriac Jacobites" in the work: suryoye yaquboye) self-identified with Jacob's story more than those of other saints. Coptic historian and miaphysite bishop Severus ibn al-Muqaffa (ca. 897) speaks of Jacobite origins, and on the veneration of Jacob Baradaeus. He explained that unlike the Chalcedonian Christians (who were labeled as "Melkites"), Miaphysite Jacobites never traded their Orthodoxy to win the favor of the Byzantine emperors, as the Melkites had done (malko is derived from "ruler, king, emperor").
In Antioch, after the 11th-century persecutions, the Syriac Orthodox population was almost extinguished. Only one Jacobite church is attested in Antioch in the first half of the 12th century, while a second and third are attested in the second half of the century, perhaps due to refugee influx. Dorothea Weltecke thus concludes that the Syriac Orthodox populace was very low in this period in Antioch and surroundings.
In the 12th century, several Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs visited Antioch and some established temporary residences. In the 13th century, the Syriac Orthodox hierarchy in Antioch was prepared to accept Latin supervision. In Adana, an anonymous 1137 report speaks of the entire population consisting of Syriac Orthodox. Before the advent of the Crusades, the Syriacs occupied most of the hill country of Jazirah (Upper Mesopotamia).
Early modern period
16th century
Moses of Mardin (fl. 1549–d. 1592) was a diplomat of the Syriac Orthodox Church in Rome in the 16th century.
17th century
By the early 1660s, 75% of the 5,000 Syriac Orthodox of Aleppo had converted to Catholicism following the arrival of mendicant missionaries. The Catholic missionaries had sought to place a Catholic Patriarch among the Jacobites and consecrated Andrew Akhijan as the Patriarch of the newly founded Syriac Catholic Church. The Propaganda Fide and foreign diplomats pushed for Akhijan to be recognized as the Jacobite Patriarch, and the Porte then consented and warned the Syriac Orthodox that they would be considered an enemy if they did not recognize him. Despite the warning and gifts to priests, frequent conflicts and violent arguments continued between the Catholic and Orthodox Syriacs. Around 1665, many Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India, committed themselves in allegiance to the Syriac Orthodox Church, which established the Malankara Syrian Church. The Malankara Church consolidated under Mar Thoma I welcomed Gregorios Abdal Jaleel, who regularised the canonical ordination of Mar Thoma I as a native democratically elected Bishop of the Malabar Syrian Christians.
Late modern period
In the 19th century, the various Syriac Christian denominations did not view themselves as part of one ethnic group. During the Tanzimat reforms (1839–78), the Syriac Orthodox was granted independent status by gaining recognition as their own millet in 1873, apart from Armenians and Greeks.
In the late 19th century, the Syriac Orthodox community of the Middle East, primarily from the cities of Adana and Harput, began the process of creating the Syriac diaspora, with the United States being one of their first destinations in the 1890s. Later, in Worcester, the first Syriac Orthodox Church in the United States was built.
The 1895–96 massacres in Turkey affected the Armenian and Syriac Orthodox communities when an estimated 105,000 Christians were killed. By the end of the 19th century, 200,000 Syriac Orthodox Christians remained in the Middle East, most concentrated around Saffron Monastery, the Patriarchal Seat.
In 1870, there were 22 Syriac Orthodox settlements in the vicinity of Diyarbakır. In the 1870–71 Diyarbakır salnames, there were 1,434 Orthodox Syriacs in that city. On 10 December 1876, Ignatius Peter IV consecrated Geevarghese Gregorios of Parumala as metropolitan. Rivalry within the Syriac Orthodox Church in Tur Abdin resulted in many conversions to the Syriac Catholic Church (the Uniate branch).
Genocide (1914–1918)
The Ottoman authorities killed and deported Orthodox Syriacs, then looted and appropriated their properties. During 1915–16, the number of Orthodox Syriacs in the Diyarbakır province was reduced by 72%, and in the Mardin province by 58%.
Interwar period
In 1924, the patriarchate of the Church was transferred to Homs after Kemal Atatürk expelled the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch, who took the library of Deir el-Zaferan and settled in Damascus. The Syriac Orthodox villages in Tur Abdin suffered from the 1925–26 Kurdish rebellions and massive flight to Lebanon, northern Iraq and especially Syria ensued.
In the early 1920s, the city of Qamishli was built mainly by Syriac Orthodox refugees, escaping the syrian genocide.
1945–2000
In 1959, the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church was transferred to Damascus in Syria. In the mid-1970s, the estimate of Syriac Orthodox lived in Syria is 82,000. In 1977, the number of Syriac Orthodox followers in diaspora dioceses was: 9,700 in the Diocese of Middle Europe; 10,750 in the Diocese of Sweden and surrounding countries.
On 20 October 1987, Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala was declared a saint by Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Patriarch permitting additions to the diptychs.
Leadership
Patriarch
The supreme head of the Syriac Orthodox Church is named Patriarch of Antioch, in reference to his titular pretense to one of the five patriarchates of the Pentarchy of Byzantine Christianity. Considered the "father of fathers", he must be an ordained bishop. He is the general administrator to Holy Synod and supervises the spiritual, administrative, and financial matters of the church. He governs external relations with other churches and signs agreements, treaties, contracts, pastoral encyclicals (bulls), pastoral letters related to the affairs of the church.
Bishops
The title bishop comes from the Greek word episkopos, meaning "the one who oversees". A bishop is a spiritual ruler of the church who has different ranks. The highest rank in the ecclesiastical hierarchy is the Patriarch. The second-highest rank is the Maphrian, also known as Catholicos of India, who is the head of the Malankara Syrian Jacobite Church in India. Then there are Metropolitan bishops or Archbishops, and under them, there are auxiliary bishops. Historically, in the Malankara Church, the local chief was called as Archdeacon, who was the ecclesiastical authority of the Saint Thomas Christians in the Malabar region of India.
Priests
The priest (Kasheesho) is the seventh rank and is the one duly appointed to administer the sacraments. Unlike in the Catholic Church, Syriac deacons may marry before ordained as priests; they cannot marry after ordained as priests. There is an honorary rank among the priests that are Corepiscopos who has the privileges of "first among the priests" and is given a chain with a cross and specific vestment decorations. Corepiscopos is the highest rank a married man can be elevated to in the Syriac Orthodox Church. The ranks above the Corepiscopos are unmarried.
Deacons
In the Syriac Orthodox tradition, different ranks among the deacons are specifically assigned with particular duties. The six ranks of the diaconate are:
‘Ulmoyo (Faithful)
Mawdyono (Confessor of faith)
Mzamrono (Singer)
Quroyo or Korooyo (Reader)
Afudyaqno (Sub-deacon)
Evangeloyo (High deacon)
Masamsono (Full deacon)
Only a full deacon can take the censer during the Divine Liturgy to assist the priest. In Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, because of the lack of deacons, altar assistants who do not have a rank of deaconhood may assist the priest. Historically the Malankara Church was administered by a local chief called Archdeacon ("Arkadiyokon").
Deaconess
An ordained deaconess is entitled to enter the sanctuary only for cleaning, lighting the lamps and is limited to give Holy Communion to women and the children who are under the age of five. She can read scriptures, Holy Gospel in a public gathering. The name of deaconess can also be given to a choirgirl. Deaconess is not ordained as chanter before reaching fifteen years of age. The ministry of the deaconess assists the priest and deacon outside the altar including in the service of baptizing women and anointing them with holy chrism.
While this rank exists, it is rarely awarded.
Worship
Bible
Syriac Orthodox churches use the Peshitto (Syriac: simple, common) as its Bible. The New Testament books of this Bible are estimated to have been translated from Greek to Syriac between the late first century to the early third century AD. The Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated from Hebrew, probably in the second century. The New Testament of the Peshitta, which originally excluded certain disputed books, had become the standard by the early fifth century, replacing two early Syriac versions of the gospels.
Doctrine
The Syriac Orthodox Church theology is based on the Nicene Creed. The Syriac Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, that its metropolitans are the successors of Christ's Apostles, and that the Patriarch is the successor to Saint Peter on whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. The church accepted first three synods held at Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431), shaping the formulation and early interpretation of Christian doctrines. The Syriac Orthodox Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, a distinct communion of churches claiming to continue the patristic and apostolic Christology before the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. In terms of Christology, the Oriental Orthodox (Non-Chalcedonian) understanding is that Christ is "One Nature—the Logos Incarnate, of the full humanity and full divinity". Just as humans are of their mothers and fathers and not in their mothers and fathers, so too is the nature of Christ according to Oriental Orthodoxy. The Chalcedonian understanding is that Christ is "in two natures, full humanity and full divinity". This is the doctrinal difference that separated the Oriental Orthodox from the rest of Christendom. The church believes in the mystery of Incarnation and venerate Virgin Mary as Theotokos or Yoldath Aloho (Meaning: ‘Bearer of God’).
The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church gave a theological interpretation to the primacy of Saint Peter. They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the early Christian community. Ephrem, Aphrahat, and Maruthas unequivocally acknowledged the office of Peter. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of church buildings, marriages, ordinations etc., reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of faith of the church. The church does not believe in Papal Primacy as understood by the Roman See, rather, Petrine Primacy according to the ancient Syriac tradition. The church uses both Julian calendar and Gregorian calendar based on their regions and traditions they adapted.
Language
Syriac language, as the most prominent variant of Aramaic language in the Christian era, is used by the Syriac Orthodox Church in two basic forms: Classical Syriac is traditionally employed as the main liturgical and literary language, while Neo-Aramaic (Neo-Syriac) dialect known as Turoyo is spoken as the most common vernacular language.
Arabic had become the dominant language of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt by the 11th century. Syriac Orthodox clergy wrote in Arabic using Garshūni, a Syriac script in the 15th century and later adopted the Arabic script. An English missionary in the 1840s noted that the Arabic speech of the Syriacs was intermixed with Syriac vocabulary. They chose Arabic and Muslim-sounding names, while women had Biblical names.
Greek language was historically used (along with Syriac) in the earliest periods, during and after the separation (5th-6th century), but its use gradually declined.
English: Used Globally along with Syriac.
Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada are presently used in India. Suriyani Malayalam, also known as Karshoni or Syriac Malayalam, is a dialect of Malayalam written in a variant form of the Syriac alphabet which was popular among the Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasranis) of Kerala in India. It uses Malayalam grammar, the Maḏnḥāyā or "Eastern" Syriac script with special orthographic features, and vocabulary from Malayalam and East Syriac. This originated in the South Indian region of the Malabar Coast (modern-day Kerala). Until the 19th century, the script was widely used by Syrian Christians in Kerala.
Swedish, German, Dutch, Turkish, Spanish, Portuguese are used in diasporas along with Syriac.
Liturgy
The liturgical service is called Holy Qurobo in the Syriac language meaning "Eucharist". Liturgy of Saint James is celebrated on Sundays and special occasions. The Holy Eucharist consists of Gospel reading, Bible readings, prayers, and songs. The recitation of the Liturgy is performed according to with specific parts chanted by the presider, the lectors, the choir, and the congregated faithful, at certain times in unison. Apart from certain readings, prayers are sung in the form of chants and melodies. Hundreds of melodies remain preserved in the book known as Beth Gazo, the key reference to Syriac Orthodox church music.
Prayer
Syriac Orthodox clergy and laity follow a regimen of seven prayers a day that are said at fixed prayer times, in accordance with Psalm 119 (cf. Shehimo). According to the Syriac tradition, an ecclesiastical day starts at sunset and the Canonical hours are based on West Syriac Rite:
Evening or Ramsho prayer (Vespers)
Night prayer or Sootoro prayer (Compline)
Midnight or Lilyo prayer (Matins)
Morning or Saphro prayer (Prime or Lauds, 6 a.m.)
Third Hour or tloth sho`in prayer (Terce, 9 a.m.)
Sixth Hour or sheth sho`in prayer (Sext, noon)
Ninth Hour or tsha` sho'in prayer (None, 3 p.m.)
Sacraments
The seven Holy Sacraments of the church are:
Vestments
The clergy of the Syriac Orthodox Church has unique liturgical vestments with their order in the priesthood: the deacons, the priests, the chorbishops, the bishops, and the patriarch each have different vestments.
Bishops usually wear a black or a red robe with a red belt. They should not wear a red robe in the presence of the patriarch, who wears a red robe. Bishops visiting a diocese outside their jurisdiction also wear black robes in deference to the bishop of the diocese, who alone wears red robes. They carry a crosier stylised with serpents representing the staff of Moses during sacraments. Corepiscopos wear a black or a purple robe with a purple belt. Bishops and corepiscopos have hand-held crosses.
A priest also wears a phiro, or a cap, which he must wear for the public prayers. Monks also wear eskimo, a hood. Priests also have ceremonial shoes which are called msone. Without wearing these shoes, a priest cannot distribute Eucharist to the faithful. Then there is a white robe called kutino symbolizing purity. Hamniko or stole is worn over this white robe. Then he wears a girdle called zenoro, and zende, meaning sleeves. If the celebrant is a bishop, he wears a masnapto, or turban (different from the turbans worn by Sikh men). A cope called phayno is worn over these vestments. Batrashil, or pallium, is worn over the phayno by bishops, like hamnikho worn by priests. The priest's usual dress is a black robe. In India, due to the hot weather, priests usually wear white robes except during prayers in the church, when they wear a black robe over the white one. Deacons wear a phiro, white kutino(robe) and of rank Quroyo and higher wear an uroro 'stole' in various shapes according to their rank. The deaconess wears a stole (uroro) hanging down from the shoulder in the manner of an archdeacon.
Global presence
Demography
The Patriarchate was initially established in Antioch (present-day Syria, Turkey, and Iraq), due to the persecutions by Romans followed by Muslim Arabs, the Patriarchate was seated in Mor Hananyo Monastery, Mardin, in the Ottoman Empire (1160–1933); following Homs (1933–1959); and Damascus, Syria, since 1959. Historically, the followers of the church are mainly ethnic Syriacs who comprise the indigenous pre-Arab populations of modern Syria, Iraq and southeastern Turkey.
A diaspora has also spread from the Levant, Iraq, and Turkey throughout the world, notably in Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria, France, United States, Canada, Guatemala, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand.
The church's members are divided into 26 Archdioceses, and 13 Patriarchal Vicariates.
It is estimated that the church has 600,000 Syriac adherents, in addition to 2 million members of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church and their own ethnic diaspora in India. Additionally, there is also a large Syriac community among Mayan converts in Guatemala and South America numbering up to 1.5 million. According to scholar James Minahan around 26% of the Assyrian people belong to the Syriac Orthodox Church.
The number of Syriacs in Turkey is rising, due to refugees from Syria and Iraq fleeing ISIS, as well as Syriacs from the Diaspora who fled the region during the Turkey-PKK conflict (since 1978) returning and rebuilding their homes. The village of Kafro was populated by Syriacs from Germany and Switzerland.
In the Syriac diaspora, there are approximately 80,000 members in the United States, 80,000 in Sweden, 100,000 in Germany, 15,000 in the Netherlands, 200,000 members in Brazil, Switzerland, and Austria.
Jurisdiction of the patriarchate
The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch originally covered the whole region of the Middle East and India. In recent centuries, its parishioners started to emigrate to other countries over the world. Today, the Syriac Orthodox Church has several archdioceses and patriarchal vicariates (exarchates) in many countries covering six continents.
Patron: The Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, the Supreme Head of the Universal Syriac Orthodox Church Ignatius Aphrem II.
Patriarchal Seat: Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus, Syria
Headquarters and patriarchal office: Damascus
Americas
The presence of the Syrian Orthodox faithful in America dates back to the late 19th century.
North America
Patriarchal Vicariate of Eastern United States
Patriarchal Vicariate of Western United States
Malankara Archdiocese of North America
Patriarchal Vicariate of Canada.
Central America
In the Guatemala region, a Charismatic movement emerged in 2003 was excommunicated in 2006 by the Roman Catholic Church later joined the church in 2013. Members of this archdiocese are Mayan in origin and live in rural areas, and display charismatic-type practices.
Archdiocese of Central America, the Caribbean Islands and Venezuela
South America
Patriarchal Vicariate of Argentina
Patriarchal Vicariate of Brazil
Eurasia
Middle East regions
Syria
Lebanon
Holy Land
Iraq
Turkey
UAE
Syriac Orthodox Church in the Middle East and the diaspora, numbering between 150,000 and 200,000 people in their indigenous area of habitation in Syria, Iraq, and Turkey according to estimations.
The community formed and developed in the Middle Ages. The Syriac Orthodox Christians of the Middle East speak Aramaic.
Archbishoprics in the Middle East include regions of Jazirah, Euphrates, Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Baghdad, Basrah, Diyarbakır, Mosul, Kirkuk, Kurdistan, Mount Lebanon, Beirut, Istanbul, Ankara and Adiyaman, Israel, Palestine, Jordan.
Patriarchal Vicariates in the Middle East includes Damascus, Mardin, Turabdin, Zahle, UAE and the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.
India
Syriac Orthodox Church of Malankara (India)
The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, one of the various Saint Thomas Christian churches in India, is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church, with the Patriarch of Antioch as its supreme head. The local head of the church in Malankara (Kerala) is Baselios Thomas I, ordained by Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas in 2002 and accountable to the Patriarch of Antioch. The headquarters of the church in India is at Puthencruz near Ernakulam in the state of Kerala in South India. Simhasana Churches and Honavar Mission is under the direct control of Patriarch. Historically, the St. Thomas Christians were part of the Church of the East, based in Persia which was under the Patriarch of Antioch until Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon(410 AD.) and reunited with Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch since 1652. Syriac monks Mar Sabor and Mar Proth arrived at Malankara between the eighth and ninth centuries from Persia. They established churches in Quilon, Kadamattom, Kayamkulam, Udayamperoor, and Akaparambu.
The Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church is an independent reformed church under the jurisdiction of Marthoma Metropolitan and its first Reforming Metropolitan Mathews Athanasius was ordained by Ignatius Elias II in 1842. Catholicate was re-established in Malankara in 1912 by Ignatius Abded Mshiho II by the consecration of Paulose I as first Catholicos. Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church accepts the Patriarch of Antioch only as its spiritual Father as stated by the constitution of 1934.
Knanaya Archdiocese
The Knanaya Syriac Orthodox Church is an archdiocese under the guidance and direction of Archbishop Severious Kuriakose with the patriarch as its spiritual head. They are the followers of the Syrian merchant Knāy Thoma (Thomas of Cana) in the fourth or eighth century, while another legend traces their origin to Jews in the Middle East.
Evangelistic Association of the East
E.A.E Arch Diocese is the missionary association of Syriac Orthodox Church founded in 1924 by Geevarghese Athunkal Cor-Episcopa at Perumbavoor. This archdiocese is under the direct control of the patriarch under the guidance of Chrysostomos Markose, It is an organization with churches, educational institutions, orphanages, old age homes, convents, publications, mission centers, gospel teams, care missions, and a missionary training institute. It is registered in 1949 under the Indian Societies Registration Act. XXI of 1860 (Reg. No. S.8/1949ESTD 1924).
Europe
Earlier in the 20th century many Syrian Orthodox immigrated to Western Europe diaspora, located in the Sweden, Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland for economic and political reasons. Dayro d-Mor Ephrem in Netherlands is the first Syriac Orthodox monastery in Europe established in 1981. Dayro d-Mor Awgen, Arth, Switzerland,Dayro d-Mor Ya`qub d-Sarug, Warburg, Germany are the other monasteries located in Europe.
Patriarchal Vicariates:
Belgium, France and Luxembourg
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland and Austria
United Kingdom
Oceania
Australia and New Zealand
Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand under Archbishop Malatius Malki Malki.
Institutions
The church has various seminaries, colleges, and other institutions. Patriarch Aphrem I Barsoum established St. Aphrem's Clerical School in 1934 in Zahlé. In 1946, the school was moved to Mosul, where it provided the church with a selection of graduates, the first among them being Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and many other church leaders. In 1990, the Order of St. Jacob Baradaeus was established for nuns. Seminaries have been instituted in Sweden and in Salzburg for the study of Syriac theology, history, language, and culture. Happy Child House project started in 2019 provides childcare services in Damascus, Syria.
The church has an international Christian education center for religious education.
The Antioch Syrian University was established on 8 September 2018 in Maarat Saidnaya, near Damascus.
The university is offering engineering, management and economics courses.
Ecumenical relations
The Syriac Orthodox Church is active in ecumenical dialogues with various churches, including the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Anglican Communion, Syriac Church of the East, and other Christian denominations. The Church is an active member of the World Council of Churches since 1960 and Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas was one of the former presidents of WCC. It has also been involved in the Middle East Council of Churches since 1974. There are common Christological and pastoral agreements with the Catholic Church by the 20th century as the Chalcedonian schism was not seen with the same relevance, and from several meetings between the authorities of the Catholic Church and the Oriental Orthodoxy, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statements of the Patriarch Ignatius Jacob III and Pope Paul VI in 1971, Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and Pope John Paul II in 1984:
The precise differences in theology that caused the Chalcedonian controversy is said to have arisen "only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter", according to a common declaration statement between Patriarch Ignatius Jacob III and Pope Paul VI on Wednesday 27 October 1971. In 2015, Pope Francis addressed the Syriac Orthodox Church as "a Church of Martyrs " welcoming the visit of Ignatius Aphrem II to Holy See. In 2015, Ignatius Aphrem II visited Patriarch Kirill of Moscow of the Russian Orthodox Church and discussed prospects of bilateral and theological dialogue existing since the late 1980s.
Since 1998, representatives of SOC, together with representatives of other Oriental Orthodox Churches, participate in the Ecumenical dialogue, and also in various forms of the Interfaith dialogue.
Communities
Syrians/Syriacs originating from Middle East
Turabdin in Turkey, former Syriac cultural heartland
Saffron Monastery, important site in Turabdin
Saint Thomas Christians in India
Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church
Catholicos of India (Maphrian)
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church)
Mar Thoma Syrian Church
Södertälje, Swedish town with many Syriac people and churches
Guatemalans (recent convert activity)
Notable people
Matthew Nakkar (1795-1868) a Bishop of the Syriac Orthodox Church
See also
Dioceses of the Syriac Orthodox Church
List of Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch
Naheere
Oriental Orthodoxy
Patriarchate of Alexandria
Miaphysitism, Cyril of Alexandria's Christology
Syriac Christianity
Syriac Catholic Church
Chaldean Catholic Church
Church of the East
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Ecumenical relations with the Catholic Church
Pope Benedict XIV, Allatae Sunt (On the observance of Oriental Rites), Encyclical, 1755
Addresses of Pope Paul VI and His Holiness Mar Ignatius Jacob III, 1971
Common Declaration of Pope John Paul II and His Holiness Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, 1984
Address of John Paul II on Occasion of the Visit to the Catholicos of the Malankarese Syrian Orthodox Church, 1986
Address of His Holiness Pope Francis to His Holiness Mor Ignatius Aphrem II Syriac orthodox patriarch of Antioch and all the East, 19 June 2015
External links
Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate (Official website)
Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate (Union between Christians)
Department of Syriac Studies
Media
Syriac religious TV channel of Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch
Syriac Liturgy description and photos
Syriac Music Online
YouTube video of a Palm Sunday Mass
Relating to Syriac Orthodox Church
Margonitho: Syriac Orthodox Resources
Relating to Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church
News Site Of Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church
Malankara Vision: TV Of Jacobite Syrian Church
Radio Malankara: Radio of Jacobite Syrian Church
Christian denominations established in the 6th century
6th-century establishments in Asia
Eastern Christianity
International Christian organizations
Organizations based in Damascus | [
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219284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryobiology | Cryobiology | Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in science. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words κρῧος [kryos], "cold", βίος [bios], "life", and λόγος [logos], "word" (hence science). In practice, cryobiology is the study of biological material or systems at temperatures below normal. Materials or systems studied may include proteins, cells, tissues, organs, or whole organisms. Temperatures may range from moderately hypothermic conditions to cryogenic temperatures.
Areas of study
At least six major areas of cryobiology can be identified: 1) study of cold-adaptation of microorganisms, plants (cold hardiness), and animals, both invertebrates and vertebrates (including hibernation), 2) cryopreservation of cells, tissues, gametes, and embryos of animal and human origin for (medical) purposes of long-term storage by cooling to temperatures below the freezing point of water. This usually requires the addition of substances which protect the cells during freezing and thawing (cryoprotectants), 3) preservation of organs under hypothermic conditions for transplantation, 4) lyophilization (freeze-drying) of pharmaceuticals, 5) cryosurgery, a (minimally) invasive approach for the destruction of unhealthy tissue using cryogenic gases/fluids, and 6) physics of supercooling, ice nucleation/growth and mechanical engineering aspects of heat transfer during cooling and warming, as applied to biological systems. Cryobiology would include cryonics, the low temperature preservation of humans and mammals with the intention of future revival, although this is not part of mainstream cryobiology, depending heavily on speculative technology yet to be invented. Several of these areas of study rely on cryogenics, the branch of physics and engineering that studies the production and use of very low temperatures.
Cryopreservation in nature
Many living organisms are able to tolerate prolonged periods of time at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Most living organisms accumulate cryoprotectants such as antinucleating proteins, polyols, and glucose to protect themselves against frost damage by sharp ice crystals. Most plants, in particular, can safely reach temperatures of −4 °C to −12 °C.
Bacteria
Three species of bacteria, Carnobacterium pleistocenium, Chryseobacterium greenlandensis, and Herminiimonas glaciei, have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.
Certain bacteria, notably Pseudomonas syringae, produce specialized proteins that serve as potent ice nucleators, which they use to force ice formation on the surface of various fruits and plants at about −2 °C. The freezing causes injuries in the epithelia and makes the nutrients in the underlying plant tissues available to the bacteria. Listeria grows slowly in temperatures as low as -1.5 °C and persists for some time in frozen foods.
Plants
Many plants undergo a process called hardening which allows them to survive temperatures below 0 °C for weeks to months.
Animals
Invertebrates
Nematodes that survive below 0 °C include Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Panagrolaimus davidi. Cockroach nymphs (Periplaneta japonica) survive short periods of freezing at -6 to -8 °C. The red flat bark beetle (Cucujus clavipes) can survive after being frozen to -150 °C. The fungus gnat Exechia nugatoria can survive after being frozen to -50 °C, by a unique mechanism whereby ice crystals form in the body but not the head. Another freeze-tolerant beetle is Upis ceramboides. See insect winter ecology and antifreeze protein. Another invertebrate that is briefly tolerant to temperatures down to -273 °C is the tardigrade.
The larvae of Haemonchus contortus, a nematode, can survive 44 weeks frozen at -196 °C.
Vertebrates
For the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), in the winter, as much as 45% of its body may freeze and turn to ice. "Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze, the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins and glucose, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration." The wood frog can survive up to 11 days frozen at -4 °C.
Other vertebrates that survive at body temperatures below 0 °C include painted turtles (Chrysemys picta), gray tree frogs (Hyla versicolor), box turtles (Terrapene carolina - 48 hours at -2 °C), spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer), garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis- 24 hours at -1.5 °C), the chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Siberian salamander (Salamandrella keyserlingii - 24 hours at -15.3 °C), European common lizard (Lacerta vivipara) and Antarctic fish such as Pagothenia borchgrevinki. Antifreeze proteins cloned from such fish have been used to confer frost-resistance on transgenic plants.
Hibernating Arctic ground squirrels may have abdominal temperatures as low as −2.9 °C (26.8 °F), maintaining subzero abdominal temperatures for more than three weeks at a time, although the temperatures at the head and neck remain at 0 °C or above.
Applied cryobiology
Historical background
Cryobiology history can be traced back to antiquity. As early as in 2500 BC, low temperatures were used in Egypt in medicine. The use of cold was recommended by Hippocrates to stop bleeding and swelling. With the emergence of modern science, Robert Boyle studied the effects of low temperatures on animals.
In 1949, bull semen was cryopreserved for the first time by a team of scientists led by Christopher Polge. This led to a much wider use of cryopreservation today, with many organs, tissues and cells routinely stored at low temperatures. Large organs such as hearts are usually stored and transported, for short times only, at cool but not freezing temperatures for transplantation. Cell suspensions (like blood and semen) and thin tissue sections can sometimes be stored almost indefinitely in liquid nitrogen temperature (cryopreservation). Human sperm, eggs, and embryos are routinely stored in fertility research and treatments. Controlled-rate and slow freezing are well established techniques pioneered in the early 1970s which enabled the first human embryo frozen birth (Zoe Leyland) in 1984. Since then, machines that freeze biological samples using programmable steps, or controlled rates, have been used all over the world for human, animal, and cell biology – 'freezing down' a sample to better preserve it for eventual thawing, before it is deep frozen, or cryopreserved, in liquid nitrogen. Such machines are used for freezing oocytes, skin, blood products, embryo, sperm, stem cells, and general tissue preservation in hospitals, veterinary practices, and research labs. The number of live births from 'slow frozen' embryos is some 300,000 to 400,000 or 20% of the estimated 3 million in vitro fertilized births. Dr Christopher Chen, Australia, reported the world’s first pregnancy using slow-frozen oocytes from a British controlled-rate freezer in 1986.
Cryosurgery (intended and controlled tissue destruction by ice formation) was carried out by James Arnott in 1845 in an operation on a patient with cancer. Cryosurgery is not common.
Preservation techniques
Cryobiology as an applied science is primarily concerned with low-temperature preservation. Hypothermic storage is typically above 0 °C but below normothermic (32 °C to 37 °C) mammalian temperatures. Storage by cryopreservation, on the other hand, will be in the −80 to −196 °C temperature range. Organs, and tissues are more frequently the objects of hypothermic storage, whereas single cells have been the most common objects cryopreserved.
A rule of thumb in hypothermic storage is that every 10 °C reduction in temperature is accompanied by a 50% decrease in oxygen consumption. Although hibernating animals have adapted mechanisms to avoid metabolic imbalances associated with hypothermia, hypothermic organs, and tissues being maintained for transplantation require special preservation solutions to counter acidosis, depressed sodium pump activity. and increased intracellular calcium. Special organ preservation solutions such as Viaspan (University of Wisconsin solution), HTK, and Celsior have
been designed for this purpose. These solutions also contain ingredients to minimize damage by free radicals, prevent edema, compensate for ATP loss, etc.
Cryopreservation of cells is guided by the "two-factor hypothesis" of American cryobiologist Peter Mazur, which states that excessively rapid cooling kills cells by intracellular ice formation and excessively slow cooling kills cells by either electrolyte toxicity or mechanical crushing. During slow cooling, ice forms extracellularly, causing water to osmotically leave cells, thereby dehydrating them. Intracellular ice can be much more damaging than extracellular ice.
For red blood cells, the optimum cooling rate is very rapid (nearly 100 °C per second), whereas for stem cells the optimum cooling rate is very slow (1 °C per minute). Cryoprotectants, such as dimethyl sulfoxide and glycerol, are used to protect cells from freezing. A variety of cell types are protected by 10% dimethyl sulfoxide. Cryobiologists attempt to optimize cryoprotectant concentration (minimizing both ice formation and toxicity) and cooling rate. Cells may be cooled at an optimum rate to a temperature between −30 and −40 °C before being plunged into liquid nitrogen.
Slow cooling methods rely on the fact that cells contain few nucleating agents, but contain naturally occurring vitrifying substances that can prevent ice formation in cells that have been moderately dehydrated. Some cryobiologists are seeking mixtures of cryoprotectants for full vitrification (zero ice formation) in preservation of cells, tissues, and organs. Vitrification methods pose a challenge in the requirement to search for cryoprotectant mixtures that can minimize toxicity.
In humans
Human gametes and two-, four- and eight-cell embryos can survive cryopreservation at -196 °C for 10 years under well-controlled laboratory conditions.
Cryopreservation in humans with regards to infertility involves preservation of embryos, sperm, or oocytes via freezing. Conception, in vitro, is attempted when the sperm is thawed and introduced to the 'fresh' eggs, the frozen eggs are thawed and sperm is placed with the eggs and together they are placed back into the uterus or a frozen embryo is introduced to the uterus. Vitrification has flaws and is not as reliable or proven as freezing fertilized sperm, eggs, or embryos as traditional slow freezing methods because eggs alone are extremely sensitive to temperature. Many researchers are also freezing ovarian tissue in conjunction with the eggs in hopes that the ovarian tissue can be transplanted back into the uterus, stimulating normal ovulation cycles. In 2004, Donnez of Louvain in Belgium reported the first successful ovarian birth from frozen ovarian tissue. In 1997, samples of ovarian cortex were taken from a woman with Hodgkin's lymphoma and cryopreserved in a (Planer, UK) controlled-rate freezer and then stored in liquid nitrogen. Chemotherapy was initiated after the patient had premature ovarian failure. In 2003, after freeze-thawing, orthotopic autotransplantation of ovarian cortical tissue was done by laparoscopy and after five months, reimplantation signs indicated recovery of regular ovulatory cycles. Eleven months after reimplantation, a viable intrauterine pregnancy was confirmed, which resulted in the first such live birth – a girl named Tamara.
Therapeutic hypothermia, e.g. during heart surgery on a "cold" heart (generated by cold perfusion without any ice formation) allows for much longer operations and improves recovery rates for patients.
Scientific societies
The Society for Cryobiology was founded in 1964 to bring together those from the biological, medical, and physical sciences who have a common interest in the effects of low temperatures on biological systems. As of 2007, the Society for Cryobiology had about 280 members from around the world, and one-half of them are US-based. The purpose of the Society is to promote scientific research in low temperature biology, to improve scientific understanding in this field, and to disseminate and apply this knowledge to the benefit of mankind. The Society requires of all its members the highest ethical and scientific standards in the performance of their professional activities. According to the Society's bylaws, membership may be refused to applicants whose conduct is deemed detrimental to the Society; in 1982, the bylaws were amended explicitly to exclude "any practice or application of freezing deceased persons in the anticipation of their reanimation", over the objections of some members who were cryonicists, such as Jerry Leaf. The Society organizes an annual scientific meeting dedicated to all aspects of low-temperature biology. This international meeting offers opportunities for presentation and discussion of the most up-to-date research in cryobiology, as well as reviewing specific aspects through symposia and workshops. Members are also kept informed of news and forthcoming meetings through the Society newsletter, News Notes. The 2011–2012 president of the Society for Cryobiology was John H. Crowe.
The Society for Low Temperature Biology was founded in 1964 and became a registered charity in 2003 with the purpose of promoting research into the effects of low temperatures on all types of organisms and their constituent cells, tissues, and organs. As of 2006, the society had around 130 (mostly British and European) members and holds at least one annual general meeting. The program usually includes both a symposium on a topical subject and a session of free communications on any aspect of low-temperature biology. Recent symposia have included long-term stability, preservation of aquatic organisms, cryopreservation of embryos and gametes, preservation of plants, low-temperature microscopy, vitrification (glass formation of aqueous systems during cooling), freeze drying and tissue banking. Members are informed through the Society Newsletter, which is presently published three times a year.
Journals
Cryobiology (publisher: Elsevier) is the foremost scientific publication in this area, with about 60 refereed contributions published each year. Articles concern any aspect of low-temperature biology and medicine (e.g. freezing, freeze-drying, hibernation, cold tolerance and adaptation, cryoprotective compounds, medical applications of reduced temperature, cryosurgery, hypothermia, and perfusion of organs).
Cryo Letters is an independent UK-based rapid communication journal which publishes papers on the effects produced by low temperatures on a wide variety of biophysical and biological processes, or studies involving low-temperature techniques in the investigation of biological and ecological topics.
Biopreservation and Biobanking (formerly Cell Preservation Technology) is a peer-reviewed quarterly scientific journal published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. dedicated to the diverse spectrum of preservation technologies including cryopreservation, dry-state (anhydrobiosis), and glassy-state and hypothermic maintenance. Cell Preservation Technology has been renamed Biopreservation and Biobanking and is the official journal of International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories.
See also
Cryptobiosis
References
External links
Cell Preservation Technology
Cellular cryobiology and anhydrobiology
An overview of the science behind cryobiology at the Science Creative Quarterly
Phase transitions
Cryogenics
Cryonics | [
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219287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20person | Legal person | In law, a legal person is any person or 'thing' (less ambiguously, any legal entity) that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into contracts, sue and be sued, own property, and so on. The reason for the term "legal person" is that some legal persons are not people: companies and corporations are "persons" legally speaking (they can legally do most of the things an ordinary person can do), but they are clearly not people in the ordinary sense.
There are therefore two kinds of legal entities: human and non-human. In law, a human person is called a natural person (sometimes also a physical person), and a non-human person is called a juridical person (sometimes also a juridic, juristic, artificial, legal, or fictitious person, ).
Juridical persons are entities such as corporations, firms (in some jurisdictions), and many government agencies. They are treated in law as if they were persons.
While natural persons acquire legal personality "naturally", simply by being born (or before that, in some jurisdictions), juridical persons must have legal personality conferred on them by some "unnatural", legal process, and it is for this reason that they are sometimes called "artificial" persons. In the most common case (incorporating a business), legal personality is usually acquired by registration with a government agency set up for the purpose. In other cases it may be by primary legislation: an example is the Charity Commission in the UK. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 advocates for the provision of legal identity for all, including birth registration by 2030 as part of the 2030 Agenda.
As legal personality is a prerequisite to legal capacity (the ability of any legal person to amend – i.e. enter into, transfer, etc. – rights and obligations), it is a prerequisite for an international organization to be able to sign international treaties in its own name.
The term "legal person" can be ambiguous because it is often used as a synonym of terms that refer only to non-human legal entities, specifically in contradistinction to "natural person".
Juridical persons
Artificial personality, juridical personality, or juristic personality is the characteristic of a non-living entity regarded by law as having the status of personhood.
A juridical or artificial person (; also juristic person) has a legal name and has certain rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and liabilities in law, similar to those of a natural person. The concept of a juridical person is a fundamental legal fiction. It is pertinent to the philosophy of law, as it is essential to laws affecting a corporation (corporations law).
Juridical personhood allows one or more natural persons (universitas personarum) to act as a single entity (body corporate) for legal purposes. In many jurisdictions, artificial personality allows that entity to be considered under law separately from its individual members (for example in a company limited by shares, its shareholders). They may sue and be sued, enter into contracts, incur debt, and own property. Entities with legal personality may also be subjected to certain legal obligations, such as the payment of taxes. An entity with legal personality may shield its members from personal liability.
In some common law jurisdictions a distinction is drawn between corporation aggregate (such as a company, which is composed of a number of members) and a corporation sole, which is a public office of legal personality separated from the individual holding the office (these entities have separate legal personality). Historically most corporations sole were ecclesiastical in nature (for example, the office of the Archbishop of Canterbury is a corporation sole), but a number of other public offices are now formed as corporations sole.
The concept of juridical personality is not absolute. "Piercing the corporate veil" refers to looking at the individual natural persons acting as agents involved in a company action or decision; this may result in a legal decision in which the rights or duties of a corporation or public limited company are treated as the rights or liabilities of that corporation's members or directors.
The concept of a juridical person is now central to Western law in both common-law and civil-law countries, but it is also found in virtually every legal system.
Examples
Some examples of juridical persons include:
Cooperatives (co-ops), business organization owned and democratically operated by a group of individuals for their mutual benefit
Corporations are bodies corporate created by statute or charter. A corporation sole is a corporation constituted by a single member, in a particular capacity, and that person's successors in the same capacity, in order to give them some legal benefit or advantage, particularly that of perpetuity, which a natural person could not have had. Examples are a religious officiant in that capacity, or The Crown in the Commonwealth realms. A corporation aggregate is a corporation constituted by more than one member.
Municipal corporations (municipalities) are "creatures of statute". Other organizations may be created by statute as legal persons, including European economic interest groupings (EEIGs).
Unincorporated associations, that is aggregates of two or more persons, are treated as juridical persons in some jurisdictions but not others.
Partnerships, an aggregate of two or more persons to carry on a business in common for profit and created by agreement. Traditionally, partnerships did not have continuing legal personality, but many jurisdictions now treat them as having an independent legal personality.
Companies are corporations – the term often refers to a business association that carries on an industrial enterprise, although companies may take other forms, such as trade unions, unlimited companies, trusts, and funds. Limited liability companies—be they a private company limited by guarantee, private company limited by shares, or public limited company—are entities having certain characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership. Different types have a complex variety of advantages and disadvantages.
Sovereign states are legal persons.
In the international legal system, various organizations possess legal personality. These include intergovernmental organizations (the United Nations, the Council of Europe) and some other international organizations (including the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, a religious order).
The European Union (EU) has legal personality since the Lisbon Treaty entered into force on 1 December 2009. That the EU has legal personality is a prerequisite for the EU to join the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). However, in 2014, the EU decided not to be bound by the rulings of the European Court of Human Rights.
Temples, in some legal systems, have separate legal personality.
The Whanganui River was granted legal personality in March 2017 under New Zealand law because the Whanganui Māori tribe regard the river as their ancestor.
Also, in March 2017, the High Court of Uttarakhand declared the Ganges River a legal "person" in a move that according to one newspaper, "could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers". As of 6 April 2017, the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce, with assertions that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits, that the ruling is "hardly game changing", that experts believe "any follow-up action is unlikely", and that the "judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter".
Not all organizations have legal personality. For example, the board of directors of a corporation, legislature, or governmental agency typically are not legal persons in that they have no ability to exercise legal rights independent of the corporation or political body which they are a part of.
History
The concept of legal personhood for organizations of people is at least as old as Ancient Rome: a variety of collegial institutions enjoyed the benefit under Roman law.
The doctrine has been attributed to Pope Innocent IV, who seems at least to have helped spread the idea of persona ficta as it is called in Latin. In canon law, the doctrine of persona ficta allowed monasteries to have a legal existence that was apart from the monks, simplifying the difficulty in balancing the need for such groups to have infrastructure though the monks took vows of personal poverty. Another effect of this was that, as a fictional person, a monastery could not be held guilty of delict due to not having a soul, helping to protect the organization from non-contractual obligations to surrounding communities. This effectively moved such liability to persons acting within the organization while protecting the structure itself, since persons were considered to have a soul and therefore capable of negligence and able to be excommunicated.
In the common law tradition, only a person could possess legal rights. To allow them to function, the legal personality of a corporation was established to include five legal rights—the right to a common treasury or chest (including the right to own property), the right to a corporate seal (i.e., the right to make and sign contracts), the right to sue and be sued (to enforce contracts), the right to hire agents (employees) and the right to make by-laws (self-governance).
Since the 19th century, legal personhood has been further construed to make it a citizen, resident, or domiciliary of a state (usually for purposes of personal jurisdiction). In Louisville, C. & C.R. Co. v. Letson, 2 How. 497, 558, 11 L.Ed. 353 (1844), the U.S. Supreme Court held that for the purposes of the case at hand, a corporation is "capable of being treated as a citizen of [the State which created it], as much as a natural person." Ten years later, they reaffirmed the result of Letson, though on the somewhat different theory that "those who use the corporate name, and exercise the faculties conferred by it," should be presumed conclusively to be citizens of the corporation's State of incorporation. Marshall v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 16 How. 314, 329, 14 L.Ed. 953 (1854). These concepts have been codified by statute, as U.S. jurisdictional statutes specifically address the domicile of corporations.
American sample cases
In U.S. v. The Cooper Corp., (1941) the court held that the United States government, as a juristic person, could sue under the Sherman Act. Section 7 of the act granted the right to sue only to persons. The corporate defendant, which was accused of illegally conspiring and colluding to raise prices on tires, argued that the U.S. government didn't have power to enforce the act because the government wasn't a person. The court held that the term "person" includes the U.S. Government, and allowed the action against the collusive corporations to continue.
In Cook County v. U.S. ex rel Chandler, (2003) the county was accused of violating a law which forbids "any person" from falsely obtaining research funds from the government. The county received a $5 million grant, but used it to conduct inappropriate tests on human subjects. The county argued that it could not be held liable because it was not a person. The court held that the county could be sued under the law as a legal person.
In Rowland v. California Men's Colony, Unit II Men's Advisory Council, (1993) the court declined to extend certain rights to legal persons. The association of prisoners sought to proceed in forma pauperis. The court held that the right to sue in forma pauperis existed only for natural persons, not legal persons.
Rights and responsibilities
Brazil
The term juridical person ("pessoa jurídica" in Portuguese) is used in legal science for designating an entity with rights and liabilities which also has legal personality. Its regulations are largely based on Brazil's Civil Code, where it is distinctly recognized and defined, among other normative documents.
Brazilian law recognizes any association or abstract entity as a juridical person, but a registry is required through a Constitutional Document, with specifications depending on the category of Juridical Person and local law of state and city.
China
For a typical example of the concept of legal person in a civil law jurisdiction, under the General Principles of Civil Law of the People's Republic of China, Chapter III, Article 36., "A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law." Note however that the term civil right means something altogether different in civil law jurisdictions than in common law jurisdictions.
Germany
Article 19(3) of the German Constitution sets forth: "Fundamental rights shall also apply to domestic artificial persons insofar as the nature of such rights shall permit."
India
Indian law defines two types of "legal person", the human beings as well as certain non-human entities which are given the same legal judicial personality as human beings. The non-human entities given the "legal person" status by the law "have rights and co-relative duties; they can sue and be sued, can possess and transfer property". Since these non-human entities are "voiceless" they are legally represented "through guardians and representatives" to claim their legal rights and to fulfill their legal duties and responsibilities. Specific non-human entities given the status of "legal person" include "corporate personality, body politic, charitable unions etc," as well as trust estates, deities, temples, churches, mosques, hospitals, universities, colleges, banks, railways, municipalities, and gram panchayats (village councils), rivers, all animals and birds.
Corporates and trusts
In court cases regarding corporate, the shareholders are not responsible for the company's debts but the company itself being a "legal person" is liable to repay those debts or be sued for the non-repayment of debts.
Animal kingdom
In court cases regarding animals, the animals have the status of "legal person" and humans have the legal duty to act as "loco parentis" towards animals welfare like a parent has towards the minor children. A court while deciding the "Animal Welfare Board of India vs Nagaraja" case in 2014 mandated that animals are also entitled to the fundamental right to freedom enshrined in the Article 21 of Constitution of India i.e. right to life, personal liberty and the right to die with dignity (passive euthanasia). In another case, a court in Uttarakhand state mandated that animals have the same rights as humans. In another case of cow-smuggling, the Punjab and Haryana High Court mandated that "entire animal kingdom including avian and aquatic" species has a "distinct legal persona with corresponding rights, duties, and liabilities of a living person" and humans are "loco parentis" while laying out the norms for animal welfare, veterinary treatment, fodder and shelter, e.g. animal drawn carriages must not have more than four humans, and load carrying animals must not be loaded beyond the specified limits and those limits must be halved when animals have to carry the load up a slope.
Religious deities
In court cases regarding religious entities, the deity (deity or god is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred) is also a "legal person" who can engage in legal cases through "trustees" or "managing board in charge of the temple". Supreme Court of India (SC), while deciding Ayodhya case of Ram Janmabhoomi, decided in 2010 that the deity Rama in the specific temple was a "legal entity" entitled to be represented by their own lawyer appointed by the trustees acting on behalf of the deity. Similarly, in 2018 SC decided that the deity Ayyappan is a "legal person" with "the right to privacy" in the court case regarding the entry of women to Sabarimala shrine of Lord Ayyapan.
Shebaitship
Under the Indian law, the "shebaitship" is the property owned by the deity or idol as a "legal person". Humans appointed to act on behalf of deity are called the "shebait". A shebait acts as the guardian or custodian of deity to protect the right of deity and fulfill the legal duties of the deity. Shebait is similar to a trustee in case the deity or temple does have a legally registered trust or entity. Under the Hindu Law property gifted or offered as rituals or donations, etc absolutely belongs to the deity and not to the shebait. Case example are "Profulla Chrone Requitte vs Satya Chorone Requitte, AIR 1979 SC 1682 (1686): (1979) 3 SCC 409: (1979) 3 SCR 431. (ii)" and "Shambhu Charan Shukla vs Thakur Ladli Radha Chandra Madan Gopalji Maharaj, AIR 1985 SC 905 (909): (1985) 2 SCC 524: (1985) 3 SCR 372".
Natural entities such as rivers
In court cases regarding natural entities, the Uttarakhand High Court, mandated that the river Ganges and Yamuna as well as all water bodies are "living entities" i.e. "legal person" and appointed three humans as trustees to protect the rights of rivers against the pollution caused by the humans, e.g. "pilgrims's bathing rituals".
Italy
In Italy trade unions have legal personality, as stated in Article 39, Paragraph 4 of the Constitution:
New Zealand
Section 28 of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides: "... the provisions of this Bill of Rights apply, so far as practicable, for the benefit of all legal persons as well as for the benefit of all natural persons."
United States
In part based on the principle that legal persons are simply organizations of natural persons, and in part based on the history of statutory interpretation of the word "person", the US Supreme Court has repeatedly held that certain constitutional rights protect legal persons (such as corporations and other organizations). Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad is sometimes cited for this finding because the court reporter's comments included a statement the Chief Justice made before oral arguments began, telling the attorneys during pre-trial that "the court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which forbids a State to deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does."
Later opinions interpreted these pre-argument comments as part of the legal decision. As a result, because of the First Amendment, Congress may not make a law restricting the free speech of a corporation or a political action group or dictating the coverage of a local newspaper, and because of the Due Process Clause, a state government may not take the property of a corporation without using due process of law and providing just compensation. These protections apply to all legal entities, not just corporations.
A prominent component of relevant case law is the Supreme Court decision Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, which ruled unconstitutional certain restrictions on corporate campaign spending during elections.
Popular culture
In Act II, Scene 1 of Gilbert and Sullivan's 1889 opera, The Gondoliers, Giuseppe Palmieri (who serves, jointly with his brother Marco, as King of Barataria) requests that he and his brother be also recognized individually so that they might each receive individual portions of food as they have "two independent appetites". He is, however, turned down by the Court (made up of fellow Gondolieri) because the joint rule "... is a legal person, and legal person are solemn things."
Points of law
Paul v. Virginia ("... in which the United States Supreme Court held that a corporation is not a citizen...")
Netscape Communications Corp. v. Konrad for what it means for two entities to be separate
See also
Corporate personhood
Environmental personhood
European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations
Institution
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 118
Natural person
Separate legal entity
References
Citations
Sources
Books
Journal articles
Legal entities (category)
Legal fictions
Corporate law
Financial law
Corporate personhood | [
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219288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%20New%20York%20World%27s%20Fair | 1939 New York World's Fair | The 1939–40 New York World's Fair was a world's fair held at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, New York, United States. It was the second-most expensive American world's fair of all time, exceeded only by St. Louis's Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904. Many countries around the world participated in it, and over 44 million people attended its exhibits in two seasons. It was the first exposition to be based on the future, with an opening slogan of "Dawn of a New Day", and it allowed all visitors to take a look at "the world of tomorrow".
When World War II began four months into the 1939 World's Fair, many exhibits were affected, especially those on display in the pavilions of countries under Axis occupation. After the close of the fair in 1940, many exhibits were demolished or removed, though some buildings were retained for the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair, held at the same site.
Planning
In 1935, at the height of the Great Depression, a group of New York City businessmen decided to create an international exposition to help lift the city and the country out of its economic woes. Not long after, these men formed the New York World's Fair Corporation, whose office was placed on one of the higher floors in the Empire State Building. The NYWFC, which elected former chief of police Grover Whalen as president, also included Winthrop Aldrich, Mortimer Buckner, Floyd Carlisle, Ashley T. Cole, John J. Dunnigan, Harvey Dow Gibson, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia, Percy S. Straus, and many other business leaders.
Over the next four years, the committee planned, built, and organized the fair and its exhibits, with countries around the world taking part in creating the biggest international event since World War I. Working closely with the Fair's committee was New York City Parks Commissioner Robert Moses, who saw great value to the city in having the World's Fair Corporation (at its expense) remove a vast ash dump in Queens that was to be the site for the exposition. This event turned the area into a City park after the exposition closed.
Edward Bernays directed public relations of the fair in 1939, which he called "democracity." Grover Whalen, a public relations innovator, saw the Fair as an opportunity for corporations to present consumer products, rather than as an exercise in presenting science and the scientific way of thinking in its own right, as Harold Urey, Albert Einstein, and other scientists wished to see the project. "As events transpired," reported Carl Sagan, whose own interest in science was nevertheless sparked by the Fair's gadgetry, "almost no real science was tacked on to the Fair's exhibits, despite the scientists' protests and their appeals to high principles."
Promotion of the Fair took many forms. During the 1938 Major League Baseball season, the Brooklyn Dodgers, New York Giants, and New York Yankees promoted the event by wearing patches on the left sleeve of their jerseys featuring the Trylon, Perisphere, and "1939." The same year, Howard Hughes flew a special World's Fair flight around the world to promote the fair.
While the main purpose of the fair was to lift the spirits of the United States and drive much-needed business to New York City, it was also felt that there should be a cultural or historical association. It was therefore decided for the opening to correspond to the 150th anniversary of George Washington's first inauguration as President of the United States, and WPA artists painted murals which appeared in The New York Times Magazine.
According to the official pamphlet:
Grand opening
On April 30, 1939, a very hot Sunday, the fair had its grand opening, with 206,000 people in attendance. The April 30 date coincided with the 150th anniversary of George Washington's inauguration, in Lower Manhattan, as the first President of the United States. Although many of the pavilions and other facilities were not quite ready for this opening, it was put on with pomp and great celebration.
Plans for the United States Navy Fleet to visit New York City for the opening of the fair following maneuvers in the Caribbean were canceled, however, due to aggressive moves being made by Japan in the South China Sea, and the fleet instead transferred to the Pacific via the Panama Canal in April.
David Sarnoff, then president of RCA and a strong advocate of television, chose to introduce television to the mass public at the RCA pavilion. As a reflection of the wide range of technological innovation on parade at the fair, Franklin D. Roosevelt's speech was not only broadcast over the various radio networks but also was televised along with other parts of the opening ceremony and other events at the fair. That day, the opening ceremony and President Roosevelt's speech were seen on black and white television sets with 5 to 12-inch tubes. NBC used the event to inaugurate regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York City over their station W2XBS (now WNBC). An estimated 1,000 people viewed the Roosevelt telecast on about 200 television sets scattered throughout the New York metropolitan area.
In order to convince skeptical visitors that the television sets were not a trick, one set was made with a transparent case so that the internal components could be seen. As part of the exhibit at the RCA pavilion, visitors could see themselves on television. There were also television demonstrations at the General Electric and Westinghouse pavilions. During this formal introduction at the fair, television sets became available for public purchase at various stores in the New York City area.
After Albert Einstein gave a speech that discussed cosmic rays, the fair's lights were ceremonially lit. Dignitaries received a special Opening Day Program which contained their names written in Braille.
Exhibits
One of the first exhibits to receive attention was the Westinghouse Time Capsule, which was not to be opened for 5 millennia (the year 6939). The time capsule was a tube containing writings by Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann, copies of Life Magazine, a Mickey Mouse watch, a Gillette safety razor, a kewpie doll, a dollar in change, a pack of Camel cigarettes, millions of pages of text on microfilm, and much more. The capsule also contained seeds of foods in common use at the time: (alfalfa, barley, carrots, corn, cotton, flax, oats, rice, soy beans, sugar beets, tobacco, and wheat, all sealed in glass tubes). The time capsule is located at , at a depth of . A small stone plaque marks the position. Westinghouse also featured "Elektro the Moto-Man": the tall robot that talked, differentiated colors, and even "smoked" cigarettes.
On July 3, 1940, the fair hosted "Superman Day". Notable was the crowning of the "Super-Boy and Super-Girl of the Day" following an athletic contest, and a public appearance by Superman, played by an unidentified man. Broadway actor Ray Middleton, who served as a judge for the contest, is often credited with having appeared in the Superman costume on Superman Day, but he did not; however, he may have played Superman during a live radio broadcast from the scene. Although the unknown man in the costume is often said to have been the first actor ever to play Superman, Bud Collyer had been performing the role on the Superman radio series since the preceding February.
The fair was also the occasion for the 1st World Science Fiction Convention, subsequently dubbed "Nycon 1".
Ralph Vaughan Williams composed his work for harp and string orchestra Five Variants of Dives and Lazarus on commission from the World's Fair. The first performance was at Carnegie Hall in June 1939, conducted by Adrian Boult. In addition, the British Council commissioned a piano concerto from Arthur Bliss for the British Week at the World's Fair. Adrian Boult conducted the New York Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra in Carnegie Hall on June 10, 1939, with Solomon as the soloist.
Ceramic sculptor Waylande Gregory created The Fountain of the Atom, which displayed the largest ceramic sculptures in modern times. It included the four Elements, each measuring high and each weighing over a ton. There were also eight electrons, which were illustrated in Life Magazine (March 1939). Gregory also created two exhibitions featuring his ceramic sculptures for the General Motors Building, American Imports and American Exports.
Nylon fabric, the View-Master, and Scentovision (an early version of Smell-O-Vision) were introduced at the Fair. Other exhibits included Vermeer's painting The Milkmaid from the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, a streamlined pencil sharpener, a diner (still in operation as the White Mana in Jersey City, New Jersey), a futuristic car-based city by General Motors, the first fully constructed computer game, and early televisions. There was also a huge globe/planetarium located near the center of the fair. Bell Labs' Voder, a keyboard-operated speech synthesizer, was demonstrated at the Fair.
Zones
The fair was divided into seven geographic or thematic zones, five of which had "Focal Exhibits", as well as two Focal Exhibits housed in their own buildings. Virtually every structure erected on the fairgrounds was architecturally distinguished, and many of them were experimental in many ways. Architects were encouraged by their corporate or government sponsors to be creative, energetic and innovative. Novel building designs, materials and furnishings were the norm. Many of the zones were arranged in a semicircular pattern, centered on the Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz-designed Theme Center, which consisted of two all-white, landmark monumental buildings named the Trylon (over tall) and the Perisphere which one entered by a moving stairway and exited via a grand curved walkway named the "Helicline". Inside the Perisphere was a "model city of tomorrow that visitors" viewed from a moving walkway high above the floor level. The zones were distinguished by many color cues, including different wall colors and tints and differently colored lighting.
The showcases were not only intended to get people to buy the sponsor's products, they were also intended to educate and inform the populace about basic materials and processes that were then very new and not well known. Many experimental product concepts and new materials were shown that were not currently available for purchase but became available in various ways over the next few years. In many ways, the fair pavilions more resembled a modern-day government-sponsored science fair exhibit than they resembled modern corporate advertising and sales promotions.
Communications and Business Systems Zone
Fairgoers walking to the north of the Theme Center on the Avenue of Patriots would encounter the Communications and Business Systems exhibits. The focal point of this area was the Communications Building, a large structure with a pair of pylons flanking it.
At the AT&T Pavilion the Voder, a mechanized, synthetic voice, spoke to attendees, foretelling the widespread use of electronic voices decades later. The Business Systems and Insurance Building, an L-shaped structure, housed numerous companies such as Aetna, MetLife, and IBM. In particular, the IBM pavilion displayed electric typewriters and an "electric calculator" that used punched cards.
Next door to these business exhibits, on the "Street of Wheels", was the "Masterpieces of Art" building housing 300 priceless works of the Old Masters, from the Middle Ages to 1800. Whalen and his team were able to borrow paintings and sculptures from Europe. Thirty five-galleries featured great works from DaVinci and Michelangelo to Rembrandt, from Hals to Caravaggio and Bellini.
Community Interest Zone
The Community Interest Zone was located just east of the Communications & Business Systems Zone. The region's exhibits showcased several trades or industries that were popular among the public at the time. It included buildings dedicated to home furnishings, plumbing, contemporary art, cosmetics, gardens, the gas industry, fashion, jewelry, and religion. Organizations such as the American Standard Companies, Christian Science, Johns Manville, Works Progress Administration, and YMCA also had buildings in the Community Interest Zone. In addition, there was also the "Electrified Farm", a working farm, and the Town of Tomorrow, which included 15 "demonstration homes" on a bowling green adjacent to the World's Fair station of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company.
Government Zone
The Government Zone was located at the east end of the fair, on the eastern bank of the Flushing River. It contained 21 pavilions, several smaller buildings, a centrally located Court of Peace, a Lagoon of Nations, and a smaller Court of States. The 60 foreign governments contributed a wide diversity of creatively designed pavilions housing a myriad of cultural offerings to fairgoers.
British Pavilion
The Pavilion of Great Britain and the British Colonial Empire consisted of two buildings with a first-floor connection. The copy of Magna Carta belonging to Lincoln Cathedral also left Britain in 1939 for the first time to be in the British Pavilion at the fair. Within months Britain joined World War II and it was deemed safer for it to remain in America until the end of hostilities. It therefore remained in Fort Knox, next to the original copy of the American constitution, until 1947. The pavilion included a collection of stamps celebrating Rowland Hill, and the 100th anniversary of the postage stamp. One of the stamps was the British Guiana 1c magenta.
French Pavilion
The French pavilion, on the Court of Peace that was the grand open space northeast of the Theme Center, was a two-story structure whose facade featured enormous windows with "majestic curves". After the fair closed and World War II ended, its French restaurant remained in New York City as Le Pavillon.
Greek Pavilion
The Greek pavilion was in the Hall of Nations and was a mirror of how the Metaxas quasi-fascist regime wanted to show Greece to the world. The interior rooms were designed by Nelly, the famous Greek photographer. Nelly's collages expressed four aspects of Greece: the legacy of ancient Greece, the Christian spirituality, picturesque landscapes and the Greek racial continuity. On one of its outside walls there were four big murals featuring four historic episodes of Greek history, authored by Gerasimos Steris. After the Fair concluded, the pavilion was dismantled and parts of it were donated for the construction of the Greek Orthodox cathedral of Saint Nicholas in Tarpon Springs, Florida.
Italian Pavilion
The Italian pavilion attempted to fuse ancient Roman splendor with modern styles, and a high waterfall dedicated to Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of the radio defined the pavilion's facade. The pavilion occupied 100,000 square feet of space on plot GJ-1 at Presidential Row North and Continental Avenue and cost more than $3 million. Italy paid for the right to use another ten thousand feet of space in the fair's Hall of Nations. There, the mosaic floor was to be graced by a high pillar upon which rested the ubiquitous She-Wolf, mother of Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome. Above Nino Giordano's Capitoline She-Wolf extended the lines of a Roman triumphal arch. The long side walls, adorned with emblems of ancient and modern Rome and maps of its new colonial 'empire' were divided into three sections by columns with rostra rising on a plinth of black marble and accentuated by Roman stucco of a velvety-white color. These walls sheltered Romano Romanelli's bronze statue of Mussolini which stood tall upon a black marble pedestal in the very center of the room.
The pavilion's popular restaurant was designed in the shape of the nation's luxury cruise line ships.
Japanese Pavilion
The Japanese pavilion was designed by the Japanese-American architect Yasuo Matsui to resemble a traditional Shinto shrine, set within a Japanese garden. It offered tea ceremony and Japanese flower arrangement exhibits. The interior had a "Diplomat room", which featured a reproduction of the Liberty Bell made out of Japanese pearls and diamonds, worth $1 million. This room also featured a photomontage mural across which was written the motto "Dedicated to Eternal Peace and Friendship between America and Japan".
The interior of the pavilion was designed by the Japanese architect and photographer Iwao Yamawaki, who studied at the Bauhaus school in Germany in the early 1930s.
Jewish Palestine Pavilion
The Jewish Palestine Pavilion introduced the world to the concept of a modern Jewish state, which a decade later became Israel. The pavilion featured a monumental hammered copper relief sculpture on its facade titled The Scholar, The Laborer, and the Toiler of the Soil by the noted Art Deco sculptor Maurice Ascalon.
Netherlands Pavilion
This exhibit presented a comprehensive survey of the cultural importance of the three parts of the empire: the Kingdom of Europe, the Dutch East Indies and the territories of Suriname and Curaçao in South America.
Pan American Union Pavilion
The 21 countries of the Pan-American Union, as well as several communications companies, were represented in the Pan American Union Pavilion. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Cuba, Mexico, and Nicaragua were among the cooperating countries.
The Good Neighbor policy at the 1939 World's Fair was an extension of Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy, which sought to redefine negative Latin American stereotypes. Each country seized the opportunity to showcase their country and to make it more appealing to those around the world, especially in the United States. In their bid to increase cultural awareness at the World's Fair, the countries promoted tourism and strove to compare itself to the United States in an effort to appeal to Americans.
Polish Pavilion
The Polish Pavilion was composed of a boxy tower. The Second Polish Republic prepared some 200 tons of artifacts, including a royal carpet of King Casimir IV, seven paintings presenting important events of Polish history, 150 contemporary Polish paintings, a gunmetal monument of Józef Piłsudski, armor of a Polish hussar from Kórnik Castle, ancient Polish weaponry (14th–18th centuries), a bell manufactured for the purpose of the Fair, folk costumes, house furniture from different regions of Poland, and over 200 examples of Polish inventions.
USSR Pavilion
The USSR (Soviet) Pavilion was a semicircular structure with two wings partially enclosing a courtyard. Exhibitions included the life-size copy of the interior of the showcase Mayakovskaya station of the Moscow Metro, whose designer Alexey Dushkin was awarded Grand Prize of the 1939 World's Fair. The USSR Pavilion's courtyard contained a statue on a pylon, which was tall. The pavilion was only open for 1939 and was razed at the end of that year.
United States (Federal) Building
The United States Federal Building's main building was set between two pylons. The Federal Building and several surrounding structures contained a combined 23 exhibits, dedicated to 22 states and Puerto Rico.
Food Zone
Southwest of the Government Zone was the Food Zone, composed of 13 buildings in total (excluding the Turkey and Sweden exhibits, which were physically located within the Food Zone but considered part of the Government Zone). Its Focal Exhibit was Food No. 3, a rhomboidal structure with four shafts representing wheat stalks.
Among the many unique exhibits was the Borden's exhibit, that featured 150 pedigreed cows (including the original Elsie) on a Rotolactor that allowed bathing them, drying them, and milking them in a highly mechanized way. While no such complete system ever became common in milk production, many of its features came into everyday use in today's rotary milking parlors. Next door was the Continental Baking building, presenting a vast, continuous process of baking breads and other products, and was fashioned in the shape of a huge packaged bread loaf.
Production and Distribution Zone
The Production and Distribution Zone was dedicated to showcasing industries that specialized in manufacturing and distribution. The focal exhibit was the Consumers Building, a L-shaped structure occupying a triangular plot on the Avenue of Pioneers, illustrated with murals by Francis Scott Bradford. Numerous individual companies hosted exhibitions in this region. There were also pavilions dedicated to a generic industry, such as electrical products, industrial science, pharmaceuticals, metals, and men's apparel.
Transportation Zone
The Transportation Zone was located west of the Theme Center, across the Grand Central Parkway. Perhaps the most popular of the Transportation Zone pavilions was the one built for General Motors (GM), which contained the Futurama exhibit, designed by famed industrial designer and theater set designer Norman Bel Geddes, which transported fair visitors over a huge diorama of a fictional section of the United States with miniature figures. Along the way, visitors would encounter increasingly larger figures until they exited into a representation of a life-size city intersection. Stores in the GM Pavilion included an auto dealership and an appliance store where visitors could see the latest GM and Frigidaire products.
Adjacent to the GM Pavilion was the Ford Pavilion, where race car drivers drove on a figure eight track on the building's roof endlessly, day in and day out. Not far from GM and Ford was the focal exhibit of the Transportation Zone, a Chrysler exhibit group. In the focal exhibit, an audience could watch a Plymouth being assembled in an early 3D film in a theater with air conditioning, then a new technology. Other structures included an aviation and marine transport building, as well as exhibits for the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and Goodrich Corporation.
Another large building was the Eastern Railroads Presidents' Conference, dedicated to rail transport. The centerpiece of the Railroad Conference exhibits (on seventeen acres) was "Railroads on Parade", a spectacular live drama re-enacting the birth and growth of railroads. It had music by Kurt Weil and choreography by Bill Matons. In addition to the show, there were important historical objects on display by the various railroads and manufacturing companies, such as the Tom Thumb engine. The Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) had its S1 engine on display, mounted on rollers under the driver wheels and running continuously at all day long. The British London Midland & Scottish Railway sent their Coronation Scot express train with a locomotive LMS Princess Coronation Class 6229 Duchess of Hamilton, (disguised as sister locomotive 6220 Coronation), to the fair. GM's Electro-Motive Division had a display of their then new streamlined diesel-electric passenger locomotives. The Italian state railways displayed one of their record-setting ETR 200 electric multiple unit cars.
Amusement Area
Beyond the corporate and government zones, the wildly popular but less uplifting Amusements Area was not integrated into the thematic matrix, and was classified as an Area rather than a Zone. It was located south of the World's Fair Boulevard, along on the east shore of Fountain Lake. Despite the high-minded educational tone that Grover Whalen attempted to set, the Amusements Area was the most popular part of the Fair. The attractions included a roller coaster, a Flying Turns-style bobsled, a Life Savers-branded parachute tower called the Parachute Jump (later moved to Coney Island, where it is standing but not operating), the narrow gauge Gimbels Flyer train ride, (later purchased by Kennywood, where it still runs today), and carnival acts such as a "Little Miracle Town" with dwarves. Other attractions included a "winter wonderland" called Sun Valley, a Theatre of Time and Space, and a replica of Victoria Falls.
Frank Buck exhibited his "Frank Buck's Jungleland", which displayed rare birds, reptiles and wild animals along with Jiggs, a five-year-old trained orangutan. In addition, Buck provided a trio of performing elephants, an "monkey mountain" with 600 monkeys, and an attraction that had been popular at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair: camel rides. A number of the shows provided spectators with the opportunity of viewing women in very revealing costumes or topless, such as the "Frozen Alive Girl", the Living Pictures, and the Dream of Venus building. This last attraction was a pavilion designed by the Spanish surrealist artist Salvador Dalí which contained within it a number of unusual sculptures and statues as well as live nearly-nude performers posing as statues. While there were a number of protests by prominent politicians over the course of the fair about the "low minded entertainment", and the New York Vice Squad raided shows in the area on several occasions, the public generally accepted this form of entertainment.
Bendix Lama Temple girlie show
The Bendix Lama Temple was a 28,000-piece full-sized replica of the 1767 Potala temple in Jehol, Manchuria, commissioned and brought back by the industrialist and explorer Vincent Bendix. The Temple had previously been exhibited at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair, called "Century of Progress". In New York, the Temple contained a girlie show.
Aquacade
Billy Rose's Aquacade was a spectacular musical and water extravaganza foreshadowing the form of many popular Hollywood musicals in the ensuing years. The show was presented in a special amphitheater seating 10,000 people and included an orchestra to accompany the spectacular synchronised swimming performance. It featured Johnny Weissmuller and Eleanor Holm, two of the most celebrated swimmers of the era, and dazzled fairgoers with its lighting and cascades and curtains of water, pumped in waterfalls at 8,000 gallons a minute. The cost of admission was 80 cents.
The Aquacade facility itself served as an entertainment venue in the park for many years afterward, including the 1964–65 World's Fair, but fell into disrepair in the 1980s and was finally demolished in 1996.
Standalone focal exhibits
There were two focal exhibits that were not located within any of the 1939 Fair's "zones". The first was Medical and Public Health Building, which was located on Constitution Mall and the Avenue of Patriots (immediately northeast of the Theme Center). This structure contained a massive "Hall of Man" dedicated to the human body, and a "Hall of Medical Science" dedicated to medical professions and devices.
The other was the Science and Education Building, located on a curved portion of Hamilton Place between the Avenue of Patriots and Washington Square, just north of the Medical and Public Health Building. The building was not used to teach science, but it contained an auditorium and several exhibits on science and education.
Themes
The colors blue and orange were chosen as the official colors of the fair, as they were the colors of New York City, and featured prominently.
Outdoor public lighting was at the time of a very limited and pedestrian nature, perhaps consisting of simple incandescent pole lamps in a city and nothing in the country. Electrification was still relatively new and had not reached everywhere in the US. The fair was the first public demonstration of several lighting technologies that became common in the following decades. These technologies included the introduction of the first fluorescent light and fixture. General Electric Corporation held the patent to the fluorescent light bulb at the time. Approximately a year later, the original three major corporations, Lightolier, Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation, and Globe Lighting, located mostly in the New York City region, began wide-scale manufacturing in the US of the fluorescent light fixture.
Another theme of the fair was the emerging new middle class, leading a hoped-for recovery from the Great Depression. The fair promoted the "Middleton Family"—Babs, Bud, and their parents—who appeared in ads showing them taking in the sights of the fair and the new products being manufactured to make life easier and affordable, such as the new automatic dishwasher.
Each day at the fair was a special theme day, for which a special button was issued; for example, May 18, 1939, was "Asbury Park, New Jersey Day". Some of these buttons are very rare and all are considered collectibles.
Transportation
A special subway line, the Independent Subway System (IND) World's Fair Line, was built to serve the fair. World's Fair (now Mets–Willets Point) station on the IRT Flushing Line was rebuilt to handle fair traffic on the Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT) and Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit (BMT) systems. A Long Island Rail Road station (now Mets–Willets Point) was built next to the Flushing Line station. The IND extension departed the IND Queens Boulevard Line east of the Forest Hills–71st Avenue station and before the 75th Avenue station. The World's Fair station was at the east side of the Meadowlands at Horace Harding Boulevard. The period system route map and Fair maps display this temporary extension. The World's Fair station was a terminus of the train (alternate trains also ran to World's Fair Station), and ran at ground level, separated from the Fair grounds by a fence, past the Jamaica Yard, which is still in use.
For the 1939–40 Fair, a special fleet of 50 "World's Fair Steinway" cars were delivered in late 1938 by the St. Louis Car Company for Flushing Line service. Car #5655 survives in the New York Transit Museum fleet.
Closure and current status
The fair was open for two seasons, from April to October each year, and was officially closed permanently on October 27, 1940. To get the fair's budget overruns under control before the 1940 season and to augment gate revenues, Whalen was replaced by banker Harvey Gibson. In addition, much greater emphasis was placed on the amusement features and less on the educational and uplifting exhibits. The great fair attracted over 45 million visitors and generated roughly $48 million in revenue. Since the Fair Corporation had invested 67 million dollars (in addition to nearly a hundred million dollars from other sources), it was a financial failure, and the corporation declared bankruptcy.
Many of the rides from the World's Fair were sold after its closure to Luna Park at Coney Island, which was allowed to call itself the New York World's Fair of 1941. The Life Savers Parachute Jump was sold that same year and relocated to Steeplechase Park in Coney Island, where it was renamed the "Parachute Jump".
The Unisphere, built as the theme symbol for the 1964/1965 World's Fair, now stands on the site occupied by the Perisphere during the earlier Fair.
World War II
Although the United States did not enter World War II until the end of 1941, the fairgrounds served as a window into the troubles overseas. The pavilions of Poland and Czechoslovakia, for example, did not reopen for the 1940 season. Also on July 4 that same year, two New York City Police Department officers were killed by a blast while investigating a time bomb left at the British Pavilion. The bombing has never been solved, but there is evidence that bombing was an inside job by William Stephenson, a British agent based in New York.
Countries under the thumb of the Axis powers in Europe in 1940 like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and France ran their pavilions with a special nationalistic pride. The only major world power that did not participate for the 1939 season was Germany, citing budget pressures. The USSR Pavilion was dismantled after the first season, leaving an empty lot called "The American Commons". When the fair closed, many among the European staff were unable to return to their home countries, so they remained in the US and in some cases exercised a tremendous influence on American culture. For example, Henri Soulé moved from the French Pavilion at the fair to open Le Pavillon restaurant, retaining Pierre Franey as head chef.
World War II presented additional problems with what to do with the exhibits on display in the pavilions of countries under Axis occupation. In the case of the Polish Pavilion, most of the items were sold by the Polish Government in exile in London to the Polish Museum of America and shipped to Chicago. A notable exception was made for a monument of the Polish–Lithuanian King Jagiełło to which Mayor Fiorello La Guardia took such a liking that he helped spearhead a campaign to have it installed in Central Park, where it still stands today.
Belgian Pavilion
Another building saved from 1940 was the Belgian Building designed by Henry Van de Velde. It was awarded to Virginia Union University in Richmond, Virginia, and shipped to Richmond in 1941. The school still uses the building for its home basketball games.
Bendix Lama Temple
After the Fair, the Temple was again disassembled, and placed in storage for many years. There were proposals to erect it at Oberlin College, Harvard University, Indiana University, and elsewhere, but they all failed for lack of funding. In 1984, the approximately 28,000 pieces were shipped to the Museum of Ethnography in Stockholm, Sweden, with plans to rebuild it in a nearby park, but objections from the neighboring Chinese Embassy have stalled the project indefinitely.
New York City Building
Some of the buildings from the 1939 fair were used for the first temporary headquarters of the United Nations from 1946 until it moved in 1951 to its permanent headquarters in Manhattan. The former New York City Building was used for the UN General Assembly during that time. This building was later refurbished for the 1964 fair as the New York City Pavilion, featuring the Panorama of the City of New York, an enormous scale model of the entire city. It became the home of the Queens Center for Art and Culture (later renamed the Queens Museum of Art, and now called the Queens Museum), which still houses and occasionally updates the Panorama.
One other structure from the 1939–40 Fair remains in original location: the New York City Subway's Mets–Willets Point station, rebuilt for the Fair. It also served the 1964–65 events and continues to serve New York Mets games and US Open Tennis.
Cultural references
The 1939 World's Fair made a strong impression on attendees and influenced a generation of Americans. Later generations have attempted to recapture the impression it made in fictional and artistic treatments.
Film and television
Finale of the 1939 film Eternally Yours takes place in the fair
In Walt Disney's Pinocchio (1940), the pool hall on Pleasure Island is shaped as an eight ball, with a cue next to it, a parody of the Trylon and Perisphere of the 1939 World's Fair.
In the film Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), a comedy directed by Alfred Hitchcock, Carole Lombard and Gene Raymond visit the fair after a dinner date and find themselves stuck high in the air on the Parachute Jump when it malfunctions.
The 1997 Pinky and the Brain episode "Mice Don't Dance" (3-11a) takes place in the 1939 World's Fair.
The Twilight Zone Season 2 episode "The Odyssey of Flight 33" (1961) follows Flight 33 lost in time and briefly in 1939, with a sky view of the World's Fair. However, the pilot incorrectly identifies the location as Lake Success, which actually is in Nassau County, not Queens County.
In The Simpsons 2003 episode "Brake My Wife, Please", Mr. Burns gives Homer a ticket to the fair as a reward for being the first employee to arrive at work that day. The ticket shown features the Trylon and Perisphere, as well as the opening and closing dates of the fair.
In the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger, a very similar "World Exposition of Tomorrow" is featured at the same Flushing Meadows location, albeit in 1943, a year when no World Fair was held anywhere due to World War II.
TV show Futurama'''s namesake comes from the Futurama pavilion
In the 1992 film Forever Young, Nat (Elijah Wood) explains to Daniel (Mel Gibson) that what he is watching is called "television". Daniel replies to a disbelieving Nat, "I know, I saw it at the World's Fair in 1939."
The X-files references the 1939 World Fair in season 2 episode 12
Literature
E.B. White recounts a visit to the fair in his 1939 essay "The World of Tomorrow".
The still under-construction fair was the focus of the entire book The World's Fair Goblin (1939);
DC Comics published a 1939 New York World's Fair Comics comic book, followed by a 1940 edition in the next year. It became the precursor of the long-running Superman/Batman team-up book World's Finest Comics.
Doc Savage, a popular fictional character of the Pulp Era who used scientific detection in his adventures, was seen as a perfect match for the fair's "world of the future" concept. President Grover Whalen to do a Grand Opening cross promotion with the publisher, Street & Smith. The still under-construction fair appeared in the finale of The Giggling Ghosts (1938).
In the novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay (2000) by Michael Chabon, one of the main characters breaks into the abandoned fairgrounds and the Perisphere.
The fair is featured prominently in the graphic novel Whatever Happened to the World of Tomorrow? by Brian Fies. In it, a father takes his young son to the fair which inspires him to a lifelong fascination with the promise of a hopeful, wonder-filled future.
Australian novelist and scriptwriter Frank Moorhouse places several chapters of his award-winning novel Dark Palace at the World's Fair. The novel's protagonist, Edith Campbell Berry, works for the League of Nations and in one episode she is presented as the driving force behind the flying of the League's flag alongside those of the United States and the State of New York.
E.L. Doctorow's semi-autobiographic novel The World's Fair (1985) culminates with a lengthy description of a young boy's visit to the Fair.
DC Comics' All-Star Squadron (1981–1987) started using the Perisphere and Trylon as the Squadron's base of operations starting in All-Star Squadron #21.
Susie Orman Schnall's novel We Came Here to Shine (St. Martin's Press Griffin 2020) is historical fiction set at the 1939 World's Fair. The novel features two main characters: Vivi works as Aquabelle Number One in Billy Rose's Aquacade. Max is a journalist for the fair's daily paper, Today at the Fair.
Other
Three French restaurants—La Caravelle, Le Pavillon, and La Côte Basque—were offshoots "of the seminal restaurant in the French pavilion of the 1939 New York World's Fair, where Charles Masson père began as a waiter under the eye of the legendary Henri Soulé".
Archives
An archive of documents and films from the 1939 New York World's Fair is maintained at the New York Public Library (NYPL).
In October 2010, the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C. opened an exhibition titled Designing Tomorrow: America's World's Fairs of the 1930s. This exhibition, which was available for view until September 2011, prominently featured the 1939 New York World's Fair.
See also
Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations – 1853 World's Fair in Bryant Park, New York City
List of world expositions
References
Notes
Further reading
World's Fairs on the Eve of War: Science, Technology, and Modernity, 1937–1942'' by Robert H. Kargon and others, 2015, University of Pittsburgh Press
External links
New York World's 1939–1940 records, 1935–1945 Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
Official website of the BIE
Tour of the 1939 World's Fair
Flushing Meadows–Corona Park
Robert Moses projects
New York World's Fair
New York World's Fair
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219291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eights%20Week | Eights Week | Eights Week, also known as Summer Eights, is a four-day regatta of bumps races which constitutes the University of Oxford's main intercollegiate rowing event of the year. The regatta takes place in May of each year, from the Wednesday to the Saturday of the fifth week of Trinity Term. Men's and women's coxed eights compete in separate divisions for their colleges.
Overview
The racing takes place on the Isis, a length of the River Thames, which is generally too narrow for side by side racing. For each division, thirteen boats line up at the downstream end of the stretch, each cox holding onto a rope attached to the bank, leaving around 1.5 boat lengths between each boat. The start of racing is signalled by the firing of a cannon, each crew attempting to progress up their division by bumping the boat in front, while avoiding being bumped by the boat behind. Once a bump has taken place, both of the crews involved stop racing and move to the side to allow the rest of the division to pass. It is possible to "over bump" if the 2 crews in front of your boat bump (and so drop out) and your boat can catch the boat that was in front of them. They then swap places for the next day's racing, whether that be the calendar day or the first day of racing in the next year's competition.
The ultimate aim of a crew is to become "Head of the River" (top of the first division) and stay there. This entitles the winning crew to commission trophy oars in their college colours with the names and weights of the successful crew on them — commonly called "winning blades". As this is only possible for crews already near the top of division one, another way to win blades is to bump on each day of the competition. As the responsibility for awarding blades to crews rests with the individual colleges concerned, there are slight differences in the criteria required.
The "Double Headship" is an accolade awarded to any college finishing with both their men's and women's crews at the "Head of the River" in their respective divisions. A silver "Double Headship Trophy" was commissioned from the silversmith Peter Musson in 2003, to commemorate the historic occasion.
Early history
Although regular races between professional watermen had been known since 1715 when Doggett's Coat and Badge was instituted, amateur racing was unknown before 1808. The first such race may have been held in Yarmouth in that year. Meanwhile, recreational rowing had begun in Oxford very much earlier, with students rowing in single wherries at least as early as 1769.
The first amateur races between organised clubs which prepared and trained for the event began in Oxford in 1815. In this year, crews from Brasenose College and Jesus College raced for the Head of the River, from Iffley Lock to Mr King's Barge, which was moored near the current Head of the River hotel. The event is also notable for the fact that both crews rowed in eight oared boats, specially built for the purpose. Such recreational as occurred at this time was usually conducted in pairs, or four or six oared cutters. The fact the racing was conducted in eight oared boats gave rise to the event being known as Eights.
Brasenose College and Jesus College recontested the event in 1816, with Brasenose again triumphing. Christ Church joined in the event from 1817, when they went Head, a position they retained until 1819. Christ Church did not row in 1820. The next recorded races, between Brasenose and Jesus, were in 1821 and 1822. A dispute about professional watermen being allowed in college crews precluded racing in 1823. Until this time, Jesus and Brasenose had each used paid coaches who rowed in the stroke seats of the crews.
From 1824, Christ Church and Exeter College began racing, with Exeter going Head in that year. A rule banning the use of "out college men" (i.e. men from other colleges) rowing in college crews saw the entry of Worcester College in 1825, University and Balliol Colleges in 1827, and Oriel and Trinity Colleges in 1828.
Head of the River – Summary table (excluding World War 2 races)
Head of the River – Men
Eights Week has been held since 1815.
No racing occurred during World War I. In World War II, though college rowing continued, there were insufficient students for normal racing between colleges to be maintained. As a consequence, most colleges competed in composite clubs, and the number of crews competing was greatly curtailed. After the war, normal racing continued, and in 1946 college crews started in the order in which they finished in 1939.
Head of the River – Women
See also
May Bumps, the equivalent event in Cambridge
Torpids, a similar event in Hilary Term
References
External links
Oxford University Rowing Clubs
Oxford Bumps Charts
Eights statistics
1815 establishments in England
Recurring sporting events established in 1815
Regattas on the River Thames
Rowing at the University of Oxford
Bumps races
May events
Events in Oxford
Annual events in England
Annual sporting events in the United Kingdom
Christ Church Meadow, Oxford | [
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219292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative%20defense | Affirmative defense | An affirmative defense to a civil lawsuit or criminal charge is a fact or set of facts other than those alleged by the plaintiff or prosecutor which, if proven by the defendant, defeats or mitigates the legal consequences of the defendant's otherwise unlawful conduct. In civil lawsuits, affirmative defenses include the statute of limitations, the statute of frauds, waiver, and other affirmative defenses such as, in the United States, those listed in Rule 8 (c) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. In criminal prosecutions, examples of affirmative defenses are self defense, insanity, entrapment and the statute of limitations.
Description
In an affirmative defense, the defendant may concede that they committed the alleged acts, but they prove other facts which, under the law, either justify or excuse their otherwise wrongful actions, or otherwise overcomes the plaintiff's claim. In criminal law, an affirmative defense is sometimes called a justification or excuse defense. Consequently, affirmative defenses limit or excuse a defendant's criminal culpability or civil liability.
A clear illustration of an affirmative defense is self defense. In its simplest form, a criminal defendant may be exonerated if he can demonstrate that he had an honest and reasonable belief that another's use of force was unlawful and that the defendant's conduct was necessary to protect himself.
Most affirmative defenses must be pleaded in a timely manner by a defendant in order for the court to consider them, or else they are considered waived by the defendant's failure to assert them. The classic unwaivable affirmative defense is lack of subject-matter jurisdiction. The issue of timely assertion is often the subject of contentious litigation.
The insanity plea
Among the most controversial affirmative defenses is the insanity defense, whereby a criminal defendant seeks to be excused from criminal liability on the ground that a mental illness, at the time of the alleged crime, prevented him or her from understanding the wrongful nature of his or her actions.
Burden of proof
Because an affirmative defense requires an assertion of facts beyond those claimed by the plaintiff, generally the party who offers an affirmative defense bears the burden of proof. The standard of proof is typically lower than beyond a reasonable doubt. It can either be proved by clear and convincing evidence or by a preponderance of the evidence.
In this respect, affirmative defenses differ from ordinary defenses [claim of right, alibi, infancy, necessity, and self-defense (which is an affirmative defense at common law)], which the prosecution has the burden of disproving beyond a reasonable doubt.
Governing rules
Rule 8 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure governs the assertion of affirmative defenses in civil cases that are filed in the United States district courts. Rule 8(c) specifically enumerates the following defenses: "accord and satisfaction, arbitration and award, assumption of risk, contributory negligence, discharge in bankruptcy, estoppel, failure of consideration, fraud, illegality, injury by fellow servant, laches, license, payment, release, res judicata, statute of frauds, statute of limitations, waiver, and any other matter constituting an avoidance or affirmative defense."
Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure requires that affirmative defenses be based on "knowledge, information, and belief, formed after an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances," and cannot consist of a laundry list of all known affirmative defenses.
Affirmative vs. negating defense
An affirmative defense is different from a "negating defense". A negating defense is one which tends to disprove an element of the plaintiff's or prosecutor's case. An example might be a mistake of fact claim in a prosecution for intentional drug possession, where the defendant asserts that he or she mistakenly believed that the object possessed was an innocent substance like oregano. Because this defense simply shows that an element of the offense (knowledge of the nature of the substance) is not present, the defendant does not have any burden of persuasion with regard to a negating defense. At most the defendant has the burden of producing sufficient evidence to raise the issue.
Fair use
In Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., the United States Supreme Court held that fair use was an affirmative defense to copyright infringement. This means that in litigation on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the burden of raising and proving that the use was fair and not an infringement.
However, fair use is not always an affirmative defense; the burden of persuasion may instead fall to the copyright owner in Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) infringement actions. In a case challenging a takedown notice issued under the DMCA, the Ninth Circuit held in Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. that the submitter of a DMCA takedown request (who would then be the plaintiff in any subsequent litigation) has the burden to consider fair use prior to submitting the takedown request. "Even if, as Universal urges, fair use is classified as an 'affirmative defense,' we hold—for the purposes of the DMCA—fair use is uniquely situated in copyright law so as to be treated differently than traditional affirmative defenses. We conclude that because 17 U.S.C. § 107 created a type of non-infringing use, fair use is "authorized by the law" and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification under § 512(c)."
Examples
Civil law
accord and satisfaction
assumption of risk (when the plaintiff knowingly entered into a dangerous situation)
authority
consent
defense of property
estoppel
contract specification
contractual provision (when the defendant's liability for causing the plaintiff's injuries had been waived in the contract; however, these provisions are typically unconscionable in many situations.)
contributory negligence (when the plaintiff's actions contributed to his own injury)
fair use
laches (similar to statute of limitation)
legal release
repossession
statute of frauds
statute of limitations (too much time has elapsed between the tort and the complaint)
waiver
Criminal law
insanity defense
necessity
duress
self defense
truth
public interest
See also
Reverse onus
Entrapment
References
Civil law (common law)
Legal defenses | [
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219299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Bullock | Alan Bullock | Alan Louis Charles Bullock, Baron Bullock, (13 December 1914 – 2 February 2004) was a British historian. He is best known for his book Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1952), the first comprehensive biography of Adolf Hitler, which influenced many other Hitler biographies.
Early life and career
Bullock was born in Trowbridge in Wiltshire, England where his father worked as a gardener and a Unitarian preacher. He was educated at Bradford Grammar School and Wadham College, Oxford where he read classics and modern history. After graduating in 1938, he worked as a research assistant for Winston Churchill, who was writing his History of the English-Speaking Peoples. He was a Harmsworth Senior Scholar at Merton College, Oxford from 1938 to 1940. During World War II, Bullock worked for the European Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). After the war, he returned to Oxford as a history fellow at New College.
Bullock was the censor of St Catherine's Society (1952-1962) and then founding master of St Catherine's College, Oxford (1962-1981), a college for undergraduates and graduates, divided between students of the sciences and the arts. He was credited with massive fundraising efforts to develop the college. Later, he was the first full-time Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University (1969-1973).
Bullock served as chairman of the National Advisory Committee on the Training and Supply of Teachers (1963-1965), the School's Council (1966-1969), the Committee of Inquiry into Reading and the Use of English (1972-1974), and the Committee of Inquiry on Industrial Democracy (1976-1977).
Bullock first became known to the general public when he appeared on the informational BBC radio program The Brains Trust.
Hitler: A Study in Tyranny
In 1952, Bullock published Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, the first comprehensive biography of Adolf Hitler, which he based on the transcripts of the Nuremberg Trials. This book dominated Hitler scholarship for many years. The book characterised Hitler as an opportunistic Machtpolitiker ("power politician"). In Bullock's opinion, Hitler was a "mountebank", an opportunistic adventurer devoid of principles, beliefs or scruples whose actions throughout his career were motivated only by a lust for power. Bullock's views led in the 1950s to a debate with Hugh Trevor-Roper who argued that Hitler did possess beliefs, albeit repulsive ones, and that his actions were motivated by them. Bullock's Guardian obituary commented that "Bullock's famous maxim 'Hitler was jobbed into power by backstairs intrigue' has stood the test of time."
When reviewing Hitler and Stalin in The Times in 1991, John Campbell wrote of Hitler: A Study in Tyranny: "Although written so soon after the end of the war and despite a steady flow of fresh evidence and reinterpretation, it has not been surpassed in nearly 40 years: an astonishing achievement."
In subsequent works, Bullock to some extent changed his mind about Hitler. His later writings show the dictator as much more of an ideologue, who pursued the ideas expressed in Mein Kampf (and elsewhere) despite their consequences. This has become a widely accepted view of Hitler, particularly in relation to the Holocaust.
Taking note of the shift in interest among professional historians towards social history in the 1960s, Bullock agreed that in general, deep long-term social forces are decisive in history, but not always, for there are times when the Great Man is in his views decisive. In revolutionary circumstances, "It is possible for an individual to exert a powerful even a decisive influence on the way events develop and the policies that are followed."
Other works
Bullock's other works included The Humanist Tradition in the West (1985), Has History a Future? (1977), Great Lives of the Twentieth Century (1989), Meeting Teachers' Management Needs (1988), The forming of the nation (1969), Is History Becoming a Social Science? The Case of Contemporary History (1977) and The Life and Times of Ernest Bevin (1960), a three-volume biography of British Labour Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin. He was also editor of The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought (1977), a project he suggested to the publisher when he found he could not define the word "hermeneutics". He had earlier co-edited with Maurice Shock a collection on The Liberal Tradition: From Fox to Keynes.
In the mid-1970s, Bullock used his committee skills to produce a report which proved to be influential in the classroom: A Language for Life, about reading and the teaching of English, was published in 1975. Bullock also chaired the committee of inquiry on industrial democracy commissioned in December 1975 by the second Labour Government of Harold Wilson. The committee's report, which was also known as the Bullock Report, published in 1977, recommended worker's control in large companies with employees having a right to hold representative worker directorships.
Bullock also appeared as a political pundit, particularly during the BBC's coverage of the 1959 British general election.
Later works
Late in his life, Bullock published Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (1991). A massive and influential work which he described in the introduction as "essentially a political biography, set against the background of the times in which they lived". He showed how the careers of Hitler and Joseph Stalin fed off each other to some extent. Bullock comes to a thesis that Stalin's ability to consolidate power in his home country and, unlike Hitler, not to over-extend himself enabled him to retain power longer than Hitler. It was awarded the 1992 Wolfson History Prize.
American historian Ronald Spector, writing in The Washington Post, praised Bullock's ability to write about the development of Nazism and Soviet Communism without either abstract generalization or irrelevant detail. "The writing is invariably interesting and informed and there are new insights and cogent analysis in every chapter," he wrote. Amikam Nachmani says Hitler and Stalin "come out as two blood-thirsty, pathologically evil, sanguine tyrants, who are sure of the presence of determinism, hence having unshakeable beliefs that Destiny assigned on them historical missions—the one to pursue a social industrialized revolution in the Soviet Union, the other to turn Germany into a global empire."
Honours
Bullock was decorated with the award of the Chevalier, Legion of Honour in 1970, and knighted in 1972, becoming Sir Alan Bullock and on 30 January 1976 he was created a life peer as Baron Bullock, of Leafield in the County of Oxfordshire. His writings always appeared under the name "Alan Bullock".
In May 1976, Bullock was awarded an honorary degree from the Open University as Doctor of the University.
Death
Bullock died on 2 February 2004, in Oxford, England.
See also
Historiography of Adolf Hitler
List of Adolf Hitler books
William L. Shirer
Louis Leo Snyder
References
Further reading
Caston, Geoffrey. "Alan Bullock: historian, social democrat and chairman." Oxford Review of Education 32.1 (2006): 87-103.
Nachmani, Amikam. "Alan Bullock, 1914–2004: 'I Only Write Enormous Books'." Diplomacy and Statecraft 16.4 (2005): 779-786 online.
Rosenbaum, Ron, Explaining Hitler: the search for the origins of his evil, New York: Random House, 1998. .
Primary sources
Bullock, Alan. Hitler, A Study in Tyranny (Abridged edition 1971)
Bullock, Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (1991)
1914 births
2004 deaths
People from Trowbridge
People educated at Bradford Grammar School
Alumni of Wadham College, Oxford
Crossbench life peers
English biographers
Historians of Nazism
Knights Bachelor
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Masters of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford
Social Democratic Party (UK) politicians
20th-century English historians
Fellows of the British Academy
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford | [
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219303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Pinsent | Matthew Pinsent | Sir Matthew Clive Pinsent, (; born 10 October 1970) is an English rower and broadcaster. During his rowing career, he won 10 world championship gold medals and four consecutive Olympic gold medals.
Since retiring, he has worked as a sports broadcaster for the BBC.
Early life and family
Pinsent was born on 10 October 1970 in Holt, Norfolk, the son of Reverend Ewen Macpherson Pinsent (1930–2020), curate of St Andrew's parish church, Kelso, Scottish Borders, and Jean Grizel, daughter of Major-General Neil McMicking, CB, CBE, DSO, MC, of Eastferry, Dunkeld, Perthshire, head of the McMicking gentry family of Miltonise, Dumfries and Galloway.
His paternal grandfather, Royal Navy Commander Clive Pinsent (1886–1948), of Edinglassie Lodge, near Huntly, Aberdeenshire, was a younger son of Sir Richard Pinsent, 1st Baronet, President of the Law Society between 1918 and 1919. Pinsent is directly descended from Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, and thus from King Edward I and William the Conqueror. Sir George Anson is also an ancestor, as was Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare
Rowing
Student rower
Matthew Pinsent attended Aysgarth School in North Yorkshire before he began rowing at Eton College. He began his international career at the World Rowing Junior Championships in 1987. He raced again in 1988, winning the junior coxless pairs with Tim Foster.
After finishing school, Pinsent read geography at St Catherine's College, Oxford. While a student, he competed in three Boat Races, winning in 1990 and 1991 but was unsuccessful in 1993 (when he was Boat Club President), having taken a year out in 1992 in order to concentrate on preparing for the Barcelona Olympics.
International career
In 1990, while still at Oxford, he joined Steve Redgrave in the coxless pair at the World Rowing Championships, winning bronze. This was the beginning of a long partnership, and the pair won at the World Championships in 1991, and at the Olympic Games in 1992 and 1996.
In 2000 he won Olympic gold again as part of a coxless four with Redgrave, James Cracknell and Tim Foster. He also carried the flag for Team GB at the opening ceremony. In August 2000, the month prior to winning gold in Sydney, he took part in a three-part BBC documentary entitled Gold Fever. This followed the coxless four team in the years leading up to the Olympics, including video diaries recording the highs and lows in the quest for what would be Pinsent's third consecutive gold.
He was the subject of This Is Your Life in November 2000 when he was surprised by Michael Aspel during a party celebrating the achievements of the British Olympic Association at the London Aquarium.
Pinsent and Cracknell then formed a men's coxless pair and won the coxless and coxed pairs (with Neil Chugani coxing) in the 2001 World Championships, and the coxless pair in 2002. However, after a disappointing 2003 season that saw Pinsent's first World Championships defeat since 1990, he and Cracknell moved to the men's coxless four for 2004.
At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Pinsent's fourth Olympic Games, Pinsent stroked the boat, with Cracknell, Ed Coode and Steve Williams. In a close race with world champions Canada, they again won gold.
Pinsent was elected to the International Olympic Committee's Athletes' Commission in 2001, replacing Jan Železný. In 2004, at the Athens Olympics, Pinsent failed to secure re-election to the post, being replaced by Železný.
The , Pinsent had at one time the largest lung capacity recorded for a sportsman at 8.5 litres. This has since been surpassed by fellow rower Pete Reed who has been measured at 9.38 litres.
Achievements
Olympic Games
2004 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Steve Williams, Ed Coode)
2000 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Tim Foster, Steve Redgrave)
1996 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1992 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
World Championships
2003 – 4th, Coxless Pair (with James Cracknell)
2002 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with James Cracknell)
2001 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with James Cracknell)
2001 – Gold, Coxed Pair (with James Cracknell, Neil Chugani)
1999 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Ed Coode, Steve Redgrave)
1998 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Tim Foster, Steve Redgrave)
1997 – Gold, Coxless Four (with James Cracknell, Tim Foster, Steve Redgrave)
1995 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1994 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1993 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1991 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1990 – Bronze, Coxless Pair (with Steve Redgrave)
1989 – Bronze, Coxed Four (with Terry Dillon, Steve Turner, Gavin Stewart, Vaughan Thomas)
Junior World Championships
1988 – Gold, Coxless Pair (with Tim Foster)
1987 – 4th, Eight
Career after rowing
Pinsent announced his retirement from rowing on 30 November 2004, and was made a Knight Bachelor in the New Year's Honours list announced on 31 December 2004.
He had already been appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1993, raised to Commander in 2001. He was awarded the Thomas Keller Medal by the International Rowing Federation in 2005.
Since retiring from rowing, Pinsent has worked for the BBC as a sports bulletin presenter and reporter. His assignments have included interviewing Dwain Chambers for Inside Sport, where Chambers confessed to taking drugs, and visiting gymnastics training centre in China where he found evidence of children being beaten, leading to IOC President Jacques Rogge to order an inquiry.
Pinsent has maintained his ties to rowing as an umpire or commentator of key events on the rowing calendar such as the Olympics, Henley Royal Regatta and The Boat Races. He umpired his first "Blue Boat" race in 2013.
In June 2012, Pinsent rowed on the Gloriana as part of the royal pageant for the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. He appeared again on the Gloriana the following month, bearing the olympic torch as it crossed the river Thames.
Pinsent directed "Unbelievable – The Chad Le Clos Story", a documentary following Chad Le Clos and his family for 18 months in the run up to the 2016 Summer Olympics, which was first broadcast in July 2016.
In 2020 Pinsent appeared as a contestant on Series 15 of BBC Television's Celebrity Masterchef. finishing in joint-second place.
Personal life
Pinsent is married to Demetra Koutsoukos, a businesswoman, former partner at McKinsey & Co, and current CEO of the makeup brand Charlotte Tilbury Ltd. The couple met at Oxford, where Koutsoukos was a Rhodes Scholar from Harvard.
They have three children: twin boys, Jonah and Lucas (born 2006) and a daughter, Eve (born 2008).
Styles and honours
Mr Matthew Pinsent (1970–1992)
Mr Matthew Pinsent, MBE (1993–2000)
Mr Matthew Pinsent, CBE (2001–2004)
Sir Matthew Pinsent, CBE (2005—)
Bibliography
References
External links
Official website
1970 births
Living people
People from Holt, Norfolk
English people of Scottish descent
English male rowers
Olympic rowers of Great Britain
Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain
Rowers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2004 Summer Olympics
International Olympic Committee members
People educated at Aysgarth School
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Oxford University Boat Club rowers
Knights Bachelor
People in sports awarded knighthoods
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English television presenters
BBC sports presenters and reporters
Stewards of Henley Royal Regatta
Members of Leander Club
Olympic medalists in rowing
English Olympic medallists
Sportspeople from Yorkshire
World Rowing Championships medalists for Great Britain
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Thomas Keller Medal recipients | [
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219311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael%20Caldera | Rafael Caldera | Rafael Antonio Caldera Rodríguez ( (); 24 January 1916 – 24 December 2009), twice elected the president of Venezuela, served for two five-year terms (1969–1974 and 1994–1999), becoming the longest serving democratically elected leader to govern the country in the twentieth century. His first term marked the first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition in Venezuela's history.
Widely acknowledged as one of the founders of Venezuela's democratic system, one of the main architects of the 1961 Constitution, and a pioneer of the Christian Democratic movement in Latin America, Caldera helped forge an unprecedented period of civilian democratic rule in a country beleaguered by a history of political violence and military caudillos.
His leadership established Venezuela's reputation as one of the more stable democracies in Latin America during the second half of the twentieth century.
After graduating with a degree in law and political science from Central University of Venezuela in 1939, Caldera embarked on a 70-year long career that combined political, intellectual and academic activities.
Youth, education and early achievements
Rafael Caldera Rodriguez, the son of Rafael Caldera Izaguirre and Rosa Sofía Rodríguez Rivero, was born on 24 January 1916, in San Felipe, Venezuela. After his mother died when he was two and a half years-old, Caldera was raised by his maternal aunt María Eva Rodríguez Rivero and her husband Tomás Liscano Giménez.
Caldera attended elementary school in his native San Felipe and later in Caracas, at the Jesuit-run Catholic school San Ignacio de Loyola, where he completed his secondary education at the age of fifteen. The following year he began law studies at the Central University of Venezuela.
As a young university student, Caldera exhibited a precocious intellectual brilliance. At the age of nineteen, and after studying the 26 volumes of Andrés Bello's collected works, Caldera published his first book, Andres Bello, a comprehensive analysis of the life and works of Bello's literary, linguistic, legal, historic, philosophical, and political texts. This book received an award from the Venezuelan National Academy of Language in 1935, and has remained an indispensable reference for scholarship studies on the most prominent Venezuelan man-of-letters of the 19th century. The Chilean scholar Iván Jaksic, one of the foremost contemporary scholars of Bello's works, and author of the first comprehensive intellectual biography of Andres Bello published in English, wrote about Caldera's book that it "retains much of its freshness, and it merits its current status as the principal monograph on Bello in the twentieth century."
A year later, Venezuelan President López Contreras took notice of the newspaper op-ed pieces on labor issues written by the young twenty-year-old Caldera and appointed him as Deputy Director of the newly created National Labor Office. From this position, Caldera played a major role in the drafting of Venezuela's first Labor Law, which remained current for more than fifty years until its reform in 1990. The international lawyer Wilfred Jenks, who drafted the Declaration of Philadelphia on labor rights and served two terms as Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), an affiliated agency of the League of Nations, visited Venezuela in 1936 to review the law. He worked closely with Caldera, then Venezuela's first ILO correspondent. Jenks later stated that the International Labor Code published under his guidance on the eve of the Second World War, contained several topics that were arranged in a manner that had originally been employed in the Venezuelan draft Labor Code.
During his university years, Caldera became actively engaged in student politics. He joined the Venezuelan Federation of Students (FEV), which was led by students who had revolted in 1928 against the dictator Juan Vicente Gómez and were known as the Generation of 28. Although significantly younger than his peers, Caldera courageously split from this student federation after its leadership called for anticlerical reforms demanding the expulsion of the Jesuits and other religious orders from Venezuela.
In 1936, Caldera founded the National Student Union (UNE), the seed of what eventually became the Venezuelan Christian Democratic movement.
Caldera received his law and doctoral degree in Political Science with a perfect academic record after successfully defending in 1939 his dissertation thesis entitled Derecho del Trabajo. This dissertation thesis was later adopted as the standard textbook on labor rights by schools of law in Latin American universities.
Political life
The first thirty years (1939-1969)
After graduating from university, Caldera founded National Action, a political movement formed to participate in municipal elections. Soon after, he founded the National Action Party and was elected in January 1941, at the age of twenty-five, to the Chamber of Deputies for his native state of Yaracuy.
As a congressman, he strongly opposed the bill that led to the 1941 boundary treaty with Colombia. He also had a prominent role in the debates on the partial reform of the 1936 Constitution and revisions to the Civil Code, and was a leading voice in the enactment of progressive labor laws.
On 27 October 1945, Caldera was appointed Solicitor General by Rómulo Betancourt, head of the Revolutionary Government Junta that ousted President Isaías Medina Angarita on October 18, 1945.
On 13 January 1946, Caldera co-founded COPEI, Comité de Organización Política Electoral Independiente (Independent Political Electoral Organization Committee), the Christian Democratic Party that grew to become one of the two largest mass political parties in Venezuela. COPEI's first statement of principles was inspired by the social teaching of the papal encyclical Quadragesimo Anno (1931) and embraced democracy, pluralism and social reform.
Four months later, on 13 April 1946, Caldera resigned from his position as Solicitor General in protest against the continuous violent attacks that members of his newly created party were suffering from government supporters.
In 1946, he was elected as a representative to the National Constituent Assembly, inaugurated on 17 December of that year. This legislative body had the task of drafting a new Constitution guided by the principles of the October Revolution. Venezuelans from every corner of the country came to admire the rhetorical skills of the young politician. Venezuelans were able to listen to Caldera's speeches after Andrés Eloy Blanco, President of the National Constituent Assembly, granted Caldera's request to allow live radio broadcast of the legislative sessions. Caldera played a prominent role in this assembly. He delivered celebrated speeches on the social rights of workers, the social function of private property, agrarian reform, religious freedom, religious education, and the need for direct, popular election of state governors.
In the 1947 elections, at the age of 31, he ran for president for the first time and travelled around the country to spread the ideas of his newly created party. The renowned Venezuelan novelist Rómulo Gallegos, candidate of the social democrat party AD (Democratic Action), won this election. Caldera also ran for Congress and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the period 1948–1953. His congressional term, however, was interrupted after Gallegos was ousted by a coup d'état on 24 November 1948.
In 1952, Caldera was elected representative to the National Constituent Assembly. After Colonel Marcos Pérez Jiménez, head of the Military Junta, ignored the electoral triumph of the URD party (Democratic Republican Union), and expelled Jóvito Villalba and other leaders of this party from the country, Caldera and other elected party members of COPEI refused to participate in the new Constituent Assembly.
During the Pérez Jiménez military dictatorship (1952-1958), Caldera was expelled from Universidad Central de Venezuela and arrested several times. On 3 August 1955, agents of the National Security, a large secret police force led by Pedro Estrada that hunted down opponents and ran notorious concentration camps, threw a bomb into Caldera's home, endangering the life of his youngest child, then nine months-old. On 20 August 1957, he was once again imprisoned, but this time in solitary confinement, after Pérez Jiménez learned that Caldera, in all likelihood, would be the consensus candidate for all opposition parties in the presidential election scheduled for December, 1957. With Caldera imprisoned, Pérez Jiménez turned the election into an unconstitutional plebiscite ("Yes" or "No" referendum) to decide his permanence in power.
Following the December 1957 plebiscite, Caldera was exiled by the Pérez Jiménez dictatorship in January 1958. He travelled to New York City and was greeted by Rómulo Betancourt and Jóvito Villalba. His exile, however, only lasted a few days since Marcos Pérez Jiménez was deposed by a civil revolt and military coup on 23 January 1958. Upon returning to Venezuela, the three leaders signed the Puntofijo Pact, named after Caldera's residence where it was signed.
This pact contained important political agreements, especially, the commitment of all major political parties to build, protect and strengthen democratic institutions and the rule of law. According to political science scholar Daniel H. Levine, its aim was to "support democracy, band together to resist challenges to its legitimacy and survival; respect elections; and strive in general to institutionalize politics, channeling participation within democratic vehicles and arenas."
The Puntofijo Pact served as the foundation for the longest period of civil democratic rule in Venezuela (1958-1999).
Unable to reach agreement over a consensus candidate, the three major parties that signed the Puntofijo Pact (AD, URD, and COPEI) competed in the 1958 presidential election with their own candidates and platforms. Rafael Caldera lost to Rómulo Betancourt (AD) and Wolfgang Larrazábal (URD), who came in first and second place respectively. Caldera also ran for Congress and was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. In this capacity, he co-presided the Bicameral Commission in charge of drafting the new Constitution.
The 1961 Constitution was Venezuela's most successful and long-lived Constitution. This country adopted twenty-five different constitutions between 1811 and 1961, and only three of them (1830, 1854, 1881) lasted more than ten years. After its long history under dictatorships and arbitrary rule, Venezuela became, in the words of Professor Levine, "the most stable mass democracy in South America". For four decades, he explains, "Venezuelans built a political system marked by high participation, strong leadership, institutional continuity, and genuine pervasive competition. Power was transferred peacefully in six consecutive national elections."
Caldera obtained a significant larger number of votes and came in second place in the 1963 preidential election that Raúl Leoni won as candidate of the ruling party (AD). Soon thereafter, he was elected President of the Christian Democratic Organization of America (ODCA) for the period 1964–1968, and as first President of the Christian Democratic World Union for the period 1967–1968.
In December 1968, under the slogan "el cambio va" (change is coming), Caldera ran for president for the third time. This time, Caldera benefited from a split in AD. Senate president Luis Beltrán Prieto Figueroa won the party primary. However, the party's old guard felt Prieto was too left-wing, and intervened to deliver the nomination to Gonzalo Barrios. Prieto and a number of his supporters broke off to form the People's Electoral Movement. Ultimately, Caldera defeated Barrios with 29.1 percent of the vote, a margin of just 32,000 votes. Prieto finished fourth, but his 719,000 votes far exceeded Caldera's margin.
Caldera was sworn in on 11 March 1969. For the first time in Venezuela's 139-year history as an independent nation, there was a peaceful and democratic transfer of power from the ruling party to the opposition. It was also the first time in the country's history that a party won power without ever having resorted to violence. However, COPEI still had a minority in the legislature.
First term in office (1969-1974)
The process of pacification, a policy that allowed the armed left to lay down their arms and participate in politics under democratic rules, was one of the most important achievements of Caldera's first presidency. This pardon effectively put an end to the guerrilla warfare which had plagued the country for ten years, costing many lives.
A key distinction between Caldera's first government and those of his predecessors lay in the area of foreign policy. President Caldera restored bilateral relations with the Soviet Union and the socialist nations of Eastern Europe, as well as with a number of South American nations that had fallen under military dictatorships, including Argentina, Panama, and Peru. This policy, known as "pluralistic solidarity", was a reversion of his predecessor's Betancourt Doctrine and sought to unify Latin American countries amidst their ideological diversity so the region could have a stronger position to obtain fair trade conditions for their raw commodities.
Caldera took advantage of momentous developments in the international oil trade. He raised taxes on oil production, nationalized the gas industry, and enacted stringent laws regulating the U.S. oil companies that operated in Venezuela. In 1971, Caldera raised the oil profit tax to 70 per cent. In addition, he passed the hydrocarbons reversion law which provided that all oil company assets would go to the State once the concessions had elapsed.
This law paved the way for the nationalization of the oil industry. In his official visit to the U.S. in 1970, Caldera obtained a commitment from the Nixon administration to increase the market share of Venezuelan petroleum exports to the United States. Speaking before a joint session of the U.S. Congress, Caldera won repeated applause from the Senators and Representatives as he bluntly urged Americans to change their approach toward Latin America: "The formula for achieving cordial relations," he said, "cannot be the merciless attempts at forever lowering the prices of our goods while increasing the price of commodities we have to import."
Caldera's most important domestic priorities during his first administration were education, housing, and infrastructure. He dramatically increased the number of educational institutions by doubling the number of public secondary schools and tripling the number of state university colleges and institutes of technology. Universities built and inaugurated during his administration include Simón Bolívar University, Simón Rodríguez, Táchira, and the Institute of Higher Studies for National Defense. On 3 October 1970, after weeks of violent student protests, and reports of weapons and explosive materials hidden inside the university campus, Caldera intervened Central University of Venezuela in order to protect and safeguard the life of students, professors and university employees. Once peace was restored on campus, the university regained its autonomy and held elections for a new governing board.
During Caldera's first presidency, a total of 291,233 housing units were built. In terms of infrastructure and public buildings, some of the most important works completed during his first administration include: Poliedro de Caracas, the buildings for the Ministry of Education, the Courts of Law, and the Central Bank; the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, and the Ríos Reyna Theatre of the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, in Caracas; the general hospitals of Maracay, Coro, Mérida, San Carlos, Valle de la Pascua, Chiquinquirá in Maracaibo and Miguel Pérez Carreño and Los Magallanes de Catia in Caracas; major highways such as Cota Mil and La Araña-Caricuao in Caracas, Barquisimeto-Yaritagua, Valencia-Campo de Carabobo and Barcelona-Crucero de Maturín; airports La Chinita in Maracaibo, Santiago Mariño in Porlamar and Las Piedras in Paraguaná; the José Antonio Páez water dam in Mérida, Cumaripa in Yaracuy, and the third and four phases of the Guri Project in Guayana.
International leadership and years as Senator (1974-1993)
After leaving the presidency of Venezuela, Caldera continued both scholarly and political pursuits. He served in the Venezuelan Senate as all former presidents were granted lifelong appointments to the Senate under 1961 Constitution.
During this period Caldera was appointed to several important leadership positions in international organizations. Hailed for his role in maintaining democracy and stability in an era when most other Latin American countries experienced political upheaval, Caldera served as President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union from 1979 to 1982. In 1979, he was elected President of the World Congress of Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, which met in Rome under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
A year later, Caldera presided over the International Committee in charge of preparing an international agreement for the establishment of the University for Peace, approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 5 December 1980.
In March 1987, Caldera was invited by Pope John Paul II to deliver a speech before the College of Cardinals to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Papal Encyclical Populorum Progressio.
A leading theme in his speeches and conferences during these years was the need to find solutions to the debt crisis that gravely affected most third-world countries. His main concern was to denounce the injustice of placing the heavy burden of servicing the debt on the shoulders of the most impoverished and vulnerable people of third-world countries.
As tenured Senator in the Venezuelan National Congress, Caldera chose to use the speaker podium exclusively on matters of national importance. As the "architect" of the 1961 Constitution, he was called upon by leaders of all Venezuelan parties to defend its principles, validity and timeliness. Accordingly, he was chosen to deliver the commemorative speeches before special joint sessions of Congress on the 15th (1976) and 25th (1986) anniversaries of the 1961 Constitution. In 1985, he was appointed President of the Bicameral Congress Commission for the Reform of the Labor Law. After years of deliberations with workers, legal experts, labor unions, and representatives from industry and commerce chambers, the bill was presented in 1989 and passed by Congress at the end of 1990.
In June 1989, Caldera was appointed President of the Bicameral Congress Commission for the Reform of the Constitution. The reform project prepared by the commission was presented in March 1992, but did not receive the necessary support from the major political parties in Congress. This project included provisions to restructure the Judiciary as well as mechanisms to strengthen citizen participation in democracy. These changes had been demanded by most sectors of Venezuela's society, in light of corruption in the administration of justice and insufficient means for citizens to directly participate in governmental decisions. The political events that later unfolded in 1999, and particularly President Chávez' call for a constituent assembly during the first year of his administration, reflect how consequential Congress' dismissal of this reform bill would eventually become.
The most memorable and controversial speeches Caldera delivered as Senator came in February 1989, at the wake of the bloody riots in Caracas on 27 February, known as "Caracazo," and in February, 4 of 1992, after the failed military coup. "The country was in crisis. Even though Caldera was one of the main architects of the system, he was one of the first to realize its weakness. So much oil (by some estimates, in the decade after the 1973 oil price surge, Venezuela received 240 billion dollars, or five times the Marshall Plan) had led not just to dependence but widespread corruption and growing resentment from the popular sectors left off the gravy train".
In these speeches, Caldera insisted on the need to recognize the root causes of the crisis and the growing weakening of the people's faith in democratic values and institutions. One month after the February 1992 coup, he delivered a memorable speech at Universidad Central de Venezuela condemning the country's history with military dictatorships and coups d'état. He urged students to reject violent paths and search for answers to the crisis without abandoning the principles and mechanisms of democracy.
The 1961 Constitution did not allow former presidents to run again before ten years had elapsed after leaving office. In 1983, Caldera became eligible again and was chosen by his party COPEI to run against Jaime Lusinchi, the candidate of the opposition party AD, who won the presidential election. In 1993, Caldera ran for president as an independent candidate, with the support of a new party, National Convergence, which allowed members and sympathizers of COPEI to support his candidacy. He also received the support from a coalition of 17 small parties dismissed by opponents as "chiripas" (small cockroaches). Caldera won the presidency with almost 400.000 votes over his closest opponent Claudio Fermín, the candidate of AD. As it had been the case in his first administration, Caldera had to govern with an opposition majority in Congress.
Second term in office (1994–1999)
Caldera's second administration inherited and faced three adversities of great magnitude: a steep decrease in oil prices, the economic recession and high inflation of 1993, and a huge banking crisis. The fiscal deficit forced Caldera's government to apply a severe austerity plan that included a ten per cent cut of the federal budget in 1994 and, simultaneously, a reform of fiscal legislation and the creation of SENIAT, a new tax collection agency. In January 1994, less than a month before Rafael Caldera's inauguration, the second largest bank in Venezuela, Banco Latino, failed and was taken over by the government. As of October 1994, the government had seized more than ten failed banks. As René Salgado explains in his research on government and economics in Venezuela, "the government's bailout of the financial sector guaranteed approximately 6 billion dollars to depositors, which represented roughly 75 percent of the annual national budget and an alarming 13 percent of the gross domestic product. Additional bank failures continued throughout the year and into 1995".
In agreement with the International Monetary Fund, Caldera implemented in 1996 a new economic plan, called , which "increased domestic fuel prices, liberalized interest rates, unified the exchange rate system under a temporary float, abolished controls on current and capital transactions, eliminated price controls (except for medicines), and strengthened the social safety net".
In 1997, gross domestic product (GDP) grew above five per cent and inflation rate was cut in half. The 1997 Asian financial crisis, however, brought oil prices to dramatic low levels, forcing government to make large budget cuts.
A noteworthy achievement in this administration was the tripartite agreement over labor benefits, social security, and pension funds, reached between labor unions, the private business sector, and the State, after ten years of stalled negotiations.
The fight against corruption was a central priority in Caldera's second term. In March 1996, as the GlobalSecurity organization describes, "an epochal event occurred, hardly creating a ripple in the world press. In its third plenary session, the members of the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted the Inter-American Convention against Corruption. The Convention is often referred to as the Caldera Convention, after the President of Venezuela, who was one of the driving forces behind it".
President Caldera also insisted on making corruption the central theme of the VII Ibero-American Summit of Heads State and Government, hosted by Venezuela in 1997. The renowned Venezuelan economist Moises Naím, a former member of Pérez' ministerial cabinet, and an outspoken critic of Caldera, argues that despite these efforts, Caldera's administration was however "particularly ineffectual in bringing to justice the many regulators and bankers responsible for the country's massive banking crisis".
Notwithstanding federal budget limitations, Caldera's administration developed major infrastructure projects, including two water dams the Macagua II in Guayana and the Taguaza in Caracas; the regional central aqueduct in Valencia; the Mérida-El Vigía superhighway and portions of the Centro-Occidental, José Antonio Páez, and Rómulo Betancourt highways. This administration also concluded Line 3 of the Caracas Metro, the Jacobo Borges and the Cruz-Diez museums, and brought to near completion the Caracas-Cúa railroad and the Yacambú-Quíbor hydrological complex.
At the beginning of his second term, Caldera culminated the dismissals of legal charges that his predecessors, presidents Carlos Andrés Pérez and Ramón J Velázquez, implemented to release from prison the military officers responsible for the failed coups of 4 February and 27 November 1992, policy aimed at pacifying the insurgent military force. This decision was welcomed and supported by the Catholic Church, the press, business sectors and all political parties, and Congress was ready to pass an amnesty bill had Caldera refused to pardon the insurgents. Many critics question in hindsight Caldera's decision. Hugo Chávez rose to popularity and won the presidential election in 1998, unexpectedly overcoming the constant very low numbers he had in the polls (9,7% for 1996) during the four years since his release from prison in 1994. The pervasiveness of this criticism grew hand in hand with Chávez's policies, to the point that many have come to blame Caldera for Chávez's and now Maduro's governments.
This body of work increased significantly after the academic events organized to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Caldera's birth. Parallel efforts on the legacy of Betancourt, Leoni, Villalba, Pérez, Herrera Campíns, and Calvani.
Political thought
Caldera pioneered the introduction of Christian Democracy into Latin America. He explained that Christian Democrats understand democracy in the light of Christian philosophy, and Christianity in its living democratic manifestation. For Caldera, Christian Democracy was not a middle point between liberalism and socialism. He saw it as a specific political alternative to laissez-faire capitalism and Marxist socialism. Caldera rejected Marxist ideas of dialectical materialism and class struggle, but he was also convinced that Capitalism without social safeguards produces a grossly inequitable society.
Caldera published several books and countless booklets and speeches on Christian Democratic ideals, including Ideario: La Democracia Cristiana en América Latina (1970), Justicia Social Internacional y Nacionalismo Latinoamericano (1973), El Bien Común Universal y la Justicia Social Internacional (1976), and Reflexiones de la Rábida (1976).
His Especificidad de la Democracia Cristiana (Christian Democracy) (1972), a handbook of Christian democratic principles and programmatic ideas, has been translated into several languages, including English, German, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Romanian, and Polish. In this book, Caldera develops a conception of democracy that integrates personalist, pluralistic, communitarian, participatory and organic dimensions.
This understanding of democracy, Caldera explains, rests upon foundational principles of Christian philosophy: affirmation of the spiritual, the subordination of politics to ethical norms, the dignity of the human person, the primacy of the common good, and the perfectibility of civil society. Caldera describes the concept of integral human development, the fundamental value of labor, the social function and forms of property, the role of the State in social life, the principle of subsidiarity, the defense of the rights of social groups, and the concept of international social justice. He viewed these principles as a set of political ideas committed to social justice and inspired by the Catholic social teaching.
The concept of "international social justice" was perhaps Caldera's most unique and original contribution to the body of Christian Democratic thought. In the speech he delivered to the joint session of the US Congress in 1970, he explained:
The substance of Caldera's concept of international social justice gradually influenced the social doctrine of the Catholic Church, beginning with Pope John XXIII's Encyclical Mater et Magistra. Eventually, the term itself was included in official Vatican documents. Pope Paul VI, for instance, in a letter written to the Secretary General of the United Nations, on the occasion of the Extraordinary General Assembly devoted to the study of the problem of raw materials and development, wrote: "The Church is firmly convinced that any acceptable solution must be based upon international social justice and upon human solidarity through which those principles can be practically applied.
Perhaps there is no statement that better captures the essence of Caldera's political ideals than the words that Pope John Paul II used in his address to President Caldera on 5 May 1995, on the occasion of the Venezuelan President's visit to the Vatican:
Intellectual and academic life
Long viewed as the most principled and legally minded of Venezuela's presidents, Caldera was a man of learning, and an accomplished essayist and orator. Despite never having remained longer than one month outside Venezuela, he was fluent in English, French, and Italian, and proficient in German and Portuguese.
A full professor in Labor Law and Juridical Sociology at Central University of Venezuela and Andrés Bello Catholic University, in Caracas, he taught almost without interruption from 1943 to 1968. Throughout his lifetime, Caldera was bestowed with honorary doctorates, degrees, and professorships from a dozen universities and academies in Venezuela, and from thirty universities worldwide, including: the University of Louvain (1979), in Belgium; Perugia (1973), in Italy; Hebrew of Jerusalem (1981), in Israel; Notre Dame (1964) and the Catholic University of America (1980), in the United States; Renmin (1993), in China; and The Sorbonne (1998), in France. The distinction Caldera most cherished, however, was the Honorary Professor award with which his alma mater, Central University of Venezuela, unanimously honored him in 1976.
In 1953, Caldera was elected to the Venezuelan National Academy of Political and Social Sciences. His induction speech was entitled "Idea de una sociología venezolana", an exposition of key elements for the development of sociological studies in the country. In 1967, he was elected to the Venezuelan National Academy of Language. He devoted his induction speech, "El lenguaje como vínculo social y la integración latinoamericana" to language as a social link for Latin American integration.
Throughout his life, Caldera maintained his passion for the Venezuelan man-of-letters Andrés Bello. To his early book Andrés Bello, he added a considerable number of essays, prologues, and book chapters, including, among others, "El pensamiento jurídico y social de Andrés Bello" (1988), "Andrés Bello: Bicentenario de su nacimiento" (1981), and "Caracas, Londres, Santiago de Chile: Las tres etapas de la vida de Bello" (1981).
Caldera also wrote extensively on key personalities and events in Venezuela's history. His book Bolivar siempre is a collection of essays on the timeliness of Simon Bolivar's political ideals. To this genre also belong such texts as "El general Páez de a pie" (1940), "Antonio José de Sucre: Demasiado joven para tanta gloria" (1980), "Eleazar López Contreras, lindero y puente entre dos épocas" (1973), and "Andrés Eloy Blanco, el amortiguador de la Constituyente" (1958), compiled many of them in different editions of the book Moldes para la fragua.
Especially notable is the monograph Caldera dedicated to the analysis of Romulo Betancourt's foundational role in the construction of Venezuela's democracy, "La parábola vital de Rómulo Betancourt" (1988).
The various texts Caldera devoted to reflections on the intersection between faith and public service are key to understand the spiritual drive behind his unwavering commitment to political and intellectual pursuits. Any thorough analysis of the life and works of Rafael Caldera must include La Hora de Emaús (1956), as well as such texts as "Aquel obrero que llamamos Cristo"(1956), "Lo político y lo religioso dentro de lo social, a propósito de Luigi Sturzo" (1953), "Jacques Maritain: Fe en Dios y en el pueblo" (1980), "Los valores cristianos" (1971), and the commencement speech "Un mensaje de fe" (1971), that Caldera delivered at the high school graduation ceremony of his son Andrés.
Last years and death
At the conclusion of his presidency, Caldera returned to his home, just as he did at the end of his first term. He was known for living simply and eschewing luxuries, and for being an honorable public servant in a country where corruption is pervasive. In 1999, when President Chávez called for a constituent assembly, Caldera protested against the violation of the 1961 Constitution. Allan Brewer-Carías, a Venezuelan legal scholar and elected member of this assembly, explains that this constitution-making body was an instrument for the gradual dismantling of democratic institutions and values.
In 1999, Caldera published his last book, De Carabobo a Puntofijo: Los Causahabientes (From Carabobo to Puntofijo, The Causates), a political history of Venezuela from 1830 to 1958. This book includes in its postscript a balanced assessment of Venezuela's democratic experience from 1958 to 1999. In the last sentences of this book, Caldera concludes with a message of hope that is particularly poignant in light of the reality that eventually unfolded under Chávez and his successor Maduro: "Venezuelans learned to live in liberty. Any political project that ignores this reality is condemned to failure".
Gravely affected by Parkinson's disease, Caldera gradually withdrew from public view and died in his home on Christmas Eve 2009.
A family man and devout Catholic, he married Alicia Pietri Montemayor on 6 August 1941. They had six children: Mireya, Rafael Tomás, Juan José, Alicia Helena, Cecilia and Andrés. At the time of his death, the couple had twelve grandchildren and five great-grandchildren. Mrs. Caldera died a little more than a year after her husband, on 9 February 2011.
Works
Andrés Bello (1935)
Derecho del trabajo (1939)
El Bloque Latinoamericano (1961)
Moldes para la fragua (1962)
Democracia Cristiana y Desarrollo (1964)
Ideario. La democracia cristiana en América Latina (1970)
Especificidad de la democracia cristiana (1972)
Temas de sociología venezolana (1973)
Justicia social internacional y Nacionalismo latinoamericano (1973)
La nacionalización del petróleo (1975)
Reflexiones de la Rábida (1976)
Parlamento mundial: una voz latinoamericana (1984)
Bolívar siempre (1987)
Los causahabientes, de Carabobo a Puntofijo (1999)
Rafael Caldera Library
La Venezuela civil, constructores de la república (2014)
Los desafíos a la gobernabilidad democrática (2014)
Justicia Social Internacional (2014)
Frente a Chávez (2015)
Andrés Bello (2015)
Moldes para la fragua. Nueva Serie (2016)
Ganar la patria (2016)
De Carabobo a Puntofijo (2017)
Derecho al Trabajo (2017)
Honors
Selected honors in Venezuela
Order "Libertador" (Collar).
Order "Francisco de Miranda" (Brilliant).
Order "Andres Bello" (Collar).
Order "José María Vargas" (Central University of Venezuela).
Medal "Antonio José de Sucre".
Order "Estrella de Carabobo", Venezuelan Army.
Selected honors from Latin American countries
: Collar Order of the Liberator General San Martín.
: Great Collar Order of the Condor of the Andes.
: Great Collar Order of the Southern Cross.
: Great Brilliant Cross Order of the Sun of Peru.
: Great Collar Order of Boyaca.
: Collar "Orden Nacional de Miguel Antonio Caro y Rufino José Cuervo".
: Order Grade Great Official "Simon Bolívar".
: Great Collar "Orden Nacional al Mérito".
: Collar "Orden Mariscal Francisco Solano López".
: Collar Order of the Aztec Eagle.
: Great Extraodriary Cross Order of José Matías Delgado.
: Order of Christopher Columbus.
: Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.
Selected honors from European countries
: Grand Cross of the Pian Order.
: Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw.
: Saint Gregorio Magno Magna Cross.
: Star Order of the Socialist Republic of Romania.
: Collar of the Order "Isabel La Católica".
: Great Military Cross of Order of Charles III.
: Order "Cavaliere di Gran Croce".
: Order of Vytautas the Great
: Great Collar of the Infante Dom Henrique of the Government of Portugal.
: Great Cross Legion of Honor of the French Republic.
Further reading
Arraiz Luca, Rafael, comp. Rafael Caldera: Estadista y Pacificador (Caracas: Ediciones B Venezuela, 2016)
Aveledo Coll, Guillermo. "Caldera: cien años"
Caballero, Manuel. "La gran marcha del presidente Caldera". (Caracas: Editorial Alfa, 2004)
Caldera Pietri, Andrés. "El compromiso con el ideal"
Caldera, Juan José. Mi testimonio
Caldera, Rafael Tomás. "La lección perenne de Rafael Caldera"
___., "El orador de la República"
___., "El fondo ético de la política"
Cárdenas, Rodolfo José. "¿Cómo es Caldera?"
Carthay, Gehard. Caldera y Betancourt. Caracas: Ediciones Centauro, 1987.
Ewell, Judith. Venezuela: A Century of Change (1985)
Gómez Grillo, Elio. "Discurso de orden en el Palacio de las Academias"
Grisanti, Luis Xavier. "Caldera y el nacionalismo energético"
___., "La gestión económica y energética del presidente Caldera I y II"
Herman, Donald L. Christian Democracy in Venezuela (1980)
Matheus, Juan Miguel. "Ganar la república civil"
Moleiro, Alonso. "Los 100 años de Rafael Caldera"
Morles Hernández, Alfredo. "Rafael Caldera, jurista integral"
Njaim, Humberto. "Las lecciones republicanas de Rafael Caldera"
Padrón, Paciano. "Caldera, civilista y sembrador de democracia"
Pino Iturrieta, Elías. "El doctor Rafael Caldera"
Pulido de Briceño, Mercedes. Rafael Antonio Caldera Rodríguez, el civilista
Ramos Flamerich, Guillermo. "La parábola vital de Rafael Caldera"
Rodríguez Alonso, Joaquín. "Homenaje a Rafael Caldera".
See also
Presidents of Venezuela
List of Venezuelans
References
External links
Extended bio by CIDOB Foundation
Interview to Rafael Caldera (RCTV, 19 September 1993) - YouTube
Rafael Caldera — Daily Telegraph obituary
1916 births
2009 deaths
People from Yaracuy
Central University of Venezuela alumni
Central University of Venezuela faculty
Presidents of Venezuela
Venezuelan democracy activists
Venezuelan life senators
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Venezuela)
Venezuelan Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic activists
Venezuelan lawyers
Copei politicians
National Convergence (Venezuela) politicians
Members of the Venezuelan Academy of Language
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Pope Pius IX
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Crosses of the Order of Vytautas the Great
Grand Cordons of the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star
20th-century lawyers
Recipients of the Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay | [
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219312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Seibert | Mark Seibert | Mark Seibert (born 1960) is an American musician, composer, and producer best known for his work on various video games from Sierra Entertainment.
Biography
Siebert was born in California, U.S. From 1979 to 1986, he performed guitar and vocals for a Christian band called Omega Sunrise. He recorded two albums with the group in 1983 and 1985, the second of which saw moderate success in various US markets. After a final concert in Fresno, California in 1986, the group broke up due to the demands of constant touring.
Claims he is most proud of compositions in Phantasmagoria (1995). Obtained his Bachelor of Arts in music at California State University, Fresno in 1983, and also started on a second degree in Math in 1986. As of 2014, he was working as a maths teacher at the Perry Hall Christian School in Maryland.
In 1987, Seibert answered a newspaper advertisement from a computer game company called Sierra On-Line. After several months of delay, the company hired him as a musician and music editor for King's Quest IV: The Perils of Rosella. He worked as a musician on this and other projects, but after only a few years, he was promoted to the company's music director. This meant that he worked with staff musicians in both composition and editing.
In 1992, he was promoted again to producer, which meant he was involved in all aspects of game production, not just the music. However, this also meant that he was less able to actually compose music, though he did continue to perform pieces by other composers. He left the company in 2001.
Despite having produced numerous adventure games over his career, in a 1997 interview Seibert said that though he likes the genre, he had never played one through to the end: "I always get halfway through and get stuck someplace, and then I have to download the walk-through off the Internet and read the solution, and it's always like, 'Well that's a stupid puzzle!' I get so frustrated, I throw it down and never pick it back up."
Later he went to work for Gentle Revolution Software as the Director of Development. He worked with NASA on a game centered around the International Space Station.
He has been married to Debbie Seibert since 1980. They have two daughters (Kirsten - b. 1991, Kaitlin - b. 1994).
Video game soundtracks
Police Quest II: The Vengeance (1988)
Quest for Glory: So You Want to Be a Hero (1989)
Codename: Iceman (1989)
Conquests of Camelot: The Search for the Grail (1989)
King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder! (1990)
Mixed-Up Mother Goose (enhanced CD-ROM version) (1992) (with Amenda-Lombardo and Ken Allen)
King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow (1992) (wrote and produced "Girl in the Tower", a remix of a theme heard in the previous game where he was the composer.)
Conquests of the Longbow: The Legend of Robin Hood (1993) (also music director)
Phantasmagoria (1995) (also Producer and singer of the ending song "Take a Stand")
Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! (1996) (also Producer and Sound Effects)
Other works
Feel the Change (with Omega Sunrise) (1983)
Run from the Night (with Omega Sunrise) (1985)
The Long Shot (Sequencing and Sequence Editing) (1988)
King's Quest IV: The Perils of Rosella (1988) (Musician/Editor)
Space Quest III: The Pirates of Pestulon (1988) (Musician/Editor)Silpheed (1988) (Music Editor)Firehawk: Thexder The Second Contact (1990) (Music Director)Leisure Suit Larry 3: Passionate Patti in Pursuit of the Pulsating Pectorals (1989) (Music/Sound Programming)Hoyle's Official Book of Games: Volume 1 (1989) (Music Director)King's Quest I: Quest for the Crown (1989) (VGA remake) (Music Director)Oil's Well (1990) (Music Director)Police Quest III: The Kindred (1990) (Music Director)Quest for Glory II: Trial by Fire (1990) (Music Director)Hoyle's Official Book of Games: Volume 2 (1990) (Music Director)Hoyle's Official Book of Games: Volume 3 (1991) (Music/Sound Programming)Space Quest IV: Roger Wilco and the Time Rippers (1991) (Music Director, Voice Actor (CD-ROM))EcoQuest: The Search for Cetus (1991) (Music Director)Castle of Dr. Brain (1991) (Music Director/Musician)Space Quest I: Roger Wilco in the Sarien Encounter (1991) (VGA remake) (Music Director)Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards (VGA remake) (1991) (Music Director)Leisure Suit Larry 5: Passionate Patti Does a Little Undercover Work (1991) (Music/Sound Programming)Mixed-Up Fairy Tales (1991) (Music Arrangement/Performance)Quest for Glory I: So You Want to Be a Hero (VGA remake) (1992) (Music Director)Police Quest: In Pursuit of the Death Angel (VGA remake) (1992) (Music Director)Jones in the Fast Lane (Enhanced CD-ROM Version) (1992) (Director)Laura Bow: The Dagger of Amon Ra (1992) (Music Director)The Island of Dr. Brain (1992) (Music Director)Take-a-Break! Pinball for Windows (Musician) (1993)Pepper's Adventures in Time (1993) (Producer/Musician)The Shadow of Yserbius (boxed version) (Producer)Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers (1993) (Sound)Quest for Glory III: Wages of War (1993) (Music Director)Outpost (1994) (Musician)King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride (1994) (Producer/Musician)Torin's Passage (1995) (Producer)Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! (1996) (Producer/Musician)King's Quest: Mask of Eternity (1998) (Director/Producer/Musician/Co-designer)Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura (2001) (Executive Producer)Throne of Darkness (2001) (Producer)SpaceStationSim'' (2004) (Director of Development)
References
External links
Mark Seibert's homepage
Interview with Mark Seibert at Sierra On-Line, Adventure Classic Gaming (1999)
Artist profile at OverClocked ReMix
Mark Seibert profile at MobyGames
American video game producers
Living people
Sierra On-Line employees
Video game composers
1960 births | [
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219318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest%20for%20Glory%20II%3A%20Trial%20by%20Fire | Quest for Glory II: Trial by Fire | Quest for Glory II: Trial by Fire is the second video game in Sierra On-Line's Quest for Glory series, and the sequel to Hero's Quest: So You Want to Be a Hero.
Gameplay
The game's interface is a text parser, which requires the player to input commands from a set (but unknown) list to have the character perform actions.
The game follows the path of its predecessor, although there are distinctions in gameplay. Most of the game takes place in the fictional city, and on a restricted time frame; the entire plot is concluded in 30 days. Many of the puzzles in the game do not appear or cannot be solved until certain days. This keeps gameplay on a tight, linear narrative. The game is also difficult to navigate, as it has an odd perspective and mapping system. The problems with the navigation are compounded by the maze-like layout of the fictional city. This layout was employed as a primitive form of digital rights management: completing early quests was very difficult without the map in the manual provided with purchases of the video game. This difficulty is reduced once the player obtains a magical map which transports their character instantly to hotspots.
The player has the opportunity to advance their character, explore side-quests, and have the character take up a career appropriate to its class and skill. For example, a magic-user can earn the title of "Wizard" with the sponsorship of the wizard Erasmus, if he can overcome a series of magical challenges and graduate from the Wizards' Institute of Technocery. A fighter may earn a membership in the Eternal Order of Fighters. A thief may perform several thefts, including the running gag of stealing the Maltese Falcon. However, the player is not locked out of different side quests depending on class. If the character is a fighter with some magical ability (e.g. a magic user imported from Quest for Glory I playing as a fighter) this cross-training can be utilised to complete other quests. It is possible for the character to become a Wizard, complete every theft in the game, and join the Eternal Order of Fighters.
The game contains plenty of pop culture references, such as the Cookie Monster, and easter eggs, such as being able to don X-ray glasses at a particular time in order to see a character nude.
This is also the first game of the series where the hero may be awarded the title of Paladin. To achieve this status, the hero must act honorably throughout the game and Rakeesh, the liontaur (lion-centaur) will present to you his Paladin sword, Soulforge. Since the title of the Paladin is given at the end of the game, the Paladin abilities and Soulforge are only usable with characters that are imported into Quest for Glory III: Wages of War and later games.
The game features a real-time combat system.
Plot
The story is inspired by various Middle Eastern myths and stories, including Arabian Nights.
Quest for Glory II takes place in the city of Shapeir and its surrounds, a land which is host also to Katta, humanoid, cat-like creatures. Directly following from the events of the first game, the newly proclaimed Hero of Spielburg travels by flying carpet with his friends Abdulla Doo, Shameen and Shema to the desert city of Shapeir. The city is threatened by magical elementals of fire, earth, wind, and water, while the Emir Arus al-Din of Shapeir's sister city Raseir is missing and his city fallen under tyranny.
After defeating the four elementals that threaten Shapeir, the Hero travels to the city of Raseir, which is missing its emir. There, he is imprisoned by Khaveen and under hypnosis helps the evil tyrannical wizard Ad Avis to resurrect the evil genie Iblis. In the final fight, the Hero attacks the palace and battles with Ad Avis, who falls to his presumed death begging for assistance from his Dark Master. As thanks for the Hero's success in liberating Raseir and restoring its lost splendor, the Sultan of Shapeir, Harun al-Rashid, rewards the Hero by adopting him as his son.
Development
According to Corey Cole, a developer and producer for the game, Quest for Glory II cost $450,000. Trial by Fire was the last EGA game to be created by Sierra On-Line, and followed development processes intended for the graphically superior VGA games which followed, which made its development difficult.
The manual is illustrated by Marvel Comics artist Ernie Chan.
Characters and references
Quest for Glory II is the only game in the series without any influence of Erana in it. It does, however, feature a reference to Erana, as she is in one of the portraits of great mages in the Wizards' Institute of Technocery. If the Hero requests her sponsorship in his initiation as a wizard, he is told that Erana had not been answering the WIT's summons for many years now.
There are various Easter eggs throughout the game, such as the Starship Enterprise from the television series Star Trek appearing during the opening credits. The astrologer appears to have been based on Omar Khayyám.
As in the other games of the series, there are a large number of in-jokes and mythological references, especially, from 'The Arabian Nights. One of them is the name of the Sultan, Harun al-Rashid.
The game contains many references to classic films. The caravan scene is an homage to Lawrence of Arabia. Signor Ferrari and Ugarte, characters portrayed by Sydney Greenstreet and Peter Lorre in the movie Casablanca, appear in Raseir, as does the Maltese Falcon from the movie of the same name, which also featured Greenstreet and Lorre in other roles. Caricatures of the Marx Brothers also play important roles.
There are several references to other games or movies in magician Keapon Laffin's shop: a doll of princess Rosella (from the King's Quest series), a Cookie Monster doll, and an antwerp doll (a reference to the first game), among other things.
The final city in this game is Raseir, an anagram for Sierra, the company that produced the game, and the antagonist, Ad Avis, is named after Sierra's then-new creative director, Bill Davis. Both names were chosen by the designers as parodies, as subtle references to a changing atmosphere within Sierra: Raseir is an Orwellian city, Ad Avis its totalitarian dictator.
Reception
Although the game is generally well liked, its time management aspect had a mixed reception, with some critics feeling it arbitrary.
UK magazine ACE gave the Amiga version a score of only 600 out of 1000, praising its size, but criticizing it for its average graphics, grating music, slowness and for the large amount of disk swapping needed while playing. In 1991, Dragon gave the game 5 out of 5 stars. Computer Gaming World stated that the game was more linear and less replayable than its predecessor, but had an excellent conclusion.
Both Michael Baker and Tyler Willis of RPGamer gave the game 4 out of 5 starts, praising the game's strong narrative, superb writing, and graphical design.
In 2011, Adventure Gamers named Quest for Glory II the 81st-best adventure game ever released.
Legacy
QFG II is the only game in the series to not have originated or have been remade beyond the EGA graphics engine by Sierra On-Line. However, AGD Interactive released a VGA remake of the game using the Adventure Game Studio engine on August 24, 2008.
References
External links
Adventure Game Studio games
Role-playing video games
Adventure games
Amiga games
DOS games
Point-and-click adventure games
Quest for Glory
ScummVM-supported games
Sierra Entertainment games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in the United States
1990 video games
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Video games based on Arabian mythology
Video games about genies | [
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219324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest%20for%20Glory%20III%3A%20Wages%20of%20War | Quest for Glory III: Wages of War | Quest for Glory III: Wages of War is a hybrid adventure/role-playing video game released in 1992 for MS-DOS. It is the third entry in the Quest for Glory video game series, and the sequel to Quest for Glory II: Trial by Fire.
Quest for Glory II hinted that Ad Avis would return in this installment of the video game series. However, the Coles didn't think they could reach a new audience with a game that was significantly darker in tone than previous games in the series. Therefore, Quest for Glory III: Wages of War was created instead with the game just hinting at the whereabouts of Ad Avis and saving that particular plotline for Shadows of Darkness, which was changed to the fourth in the series.
The game was re-released on Steam with support for Windows.
Plot
Rakeesh the Paladin brings the Hero (and Prince of Shapeir) along with Uhura and her son Simba to his homeland, the town of Tarna in a jungle and savannah country called Fricana, which is inspired by central African ecosystems. Fricana is home to Liontaurs, half-human, half-lion creatures.
The Liontaur city of Tarna is on the brink of a war; the Simbani, the tribe of Uhura, are ready to do battle with the Leopardmen. Both tribes have taken a sacred relic from the other tribe and refused to return it before the other does. The Hero must prevent the war and then thwart a demon who may be loosed upon the world.
The Hero earns membership in the warring tribes, and leads his newfound allies into battle against the demon wizard. As soon as the battle is won, the Hero suddenly disappears into darkness.
Gameplay
Just like the previous installments, this game offers three 'standard' character classes: Warrior, Magic User and Thief. However, a 'hidden' class can be opened: a Paladin. In the finale of the previous game a character who has proved honorable enough is named 'Paladin' by Rakeesh, and can be imported to Quest for Glory III as such. However, any saved character of any other class can be imported as a Paladin as well, preserving all of his skills acquired in the previous games. Such system allows to create a cross-class characters, so that Paladin for instance can use his own specific abilities along with the spells intended for Magic User without any penalties.
The Fighter class is favoured in Wages of War, and has access to the Trials of Simbani quests. Magic-Users are treated with hostility, and have but a sidequest which involves creating a magical staff and challenging the leopardman shaman, while thieves are relegated to just two incidents which are particular to them and in which they can use their class-specific skills.
In a departure from the first two games, Quest for Glory III features an "overworld" screen where all important cities and landmarks are represented in miniature, instead of the series of interconnected screens that the other installments of the franchise used. Travel across this overworld is subject to random encounters with enemies, which the player character must defeat in battle or escape. While traveling from one landmark to another, time passes rapidly, and the player is prone to random encounters, most of which are hostile. The stealthy Thief character is less prone to these encounters. Some random encounters are not hostile, and others are silly yet nevertheless helpful in one way or another, such as the Awful Waffle Walker (meant to save the Hero from starvation), and Arne the Aardvark (possible to question for hints).
Development
The game was created in Sierra's SCI1, the Sierra Creative Interpreter, Version 1. Wages of War marked the first game in the series to use the VGA graphics engine which would be used for the next game of the series. Instead of a text parser interface to control the hero, the use of the mouse to point and click was the main input device.
According to Corey Cole, Lori Cole was responsible for "90% of the design work" for Quest for Glory III, which she did while also supervising the VGA remake of Quest for Glory: So You Want to Be a Hero.
Due to a programming oversight it is impossible to achieve a perfect score in Quest for Glory III. Also, due to an unforeseen glitch early in the game, it's possible to make the game unwinnable if the player misses a key event.
Corey Cole has stated that the game was developed with a budget of $750,000.
Reception
The changes introduced in this installment of the video game series were met with mixed reactions by fans, particularly with respect to the point-and-click interface which replaced the text parser that earlier games in the series had used. It is regarded mostly as a pedestrian effort.
Computer Gaming World stated that Quest for Glory III "offers perhaps the most exotic and intriguing backdrop" in the series, and praised the "sumptuous" VGA graphics and soundtrack. The magazine concluded that the game "is yet another excellent product from the creative characters at Sierra", and stated that the next game "will be tough to surpass the expectations generated by the excellence already found". In 1993, Dragon gave the game 5 out of 5 stars.
In 1994, PC Gamer US named Quest for Glory III as the 28th best computer game ever. The editors wrote, "With a tightly woven plot, terrific graphics, and an excellent soundtrack, Quest for Glory III is what adventurin' is all about."
PC Mag's Neil J. Rubenking considered the game a "perfect blend" of roleplaying and adventure gaming, and appreciated the levity provided by the world's characters between the more tense moments of battle.
Retrospective reviews
Michael Baker for RPGamer gave the game 3 out of 5 stars. He felt Wages of War "could have been much more involved and exciting than it actually was", and criticised the game's combat system. He also considered the VGA graphics to be less well utilised than the EGA graphics in the previous entry in the series. Richard Cobbet of PC gamer considers the title "a bit of a filler of a game".
References
External links
1992 video games
Adventure games
DOS games
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Point-and-click adventure games
Quest for Glory
Role-playing video games
ScummVM-supported games
Sierra Entertainment games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games | [
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219325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leisure%20Suit%20Larry%3A%20Love%20for%20Sail%21 | Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! | Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! is an adventure game originally developed and published by Sierra On-Line in 1996. It was the last Leisure Suit Larry game written by series creator Al Lowe, and the last to feature original protagonist Larry Laffer as the main character until the release of Leisure Suit Larry: Wet Dreams Don't Dry in 2018. Despite being known as Leisure Suit Larry 7 during its development, Love for Sail! was actually the sixth installment in the Leisure Suit Larry series due to the (intentional) nonexistence of a fourth game.
After many of the Leisure Suit Larry games had gained a reputation for not actually featuring all that much raunchy content when analysed, Love for Sail! included some much more risqué elements compared to previous installments. It also featured more fleshed-out, cartoon style graphics than its predecessors, as well as full voice acting. A mobile game of the same title was also released by Vivendi Games Mobile in 2007.
Gameplay
Players can "appear" in the game by placing voice samples of selected dialogue and a digitized photo in a particular directory (the default is Al Lowe). Due to time constraints, the information to do so was not printed in the manual, but was published some time later in an online announcement.
Love for Sail! also provides a more-literal-than-usual interpretation of Easter eggs: when certain obscure actions are performed, a small icon resembling an Easter egg flashes in a corner of the screen. This usually indicates that a "seduction" scene can now be played featuring nudity that is normally obscured.
The game also shipped with a "CyberSniff 2000", a sheet of numbered scratch-and-sniff paper, corresponding to a number displayed on the screen at a certain location, so that the player can get a scent of what the area the player character is in smells like.
Plot
Love for Sail! is the first Larry game since the third to pick up immediately where its predecessor left off; in typical fashion, it features Larry getting dumped by the woman who represented the ultimate goal of Larry 6, Shamara.
The formula is much the same as the previous games; the "twist" is that Larry was a passenger on a cruise ship populated by parodies of famous people. Among the other cruise guests are "Drew Baringmore" (Drew Barrymore), "Dewmi Moore" (Demi Moore), "Victorian Principles" (Victoria Principal), "Jamie Lee Coitus" (Jamie Lee Curtis), "Nailmi" and "Wydoncha Jugg" (Naomi and Wynonna Judd) and "Annette Boning" (Annette Bening). Various other pop icons are parodied in the background, such as the Archie Comics gang playing nude volleyball, various incarnations of James Bond in the ship's casino (itself an homage to Peter Sellers's famous Casino Royale parody). Most of the male supporting cast (Peter the Purser, Johnson the bartender, Dick the guardrobe attendant, Wang the galley server, Bob Bitt the artist) are named after popular euphemisms for the penis or are in some way related to it (Bob Bitt, for instance, is named after John Wayne Bobbitt; the character also shares the same first name and bears a passing resemblance to fellow artist Bob Ross).
The plot revolves around Larry's attempt at winning a weekly contest held on the ship by Captain Thygh, a gorgeous blonde. The contest involves a series of other games varying from legitimate sports competitions like bowling to naughtier things like a machine created to test one's sexual prowess. Each passenger is given a score card with a selection of the various competitions to compete in, and the passenger with the highest cumulative score at the end of the week wins. The prize is an additional free week on the cruise spent sharing the Captain's cabin (and, presumably, her bed.)
The player must come up with a variety of ways to cheat in each of Larry's assigned competitions so that he can get the highest score and win the contest. Among Larry's chosen competitions are a cooking contest, a "best dressed" contest, a game of horseshoes, bowling, the sexual prowess contest and others. At times Larry wins these contests not by cheating but only by an unexpected twist of fate triggered by his (often unintentional) actions. For instance, Larry's encounter with fashion designer Jamie Lee Coitus causes his leisure suit to become the height of fashion; as such he wins the best dressed competition. Similar to Leisure Suit Larry 5: Passionate Patti Does a Little Undercover Work, it is impossible for the game to be placed in an "unwinnable" state by a bad decision.
Development
Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! was originally announced under the title Leisure Suit Larry 7: Yank-her's Away!. According to creator Al Lowe, the development team were initially planning to make the game with live action full motion video, "but what we found out was, we're writing cartoons here... if we did straight video, it becomes not only ludicrous, but obscene [laughs]... We were going over the list of gags we had and just said, 'oh no, you couldn't even do this with blue screen!' ... what we came back to was that we liked what we'd done in the past and we want to do that even more."
This was the first Leisure Suit Larry game to receive an ESRB rating (Mature) upon its original release. Lowe acknowledged that the game was considerably more risqué than previous installments of Leisure Suit Larry but maintained that the focus was on the humor rather than the nudity or sexual content, and that the game would not appeal to those looking for pornography.
Commenting on a puzzle in which Larry must push on a door, despite guns coming out of the wall implying that he shouldn't touch it, producer Mark Seibert recounted that "all of us knew that was a bad puzzle, and that we shouldn't be putting it in, but it made for a big joke and so we left it. Sure enough, people have written me about it all the time and say, 'Hey! That was a stupid puzzle!'" [emphasis in original]
Mobile version
A mobile version by Mighty Troglodytes titled Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail (minus the exclamation mark of the PC version) was released by Vivendi Games on June 21, 2007, featuring a completely different plot to the original.
Reception
A reviewer for Next Generation criticized the game's puzzles and re-introduction of a text parser: "Now, we kind of miss text parsers, but combining one with point-and-click results in a game that's neither fish nor fowl, adding an element of pure guesswork to a puzzle set that's already conceptually slippery. Beyond this, the game's other big flaw is that the series hasn't really done anywhere - much like its main protagonist, it seems stuck in a perpetual adolescence." However, he concluded that the game has enough strong moments to appeal to fans of the series. GameSpot complimented the game's challenge and hint system, but found that the raunchy humor quickly grew tiresome. The game was also reviewed by Danny Wallace in the January 1997 edition of PCGamer (UK) magazine and was given a score of 23%, described the game as "a pointless mountain of toss".
Richard Cobbett writing a Larry retrospective for Rock Paper Shotgun in 2011 opined the game was "a really good, very underrated adventure". That same year, Adventure Gamers named Love for Sail the 71st-best adventure game ever released.
According to Al Lowe, sales of Love for Sail surpassed 280,000 units by early 1999. In 2006, he remarked in an interview that it had ultimately sold "750,000 copies plus many more in the various Larry collections."
Ports and re-releases
The game was included as Leisure Suit Larry 7 in the Leisure Suit Larry: Ultimate Pleasure Pack compilation by Sierra Studios, released in 1999. On February 19, 2013, Codemasters re-released the game downloadably on GOG.com for Microsoft Windows and OS X pre-packed with DOSBox. On April 26, 2018, the Windows build was updated to support ScummVM 2.0. A Linux version pre-packed with ScummVM was released on May 15, 2018. On August 2, 2019, the macOS build was updated to support ScummVM 2.0.
References
External links
1996 video games
DOS games
Leisure Suit Larry games
Classic Mac OS games
Point-and-click adventure games
ScummVM-supported games
Video game sequels
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Al Lowe
Windows games | [
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219328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heap%20overflow | Heap overflow | A heap overflow, heap overrun, or heap smashing is a type of buffer overflow that occurs in the heap data area. Heap overflows are exploitable in a different manner to that of stack-based overflows. Memory on the heap is dynamically allocated at runtime and typically contains program data. Exploitation is performed by corrupting this data in specific ways to cause the application to overwrite internal structures such as linked list pointers. The canonical heap overflow technique overwrites dynamic memory allocation linkage (such as malloc metadata) and uses the resulting pointer exchange to overwrite a program function pointer.
For example, on older versions of Linux, two buffers allocated next to each other on the heap could result in the first buffer overwriting the second buffer's metadata. By setting the in-use bit to zero of the second buffer and setting the length to a small negative value which allows null bytes to be copied, when the program calls free() on the first buffer it will attempt to merge these two buffers into a single buffer. When this happens, the buffer that is assumed to be freed will be expected to hold two pointers FD and BK in the first 8 bytes of the formerly allocated buffer. BK gets written into FD and can be used to overwrite a pointer.
Consequences
An accidental overflow may result in data corruption or unexpected behavior by any process that accesses the affected memory area. On operating systems without memory protection, this could be any process on the system.
For example, a Microsoft JPEG GDI+ buffer overflow vulnerability could allow remote execution of code on the affected machine.
iOS jailbreaking often uses heap overflows to gain arbitrary code execution.
Detection and prevention
As with buffer overflows there are primarily three ways to protect against heap overflows. Several modern operating systems such as Windows and Linux provide some implementation of all three.
Prevent execution of the payload by separating the code and data, typically with hardware features such as NX-bit
Introduce randomization so the heap is not found at a fixed offset, typically with kernel features such as ASLR (Address Space Layout Randomization)
Introduce sanity checks into the heap manager
Since version 2.3.6 the GNU libc includes protections that can detect heap overflows after the fact, for example by checking pointer consistency when calling unlink. However, those protections against prior exploits were almost immediately shown to also be exploitable. In addition, Linux has included support for ASLR since 2005, although PaX introduced a better implementation years before. Also Linux has included support for NX-bit since 2004.
Microsoft has included protections against heap resident buffer overflows since April 2003 in Windows Server 2003 and August 2004 in Windows XP with Service Pack 2. These mitigations were safe unlinking and heap entry header cookies. Later versions of Windows such as Vista, Server 2008 and Windows 7 include: Removal of commonly targeted data structures, heap entry metadata randomization, expanded role of heap header cookie, randomized heap base address, function pointer encoding, termination of heap corruption and algorithm variation. Normal Data Execution Prevention (DEP) and ASLR also help to mitigate this attack.
See also
Heap spraying
Stack buffer overflow
Exploit
Shellcode
References
External links
Smashing The Heap For Fun And Profit
Heap Overflow article at Heise Security
Defeating Microsoft Windows XP SP2 Heap protection and DEP bypass
Computer security exploits
Software anomalies
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219333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%20of%20Civil%20Law | Bachelor of Civil Law | Bachelor of Civil Law (abbreviated BCL, or B.C.L.; ) is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. The BCL originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but many universities now offer undergraduate law degrees under the same label. Reference to Civil Law was not originally in contradistinction to Common Law, but to Canon Law, although it is true that Common Law was not taught in the Civil Law faculties in either university until at least the second half of the 18th century. However, some universities in English-speaking countries use the degree in the former sense.
Postgraduate degrees
The modern BCL: Oxford
At Oxford, the Bachelor of Civil Law degree is a taught postgraduate degree in English law, occupying a similar position as the Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: or ) programmes of other British universities, but specifically for Common Law degree holders. Students with Civil Law degrees following the same programme are awarded the degree of Magister Juris (commonly MJur). Oxford claims that the BCL is "the most highly regarded taught masters-level qualification in the Common Law world". The course differs from many LLM programmes insofar as it provides not only seminar-and lecture—format teaching, but also the intensive small-group tutorials that characterize Oxbridge's undergraduate tutorial system. The principal mode of assessment for the BCL and MJur is end-of-year examinations held in Oxford's Examination Schools, after the end of Trinity term. The degree is either an overall "pass" or an overall "distinction", the latter requiring more than 70 marks in two or more of the four courses, and not less than 60 in any of the courses. The Vinerian Scholarship is awarded to the student deemed to have the best overall performance on the BCL; examples of past Vinerian Scholars include the Law Lords Lord Hoffmann, Lord Edmund-Davies and Lord Saville.
Historically, the BCL was established as the lower degree in Oxford's Faculty of Civil Law, the higher degree being the Doctor of Civil Law. The Faculty of Civil Law was so named to distinguish it from the faculty of Canon Law which was abolished in both universities by King Henry VIII in 1535. In the 16th century, it generally took three years to study for the BCL if the student had previously obtained a Master of Arts degree at Oxford (and one additional year if his degree was from Cambridge). It was, however, possible to enter the Faculty of Law directly after matriculation as a 'Student in Civil Law', without even a Bachelor of Arts (BA) first. In this case, it took four to six years to take the BCL. From the 1850s, the BCL could only be taken by those who had an Oxford BA, but at the end of the 19th century the course was restructured: While it was still possible for Oxford BAs to complete it in one year, graduates from other universities were also admitted to the BCL, though as a two-year taught degree course. This dual structure was still in place in the 1960s, but at least since 1991, the BCL has been a one-year course both for graduates from Oxford, and elsewhere. In 1991, the MJur was introduced as a degree in European and Comparative Law. Around 2000, this was reshaped into a degree with the same structure and papers as the BCL, but for graduates from non-Common Law backgrounds.
The syllabus consisted entirely of Roman Civil Law until the establishment of the Vinerian Professorship of English Law in 1758. Undergraduate examinations in law were not established until 1850, with the separate BA undergraduate 'Honour School of Jurisprudence' being established in 1872. Before 1960, there were seven papers, of which six were compulsory: 'Jurisprudence', the 'Roman Law of Ownership and Possession', the 'Roman Law of Condictiones', 'Common Law' (comprising the general principles of contract, torts, and crime), 'Equity', and 'Conflict of Laws'. The optional paper was to be chosen from either the 'Law of Evidence', the 'Law of Negotiable Instruments', specified topics in Public International Law, or the 'Roman-Dutch Law of Testamentary and Intestate Succession'. In 1960, the syllabus was changed to six papers, of which four were compulsory: 'Common Law' (as above), the 'Roman Law of Ownership and Possession', 'Equity', and 'Conflict of Laws'. The two optional papers were to be chosen from either the 'Development of Modern Jurisprudence', the 'Roman Law of Condictiones', the 'Law of Evidence', 'Criminal Law and Penology', 'Public International Law', 'Roman Dutch Law', 'Legal History: the Legislation of Edward I', 'Administrative Law', or the 'Comparative Law of Matrimonial Causes'. For non-Oxford graduates, there was a preliminary examination after the first year. Presently, four papers can be chosen from a wide range of options.
The academic dress for both BCL and MJur graduates consists of the lay faculties' masters' gown with a hood of steel blue silk, half lined and bound with white rabbit fur.
The historical BCL: Elsewhere
The Faculty of Civil Law in Cambridge was renamed the Faculty of Laws after the teaching of English Common Law was introduced in the 19th century. The initial postgraduate degree in the faculty became the Bachelor of Laws degree (LLB, or LL.B; ), before being retitled LLM in the 20th century in order to clarify its status as a postgraduate degree. The BCL degree in Durham University is now also titled LLM. Within the UK, only the Law Faculty at Oxford has retained the older nomenclature.
Before it was renamed in 1969 as the LLB, the bachelor's degree in Common Law conferred by Canada's University of New Brunswick was known as the Bachelor of Civil Law.
Until replaced by the Juris Doctor (JD, or J.D.) in 1967, the Bachelor of Civil Law was the degree granted by the first law school in the United States, the William & Mary School of Law founded in 1779.
Undergraduate degrees
Ireland
The BCL degree is also a standard law degree in Ireland. It is awarded by constituent universities of the National University of Ireland, such as University College Cork, University College Dublin and the National University of Ireland, Galway and National University of Ireland, Maynooth. The BCL degree is also offered by Dublin City University. Other Irish universities, including the University of Limerick and the University of Dublin, award the LLB. degree. The LLB is offered at postgraduate level by University College Cork, NUI, Galway, and the University of Limerick also.
Degrees specifically in civil law
Canada (BCL / LLB / LLL)
The legal system in Canada principally adopts the English Common Law legal tradition in all provinces and territories, excluding Quebec. For historical reasons, Quebec has a hybrid legal system born of its French-heritage in civil law. As a result, universities in Quebec (and others wishing to offer degrees suitable for practitioners in Quebec) must provide training in both Civil and Common Law.
At McGill University, the bachelor's degree in Quebec Civil Law is called the BCL, to distinguish it from the first degree in Common Law (i.e., the JD) offered by that same university. Graduates earn both degrees concurrently after three to four years of study.
The University of Ottawa, although located in Ontario, also offers a baccalaureate degree in Quebec Civil Law, which it styles the Licentiate of Laws (LLL or LL.L.; ), to distinguish it from the first degree in Common Law (i.e., the LLB, now renamed JD) offered by that same university.
The other universities in Quebec that offer a baccalaureate degree in Quebec Civil Law (Université de Montréal, Université du Québec à Montréal, Université Laval and Université de Sherbrooke) call it an 'LL.B.' () though, in the past, the degree at Université de Montréal and Université Laval was styled as 'LL.L.'.
These bachelor's degrees in Quebec Civil Law are a first-entry degree programme which, like other first-entry university programmes in any discipline in Quebec, require a college diploma for entry. Except in the cases of both Ottawa and McGill, they are three years in length. The Common Law LLB and Quebec Civil Law LLL are combined in programmes offered by both the University of Ottawa, and McGill University. McGill offers a "transystemic program" of 105 credits. Students can choose to complete the curriculum in 3, 3.5, or 4 years. Admission to the McGill programme can be a first-entry programme, in the case of Quebec students (30 students every year are admitted straight out of college while others still need an undergraduate degree even if they are from the Province of Québec), though it is a second-entry programme in the case of students from other provinces (as three to four years of university studies is required, effectively at least two extra years of study more than for a college diploma).
While the baccalaureate degree in Quebec Civil Law is the terminal professional degree for entry into the bar admission programme of the (Barreau du Québec, a candidate for entry into the training programme of the Chambre des Notaires du Québec must, after that baccalaureate degree, go on to obtain a Diploma of Notarial Law through graduate study (Diplôme de deuxième cycle en droit notarial) from Université de Montréal, Université Laval, Université d'Ottawa, or Université de Sherbrooke: requiring two semesters of full-time study. At Université de Montréal, by completing two additional graduate-level law classes and doing a directed studies paper, the student may also earn an LLM in Notarial Law, in addition to the Diploma.
Louisiana (United States)
The Louisiana Civil Code requires legal practitioners in the state to have education in both Civil Law, and Common Law, and necessarily sets it apart from other jurisdictions in the U.S.
The Paul M. Hebert Law Center on the campus of Louisiana State University in the U.S. confers on the graduates of its law program a combined Juris Doctor / Diploma of Civil Law (styled D.C.L. or DCL) in view of the Louisiana Civil Law components of the program. The DCL (which was awarded as a BCL for those classes graduating in the 2003 - 2006 academic years) reflects the 15 added credit hours of legal study in Civil Law, and comparative international law, in addition to that which is required for achieving the standard JD. The additional course hours, which are roughly equal to one additional semester of study, are generally achieved through a combination of taking summer course offerings, on campus or abroad, as well as via one or more other available routes offered by the Law Center.
See also
Civil law (legal system)
Common law (legal system)
Degrees of the University of Oxford
Law Degree
References
Civil Law, Bachelor
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219337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmiya | Salmiya | Salmiya (Arabic السالمية; transliterated As-Sālmīya(h)) is a city in Hawalli Governorate in Kuwait.
Salmiya is administratively divided into 12 blocks. The blocks located closer to the interior of the district tend to be mostly residential, while those located beside the Persian Gulf coastline have a great deal of commercial and up-scale residential real estate. The interior residential areas boast a huge population of foreigners consisting mainly of those from the Indian sub-continent and other Arabs who are not native to the Persian Gulf area.
Facilities
Salmiya is host to numerous museums, mosques, an aquarium, a Scientific Center, an IMAX movie theaters, football stadium, medical centers, a Roman Catholic Chapel, the district passport office ("Jawazat") and a well-equipped park beside the 5th Ring Road. Notable malls include the Salmiya Souq Mega-mall which was the first mall in the nation, Marina Mall in the Marina World shopping and entertainment district, and the Omariya mall. The Gulf Road is coveted for its amazing sea vistas and is the main hub for new construction of future buildings and renovations. A boulevard passing through much of coastal Salmiya is a reflection of Kuwait's drive to modernity.
The Salem Al-Mubarak Street shopping district, commonly known as Salmiya Center, runs down the outer blocks of Salmiya. It is one of the oldest and largest shopping districts of Kuwait. It is a remnant of Kuwait's once numerous traditional souk bazaars, similar to the ones located in Jleeb Al-Shuyoukh and the centre Kuwait City. Well known in the past for pearls, gold and jewellery, it now consists of a wide array of retail giants and local outlets. Much of the old souk had been built over, but the feel and atmosphere of the past albeit remains visible at the traditional precincts of this shopping district. The experience varies from modernized (and Westernized) in the strip malls, to a true Kuwaiti experience on some of the back streets. It is notable to point out that the more eastward away from the capital one moves along the strip, the fancier and pricier the shops are in general. There are many gold and fabric shops in the "Old Souk" area located onwards from the intersection of the 4th Ring Road and the strip.
History
Salmiya has been a model district in the context of modernization. It has undertaken a major face lift in recent times primarily due to ever-expanding commercial real estate on the Gulf Road. The popular Salem Al-Mubarak Shopping strip is in relative close proximity to the capital. The boom in real estate in Salmiya has seen its demographics being constantly on the move. Increasing rental prices have gradually pushed out its working class expatriate community towards the interior districts of Kuwait.
The influx of foreigners to Salmiya is of historical importance dating as far back as the 1960s. During the Gulf War Salmiya was destroyed by invading Iraqi occupation, but from 1993 onward it was gradually rebuilt and re-populated. The old rugged 3-storied buildings and open fields, which Salmiya was famous for, have given way to high density layouts of high-rise apartments and complexes. The beach front, once a hub and harbor for the fishing and pearl diving community, has been transformed into a well-developed and modern bustling commercial avenue. Salmiya is also one of the most expensive area for real estate in the country.
Sport
Salmiya is home to the Thamir Stadium, which belongs to Al Salmiya Club.
Construction has begun on a cricket ground, which once completed will be of One Day International standard. It is hoped the facility will help develop cricket in Kuwait, as well as luring international teams to play neutral matches there. The ground is due for completion in 2012.
Transportation
Some of the major roads connecting Salmiya are the 4th Ring road, 5th Ring road, and the Gulf Road. There are 2 major bus operators, City Bus and the Kuwait Public Transportation Company, serving all major routes along Salmiya. Taxis are widely available in Salmiya and one can expect to pre-bargain about the fare.
Developments
In 2010, Salmiya Park was proposed to a big park situated in the heart of Salmiyah. Boulevard Park is a massive park and mall in Salmiya which encompasses 353 thousand square meters including outstanding a shopping mall, restaurant village, train station & tunnel, cricket pavilion, and huge landscape including fountains, lakes, and several outdoor play grounds.
Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salem Cultural Centre includes six massive museums in one place inclusive of:
Space
Arabic & Islamic Science
Science & Technology-Human Body
Science & Technology-Transportation/Robots
Natural History-Ecosystems
Natural History-Our Earth.
Sister Cities
South Park - Colorado
Education
There are several educational institutions located in Salmiya. The American University of Kuwait which is only walking-distance from the heart of Salmiya Centre. Also nearby is the Gulf English School and The French School of Kuwait. The American International School of Kuwait is also located in Salmiya. There is a large number of schools catering to different nationalities. Notably among these are the Indian, Arab, and Pakistani schools present in the area serving their respective communities. The Pakistan School and College is the oldest school in Kuwait. The Indian Community School, and Indian English Academy School (a branch of Don Bosco Schools, India) and Indian Public School are notable schools that largely cater to the Indian community in Salmiya.
References
Kuwait Schools Directory
Suburbs of Kuwait City
Shopping districts and streets
Areas of Hawalli Governorate | [
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219340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinoline%20Yellow%20WS | Quinoline Yellow WS | Quinoline Yellow WS is a mixture of organic compounds derived from the dye Quinoline Yellow SS (spirit soluble). Owing to the presence of sulfonate groups, the WS dyes are water-soluble (WS). It is a mixture of disulfonates (principally), monosulfonates and trisulfonates of 2-(2-quinolyl)indan-1,3-dione with a maximum absorption wavelength of 416 nm.p. 119
Uses
Quinoline Yellow is used as a greenish yellow food additive in certain countries, designated in Europe as the E number E104. In the EU and Australia, Quinoline Yellow is permitted in beverages and is used in foods, like sauces, decorations, and coatings; Quinoline Yellow is not listed as a permitted food additive in Canada or the US, where it is permitted in medicines and cosmetics and is known as D&C Yellow 10. The Codex Alimentarius does not list it.
Health effects
Quinoline Yellow WS has not been associated with any significant long-term toxicity, is not genotoxic or carcinogenic and there is no evidence of adverse effects on reproduction or development. Food colorants in general have been the subject of much scrutiny for their effect on health.
Possible cause of hyperactivity
Since the 1970s and the well-publicized advocacy of Benjamin Feingold, there has been public concern that food colorings may cause ADHD-like behavior in children. These concerns have led the U.S. FDA and other food safety authorities to regularly review the scientific literature, and led the UK FSA to commission a study by researchers at the University of Southampton to assess the effect of a mixture of six food dyes (Tartrazine, Allura Red, Ponceau 4R, Quinoline Yellow WS, Sunset Yellow FCF and Carmoisine (dubbed the "Southampton 6")) and sodium benzoate (a preservative) on children in the general population, who consumed them in beverages; the study published in 2007. The study found "a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity" in the children; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations, the results could not be extrapolated to the general population, and further testing was recommended".
The European regulatory community, with a stronger emphasis on the precautionary principle, required labelling and temporarily reduced the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for the food colorings; the UK FSA called for voluntary withdrawal of the colorings by food manufacturers. However, in 2009 the EFSA re-evaluated the data at hand and determined that "the available scientific evidence does not substantiate a link between the color additives and behavioral effects". On the basis of other evidence the EFSA also reduced the acceptable daily intake (ADI) from 10 to 0.5 mg/kg.
The US FDA did not make changes following the publication of the Southampton study, but following a citizen petition filed by the Center for Science in the Public Interest in 2008, requesting the FDA ban several food additives, the FDA commenced a review of the available evidence, and still made no changes.
No evidence supports broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children. It is possible that certain food coloring may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed, but the evidence is weak.
References
External links
freepatentsonline.com - Process for purification of quinoline yellow
efsa.europa.eu - EFSA updates safety advice on six food colours 091112
Quinoline dyes
Food colorings
Indandiones
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219341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantip%20Plaza | Pantip Plaza | Pantip Plaza is an indoor IT shopping mall located on New Phetchaburi Road in Ratchathewi district, Bangkok, Thailand. It has branch locations in Nonthaburi, in Bangkapi, and in Chiang Mai.
Stores
The mall has two anchors, IT City, which occupies the top floor, and Data IT on the mezzanine level. There are hundreds of small shops specialising in computer hardware, software, and accessories, including repair, modifications, networking, secondhand, laptops, Macintosh and peripherals.
Hardware
Shops in Pantip Plaza offer a wide selection of new and second-hand computers from most of the major manufacturers, together with a selection of secondhand and custom equipment. Digital cameras, printers, music players, and games consoles are also available.
Food and drink
Pantip Plaza has some restaurants on the ground floor, while food courts on the mezzanine level and second floor offer a wide selection of Thai cuisine, desserts and drinks.
Other branches
Pantip Plaza 2
Pantip Plaza 2 is on Ngamwongwan Road in province of Nonthaburi.
Pantip Bangkapi
Pantip Bangkapi is on Lat Phrao Road, Bang Kapi district of Bangkok. Opened in May 2010 with 5 floors, it contains many brand name flagship stores such as Hewlett-Packard, Acer and VAIO. Although it has fewer stores than the original Pantip Plaza, it is one of the largest IT malls in the area.
Chiang Mai
In Chiang Mai, Pantip Plaza is on the corner of Chang Klan Road (Night Bazaar) and Sri Donchai Road. It also has a food court.
In popular culture
Pantip Plaza is featured in a hit song by Loso, "Pantip", which has a hook chorus, "Ja mai pai Pantip" ("จะไม่ไปพันธุ์ทิพย์" - "(I) will not go to Pantip") and is about a man dating a woman and taking her shopping at World Trade Center, MBK Center, and Siam Square, but he refuses to take her to Pantip Plaza because his ex-girlfriend works there. It is used in many governments' advertising campaigns to promote anti-infringement issues in Thailand.
References
Shopping malls in Bangkok
Ratchathewi District | [
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219343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20L.%20Lewis | John L. Lewis | John Llewellyn Lewis (February 12, 1880 – June 11, 1969) was an American leader of organized labor who served as president of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW) from 1920 to 1960. A major player in the history of coal mining, he was the driving force behind the founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which established the United Steel Workers of America and helped organize millions of other industrial workers in the 1930s, during the Great Depression. After resigning as head of the CIO in 1941, Lewis took the United Mine Workers out of the CIO in 1942 and in 1944 took the union into the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
Lewis was a Republican, but he played a major role in helping Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt win a landslide victory for the US Presidency in 1936. He was an isolationist, and broke with Roosevelt in 1940 on FDR's anti-Nazi foreign policy. Lewis was an effective, aggressive fighter and strike leader who gained high wages for his membership while steamrolling over his opponents, including the United States government. Lewis was one of the most controversial and innovative leaders in the history of labor, gaining credit for building the industrial unions of the CIO into a political and economic powerhouse to rival the AFL. But during World War II, he was widely criticized by calling nationwide coal strikes, which critics believed to be damaging to the American economy and war effort.
His massive leonine head, forest-like eyebrows, firmly set jaw, powerful voice, and ever-present scowl thrilled his supporters, angered his enemies, and delighted cartoonists. Coal miners for 40 years hailed him as their leader, whom they credited with bringing high wages, pensions and medical benefits. After his successor died shortly after taking office, Lewis hand-picked Tony Boyle, a miner from Montana, to take the presidency of the union in 1963.
Early life and rise to power
Lewis was born in or near Cleveland, Lucas County, Iowa (distinct from the present township of Cleveland in Davis County), to Thomas H. Lewis and Ann (Watkins) Lewis, immigrants from Llangurig, Wales. Cleveland was a company town, built around a coal mine developed one mile east of the town of Lucas. His mother and grandparents were members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), and the boy was raised in the church's views regarding alcohol and sexual propriety, as well as a just social order that favored the poor. While his maternal grandfather was an RLDS pastor and Lewis periodically donated to his local RLDS church for the rest of his life, there is no definite evidence that he formally joined the Midwestern Mormon denomination.
Lewis attended three years of high school in Des Moines and at the age of 17 went to work in the Big Hill Mine at Lucas. In 1906, Lewis was elected a delegate to the United Mine Workers (UMW) national convention. In 1907, he ran for mayor of Lucas and launched a feed-and-grain distributorship. Both were failures and Lewis returned to coal mining.
He moved to Panama, Illinois, where in 1909 he was elected president of the UMW local. In 1911 Samuel Gompers, the head of the AFL, hired Lewis as a full-time union organizer. Lewis traveled throughout Pennsylvania and the Midwest as an organizer and trouble-shooter, especially in coal and steel districts.
United Mine Workers of America
After serving as statistician and then as vice-president for the UMWA, Lewis became that union's acting president in 1919. On November 1, 1919, he called the first major coal union strike, and 400,000 miners walked off their jobs. President Woodrow Wilson obtained an injunction, which Lewis obeyed, telling the rank and file, "We cannot fight the Government." In 1920, Lewis was elected president of the UMWA. He quickly asserted himself as a dominant figure in what was then the largest and most influential trade union in the country.
Coal miners worldwide were sympathetic to socialism, and in the 1920s, Communists systematically tried to seize control of UMWA locals. William Z. Foster, the Communist leader, opposed dual unions in favor of organizing within the UMWA. The radicals were most successful in the bituminous (soft) coal regions of the Midwest, where they used local organizing drives to gain control of locals, sought a national labor political party, and demanded federal nationalization of the industry. Lewis, committed to cooperation among labor, management, and government, took tight control of the union.
He placed the once-autonomous districts under centralized receivership, packed the union bureaucracy with men directly beholden to him, and used UMWA conventions and publications to discredit his critics. The fight was bitter but Lewis used armed force, red-baiting, and ballot-box stuffing and, in 1928, expelled the leftists. As Hudson (1952) shows, they started a separate union, the National Miners' Union. In Southern Illinois, amidst widespread violence, the Progressive Mine Workers of America challenged Lewis but were beaten back. After 1935, Lewis invited the radical organizers to work for his CIO organizing drives, and they soon gained powerful positions in CIO unions, including auto workers and electrical workers.
Lewis was often denounced as a despotic leader. He repeatedly expelled his political rivals from the UMWA, including John Walker, John Brophy, Alexander Howat and Adolph Germer. Communists in District 26 (Nova Scotia), including Canadian labor legend J. B. McLachlan, were banned from running for the union executive after a strike in 1923. McLachlan described him as "a traitor" to the working class. Lewis nonetheless commanded great loyalty from many of his followers, even those he had exiled in the past.
A powerful speaker and strategist, Lewis used the nation's dependence on coal to increase the wages and improve the safety of miners, even during several severe recessions. He masterminded a five-month strike, ensuring that the increase in wages gained during World War I would not be lost. In 1921 Lewis challenged Samuel Gompers, who had led the AFL for nearly forty years, for the presidency of the AFL. William Green, one of his subordinates within the Mine Workers at the time, nominated him; William Hutcheson, the President of the Carpenters, supported him. Gompers won. Three years later, on Gompers' death, Green succeeded him as AFL President.
In 1924, Lewis a Republican, framed a plan for a three-year contract between the UMWA and the coal operators, providing for a pay rate of $7.50 per day (about $111 in 2019 dollars when adjusted for inflation). President Coolidge and then-Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover were impressed with the plan, and Lewis was offered the post of Secretary of Labor in Coolidge's cabinet. Lewis declined, a decision he later regretted. Without government support, the contract talks failed and coal operators hired non-union miners. The UMWA treasury was drained, but Lewis was able to maintain the union and his position within it. He was successful in winning the 1925 anthracite (hard coal) miners' strike by his oratorical skills.
Great Depression
Lewis supported Republican Herbert Hoover for US President in 1928; in 1932, as the Great Depression bore brutally on the mining camps, he officially backed Hoover but quietly supported Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1936, his union made the largest single contribution, over $500,000, to Roosevelt's successful campaign for reelection.
Lewis was appointed a member of the Labor Advisory Board and the National Labor Board of the National Recovery Administration in 1933; he used these positions to raise wages of miners and reduce competition. He gambled on a massive membership drive and won, as he piggybacked on FDR's popularity: "The President wants you to join the UMW!" Coal miners represented many ethnic groups, and Lewis shrewdly realized that they shared a faith in Roosevelt; he was careful not to antagonize any of the immigrant ethnic groups, and he appealed to African-American members as well.
He secured the passage of the Guffey Coal Act in 1935, which was superseded by Guffey-Vinson Act in 1937 after the 1935 act was declared by the US Supreme Court to be unconstitutional. Both of acts were favorable to miners. Lewis had long had the idea that the highly competitive bituminous coal industry, with its sharp ups and downs and cut-throat competition, could be stabilized by a powerful union that set a standard wage scale and could keep recalcitrant owners in line with selective strikes. The acts made that possible, and coal miners entered a golden era. At all times, Lewis rejected socialism and promoted competitive capitalism.
Founding the CIO
With the open support of the AFL and the tacit support of the UMWA, Franklin D. Roosevelt was nominated and elected President in 1932, and Lewis benefited from the New Deal programs that followed. Many of his members received relief. Lewis helped secure passage of the Guffey Coal Act of 1935, which raised prices and wages, but it was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Thanks to the 1935 National Labor Relations Act, union membership grew rapidly, especially in the UMWA. Lewis and the UMW were major financial backers of Roosevelt's reelection in 1936 and were firmly committed to the New Deal.
At the AFL's annual convention in 1934, Lewis gained an endorsement from them of the principle of industrial unionism, as opposed to limitations to skilled workers. His goal was to unionize 400,000 steel workers, using his UMWA resources (augmented by leftists he had expelled in 1928). With the leaders of nine other large industrial unions and the UMWA in November 1935, Lewis formed the "Committee for Industrial Organization" to promote the organization of workers on an industry-wide basis. Key allies were Philip Murray (the UMWA man Lewis picked to head the steel union); Sidney Hillman, president of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA); and David Dubinsky of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU).
The entire CIO group was expelled from the AFL in November 1938 and became the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), with Lewis as the first president. The growth of the CIO was phenomenal in steel, rubber, meat, autos, glass and electrical equipment. In early 1937, his CIO affiliates won collective-bargaining contracts with two of the most powerful anti-union corporations, General Motors and United States Steel. General Motors surrendered as a result of the great Flint Sit-Down Strike, during which Lewis negotiated with company executives, Governor Frank Murphy of Michigan, and President Roosevelt. U.S. Steel conceded without a strike, as Lewis secretly negotiated an agreement with Myron Taylor, chairman of U.S. Steel.
The CIO gained enormous strength and prestige from the victories in automobiles and steel and escalated its organizing drives, targeting industries that the AFL had long claimed, especially meatpacking, textiles, and electrical products. The AFL fought back and gained more members, but the two rivals spent much of their energy fighting each other for members and for power inside local Democratic organizations.
Lewis rhetoric
Journalist C. L. Sulzberger described Lewis's rhetorical skill in the "Crust of Bread" speech. Operators who opposed a contract were often shamed into agreement by Lewis's accusations. A typical Lewis speech to operators would go, "Gentlemen, I speak to you for the miners' families.... The little children are gathered around a bare table without anything to eat. They are not asking for a $100,000 yacht like yours, Mr...." (here, he would gesture with his cigar toward an operator), "...or for a Rolls-Royce limousine like yours, Mr. ..." (staring at another operator). They are asking only for a slim crust of bread."
World War II
In the presidential election of 1940, Lewis rejected Roosevelt and supported Republican Wendell Willkie. The reasons for Lewis' souring on FDR and his New Deal are still contested. Some cite his frustration over FDR's response to the General Motors and "Little Steel" strikes of 1937, or the President's purported rejection of Lewis' proposal to join him on the 1940 Democratic ticket. Others point to power struggles within the CIO as the motivation for Lewis' actions. Lewis drew fierce criticism from most union leaders. Reuben Soderstrom, President of the Illinois State Federation of Labor, ripped his former ally apart in the press, saying he had become "the most imaginative, the most efficient, the most experienced truth-twisting windbag that this nation has yet produced." Lewis failed to persuade his fellow members. On election day, 85% of CIO members supported Roosevelt, thus rejecting Lewis's leadership. He resigned as president of the CIO but kept control of the UMWA.
Prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Lewis was staunchly opposed to American entry into World War II. Initially, he tapped into the anti-militarism that animated the left wing of the CIO. He publicly opposed the prospect of a peacetime draft as "associated with fascism, totalitarianism and the breakdown of civil liberties," claiming in his 1940 Labor Day speech that there was "something sinister about the attempt to force conscription upon our nation, with no revelation of the purposes for which conscription is sought." Lewis' opposition to American intervention continued after the leftist coalition against it had splintered. In August 1941 he joined Herbert Hoover, Alfred Landon, Charles Dawes, and other prominent conservatives in their appeal to Congress to halt President Roosevelt's "step-by-step projection of the United States into undeclared war." This action earned him the enmity of those on the left, including Lee Pressman and Len De Caux.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Lewis threw his full support behind FDR's government, stating "When the nation is attacked every American must rally to its support. All other consideration becomes insignificant...With all other citizens I join in the support of our government to the day of its ultimate triumph over Japan and all other enemies."
In October 1942, Lewis withdrew the UMWA from the CIO. Six months later, he substantively violated organized labor's no-strike pledge, spurring President Roosevelt to seize the mines. The strike damaged the public's perception of organized labor generally and Lewis specifically; the Gallup poll of June 1943 showed 87% disapproval of Lewis. Some have asserted that Lewis' actions produced shortages which crippled wartime production in the defense industry.
Postwar
In the postwar years, Lewis continued his militancy; his miners went on strikes or "work stoppages" annually. In 1945 to 1950, he led strikes that President Harry S. Truman denounced as threats to national security. In response, industry, railroads and homeowners rapidly switched from coal to oil.
After briefly affiliating with the AFL, Lewis broke with them again over signing non-Communist oaths required by the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act, making the UMW independent. Lewis, never a Communist, still refused on principle to allow any of his officials to take the non-Communist oath required by the Taft-Hartley Act; the UMW was therefore denied legal rights protected by the National Labor Relations Board. He denounced Taft-Hartley as authorizing "government by injunction" and refused to follow its provisions, saying he would not be dictated to.
Lewis secured a welfare fund financed entirely by the coal companies but administered by the union. In May 1950, he signed a new contract with the coal operators, ending nine months of regional strikes and opening an era of peaceful negotiations that brought wage increases and new medical benefits, including regional hospitals in the hills.
1950s
In the 1950s, Lewis won periodic wage and benefit increases for miners and led the campaign for the first Federal Mine Safety Act in 1952. Lewis tried to impose some order on a declining industry through collective bargaining, and maintaining standards for his members by insisting that small operators agree to contract terms that effectively put many of them out of business. Mechanization nonetheless eliminated many of the jobs in his industry, while scattered non-union operations persisted.
Lewis continued to be as autocratic within the UMWA, padding the union payrolls with his friends and family, ignoring or suppressing demands for a rank-and-file voice in union affairs. Finally in 1959 the passage of the Landrum-Griffin Act forced reform. It ended the practice where the UMWA had kept a number of its districts in trusteeship for decades, meaning that Lewis appointed union officers who otherwise would have been elected by the membership.
Lewis retired in early 1960. The highly paid membership slipped below 190,000 because of mechanization, strip mining, and competition from oil. He was succeeded as president by Thomas Kennedy, who served briefly until his death in 1963. He was succeeded by Lewis's anointed successor, W. A. Boyle, known as Tony, a miner from Montana. He was considered just as dictatorial as Lewis, but without any of the longtime leader's skills or vision.
Retirement and final years
On September 14, 1964, four years after his retirement from the UMWA, Lewis was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Lyndon B. Johnson, his citation reading:
"[An] eloquent spokesman of labor, [Lewis] has given voice to the aspirations of the industrial workers of the country and led the cause of free trade unions within a healthy system of free enterprise."
In 1965, Lewis received the first Eugene V. Debs Award for his service to Industrial Unionism.
Lewis retired to his family home, the Lee-Fendall House in Alexandria, Virginia, where he had lived since 1937. He lived there until his death on June 11, 1969. His passing elicited many kind words and fond remembrances, even from former rivals. "He was my personal friend," wrote Reuben Soderstrom, the President of the Illinois AFL-CIO, who had once lambasted Lewis as an "imaginative windbag," upon news of his death. Lewis, he said, would forever be remembered for "making almost a half million poorly paid and poorly protected coal miners the best paid and best protected miners in all the world." He is buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery, Springfield, Illinois.
References in popular culture
In the 1938 motion picture Holiday, the character of Linda Seton played by Katharine Hepburn describes how she tried to help some strikers in Jersey. "I never could decide whether I wanted to be Joan of Arc, Florence Nightingale or John L. Lewis."
In an episode of the Jack Benny radio program, a friend brings a baby over to Benny's house. When the infant breaks a jar of home-made chili, Benny demands fifteen cents as compensation. When his friend protests by saying that he shouldn't have to pay because the baby is a minor, Benny retorts: "I don't care if he's John L. Lewis!" causing the audience to roar with laughter at the minor/miner play on words.
In another episode of the Jack Benny Radio Program,from 21 January 1945, Mary complains that the hotel is so far underground that they are mining coal in the lobby, and the bellhops have lamps on their helmets. Jack explains it by saying that the desk clerk's name is John L. Lewis.
In the "Bilko's Secret Mission" episode of The Phil Silvers Show, Sgt. Bilko has a coal miner dig a tunnel out of an army base. The coal miner character mentions John L. Lewis.
The seventh verse of the song "'31 Depression Blues," recorded by the New Lost City Ramblers and sung by Mike Seeger, includes the line "And the public said 'John L, it can never be done,' / But somehow he got the miners' battle won."
In the second expansion Wrath of the Lich King, from the popular MMORPG World of Warcraft, there is an NPC that teaches mining named after Jonathan Lewis.
In John McCutcheon's song "Ghosts of the Good Old Days," he refers to a common Appalachian practice: "Hung three pictures above the old sofa; it was Jesus, FDR, and John L./So we knew how to pray, we knew how to vote, and we knew how to really give 'em hell."
In Leonard Wibberley's 1956 comic novel, McGillicuddy McGotham, a leprechaun diplomat imposes magical sanctions on the U.S.A., causing its citizens to go without indoor heat. The phenomenon is mistakenly attributed to a miners' strike led by John L. Lewis.
In the January 29, 1950 episode of the radio show Our Miss Brooks, Miss Brooks (played by Eve Arden), when speaking to a student who is leading a rebellion against school on Saturday, asks, "Are you sure you have the eyebrows?" (Lewis had very bushy eyebrows.)
John L. Lewis is mentioned in the 1939 Broadway play The Man Who Came to Dinner, written by George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart. The daughter of the main character and dinner host is in love with a labor organizer. Her father, the host, thinks that the labor organizer was sent by Lewis himself.
The text of the middle section of the oratorio Anthracite Fields is taken from a Lewis speech.
In the second episode of the fictional television miniseries, The Plot Against America (2020), based on the novel of the same name written by Philip Roth, John L. Lewis is portrayed making a speech against going to war at a rally in support of Charles Lindbergh's 1940 candidacy for US President.
In the cartoon 'Hare Force' starring Bugs Bunny, Bugs tricks the dog who kept throwing him out of his owner's house into going outside in the freezing snow. Bugs say's to the dog "How's the weather out there John L.?"
See also
Labor history of the United States
New Deal Coalition
Notes
References and bibliography
Alinsky, Saul. John L. Lewis: An Unauthorized Biography. (1949)
Baratz, Morton S. The Union and the Coal Industry (Yale University Press, 1955)
Bernstein, Irving. The Lean Years: a History of the American Worker 1920-1933 (1966), best coverage of the era
Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941 (1970), thorough coverage of the era
Cantril, Hadley and Strunk, Mildred, eds. Public Opinion, 1935-1946. (1951) summarizes all published polls on Lewis
Clapp, Thomas C. "The Bituminous Coal Strike of 1943." PhD dissertation U. of Toledo 1974. 278 pp. DAI 1974 35(6): 3626-3627-A., not online
Dublin, Thomas and Walter Licht. The Face of Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the Twentieth Century (2005) excerpt and text search
Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Warren Van Tine. John L. Lewis: A Biography (1977), the standard scholarly biography excerpt and text search of abridged 1986 edition .
Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Warren Van Tine. "John L. Lewis " in Dubofsky and Van Tine, eds. Labor Leaders in America (1990)
Fishback, Price V. Soft Coal, Hard Choices: The Economic Welfare of Bituminous Coal Miners, 1890-1930 (1992) online edition
Galenson; Walter. The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1935–1941, (1960) online edition
Hinrichs, A. F. The United Mine Workers of America, and the Non-Union Coal Fields (1923) online edition
Laslett, John H.M. ed. The United Mine Workers: A Model of Industrial Solidarity? 1996.
Lynch, Edward A., and David J. McDonald. Coal and Unionism: A History of the American Coal Miners' Unions (1939) online edition
Seltzer, Curtis. Fire in the Hole: Miners and Managers in the American Coal Industry University Press of Kentucky, 1985, conflict in the coal industry to the 1980s.
Singer, Alan Jay. "`Which Side Are You On?': Ideological Conflict in the United Mine Workers of America, 1919-1928." PhD dissertation Rutgers U., New Brunswick 1982. 304 pp. DAI 1982 43(4): 1268-A. DA8221709 Fulltext: [ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]
Weschler, James A. Labor Baron: A Protait of John L. Lewis (1944) online 295pp; by journalist on the left
Zieger, Robert H. "Lewis, John L." American National Biography Online Feb. 2000
Zieger, Robert H. John L. Lewis: Labor Leader (1988), 220pp short biography by scholar
Zieger, Robert H. The CIO 1935-1955. 1995. online edition
Primary sources
"LABOR: Horatius & the Great Ham' Time Dec. 16, 1946
Political Cartoons about John Lewis 1940-1941 Sykes Editorial Cartoon Collection, VCU Libraries
External links
Lewis's biography on the United Mine Workers of America's website
Medium-length biography from a history site
John L. Lewis Labor and the Nation, delivered 3 September 1937 in Washington D.C., American Rhetoric, top 100 Speeches, transcript of speech.
John L. Lewis Museum of Mining and Labor in Lucas, Iowa
Footage John L. Lewis leading s strike in 1919.
FBI file on John L. Lewis
Lee-Fendall House
1880 births
1969 deaths
American trade unionists of Welsh descent
People from Lucas County, Iowa
People from Springfield, Illinois
Virginia Republicans
Presidents of the United Mine Workers
Congress of Industrial Organizations people
American Federation of Labor people
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery
Illinois Republicans
Activists from Iowa
Activists from Illinois | [
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219347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20metropolitans%20and%20patriarchs%20of%20Moscow | List of metropolitans and patriarchs of Moscow | This article lists the metropolitans and patriarchs of Moscow, spiritual heads of the Russian Orthodox Church. Since 1308, there have been 59.
History
The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins with the Christianization of Kievan Rus' at Kiev, the date of which is commonly given as 988; however, the evidence surrounding this event is contested. In 1316 the Metropolitan of Kiev changed his see to the city of Vladimir, and in 1322 moved again to Moscow. In 1589, the see was elevated to a Patriarchate. The Patriarchate was abolished by the Church reform of Peter the Great in 1721 and replaced by the Most Holy Governing Synod, and the Bishop of Moscow came to be called a Metropolitan again. The Patriarchate was restored in 1917 and suspended by the Soviet government in 1925. It was reintroduced for the last time in 1943, during World War II by the initiative of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.
To this date, 19 of the Metropolitans have been glorified in the Russian Orthodox Church.
Metropolitans of Kiev and all Rus' (permanent residence in Moscow, 1325–1461)
Metropolitans of Moscow and all Russia (1461–1589)
Patriarchs of Moscow and all Russia (1589–1721)
Metropolitans and archbishops of Moscow (1721–1917)
Patriarchs of Moscow and all Russia (restored, 1917–present)
See also
Russian Orthodox Church
Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'
List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Kiev
List of current patriarchs
List of current Christian leaders
Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox Church organization
List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs
Eastern Orthodoxy in Russia
Moscow
Moscow
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219349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate%20Hudson | Kate Hudson | Kate Garry Hudson (born April 19, 1979) is an American actress and businesswoman. She is the recipient of various accolades, including a Golden Globe Award, a Critics' Choice Movie Award, a Satellite Award, and nominations for an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.
Hudson rose to prominence for her performance in the film Almost Famous (2000), for which she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and received an Oscar nomination in the same category. Her other films include How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days (2003), Raising Helen (2004), The Skeleton Key (2005), You, Me and Dupree (2006), Fool's Gold (2008), Bride Wars (2009), Nine (2009), Deepwater Horizon (2016), Mother's Day (2016), Marshall (2017) and Music (2021), for which she received her second Golden Globe nomination.
Hudson co-founded the fitness brand and membership program Fabletics, operated by JustFab. In 2016, Hudson released her first book, Pretty Happy: Healthy Ways to Love Your Body, and in 2017, she released her second book, Pretty Fun: Creating and Celebrating a Lifetime of Tradition.
Early life
Hudson was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Academy Award-winning actress Goldie Hawn and Bill Hudson, an actor, comedian, and musician. Her parents divorced when she was 18 months old and she and her older brother, actor Oliver Hudson, were raised in Snowmass, Colorado, and Pacific Palisades, California, by her mother and her mother's longtime boyfriend, actor Kurt Russell. Hudson's ancestry is Italian (from her paternal grandmother), Hungarian Jewish (from her maternal grandmother), and the remainder a mix of English and some German. Hudson was raised Jewish; like her mother, she also practices Buddhism.
Hudson has stated that her biological father "doesn't know me from a hole in the wall", and she considers Russell her father. Hudson has described her mother as "the woman that I've learned the most from, and who I look up to, who has conducted her life in a way that I can look up to". She has four half-siblings: Emily and Zachary Hudson, from her biological father's later marriage to actress Cindy Williams; Lalania Hudson, from his relationship with another woman; and Wyatt Russell, from her mother's relationship with Kurt Russell.
In 1997, she graduated from Crossroads, a college preparatory school in Santa Monica. She was accepted to New York University, but chose to pursue an acting career instead of an undergraduate degree.
Career
Beginnings and Almost Famous (1996–2001)
At age 11, Hudson performed on stage at the Santa Monica Playhouse. She made her film debut in the dramedy Desert Blue (1998), and subsequently appeared in the romantic comedy 200 Cigarettes (1999). She took on the roles of a college student in the psychological thriller Gossip, the lesbian daughter of the titular character in the dramedy Dr. T & the Women and one of the leading roles in the romantic comedy About Adam, all of which were released throughout 2000.
Her breakthrough came with the role of a veteran groupie in Cameron Crowe's semi-autobiographical dramedy Almost Famous (2000). She "hung in and had turned down leads in other movies just to play the part" and soon obtained it "because of her loyalty", according to Crowe. For her performance, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "This power ballad of a movie also happens to be Crowe's greatest (and most personal) film thanks to the golden gods of Stillwater and their biggest fan, Kate Hudson's incomparable Penny Lane."She worked hard in avoiding association with her well-known parents, as she did not want to be perceived as someone who "rode on somebody's coattails".
Commercial success (2002–2009)
In 2002, Hudson appeared in the remake of the historical romance The Four Feathers, as the fiancée of a young British officer (played by Heath Ledger). The film was panned by critics and had a lukewarm box office response. In her next film, the romantic comedy How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days (2003), Hudson starred with Matthew McConaughey, as a writer for a women's magazine who starts dating a guy and eventually drives him away using only the "classic mistakes women make" in relationships. The film was a box office success, grossing over US$100 million upon its release. She also starred opposite Naomi Watts in the Merchant-Ivory film Le Divorce (2003), portraying a woman who, with her sister, dispute the ownership of a painting by Georges de La Tour with the family of her former brother-in-law. Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C" rating and wrote: "I'm disappointed to report that Hudson and Watts have no chemistry as sisters".
Her next romantic comedies, Alex and Emma (2003), in which she played a stubborn stenographer, and Raising Helen (2004), taking on the role of a young woman who becomes the guardian of her deceased sister's children, were released to varying degrees of success. In 2005, Hudson starred in the supernatural thriller The Skeleton Key, as a young hospice nurse who acquires a job at a New Orleans plantation home, and becomes entangled in a supernatural mystery involving the house. In its review, The Washington Post, describing her, wrote: "Hudson, who dials back her native, Goldie-given charm here to give Caroline a no-nonsense brusqueness, manages to convincingly convey a fearless bullheadedness rather than less sympathetic naivete". The film was a box office hit, grossing over US$91.9 million worldwide ($47.9 million in North America). Her next film, the comedy You, Me and Dupree, in which she appeared with Owen Wilson and Matt Dillon as one half of a couple who allows an unemployed friend to move in, grossed US$21.5 million on its opening weekend of July 14, 2006. It eventually made US$130.4 million worldwide.
In 2007, Hudson directed the short film Cutlass, one of Glamour magazine's "Reel Moments" based on readers' personal essays, which starred Kurt Russell, Dakota Fanning, Virginia Madsen, Chevy Chase and Kristen Stewart. In the romantic comedy Fool's Gold (2008), her second film with Matthew McConaughey, Hudson took on the role a divorced woman who returns with her former husband while searching for a lost treasure. She was certified in scuba diving in the Great Barrier Reef for the underwater scenes. The film made US$111.2 million worldwide. In My Best Friend's Girl, another romantic comedy released in 2008, Hudson played the colleague of an amiable guy (Jason Biggs). Despite negative reviews, it was a moderate commercial success.
Hudson starred in Bride Wars (2009), alongside Anne Hathaway, playing two best friends who become rivals after their weddings are scheduled on the same day. The film was named among the 10 worst chick flicks of all time by Time in 2010, but was successful financially, grossing US$114.6 million globally. Her next film was the musical Nine, directed by Rob Marshall, in which she played a Vogue fashion journalist, alongside Daniel Day-Lewis, Marion Cotillard, Penélope Cruz, Nicole Kidman, and Judi Dench. The film was acclaimed by critics and Hudson garnered praise for her dancing skills, showcased in a 1960s-inspired original piece called "Cinema Italiano", which was written specifically for her character.
Independent films and Glee (2010–present)
Hudson starred with Casey Affleck and Jessica Alba, as the wife of a West Texas serial killer, in the film adaptation The Killer Inside Me, which premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival. In 2011, Hudson played a quickwitted, carefree ad executive in the romantic comedy film A Little Bit of Heaven, and a party girl in another romantic comedy, Something Borrowed, based on Emily Giffin's novel of the same name. In is review for the latter, Detroit News remarked: "Kate Hudson looks exhausted, as if she is as tired of wading through another one of her feckless duds as we are of watching them". While A Little Bit of Heaven found a limited release in theaters, Something Borrowed was a moderate commercial success.
In 2012, Hudson was cast on the Fox teen comedy series Glee, in the recurring role of Cassandra July, a dance teacher at the fictitious New York Academy of the Dramatic Arts. In 2013, Hudson appeared in the political thriller The Reluctant Fundamentalist, as a photographer and the girlfriend of a professor at Lahore University. In 2014, she starred in the comedy Wish I Was Here, as the wife of a struggling actor, and the thriller Good People, as one half of a couple who fall into severe debt while renovating their family's home. The aforementioned films received a limited release and mixed reviews from critics. In Rock the Kasbah (2015), Hudson played a top-hatted hooker with a heart of gold who befriends a has-been actor manager (Bill Murray) in Afghanistan. Despite a US$15 million budget, the film only made US$3 million at the North American box office.
Hudson voiced a crazy ribbon-dancing panda in the DreamWorks Animation film Kung Fu Panda 3 (2016), which grossed US$521.1 million globally, and became her most widely seen film. She starred as a woman married to an Indian man and the sister of a lesbian woman, both of which had not told their conservative parents, in the romantic comedy Mother's Day (2016), directed by Garry Marshall and opposite Julia Roberts, Timothy Olyphant, and Jason Sudeikis. The film was panned by critics and a moderate commercial success. She next played the wife of a chief electronics technician (Mark Wahlberg) in the drama Deepwater Horizon, based on the Deepwater Horizon explosion. While critical response was positive, the film was only slightly profitable, making US$121.8 million on a budget of around US$110 million.
In the 2017 film Marshall, Hudson portrayed an employer accusing her black chauffeur of rape. It received positive reviews from critics but found a limited audience in theaters. In 2019, she is set to star in Blood Moon, a fantasy-adventure film by writer-director Ana Lily Amirpour. In 2021, Hudson co-starred as Kazu Gamble in musical film Music, co-written and directed by Sia. She received her second Golden Globe nomination for her work on the film. She will also star alongside Michael Shannon in Shriver directed by Michael Maren.
Other ventures
In 2013, Hudson, in a partnership with online fashion retailer JustFab, launched her own line of workout clothes and active wear, Fabletics, which currently operates 25 stores in the United States. The venture became her focus, and in a 2018 interview, Hudson remarked: "I work more on Fabletics now than I do on movies."
In 2016, Hudson released her first book, Pretty Happy: Healthy Ways to Love Your Body. In 2017, she released her second book, Pretty Fun: Creating and Celebrating a Lifetime of Tradition.
In August 2018, Hudson and New York & Company, Inc. announced their partnership, a multi-year deal, consisting on being the ambassador for its US$200 million Soho Jeans collection, and develop her own fashion line. In 2018, Hudson collaborated with her mother Goldie to create a capsule collection, with 50 percent of net proceeds will benefit MindUP, a program within the Goldie Hawn Foundation.
In November 2019, Hudson launched King St. Vodka, a craft vodka from California, and a podcast, Sibling Revelry, with her brother Oliver.
Personal life
In early 2006, Hudson sued the British version of the National Enquirer after it reported she had an eating disorder, describing her as "painfully thin". Hudson said the tabloid's statements were "a blatant lie" and she was concerned about the impact the false report could have on impressionable young women. The newspaper apologized and compensated her.
Hudson says that she does not enjoy seeing herself on screen, saying, "I get cold and I shake and I sweat" when watching her performances for the first time.
In 2016, Hudson said: "Meditation has been the most helpful and life-changing thing for me. You can feel the difference when you meditate on a regular basis. At least I can... I started practicing transcendental meditation a year and a half ago so I meditate 20 minutes in the morning and I try to do another 20 minutes in the afternoon."
Relationships
Hudson married Chris Robinson, the frontman for the Black Crowes, on December 31, 2000, in Aspen, Colorado. The couple's son, Ryder Russell Robinson, was born in January 2004. They traveled together during Hudson's film shoots or Robinson's music tours. On August 14, 2006, Hudson's publicist announced that Hudson and Robinson had separated. On November 18, 2006, Robinson filed divorce papers, citing "irreconcilable differences". The divorce was finalized on October 22, 2007, with Hudson being granted joint custody.
In early 2010, Hudson began dating Muse frontman Matt Bellamy. Hudson and Bellamy became engaged in April 2011 and their son, Bingham Hawn Bellamy, was born in July 2011. On December 9, 2014, the couple announced that they had ended their engagement. Hudson and Bellamy are reported to be on good terms with one another and co-parent their son.
In December 2016, Hudson had her first date with Danny Fujikawa, a musician, actor, and co-owner of a record company. She first met him when she was 23, through her best friends, Sara Foster and Erin Foster, who are his stepsisters. On April 6, 2018, Hudson announced she was expecting her first child with Fujikawa. On October 2, 2018, she announced the birth of their daughter, Rani Rose Hudson Fujikawa, via Instagram. She was named for her grandfather, Ron Fujikawa. On September 13, 2021, they announced their engagement.
Filmography
Film
Television
Published works
Awards and nominations
Hudson has received various awards and nominations throughout her career. In 2000, her role as Penny Lane in Cameron Crowe's drama film Almost Famous earned her worldwide recognition and critical plaudits, including nominations for an Academy Award (Oscar), a Golden Globe Award, a Satellite Award, a Critics' Choice Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actress and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress; winning the Golden Globe and Satellite Award. In 2012, her role in the film was recognized as the second-best performance by an actress in a supporting role of the 2000s decade by the Awards Circuit Community.
Hudson has also received recognition for her roles in the films: How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days, Alex & Emma (both 2003), Raising Helen (2004), You, Me and Dupree (2006), Fool's Gold, My Best Friend's Girl (both 2008), Bride Wars, Nine (both 2009), Something Borrowed (2011), Wish I Was Here (2014), Mother's Day (2016), and Music (2021); with the latter garnering controversy around its misinterpretation of the autism community and earned both Hudson and her co-star Maddie Ziegler Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Actress and Worst Supporting Actress, respectively. Simultaneously, Hudson garnered her second Golden Globe nomination for the same role. Her role in Nine earned Hudson and her co-stars the Satellite Award for Best Cast - Motion Picture and a SAG Award nomination in the same category.
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
American Buddhists
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American film actresses
Film producers from California
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
American people of Italian descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women film producers
American women podcasters
American podcasters
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Crossroads School alumni
Hudson family (show business)
Jewish American actresses
21st-century American Jews | [
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219353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miner | Miner | A miner is a person who extracts ore, coal, chalk, clay, or other minerals from the earth through mining. There are two senses in which the term is used. In its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face; cutting, blasting, or otherwise working and removing the rock. In a broader sense, a "miner" is anyone working within a mine, not just a worker at the rock face.
Mining is one of the most dangerous trades in the world. In some countries, miners lack social guarantees and in case of injury may be left to cope without assistance.
In regions with a long mining tradition, many communities have developed cultural traditions and aspects specific to the various regions, in the forms of particular equipment, symbolism, music, and the like.
Roles
Different functions of the individual miner. Many of the roles are specific to a type of mining, such as coal mining.
Roles considered to be "miners" in the narrower sense have included:
Hewer (also known as "breaker" or "pickman"), whose job was to hew the rock.
Collier, a hewer who hews coal with a pick.
Driller, who works a rock drill to bore holes for placing dynamite or other explosives.
Other roles within mines that did not involve breaking rock (and thus fit the broader definition) have included:
Loader (also called a "bandsman"), who loads the mining carts with coal at the face.
Putter (also known as a "drags-man"), who works the carts around the mine.
Barrow-man, who transported the broken coal from the face in wheelbarrows.
Hurrier, who transported coal carts from a mine to the surface.
Timbers, who fashions and installs timber supports to support the walls and ceiling in an underground mine.
In addition to miners working underground, a mine employs other workers in duties at the surface. In addition to the office staff of various sorts, these may include:
Brakesman, who operate the winding engine.
Breaker boy who breaks coal.
Emergency Structure Engineer, who makes sure that cave-ins are dealt with when called
Modern miners
Mining engineers use the principles of math and science to develop economical solutions to technical problems for miners.
In most cases, a bachelor's degree in engineering, mining engineering or geological engineering is required. Because technology is constantly changing, miners and mining engineers need to continue their education.
The basics of mining engineering includes finding, extracting, and preparing minerals, metals and coal. These mined products are used for electric power generation and manufacturing industries. Mining engineers also supervise the construction of underground mine operations and create ways to transport the extracted minerals to processing plants.
Gallery
See also
Amateur geology
Mineral collecting
Miner's apron
Miner's cap
Miner's habit
Mining helmet
Mooskappe, miner's cap worn in the Harz
Prospecting
Salt mining
Underground mining (hard rock)
Distinguish from
Minor (disambiguation)
References
+
Gendered occupations
Resource extraction occupations | [
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219354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon%20General%20of%20the%20United%20States | Surgeon General of the United States | The surgeon general of the United States is the operational head of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) and thus the leading spokesperson on matters of public health in the federal government of the United States. The Surgeon General's office and staff are known as the Office of the Surgeon General (OSG) which is housed within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health.
The U.S. surgeon general is nominated by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The surgeon general must be appointed from individuals who are members of the regular corps of the U.S. Public Health Service, and have specialized training or significant experience in public health programs. However, there is no time requirement for membership in the Public Health Service before holding the office of Surgeon General, and nominees traditionally were appointed as members of the Public Health Service and as Surgeon General at the same time. The surgeon general serves a four-year term of office and, depending on whether the current assistant secretary for health is a commissioned corps officer, is either the senior or next most senior uniformed officer of the commissioned corps, holding the rank of a vice admiral. The current surgeon general is Vice Admiral Vivek Murthy.
Responsibilities
The surgeon general reports to the assistant secretary for health (ASH), who may be a four-star admiral in the commissioned corps, and who serves as the principal advisor to the secretary of health and human services on public health and scientific issues. The Surgeon General is the overall head of the commissioned corps, a 6,500-member cadre of uniformed health professionals who are on call 24 hours a day and can be dispatched by the secretary of HHS or the assistant secretary for health in the event of a public health emergency.
The surgeon general is also the ultimate award authority for several public health awards and decorations, the highest of which that can be directly awarded is the Surgeon General's Medallion (the highest award bestowed by board action is the Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal). The surgeon general also has many informal duties, such as educating the American public about health issues and advocating healthy lifestyle choices.
The office also periodically issues health warnings. Perhaps the best known example of this is the surgeon general's warning label that has been present on all packages of American tobacco cigarettes since 1966. A similar health warning has appeared on alcoholic beverages labels since 1988.
History
In 1798, Congress established the Marine Hospital Fund, a network of hospitals that cared for sick and disabled seamen. The Marine Hospital Fund was reorganized along military lines in 1870 and became the Marine Hospital Service—predecessor to today's United States Public Health Service. The service became a separate bureau of the Treasury Department with its own staff, administration, headquarters in Washington, D.C, and the position of supervising surgeon (later surgeon general, where in this context the adjective "general" following the noun meaning widespread or overall, not military rank).
After 141 years under the Treasury Department, the Service came under the Federal Security Agency in 1939, then the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) in 1953, and finally the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).
Prior to 1970, the surgeon general was traditionally selected from career uniformed officers. Today, the surgeon general is usually selected from the civilian community, who aligns more closely with the president's political party. The office is not a particularly powerful one, and has little direct statutory impact on policy-making, but Surgeons General are often vocal advocates of precedent-setting, far-sighted, unconventional, or even unpopular health policies.
On January 11, 1964, Rear Admiral Luther Terry, M.D., published a landmark report saying that smoking may be hazardous to health, sparking nationwide anti-smoking efforts. Terry and his committee defined cigarette smoking of nicotine as not an addiction. The committee itself consisted largely of physicians who themselves smoked. This report went uncorrected for 24 years.
In 1986, Vice Admiral Dr. C. Everett Koop's report on AIDS called for some form of AIDS education in the early grades of elementary school, and gave full support for using condoms for disease prevention. He also resisted pressure from the Reagan administration to report that abortion was psychologically harmful to women, stating he believed it was a moral issue rather than one concerning the public health.
In 1994, Vice Admiral Dr. Joycelyn Elders spoke at a United Nations conference on AIDS. She was asked whether it would be appropriate to promote masturbation as a means of preventing young people from engaging in riskier forms of sexual activity. She replied, "I think that it is part of human sexuality, and perhaps it should be taught." Elders also spoke in favor of studying drug legalization. In a reference to the national abortion issue, she said, "We really need to get over this love affair with the fetus and start worrying about children." She was fired by President Bill Clinton in December 1994.
The U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force also have officers overseeing medical matters in their respective services who hold the title Surgeon General, of their respective services, while the surgeon general of the United States is surgeon general of the entire country as a whole.
The insignia of the surgeon general, and the USPHS, use the caduceus as opposed to the Rod of Asclepius.
Service rank
The surgeon general is a commissioned officer in the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one of the eight uniformed services of the United States, and by law holds the rank of vice admiral. Officers of the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps are classified as non-combatants, but can be subjected to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and the Geneva Conventions when designated by the commander-in-chief as a military force or if they are detailed or assigned to work with the armed forces. Officers of the commissioned corps, including the surgeon general, wear uniforms that are modeled after uniforms of the United States Navy and the United States Coast Guard, except that the commissioning devices, buttons, and insignia are unique. Officers in the U.S. Public Health Service wear unique devices that are similar to U.S. Navy staff corps officers (e.g., Navy Medical Service Corps, Supply Corps, etc.).
The only surgeon general to actually hold the rank of a four-star admiral was David Satcher (born 1941, served 1998–2002). This was because he served simultaneously in the positions of surgeon general (three-star) and assistant secretary for health (which is a four-star office). John Maynard Woodworth (1837–1879, served 1871–1879), the first holder of the office as "Supervising Surgeon".
List of surgeons general of the United States
See also
Chief Medical Officer (Ireland)
Chief Medical Officer (United Kingdom)
Chief Public Health Officer of Canada
Medical Officer of Health
Surgeon General
Surgeon General of the United States Air Force
Surgeon General of the United States Army
Surgeon General of the United States Navy
Notes
References
External links
Official website of the U.S. Surgeon General
Previous Surgeons General
Reports of the Surgeon General from the National Library of Medicine's "Profiles in Science"
United States Department of Health and Human Services officials
United States Public Health Service
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health | [
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219357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion%20Davies | Marion Davies | Marion Davies (born Marion Cecilia Douras; January 3, 1897 – September 22, 1961) was an American actress, producer, screenwriter, and philanthropist. Educated in a religious convent, Davies fled the school to pursue a career as a chorus girl. As a teenager, she appeared in several Broadway musicals and one film, Runaway Romany (1917). She soon became a featured performer in the Ziegfeld Follies. While performing in the 1916 Follies, the nineteen-year-old Marion met the fifty-three-year-old newspaper tycoon, William Randolph Hearst, and became his mistress. Hearst took over management of Davies' career and promoted her as a motion picture actress.
Hearst financed Davies' pictures and promoted her career extensively in his newspapers and Hearst newsreels. He founded Cosmopolitan Pictures to produce her films. By 1924, Davies was the number one female box office star in Hollywood because of the popularity of When Knighthood Was in Flower and Little Old New York, which were among the biggest box-office hits of their respective years. During the zenith of the Jazz Age, Davies became renowned as the hostess of lavish soirees for Hollywood actors and political elites. However, in 1924, her name became linked with scandal when film producer Thomas Ince died at a party aboard Hearst's yacht.
Following the decline of her film career during the Great Depression, Davies struggled with alcoholism. She retired from the screen in 1937 to devote herself to an ailing Hearst and charitable work. In Hearst's declining years, Davies remained his steadfast companion until his death in 1951. Eleven weeks after Hearst's death, she married sea captain Horace Brown. Their marriage lasted until Davies' death at 64 from malignant osteomyelitis (bone cancer) of the jaw in 1961.
By the time of her death, her popular association with the character of Susan Alexander Kane in the film Citizen Kane (1941) already over-shadowed Davies' legacy as a talented actress. The title character's second wife — an untalented singer whom he tries to promote — was widely assumed to be based upon Davies. However, many commentators, including writer-director Orson Welles, defended Davies' record as a gifted actress and comedienne to whom Hearst's patronage did more harm than good. In his final years, Welles attempted to correct the widespread misconceptions the film had created about Davies' popularity and talents as an actress.
Early life and education
Marion Douras was born on January 3, 1897, in Brooklyn, the youngest of five children born to Bernard J. Douras, a lawyer and judge in New York City and Rose Reilly. Her father performed the civil marriage of socialite Gloria Gould Bishop. She had three older sisters, Ethel, Rose, and Reine. An older brother, Charles, drowned. His name was subsequently given to Davies' favorite nephew, screenwriter Charles Lederer, the son of Davies' sister Reine Davies.
The Douras family lived near Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Educated in the Sacred Heart religious convent near the Hudson River and later a religious convent near Tours, France, Davies was uninterested in her academic studies and very unhappy as a child supervised by Catholic nuns. Her family was close friends with architect Stanford White, and Davies grew up learning about the Evelyn Nesbit sex scandal. As a teenager, Marion left school to pursue a career as a showgirl. When her sister Reine adopted the stage name of Davies after seeing a billboard advertisement for Valentine Davies, Marion followed suit.
Career
Early career on stage and in film
Davies worked as a chorine starting with Chin-Chin, a 1914 musical starring David C. Montgomery and Fred Stone, at the old Forrest Theatre in Philadelphia. She made her Broadway debut starring in the show at the Globe Theatre on October 20. She also appeared in Nobody Home, Miss Information and Stop, Look and Listen. When not dancing, she modeled for illustrators Harrison Fisher and Howard Chandler Christy.
In 1916, Davies was signed on as a featured player in the Ziegfeld Follies. However, she encountered difficulties with her career as a Ziegfeld girl, as her persistent stammer prevented her from pronouncing any lines. Consequently, she was relegated only to dancing routines. While working for Florenz Ziegfeld, a cavalcade of admirers pursued her sexually. She came to loathe young college men: "The stage-door-Johnnies I didn't like. Especially those who came from Yale." During one infamous show starring Gaby Deslys, rowdy undergraduates from Yale pelted Davies and other chorus dancers with tomatoes and rotten eggs to show their displeasure with the performance.
While dancing in the Follies at the New Amsterdam Theatre in New York City, the teenage Davies was first observed by newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst, who was seated in the front row of the audience. Recalling this first encounter, Davies indicated she was afraid of Hearst initially:
Hearst purportedly went to the Follies show every night for eight weeks solely to gaze at Davies. Without Davies' knowledge, Hearst clandestinely arranged for an intermediary from Campbell's Studio to invite her to be photographed in ornate costumes such as a Japanese geisha and a virginal bride. While the photos were being taken, Davies realized Hearst was secretly present in the darkness of the photography studio. Terrified, she fled to the dressing room and locked the door. However, Hearst abruptly departed without introducing himself. After months passed, they saw each other again in Palm Beach, but Hearst's wife was present. They did not become intimate until sometime later.
After making her screen debut in 1916, and modelling gowns by Lady Duff-Gordon in a fashion newsreel, Davies appeared in her first feature film, Runaway Romany (1917). Davies wrote the film, which was directed by her brother-in-law, producer George W. Lederer. She would continue to alternate between stage and screen until 1920 when she made her last revue appearance in Ed Wynn's Carnival.
Hearst and Cosmopolitan Pictures
In 1918, Hearst formed Cosmopolitan Pictures and asked Davies to sign a $500-per-week exclusive contract with his studio. After she signed, 21-year-old Davies and 58-year-old Hearst began a sexual relationship. Using his vast newspaper empire and Hearst Metrotone Newsreels, Hearst decided to promote Davies on an enormous scale. His newsreels touted her social activities, and a reporter from the Los Angeles Examiner was assigned the full-time job of recounting Davies' daily exploits in print. Hearst expended an estimated $7 million on promoting Davies' career ().
Soon after, Hearst—who was still married to Millicent Hearst—moved Davies with her mother and sisters into an elegant Manhattan townhouse at the corner of Riverside Drive and W. 105th Street. Hearst ensured that, "Marion's new abode was nothing less than a palace fit for a movie-queen—especially since the queen would frequently be receiving the press on the premises." Cecilia of the Pink Roses in 1918 was her first film, backed by Hearst. He next secured Cosmopolitan's distribution deals, first with Paramount Pictures, then with Samuel Goldwyn Productions, and with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
During the next ten years, Davies appeared in 29 films, an average of almost three films a year. One of her best known roles was as Mary Tudor in When Knighthood Was in Flower (1922), directed by Robert G. Vignola, with whom she collaborated on several films. The 1922–23 period may have been her most successful as an actress, with both When Knighthood Was in Flower and Little Old New York ranking among the top three box-office hits of those years. She was named the number one female box-office star by theater owners and crowned "Queen of the Screen" at their 1924 Hollywood convention. Other hit silent films included: Beverly of Graustark, The Cardboard Lover, Enchantment, The Bride's Play, Lights of Old Broadway, Zander the Great, The Red Mill, Yolanda, Beauty's Worth, and The Restless Sex.
In 1926, Hearst's wife Millicent Hearst moved to New York, and Hearst and Davies moved to the palatial Hearst Castle in San Simeon, California, overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Upon visiting the sprawling Hearst Castle with its Greek statues and celestial suites, playwright George Bernard Shaw reportedly quipped: "This is what God would have built if he had the money." When not holding court at San Simeon, Hearst and Davies resided at Marion's equally luxurious beach house in Santa Monica, at Hearst's rustic Wyntoon estate in Northern California, and St Donat's Castle in Wales. During the heyday of the Jazz Age, the couple spent much of their time entertaining and holding extravagant soirees with famous guests, including many Hollywood actors and political figures. Frequent habitues and occasional visitors included Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Harpo Marx, Clark Gable, Calvin Coolidge, Winston Churchill, Charles Lindbergh, and Amelia Earheart, among others.
As the years passed, Hearst's relentless efforts to promote Davies' career purportedly had a detrimental effect. According to Davies, Hearst grandiosely advertised her latest films with "signs all over New York City and pictures in the papers ... I thought it got to be a little too much." Such unceasing publicity irritated the public. "In New York city there were big signs, blocks and blocks of signs," Davies recalled, "and people got so tired of the name Marion Davies that they would actually insult me." In her published memoirs The Times We Had, Davies concluded that such over-the-top promotion of her film career likely did more harm than good.
Hearst's jealousy also interfered with Davies' career, especially in her earlier films and her stage roles. According to Davies, he often vetoed the casting of attractive leading men and typically would not permit her to be embraced on the screen or in stage plays. In her memoirs, Davies claimed to have repeatedly assailed Hearst's jealous stewardship in vain: "Everyone has to do a little embrace in pictures, just for the audience's sake," she told him. However, Hearst would not relent. Consequently, many of her earlier pictures were regarded as sexless and featured "no kissing at all" even when a kiss was needed for a happy ending. Hearst insisted on personally rewriting Davies' film scripts, and his constant meddling often exasperated film directors such as Lloyd Bacon.
Hearst further hindered Davies' career by insisting she star only in costume dramas in which she often played "a doll-sweetheart out of the 1890s, in the manner of D. W. Griffith heroines". Davies herself was more inclined to develop her comic talents alongside her friends Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford at United Artists, but Hearst pointedly discouraged this. He preferred seeing her in expensive historical pictures, but she also appeared in contemporary comedies like Tillie the Toiler, The Fair Co-Ed (both 1927), and especially three directed by King Vidor, Not So Dumb (1930), The Patsy and the backstage-in-Hollywood saga Show People (both 1928). The Patsy contains her imitations, which she usually did for friends, of silent stars Lillian Gish, Mae Murray and Pola Negri. Vidor saw Davies as a comedic actress instead of the dramatic actress that Hearst wanted her to be. He noticed she was the life of parties and incorporated that into his films.
Sound films and career decline
The coming of sound made Davies nervous because she had a persistent stutter. Her career progressed, nonetheless, and she made a number of films during the early sound era, including Marianne (1929), The Hollywood Revue of 1929 (1929), The Florodora Girl (1930), The Bachelor Father (1931), Five and Ten (1931) with Leslie Howard, Polly of the Circus (1932) with Clark Gable, Blondie of the Follies (1932), Peg o' My Heart (1933), Going Hollywood (1933) with Bing Crosby, and Operator 13 (1934) with Gary Cooper. During the filming of Operator 13, Hearst repeatedly caused problems on the set and insisted on directing a scene, much to film director Richard Boleslawski's consternation.
At Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Davies was often involved with many aspects of her films and was considered an astute businesswoman. However, her career continued to be hampered by Hearst's insistence that she play dramatic historical parts as opposed to the comic roles which were her forte. Hearst reportedly tried to persuade MGM production boss Irving Thalberg to cast Davies in the coveted title role of the 1938 historical drama Marie Antoinette, but Thalberg awarded the part to his ambitious wife, Norma Shearer. This rejection followed Davies having been denied the female lead in The Barretts of Wimpole Street, which went to Shearer as well. Despite Davies' friendship with the Thalbergs, Hearst reacted angrily by pulling his newspaper support for MGM and moving Davies and Cosmopolitan Pictures' distribution to Warner Brothers.
Davies' first film at Warner Brothers was Page Miss Glory (1935). During this period, a personal tragedy occurred in Davies' own life with the death of her vivacious 25-year-old niece, Pepi Lederer. Pepi had been a permanent resident at San Simeon for many years. She was a closeted lesbian who had sexual relationships with actresses Louise Brooks, Nina Mae McKinney, and others. At some point during the affair between Pepi and Brooks, Hearst became cognizant of Lederer's lesbianism. According to Louise Brooks' memoirs, to avoid a public scandal or to forestall blackmail, Hearst arranged for Pepi to be committed to a mental institution for her drug addiction. In June 1935, mere days after her institutionalization, Pepi committed suicide by leaping to her death from an upper floor window of the Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles. Hearst purportedly used his press influence to have Pepi's death obscured in the news cycle, and Davies arranged a funeral for her niece at a private chapel.
After a brief hiatus because of her niece's suicide, Davies starred in Hearts Divided (1936) and Cain and Mabel (1936). Her final film for Warner Brothers was Ever Since Eve (1937). Mirroring earlier events at MGM, Warner Brothers purchased the rights to Robert E. Sherwood's 1935 play Tovarich for Davies, but the lead role in the 1937 film adaptation was given to Claudette Colbert. Hearst shopped Davies and Cosmopolitan for another year, but no deals were made, and the actress officially retired. In 1943, Davies was offered the role of Mrs. Brown in Claudia, but Hearst dissuaded her from taking a supporting role and tarnishing her starring career. In her 45 feature films, over a 20-year period, Davies had never been anything but the star and, except for uncredited cameo appearances, had always received top billing.
Personal life
Relationship with Hearst
In her memoirs, Davies claimed that she and publishing mogul William Randolph Hearst began their sexual relationship when she was a teenage chorus girl. Although they lived together for the next three decades in opulent homes across Southern California and Europe, they never married, as Hearst's wife refused to grant him a divorce. At one point, Hearst reportedly came close to marrying Davies, but decided his wife's settlement demands were too high. Although he was a notorious philanderer, Hearst was extremely jealous and possessive of Davies, even though he was married throughout their relationship. Lita Grey, Charlie Chaplin's second wife, wrote four decades later that Davies confided to her about her relationship with Hearst. Grey quoted Davies as saying:
Despite their well-known jealous attachment to one another, both Davies and Hearst had many sexual liaisons with others while living together in San Simeon and elsewhere. Davies had sexual relationships with fellow actors Charlie Chaplin, Dick Powell, and others, while Hearst had a sexual relationship with blonde chorus girl Maybelle Swor. According to Davies' friend and confidant Louise Brooks, Davies was particularly incensed by Hearst's indiscreet relations with Swor. Davies became irate when Hearst's newspapers began openly promoting Swor's career in a nearly identical fashion to their earlier promotion of hers.
By the late 1930s, in the wake of the Great Depression, Hearst was suffering financial reversals. After selling many of the contents of St Donat's Castle, Davies sold her jewelry, stocks and bonds and wrote a check for $1 million to Hearst to save him from bankruptcy.
Alleged biological daughter
Since the early 1920s, there had been speculation that Davies and Hearst had a child together between 1919 and 1923. The child was rumored to be Patricia Lake (née Van Cleve), who was publicly identified as Davies' niece. On October 3, 1993, Lake died of complications from lung cancer in Indian Wells, California. Ten hours before her death, Lake asked her son to announce publicly she was not Davies' niece but her biological daughter, whom she had conceived with Hearst. Lake had never commented on her alleged paternity in public, even after Hearst's and Davies' deaths, but told her grown children and friends. Lake's claim was published in her newspaper death notice.
Lake told her friends and family that Davies became pregnant by Hearst in the early 1920s. As the child was conceived during Hearst's extra-marital affair with Davies and out of wedlock, Hearst sent her to Europe to have the child secretly and avoid a public scandal. Hearst later joined Davies in Europe. Lake claimed she was born in a Catholic hospital outside Paris between 1919 and 1923. Lake was then given to Davies' sister Rose, whose own child had died in infancy, and passed off as Rose and her husband George Van Cleve's daughter. Lake stated Hearst paid for her schooling and both Davies and Hearst spent considerable time with her. Davies reportedly told Lake of her true parentage when she was age 11. Lake said Hearst confirmed he was her father on her wedding day at age 17, where both Davies and Hearst gave her away.
Neither Davies nor Hearst ever addressed the rumors publicly. On news of the story, a spokesman for Hearst Castle commented that, "It's a very old rumor and a rumor is all it ever was."
Thomas Ince scandal
In November 1924, Davies was among those revelers aboard Hearst's steam yacht Oneida for a weekend party that culminated in the death of film producer Thomas Ince. Ince purportedly suffered an attack of acute indigestion while aboard the luxury yacht and was escorted off it in San Diego by Hearst's studio manager, Dr. Daniel Goodman. Ince was put on a train bound for Los Angeles. When his condition worsened, he was removed from the train at Del Mar. Dr. T. A. Parker and a nurse, Jesse Howard, provided him with medical attention. Ince allegedly told them he had drunk a strong liquor aboard Hearst's yacht. He was taken to his Hollywood home where he died.
Following Ince's death, rumors became widespread that Hearst had caught Ince "pressing unwelcome attentions on Miss Davies and shot him fatally". A variant of this rumor alleged that Davies had a sexual liaison with fellow-guest Charlie Chaplin, and that Hearst mistook Ince for Chaplin and shot him out of jealousy. Chaplin's Japanese valet allegedly witnessed Ince being carried from Hearst's yacht and claimed that Ince's head was "bleeding from a bullet wound". Screenwriter Elinor Glyn, a fellow guest at the party, claimed "everyone aboard the yacht had been sworn to secrecy, which would hardly have seemed necessary if poor Ince had died of natural causes". Years later, Chaplin's wife Lita Grey repeated claims that Chaplin had sexually pursued Marion Davies aboard Hearst's yacht and that a violent altercation had occurred. However, there was never any substantive evidence to support these allegations.
After Ince's death, District Attorney Chester C. Kempley of San Diego conducted an inquiry and issued a public statement which declared "the death of Thomas H. Ince was caused by heart failure as a result of an attack of acute indigestion". Despite the district attorney's declaration, and the fact that three physicians and a nurse had attended Ince before he died, the rumors persisted. Consequently, "one can still hear solemn stories in Hollywood today that Ince was murdered" in a jealous dispute over Davies.
Later years
Retirement and Hearst's death
By 1937, Hearst was $126 million in debt (). Consequently, when Hearst's Cosmopolitan Pictures folded in 1938, Davies left the film business and retreated to San Simeon. Davies would later claim in her autobiography that, after many years of work, she had become bored with film acting and decided to devote herself to being Hearst's "companion". However, Davies was intensely ambitious, and she faced the harsh reality at age forty that she could no longer play young heroines, as in her earlier films. Consequently, when drunk at parties in San Simeon, Davies often lamented her retirement and "cursed everyone who felt she had contributed to her ruined career".
As the years passed, Davies developed a drinking problem, and her alcoholism grew worse in the late 1930s and the 1940s, as she and Hearst lived an increasingly isolated existence. Although Hearst and Davies "were still playing the gracious lord and his lady, and the guests were still responding with grateful expressions of joy," nevertheless "the life had gone out of their performances". The two spent most of World War II at Hearst's Northern California estate of Wyntoon until returning to San Simeon in 1945.
After a long period of illness, Hearst died on August 14, 1951, age 88. In his will, Hearst provided handsomely for Davies, leaving her 170,000 shares of Hearst Corporation stock, and 30,000 he had put in a trust fund he established for her in 1950. This gave her a controlling interest in the company for a short time, until she chose to relinquish the stock voluntarily to the corporation on October 30, 1951 by selling it to Mrs. Millicent Hearst for one dollar. She retained her original 30,000 shares and an advisory role with the corporation. She soon invested in property and owned The Desert Inn in Palm Springs and several properties in New York City, including the Squibb Building at Fifth Avenue and 58th Street, the Davies Building at E. 57th Street and the Douras Building at E. 55th Street.
Marriage to Brown and charity work
Following Hearst's death, most of Davies' coterie of hedonistic friends gradually drifted away, and "she relied upon one or two companion-nurses to keep the blues away". Eleven weeks and one day after Hearst's death, Davies married sea captain Horace Brown on October 31, 1951, in Las Vegas. Their union was unhappy. Davies filed for divorce twice, but neither was finalized, despite Brown admitting he treated her badly: "I'm a beast," he said. "I took him back. I don't know why," she explained. "I guess because he's standing right beside me, crying. Thank God we all have a sense of humor."
Throughout her later years, Davies was "noted for her kindness" and renowned for her generosity to charities. During the 1920s, she had become interested in children's charities, donating over $1 million. In 1952, she donated $1.9 million to establish a children's clinic at UCLA, which was named for her. The clinic's name was changed to the Mattel Children's Hospital in 1998. Davies also fought childhood diseases through the Marion Davies Foundation.
Illness and death
In Summer 1956, after many decades of heavy drinking, Davies suffered a minor cerebral stroke and was admitted to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital. After the stroke, her Hollywood friends noted that "much of her old spirit and fire were gone". She quipped to columnist Hedda Hopper that "we blondes seem to be falling apart". She would never fully regain her health. During this time, many of her friends died, including Louis B. Mayer and Norma Talmadge. Their deaths convinced Davies that she would soon pass as well.
Three years later, during a dental examination in February 1959, a growth was discovered on her jaw. Not long afterwards, Davies was diagnosed with cancer. Davies made her last public appearance on January 10, 1960, on an NBC television special titled Hedda Hopper's Hollywood. During this same period, Joseph P. Kennedy rented Davies' mansion and worked from behind the scenes to secure his son John F. Kennedy's nomination during the 1960 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles. When Joseph P. Kennedy learned Davies was dying of cancer, he "had three cancer specialists flown out" to examine her.
In Spring 1961, Davies underwent surgery for malignant osteomyelitis. Twelve days after the operation, Davies fell in her hospital room and broke her leg. Her health failed rapidly over the following summer. Davies died of the malignant osteomyelitis on September 22, 1961, in Hollywood. Over 200 mourners and many Hollywood celebrities, including her friends Mary Pickford, Harold Lloyd, Charles "Buddy" Rogers, Glenn Ford, Kay Williams, and Johnny Weissmuller attended her funeral at the Immaculate Heart of Mary Church in Hollywood. Davies was buried in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery. She left an estate estimated at $20 million ($124.8 million in 2021).
Cultural legacy
Susan Alexander Kane
According to biographers, the release of Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) destroyed Davies' reputation. Film audiences mistakenly assumed Davies was the unalloyed inspiration for the character of Susan Alexander in the film, which was based loosely on Hearst's life. Many viewers, including journalists, "assumed that the powerful publisher Charles Kane in the film was Mr. Hearst, the huge castle Xanadu was in reality Mr. Hearst's fabulous estate San Simeon and the blonde young singer he tried to turn into a diva, although she had no voice, was in reality Miss Davies".
Consequently, a retroactive myth soon developed that Davies was "not a great actress and the films she made were not among the more impressive or profitable releases". By the time of her prolonged death from cancer, press obituaries erroneously depicted Davies to have been an extremely mediocre and unpopular actress during her lifetime. However, contrary to the retroactive myth that Davies' films were neither popular nor profitable, most of Davies' films made money, and she remained a popular star for most of her career. She was the number one female box office star of 1922–23 because of the enormous popularity of 1922's When Knighthood Was in Flower and 1923's Little Old New York, which ranked among the biggest box-office hits of 1922 and 1923, respectively.
Over time, the popular association with the character of Susan Alexander Kane led to later revisionist portrayals of Davies as a talentless opportunist. In his later years, Orson Welles attempted to correct the widespread misconceptions which Citizen Kane had created about Davies' popularity and talents as an actress. In his foreword to Davies' autobiography, The Times We Had (published posthumously in 1975), Welles wrote that the fictional Susan Alexander Kane bears no resemblance to Davies:
Welles told filmmaker Peter Bogdanovich that Samuel Insull's construction of the Chicago Opera House, and Harold Fowler McCormick's lavish promotion of the opera career of his second wife Ganna Walska, were the actual influences for the Susan Alexander character in the Citizen Kane screenplay. "As for Marion," Welles said, "she was an extraordinary woman—nothing like the character Dorothy Comingore played in the movie ... Marion was much better than Susan—whom people wrongly equated with her".
Critical reassessment
Several decades after her death, a critical reassessment of Davies occurred as the result of greater availability of her notable films such as When Knighthood Was in Flower, Beauty's Worth, The Bride's Play, Enchantment, The Restless Sex, April Folly, and Buried Treasure. This availability allowed for a more accurate evaluation of Davies' oeuvre as an actress. In the 1970s, film critic Pauline Kael attempted to rehabilitate Davies' legacy and noted that her reputation had been unfairly maligned. Gradually, the consensus among film critics became more appreciative of her efforts, particularly in comedy. According to biographers, "if Hearst had allowed her great talents as a mime and comic to come to full flower in a long series of comedies as bright as her Show People and The Patsy, her screen reputation could not have been so readily damaged by the controversy surrounding Citizen Kane".
Portrayals of Davies
Since her death in 1961, different actresses have portrayed Davies in a variety of media. In 1985, Davies was portrayed by 23-year-old Virginia Madsen in the ABC telefilm The Hearst and Davies Affair with Robert Mitchum as Hearst. ABC inaccurately marketed the film as "the scandalous love affair between one of the richest and most powerful men in America and the obscure Ziegfeld girl he promoted to stardom". To prepare for the role, Madsen "screened Davies' movies, read books, hunted up a collector of Davies memorabilia and even interviewed the actress' stand-in". In the process, Madsen became a Davies fan and said she felt she had inadvertently portrayed her as a stereotype, rather than as a real person. In subsequent decades, Davies was portrayed by Heather McNair in Chaplin (1992) and by Gretchen Mol in Cradle Will Rock (1999).
The 1999 HBO movie RKO 281 focuses on the production of Citizen Kane and Hearst's efforts to prevent its release, with Melanie Griffith portraying Davies. The movie depicts Davies growing irritated with Hearst's lifestyle and political views.
In 2001, director Peter Bogdanovich's film The Cat's Meow debuted with 19-year-old Kirsten Dunst starring as Davies. Dunst's performance interpreted Davies as "a spoiled ingenue" who was the ambivalent "lover to two very different men". The film was based upon unsubstantiated rumors concerning the Thomas Ince scandal, which was dramatized in the play The Cat's Meow and then adapted into the movie. That same year, a documentary film Captured on Film: The True Story of Marion Davies (2001) premiered on Turner Classic Movies.
In 2004, the story of William Randolph Hearst and Davies was made into a musical titled WR and Daisy, with book and lyrics by Robert and Phyllis White and music by Glenn Paxton. It was performed in 2004 by Theater West, and in 2009 and 2010 at the Annenberg Community Beach House in Santa Monica, California, the estate built by Hearst for Davies in the 1920s.
Amanda Seyfried is the latest actress to portray Davies in the 2020 Netflix film Mank about Herman J. Mankiewicz, the screenwriter of Citizen Kane. Seyfried was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.
Filmography
See also
History of Santa Monica, California, in the 1920s
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Photographs of Marion Davies and bibliography
Marion Davies papers, 1915–1928., held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
1897 births
1961 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American artists' models
Female models from New York (state)
American film actresses
Film producers from New York (state)
20th-century American memoirists
Philanthropists from New York (state)
American silent film actresses
American women screenwriters
Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in California
Hearst family
Mistresses
People from Brooklyn
People with polio
Vaudeville performers
American women memoirists
Ziegfeld girls
People with speech impediment
Screenwriters from New York (state)
American women film producers
20th-century American philanthropists
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American screenwriters | [
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219358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marisa%20Tomei | Marisa Tomei | Marisa Tomei (, ; born December 4, 1964) is an American actress. She has received various accolades, including an Academy Award and nominations for two further Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, two Golden Globe Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.
After working on the television series As the World Turns, Tomei came to prominence as a cast member on The Cosby Show spin-off A Different World in 1987. After having minor roles in a few films, she came to international attention in 1992 with the comedy, My Cousin Vinny, for which she received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She received two additional Academy Award nominations for In the Bedroom (2001) and The Wrestler (2008).
Tomei has appeared in a number of successful movies, including What Women Want (2000), Anger Management (2003), Wild Hogs (2007), The Ides of March (2011), and Parental Guidance (2012). She also portrayed May Parker in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, having appeared in Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers: Endgame (2019), Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), and Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021).
Tomei has also worked in theater. She was formerly involved with the Naked Angels Theater Company and appeared in plays, such as Daughters (1986), Wait Until Dark (1998), Top Girls (2008), for which she received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play, and The Realistic Joneses (2014), for which she received a special award at the Drama Desk Awards.
Early life
Tomei was born on December 4, 1964, in Brooklyn, New York, to Adelaide "Addie" (née Bianchi), an English teacher, and Gary A. Tomei, a trial lawyer. She has a younger brother, actor Adam Tomei, and was partly raised by her paternal grandparents. Tomei's parents are both of Italian descent; her father's ancestors came from Tuscany, Calabria, and Campania, while her mother's ancestors are from Tuscany and Sicily. She graduated from Edward R. Murrow High School in 1982.
Tomei grew up in the Midwood neighborhood of Brooklyn. While there, she became captivated by the Broadway shows to which her theater-loving parents took her and was drawn to acting as a career. At Andries Hudde Junior High School, she played Hedy LaRue in a school production of How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying. She also attended Albee School Of Dance. After graduating from high school, she attended Boston University for a year.
Career
1980s; Screen and stage debuts
Tomei followed up As the World Turns in 1986 with a role on the sitcom A Different World as Maggie Lauten during the first season. Her film debut was a minor role in the 1984 comedy film The Flamingo Kid, in which she played Mandy, a waitress. She had only one line in the film. During this phase, she made her stage debut in 1987 at the age of 22 in the off-Broadway play Daughters, playing Cetta. The role earned her rave reviews and the Theatre World Award for outstanding debut on stage.
1990s; Breakthrough in My Cousin Vinny
Following several small films, including Oscar, Tomei came to international prominence with her comedic performance in the 1992 film My Cousin Vinny, for which she received critical praise.
Critic Vincent Canby wrote, "Ms. Tomei gives every indication of being a fine comedian, whether towering over Mr. Pesci and trying to look small, or arguing about a leaky faucet in terms that demonstrate her knowledge of plumbing. Mona Lisa is also a first-rate auto mechanic, which comes in handy in the untying of the knotted story." For her performance, Tomei was named Best Supporting Actress at the 1993 Academy Awards, prevailing over Miranda Richardson, Joan Plowright, Vanessa Redgrave and Judy Davis. American film critic Rex Reed created controversy (and a minor Hollywood myth) when he suggested that Jack Palance had announced the wrong name after opening the envelope. While this allegation was repeatedly disproved—even the Academy officially denied it—Tomei called the story "extremely hurtful". A Price Waterhouse accountant explained that if such an event had occurred, "we have an agreement with the Academy that one of us would step on stage, introduce ourselves, and say the presenter misspoke." This was borne out by the events at the 2017 Oscars, when La La Land was mistakenly announced as the Best Picture winner because of an error in handling the award cards and the real winner, Moonlight, was announced shortly thereafter. In 2015, when The Hollywood Reporter polled hundreds of academy members, asking them to re-vote on some past decisions, academy members indicated that, given a second chance, they would still award the 1992 Best Supporting Actress award to Tomei.
After her Oscar win, Tomei appeared as silent film star Mabel Normand in the film Chaplin, with her then-boyfriend Robert Downey Jr. playing Charlie Chaplin. The following year, she starred in the romantic drama Untamed Heart with Christian Slater, for which they won the MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss. Tomei had won the previous year for Best Breakthrough Performance for My Cousin Vinny. The next year, Tomei appeared alongside Downey again in the romantic comedy Only You. She then appeared in Nick Cassavetes' Unhook the Stars. Of Tomei's performance, Stephen Holden of The New York Times compared her favorably to the film's star, Gena Rowlands, writing, "Ms. Tomei is equally fine as Mildred's [Rowlands' character's] younger, hot-tempered neighbor, whose raw working-class feistiness and bluntly profane vocabulary initially repel the genteel older woman." She received her first Screen Actors Guild award nomination for Outstanding Female Supporting Actor for her performance. In 1998, she was nominated for the American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Actress for Tamara Jenkins' cult film Slums of Beverly Hills. The independent feature was well received by critics and the public, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing, "Jenkins makes the most of an especially ingratiating cast, with Ms. Tomei very charming and funny as Rita," and Emanuel Levy of Variety describing Tomei as "spunky and sexy... more subdued than she usually is." Tomei spent several years away from high-profile roles and major motion pictures in the late 1990s before rising again to prominence in the early 2000s.
During the 1990s, Tomei made several television appearances. In 1996, she made a guest appearance on the sitcom Seinfeld, playing herself in the two-part episode "The Cadillac". In the episode, George Costanza attempts to get a date with her through a friend of Elaine Benes. She also made an appearance on The Simpsons as movie star Sara Sloane, who falls in love with Ned Flanders. Former Saturday Night Live cast member Jay Mohr wrote in his book Gasping for Airtime that as guest host in October 1994 Tomei insisted that the proposed sketch "Good Morning Brooklyn" not be used because she did not like the idea of being stereotyped. This displeased SNL's writers and performers given the show's penchant for satirizing celebrities. Tomei did parody her My Cousin Vinny role and its considerable Brooklyn influence in a skit spoofing the 1995 O.J. Simpson murder trial.
2000s; In the Bedroom, and The Wrestler
Tomei appeared in the 2000 film What Women Want, a commercial success, and had a supporting role in the romantic comedy Someone Like You. In 2001, she appeared in Todd Field's Best Picture nominee In the Bedroom, earning several awards including a ShoWest Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2002. Variety wrote, "Tomei is winning in what is surely her most naturalistic and unaffected performance," while The New York Times writer Stephen Holden exclaimed, "Ms. Tomei's ruined, sorrowful Natalie is easily her finest screen role." In the Bedroom earned Tomei a second Academy Award nomination and her first Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Tomei also shared a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Cast. In 2002, she appeared in the Bollywood-inspired film The Guru and voiced the role of Bree Blackburn, one of the two main antagonists in the animated feature film The Wild Thornberrys Movie.
In 2003, Tomei appeared in one of her biggest commercial hits, Anger Management. The following year, she appeared in the film Alfie, based on the 1966 British film of the same name. In 2005, she was featured in an ad campaign for Hanes with the slogan "Look who we've got our Hanes on now", featuring various other celebrities, including Michael Jordan, Jennifer Love Hewitt, and Matthew Perry. In 2006, Tomei had a recurring role in Rescue Me, playing Johnny Gavin's ex-wife Angie. She won a Gracie Allen Award for Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her work in the four episodes in which she appeared. The following year, she appeared in the comedy Wild Hogs. The film was the 13th-highest-grossing movie of 2007 ($168,273,550 domestic box office). She also starred in the Sidney Lumet-directed Before the Devil Knows You're Dead. The film was released to critical acclaim.
In 2008, Tomei played Cassidy/Pam, a struggling stripper, in the Darren Aronofsky film The Wrestler. She appeared in several nude dance numbers in the film. Aronofsky said, "This role shows how courageous and brave Marisa is. And ultimately she's really sexy. We knew nudity was a big part of the picture, and she wanted to be that exposed and vulnerable." Numerous critics heralded this performance as a standout in her career. The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Tomei delivers one of her most arresting performances, again without any trace of vanity." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote, "Tomei gives a brave and scrupulously honest performance, one that's most naked when Pam has her clothes on." Variety exclaimed, "Tomei is in top, emotionally forthright form as she charts a life passage similar to Pam's." For her performance she was nominated for her first BAFTA, second Golden Globe and third Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.
In 2009, Tomei recorded the role of Mary Magdalene in Thomas Nelson's audio Bible production The Word of Promise. Tomei was number 18 on the 2009 FHM list of "100 Sexiest Females in the world".
2010s
In 2010, Tomei appeared in Cyrus, a comedy-drama co-starring John C. Reilly and Jonah Hill. Tomei hosted the 2011 Scientific and Technical Awards, which was followed by an appearance at the 83rd Academy Awards. She starred in the mystery-suspense film The Lincoln Lawyer. She also appeared in Salvation Boulevard, which premiered at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival. Tomei's other 2011 films included Crazy, Stupid, Love and the George Clooney film The Ides of March. She is in talks to star in the indie comedy Married and Cheating. In an interview, Lady Gaga said she would want Tomei to portray her in a film about the singer. Tomei responded, "I was thrilled when I heard. I love her. I love her music. And she's an awesome businesswoman. So I was so touched, really. I think it's incredible that she likes my work and that she'd think of me."
Tomei was featured in the second episode of the third season of NBC's Who Do You Think You Are?, on February 10, 2012. In the episode, she traveled to Tuscany and to the island of Elba to uncover the truth about the 100-year-old murder of her great-grandfather, Francesco Leopoldo Bianchi.
Tomei portrayed a single mom back in school at Binghamton University taking a class taught by Hugh Grant in Marc Lawrence’s 2014 written and directed The Rewrite. In 2018, Tomei played Dr. May Updale in The First Purge. She portrays Aunt May in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers: Endgame (2019), Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019) and Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021). She was also cast to play All in the Family’s Edith Bunker in ABC’s Live in Front of a Studio Audience specials.
Personal life
Between 2008 and 2012, Tomei was in a relationship with actor Logan Marshall-Green. They were rumored to be engaged, but a representative for Tomei denied this. Tomei said in 2009, "I'm not that big a fan of marriage as an institution, and I don't know why women need to have children to be seen as complete human beings."
Tomei has supported voting, drawing attention to the Voter ID assistance available through VoteRiders.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1964 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American people of Italian descent
People of Calabrian descent
People of Campanian descent
American soap opera actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Belly dancers
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Boston University alumni
People from Midwood, Brooklyn
People of Tuscan descent
Edward R. Murrow High School alumni
People of Sicilian descent | [
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219361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlo%C3%AB%20Sevigny | Chloë Sevigny | Chloë Stevens Sevigny (, born November 18, 1974) is an American actress, model, filmmaker, and fashion designer. Known for her work in independent films, often appearing in controversial or experimental features, Sevigny is the recipient of several accolades, including a Golden Globe Award, a Satellite Award, an Independent Spirit Award, as well as nominations for an Academy Award and three Screen Actors Guild Awards. She also has a career in fashion design concurrent with her acting work. Over the years, her alternative fashion sense has earned her a reputation as a "style icon".
After graduating from high school, Sevigny found work as a model, and appeared in music videos for Sonic Youth and The Lemonheads, which helped acquire her "it girl" status. In 1995, she made her film debut in Kids, which earned her critical acclaim. A string of roles in small-scale features throughout the late 1990s, like 1996's Trees Lounge, further established her as a prominent performer in the independent film scene. Sevigny rose to prominence with her portrayal of Lana Tisdel in the drama film Boys Don't Cry (1999), for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award For Best Supporting Actress.
Throughout the 2000s, Sevigny appeared in supporting parts in numerous independent films, including American Psycho (2000), Demonlover (2002); Party Monster and Dogville (both 2003); and The Brown Bunny (2004). Her participation in the last caused considerable controversy due to a scene in which she performed graphic unsimulated fellatio. From 2006 to 2011, Sevigny portrayed Nicolette Grant on the HBO series Big Love, for which she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2010. She also appeared in mainstream films such as David Fincher's Zodiac (2007), and the biopic Mr. Nice (2010).
After the conclusion of Big Love, Sevigny went on to appear in numerous television projects, starring in the British series Hit & Miss (2012), and having supporting roles in Portlandia (2013), two seasons of American Horror Story; and in the Netflix series Bloodline (2015–2017). Sevigny made her directorial debut in 2016 with the short film Kitty, followed by a second short film titled Carmen. She had several supporting parts in 2017 before obtaining a lead role portraying Lizzie Borden in the independent thriller Lizzie (2018), followed by another lead role in Jim Jarmusch's horror comedy The Dead Don't Die (2019). Her third film as a director, a short titled White Echo, competed for the Short Film Palme d'Or at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival.
Life and career
1974–1993: Early life
Chloë Stevens Sevigny was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on November 18, 1974, the second child of Janine (née Malinowski) and Harold David Sevigny (1940—1996). She has one older brother, Paul. According to Sevigny, she added the diaeresis to her first name later in life, and it was not on her birth certificate. Her mother is Polish-American, and her father was of French-Canadian heritage. Sevigny and her brother were raised in a strict Catholic household in affluent Darien, Connecticut, where her father worked first as an accountant, and then as an art teacher. Despite Darien's wealth, the Sevignys had a "frugal" household, and were considered "the poor bohemians in [an] extremely prosperous neighborhood". Sevigny has stated that her father "worked very hard to bring us up in that town ... He wanted us to grow up in a really safe environment."
As a child, Sevigny was diagnosed with scoliosis, but never received any surgical treatment for it. She often spent summers attending theater camp, with leading roles in plays run by the YMCA. She attended Darien High School, where she was a member of the Alternative Learning Program. While in high school, she often babysat actor Topher Grace and his younger sister. As a young teenager, she worked sweeping the tennis courts of a country club her family could not afford to join.
Sevigny described herself as a "loner" and a "depressed teenager" whose only extracurricular activities were occasionally skateboarding with her older brother and sewing her own clothes. In high school, she grew rebellious and began experimenting with drugs, particularly hallucinogens. She has said that her father was aware of her experimentation, and even told her that it was okay, but that she had "to stop if she had bad trips". Despite her father's leniency, her mother forced her to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings. Sevigny has later stated about her teenage drug use that "I had a great family lifeI would never want it to look as if it reflected on them. I think I was very bored ... I often feel it's because I experimented when I was younger that I have no interest as an adult. I know a lot of adults who didn't, and it's much more dangerous when you start experimenting with drugs as an adult." Sevigny's father died of cancer in 1996, when she was 22 years old.
1992–1994: Modeling
As a teenager, Sevigny would occasionally ditch school in Darien and take the train into Manhattan. In 1992, at age 17, she was spotted on an East Village street by Andrea Linett, a fashion editor of Sassy magazine, who was so impressed by her style that she asked her to model for the magazine; she was later made an intern. When recounting the event, Sevigny recalled that Linett "just liked the hat I was wearing." She later modeled in the magazine as well as for X-Girl, the subsidiary fashion label of the Beastie Boys' "X-Large", designed by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth, which she followed with an appearance in the music video for Sonic Youth's "Sugar Kane".
In 1993, at age 19, Sevigny relocated from her Connecticut hometown to an apartment in Brooklyn, and worked as a seamstress. During that time, author Jay McInerney spotted her around New York City and wrote a seven-page article about her for The New Yorker in which he dubbed her the new "it girl" and referred to her as one of the "coolest girls in the world." She subsequently appeared on the album cover of Gigolo Aunts' 1994 recording Flippin' Out and the EP Full-On Bloom, as well as in a Lemonheads music video which further increased her reputation on New York's early 1990s underground scene.
1995–1998: Early film and stage roles
Sevigny encountered screenwriter and aspiring director Harmony Korine in Washington Square Park during her senior year of high school in 1993. The two became close friends, which resulted in her being cast in the low-budget independent film Kids (1995), which was written by Korine and directed by Larry Clark. Sevigny played a New York teenager who discovers she is HIV positive. According to Sevigny, she was originally cast in a much smaller role, but ended up replacing Canadian actress Mia Kirshner. Just two days before production began, the leading role went to Sevigny, who was 19 at the time and had no professional acting experience. Kids was highly controversial; the film was given an NC-17 rating by the Motion Picture Association of America for its graphic depiction of sexuality and drug use involving teenagers. Despite this, the film was taken note of critically; Janet Maslin of The New York Times considered it a "wake-up call to the modern world" about the nature of the American youth in contemporary urban settings. Sevigny's performance was praised, with critics noting that she brought a tenderness to the chaotic, immoral nature of the film: "Sevigny provided the warm, reflective center in this feral film." She received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Supporting Female.
Sevigny followed Kids with actor/director Steve Buscemi's independent film Trees Lounge (1996), starring in a relatively small role as Buscemi's object of affection. During this time, director Mary Harron (after having seen Kids) offered Sevigny a minor part in her film I Shot Andy Warhol (1996). Harron tracked Sevigny down to the SoHo clothing store Liquid Sky, where she was working at the time. Sevigny then gave her first audition ever, but ultimately decided to turn down the part; she would later work with Harron on American Psycho (2000). Instead of taking the part in I Shot Andy Warhol, Sevigny starred in and worked as a fashion designer on Gummo (1997), directed and written by Harmony Korine, who was romantically involved with Sevigny during and after filming. Gummo was as controversial as Sevigny's debut; set in Xenia, Ohio, the film depicts an array of nihilistic characters in a poverty-stricken community, and presents themes of drug and sexual abuse as well as anti-social alienated youth. Recalling the film, Sevigny cited it as one of her favorite projects: "Young people love that movie. It's been stolen from every Blockbuster in America. It's become a cult film". The film was dedicated to Sevigny's father, who died prior to the film's release.
After Gummo, Sevigny starred in the neo-noir thriller Palmetto (1998), playing a young Florida kidnapee alongside Woody Harrelson. Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post lambasted the film for having "bad writing," ultimately deeming it "somewhat dull and sluggish." She then had a leading role as a Hampshire College graduate in the sardonic period piece The Last Days of Disco (1998), alongside Kate Beckinsale. The film was written and directed by cult director Whit Stillman and details the rise and fall of the Manhattan club scene in the "very early 1980s". Stillman said of Sevigny: "Chloë is a natural phenomenon. You're not directing, she's not performing—it's just real." Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that Sevigny "is seductively demure" in her performance as Alice. The film was generally well received, but was not a box-office success in the United States, only grossing $3 million—it has since become somewhat of a success as a cult film.
Aside from film work, Sevigny starred in a 1998 Off-Broadway production of Hazelwood Jr. High, which tells the true story of the 1992 murder of Shanda Sharer; Sevigny played 17-year-old Laurie Tackett, one of four girls responsible for torturing and murdering 12-year-old Sharer. Sevigny stated she was so emotionally disturbed after playing the role that she began attending Mass again.
1999–2003: Boys Don't Cry and breakthrough
Sevigny was cast in the independent drama Boys Don't Cry (1999) after director Kimberly Peirce saw her performance in The Last Days of Disco. Sevigny's role in Boys Don't Cry—a biographical film of trans man Brandon Teena, who was raped and murdered in Humboldt, Nebraska in 1993—was responsible for her rise to prominence and her mainstream success. Sevigny played Lana Tisdel, a young woman who fell in love with Teena, initially unaware of the fact that he was a transgender man and continued the relationship after learning about his sex status. Boys Don't Cry received high praise from critics, and was a moderate box-office success. The film was widely credited as featuring some of the best acting of the year, with Sevigny's performance singled out for praise. The Los Angeles Times stated that she "plays the role with haunting immediacy", Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times stated that "it is Sevigny who provides our entrance into the story" and Rolling Stone wrote that she gives a "performance that burns into the memory". The role earned Sevigny supporting actress nominations for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award. She won an Independent Spirit Award, a Satellite Award, and a Sierra Award for her performance.
Following the success of Boys Don't Cry, Sevigny appeared in 1999 in the experimental film Julien Donkey-Boy, which reunited her with writer-director Harmony Korine. In the film, she played the pregnant sister of a schizophrenic man. Though it never saw a major theatrical release, the film garnered some critical praise; Roger Ebert gave the film his signature thumbs up, referring to it as "Freaks shot by the Blair Witch crew", and continuing to say, "The odds are good that most people will dislike this film and be offended by it. For others, it will provoke sympathy rather than scorn". Sevigny also had a small part in the drama film A Map of the World (1999), which starred Sigourney Weaver.
In 2000, Sevigny played a supporting role in Mary Harron's American Psycho, based on the controversial 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis. She portrayed the office assistant of the main character Patrick Bateman (Christian Bale), a 1980s Manhattan yuppie-turned-serial killer. Similarly to the novel on which it was based, the film was controversial because of its depiction of graphic violence and sexuality in an upper-class Manhattan society. Sevigny also appeared as a lesbian in the Emmy Award-winning television film If These Walls Could Talk 2 (2000), the sequel to the HBO television drama-film If These Walls Could Talk (1996). Sevigny credited it as the only film she ever made for financial benefit, to help her mother with whom she lived in Connecticut in 1998–2000. Around 2000, Sevigny began a relationship with musician Matt McAuley of the noise-rock band A.R.E. Weapons. The two would remain a couple for eight years before separating in early 2008.
Following her appearance in If These Walls Could Talk 2, Sevigny was approached for a supporting role in the 2001 comedy Legally Blonde alongside Reese Witherspoon and offered $500,000; she declined and the role was given to Selma Blair. Instead, she starred in Olivier Assayas' French techno thriller Demonlover (2002) alongside Connie Nielsen, for which she was required to learn her lines in French. Sevigny described shooting the film as "strange", in the sense that Assayas hardly spoke to her during the filming, which she said was difficult because of the lack of "input". After spending nearly three months in France to complete Demonlover, Sevigny returned to New York to film the Club Kids biopic Party Monster (2003); coincidentally, she knew several of the people depicted in the film (Michael Alig and James St. James included), whom she had met during her frequent trips to New York City's club scene as a teenager.
Around 2002, Sevigny began collaborating with friend Tara Subkoff for the Imitation of Christ fashion label and conceptual art project, with their first collection being released in 2003. She served as the creative director for the line, which was referred to as being "more about performance art and cultural theory than clothes". In film, Sevigny had a role in Lars von Trier's parable Dogville (2003), playing one of the various residents of a small mountain town, alongside Nicole Kidman, Lauren Bacall, and Paul Bettany. The film received mixed reactions, and was criticized by Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper as being "anti-American". She also re-united with former Boys Don't Cry star Peter Sarsgaard for the biographical film Shattered Glass (2003), also alongside Hayden Christensen, about the career of Stephen Glass, a journalist whose reputation is destroyed when his widespread journalistic fraud is exposed. Sevigny played Caitlin Avey, one of Glass' co-editors.
2004–2006: The Brown Bunny controversy
In 2003, Sevigny took on the lead female role in the art house film The Brown Bunny (2003), which details a lonely traveling motorcycle racer reminiscing about his former lover. The film achieved notoriety for a scene which involves Sevigny performing fellatio on star and director Vincent Gallo. The film premiered at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival and opened to significant controversy and criticism from audiences and critics. Additionally, a promotional billboard erected over Sunset Boulevard, which depicted a censored still from the film's final scene, garnered further attention and criticism. Sevigny defended the film: "It's a shame people write so many things when they haven't seen it. When you see the film, it makes more sense. It's an art film. It should be playing in museums. It's like an Andy Warhol movie." In an interview with The Telegraph in 2003, when asked if she regretted the film, she responded: "No, I was always committed to the project on the strength of Vincent alone. I have faith in his aesthetic ... I try to forgive and forget, otherwise I'd just become a bitter old lady."
Despite the backlash toward the film, some critics praised Sevigny's performance, including Manohla Dargis of The New York Times: "Actresses have been asked and even bullied into performing similar acts for filmmakers since the movies began, usually behind closed doors. Ms. Sevigny isn't hiding behind anyone's desk. She says her lines with feeling and puts her iconoclasm right out there where everyone can see it; she may be nuts, but she's also unforgettable." Roger Ebert, although critical of The Brown Bunny, nevertheless said that Sevigny brought "a truth and vulnerability" to the film.
Sevigny continued on with various projects. She had a major supporting role in Woody Allen's two-sided tragicomedy Melinda and Melinda (2004). Critic Peter Bradshaw described the film as "strange... a half-hearted experiment populated by undernourished lab rats." She subsequently guest-starred on the popular television show Will & Grace, and played small roles in Lars von Trier's Manderlay (2005) (a sequel to Dogville (2003)) and in Jim Jarmusch's Broken Flowers (2005). She also played one of the several lovers of New York doctor Herman Tarnower in the HBO television film Mrs. Harris (2005) alongside Annette Bening and Ben Kingsley. In 3 Needles (2005), an anthology film about AIDS in various parts of the world, Sevigny had a major role as a Catholic nun visiting Africa. Her performance received good reviews; Dennis Harvey of Variety called her "convincing", while Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times referred to her as "ever-daring and shrewd." In 2006, Sevigny played the lead character in the experimental indie-film Lying (2006) with Jena Malone and Leelee Sobieski, portraying a pathological liar who gathers three female acquaintances for a weekend at her upstate New York country house; the film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in 2006. She also had a starring role in Douglas Buck's 2006 remake of the Brian De Palma horror film Sisters (1973), playing a journalist who witnesses a murder.
2007–2011: Fashion endeavors; Big Love
In 2006, Sevigny began a five-season run in the HBO television series Big Love, about a family of fundamentalist Mormon polygamists. She played Nicolette Grant, the conniving, shopaholic daughter of a cult leader and second wife to a polygamist husband, played by Bill Paxton. Sevigny also appeared in her first big-budget production, playing Robert Graysmith's wife Melanie in David Fincher's Zodiac (2007), based on the Zodiac Killer criminal case.
In October 2007, the French fashion house Chloé announced that Sevigny would be one of the spokesmodels for its new fragrance. Sevigny also released a clothing collection for Opening Ceremony in the fall of 2009. It included men's, women's, and unisex pieces, and received mixed reactions from critics. Sevigny returned to films in 2009, starring in the independent psychological thriller The Killing Room, and Werner Herzog's My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done, a crime horror film based on murderer Mark Yavorsky, produced by David Lynch.
In January 2010, Sevigny won a Golden Globe award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film for her performance in the third season of Big Love. During a press conference following the award win, Sevigny addressed the repressed women living in the fundamentalist Mormon compounds: "These women are kept extremely repressed. They should be helped. They don't even know who the president of the United States is." In a later interview with The A.V. Club, Sevigny was asked if she felt that the show's message was that polygamy was "wrong". In response, Sevigny stated: "No, absolutely not. I think there are more parallels to gay rights and alternative lifestyles within Big Love—more so than 'Polygamy is wrong'. I think they actually condone people who decide to live this lifestyle outside of fundamentalist sects." During the same interview, Sevigny stated her disappointment with the series' fourth season, calling it "awful" and "very telenovela"—though she stated that she loves her character and the writing, she felt the show "got away from itself." Sevigny later regretted making the statements, saying she was very "exhausted" and "wasn't thinking about what [she] was saying"; she also apologized to the show's producers. "[I didn't want them to think] that I was biting the hand that feeds me, because I obviously love the show and have always been nothing but positive about it. And I didn't want anybody to misunderstand me or think that I wasn't, you know, appreciative."
While starring in the fourth season of Big Love in 2010, Sevigny also appeared major roles in two independent comedy films: Barry Munday and Mr. Nice. In Munday, she played the sister of a homely woman who is expecting a child by a recently castrated womanizer (opposite Patrick Wilson and Judy Greer). Her role in Mr. Nice, as the wife of British marijuana-trafficker Howard Marks, had Sevigny starring alongside Rhys Ifans; the film was based on Marks' autobiography of the same name. Sevigny also had a voice part in the documentary film Beautiful Darling (2010), narrating the life of Warhol superstar Candy Darling through Darling's diaries and personal letters. The fifth and final season of Big Love premiered in March 2011.
2012–2015: Television projects
In 2012, Sevigny starred in the British miniseries Hit & Miss, playing a transgender contract killer. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote of her performance: "Her naturally deep voice is a plus, and her characteristic mix of loucheness and gravity makes sense here, though it's less interesting in this role than it was in the bitterly voracious wife she played in Big Love." The same year, Sevigny guest-starred in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, which aired on April 18, 2012, and also appeared in the second season of American Horror Story, which premiered in October 2012.
Sevigny appeared in a supporting role as a journalist in Lovelace (2013), a biographical film about pornographic film actress Linda Lovelace. The year also saw the release of The Wait (2013), Sevigny's second collaboration with director M. Blash, in which she starred alongside Jena Malone and Luke Grimes. It was a psychological thriller about two sisters who decide to keep their recently deceased mother in their house after receiving a phone call that she will be resurrected. Sevigny also had roles in television, appearing as a satellite character in the third season of the television sketch comedy show Portlandia, and having a 5-episode guest role on the comedy series The Mindy Project, in which she portrayed the ex-wife of the titular Mindy's love interest (played by Chris Messina). Kristi Turnquist of The Oregonian praised Sevigny in Portlandia, stating that she "instantly adds dimension and interest" to the series.
In 2014, Sevigny starred as Catherine Jensen in the crime drama Those Who Kill, which aired on the A&E Network. After being pulled from A&E after two episodes due to low ratings, it was then re-launched on A&E's sister network, Lifetime Movie Network. The series was subsequently cancelled after its 10 episode first season run. During the 29th International Festival of Fashion and Photography in April 2014, Sevigny served as a judge of the fashion jury, along with Humberto Leon and Carol Lim.
In March 2015, it was announced Sevigny would be returning to American Horror Story for its fifth season, Hotel, as a main cast member. Sevigny portrayed a doctor whose son has been kidnapped. That same year, she also starred in the Netflix original series Bloodline. In the spring of 2015, Sevigny published a picture book chronicling her life, containing photos of her as a high school student, on film sets, personal scripts, and other ephemera. She also appeared in Tara Subkoff's directorial debut #Horror, playing the opulent mother of a teenage girl whose get-together with friends is interrupted by a murderer.
2016–present: Directing and other projects
In early 2016, Sevigny appeared in the Canadian horror film Antibirth opposite Natasha Lyonne, which follows a small-town woman who becomes pregnant through unknown circumstances. Sevigny reunited with The Last Days of Disco director Whit Stillman on Love & Friendship, an adaptation of the Jane Austen novel Lady Susan. Both films premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2016. In 2016 and 2017, respectively, Sevigny also reprised her role in Bloodline, becoming a main cast member in the third and final season.
Sevigny made her directorial debut in 2016 with the short film Kitty, which she adapted from Paul Bowles' 1980 short story. The film was selected to close the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, and was subsequently acquired by The Criterion Collection, which made it available for streaming on their user subscription channel. In late 2016, Sevigny directed her second short film, Carmen, which was shot on location in Portland, Oregon. The film, released as part of a Miu Miu campaign, focuses on comedian Carmen Lynch.
Sevigny played supporting parts in multiple films in 2017. She co-starred as a horse jockey in the drama Lean on Pete, based on the novel by Willy Vlautin,; in the ensemble drama Golden Exits; the comedy-drama Beatriz at Dinner, about a Latina housekeeper who is invited to a dinner held by her wealthy employers; the drama The Dinner, concerning a dinner between two couples recounting their children's involvement in a murder; and The Snowman (2017), where she played the twin sisters, one of whom was killed by a serial killer.
Sevigny starred as Lizzie Borden in Lizzie (2018), which premiered at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival, co-starring with Kristen Stewart. Sevigny had first expressed interest in developing and starring in a miniseries based on Borden in 2011. Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post wrote that Sevigny "is something of a closed book, delivering a stolid performance that can be read as either strong-willed or stonyhearted." Sevigny also appeared in a supporting role in The True Adventures of Wolfboy, and starred as a small-town police officer facing a zombie apocalypse in Jim Jarmusch's comedy horror film The Dead Don't Die (2019). The latter film premiered as the opening feature at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, where Sevigny's third short film, White Echo, also competed for the Palme d'Or for Best Short Film.
In 2020, Sevigny starred in We Are Who We Are a limited series directed by Luca Guadagnino, which premiered in September 2020 on HBO.
Legacy and influence
Sevigny has long been considered a fashion icon and regularly appears alternately on both best and worst-dressed lists. Commenting on criticisms of her fashion choices, she said in 2015: "I called my great aunt who lives in Florida over Christmas. I hadn't seen her in a while and she said, 'Oh, I never get to see you [in person] but I always see you in the back of US Weekly. They're always making fun of you,' and I was like, 'You know me, I dress crazy.' It makes me feel bad."
Throughout her career, she has modelled for several high-profile designers, including Miu Miu, Louis Vuitton, Chloé, H&M, Proenza Schouler, Kenzo and Vivienne Westwood. Prior to her career as an actress, she had achieved fame for her unique style. While her sense of style in the early 1990s only reflected small downtown scenes and trends, it still made a significant impression on high class fashion chains which began to emulate Sevigny's look. Her interest in fashion and clothing, as well as her career as a fashion model in her late teenage years and early twenties, have led to a career as a prominent and well-respected fashion designer. She has expressed interest in fashion design throughout the entirety of her career, even dating back to her childhood: "Little House on the Prairie was my favorite show. I would only wear calico print dresses, and I actually slept in one of those little nightcaps!", she told People in 2007. Her unorthodox style (which garnered her initial notoriety in the early '90s) has often been referred to as very eclectic. Sevigny has since released several clothing lines designed by herself, both solo and in collaboration, and has earned a title as a modern fashion icon.
Critical reception of her fashion and style has been extensively written about by both designers and fashion stylists and has generally proved favorable. American designer Marc Jacobs wrote of Sevigny in 2001: "The fashion world is fascinated by her. Because not only is she talented, young and attractive, she stands out in a sea of often clichéd looking actresses." In terms of her own personal style, Sevigny cited the Australian film Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), which features schoolgirls dressed in elaborate Victorian clothing, as a major inspiration; she has also cited it as one of her favorite films. She has also been outspoken in her favoritism of vintage clothing over designer pieces: "I still prefer to buy vintage over spending it all on one designer", she told The Times. "I'll go to Resurrection or Decades and be like, 'Oh, I'm going to buy everything,' but a lot of it is extremely expensive, so I'll go to Wasteland and satisfy that urge and it's not too hard on the pocketbook. Then there's this place called Studio Wardrobe Department where everything is like three dollars".
Beginning in 2011, actor Drew Droege performed in a web series titled Chloë, which features him in drag, doing impersonations of Sevigny.
Political views
Sevigny endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for President in the 2016 US presidential election and again in the 2020 election.
Personal life
Sevigny began dating Croatian art gallery director Siniša Mačković in 2018. In January 2020, it was announced that Sevigny was expecting her first child with Mačković. They married on March 9, 2020, and on May 2, 2020, she gave birth to a son named Vanja Sevigny Mačković. She is Catholic and has said that she attends church.
Filmography
Accolades
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Chloë Sevigny on Future Movies
Chloë Sevigny on CelebMojo
1974 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Living people
Actors from Springfield, Massachusetts
Actresses from Connecticut
American female models
American film actresses
American people of French-Canadian descent
American people of Polish descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Catholics from Connecticut
Catholics from Massachusetts
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female winners
People from Darien, Connecticut
Darien High School alumni | [
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219364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional%20convention%20%28political%20custom%29 | Constitutional convention (political custom) | A constitutional convention is an informal and uncodified tradition that is followed by the institutions of a state. In some states, notably those Commonwealth of Nations states that follow the Westminster system and whose political systems derive from British constitutional law, most government functions are guided by constitutional convention rather than by a formal written constitution.
In these states, actual distribution of power may be markedly different from those the formal constitutional documents describe. In particular, the formal constitution often confers wide discretionary powers on the head of state that, in practice, are used only on the advice of the head of government, and in some cases not at all.
Some constitutional conventions operate separate from or alongside written constitutions, such as in Canada since the country was formed with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1867. In others, notably the United Kingdom, which lack a single overarching constitutional document, unwritten conventions are still of vital importance in understanding how the state functions. In most states, however, many old conventions have been replaced or superseded by laws (called codification).
Definitions
The term was first used by British legal scholar A. V. Dicey in his 1883 book, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. Dicey wrote that in Britain, the actions of political actors and institutions are governed by two parallel and complementary sets of rules:
A century later, Canadian scholar Peter Hogg wrote,
Origins
Constitutional conventions arise when the exercise of a certain type of power, which is not prohibited by law, arouses such opposition that it becomes impossible, on future occasions, to engage in further exercises of this power. For example, the constitutional convention that the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom cannot remain in office without the support of a majority of votes the House of Commons is derived from an unsuccessful attempt by the ministry of Robert Peel to govern without the support of a majority in the House, in 1834–1835.
Enforceability in the courts
Constitutional conventions are not, and cannot be, enforced by courts of law. The primary reason for this, according to the Supreme Court of Canada in its 1981 Patriation Reference, is that, "They are generally in conflict with the legal rules which they postulate and the courts may be bound to enforce the legal rules." More precisely, the conventions make certain acts, which would be permissible under a straightforward reading of the law, impermissible in practice. The court ruled that this conflict between convention and law means that no convention, no matter how well-established or universally accepted, can "crystallize" into law, unless the relevant parliament or legislature enacts a law or constitutional amendment codifying for a convention at which must specify request and consensus' for enactment. This principle is regarded as authoritative in a number of other jurisdictions, including the UK.
Some conventions evolve or change over time. For example, before 1918 the British Cabinet requested a parliamentary dissolution from the monarch, with the Prime Minister conveying the request. Between 1918 and 2011, Prime Ministers requested dissolutions on their own initiative, and were not required to consult members of the Cabinet (although, at the very least, it would have been unusual for the Cabinet not to be aware of the Prime Minister's intention).
However, conventions are rarely ever broken. Unless there is general agreement on the breach, the person who breaches a convention is often heavily criticised, on occasions leading to a loss of respect or popular support.
Examples
Australia
Whoever can command a majority in the House of Representatives is entitled to be asked by the Governor-General to form a government, and take the title Prime Minister.
Governors-General always act on the advice of their Prime Minister or other relevant minister in regard to particular powers they may exercise.
An incumbent Prime Minister who loses an election will advise the Governor-General to appoint the leader of the larger party as Prime Minister so the Governor-General does not need to act alone.
State Premiers tender advice to State Governors for Federal Senate elections, in response to the Prime Minister's advice to the Governor-General to call a Federal House of Representatives election.
State Governors are given a dormant commission to administer the Commonwealth if the Governor-General is unable to.
Vice-regal officers act in a politically neutral way.
No convention is absolute; all but one (the second) of the above conventions were disregarded in the leadup to or during the constitutional crisis of 1975.
Ignoring constitutional conventions does not always result in a crisis. After the 2010 Tasmanian state election, the Governor of Tasmania rejected the advice of his Premier to appoint the leader of the opposition as Premier because he felt the advice was tendered in bad faith. The Premier went on to form a new government.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The six members of the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, that are chosen by the Parliaments of entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, should be chosen in a way as to establish the national balance, of "constituent peoples", in the Court (two Bosniaks, two Croatians and two Serbs), although the Constitution does not have this requirement.
The Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina should be of different nationality in every new term (establishing the "rotation"), although this is not formally regulated.
The government of an entity should inform the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina of its intention to establish special parallel relationships with neighboring states, including negotiations. Also, the High Representative should be notified of any such intent, especially if there is a document that should be signed between parties, although the Constitution does not have this requirement (also for first example).
Canada
The Prime Minister will request the Governor General to call an election upon the defeat of the government in a confidence or money vote. This convention was broken in 1968 when the ruling minority government of Lester B. Pearson unexpectedly lost a money vote. All the parties in Parliament, who were not prepared for a snap election, agreed to pass a resolution retroactively declaring the lost money vote was not a matter of confidence.
Though it is mentioned in various constitutional documents, the precise nature of the office of the Prime Minister operates mostly according to understood, uncodified British conventions.
The Supreme Court of Canada is, by statute (the Supreme Court Act), composed of three justices from Quebec and six from anywhere in Canada (including Quebec). This is because Quebec uses civil law rather than the common law system used elsewhere in Canada; it is necessary to have a panel of at least three judges to hear civil law cases. By convention, the remaining six positions are divided in the following manner: three from Ontario; two from the western provinces, typically one from British Columbia and one from the prairie provinces, which rotate amongst themselves (although Alberta is known to cause skips in the rotation); and one from the Atlantic provinces, almost always from Nova Scotia or New Brunswick. The appointment of the most senior puisne justice to chief justice is a convention that has recently fallen into disuse.
Commonwealth Realms
The Governor-General is appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day, is a resident of the country he or she will represent, and can be dismissed immediately on the advice of the Prime Minister (exceptions are Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, where the Governor-General is elected by Parliament and then formally appointed by the Queen, and the United Kingdom, which has no vice-regal office). However, in Canada, provincial lieutenant-governors are appointed on the advice of the federal prime minister, not the provincial premier.
Neither the Monarch nor a Governor-General will participate in the political process unless there is an extreme circumstance that merits the use of reserve powers, or when the advice tendered is contrary to established convention.
Neither the Monarch nor a Governor-General will make partisan speeches or state partisan opinions. This convention was broken in 1975 by Sir Colin Hannah, the Governor of Queensland, who called for the defeat of the Whitlam Government. The Queen, on Whitlam's advice, revoked Hannah's dormant commission to act as Administrator of the Commonwealth of Australia and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office later refused the Premier of Queensland's request that they advise the Queen to appoint Hannah to a second term as Governor (in 1975, Australian State Governors were still appointed on the advice of UK ministers).
Denmark
The Danish Constitution makes reference to the King in great detail. Apart from the fact that this is understood to include a Queen regnant as well, references to the King acting in a political capacity are understood to mean the Prime Minister, as the Constitution stipulates that the King exercises his powers through the Cabinet.
According to the Constitution, any public expenditure must be provided for in the annual money bill or provisional money bills. However, although not provided for in the Constitution, according to constitutional custom, the Parliamentary Budgetary Committee has the power to authorise provisional expenditure, regardless of the fact that such expenditure is not formally included in the budget (such grants are however then marked for adoption in the next forthcoming money bill).
France
If the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister are not from the same party, foreign affairs and defense are shared by the President and the government according to the constitution.
If the president of the National Assembly, the president of the Senate or 60 deputies or 60 senators claim that a just-passed statute is unconstitutional, the President of the Republic does not sign the law and instead waits for a petition to be sent to the Constitutional Council.
Germany
The German Basic Law does not provide for a formal mechanism of parliamentary self-dissolution. The chancellor can only be forced out of office through a constructive vote of no confidence, however, snap elections were held in 1972, 1983 and 2005 by the chancellor deliberately losing a vote of confidence and then asking the president to dissolve the Bundestag - a request which was granted in each case but was controversial in 2005.
The President of Germany is not required to renounce his political affiliation, but since the founding of the Federal Republic in 1949 all presidents have let their party membership "rest" for the duration of their time in office while Joachim Gauck hadn't been a member of any party even prior to taking office. This "resting" party membership was tacitly approved by CDU/CSU and SPD for presidents who had been members or their parties even though their party rules and bylaws do not provide for such a mechanism.
Similar to the provisions about monarchs in many parliamentary monarchies the Basic Law formally grants the President powers to be exercised "on the advice of" Parliament or the government which are in practice never exercised by the President without clear direction from those bodies
The Basic Law only specifies how a chancellor is to be elected, not who is eligible. With one exception (Kurt Georg Kiesinger) all chancellors thus far have been members of the Bundestag, even though that is not a requirement for election or serving. Similarly the office of "candidate for chancellor" which is usually nominated by major parties (SPD and CDU/CSU but also FDP in 2002 and the Greens in 2021) has no legal relevance and is not legally a precondition for being elected chancellor.
Virtually all customs and informal rules regarding coalition agreements are based on convention rather than formal rules. Some are even in apparent conflict with the text of the constitution. The :de:Koalitionsausschuss ("coalition committee") which was first acknowledged to exist during the First Erhard cabinet is a method of resolving potential conflicts within a governing coalition that has been criticized as "circumventing" parliament and the cabinet as means to discuss and resolve such issues.
The President of the Bundestag is a member of the biggest faction, even if that faction is otherwise in opposition. This is one of few constitutional conventions already in place during the Weimar Republic and still followed today
Lebanon
The Lebanese constitution states that the President of Lebanon is elected by a simple majority of the Parliament of Lebanon. However, due to the country's delicate ethnic balance, the Parliament's various factions usually try to agree on a consensus candidate.
Under the unwritten National Pact, the president must always be a Maronite Christian; the prime minister a Sunni Muslim; the speaker of Parliament a Shia Muslim; and the deputy speaker Greek Orthodox.
Malaysia
At the federal level, the King acts on the Prime Minister's advice, except on certain cases. At the state level, the respective ruler or governor acts on his Chief Minister's advice.
At the federal level, the Prime Minister is the leader of the party with an absolute majority of seats in the Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) and therefore most likely to command the support of the Dewan Rakyat; and likewise a Chief Minister, the leader of the party with an absolute majority of seats in a State Legislature and therefore most likely to command the support of such State Legislature.
The Prime Minister should be a member of the Dewan Rakyat.
The Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat chairs the Joint Session of Parliament, where the King addresses both Dewan Negara (Senate) and Dewan Rakyat.
New Zealand
There is a convention that the Prime Minister of New Zealand should not ask for an early election unless he or she is unable to maintain confidence and supply. By the 1950s, it had also become a convention that elections should be held on the last Saturday of November, or the closest date to this range as possible. There are several times when these conventions have been broken and an election has been held several months earlier:
1951 general election: Sidney Holland called the election to get a mandate to face down a dockworks dispute. The government was returned to power with an increased majority; by this time the dispute had been resolved.
1984 general election: Robert Muldoon's government held a narrow four-seat majority in Parliament. Muldoon hoped to strengthen his leadership, as two backbenchers (Marilyn Waring and Mike Minogue) were threatening to rebel against the government in an opposition-sponsored anti-nuclear bill. However, Waring and Minogue had not threatened to block confidence and supply. The election was a decisive defeat for the government.
2002 general election: Helen Clark called the election after the collapse of the Alliance, her coalition partners. Some critics argued that the government could still maintain confidence and supply and therefore the early election was not necessary. The Labour Party remained in power with two different coalition partners.
Norway
Because of the 1814 written constitution's pivotal role in providing independence and establishing democracy in the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament has been very reluctant to change it. Few of the developments in the political system that have been taking place since then have been codified as amendments. This reluctance has been labelled constitutional conservatism. The two most important examples of constitutional conventions in the Norwegian political system are parliamentarism and the declining power of the King.
Parliamentarism has evolved since 1884 and entails that the cabinet must maintain the support of parliament (an absence of mistrust) but it need not have its express support.
All new laws are passed and all new cabinets are therefore formed in a de jure fashion by the King, although not necessarily in a de facto sense.
According to the written constitution, the cabinet (council of ministers) are appointed by the King. The appointment of new cabinets by the King is a formality, and the king has not directly exercised executive powers since 1905.
Spain
Much of Spain's political framework is codified in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, which formalizes the relationship between an independent constitutional monarchy, the government, and the legislature. However, the constitution invests the monarch as the "arbitrator and moderator of the institutions" of government.
The King nominates a candidate to stand for the Presidency of the Government of Spain, sometimes known in English as 'prime minister'. The nominee then stands before the Congress of Deputies and presents his political agenda for the upcoming legislative term, followed by a vote of confidence in the nominee and his agenda. The 1978 constitution allows the King to nominate anyone he sees fit to stand for the vote of confidence so long as the King has met with the political party leaders represented in the Congress beforehand. However, King Juan Carlos I has consistently nominated the political party leader who commands a plurality of seats in the Congress of Deputies.
The Spanish public perception that the monarchy be politically non-partisan in its adherence to constitutional protocol and convention, yet while protecting the public expression of personal political views by members of the royal family. Expressions of personal political views expressed in public include when the Prince of Asturias and his sisters protested against terrorism following the 2004 Madrid bombings, or when the Queen gave controversial political viewpoints during an informal interview.
Constitutionally, the King appoints the twenty members to the General Council of the Judicial Power of Spain. However, when a vacancy is observed the King's appointment has been customarily on the advice of the government of the day. Additionally, the King appoints the President of the Supreme Court on the advice of the General Council of the Judicial Power of Spain.
According to the 1978 constitution, grandee and nobility titles, and civil and military decorations, are awarded by the King as head of state. However, in most cases since 1978, the King's appointment of nobility titles have been countersigned by the President of the Government of Spain, with civil awards having been nominated by the President and military awards having been nominated by the military.
Switzerland
The following constitutional conventions are part of the political culture of Switzerland. They hold true at the federal level and mostly so at the cantonal and communal level. Mostly, they aim to reconcile the democratic principle of majority rule with the need to achieve consensus in a nation that is much more heterogeneous in many respects than other nation-states.
The government is a body of equals composed in political proportion to the weight of the various factions in Parliament; this creates a permanent grand coalition. For most of the post-war era, the composition of the Federal Council was fixed by the so-called magic formula
Members of a collective body, including the federal government, observe collegiality at all times, that is, they do not publicly criticise one another. They also publicly support all decisions of the collective, even against their own opinion or that of their political party. In the eye of many observers, this convention has become rather strained at the federal level, at least after the 2003 elections to the Swiss Federal Council.
The presidency of a collective body, particularly a government, rotates yearly; the president is a primus inter pares.
United Kingdom
While the United Kingdom does not have a written constitution that is a single document, the collection of legal instruments that have developed into a body of law known as constitutional law has existed for hundreds of years.
As part of this uncodified British constitution, constitutional conventions play a key role. They are rules that are observed by the various constituted parts though they are not written in any document having legal authority; there are often underlying enforcing principles that are themselves not formal and codified. Nonetheless it is very unlikely that there would be a departure of such conventions without good reason, even if an underlying enforcing principle has been overtaken by history, as these conventions also acquire the force of custom. Examples include:
The texts of most international treaties are laid before Parliament at least twenty one days before ratification (the 'Ponsonby Rule' of 1924). This convention was codified by the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010.
The monarch will accept and act on the advice of their ministers, who are responsible to Parliament for that advice; the monarch does not ignore that advice, except when exercising reserve powers.
The Prime Minister is leader of the party (or coalition of parties) with an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons and therefore most likely to command the support of the House of Commons.
Where no party or coalition has an absolute majority, the leader of the party with the most seats in the Commons is given the first opportunity to seek to form a government. This convention was asserted by Nick Clegg, leader of the Liberal Democrat party, to justify seeking a coalition with the Conservatives instead of Labour (who additionally would not have been able to form a majority) in the hung parliament following the 2010 general election.
All money bills must originate in the House of Commons.
The monarch grants royal assent to all legislation – sometimes characterised as all legislation passed in good faith. It is possible that ministers could advise against giving consent, as happens with the Crown dependencies (convention since the early 18th century – previously monarchs did refuse or withhold royal assent).
The Prime Minister should be a member of either House of Parliament (between the 18th century and 1963).
By 1963 this convention had evolved to the effect that no Prime Minister should come from the House of Lords, due to the Lords' lack of democratic legitimacy. When the last Prime Minister peer, the Earl of Home, took office he renounced his peerage, and as Sir Alec Douglas-Home became an MP.
The Prime Minister can hold office temporarily whilst not a Member of Parliament, for example during a general election or, in the case of Douglas-Home, between resigning from the Lords and being elected to the Commons in a by-election.
All Cabinet members must be members of the Privy Council, since the cabinet is a committee of the council. Further, certain senior Loyal Opposition shadow cabinet members are also made Privy Counsellors, so that sensitive information may be shared with them "on Privy Council terms".
The House of Lords should not reject a budget passed by the House of Commons. This was broken controversially in 1909 by the House of Lords, which argued that the Convention was linked to another Convention that the Commons would not introduce a Bill that 'attacked' peers and their wealth. The Lords claimed that the Commons broke this Convention in Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George's "People's Budget", justifying the Lords' rejection of the budget. The Commons disputed the existence of a linked convention. As a consequence, the Lords' powers over budgets were greatly lessened, including by removing their power to reject a bill, by the Parliament Act 1911.
During a general election, no major party shall put up an opponent against a Speaker seeking re-election. This convention was not respected during the 1987 general election, when both the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party fielded candidates against the Conservative Speaker, Bernard Weatherill, who was MP for Croydon North East. The Scottish National Party (SNP) does stand against the Speaker if he or she represents a Scottish constituency, as was the case with Michael Martin, Speaker from 2000 to 2009.
The Westminster Parliament will only legislate with respect to Scotland on reserved matters. It will not legislate on non-reserved matters ('devolved matters') without first seeking the consent of the Scottish Parliament (since 1999, the Sewel convention, later renamed to legislative consent motions).
The House of Lords shall not oppose legislation from the House of Commons that was a part of the government's manifesto (the Salisbury convention).
United States
The President of the United States will give his State of the Union address in person, before a joint session of Congress, and will do so every year except the first year of a new term (in which the President's inaugural address stands loosely in its stead). This practice was followed by George Washington and John Adams but abandoned by Thomas Jefferson and not resumed until 1913, when Woodrow Wilson delivered his State of the Union address in person. The constitution requires the President give an update on the state of the union "from time to time", but no specifics are outlined. Speeches have been broadcast on radio since 1923 and 1947; the last State of the Union message delivered only in writing was in 1981 by Jimmy Carter during his Lame Duck period.
Much of how the United States Cabinet operates is dictated by convention; its operations are only vaguely alluded to in the US constitution.
While members of the United States House of Representatives are only required to live in the state they represent, it has generally been expected that they live in the district they represent as well, though there are some exceptions; Allen West was elected in 2010 representing a district adjacent to the one he resided in.
The President of the United States will obtain the consent of both Senators from a state before appointing a United States Attorney, federal district judge, or federal marshal with jurisdiction in that state.
Cabinet officials and other major executive officers resign and are replaced when a new President takes office, unless explicitly asked to stay on by the new President.
The Speaker of the House is always the Representative who leads the majority party, even though the Constitution does not specify that the Speaker must be a member of the chamber. Also by custom the Speaker does not vote (except to break a tie).
The President pro tempore of the United States Senate is the seniormost Senator of the majority party.
Members of the Electoral College are pledged to vote for a particular Presidential candidate, and are chosen by popular vote with the name of the candidate, and not necessarily the elector, on the ballot.
Senate rules require a majority of 60 votes to invoke cloture, that is, to break off debate on a bill and force a vote. The Senate could revise its rules at any time, and the rules for each session of the House and Senate are typically set at the beginning of each elected Congress. In the Senate, under the current rules, the filibuster is available as a tool for a large-enough minority to indefinitely block any measure it finds objectionable.
See also
Lapsed power
Constitutional Convention (United States)
Constitutional Convention (Australia)
European Convention
Scottish Constitutional Convention
Constituent Assembly
Constitutional Commission
References
Bibliography
Brazier, R. (1992) Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 43, 262
.
Constitutional law
Traditions
Legal doctrines and principles | [
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219366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donato%20Bramante | Donato Bramante | Donato Bramante ( , , ; 1444 – 11 April 1514), born as Donato di Pascuccio d'Antonio and also known as Bramante Lazzari, was an Italian architect and painter. He introduced Renaissance architecture to Milan and the High Renaissance style to Rome, where his plan for St. Peter's Basilica formed the basis of design executed by Michelangelo. His Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio) marked the beginning of the High Renaissance in Rome (1502) when Pope Julius II appointed him to build a sanctuary over the spot where Peter was martyred.
Life
Urbino
Bramante was born under the name Donato d'Augnolo, Donato di Pascuccio d'Antonio, or Donato Pascuccio d'Antonio in Fermignano near Urbino. Here, in 1467, Luciano Laurana was adding to the Palazzo Ducale an arcaded courtyard and other Renaissance features to Federico da Montefeltro's ducal palace. Bramante's architecture has eclipsed his painting skills: he knew the painters Melozzo da Forlì and Piero della Francesca well, who were interested in the rules of perspective and illusionistic features in Andrea Mantegna's painting.
Milan
Around 1474, Bramante moved to Milan, a city with a deep Gothic architectural tradition, and built several churches in the new Antique style. The Duke, Ludovico Sforza, made him virtually his court architect, beginning in 1476, with commissions that culminated in the famous trompe-l'œil choir of the church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro (1482–1486). Space was limited, and Bramante made a theatrical apse in bas-relief, combining the painterly arts of perspective with Roman details. There is an octagonal sacristy, surmounted by a dome. In Milan, Bramante also built the tribune of Santa Maria delle Grazie (1492–99); other early works include the Cloisters of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan (1497–1498), and some other constructions in Pavia and possibly Legnano. However, in 1499, with his Sforza patron driven from Milan by an invading French army, Bramante made his way to Rome, where he was already known to the powerful Cardinal Riario.
Rome
In Rome, he was soon recognized by Cardinal Della Rovere, shortly to become Pope Julius II. For Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile or possibly Julius II, Bramante designed one of the most harmonious buildings of the Renaissance: the Tempietto (1502) of San Pietro in Montorio on the Janiculum. Despite its small scale, the construction has all the rigorous proportions and symmetry of Classical structures, surrounded by slender Doric columns, surmounted by a dome. According to a later engraving by Sebastiano Serlio, Bramante planned to set it within a colonnaded courtyard. In November 1503, Julius engaged Bramante for the construction of the grandest European architectural commission of the 16th century, the complete rebuilding of St Peter's Basilica. The cornerstone of the first of the great piers of the crossing was laid with ceremony on 17 April 1506. Very few drawings by Bramante survive, though some by his assistants do, demonstrating the extent of the team which had been assembled. Bramante's vision for St Peter's, a centralized Greek cross plan that symbolized sublime perfection for him and his generation (compare Santa Maria della Consolazione at Todi, influenced by Bramante's work) was fundamentally altered by the extension of the nave after his death in 1514. Bramante's plan envisaged four great chapels filling the corner spaces between the equal transepts, each one capped with a smaller dome surrounding the great dome over the crossing. So Bramante's original plan was very much more Romano-Byzantine in its forms than the basilica that was actually built. (See St Peter's Basilica for further details.)
Bramante also worked on several other commissions. Among his earliest works in Rome, before the Basilica's construction was under way, is the cloister (1500–1504) of Santa Maria della Pace near Piazza Navona.
Works
Santa Maria presso San Satiro, Milan, ca. 1482–1486
Santa Maria delle Grazie (cloister and apse); Milan, 1492–1498
The Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 1502
Santa Maria della Pace (cloister); Rome, 1504
St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, design 1503, ground breaking 1506
Cortile del Belvedere, Vatican City, Rome, 1506.
Palazzo Caprini (also known as Raphael's House), Rome, started around 1510 (demolished in the 17th century)
In addition to building, Bramante wrote about architecture and composed eighty sonnets.
See also
Leon Battista Alberti
Giorgio Vasari
References
External links
Donato Bramante - World History Encyclopedia
Donato Bramante Source Information, Pictures & Documentaries about Donato.
Donato Bramante
Italian Renaissance architects
1444 births
1514 deaths
People from the Province of Pesaro and Urbino
15th-century Italian architects
16th-century Italian architects
15th-century Italian painters
16th-century Italian painters | [
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219367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drowning | Drowning | Drowning is a type of suffocation induced by the submersion or immersion of the mouth and nose in a liquid. Most instances of fatal drowning occur alone or in situations where others present are either unaware of the victim's situation or unable to offer assistance. After successful resuscitation, drowning victims may experience breathing problems, vomiting, confusion, or unconsciousness. Occasionally, victims may not begin experiencing these symptoms for several hours after they are rescued. An incident of drowning can also cause further complications for victims due to low body temperature, aspiration of vomit, or acute respiratory distress syndrome (respiratory failure from lung inflammation).
Drowning is more likely to happen when spending extended periods of time near large bodies of water. Risk factors for drowning include a lack of training or attention to children, alcohol or drug use, epilepsy, and lack of higher education, which is often accompanied by diminished or non-existent swimming skills. Common drowning locations include natural and man-made bodies of water, bathtubs, swimming pools, and even buckets and toilets.
Drowning occurs when an individual spends too much time with their nose and mouth submerged in a liquid to the point of being unable to breathe. If this is not followed by an exit to the surface, low oxygen levels and excess carbon dioxide in the blood trigger a neurological state of breathing emergency, which results in increased physical distress and occasional contractions of the vocal folds. Significant amounts of water usually only enter the lungs later in the process.
While the word "drowning" is commonly associated with fatal results, drowning may be classified into three different types: drowning with death, drowning with ongoing health problems, and drowning with no ongoing health problems. Sometimes the term "near-drowning" is used in the latter cases. Among children who survive, poor outcomes occur in about 7.5% of cases.
Steps to prevent drowning include: teaching children and adults to swim and to recognise unsafe water conditions; never swimming alone, use of personal flotation devices on boats and when swimming in unfavourable conditions; limiting or removing access to water, such as with fencing of swimming pools; and exercising appropriate supervision. Treatment of victims who are not breathing should begin with opening the airway and providing five breaths of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is recommended for a person whose heart has stopped beating and has been underwater for less than an hour.
== Causes ==
A major contributor to drowning is the inability to swim. Other contributing factors include the state of the water itself, distance from a solid footing, physical impairment, or prior loss of consciousness. Anxiety brought on by fear of drowning or water itself can lead to exhaustion, thus increasing the chances of drowning.
Approximately 90% of drownings take place in freshwater (rivers, lakes, and a relatively small number of swimming pools); the remaining 10% take place in seawater. Drownings in other fluids are rare, and often related to industrial accidents. In New Zealand's early colonial history, so many settlers died while trying to cross the rivers that drowning was called "the New Zealand death."
People have drowned in as little as 30 mm of water while lying face down. Children have drowned in baths, buckets, and toilets. People who are inebriated or otherwise intoxicated can drown in puddles.
Death can occur due to complications following an initial drowning. Inhaled fluid can act as an irritant inside the lungs. Even small quantities can cause the extrusion of liquid into the lungs (pulmonary edema) over the following hours; this reduces the ability to exchange the air and can lead to a person "drowning in their own body fluid." Vomit and certain poisonous vapors or gases (as in chemical warfare) can have a similar effect. The reaction can take place up to 72 hours after the initial incident and may lead to a serious injury or death.
Risk factors
Many behavioral and physical factors are related to drowning:
Drowning is the most common cause of death for persons with seizure disorders, largely in bathtubs. Epileptics are more likely to die due to accidents such as drowning. However, this risk is especially elevated in low- and middle-income countries compared to high-income countries.
The use of alcohol increases the risk of drowning across developed and developing nations. Alcohol is involved in approximately 50% of fatal drownings, and 35% of non-fatal drownings.
Inability to swim can lead to drowning. Participation in formal swimming lessons can reduce this risk. The optimal age to start the lessons is childhood, between one and four years old.
Feeling overly tired reduces swimming performance. This exhaustion can be rapidly aggravated by anxious movements motivated by fear during or in anticipation of drowning. An overconfident appraisal of one's own physical capabilities can lead to "swimming out too far" and exhaustion before returning to solid footing.
Free access to water can be hazardous, especially to young children. Barriers can prevent young children from gaining access to the water.
Ineffective supervision. Drowning can occur anywhere there is water, even in the presence of lifeguards.
Risk can vary with location depending on age. Children between one and four more commonly drown in home swimming pools than elsewhere. Drownings in natural water settings increase with age. More than half of drownings occur among those fifteen years and older and occurred in natural water environments.
Population groups at risk in the US are generally the old and young.
Youth: drowning rates are highest for children under five years of age and persons fifteen to twenty-four years of age.
Males: nearly 80% of drowning victims are male.
Minorities: the fatal unintentional drowning rate for African Americans above the age of 29 between 1999 and 2010 was significantly higher than that of whites above the age of 29. The fatal drowning rate of African American children of ages from five to fourteen is almost three times that of white children in the same age range, and 5.5 times higher in swimming pools. These disparities might be associated with a lack of basic swimming skills in some minority populations.
Free-diving
Some additional causes of drowning can also happen during freediving activities:
Ascent blackout, also called deep water blackout – caused by hypoxia during ascent from depth. The partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs under pressure at the bottom of a deep free dive is adequate to support consciousness but drops below the blackout threshold as the water pressure decreases on the ascent. It usually strikes upon arriving near the surface as the pressure approaches normal atmospheric pressure.
Shallow water blackout – caused by hyperventilation prior to swimming or diving. The primary urge to breathe is triggered by rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the bloodstream. The body detects CO2 levels very accurately and relies on this to control breathing. Hyperventilation reduces the carbon dioxide content of the blood but leaves the diver susceptible to a sudden loss of consciousness without warning from hypoxia. There is no bodily sensation that warns a diver of an impending blackout, and people (often capable swimmers swimming under the surface in shallow water) become unconscious and drown quietly without alerting anyone to the fact that there is a problem; they are typically found on the bottom.
Pathophysiology
Drowning can be considered as going through four stages:
Breath-hold under voluntary control until the urge to breathe due to hypercapnia becomes overwhelming
Fluid is swallowed and/or aspirated into the airways
Cerebral anoxia stops breathing and aspiration
Cerebral injury due to anoxia becomes irreversible
Generally, in the early stages of drowning, a person holds their breath to prevent water from entering their lungs. When this is no longer possible, a small amount of water entering the trachea causes a muscular spasm that seals the airway and prevents further passage of water. If the process is not interrupted, loss of consciousness due to hypoxia is followed rapidly by cardiac arrest.
Oxygen deprivation
A conscious person will hold his or her breath (see Apnea) and will try to access air, often resulting in panic, including rapid body movement. This uses up more oxygen in the bloodstream and reduces the time until unconsciousness. The person can voluntarily hold his or her breath for some time, but the breathing reflex will increase until the person tries to breathe, even when submerged.
The breathing reflex in the human body is weakly related to the amount of oxygen in the blood but strongly related to the amount of carbon dioxide (see Hypercapnia). During an apnea, the oxygen in the body is used by the cells and excreted as carbon dioxide. Thus, the level of oxygen in the blood decreases, and the level of carbon dioxide increases. Increasing carbon dioxide levels lead to a stronger and stronger breathing reflex, up to the breath-hold breakpoint, at which the person can no longer voluntarily hold his or her breath. This typically occurs at an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 55 mm Hg but may differ significantly between people.
The breath-hold breakpoint can be suppressed or delayed, either intentionally or unintentionally. Hyperventilation before any dive, deep or shallow, flushes out carbon dioxide in the blood resulting in a dive commencing with an abnormally low carbon dioxide level; a potentially dangerous condition known as hypocapnia. The level of carbon dioxide in the blood after hyperventilation may then be insufficient to trigger the breathing reflex later in the dive.
Following this, a blackout may occur before the diver feels an urgent need to breathe. This can occur at any depth and is common in distance breath-hold divers in swimming pools. Both deep and distance free divers often use hyperventilation to flush out carbon dioxide from the lungs to suppress the breathing reflex for longer. It is important not to mistake this for an attempt to increase the body's oxygen store. The body at rest is fully oxygenated by normal breathing and cannot take on any more. Breath-holding in water should always be supervised by a second person, as by hyperventilating, one increases the risk of shallow water blackout because insufficient carbon dioxide levels in the blood fail to trigger the breathing reflex.
A continued lack of oxygen in the brain, hypoxia, will quickly render a person unconscious, usually around a blood partial pressure of oxygen of 25–30 mmHg. An unconscious person rescued with an airway still sealed from laryngospasm stands a good chance of a full recovery. Artificial respiration is also much more effective without water in the lungs. At this point, the person stands a good chance of recovery if attended to within minutes. More than 10% of drownings may involve laryngospasm, but the evidence suggests that it is not usually effective at preventing water from entering the trachea. The lack of water found in the lungs during autopsy does not necessarily mean there was no water at the time of drowning, as small amounts of freshwater are readily absorbed into the bloodstream. Hypercarbia and hypoxia both contribute to laryngeal relaxation, after which the airway is effectively open through the trachea. There is also bronchospasm and mucous production in the bronchi associated with laryngospasm, and these may prevent water entry at terminal relaxation.
The hypoxemia and acidosis caused by asphyxia in drowning affect various organs. There can be central nervous system damage, cardiac arrhythmia, pulmonary injury, reperfusion injury, and multiple-organ secondary injury with prolonged tissue hypoxia.
A lack of oxygen or chemical changes in the lungs may cause the heart to stop beating. This cardiac arrest stops the flow of blood and thus stops the transport of oxygen to the brain. Cardiac arrest used to be the traditional point of death, but at this point, there is still a chance of recovery. The brain cannot survive long without oxygen, and the continued lack of oxygen in the blood, combined with the cardiac arrest, will lead to the deterioration of brain cells, causing first brain damage and eventually brain death from which recovery is generally considered impossible. The brain will die after approximately six minutes without oxygen at normal body temperature, but hypothermia of the central nervous system may prolong this.
The extent of central nervous system injury to a large extent determines the survival and long term consequences of drowning, In the case of children, most survivors are found within 2 minutes of immersion, and most fatalities are found after 10 minutes or more.
Water aspiration
If water enters the airways of a conscious person, the person will try to cough up the water or swallow it, often inhaling more water involuntarily. When water enters the larynx or trachea, both conscious and unconscious persons experience laryngospasm, in which the vocal cords constrict, sealing the airway. This prevents water from entering the lungs. Because of this laryngospasm, in the initial phase of drowning, water generally enters the stomach, and very little water enters the lungs. Though laryngospasm prevents water from entering the lungs, it also interferes with breathing. In most persons, the laryngospasm relaxes sometime after unconsciousness, and water can then enter the lungs, causing a "wet drowning." However, about 7–10% of people maintain this seal until cardiac arrest. This has been called "dry drowning", as no water enters the lungs. In forensic pathology, water in the lungs indicates that the person was still alive at the point of submersion. An absence of water in the lungs may be either a dry drowning or indicates a death before submersion.
Aspirated water that reaches the alveoli destroys the pulmonary surfactant, which causes pulmonary edema and decreased lung compliance, compromising oxygenation in affected parts of the lungs. This is associated with metabolic acidosis, secondary fluid, and electrolyte shifts. During alveolar fluid exchange, diatoms present in the water may pass through the alveolar wall into the capillaries to be carried to internal organs. The presence of these diatoms may be diagnostic of drowning.
Of people who have survived drowning, almost one-third will experience complications such as acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). ALI/ARDS can be triggered by pneumonia, sepsis, and water aspiration and are life-threatening disorders that can result in death if not treated promptly. During drowning, aspirated water enters the lung tissues, causes a reduction in alveolar surfactant, obstructs ventilation, and triggers a release of inflammatory mediators which ultimately results in hypoxia. Specifically, upon reaching the alveoli, hypotonic liquid found in freshwater dilutes pulmonary surfactant, destroying the substance. Comparatively, aspiration of hypertonic seawater draws liquid from the plasma into the alveoli and similarly causes damage to surfactant by disrupting the alveolar-capillary membrane. Still, there is no clinical difference between salt and freshwater drowning. Once someone has reached definitive care, supportive care strategies such as mechanical ventilation can help to reduce the complications of ALI/ARDS.
Whether a person drowns in freshwater versus salt water makes no difference in respiratory management or the outcome of the person. People who drown in freshwater may experience worse hypoxemia early in their treatment, however, this initial difference is short-lived and the management of both fresh water and salt water drowning is essentially the same.
Cold-water immersion
Submerging the face in water cooler than about triggers the diving reflex, common to air-breathing vertebrates, especially marine mammals such as whales and seals. This reflex protects the body by putting it into energy-saving mode to maximise the time it can stay underwater. The strength of this reflex is greater in colder water and has three principal effects:
Bradycardia, a slowing of the heart rate by up to 50% in humans.
Peripheral vasoconstriction, the restriction of the blood flow to the extremities to increase the blood and oxygen supply to the vital organs, especially the brain.
Blood Shift, the shifting of blood to the thoracic cavity, the region of the chest between the diaphragm and the neck, to avoid the collapse of the lungs under higher pressure during deeper dives.
The reflex action is automatic and allows both a conscious and an unconscious person to survive longer without oxygen underwater than in a comparable situation on dry land. The exact mechanism for this effect has been debated and may be a result of brain cooling similar to the protective effects seen in people who are treated with deep hypothermia.
The actual cause of death in cold or very cold water is usually lethal bodily reactions to increased heat loss and to freezing water, rather than any loss of core body temperature. Of those who die after plunging into freezing seas, around 20% die within 2 minutes from cold shock (uncontrolled rapid breathing and gasping causing water inhalation, a massive increase in blood pressure and cardiac strain leading to cardiac arrest, and panic), another 50% die within 15 – 30 minutes from cold incapacitation (loss of use and control of limbs and hands for swimming or gripping, as the body 'protectively' shuts down the peripheral muscles of the limbs to protect its core), and exhaustion and unconsciousness cause drowning, claiming the rest within a similar time. A notable example of this occurred during the sinking of the Titanic, in which most people who entered the water died within 15–30 minutes.
Submersion into cold water can induce cardiac arrhythmias (abnormal heart rates) in healthy people, sometimes causing strong swimmers to drown. The physiological effects caused by the diving reflex conflict with the body's cold shock response, which includes a gasp and uncontrollable hyperventilation leading to aspiration of water. While breath-holding triggers a slower heart rate, cold shock activates tachycardia, an increase in heart rate. It is thought that this conflict of these nervous system responses may account for the arrhythmias of cold water submersion.
Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body. Hence, hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.
Upon submersion into cold water, remaining calm and preventing loss of body heat is paramount. While awaiting rescue, swimming or treading water should be limited to conserve energy, and the person should attempt to remove as much of the body from the water as possible; attaching oneself to a buoyant object can improve the chance of survival should unconsciousness occur.
Hypothermia (and cardiac arrest) presents a risk for survivors of immersion. This risk increases if the survivor—feeling well again—tries to get up and move, not realizing their core body temperature is still very low and will take a long time to recover.
Most people who experience cold-water drowning do not develop hypothermia quickly enough to decrease cerebral metabolism before ischemia and irreversible hypoxia occur. The neuroprotective effects appear to require water temperatures below about 5 °C.
Diagnosis
The World Health Organization in 2005 defined drowning as "the process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid." This definition does not imply death or even the necessity for medical treatment after removing the cause, nor that any fluid enters the lungs. The WHO further recommended that outcomes should be classified as death, morbidity, and no morbidity. There was also consensus that the terms wet, dry, active, passive, silent, and secondary drowning should no longer be used.
Experts differentiate between distress and drowning.
Distress – people in trouble, but who can still float, signal for help, and take action.
Drowning – people suffocating and in imminent danger of death within seconds.
Forensics
Forensic diagnosis of drowning is considered one of the most difficult in forensic medicine. External examination and autopsy findings are often non-specific, and the available laboratory tests are often inconclusive or controversial. The purpose of an investigation is generally to distinguish whether the death was due to immersion or whether the body was immersed postmortem. The mechanism in acute drowning is hypoxemia and irreversible cerebral anoxia due to submersion in liquid.
Drowning would be considered a possible cause of death if the body was recovered from a body of water, near a fluid that could plausibly have caused drowning, or found with the head immersed in a fluid. A medical diagnosis of death by drowning is generally made after other possible causes of death have been excluded by a complete autopsy and toxicology tests. Indications of drowning are seldom completely unambiguous and may include bloody froth in the airway, water in the stomach, cerebral edema and petrous or mastoid hemorrhage. Some evidence of immersion may be unrelated to the cause of death, and lacerations and abrasions may have occurred before or after immersion or death.
Diatoms should normally never be present in human tissue unless water was aspirated. Their presence in tissues such as bone marrow suggests drowning; however, they are present in soil and the atmosphere, and samples may easily be contaminated. An absence of diatoms does not rule out drowning, as they are not always present in water. A match of diatom shells to those found in the water may provide supporting evidence of the place of death. Drowning in saltwater can leave significantly different concentrations of sodium and chloride ions in the left and right chambers of the heart, but this will dissipate if the person survived for some time after the aspiration, or if CPR was attempted, and have been described in other causes of death.
Most autopsy findings relate to asphyxia and are not specific to drowning. The signs of drowning are degraded by decomposition. Large amounts of froth will be present around the mouth and nostrils and in the upper and lower airways in freshly drowned bodies. The volume of froth is generally much greater in drowning than from other origins. Lung density may be higher than normal, but normal weights are possible after cardiac arrest or vasovagal reflex. The lungs may be overinflated and waterlogged, filling the thoracic cavity. The surface may have a marbled appearance, with darker areas associated with collapsed alveoli interspersed with paler aerated areas. Fluid trapped in the lower airways may block the passive collapse that is normal after death. Hemorrhagic bullae of emphysema may be found. These are related to the rupture of alveolar walls. These signs, while suggestive of drowning, are not conclusive.
Prevention
It is estimated that more than 85% of drownings could be prevented by supervision, training in water skills, technology, and public education.
Surveillance: Watching the swimmers is a basic task, because drownings can be silent and unnoticed: a person drowning may not always be able to attract attention or even could have become unconscious. And surveillance is especially important in children. More than 500 children die from drowning each day, and young children should be supervised, regardless of whether they can already swim. The danger increases when they are alone. A baby can drown in the bathtub, in the toilet, and even in a small bucket filled with less than an inch of water. It only takes around 2 minutes underwater for an adult to lose consciousness, and only between 30 seconds and 2 minutes for a small child to die. Choosing supervised swimming places is safer. Many pools and bathing areas either have lifeguards or a pool safety camera system for local or remote monitoring, and some have computer-aided drowning detection. Bystanders are also important in detection of drownings and in notifying them (personally or by phone, alarm, etc.) to lifeguards, who may be unaware if distracted or busy. Evidence shows that alarms in pools are poor for any utility. The World Health Organization recommends analyzing when the most crowded hours in the swimming zones are, and to increase the number of lifeguards at those moments.
Learning to swim: Being able to swim is one of the best defenses against drowning. It is recommended that children learn to swim in a safe and supervised environment when they are between 1 and 4 years old. Learning to swim is also possible in adults by using the same methods as children. It's still possible to drown even after learning to swim (because of the state of the water and other circumstances), so it's recommended to choose swimming places that are safe and kept under surveillance.
Additional education: The WHO recommends training the general public in first-aid for the drowned, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and to behave safely when in the water. It is recommended to teach those who cannot swim to keep themselves away from deep waters.
Pool fencing: Every private or public swimming pool should be fenced and enclosed on every side, so no person can access the water unsupervised. The "Raffarin law", applied in France in 2003, forced the fencing of pools.
Pool drains: Swimming pools often have drainage systems to cycle the water. Drains without covers can injure swimmers by trapping hair or other parts of the body, leading to immobilization and drowning. Drains should not suction too strongly. It is recommended for a pool to have many small drainage holes instead of a single large one. Periodic revisions are required to certify that the system is working well.
Caution with certain conditions: Some conditions require one to be cautious when near water. Epilepsy and other seizure disorders can be dangerous to swim, dive, and bathe with because of the possibility of drowning during a convulsion. It is recommended that people with these conditions take showers rather than baths and are taught about the dangers of drowning.
Alcohol or drugs: Alcohol and drugs increase the probability of drowning. This danger is greater in bars near the water and parties on boats where alcohol is consumed. For example, Finland sees several drownings every year at Midsummer weekend as Finnish people spend more time in and around the lakes and beaches, often after having consumed alcohol.
Lifejacket use: Children that cannot swim and other people at risk of drowning should wear a fastened and well-fitting lifejacket when near or in the water. Other flotation devices (inflatable inner tubes, water wings, foam tubes, etc.) may be useful, although they are usually considered toys. Other flotation instruments are considered safe, like the professional circle-shaped lifebuoy (hoop-buoy, ring-buoy, life-ring, life-donut, lifesaver, or life preserver), which is mainly designed to be thrown, and some other professional variants that are used by lifeguards in their rescues.
Depth awareness: Diving accidents in pools can cause serious injury. Up to 21% of shallow-water diving accidents can cause spinal injury, occasionally leading to death. Between 1.2% and 22% of all spinal injuries are from diving accidents. If the person does not die, the injury could cause permanent paralysis.
Avoid dangerous waters: Avoid swimming in waters that are too turbulent, where waves are large, with dangerous animals, or are too cold. Avoid dragging currents. These are currents that are turbulent, foamy, and those drag things or debris. If caught by one of these currents, swim out from it (it is possible to move out gradually, in a diagonal direction until you arrive at the shore).
Navigating safely: Many people who die by drowning die in navigation accidents. Safe navigation practices include being informed of the state of the sea and equipping the boat with regulatory instruments to keep people afloat. These instruments are lifejackets (see 'lifejacket use' above) and professional lifebuoys with the shape of a circle (ring-buoy, hoop-buoy, life-ring, life-donut, lifesaver, or life preserver).
Use the "buddy system": Don't swim alone, but with another person who can help in case of a problem.
Follow the rules: Most people who drown did not follow the safety guidelines. It is important to pay attention to the signage that indicates if swimming is possible and the directions of the authorities' directions. (lifeguards, coastguards, etc.)
Water safety
The concept of water safety involves the procedures and policies that are directed to prevent people from drowning or from injuring in water.
Time limits
The time a person can safely stay underwater depends on many factors, including energy consumption, number of prior breaths, physical condition and age. An average person would last between one and three minutes before falling unconscious, and around ten minutes before dying. In an unusual case, a person was resuscitated after 65 minutes underwater.
Management
Rescue
When a person is drowning or a swimmer becomes missing, a fast water rescue is needed to take that person out of the water as soon as possible. Drowning is not necessarily violent, with splashing and cries; it can be silent.
Rescuers should avoid endangering themselves unnecessarily. So, whenever it is possible, they should assist from a safe ground position, such as a boat, a pier, or any patch of land near the victim. The fastest way to assist is to throw a buoyant object (such as a lifebuoy). It is very important to avoid aiming directly at the victim, since even the lightest lifebuoys weight over 2 kilograms, and can stun, injure or even render a person unconscious if they impact on the head. Alternatively, one could try to pull the victim out of the water by holding out an object to grasp. Some examples include: ropes, oars, poles, the own arm, a hand, etc. This carries the risk of the rescuer being pulled into the water by the victim, so the rescuer must take a firm stand, lying down, as well as securing to some stable point.
Bystanders should immediately call for help. A lifeguard should be called, if present. If not, emergency medical services and paramedics should be contacted as soon as possible. Less than 6% of people rescued by lifeguards need medical attention, and only 0.5% need CPR. The statistics are not so good when rescues are made by bystanders.
The next option would be that anyone gets into the water and takes the victim out (the right manner to do this is using a towing maneuver). However, it carries a risk for the rescuer, who could be drowned. It can happen because of the water conditions, the instinctive drowning response of the victim, the required physical effort, and other problems.
The rescuer must swim until reaching the victim. Then, the first contact between them is important. A drowning person in distress is likely to cling to the rescuer in an attempt to stay above the water surface, which could submerge the rescuer in the process. To avoid this, it is recommended that the rescuer approaches the panicking person with a buoyant object or extending a hand, so the victim has something to grasp. It can even be appropriate an approach from behind, taking one of the victim's arms, and pressing it against the victim's back to restrict unnecessary movement. Communication can also be important.
If the victim clings to the rescuer, and the rescuer can not control the situation, a possibility is to dive underwater, because drowning people tend to move in an opposite direction, seeking the water surface. Next, it is possible a new approach to the victim.
It can happen that the victim is sunk, needing to be taken to the water surface. A little depth sink requires caution, because the victim could be conscious and cling to the rescuer underwater. But that little depth also allows the rescuer to take the victim to the water surface by only grabbing one of the victim's arms and swim, which pulls on the entire body upwards, making the task easier, especially in a unconscious victim. When the victim is placed deeper, or complicates the process too much, the rescuer would have to dive, and take the victim from behind, and ascend vertically to the water surface holding the victim.
After a successful contact with the victim, any ballast (such as the weight belt) should be discarded.
Finally, the victim must be taken out of the water, which is achieved by a towing maneuver. This is commonly done placing the victim body in a face-up horizontal position, passing one hand under the victim's armpit to then grab the jaw with it, and towing by swimming backwards. The victim's mouth and nose must be kept above the water surface.
If the person is cooperative, the towing may be done in a similar fashion with the hands going under the victim's armpits. Other styles of towing are possible, but all of them keeping the victim's mouth and nose above the water.
Unconscious people may be pulled in an easier way: pulling on a wrist or on the shirt while they are in a face-up horizontal position. Victims with suspected spinal injuries can require a more specific grip and special care, and a backboard (spinal board) may be needed for their rescue.
For unconscious people, an in-water resuscitation could increase the chances of survival by a factor of about three, but this procedure requires both medical and swimming skills, and only the breaths of the rescue ventilation are practicable in the water. Chest compressions require a suitable platform, so an in-water assessment of circulation is pointless. If the person does not respond after a few breaths, cardiac arrest may be assumed, and getting them out of the water becomes the priority.
First aid
The checks for responsiveness and breathing are carried out with the person horizontally supine. If unconscious but breathing, the recovery position is appropriate.If not breathing, rescue ventilation is necessary. Drowning can produce a gasping pattern of apnea while the heart is still beating, and ventilation alone may be sufficient. The airway-breathing-circulation (ABC) sequence should be followed, rather than starting with compressions as is typical in cardiac arrest, because the basic problem is lack of oxygen.
If the victim is not a baby, it is recommended to start with 5 normal rescue breaths, as the initial ventilation may be difficult because of water in the airways, which can interfere with effective alveolar inflation. Thereafter, a continual sequence of 2 rescue breaths and 30 chest compressions is applied. This alternation is repeated until vital signs are re-established, the rescuers are unable to continue, or advanced life support is available.For babies (very small sized infants), the procedure is slightly modified. In each sequence of rescue breaths (the 5 initial breaths, and the further series of 2 breaths), the rescuer's mouth covers the baby's mouth and nose simultaneously (because a baby's face is too small). Besides, the intercalated series of 30 chest compressions are applied by pressing with only two fingers (due to the body of the babies is more fragile) on the chest bone (approximately on the lower part).
Attempts to actively expel water from the airway by abdominal thrusts, Heimlich maneuver or positioning head downwards should be avoided as there is no obstruction by solids, and they delay the start of ventilation and increase the risk of vomiting, with a significantly increased risk of death, as the aspiration of stomach contents is a common complication of resuscitation efforts.
Treatment for hypothermia may also be necessary. However, in those who are unconscious, it is recommended their temperature not be increased above 34 degrees C. Because of the diving reflex, people submerged in cold water and apparently drowned may revive after a relatively long period of immersion. Rescuers retrieving a child from water significantly below body temperature should attempt resuscitation even after protracted immersion.
Medical care
People with a near-drowning experience who have normal oxygen levels and no respiratory symptoms should be observed in a hospital environment for a period of time to ensure there are no delayed complications. The target of ventilation is to achieve 92% to 96% arterial saturation and adequate chest rise. Positive end-expiratory pressure will generally improve oxygenation. Drug administration via peripheral veins is preferred over endotracheal administration. Hypotension remaining after oxygenation may be treated by rapid crystalloid infusion. Cardiac arrest in drowning usually presents as asystole or pulseless electrical activity. Ventricular fibrillation is more likely to be associated with complications of pre-existing coronary artery disease, severe hypothermia, or the use of epinephrine or norepinephrine.
While surfactant may be used, no high-quality evidence exist that looks at this practice. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation may be used in those who cannot be oxygenated otherwise. Steroids are not recommended.
Prognosis
People who have drowned who arrive at a hospital with spontaneous circulation and breathing usually recover with good outcomes. Early provision of basic and advanced life support improve the probability of a positive outcome.
A longer duration of submersion is associated with a lower probability of survival and a higher probability of permanent neurological damage.
Contaminants in the water can cause bronchospasm and impaired gas exchange and can cause secondary infection with delayed severe respiratory compromise.
Low water temperature can cause ventricular fibrillation, but hypothermia during immersion can also slow the metabolism, allowing longer hypoxia before severe damage occurs. Hypothermia that reduces brain temperature significantly can improve the outcome. A reduction of brain temperature by 10 °C decreases ATP consumption by approximately 50%, which can double the time the brain can survive.
The younger the person, the better the chances of survival. In one case, a child submerged in cold () water for 66 minutes was resuscitated without apparent neurological damage. However, over the long term significant deficits were noted, including a range of cognitive difficulties, particularly general memory impairment, although recent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) were within normal range.
Children
Drowning is a major worldwide cause of death and injury in children. Long-term neurological outcomes of drowning cannot be predicted accurately during the early stages of treatment. Although survival after long submersion times, mostly by young children, has been reported, many survivors will remain severely and permanently neurologically compromised after much shorter submersion times. Factors affecting the probability of long-term recovery with mild deficits or full function in young children include the duration of submersion, whether advanced life support was needed at the accident site, the duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and whether spontaneous breathing and circulation are present on arrival at the emergency room.
Data on the long-term outcome are scarce and unreliable. Neurological examination at the time of discharge from the hospital does not accurately predict long-term outcomes. Some people with severe brain injury who were transferred to other institutions died months or years after the drowning and are recorded as survivors. Nonfatal drownings have been estimated as two to four times more frequent than fatal drownings.
Epidemiology
In 2013, drowning was estimated to have resulted in 368,000 deaths, down from 545,000 deaths in 1990. There are more than 20 times that many non-fatal incidents. It is the third leading cause of death from unintentional trauma after traffic injuries and falls.
In many countries, drowning is one of the main causes of preventable death for children under 12 years old. In the United States in 2006, 1100 people under 20 years of age died from drowning. The United Kingdom has 450 drownings per year, or 1 per 150,000, whereas in the United States, there are about 6,500 drownings yearly, around 1 per 50,000. In Asia suffocation and drowning were the leading causes of preventable death for children under five years of age; a 2008 report by UNICEF found that in Bangladesh, for instance, 46 children drown each day.
Due to a generally increased likelihood for risk-taking, males are four times more likely to have submersion injuries.
In the fishing industry, the largest group of drownings is associated with vessel disasters in bad weather, followed by man-overboard incidents and boarding accidents at night, either in foreign ports or under the influence of alcohol. Scuba diving deaths are estimated at 700 to 800 per year, associated with inadequate training and experience, exhaustion, panic, carelessness and barotrauma.
India
Deaths due to drowning is high in the South Asian region with India, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh accounting for up to 52% of the global deaths. Death due to drowning is known to be high in the Sundarbans region in West Bengal and in Bihar.
United States
In the United States, drowning is the second leading cause of death (after motor vehicle accidents) in children 12 and younger.
People who drown are more likely to be male, young, or adolescent. There is a racial disparity found in drowning incidents. According to CDC data collected from 1999 to 2019, drowning rates among Native Americans was 2 times higher than non-Hispanic whites while the rate among African-Americans was 1.5 times higher. Surveys indicate that 10% of children under 5 have experienced a situation with a high risk of drowning. Worldwide, about 175,000 children die through drowning every year. The causes of drowning cases in the US from 1999 to 2006 were as follows:
According to the US National Safety Council, 353 people ages 5 to 24 drowned in 2017.
Society and culture
Old terminology
The word "drowning"—like "electrocution"—was previously used to describe fatal events only. Occasionally, that usage is still insisted upon, though the medical community's consensus supports the definition used in this article. Several terms related to drowning which have been used in the past are also no longer recommended. These include:
Active drowning: People, such as non-swimmers and the exhausted or hypothermic at the surface, who are unable to hold their mouth above water and are suffocating due to lack of air. Instinctively, people in such cases perform well-known behaviors in the last 20–60 seconds before being submerged, representing the body's last efforts to obtain air. Notably, such people are unable to call for help, talk, reach for rescue equipment, or alert swimmers even feet away, and they may drown quickly and silently close to other swimmers or safety.
Dry drowning: Drowning in which no water enters the lungs.
Near drowning: Drowning which is not fatal.
Wet drowning: Drowning in which water enters the lungs.
Passive drowning: People who suddenly sink or have sunk due to a change in their circumstances. Examples include people who drown in an accident due to sudden loss of consciousness or sudden medical condition.
Secondary drowning: Physiological response to foreign matter in the lungs due to drowning causing extrusion of liquid into the lungs (pulmonary edema) which adversely affects breathing.
Silent drowning: Drowning without a noticeable external display of distress.
Dry drowning
Dry drowning is a term that has never had an accepted medical definition, and that is currently medically discredited. Following the 2002 World Congress on Drowning in Amsterdam, a consensus definition of drowning was established: it is the "process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid." This definition resulted in only three legitimate drowning subsets: fatal drowning, non-fatal drowning with illness/injury, and non-fatal drowning without illness/injury. In response, major medical consensus organizations have adopted this definition worldwide and have officially discouraged any medical or publication use of the term "dry drowning". Such organizations include the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation, the Wilderness Medical Society, the American Heart Association, the Utstein Style system, the International Lifesaving Federation, the International Conference on Drowning, Starfish Aquatics Institute, the American Red Cross, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the World Health Organization and the American College of Emergency Physicians.
Drowning experts have recognized that the resulting pathophysiology of hypoxemia, acidemia, and eventual death is the same whether water entered the lung or not. As this distinction does not change management or prognosis but causes significant confusion due to alternate definitions and misunderstandings, it is generally established that pathophysiological discussions of "dry" versus "wet" drowning are not relevant to drowning care.
"Dry drowning" is frequently cited in the news with a wide variety of definitions. and is often confused with the equally inappropriate and discredited term "secondary drowning" or "delayed drowning". Various conditions including spontaneous pneumothorax, chemical pneumonitis, bacterial or viral pneumonia, head injury, asthma, heart attack, and chest trauma have been misattributed to the erroneous terms "delayed drowning," "secondary drowning," and "dry drowning." Currently, there has never been a case identified in the medical literature where a person was observed to be without symptoms and who died hours or days later as a direct result of drowning alone.
Capital punishment
In Europe, drowning was used as capital punishment. During the Middle Ages, a sentence of death was read using the words , or "with pit and gallows".
Drowning survived as a method of execution in Europe until the 17th and 18th centuries. England had abolished the practice by 1623, Scotland by 1685, Switzerland in 1652, Austria in 1776, Iceland in 1777, and Russia by the beginning of the 1800s. France revived the practice during the French Revolution (1789–1799) and it was carried out by Jean-Baptiste Carrier at Nantes.
References
External links
Canadian Red Cross: Drowning Research: Drownings in Canada, 10 Years of Research Module 2 – Ice & Cold Water Immersion
Swimming
Medical emergencies
Diving medicine
Causes of death
Suicide methods
Execution methods
Respiratory diseases
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wilderness medical emergencies | [
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219370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20spiral | Golden spiral | In geometry, a golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose growth factor is , the golden ratio. That is, a golden spiral gets wider (or further from its origin) by a factor of for every quarter turn it makes.
Approximations of the golden spiral
There are several comparable spirals that approximate, but do not exactly equal, a golden spiral.
For example, a golden spiral can be approximated by first starting with a rectangle for which the ratio between its length and width is the golden ratio. This rectangle can then be partitioned into a square and a similar rectangle and this rectangle can then be split in the same way. After continuing this process for an arbitrary number of steps, the result will be an almost complete partitioning of the rectangle into squares. The corners of these squares can be connected by quarter-circles. The result, though not a true logarithmic spiral, closely approximates a golden spiral.
Another approximation is a Fibonacci spiral, which is constructed slightly differently. A Fibonacci spiral starts with a rectangle partitioned into 2 squares. In each step, a square the length of the rectangle's longest side is added to the rectangle. Since the ratio between consecutive Fibonacci numbers approaches the golden ratio as the Fibonacci numbers approach infinity, so too does this spiral get more similar to the previous approximation the more squares are added, as illustrated by the image.
Spirals in nature
Approximate logarithmic spirals can occur in nature, for example the arms of spiral galaxies - golden spirals are one special case of these logarithmic spirals, although there is no evidence that there is any general tendency towards this case appearing. Phyllotaxis is connected with the golden ratio because it involves successive leaves or petals being separated by the golden angle; it also results in the emergence of spirals, although again none of them are (necessarily) golden spirals. It is sometimes stated that spiral galaxies and nautilus shells get wider in the pattern of a golden spiral, and hence are related to both and the Fibonacci series.
In truth, spiral galaxies and nautilus shells (and many mollusk shells) exhibit logarithmic spiral growth, but at a variety of angles usually distinctly different from that of the golden spiral. This pattern allows the organism to grow without changing shape.
Mathematics
A golden spiral with initial radius 1 is the locus of points of polar coordinates satisfying
The polar equation for a golden spiral is the same as for other logarithmic spirals, but with a special value of the growth factor :
or
with being the base of natural logarithms, being the initial radius of the spiral, and such that when is a right angle (a quarter turn in either direction):
Therefore, is given by
The numerical value of depends on whether the right angle is measured as 90 degrees or as radians; and since the angle can be in either direction, it is easiest to write the formula for the absolute value of (that is, can also be the negative of this value):
for in degrees, or
for in radians.
An alternate formula for a logarithmic and golden spiral is:
where the constant is given by:
which for the golden spiral gives values of:
if is measured in degrees, and
if is measured in radians.
With respect to logarithmic spirals the golden spiral has the distinguishing property
that for four collinear spiral points A, B, C, D belonging to arguments
, , ,
the point C is the projective harmonic conjugate
of B with respect to A, D, i.e. the cross ratio (A,D;B,C) has the singular value −1.
The golden spiral is the only logarithmic spiral with (A,D;B,C) = (A,D;C,B).
Polar slope
In the polar equation for a logarithmic spiral:
the parameter is related to the polar slope angle :
In a golden spiral, being constant and equal to (for in radians, as defined above), the slope angle is:
hence:
if measured in degrees, or
if measured in radians.
Its complementary angle
in radians, or
in degrees, is the angle the golden spiral arms make with a line from the center of the spiral.
See also
Fibonacci number
Golden angle
Golden ratio
Golden rectangle
List of spirals
Logarithmic spiral
References
Spirals | [
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219371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelbert%20Ames | Adelbert Ames | Adelbert C. Ames (October 31, 1835 – April 13, 1933) was an American sailor, soldier, and politician who served with distinction as a Union Army general during the American Civil War. A Radical Republican, he was military governor, U.S. Senator, and civilian governor in Reconstruction-era Mississippi. In 1898, he served as a United States Army general during the Spanish–American War. He was the last Republican to serve as the state governor of Mississippi until the election of Kirk Fordice, who took office in January 1992, 116 years after Ames vacated the office.
Ames was the penultimate general officer of the Civil War to die. He succumbed at the age of 97 in 1933. He was outlived in this respect only by Aaron Daggett, who died in 1938 at the age of 100. However, because Daggett was a brigadier general by brevet rank only, Ames was the last full-ranked Civil War general to die.
Early life and career
Adelbert ( ) Ames was born in 1835 in the town of Rockland (then known as East Thomaston), located in Knox County, Maine. He was the younger of two sons of Martha Bradbury Ames and Jesse Ames, a sea captain who later purchased what became the Ames Mill (renowned as the producers of Malt-O-Meal) in Northfield, Minnesota. Adelbert Ames also grew up to be a sailor and became a mate on a clipper ship, and he also served briefly as a merchant seaman on his father's ship.
On July 1, 1856, he entered the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York; he graduated five years later in May 1861, fifth in his class of forty-five. Two classes had graduated that year due to the beginning of the Civil War in April. Ames' class had graduated about a month earlier than usual while a second class, set to graduate in 1862, instead graduated on June 24, 1861.
American Civil War
Ames was then commissioned a second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Artillery. Eight days later he was promoted to first lieutenant and was assigned to the 5th U.S. Artillery. During the Battle of First Bull Run that July, Ames was seriously wounded in the right thigh but refused to leave his guns. He was brevetted to the rank of major on July 21 for his actions at Manassas. In 1893, Ames received the Medal of Honor for his performance there.
Returning to duty the following spring, Ames was part of the defenses of Washington, D.C. He then fought in the Peninsular Campaign, and saw action at the Battle of Yorktown from April 5 to May 4, the Battle of Gaines' Mill on June 27, and the Battle of Malvern Hill that July. Ames was commended for his conduct at Malvern Hill by Col. Henry J. Hunt, chief of the artillery of the Army of the Potomac, and he received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel on July 1.
Although Ames was becoming an excellent artillery officer, he realized that significant promotions would be available only in the infantry. He returned to Maine and politicked to receive a commission as a regimental commander of infantry and was assigned to command the 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment on August 20, 1862. The 20th Maine fought in the Maryland Campaign, but saw little action at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, while in a reserve capacity. During the Union defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg that winter, Ames led his regiment in one of the last charges on December 13 against Marye's Heights. During the Chancellorsville Campaign in May 1863, Ames volunteered as an aide-de-camp to Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, commander of the V Corps.
Probably as a result of this staff duty and his proximity to the influential Meade, Ames was promoted to brigadier general in the Union Army on May 20, 1863, two weeks following the Battle of Chancellorsville. Ames assumed brigade command in the XI Corps of the Army of the Potomac, relinquishing his command of the 20th Maine to Lt. Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain, who would soon lead the regiment to fame in the Battle of Gettysburg that July.
While his own experience at Gettysburg did not achieve the renown of Chamberlain's, Ames performed well under difficult circumstances. During the massive assault by Confederate Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell on July 1, 1863, Ames's division commander, Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, moved his division well in front of other elements of the XI Corps to a slight rise that is now known as Barlow's Knoll. This salient position was quickly overrun, and Barlow was wounded and captured. Ames took command of the division and led it in retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to a position on Cemetery Hill. On July 2, the second day of battle, Ames's battered division bore the brunt of the assault on East Cemetery Hill by Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early, but was able to hold the critical position with help from surrounding units. At one point Ames himself took part in the hand-to-hand fighting. After the battle, the men of the 20th Maine presented Ames with their battle flag as a token of their esteem.
After the battle, Ames reverted to brigade command with a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army. His division, under the command of Brig. Gen. George H. Gordon, was transferred to the Department of the South, where it served in actions in South Carolina and Florida.
In 1864, Ames's division, now part of the X Corps of the Army of the James, served under Maj. Gen. Benjamin Franklin Butler in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg. In the future, he would become Butler's son-in-law. That winter, the division was reassigned to the XXIV Corps and sent to North Carolina.
During the two years following his service in the Army of the Potomac, Ames shifted between brigade and division command (and even led his corps on two occasions), though he generally can be identified as a division commander. He led the successful assault in the Second Battle of Fort Fisher (commanding the 2nd Division, XXIV Corps), accompanying his men into the formidable coastal fortress as most of his staff were shot down by Confederate snipers. He received a brevet promotion to major general in the Union Army (and brigadier general in the Regular Army) on March 13, 1865, for his role in the battle.
Mississippi politics
In 1868, Ames was appointed by Congress to be provisional governor of Mississippi. His command soon extended to the Fourth Military District, which consisted of Mississippi and Arkansas. During his administration, he took several steps to advance the rights of freed slaves, appointing the first black office-holders in state history. White supremacist terrorism and violence was prevalent in the state, one of the last to comply with Reconstruction, but a general election was held during his tenure in 1869, and the legislature convened at the beginning of the next year.
Around 1868, Ames became an original companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, a military society of former Union officers and their descendants.
US senator
The Mississippi Legislature elected Ames to the US Senate after the readmission of Mississippi to the Union. He served from February 24, 1870, to January 10, 1874, as a Republican. In Washington, Ames met and married on July 21, 1870, Blanche Butler, daughter of his former commander, then US Representative Benjamin Butler, later a one-term governor of Massachusetts. The couple had six children including Blanche Ames Ames (the suffragist and cartoonist), Adelbert Ames Jr., and Butler Ames. As a senator, Ames became a talented public speaker to the point where even some of his Democratic opponents acknowledged his ability.
In the US Senate, Ames was chairman of the Senate Committee on Enrolled Bills. Upon being elected governor of Mississippi, he resigned his seat to assume his duties.
Governor
Ames battled James Lusk Alcorn, a former Confederate general, for control of the Republican Party, which then had mostly black voters. Southerners who sided with the Republican Party were derisively referred to as "scalawags," a small, useless horse. Considered traitors by Southern Democrats, so-called scalawags and carpetbaggers (opportunistic Northerners who came to the South allegedly with all of their belongings in a carpetbag) made convenient scapegoats for Southern Democrats who blamed them for exploiting the South and trying to set up "Negro rule." In truth, Republican promises to rebuild the South, restore prosperity, create public schools, and open up the South by expanding railroads attracted some white Southerners. The Ames-Alcorn struggle reflected deep fissures in the party. In 1873, both sought a decision by running for governor. Ames was supported by the Radicals and most black voters, and Alcorn won the votes of conservative whites. Ames won by a vote of 69,870 to 50,490.
As governor, Ames fought to cut spending and to lower the tax rate, with moderate success. The state rate of 14 1/2 mills in 1874 was reduced to 9 1/2 in 1875 and 6 1/2 in 1876.
Even his enemies agreed that the governor had a rigorous integrity and was incorruptible and sincere. His appointments included some so-called scalawags and a few former Confederates, but he was never happy in Mississippi, and much of the time, his wife and family remained in the North, where the weather was cooler and the socioeconomic conditions were less unpleasant. Ames was proud of his record, and, he considered himself one of the best Republican governors of any of the Reconstructed states, an opinion that has been generally shared by historians ever since. However, he had little success in winning over his enemies in the party and was quick to impute sinister motives on their part.
His real problems came from the Democratic efforts to undo Reconstruction and gain control. Democrats in Vicksburg launched a coup in December 1874. When the sheriff called on his supporters to restore him to office, there was a battle that ended in the Vicksburg Massacre. Ames had no forces to send and depended on the federal government for troops to reinstate the ousted officials. In the months that followed, he failed to mobilize a state militia to cope with renewed troubles. By August, the Democratic Party had united to carry the legislative elections that fall and carried out what came to be called the "Mississippi Plan." A riot in Yazoo county drove out the Republican sheriff and resulted in some blacks and party officers being lynched. The Clinton Riot on September 4 ended with white Democratic paramilitaries riding over the county shooting any and every black person they chanced upon. With no other means of protection, Ames appealed to the federal government for assistance. It was not refused, but authorities urged him to exhaust state resources first.
Unable to organize a state militia in time, Ames signed a peace treaty with Democratic leaders. In return for disarming the few militia units that he had assembled, they promised to guarantee a full, free, fair election, which they did not keep.
That November, Democrats terrorized a large part of the Republican vote to keep it home, drove voters from the polls with shotguns and cannon, and gained firm control of both houses of the legislature. The state legislature, convening in 1876, drew up articles of impeachment against him; with a five-to-one majority and deeply hostile feelings towards Ames, their investigations "failed to trace a dollar of unearned money to his pockets," one reporter noted. "Whatever Ames may be, he is not dishonest." Though insiders agreed that their case was a very weak one, removal was certain, particularly after his black lieutenant-governor had been removed and the line of succession led to a Democrat. Rather than face a trial that would entail great expense, Ames's lawyers made a deal: once the legislature had dropped all charges, he would resign his office, which occurred on March 29, 1876.
Later life
After leaving office, Ames settled briefly in Northfield, Minnesota, where he joined his father and brother in their flour-milling business. During his residence there, in September 1876, Jesse James and his gang of former Confederate guerrillas raided the town's bank, largely because of Ames's (and controversial Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler's) investment in it, but their attempt to rob it ended in catastrophic failure. Ames next headed to New York City, then later settled in Tewksbury, Massachusetts as an executive in a flour mill, along with other business interests in the nearby city of Lowell.
In 1898, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers in the Spanish–American War and fought in Cuba. During the Battle of San Juan Hill the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Division suffered particularly high casualties with its brigade commander killed and the next two ranking regimental commanders wounded. General Ames was assigned to command the brigade during the Siege of Santiago. He was in command of the 1st Division at the time the V Corps was mustered out in New York.
Several years afterward, he retired from business pursuits in Lowell but continued in real estate and entertainment projects in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Florida. Ames corresponded extensively with the historian James Wilford Garner during this period; Garner's dissertation viewed Reconstruction as "unwise," but absolved Ames of personal corruption. Ames's widow compiled a collection of her correspondence with Ames, Chronicles from the Nineteenth Century, published posthumously in 1957.
About 1900, Ames joined the Massachusetts Society of Colonial Wars.
Ames died in 1933 at the age of 97, at his winter home in Ormond Beach, Florida. At the time of his death, Ames was the last surviving full-rank general who had served in the Civil War. (The last Union general officer, Aaron S. Daggett, lived five years longer than Ames, but he had been a brevet brigadier general of U.S. Volunteers in March 1865, while Ames had been promoted to the permanent rank of brigadier general in the Regular Army about the same period.)
Ames is buried in the Hildreth family cemetery — the family of his mother-in-law, Sarah Hildreth Butler — behind the main cemetery (also known as Hildreth Cemetery) on Hildreth Street in Lowell, Massachusetts. Buried with him are his wife Blanche Butler Ames, their six children, and the spouses of his son Butler and his daughter Edith.
Notable descendants
Ames was the son in law of Civil War General Benjamin Butler.
His daughter Blanche Ames Ames (she married into another Ames family) was a noted suffragist, inventor, artist, and writer. The mansion she designed and had built is now part of Borderland State Park in Massachusetts.
His son Adelbert Ames Jr. was a noted scientist.
His son Butler Ames was a businessman and politician, who represented Massachusetts in Congress for ten years.
Adelbert Ames was also the great-grandfather of George Plimpton. John F. Kennedy, through George Plimpton, is indirectly responsible for a full-length biography of General Ames. In Profiles in Courage, Kennedy relied on Reconstruction-era historical texts to produce a brief but misleading, false, and devastating portrait of Ames's administration of Mississippi in his profile of Mississippi Senator Lucius Q.C. Lamar. Ames's daughter Blanche Ames Ames, a formidable figure in Massachusetts, bombarded the then-senator with letters complaining about the depiction, and continued her barrage after Kennedy entered the White House. President Kennedy then turned to his friend Plimpton to tell Blanche, Plimpton's grandmother, that she was "interfering with state business." Her response was to write her own book about her father, Adelbert Ames, in 1964.
In memoriam
A Medal of Honor plaque for Ames's gravesite was dedicated at a ceremony honoring Benjamin Butler's 191st birthday, held at the Hildreth family cemetery—the only time of the year it is open to the public—on November 1, 2009.
The United Spanish War Veterans established Camp 19, General Adelbert Ames Post, in Lowell, Massachusetts.
Ames Hill Castle
After settling in Massachusetts, Ames built a seventeen-room estate in Tewksbury known locally as "the Castle" on Prospect Hill, now called Ames Hill, in 1906. In 1986, the Ames Hill Castle was purchased by local developer John D. Sullivan; Sullivan then illegally converted the house into a multi-unit rental property. However, Sullivan has been subject to several court rulings for zoning violations on the property, including one in 1991 and again in 1999. In August 2010, Sullivan's attorney brought forth a proposal to Tewksbury's board of selectmen for modifications to the Ames Hill Castle, to fall under the Massachusetts Comprehensive Permit Act: Chapter 40B, which would allow him to legally maintain the property as a multi-unit rental. The board elected unanimously to table the proposal, citing several concerns – both with Sullivan's absence (as he had sent his attorney rather than present the proposal in person) and reluctance to meet with local residents, and his prior legal issues with the property.
In March 2012, the Ames Hill Castle was unanimously voted "preferably preserved" by the Tewksbury Historic Commission due to its unique architectural features, its current state of preservation, and its association with General Ames. This allowed the commission to invoke a nine-month delay in possible demolition of the property to pursue alternatives. In November, local developer Marc Ginsburg purchased the Castle and surrounding plot from Sullivan for $360,000, just as the delay expired. Ginsburg ultimately decided on the Castle's demolition, to make way for smaller single-family dwellings.
Popular culture
Aimes was portrayed by actor Matt Letscher in the 2003 film Gods and Generals
Medal of Honor citation
Rank and Organization: First Lieutenant, 5th U.S. Artillery. Place and Date: At Bull Run, Va., July 21, 1861. Entered Service At: Rockland, Maine. Birth: East Thomaston, Maine. Date of Issue: June 22, 1894.
Citation:
Remained upon the field in command of a section of Griffin's Battery, directing its fire after being severely wounded and refusing to leave the field until too weak to sit upon the caisson where he had been placed by men of his command.
See also
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
References
References
Ames, Blanche. Adelbert Ames, 1835–1933. New York: Argosy-Antiquarian, 1964. .
Budiansky, Stephen. The Bloody Shirt: Terror After Appomattox. New York: Viking, 2008. .
Current, Richard Nelson. Those Terrible Carpetbaggers: A Reinterpretation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Ellem, Warren A. "The Overthrow of Reconstruction in Mississippi." Journal of Mississippi History 1992 54(2): 175-201.
Garner, James Wilford. Reconstruction in Mississippi. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968. First published in 1901.
Harris, William C. The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969. .
Harris, William C. Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967. .
Lemann, Nicholas. Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2006. .
Lord, Stuart B. "Adelbert Ames, Soldier and Politician: a Reevaluation." Maine Historical Society Quarterly 13(2) (1973): 81–97.
Quigley, Robert D. Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s. Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993. .
Stiles, T. J. Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. .
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .
Further reading
Benson, Harry King. "The Public Career of Adelbert Ames, 1861–1876." PhD U. Of Virginia. Dissertation Abstracts International; 1976 36(7): 4705-A, 342 pp.
Wainwright, Charles S. A Diary of Battle: The Personal Journals of Colonel Charles S. Wainwright. Edited by Allan Nevins. New York: Da Capo Press, 1998. First published 1962 by Harcourt.
Additional Information
Ames Family papers, 1835-1933, Sophia Smith Collection of Women's History, Smith College.
External links
Retrieved on February 15, 2008
1835 births
1933 deaths
Butler–Ames family
People from Rockland, Maine
Union Army generals
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Governors of Mississippi
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
United States senators from Mississippi
United States Military Academy alumni
People of Maine in the American Civil War
People from Ormond Beach, Florida
19th-century American Episcopalians
Politicians from Lowell, Massachusetts
Mississippi Republicans
Republican Party United States senators
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Republican Party state governors of the United States
People from Tewksbury, Massachusetts
Mississippi politicians convicted of crimes | [
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219372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimid | Mimid |
The mimids are the New World family of passerine birds, Mimidae, that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. As their name (Latin for "mimic") suggests, these birds are notable for their vocalization, especially some species' remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors.
Description
There are over 30 species of mimids in two larger and some ten small or monotypic genera. They tend toward dull grays and browns in their appearance, though a few are black or blue-gray, and many have red, yellow, or white irises. They range from 20 to 33 centimetres in length, and 36 to 56 grams in weight. Many mimids have a rather thrush-like pattern: brown above, pale with dark streaks or spots below. They tend to have longer tails than thrushes (or the bigger wrens, which they also resemble) and longer bills that in many species curve downward.
They have long, strong legs (for passerines) with which many species hop through undergrowth searching for arthropods and fruits to eat. Their habitat varies from forest undergrowth to scrub, high-altitude grasslands, and deserts. The two tremblers live in the atypical habitat of rainforests in the Lesser Antilles, and the brown trembler has the particularly atypical behavior of foraging while clinging to tree trunks.
All known species build somewhat messy, bulky twig nests in dense growth, in most species on the ground or no more than 2 meters up. They usually lay 2 to 5 eggs that hatch in 12 or 13 days, which is also the length of time the chicks stay in the nest. Breeding usually starts in the spring or early in the rainy season, and many species can have two or even three broods per year. Most failures to fledge young are due to predation. Pairs often stay together for more than one breeding season.
In the history of science
Contrary to often-held belief, the Nesomimus mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as Darwin's finches in inspiring Darwin's work on his theory of evolution.
Systematics
Outside the family
Phylogenetic analyses have shown that mimids are most closely related to starlings. These and oxpeckers (and the Philippine creepers if they are not outright but highly apomorphic starlings) form a group of Muscicapoidea which originated probably in the Early Miocene – very roughly 25–20 mya – somewhere in East Asia. This is evidenced by the Asian-SW Pacific distribution of the most basal starlings (and Philippine creepers) and the North American range of the basal mimids.
They are sometimes united with the starlings in the Sturnidae as a tribe Mimini as proposed by Sibley & Monroe (1990). This makes the expanded Sturnidae a rather noninformative group and is probably due to the methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique.
Within the family
The mockingbirds with some thrashers seem to form one major clade, while the two other groups and the remaining thrashers seem to form another, but the basal branching pattern is not well resolved. The tremblers, again, are a monophyletic lineage. The latter, however, are embedded in a paraphyletic catbird-Caribbean thrasher assemblage which consists of many rather basal lineages.
For detailed information on the evolutionary relationships of the different mimid lineages, see their articles.
Mockingbirds:
Genus Mimus – typical mockingbirds (some ten species, includes Mimodes)
The former genus Nesomimus, now part of Mimus – mockingbirds of the Galápagos Islands (four species)
Genus Melanotis – blue mockingbirds (two species)
New World catbirds:
Genus Dumetella – grey catbird
Genus Melanoptila – black catbird
Thrashers:
Genus Oreoscoptes – sage thrasher
Genus Toxostoma – typical thrashers (eleven species)
Genus Ramphocinclus – white-breasted thrasher
Genus Allenia – scaly-breasted thrasher (formerly in Margarops)
Genus Margarops – pearly-eyed thrasher
Tremblers
Genus Cinclocerthia (two species)
References
External links
Mimid videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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219374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20rectangle | Golden rectangle | In geometry, a golden rectangle is a rectangle whose side lengths are in the golden ratio, , which is (the Greek letter)|phi]]), where is approximately 1.618.
Golden rectangles exhibit a special form of self-similarity: All rectangles created by adding or removing a square from an end are golden rectangles as well.
Construction
A golden rectangle can be constructed with only a straightedge and compass in four simple steps:
Draw a simple square.
Draw a line from the midpoint of one side of the square to an opposite corner.
Use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the height of the rectangle.
Complete the golden rectangle.
A distinctive feature of this shape is that when a square section is added—or removed—the product is another golden rectangle, having the same aspect ratio as the first. Square addition or removal can be repeated infinitely, in which case corresponding corners of the squares form an infinite sequence of points on the golden spiral, the unique logarithmic spiral with this property. Diagonal lines drawn between the first two orders of embedded golden rectangles will define the intersection point of the diagonals of all the embedded golden rectangles; Clifford A. Pickover referred to this point as "the Eye of God".
History
The proportions of the golden rectangle have been observed as early as the Babylonian Tablet of Shamash (c. 888–855 BC), though Mario Livio calls any knowledge of the golden ratio before the Ancient Greeks "doubtful".
According to Livio, since the publication of Luca Pacioli's Divina proportione in 1509, "the Golden Ratio started to become available to artists in theoretical treatises that were not overly mathematical, that they could actually use."
The 1927 Villa Stein designed by Le Corbusier, some of whose architecture utilizes the golden ratio, features dimensions that closely approximate golden rectangles.
Relation to regular polygons and polyhedra
Euclid gives an alternative construction of the golden rectangle using three polygons circumscribed by congruent circles: a regular decagon, hexagon, and pentagon. The respective lengths a, b, and c of the sides of these three polygons satisfy the equation a2 + b2 = c2, so line segments with these lengths form a right triangle (by the converse of the Pythagorean theorem). The ratio of the side length of the hexagon to the decagon is the golden ratio, so this triangle forms half of a golden rectangle.
The convex hull of two opposite edges of a regular icosahedron forms a golden rectangle. The twelve vertices of the icosahedron can be decomposed in this way into three mutually-perpendicular golden rectangles, whose boundaries are linked in the pattern of the Borromean rings.
See also
Fibonacci numbers
Golden ratio
Golden rhombus
Kepler triangle
Leonardo of Pisa
Rabatment of the rectangle
Silver ratio
Plastic number
Notes
References
External links
The Golden Mean and the Physics of Aesthetics
Golden rectangle demonstration With interactive animation
From golden rectangle to golden quadrilaterals Explores some different possible golden quadrilaterals
Elementary geometry
Golden ratio
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219378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mockingbird | Mockingbird | Mockingbirds are a group of New World passerine birds from the family Mimidae. They are best known for the habit of some species mimicking the songs of other birds and the sounds of insects and amphibians, often loudly and in rapid succession. There are about 17 species in two genera, although three species of mockingbird from the Galapagos Islands were formerly separated into a third genus, Nesomimus. The mockingbirds do not appear to form a monophyletic lineage, as Mimus and Melanotis are not each other's closest relatives; instead, Melanotis appears to be more closely related to the catbirds, while the closest living relatives of Mimus appear to be thrashers, such as the sage thrasher.
The only mockingbird commonly found in North America is the northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos). The Greek word means 'multiple languages'. Mockingbirds are known for singing late at night, even past midnight.
Species in taxonomic order
Mimus:
Brown-backed mockingbird, Mimus dorsalis
Bahama mockingbird, Mimus gundlachii
Long-tailed mockingbird, Mimus longicaudatus
Patagonian mockingbird, Mimus patagonicus
Chilean mockingbird, Mimus thenca
White-banded mockingbird, Mimus triurus
Northern mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos
Socorro mockingbird, Mimus graysoni
Tropical mockingbird, Mimus gilvus
Chalk-browed mockingbird, Mimus saturninus
Formerly Nesomimus (endemic to the Galapagos):
Hood mockingbird, Mimus macdonaldi
Galápagos mockingbird, Mimus parvulus
Floreana mockingbird or Charles mockingbird, Mimus trifasciatus
San Cristóbal mockingbird, Mimus melanotis
Melanotis:
Blue mockingbird, Melanotis caerulescens
Blue-and-white mockingbird, Melanotis hypoleucus
Charles Darwin
When the survey voyage of HMS Beagle visited the Galápagos Islands in September to October 1835, the naturalist Charles Darwin noticed that the mockingbirds Mimus thenca differed from island to island, and were closely allied in appearance to mockingbirds on the South American mainland. Nearly a year later when writing up his notes on the return voyage he speculated that this, together with what he had been told about Galápagos tortoises, could undermine the doctrine of stability of species. This was his first recorded expression of his doubts about species being immutable, which led to his being convinced about the transmutation of species and hence evolution.
References
External links
Mockingbird videos, photographs and sound recordings on the Internet Bird Collection
Mimidae
Symbols of Mississippi
Bird common names | [
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219380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridgley%20C.%20Powers | Ridgley C. Powers | Ridgley Ceylon Powers (December 24, 1836 – November 11, 1912) was a Union officer in the American Civil War and a Mississippi politician who served as that state's lieutenant governor in 1870 before becoming governor from 1871 to 1874.
Background
He was born in Mecca, Ohio, on Christmas Eve. He graduated from the University of Michigan and completed post-graduate work at Union College located in Schenectady, New York, in 1862.
Wartime participation
In the second year of the American Civil War, Powers enlisted into the United States Army as a private. He became a second lieutenant and later a captain in the 125th Ohio Volunteer Infantry. He served at the Third Battle of Chattanooga and in the Atlanta Campaign before returning with his regiment to Tennessee for much of the remainder of the war. He ended his military service as a colonel upon the end of the conflict.
Governorship
In 1865, the Ohioan settled in Noxubee County, Mississippi as a cotton planter, later becoming sheriff. During Reconstruction, Powers was elected the seventh lieutenant governor and began his term in 1870. Governor James L. Alcorn resigned the following year to accept a U.S. Senate seat, thereby making Powers the acting governor; he finished the unexpired term ending in 1874.
Death
Powers died in Los Angeles, California in 1912.
Notes
1836 births
1912 deaths
Union Army colonels
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
Governors of Mississippi
University of Michigan alumni
Union College (New York) alumni
People from Trumbull County, Ohio
People from Noxubee County, Mississippi
Mississippi Republicans
Republican Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
Mississippi sheriffs | [
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219381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrasher | Thrasher | Thrashers are a New World group of passerine birds related to mockingbirds and New World catbirds. Like these, they are in the family Mimidae. There are 15 species in one large and 4 monotypic genera.
These do not form a clade but are a phenetic assemblage. It is rather likely than not — though by no means robustly supported — that the sage thrasher is a basal lineage among a group also consisting of mockingbirds and Toxostoma thrashers. The Caribbean thrashers occupy varying positions in an assemblage consisting of them, the tremblers, and the New World catbirds. Here, the white-breasted thrasher appears to be quite basal though it is impossible to place it anywhere with certainty, whereas the pearly-eyed thrasher is probably quite close to the tremblers. (Hunt et al. 2001, Barber et al. 2004)
Their common name describes the behaviour of these birds when searching for food on the ground: they use their long bills to "thrash" through dirt or dead leaves. All of these birds eat insects and several species also eat berries.
Taxonomic list
Genus Oreoscoptes
Sage thrasher, Oreoscoptes montanus
Genus Toxostoma – typical thrashers
Brown thrasher, Toxostoma rufum
Long-billed thrasher, Toxostoma longirostre
Cozumel thrasher, Toxostoma guttatum – possibly extinct (2006?)
Grey thrasher, Toxostoma cinereum
Bendire's thrasher, Toxostoma bendirei
Ocellated thrasher, Toxostoma ocellatum
Curve-billed thrasher, Toxostoma curvirostre
California thrasher, Toxostoma redivivum
Crissal thrasher, Toxostoma crissale
LeConte's thrasher, Toxostoma lecontei
Genus Ramphocinclus
White-breasted thrasher, Ramphocinclus brachyurus
Genus Allenia – formerly in Margarops
Scaly-breasted thrasher, Allenia fusca
Barbados scaly-breasted thrasher, Allenia fusca atlantica – extinct (c. 1990)
Genus Margarops
Pearly-eyed thrasher, Margarops fuscatus
References
Barber, Brian R.; Martínez-Gómez, Juan E. & Peterson, A. Townsend (2004): Systematic position of the Socorro mockingbird Mimodes graysoni. J. Avian Biol. 35: 195–198. (HTML abstract)
Hunt, Jeffrey S.; Bermingham, Eldredge; & Ricklefs, Robert E. (2001): Molecular systematics and biogeography of Antillean thrashers, tremblers, and mockingbirds (Aves: Mimidae). Auk 118(1): 35–55. DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0035:MSABOA]2.0.CO;2 HTML fulltext without images
External links
Thrasher videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Mimidae
Bird common names | [
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219384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Manila%20Bay | Battle of Manila Bay | {{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Manila Bay
| image = USS Olympia NH NH 85768-KN.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Battle of Manila Bay, 1 May 1898, Fred S. Cozzens
| partof = the Spanish–American War
| date = 1 May 1898
| place = Off Manila, Pacific Ocean
| result = American victory
| combatant1 =
| combatant2 = Spain
| commander1 = George Dewey
| commander2 = Patricio Montojo
| strength1 = 4 protected cruisers 2 gunboats 1 revenue cutter 2 transport ships{{refn|Accounts of the numbers of vessels involved vary. Admiral Dewey said, "The Spanish line of battle was formed by the Reina Cristina (flag), Castilla, Don Juan de Austria, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, and Marques del Duero."<ref name=dewey2>According to an article titled "The Battle of Manila Bay", written by Admiral Dewey for the War Times Journal, his actual words were, "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley.</ref> Another source lists the order of battle as consisting of nine U.S. ships (two not engaged) and 13 Spanish ships (five not engaged and one not present). Still another source says that the Spanish naval force consisted of seven unarmored ships. Yet another source says that Dewey's squadron included four cruisers (two armored), two gunboats, and one revenue cutter; and that the Spanish fleet consisted of one modern cruiser half the size of Dewey's Olympia, one old wooden cruiser, and five gunboats.|name=Order|group=cn}}
| strength2 = 2 protected cruisers 5 unprotected cruisers 5 gunboats 1 transport ship
| casualties1 = 1 dead of illness 9 wounded 1 protected cruiser damaged
| casualties2 = 77 killed 271 wounded 2 protected cruisers scuttled 5 unprotected cruisers sunk 1 transport ship sunk
}}
The Battle of Manila Bay (; ), also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under Contraalmirante (Rear admiral) Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.
Tensions between Spain and the United States worsened over the Spanish conduct during their efforts to quell the Cuban War of Independence, with many Americans being agitated by largely falsified reports of Spanish atrocities against the Cuban population. In January 1898, fearing the fate of American interests in Cuba due to the war, the cruiser USS Maine was dispatched to protect them. Less than a month later, the cruiser exploded while lying at anchor in Havana harbor, killing 261 sailors onboard and inflaming American opinion, with Spain being portrayed as the culprit in the American media regardless of the actual source of the explosion. Two months later, war was declared.
Upon the outbreak of war, the Americans realized that defeating a significant Spanish squadron then stationed in the Philippines was important to ensuring victory in the war. The U.S. Asiatic Squadron commanded by Dewey, a veteran of the American Civil War, was dispatched to ensure success. On 1 May, the American squadron steamed into Manila Bay to engage with the Spanish. The Spanish, aware that they were hopelessly outgunned, made a desperate defense against the Americans. The battle was not much of contest, with superior American naval gunnery and seamanship ensuring the entire Spanish fleet would be sunk with minimal casualties for the Americans, who suffered only ten casualties in all. Upon realising that the battle was hopeless, Montojo ordered his two protected cruisers to be scuttled to ensure that they did not fall into the hands of the Americans. The battle remains one of the most significant naval battles in American maritime history.
Prelude
Americans living on the West Coast of the United States feared a Spanish attack at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. Only a few U.S. Navy warships, led by the cruiser , stood between them and a powerful Spanish fleet. In practice however Olympia was far superior to the Spanish colonial fleet, as the battle would show.
Admiral Montojo, a career Spanish naval officer who had been dispatched rapidly to the Philippines, was equipped with a variety of obsolete vessels. Efforts to strengthen his position amounted to little. The strategy adopted by the Spanish bureaucracy suggested they could not win a war and saw resistance as little more than a face-saving exercise. Administration actions worked against the effort, sending explosives meant for naval mines to civilian construction companies while the Spanish fleet in Manila was seriously undermanned by inexperienced sailors who had not received any training for over a year. Reinforcements promised from Madrid resulted in only two poorly-armored scout cruisers being sent while at the same time the authorities transferred a squadron from the Manila fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera to reinforce the Caribbean. Admiral Montojo had originally wanted to confront the Americans at Subic Bay, northwest of Manila Bay, but abandoned that idea when he learned the planned mines and coastal defensives were lacking and the cruiser started to leak. Montojo compounded his difficulties by placing his ships outside the range of Spanish coastal artillery (which might have evened the odds) and choosing a relatively shallow anchorage. His intent seems to have been to spare Manila from bombardment and to allow any survivors of his fleet to swim to safety. The harbor was protected by six shore batteries and three forts whose fire during the battle proved to be ineffective. Only Fort San Antonio Abad had guns with enough range to reach the American fleet, but Dewey never came within their range during the battle.
The Spanish squadron consisted of seven ships: the cruisers (flagship), Castilla, , , , , and the gunboat . The Spanish ships were of inferior quality to the American ships; the Castilla was unpowered and had to be towed by the transport ship Manila. On 25 April, the squadron left Manila Bay for the port of Subic, intending to mount a defense there. The squadron was relying on a shore battery which was to be installed on Isla Grande. On 28 April, before that installation could be completed, a cablegram from the Spanish Consul in Hong Kong arrived with the information that the American squadron had left Hong Kong bound for Subic for the purpose of destroying the Spanish squadron and intending to proceed from there to Manila. The Spanish Council of Commanders, with the exception of the Commander of Subic, felt that no defense of Subic was possible with the state of things, and that the squadron should transfer back to Manila, positioning in shallow water so that the ships could be run aground to save the lives of the crews as a final resort. The squadron departed Subic at 10:30 a.m. on 29 April. Manila, towing Castilla, was last to arrive in Manila Bay, at midnight.
Battle
At 7 p.m. on 30 April, Montojo was informed that Dewey's ships had been seen in Subic Bay that afternoon. As Manila Bay was considered unnavigable at night by foreigners, Montojo expected an attack the following morning. However, Oscar F. Williams, the United States Consul in Manila, had provided Dewey with detailed information on the state of the Spanish defenses and the lack of preparedness of the Spanish fleet. Based in part upon this intelligence, Dewey—embarked aboard Olympia—led his squadron into Manila Bay at midnight on 30 April.
Passing the entrance, two Spanish mines exploded but were ineffective as they were well below the draft of any of the ships due to the depth of the water. Inside the bay, ships normally used the north channel between Corregidor Island and the northern coast, and this was the only channel mined. Dewey instead used the unmined south channel between El Fraile and Caballo Islands. The El Fraile battery fired a few rounds but the range was too great. The , and were then detached from the line and took no further part in the fighting. At 5:15 a.m. on 1 May, the squadron was off Manila and the Cavite battery fired ranging shots. The shore batteries and Spanish fleet then opened fire but all the shells fell short as the fleet was still out of range. At 5:41 with the now famous phrase, "You may fire when ready, Gridley", the Olympias captain was instructed to begin the destruction of the Spanish flotilla.
The U.S. squadron swung in front of the Spanish ships and forts in line ahead, firing their port guns. They then turned and passed back, firing their starboard guns. This process was repeated five times, each time closing the range from 5,000 yards to 2,000 yards. The Spanish forces had been alerted, and most were ready for action, but they were heavily outgunned. Eight Spanish ships, the land batteries, and the forts returned fire for two and a half hours although the range was too great for the guns on shore. Five other small Spanish ships were not engaged.
Montojo accepted that his cause was hopeless and ordered his ships to ram the enemy if possible. He then slipped the Cristina's cables and charged. Much of the American fleet's fire was then directed at her and she was shot to pieces. Of the crew of 400, more than 200, including Montojo, were casualties and only two men remained who were able to man her guns. The ship managed to return to shore and Montojo ordered it to be scuttled. The Castilla, which only had guns on the port side, had her forward cable shot away, causing her to swing about, presenting her weaponless starboard side. The captain then ordered her sunk and abandoned. The Ulloa was hit by a shell at the waterline that killed her captain and disabled half the crew. The Luzon had three guns out of action but was otherwise unharmed. The Duero lost an engine and had only one gun left able to fire.
At 7:45 a.m., after Captain Gridley messaged Dewey that only 15 rounds of 5" ammunition remained per gun, Dewey ordered an immediate withdrawal. To preserve morale, he informed the crews that the halt in the battle was to allow the crews to have breakfast. According to an observer on the Olympia, "At least three of his (Spanish) ships had broken into flames but so had one of ours. These fires had all been put out without apparent injury to the ships. Generally speaking, nothing of great importance had occurred to show that we had seriously injured any Spanish vessel." Montojo took the opportunity to now move his remaining ships into Bacoor Bay where they were ordered to resist for as long as possible.
A captains' conference on the Olympia revealed little damage and no men killed. It was discovered that the original ammunition message had been garbled—instead of only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun remaining, the message had meant to say only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun had been expended. Reports arrived during the conference that sounds of exploding ammunition had been heard and fires sighted on the Cristina and Castilla. At 10:40 a.m. action was resumed but the Spanish offered little resistance, and Montojo issued orders for the remaining ships to be scuttled and the breechblocks of their guns taken ashore. The Olympia, Baltimore and Boston then fired on the Sangley Point battery putting it out of action and followed up by sinking the Ulloa. The Concord fired on the transport Mindanao, whose crew immediately abandoned ship. The fired on the government offices next to the arsenal and a white flag was raised over the building after which all firing ceased. The Spanish colors were struck at 12:40 p.m.
According to American sources, Dewey won the battle with seven men very slightly wounded, a total of nine injured, and only a single fatality among his crew: Francis B. Randall, Chief Engineer on the McCulloch, from a heart attack. On the other hand, the Spanish naval historian Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González suggests that Dewey suffered heavier losses, though still much lower than those of the Spanish squadron. Rodríguez notes that Spanish officials estimated the American casualties at 13 crewmen killed and more than 30 wounded based on reliable information collected by the Spanish consulate in Hong Kong. According to Rodríguez, Dewey may have concealed the deaths and injuries by including the numbers among the 155 men who reportedly deserted during the campaign.
Subsequent action
A Spanish attempt to attack Dewey with the naval task force known as Camara's Flying Relief Column came to naught, and the naval war in the Philippines devolved into a series of torpedo boat hit-and-run attacks for the rest of the campaign. While the Spanish scored several hits, there were no American fatalities directly attributable to Spanish gunfire.
On 2 May, Dewey landed a force of Marines at Cavite. They completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The resistance of the forts was weak. The Olympia turned a few guns on the Cavite arsenal, detonating its magazine, and ending the fire from the Spanish batteries.
Aftermath
In recognition of George Dewey's leadership during the Battle of Manila Bay, a special medal known as the Dewey Medal was presented to the officers and sailors under Admiral Dewey's command. Dewey was later honored with promotion to the special rank of Admiral of the Navy. Building on his popularity, Dewey briefly ran for president in 1900, but withdrew and endorsed William McKinley, the incumbent, who won. The same year Dewey was appointed President of the General Board of the United States Navy, where he would play a key role in the growth of the U.S. Navy until his death in January 1917.
Dewey Square in Boston is named after Commodore Dewey, as is Dewey Beach, Delaware. Union Square, San Francisco features a tall monument to Admiral George Dewey's victory at the Battle of Manila Bay.
Order of battle
Vessels engaged in actual combat during the Battle of Manila Bay ranged in size from 5,870 tons (Olympia) to 492 tons (Marques del Duero).
United States
Engaged Vessels:
, flagship, protected cruiser of 5,870 tons, with four 8-inch guns mounted in pairs on two turrets, plus ten 5-inch guns and six torpedo tubes. Top speed 20 knots. She is now a museum ship at the Independence Seaport Museum, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
, protected cruiser of 4,600 tons, with four 8-inch guns on single mounts, plus six 6-inch guns. Top speed 20 knots.
, protected cruiser of 3,200 tons, with one 6-inch and ten 5-inch guns. Top speed 19 knots.
, protected cruiser of 3,200 tons, with two 8-inch and six 6-inch guns. Top speed 13 knots.
, gunboat of 1,710 tons with six 6-inch guns. Top speed 17 knots.
, gunboat of 867 tons with four 6-inch guns. Top speed 12 knots.
Despite the superiority of the American artillery, the success rate of their guns was minimal, a total of 5,859 shells were expended during the battle. Excluding shells fired at land targets and the unengaged vessels, only 145 hit the seven Spanish engaged vessels. The Reina Cristina and Castilla suffered 81 hits between them, the Don Antonio de Ulloa was hit 33 times, the Don Juan de Austria 13, the Marques del Duero 10, the Isla de Cuba five and the Isla de Luzón was hit three times.
Unengaged vessels:
The Revenue Cutter , the collier and the steamer (a supply vessel) were directed to keep out of the main action because of their light armament and lack of armor. The McCullochs chief engineer, Francis B. Randall, died of a heart attack.
Spain
Engaged Vessels:
, flagship, unprotected cruiser of 3,042 tons, with six 6.4-inch guns. The fastest Spanish vessel with a top speed of 16 knots.
, unprotected cruiser of 3,289 tons, with four 5.9-inch and two 4.7-inch guns. The vessel's 8-inch guns had been removed to equip the shore batteries. The ship was used as a floating battery as the temporary repair of the leaks had immobilized her propeller shaft.
, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons, with two 4.7-inch guns on the starboard side. Under repair with her engines ashore. Her entire port side armament had been removed to equip the shore batteries.
, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons, with four 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 13 knots.
, protected cruiser of 1,030 tons, with six 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 14 knots.
, protected cruiser of 1,030 tons, with six 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 14 knots.
, gunboat of 492 tons, with one 6.4-inch and two 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 10 knots.
Unengaged Vessels:
Mindanao, transport ship of 1,900 tons, with 2 secondary rapid fire guns. 77 men.
, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons. Her boilers were ashore being repaired. All her guns were apparently removed to the Caballo Island Battery. 145 men.
El Coreo, gunboat of 560 tons, with three 4.7-inch guns, three secondary rapid-fire guns, and 1 torpedo tube. 115 men.
General Lezo, gunboat of 520 tons, with two 4.7-inch guns which were apparently removed to El Fraile Island, 2 secondary rapid-fire guns, and 1 torpedo tube. 115 men.
Argos, gunboat of 508 tons, with one 3.5-inch gun. 87 men.
The Spanish vessels had 19 torpedo tubes between them but no serviceable torpedoes.
Shore Defenses
Fort San Antonio Abad: Built 1584. Located in Manila. Various guns with only the 9.4-inch having enough range to reach Dewey's ships at their closest approach.
Fort San Felipe: Built 1609. A small castle built on a sandbar protected by a breakwater and separated from Cavite City by a moat.
Cavite Fort: Fortified naval base and shipyard in Cavite City located adjacent to Fort San Felipe.
Corregidor battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Did not fire.
Caballo battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Did not fire.
El Fraile battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Fired three rounds before Raleigh silenced it after hitting the battery with a single shell.
Cañacao battery: Located in the town of Cañacao. Armed with a single 4.7-inch gun. Did not fire.
Sangley Point battery: Located at the Sangley Point Naval Base. Armed with three 64-lb muzzleloading cannon and two 5.9-inch guns (which were the only ones to fire.)
Malate battery: Located in the Manila district of Malate. Did not fire.
The batteries were supplemented with the guns removed from Montojo's fleet. The Corregidor, Caballo and El Fraile batteries had a combined total of 17 guns.
Gallery
The United States Navy ships:
The destroyed Spanish ships after the battle:
See also
Battle of Manila (disambiguation)
Battles of the Spanish–American War
Philippine–American War
List of naval battles
Notes
References
Additional References
Nofi, Albert A., The Spanish American War, 1898, 1997.
Carrasco García, Antonio, En Guerra con Los Estados Unidos: Cuba, 1898, Madrid: 1998.
Freidel, Frank Burt. The Splendid Little War. Boston: Little, Brown, 1958.
Blow, Michael. A Ship to Remember: The Maine and the Spanish–American War''. New York : Morrow, 1992. .
External links
Spanish–American War Centennial Website
1898 Battle of Manila Bay (archived from the original on 2009-10-26)
Naval battles of the Spanish–American War
Conflicts in 1898
Philippine–American War
Battle of Manila Bay
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
Manila Bay
May 1898 events | [
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219386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20North%20America | British North America | British North America comprised the colonial territories of the British Empire in North America from 1783 onwards. English colonisation of North America began in the 16th century in Newfoundland, then further south at Roanoke and Jamestown, Virginia, and more substantially with the founding of the Thirteen Colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America.
The British Empire's colonial territories in North America were greatly expanded in connection with the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally concluded the Seven Years' War, referred to by the English colonies in North America as the French and Indian War, and by the French colonies as . With the ultimate acquisition of most of New France (), British territory in North America was more than doubled in size, and the exclusion of France also dramatically altered the political landscape of the continent.
The term British America was used to refer to the British Empire's colonial territories in North America prior to the United States Declaration of Independence, most famously in the 1774 address of Thomas Jefferson to the First Continental Congress entitled: A Summary View of the Rights of British America.
The term British North America was initially used following the subsequent Treaty of Paris (1783), which concluded the American Revolutionary War and confirmed the independence of Great Britain's Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States of America. The terms British America and British North America continued to be used for Britain's remaining territories in North America, but the term British North America came to be used more consistently in connection with the provinces that would eventually form the Dominion of Canada, following the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), called the Durham Report.
The Dominion of Canada was formed under the British North America (BNA) Act, 1867, also referred to as the Constitution Act, 1867. Following royal assent of the BNA Act, three of the provinces of British North America (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada (which would become the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec)) joined together to form "One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom," on July 1, 1867, the date of Canadian Confederation.
The Atlantic island of Bermuda (originally administered by the Virginia Company and, with The Bahamas, considered with North America prior to 1783), was grouped with the Maritime provinces from 1783 until formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, and thereafter generally with the colonies in the British West Indies (although the Church of England continued to place Bermuda under the Bishop of Newfoundland until 1919).
Over its duration, British North America comprised the British Empire's colonial territories in North America from 1783 to 1907, not including the Caribbean. These territories include those forming modern-day Canada, as well as all or large parts of six Midwestern U.S. states (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota), which were formed out of the Northwest Territory, and large parts of Maine, which had originally been within the French territory of Acadia.
Political divisions
When the Kingdom of England began its efforts to settle in North America in the late 16th Century, it ignored Spain's long-asserted claim of sovereignty over the entire continent (Spain's similar claim to all of South America had been refuted when the Pope had divided that continent between it and Portugal in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas). Spain's area of settlement was limited to only very southern parts of North America, however, and it had little ability to enforce its sovereignty. Disregarding, as did Spain, the sovereignty of the indigenous nations, England claimed the entire continent (though its western and northern boundaries were not yet clear), which it named Virginia in honour of the virgin queen, Elizabeth I.
England's first successful settlement in North America was Jamestown, established by the Virginia Company of London in 1607, with the second actually being the Atlantic Ocean archipelago of Bermuda, added to the territory of the same company in 1612 (the company having been in occupation of the archipelago since the 1609 wreck there of its flagship, the Sea Venture). Two areas of settlement in North America had been laid out in 1606, with the name Virginia coming to connote the southern area, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North, administered by the Virginia Company of London. The short form of that company's name was actually the London Company, but it came to be known popularly as the Virginia Company. The northern area of settlement, which extended to 45° North (an area that would come to be known as New England), was to be administered and settled by the Virginia Company of Plymouth (or Plymouth Company), which established the Popham Colony in what is now Maine in 1606, but this was quickly abandoned and Plymouth Company's territory was absorbed into the London Company's.
Over the course of the 17th Century, Virginia would come to refer only to the polity that is today the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States of America, with later areas of settlement on the continent considered separate colonies under their own local administrations and all collectively designated as America (less often as North America). The Kingdom of England (including the Principality of Wales) and Kingdom of Scotland remained separate nations until their 1707 unification to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland's attempts to establish its own colonies in North America and Central America before 1707 had been short-lived, but England brought substantial trans-Atlantic possessions into the new union, when English America became British America. In 1775, on the eve of the American Revolution, British America included territories in the Western Hemisphere northeast of New Spain, apart from the islands and claims of the British West Indies. These were:
Bermuda
British Arctic Territories
the Floridas (East and West Florida, administered separately)
Indian Reserve
Newfoundland
North-Western Territory
Nova Scotia
Quebec
Rupert's Land (the territory of the Hudson's Bay Company)
St. John's Island (later Prince Edward Island)
the Thirteen Colonies (each one administered separately, soon to become the United States):
Connecticut Colony
Delaware Colony
Province of Georgia
Province of Maryland
Province of Massachusetts Bay
Province of New Hampshire
Province of New Jersey
Province of New York
Province of North Carolina
Province of Pennsylvania
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Province of South Carolina
Colony of Virginia
Bermuda
The Somers Isles, or Bermuda, had been occupied by the Virginia Company since its flagship, the Sea Venture, was wrecked there in 1609, and the archipelago was officially added to the company's territory in 1612, then managed by a spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, until 1684, but maintained close links with Virginia and Carolina Colony (which had subsequently been settled from Bermuda under William Sayle in 1670). The British Government originally grouped Bermuda with North America (the archipelago is approximately east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (with Cape Point on Hatteras Island being the nearest landfall); south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia; northeast of Cuba, and due north of the British Virgin Islands.
Although Bermudians, with close ties of blood and trade to the southern continental colonies (especially Virginia and South Carolina), tended towards the rebels early in the American War of Independence, the control of the surrounding Atlantic by the Royal Navy meant there was no likelihood of the colony joining the rebellion. Although the rebels were supplied with ships and gunpowder by the Bermudians, Bermudian privateers soon turned aggressively on rebel shipping. After the acknowledgement by the British Government of the independence of the thirteen rebellious continental colonies in 1783, Bermuda was grouped regionally by the British Government with The Maritimes and Newfoundland and Labrador, and, more widely, with British North America.
Following the war, the Royal Navy spent a dozen years charting the barrier reef around Bermuda to discover the channel that enabled access to the northern lagoon, the Great Sound, and Hamilton Harbour. Once this had been located, a base was established (initially at St. George's before the construction of the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda) in 1794, when Vice Admiral Sir George Murray, Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station, set up the first Admiralty House, Bermuda at Rose Hill, St. George's. In 1813, the area of command became the North America Station again, with the West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station, and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station. The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer (both of which were designated as Imperial fortresses, along with Gibraltar and Malta), but Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the Station in 1821, when the area of command became the North America and West Indies Station. The Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax was finally transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1907.
Prior to 1784, the Bermuda Garrison had been placed under the military Commander-in-Chief America in New York during the American War of Independence. A small regular infantry garrison had existed from 1701 to 1768, alongside the militia, and part of the Royal Garrison Battalion had been stationed there in 1778 but that battalion was disbanded in Bermuda in 1784. The regular military garrison was re-established at Bermuda in 1794 by part of the British Army's 47th Regiment of Foot and the Board of Ordnance also stationed an invalid company of the Royal Artillery there soon after. The Bermuda garrison was to be part of the Nova Scotia Command until 1869 (in 1815, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost was Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New~Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, and in the islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton and the Bermudas, &c. &c. &c. Beneath Prevost, the staff of the British Army in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke. Below Sherbrooke, the Bermuda Garrison was under the immediate control of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bermuda, Major-General George Horsford).), and was expanded greatly during the 19th Century, both to defend the colony as a naval base and to launch amphibious operations against the Atlantic coast of the United States in any war that should transpire.
The Royal Navy, British Army, Royal Marines, and Colonial Marines forces based in Bermuda carried out actions of this sort during the American War of 1812, when the Royal Navy's blockade of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States was orchestrated from Bermuda (New England, where support for the United States Government's war against Britain was low and from which Britain continued to receive grain to feed its army engaged in the Peninsular War, was at first excluded from this blockade). In 1813, Lieutenant-Colonel, Sir Thomas Sydney Beckwith arrived in Bermuda to command an expeditionary force tasked with raiding the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States, specifically in the region of Chesapeake Bay. The force was to be composed of the infantry battalion then on garrison duty in Bermuda, the 102nd Regiment of Foot (with its Commanding Officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles James Napier as Second-in-Command) forming one brigade with Royal Marines and a unit recruited from French prisoners-of-war, which was under Napier's command, and another brigade formed under Lieutenant-Colonel Williams of the Royal Marines. The force took part in the Battle of Craney Island on 22 June 1813. The most famous action carried out during the war by forces from Bermuda was the Chesapeake Campaign, including the Burning of Washington in retribution for the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Col. John Campbell in May 1814, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover to draw United States forces away from the Canadian border. In 1828, His Excellency George, Earl of Dalhousie, (Baron Dalhousie, of Dalhousie Castle,) Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath was Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over the Provinces of Lower-Canada, Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New-Brunswick, and their several dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces, and their several dependencies, and in the Islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, and Bermuda, &c. &c c. &c. Beneath Dalhousie, the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Island of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of His Excellency Lieutenant-General Sir James Kempt GCB, GCH.
The established Church of England in Bermuda (since 1978, titled the Anglican Church of Bermuda) and Newfoundland was attached to the See of Nova Scotia from 1825 to 1839 and from 1787 to 1839, respectively. From 1839, the island of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as well as Bermuda, became parts of the Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda, with the shared Bishop (Aubrey George Spencer being the first) alternating his residence between the two colonies. A separate Bermuda Synod was incorporated in 1879, but continued to share its Bishop with Newfoundland until 1919, when the separate position of Bishop of Bermuda was created (in 1949, on Newfoundland becoming a province of Canada, the Diocese of Newfoundland became part of the Anglican Church of Canada; the Church of England in Bermuda, which was re-titled the Anglican Church of Bermuda in 1978, is today one of six extra-provincial Anglican churches within the Church of England overseen by the Archbishop of Canterbury).Our History. Anglican Diocese of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador
Other denominations also at one time included Bermuda with Nova Scotia or Canada. Following the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, Roman Catholic worship was outlawed in England (subsequently Britain) and its colonies, including Bermuda, until the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791, and operated thereafter under restrictions until the Twentieth Century. Once Roman Catholic worship was established, Bermuda formed part of the Archdiocese of Halifax, Nova Scotia until 1953, when it was separated to become the Apostolic Prefecture of Bermuda Islands. The congregation of the first African Methodist Episcopal Church in Bermuda (St. John African Methodist Episcopal Church, erected in 1885 in Hamilton Parish) had previously been part of the British Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada.
New France (Nouvelle-France)
Britain acquired most of Acadia or Acadie, Nouvelle-France, in connection with Queen Anne's War of 1702-1713, and subsequent lands later. These territories would become the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, as well as parts of Quebec and territories that would eventually form part of Maine.
Britain acquired much of the remainder of Canada (New France) and the eastern half of Louisiana, including West Florida, from France, and East Florida from Spain, by the Treaty of Paris (1763), which ended the Seven Years' War. (Spain had not taken possession of any of Louisiana, which had been ceded to it under the Treaty of Fontainebleau, from France until 1769.) By the Treaty of Paris (1783), the United States acquired the part of Quebec south of the Great Lakes; at the same time Spain gained West Florida and regained East Florida.
Nova Scotia was split into modern-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in 1784. The part of Quebec retained after 1783 was split into the primarily French-speaking Lower Canada and the primarily English-speaking Upper Canada in 1791.
After the War of 1812, the Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the United States–British North America border from Rupert's Land west to the Rocky Mountains. Then, in 1846, Britain and the United States split the Oregon Country. The United States was assigned lands south of the 49th parallel, but Britain retained all of Vancouver Island (including south of the 49th parallel).
After threats and squabbles over rich timber lands, the boundary with Maine was clarified by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842.
The Canadas were united into the Province of Canada in 1841.
On 1 July 1867, the Dominion of Canada was created by the British North America Act, 1867. The confederation process brought together the provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The former Province of Canada was split back into its two parts, with Canada East (Lower Canada) being renamed Quebec, and Canada West (Upper Canada) renamed Ontario.
Following confederation in 1867, the British Army withdrew from Canada in 1871, handing military defence over to the Canadian Militia. With the consequent abolition of the British Army's Nova Scotia Command, and the office of its Commander-in-Chief for British North America, the still-growing Bermuda Garrison was elevated to a separate Bermuda Command.]
Newfoundland, Rupert's Land and Other Territories of British North America
Although Newfoundland and Labrador remained separate from Canada until 1949, Bermuda, following Canadian confederation, was increasingly perceived by the British Government as in, or at least grouped for convenience with, the British West Indies. The last administrative link to the Maritimes was the established church. In 1879 the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed and a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop.
In 1870, Rupert's Land, which consisted of territories of the Hudson's Bay Company, was annexed to Canada as the North-West Territories (NWT) and the new province of Manitoba. British Columbia, the British colony on the west coast north of the 49th parallel, including all of Vancouver Island, joined as Canada's sixth province in 1871, and Prince Edward Island joined as the seventh in 1873. The boundary of British Columbia with Washington Territory was settled by arbitration in 1872, and with Alaska by arbitration in 1903.
The Arctic Archipelago was ceded by Britain to Canada in 1880 and added to the North-West Territories. Later on, large sections of the NWT were split off as new territories (the Yukon Territory in 1898 and Nunavut in 1999), or provinces (Alberta and Saskatchewan, both in 1905), or were added to existing provinces (Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, in stages ending in 1912).
In 1907, the sole remaining British North American colony, Newfoundland, was granted the status of a Dominion, although starting in 1934 it returned to British administration under the Commission of Government. In 1949, the island of Newfoundland, and its associated mainland territory of Labrador, joined Canada as the tenth province.
Canada became semi-independent beginning in 1867, and fully sovereign on foreign affairs beginning with the Statute of Westminster 1931. Canada gained the right to establish and accept foreign embassies, with the first one being in Washington, D.C.
Then the last vestiges of Canada's constitutional dependency upon Britain remained until Canadians from various provinces agreed on an internal procedure for amending the Canadian Constitution. This agreement was implemented when the British Parliament passed the Canada Act 1982 at the request of the Parliament of Canada.Maton, 1998, article
British North America colonies
Following the 1776 declaration of independence of the colonies that were to form the United States (which was to be recognised by the British Government in 1783), the areas that remained under British sovereignty were administered by the Home Office, which had been formed on 27 March 1782, and which also controlled the military until this was transferred to the War Office in 1794. The Home Office referred to the remaining North American continental colonies and the archipelago of Bermuda (located 640 miles off North Carolina as British North America and their administration was increasingly linked. In 1801, administration of the colonies was moved from the Home Office to the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office), with the Secretary of State for War thus becoming the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies until 1854, when the War and Colonial Office was split into the War Office (under the Secretary of State for War)and the Colonial Office (under the Secretary of State for the Colonies).
Prior to the signing of the 1846 Oregon Treaty, the North American continental colonies were as follows:
Province of Canada (previously Upper Canada and Lower Canada)
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Prince Edward Island
Rupert's Land
British Arctic Territories
Columbia District/Oregon Country (shared with the United States)
Administration
Besides the local colonial governments in each colony, British North America was administered directly via London.
From 1783 through 1801, the British Empire, including British North America, was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 by the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office) and Secretary of State for War and Colonies (as the Secretary of State for War was renamed). From 1824, the British Empire was divided by the War and Colonial Office into four administrative departments, including NORTH AMERICA, the WEST INDIES, MEDITERRANEAN AND AFRICA, and EASTERN COLONIES, of which North America included:
NORTH AMERICA
Upper Canada, Lower Canada
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island
Bermuda, Newfoundland
The Colonial Office and War Office, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Secretary of State for War, were separated in 1854. The War Office, from then until the 1867 confederation of the Dominion of Canada, split the military administration of the British colonial and foreign stations into nine districts: North America And North Atlantic; West Indies; Mediterranean; West Coast Of Africa And South Atlantic; South Africa; Egypt And The Sudan; INDIAN OCEAN; Australia; and China. North America And North Atlantic included the following stations (or garrisons):
NORTH AMERICA AND NORTH ATLANTIC
New Westminster (British Columbia)
Newfoundland
Quebec
Halifax
Kingston, Canada West
Bermuda
The postal system had a deputy based in British North America, with administration from London.
See also
Atlantic history
British America
British West Indies
British North America Acts
British colonization of the Americas
Canada under British rule
Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies
Colonial history of the United States
Economic history of the United States#Colonial economy
Former colonies and territories in Canada
Historiography of the British Empire, with long bibliography
History of Canada
New England Colonies
References
Sources
Further reading
Bailyn, Bernard. The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction (1988) excerpt and text search
Cooke, Jacob E. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies (3 vol 1993)
Foster, Stephen, ed. British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion) (2014) excerpt and text search; 11 essays by scholars
Garner, John. The franchise and politics in British North America, 1755–1867 (U of Toronto Press, 1969)
Gipson, Lawrence Henry. The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 vol., 1936–70), extremely comprehensive study; Pulitzer Prize
Morton, W. L. The Kingdom of Canada: A General History from Earliest Times (1969)
Savelle, Max. Empires To Nations: Expansion In America 1713–1824'' (1974) online
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Former colonies in North America
History of Canada by period
19th century in Canada
19th century in the British Empire
19th century in North America
1790s in Canada
1900s in Canada
History of Canada
English-speaking countries and territories | [
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219387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Reigen | Emperor Reigen | was the 112th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Reigen's reign spanned the years from 1663 through 1687.
Genealogy
Before Reigen's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was ; and his pre-accession title was .
Reigen was the 16th son of Emperor Go-Mizunoo. His mother was the daughter of Minister of the Center Sonomotooto (内大臣園基音), Lady-in-Waiting Kuniko (新広義門院国子).
Reigen's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. This family included at least 13 sons and 14 daughters:
Empress: Takatsukasa Fusako (鷹司房子) later Shin-jyōsaimon’in (新上西門院), Takatsukasa Norihira’s daughter.
Third daughter: Imperial Princess Masako (1673–1746; 栄子内親王) married Nijo Tsunahira
Lady-in-waiting: Bōjō Fusako (1652–1676; 坊城房子), Bōjō Toshihiro’s daughter
Second daughter: Imperial Princess Ken'shi (憲子内親王; 1669–1688) married Konoe Iehiro
Lady-in-waiting: Chunagon-Naishi (1653–1691; 中納言典侍)
First son: Imperial Prince Priest Saishin (1671–1701; 済深法親王)
Lady-in-waiting: Matsuki Muneko (松木宗子) later Keihōmon’in (敬法門院), Mutsuki Muneatsu’s daughter
Fourth son: Imperial Prince Asahito (朝仁親王), also known as Tomohito Later Emperor Higashiyama
Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess Tomiko (福子内親王; 1676–1707) married Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Kuninaga
Sixth daughter: Princess Eisyū (永秀女王; 1677–1725)
Seventh son: Imperial Prince Kyōgoku-no-miya Ayahito (1680–1711; 京極宮文仁親王) – Sixth Kyōgoku-no-miya
Seventh daughter: Princess Ume (1681–1683; 梅宮)
Eighth daughter: Imperial Princess Katsuko (1686–1716; 勝子内親王)
Eighth son: Prince Kiyo (1688–1693; 清宮)
Handmaid: Atago Fukuko (1656–1681; 愛宕福子), Atago Michitomi’s daughter
Second son: Imperial Prince Priest Kanryū (1672–1707; 寛隆法親王)
Fourth daughter: Princess Tsuna (1675–1677; 綱宮)
Handmaid: Gojyō Yōko (1660–1683; 五条庸子), Gojyō Tametsune’s daughter
Third son: Prince San (1675–1677; 三宮)
Fifth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōen (1676–1718; 尭延法親王)
Sixth son: Prince Tairei'in (1679; 台嶺院宮)
Handmaid: Higashikuze Hiroko (1672–1752; 東久世博子), Higashikuze Michikado’s daughter
Eleventh son: Prince Toku (1692–1693; 徳宮)
Twelfth son: Prince Riki (1697; 力宮)
Court lady: Onaikouji-no-Tsubone (?–1674; 多奈井小路局), Nishinotōin Tokinaga‘s Daughter
First daughter: Princess Chikōin (1669; 知光院宮)
Court lady: Gojyō Tsuneko (1673–?; 五条経子), Gojyō Tametsune’s daughter
Ninth son: Prince Saku (1689–1692; 作宮)
Tenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Syō'ou (1690–1712; 性応法親王)
Ninth daughter: Princess Bunki (1693–1702; 文喜女王)
Tenth daughter: Princess Gensyū (1696–1752; 元秀女王)
Court lady: Tōshikibu-no-Tsubone (d.1746; 藤式部局), Imaki Sadaatsu‘s Daughter
Thirteenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Sonsyō (1699–1746; 尊賞法親王)
Eleventh daughter: Princess Bun'ō (1702–1754; 文応女王)
Court lady: Irie Itsuko (?–1763; 入江伊津子), Irie Sukenao’s daughter
Fourteenth son: Prince Kachi (1709–1713; 嘉智宮)
Twelfth daughter: Princess Tome (1711–1712; 留宮)
Court lady: Chūjō-no-Tsubone (1691–1753; 中将局) , Kurahashi Yasusada‘s Daughter
Fifteenth son: Prince Mine (1710–1713; 峯宮)
Court lady: Matsumuro Atsuko (?–1746; 松室敦子), Matsumuro Shigeatsu’s daughter
Sixteenth son: Imperial Prince Arisugawa-no-miya Yorihito (1713–1769; 有栖川宮職仁親王) – Fifth Arisugawa-no-miya
Thirteenth daughter: Imperial Princess Yoshiko (吉子内親王, 1714–1758), betrothed to shōgun Tokugawa Ietsugu
Eighteenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōkyō (1717–1764; 尭恭法親王)
Court lady: Shōshō-no-Tsubone (1702–1728; 少将局), Minami Suketada’s daughter
Fourteenth daughter: Princess Yae (1721–1723; 八重宮)
Court lady:Matsumuro Nakako (1707–1751; 松室仲子), Matsumuro Shigenaka’s daughter
Seventeenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Son'in (1715–1740; 尊胤法親王)
His posthumous name was created during the Meiji Era by combining the kanji from the names of two previous Emperors, Emperor Kōrei (孝霊) and Emperor Kōgen (孝元).
Events of Reigen's life
9 July 1654: The birth of an Imperial prince who will become known by the posthumous name of Reigen-tennō.
1654: Prince Satohito, who is also known as Ate-no-miya, is named as heir before the death of his eldest brother, Emperor Go-Kōmyō; however, the young prince is considered too young to become emperor. It is decided that until the young heir grows older, his elder brother will accede to the throne as Emperor Go-Sai.
5 March 1663 (Kanbun 3, 26th day of the 1st month): Emperor Go-Sai abdicated; and Prince Satohito received the succession (senso). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Reigen formally acceded (sokui) and his reign began.
1665 (Kanbun 5, 6th month): Courts of inquisition were established in all the villages of Japan. These courts were charged with discovering and eliminating any vestiges of Christianity in each community.
1666 (Kanbun 6, 4th month): Hokke shu Buddhist religious practices are preserved for those who believe that their spiritual and moral purity may be tainted by close association with others.
1667 (Kanbun 7): After fire destroyed the main temple structure, work on rebuilding at Nara commenced.
13 February 1668 (Kanbun 8, 1st day of the 2nd month): A great fire broke out in Edo—a conflagration lasting 45 days. The disastrous fire was attributed to arson.
1669 (Kanbun 9):There was a famine in this year; and a military expedition was sent to northern Honshū against Shakushain's Revolt.
1673 (Enpō 1): There was a great fire in Kyoto.
21 May 1673 (Enpō 1, 5th day of the 4th month): The Chinese Buddhist teacher Ingen dies in the Ōbaku Zen temple, Manpuku-ji at Uji.
1675 (Enpō 3): There was a great fire in Kyoto.
4 June 1680 (Enpō 8, 8th day of the 5th month): Shōgun Ietsuna dies; and he is succeeded by Tokugawa Tsunayoshi.
15 June 1680 (Enpō 8, 19th day of the 5th month): Former-Emperor Go-Mizunoo died.
1680 (Enpō 8, 8th month): A great flood devastates Edo.
1680 (Enpō 8): Gokoku-ji is founded in Edo.
1681 (Tenna 1): Tsunyoshi's investiture as shōgun.
5 February 1682 (Tenna 1, 28th day of the 12th month): A great fire sweeps through Edo.
1681 (Tenna 2): A great famine devastates Kyoto and the surrounding area.
1682 (Tenna 3): Tomohito-shinnō is proclaimed Crown Prince; and the ceremonial investiture is held (after being in abeyance for over 300 years).
26 March 1685 (Jōkyō 2, 22nd day of the 2nd month): Former-Emperor Go-Sai died; and a great comet was observed crossing the night sky.
2 May 1687 (Jōkyō 4, 21st day of the 3rd month): Emperor Reigen abdicates in favor of his fifth son who will come to be known as Emperor Higashiyama.
1687: Former-Emperor Reigen begins to rule as a cloistered emperor; and after abdication, Reigen's new home will be called the Sentō-gosho (the palace for an ex-Emperor).
4 December 1696 Former Empress Meishō died.
1713: Former-Emperor Reigen enters a monastery under the name Sojō (素浄)
1715: Former-Emperor Reigen's 13th daughter, Princess Yoshiko (1714-1758) married seventh Tokugawa shōgun Ietsugu
1716: The seventh Tokugawa shōgun Ietsugu died, he was aged 7
24 September 1732 (Kyōhō 17, 24th day of the 9th month): Reigen died; he was age 78.
Emperor Reigen's memory is honored and preserved at his designated Imperial mausoleum (misasagi), Tsuki no wa no misasagi at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. His immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō and Go-Sai are also enshrined along with his immediate Imperial successors, including Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono.
Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Reigen's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Sesshō, Nijō Mitsuhira, 1663–1664
Sessho, Takatsukasa Fusasuke, 1664–1668
Kampaku, Takatsukasa Fusasuke, 1668–1682
Kampaku, Ichijō Kaneteru, 1682–1687
Sadaijin Udaijin Naidaijin DainagonEras of Reigen's reign
The years of Reigen's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Kanbun (1661–1673)
Enpō (1673–1681)
Tenna (1681–1684)
Jōkyō (1684–1688)
Ancestry
Notes
References
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ; OCLC 42041594
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
__. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
Japanese emperors
1654 births
1732 deaths
Emperor Reigen
Emperor Reigen
Emperor Reigen
Emperor Reigen
17th-century Japanese monarchs
18th-century Japanese people
Japanese retired emperors | [
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219391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Nakamikado | Emperor Nakamikado | was the 114th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Nakamikado's birth name was Yoshihito before he became enthroned as Emperor in 1709, a reign that would last until 1735 with his abdication and retirement. As Emperor, Nakamikado had an increasingly warmed relationship with the shogunate in part due to his father's efforts. Relations warmed up to the point of family marriage talks but these fell through due to the sudden death of the potential Shōgun groom. Events that surrounded the Emperor included at least 2 major earthquakes, the largest Ryukyuan diplomatic mission of the Edo period, the Kyōhō Reforms, and the Kyōhō famine. It is unclear what role if any the Emperor had in these concurrent events as the role of "Emperor" was a figurehead at the time. Nakamikado's family included at least 14 children mothered by his wife, and 5 concubines. Nakamikado abdicated the throne in 1735 in favor of his first son, and died two years later.
Events of Nakamikado's life
Early life
Before Nakamikado's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was . Yasuhito was born on January 14, 1702 and was the fifth son of Emperor Higashiyama, while his birth mother was a lady-in-waiting named Kushige Yoshiko. Due to tradition he was brought up as if he were the son of the Empress consort (Arisugawa no Yukiko). Yasuhito's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. The early years of Yasuhito's life were marked with disasters and incidents that included two major earthquakes, and a revenge plot involving leaderless samurai to avenge their fallen master. The two major earthquakes that took place were in 1703, and then again in 1707. The first of these is the 1703 Genroku earthquake, which caused parts of the shōgun's castle to collapse in Edo. The city was consumed by a large fire that swept through the city on the following day. In response, the era's name was changed to Hōei (meaning "Prosperous Eternity") the following year in hopes of better fortune. The second earthquake (1707 Hōei earthquake), dealt serious damage and suffering to the city of Osaka. Mt. Fuji also erupted that same year causing ash to fall on Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi. In 1708, Yasuhito became Crown Prince and was given the pre-accession title of Masu-no-miya (長宮). On a particular note, Shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi appointed a commission to repair and restore Imperial mausoleums shortly before his death on February 19, 1709.
Reign
Prince Yoshihito acceded to the throne on July 27, 1709 as Emperor when his father abdicated in his favor. While he held the political title of Emperor, it was in name only as the shoguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. Due to his young age at the time, Imperial powers were exercised in his name by his now retired father Emperor Higashiyama. On January 16, 1710 Higashiyama died, and the imperial powers were now exercised in Nakamikado's name by his also retired grandfather Emperor Reigen. Events that took place during this transitional time included a Ryukyuan diplomatic mission, which lasted from July 7, 1710 to March 22, 1711. This particular mission was led by King Shō Eki of the Ryūkyū Kingdom, and was received by the shogunate. While this mission did not concern the young prince, this was the largest delegation in the Edo period at 168 people involved.
Nakamikado was formally enthroned as Emperor in 1711, and the era's name was changed from Hōei to Shōtoku. His reign would corresponded to the period from the sixth to the eighth shōgun. During this period, relations with the Tokugawa shogunate were fairly good in part due to former Emperor Higashiyama's warmed relationship with predecessors. Relations warmed to the point of marriage talks between Imperial Princess Yaso-no-miya Yoshiko (八十宮吉子内親王), daughter of Retired Emperor Reigen and the seventh shōgun, Tokugawa Ietsugu. These plans later became moot with the sudden death of Ietsugu at the age of six in Edo. On April 20, 1715 celebrations were held throughout the empire regarding the 100th anniversary of the death of the founding shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu (posthumously known as Gongen-sama). After Ietsugu's death in 1716, Tokugawa Yoshimune became the next shogun. He implemented the Kyōhō reforms the following year which eventually resulted in partial success. While the Emperor had no say in these reforms, Yoshimune had the Imperial mausolea repaired in 1718.
The next several years of Nakamikado's reign saw the implementation of the shogun's reforms, by 1730 the shogunate officially recognized the Dojima Rice Market in Osaka; and government supervisors (nengyoji) are appointed to monitor the market and to collect taxes. The transactions relating to rice exchanges developed into securities exchanges, used primarily for transactions in public securities. This development of improved agriculture production caused the price of rice to fall in mid-Kyohō. Intervening factors like famine, floods and other disasters though exacerbated some of the conditions which the shōgun intended to ameliorate. On August 3, 1730 a great fire broke out in Muromachi, 3,790 houses were burnt, and over 30,000 looms in Nishi-jin were destroyed. The Kyōhō famine started in 1732 and lasted into 1733, due to swarms of locust that devastated crops in agricultural communities around the inland sea.
Daijō Tennō
Emperor Nakamikado abdicated on April 13, 1735 in favor of his son Teruhito, who became Emperor Sakuramachi. Nakamikado took on the title of Daijō Tennō (Retired Emperor), and the era's name was changed to Genbun (meaning "Original civility") to mark the occasion. Even though he was retired, Nakamikado continued to exercise Imperial powers in the same way his predecessors had done. While the Emperor had no say, a major milestone occurred in Japanese monetary history when the shogunate published an edict in 1736 regarding coinage. This edict declared that henceforth, authorized coinage in the empire would be those copper coins which were marked on the obverse with the character 文 (Genbun, also pronounced bun in Japanese). The practice of placing the name of the era on coinage continues to present day with . Nakamikado died in 1737 due to unknown causes, his kami is enshrined in an Imperial mausoleum (misasagi), Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in this location are his immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai, Reigen, and Higashiyama. Nakamikado's immediate Imperial successors, including Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono, are enshrined here as well.
Eras and Kugyō
The years of Nakamikado's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. While is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.
The following eras occurred during Nakamikado's reign:
Hōei (1704–1711)
Shōtoku (1711–1716)
Kyōhō (1716–1736)
During Nakamikado's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:
Kampaku, Konoe Iehiro
Sadaijin Udaijin Naidaijin DainagonGenealogy
Nakamikado's family included at least 14 children who were born from his wife and 5 concubines:
Spouse
Concubines
Issue
Ancestry
Notes
References
Adams, Thomas Francis Morton. (1953). Japanese Securities Markets: A Historical Survey, Tokyo: Seihei Okuyama. OCLC 4376900
Brownlee, John S. (1999). Japanese Historians and the National Myths, 1600–1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jinmu. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ; OCLC 248071153
Hall, John Whitney. (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4. Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; OCLC 489633115
Foreign Press Center. (1997). Japan: Eyes on the Country, Views of the 47 Prefectures. Tokyo: Foreign Press Center. ; OCLC 39537893
Hayami, Akira, Osamu Saitō, Ronald P Toby. (2004) The Economic History of Japan: 1600–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ; OCLC 314513300
Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ; OCLC 42041594
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.
__. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887
Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ; OCLC 65177072
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
See also
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult
The Age of the Gods
Japanese emperors
1702 births
1737 deaths
Emperor Nakamikado
Emperor Nakamikado
Emperor Nakamikado
Emperor Nakamikado
Emperor Nakamikado
18th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese retired emperors | [
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219394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalism | Loyalism | Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Crown, notably with the loyalists opponents of the American Revolution, and United Empire Loyalists who moved to other colonies in British North America after the revolution.
Historical loyalism
18th century
North America
In North America, the term loyalist characterised colonists who rejected the American Revolution in favour of remaining loyal to the king. American loyalists included royal officials, Anglican clergymen, wealthy merchants with ties to London, demobilised British soldiers, and recent arrivals (especially from Scotland), as well as many ordinary colonists who were conservative by nature and/or felt that the protection of Britain was needed. Colonists with loyalist sympathies accounted for an estimated 15 per cent to 20 per cent of the white colonial population of the day, compared with those described as "Patriots", who accounted for about 40-50 per cent of the population and the rest neutrals. This high level of political polarisation leads historians to argue that the American Revolution was as much a civil war as it was a war of independence from the British Crown.
British military strategy during the American Revolution relied on mobilising loyalist soldiers throughout the Thirteen Colonies. Throughout the war, the British military formed over 100 loyalist line regiments whose strength totaled 19,000 of which 9,700 served most at one time. Including militia and marine forces more than 50,000 served. The Patriots used tactics such as property confiscation to suppress loyalism and drive active loyalists away.
After the war, approximately 80-90 per cent of the Loyalists stayed in the new United States, and adapted to the new conditions and changes of a republic.
Loyalist migrants
Of the 62,000 who left by 1784, almost 50,000 sought refuge elsewhere in the British North American colonies of Quebec (partitioned into the Canadas in 1791), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and St. John's Island; whereas the remaining loyalist migrants went to Jamaica, the Bahamas and Britain, often with financial help from the Crown. They were joined by 30,000 or more "Late Loyalists" who settled in Ontario in the early 1790s at the invitation of the British administration and given land and low taxes in exchange for swearing allegiance to the King, for a total of 70,000+ new settlers. There were in fact four waves of emigration: in the years 1774 through 1776 when for example 1300 Tories were evacuated with the British fleet that left Boston for Halifax; the large wave of 50,000 in the years 1783; some few thousands who had stayed in the new Republic but left disenchanted with the fruits of the revolution for Upper Canada between 1784 and 1790; and the large number 'Late Loyalists,' 30,000, who came in the early 1790s for land, many of them neutrals during the War, to Upper Canada; they soon outnumbered the original truly committed anti-Republicans, 10,000, who had earlier arrived: some Loyalists about 10 per cent maybe from New Brunswick returned to the States as did an unknown number from Nova Scotia. This migration also included Native American loyalists such as Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, the "Black Loyalists" – former slaves who had joined the British cause in exchange for their freedom, and Anabaptist loyalists (Mennonites).
These Loyalists were the founders of modern English-speaking Canada, and many of their descendants of these King's Loyal Americans still identify themselves with the nominal hereditary title "UEL" (United Empire Loyalist) today. To one degree or another, from ideological reasons or less so mixed with prospects of a better life, "All the Loyalists had taken a stand for the Crown and the British Empire"...whether "from a rigorous toryism to some vague sense that royal government was hardly so evil as its enemies claimed. In Canada this diversity was preserved. The Loyalist communities were rarely unanimous - or placid - in their politics".
Ireland
The term loyalist was first used in Irish politics in the 1790s to refer to Protestant Irishmen (often of English or Scottish ancestry) who opposed Catholic Emancipation and Irish independence from the British Empire. Prominent Irish loyalists included John Foster, John Fitzgibbon and John Beresford. In the subsequent Irish Rebellion of 1798, the term ultra loyalist was used to describe those who were opposed to the United Irishmen, who were in support of an independent Irish Republic. In 1795, Ulster loyalists founded the Orange Order and organised the Yeoman Militia, which helped to put down the rebellion. Some loyalists, such as Richard Musgrave, considered the rebellion a Catholic plot to drive Protestant colonists out of Ireland.
19th century
Australia
The Sydney and Parramatta Loyalist Associations, with approximately 50 members each, were formed in 1804 to counter radical societies in those counties, and subsequently helped to put down the Castle Hill convict rebellion later that year.
England and Wales
During the early 19th century, nearly every English and Welsh county formed a Loyalist Association of Workers in an effort to counter a perceived threat from radical societies. The first such association was founded in Westminster on 20 November 1792.
Modern loyalism
Northern Ireland
Generally, the term loyalist in Northern Ireland is typified by a militant opposition to Irish republicanism, and also often to Roman Catholicism. It stresses Ulster Protestant identity and community with its own folk heroes and events, such as the misfortunes and bravery of the 36th (Ulster) Division during World War I and the activities of the Orange Order. An Ulster loyalist is most commonly a unionist who strongly favours the political union between Great Britain and Northern Ireland, although some may also support an independent Northern Ireland. In recent times, the term has been used to refer to several loyalist paramilitary groups, such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), Red Hand Commando (RHC) and the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF).
Although Irish loyalist paramilitaries have claimed to speak on behalf of their communities and unionists in general, their electoral support is minimal and exclusively based in the urban working class. The Progressive Unionist Party, a pro-Belfast Agreement loyalist party, won seats in the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1998, 2003 and 2007, but lost them in 2011.
Republic of Ireland
Loyalism in the post-partition Republic of Ireland has declined since independence. Large numbers of southern Irish loyalists and non-loyalists volunteered for service in the British Armed Forces in World War I and World War II, many of them losing their lives or settling in the United Kingdom after the wars. Partition saw mass movements of southern loyalists to Northern Ireland or to Great Britain, although small loyalist or neo-unionist groups such as the Reform Movement, the Border Minority Group and the Loyal Irish Union are still active.
Scotland
The Scottish loyalist movement originated during the Industrial Revolution when a significant number of Ulster Protestants migrated to Scotland from Ireland. In Scotland, a loyalist is someone on the fringes of Scottish unionism who is often strongly supportive of loyalism and unionism, although mainly concentrating on the Irish union issue rather than on Scottish politics. Scottish loyalism is typified by militant opposition to Scottish republicanism, Scottish independence and the Roman Catholic Church – particularly the existence of Catholic denominational schools.
Coming from a large section of Scottish society Scottish loyalism has become more visible through prominent demonstrations of the beliefs of its members since the establishment of a Scottish Parliament. Scottish loyalism is visible through participation at Orange parades with supporters from Rangers, Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Airdrie United.
Loyalists in Scotland mostly live in small working-class enclaves in the major urban centres or industrial villages, notably Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Edinburgh, Renfrewshire, Fife, West Lothian and Ayrshire. There are relatively few loyalists in areas such as Aberdeen, the Scottish Borders and the Scottish Highlands.
See also
Conservative
Legitimist
Monarchism
Reactionary
Restoration (disambiguation)
Royalist
Notes
References
External links
American Loyalists
British Ulster Alliance
Ulster-Scots Online
CAIN – University of Ulster
Haldimand Collection
Welsh Loyalists
Scottish Loyalists
Politics of Northern Ireland
Politics of Scotland
Political movements in the British Isles
Political ideologies
Scottish society
Society of Northern Ireland | [
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219396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20instrument | Legal instrument | Legal instrument is a legal term of art that is used for any formally executed written document that can be formally attributed to its author, records and formally expresses a legally enforceable act, process, or contractual duty, obligation, or right, and therefore evidences that act, process, or agreement. Examples include a certificate, deed, bond, contract, will, legislative act, notarial act, court writ or process, or any law passed by a competent legislative body in municipal (domestic) or international law. Many legal instruments were written under seal by affixing a wax or paper seal to the document in evidence of its legal execution and authenticity (which often removed the need for consideration in contract law). However, today many jurisdictions have done away with the requirement of documents being under seal in order to give them legal effect.
Electronic legal documents
With the onset of the Internet and electronic equipment such as the personal computers and cell-phones, legal instruments or formal legal documents have undergone a progressive change of dematerialisation. In this electronic age, document authentication can now be verified digitally using various software. All documents needing authentication can be processed as digital documents with all the necessary information such as date and time stamp imbedded. To prevent tampering or unauthorized changes to the original document, encryption is used. In modern times, authentication is no longer limited to the type of paper used, the specialized seal, stamps, etc., as document authentication software helps secure the original context. The use of electronic legal documents is most prominent in the United States' courts. Most American courts prefer the filing of electronic legal documents over paper. However, there is not yet a public law to unify the different standards of document authentication. Therefore, one must know the court's requirement before filing court papers.
To address part of this concern, the United States Congress enacted the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act in 2000 (P.L. 106-229 of 2000, 15 USCS sec. 7001) specifying that no court could thereafter fail to recognize a contract simply because it was digitally signed. The law is very permissive, making essentially any electronic character in a contract sufficient. It is also quite restrictive in that it does not force the recognition of some document types in electronic form, no matter what the electronic character might be. No restriction is made to signatures which are adequately cryptographically tied to both the document text (see message digest) and to a particular key whose use should be restricted to certain persons (e.g., the alleged sender). There is thus a gap between what the cryptographic engineering can provide and what the law assumes is both possible and meaningful.
Several states had already enacted laws on the subject of electronic legal documents and signatures before the U.S. Congress had acted, including Utah, Washington, and California to name only a few of the earliest. They vary considerably in intent, coverage, cryptographic understanding, and effect.
Several other nations and international bodies have also enacted statutes and regulations regarding the validity and binding nature of digital signatures.
To date, the variety (and inadequacy) of the definitions used for digital signatures (or electronic signatures) have produced a legal and contractual minefield for those who may be considering relying on the legality and enforceability of digitally signed contracts in any of many jurisdictions. Adequate legislation adequately informed by cryptographic engineering technology remains an elusive goal. That it has been fully, or adequately, achieved (in any jurisdiction) is a claim which must be taken with considerable caution.
See also
Legal coding
Legal document assistant
References
External links
A framework and infrastructure for assuring legal strength in digital interactions
Legal documents | [
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219397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20hypocolius | Grey hypocolius | The grey hypocolius or simply hypocolius (Hypocolius ampelinus) is a small passerine bird species. It is the sole member of the genus Hypocolius and it is placed in a family of its own, the Hypocoliidae. This slender and long tailed bird is found in the dry semi-desert region of northern Africa, Arabia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and western India. They fly in flocks and forage mainly on fruits, migrating south in winter.
Description
The grey hypocolius is a slim bird with a long tail, slight crest and thick, short hook-tipped bill. Its shape and soft, satiny plumage resembles that of the waxwing. Birds are mainly a uniform grey or brownish-grey colour, with males having a black triangular mask around the eyes. They have white-tipped black primary wing feathers and a black terminal band on the tail. Adults are about 19–21 cm in length.
The head feathers are raised when the bird is excited. They fly in a straight non-undulating style and when hopping in shrubbery, can appear like a babbler. The tarsus is short and sturdy with coarse scales. There are rictal bristles visible at the base of the bill and the nostrils are exposed, small and oval.
Taxonomy
The relationships of the species were formerly unclear. Earlier authors had suggested that they were related to the bulbuls or shrikes. They appear to be related to the waxwings, and at least one study based on molecular sequences suggests that it belongs to the same group. A 2019 study found them to be in a clade containing the palmchat (Dulidae), waxwings (Bombycillidae), silky-flycatchers (Ptiliogonatidae), hylocitrea (Hylocitreidae), and the extinct Hawaiian honeyeaters (Mohoidae), with Hypocoliidae being a sister group to the Mohoidae (with both diverging about 15-20 mya during the early-mid Miocene), and the clade containing Mohoidae and Hypocoliidae being sister to Hylocitreidae, which diverged slightly earlier in the Miocene.
Distribution and habitat
The grey hypocolius ranges through the Middle East, breeding in the Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan area, and wintering mostly near the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coasts of Arabia, including Bahrain. It is a vagrant to Turkey, Israel, Egypt and Oman. They are regular winter visitors to the Kutch region of western India and vagrants have been noted as far south as Kihim near Bombay. It is found in woodland and scrub in arid and semiarid regions, especially river valleys near deserts, as well as in irrigated and cultivated areas with trees, such as palm groves and gardens.
Behaviour
The grey hypocolius is a shy and unobtrusive, even cryptic, bird which will fly to thick cover when disturbed, where it will remain motionless until the perceived danger has passed. Its flight is strong and direct (without undulations). It will form flocks, especially in winter, and roost communally.
Breeding
The breeding season is June or July in Arabia. The nest is cup shaped and deep lined with hair and fluff. The nest is often placed on the leaves of a date palm at a height of about 3 to 5 feet. Both the male and female take part in nest building. The clutch is four eggs. The eggs are leaden white with blotches. The incubation period is about 14–15 days.
Feeding
Grey hypocoliuses forage quietly and methodically in foliage, through clusters of trees, palm groves and orchards, rarely coming to the ground. Though they may eat some insects, their main diet consists of fruits and berries, including mulberries, figs and dates. In captivity they have been known to readily take bread.
Calls
The most common vocalization is a series of squealing descending notes or kleeeu whistles. Other calls include scolding chirps.
Conservation
Because the species has a large range, and because it does not meet the population size and decline criteria of the IUCN Red List, the conservation status is evaluated as being of "least concern". Because of its monotypic family status it is much sought after by birdwatchers.
References
External links
Hypocolius birding info and photos
Hypocolius videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
grey hypocolius
Birds of Western Asia
Birds of the Middle East
grey hypocolius
grey hypocolius
Extant Miocene first appearances
Articles containing video clips | [
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219405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac%20Catholic%20Church | Syriac Catholic Church | The Syriac Catholic Church (, ), also known as Syriac Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch, is an Eastern Catholic Christian originating in the Levant that uses the West Syriac Rite liturgy and has many practices and rites in common with the Syriac Orthodox Church. Being one of the twenty-three Eastern Catholic Churches, the Syriac Catholic Church is a self-governed sui iuris particular church church while it is in full communion with the Holy See and entirety of the Catholic Church.
The Syriac Catholic Church traces its history to the first centuries of Christianity. After the Chalcedonian Schism the Church of Antioch became part of Oriental Orthodoxy, and was known as the Syriac Orthodox Church, while a new Antiochian patriarchate was established to fill its place by the churches which accepted the Council of Chalcedon. The Syriac Orthodox Church came into full communion with the Holy See and the modern Syriac Orthodox Church is a result of those that did not want to join the Catholic Church. Therefore, the Syriac Catholic Church is a continuation of the original Church of Antioch.
The church is headed by Mor Ignatius Joseph III Younan, who has been the patriarch since 2009. Its patriarch of Antioch has the title of Patriarch of Antioch and all the East of the Syriacs and resides in Beirut, Lebanon.
Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to work among the Syriac Orthodox in Aleppo in 1626. So many of them were received into communion with Rome in 1662, when the patriarchate had fallen vacant, and the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akijan, as patriarch of the Syriac Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akijan's death in 1677 two opposing patriarchs were elected, one being the uncle of the other, representing the two parties (one pro-Catholic, the other anti-Catholic). But when the Catholic patriarch died in 1702, this very brief line of Catholic patriarchs upon the Syriac Church's See of Antioch died out with him.
Later, in 1782, the Syriac Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as patriarch. Shortly after he was enthroned, he declared himself Catholic and in unity with the Pope of Rome. Since Jarweh, there has been an unbroken succession of Syriac Catholic Patriarchs.
Name
The Syriac Catholic Church () is sometimes also called the Syrian Catholic Church. Furthermore, it is sometimes referred by its patriarchate, the Syriac Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch. See also: Syriac Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch.
History
Pre-Crusades period
The Syriac Catholic Church claims its origin through Saint Peter prior to his departure to Rome, and extends its roots back to the origins of Christianity in the Orient; in the Acts of the Apostles we are told that it is in Antioch where the followers of Jesus for the first time were called "Christians" (Acts 11:26).
In the time of the first Ecumenical Councils, the Patriarch of Antioch held the ecclesiastical authority over the Diocese of the Orient, which was to be extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Its scholarly mission in both languages, Greek and Syriac, was to provide the world and the Universal Church with eminent saints, scholars, hermits, martyrs and pastors. Among these great people are Saint Ephrem (373), Doctor of the Church, and Saint Jacob of Sarug (521).
During the Crusades
During the Crusades there were many examples of warm relations between Catholic and Syriac Orthodox bishops. Some of these bishops favored union with Rome, but there was no push to unify until a decree of union between the Syriac Orthodox and Rome was signed at the Council of Florence September 30, 1444 - but the effects of this decree were rapidly annulled by opponents of it in the Syriac Church's hierarchy.
Split with the Syriac Orthodox Church
Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries evangelizing in Aleppo caused some local Syriac Orthodox faithful to form a pro-catholic movement within the Syriac Orthodox Church. In 1667, Andrew Akijan, a supporter of union with the Catholic Church, was elected as Patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akijan's death in 1677, two opposing patriarchs were elected, with the Pro-Catholic one being the uncle of Andrew Akijan. However, when the Catholic Patriarch died in 1702, the Ottoman government supported the Syriac Orthodoxy's agitation against the Syriac Catholics, and throughout the 18th century the Syriac Catholics underwent suffering and much persecution. Due to this, there were long periods when no Syriac Catholic bishops were functioning, so a Patriarch could not be elected, and the community was forced to go entirely underground. However, in 1782, the Syriac Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as Patriarch. Shortly after he was enthroned, he declared himself Catholic and in unity with the Pope of Rome. After this declaration, Jarweh took refuge in Lebanon and built the still-extant monastery of Our Lady at Sharfeh, and by that act became the Patriarch of the Syriac Catholic Church. Since Jarweh, there has been an unbroken succession of Syriac Catholic Patriarchs, which is known as the Ignatius Line.
After the split up until modern times
In 1829 the Ottoman government granted legal recognition to the Armenian Catholic Church, and in 1845 the Syriac Catholic Church was also granted its own civil emancipation. Meanwhile, the residence of the Patriarch was shifted to Aleppo in 1831. However, after the Massacre of Aleppo in 1850, the Patriarchal See was shifted to Mardin in 1854.
After becoming officially recognized by the Ottoman Government in 1845 the Syriac Catholic Church expanded rapidly. However, The expansion was ended by the persecutions and massacres that took place during the Assyrian genocide of World War I. After that, the Syriac Catholic Patriarchal See was moved to Beirut away from Mardin, to which many Ottoman Christians had fled the Genocide. In addition to its see in Beirut, the patriarchal seminary and printing house are located at Sharfeh Monastery in Sharfeh, Lebanon.
Organization
Leadership
, the Patriarch of Antioch (an Ancient major see, where several Catholic and Orthodox Patriarchates nominally reside) was Moran Mor Ignatius Joseph III Younan, resident in Beirut, Lebanon. The Syriac Catholic Patriarch always takes the name "Ignatius" in addition to another name.
In modern history the leaders of the Syriac Catholic Church have been: Patriarch Michael III Jarweh, Archbishop Clemens Daoud, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani, Vicomte de Tarrazi, Monsignor Ishac Armaleh, Ignatius Gabriel I Tappouni, Chorbishop Gabriel Khoury-Sarkis, Ignatius Antony II Hayyek, Ignatius Moses I Daoud, Ignatius Peter VIII Abdalahad, and Ignatius Joseph III Yonan.
Eminent Syriac saints, scholars, hermits, martyrs and pastors since 1100 also include Dionysius Bar Salibi (1171), Gregorius X Bar Hebraeus (1286) and more recently Bishop Mor Flavianus Michael Malke.
The Syriac Church leadership has produced a variety of scholarly writings in a variety of topics. For example, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani was widely praised for his work in Syriac and is responsible for Pope Benedict XV recognising Saint Ephrem as a Doctor of the Catholic Church. Likewise Patriarch Ignatius Behnam II Beni is known for imploring eastern theology to defend the Primacy of Rome.
The Patriarch of Antioch and all the East of the Syriacs presides upon the Patriarchal Eparchy of Beirut and leads spiritually all the Syriac Catholic Community around the world.
The community includes two archdioceses in Iraq, four in Syria, one in Egypt and Sudan, a Patriarchal Vicariate in Israel, a Patriarchal Vicariate in Turkey and the Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance in the United States and Canada.
Current jurisdictions
The Syriac Catholic Church was formally united with the Holy See of Rome in 1781.
Middle East diocesan jurisdictions
Syriac Catholic Patriarch of Antioch
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Eparchy of Beirut, Lebanon
Metropolitan Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Damascus, Syria (without suffragan)
Metropolitan Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Homs, Syria (without suffragan; titular sees of Hama and Nabk are united with it)
Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Aleppo, Syria
Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Hassaké-Nisibi, Syria
Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Mossul, Iraq
Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Baghdad, Iraq
Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Hadiab-Erbil, Iraq
Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Cairo, Egypt
Old World missionary jurisdictions
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Basra, Iraq and the Gulf
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem (Palestine and Jordan)
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Turkey
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Dependency of Sudan and South Sudan (formerly 'of Sudan')
Overseas diaspora
Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark, New Jersey for the US, which has 11 parishes in the United States.
Syriac Catholic Apostolic Exarchate for Canada (6 parishes)
Syriac Catholic Apostolic Exarchate for Venezuela
Former jurisdictions
Titular sees
Metropolitan : Amida of the Syriacs, Apamea in Syria of the Syriacs, Edessa in Osrhoëne of the Syriacs, Tagritum of the Syriacs
Archiepiscopal : Chalcedon of the Syriacs
Episcopal : Anastasiopolis of the Syriacs, Arethusa of the Syriacs, Batnæ of the Syriacs, Dara Syrorum of the Syriacs, Hama of the Syriacs (united with Homs), Hierapolis in Syria of the Syriacs, Ioppe of the Syriacs, Mardin of the Syriacs, Martyropolis of the Syriacs, Nabk of the Syriacs (united with Homs), Phoba of the Syriacs, Tripolis in Libanum of the Syriacs
Other suppressed jurisdictions
Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Gazireh, Turkey
Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Mardin and Amida, Turkey
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Lebanon
Current hierarchy
Moran Mor Ignatius Joseph III Younan (Patriarch of Antioch)
Jihad Mtanos Battah (Curial Bishop of Antioch and Titular Bishop of Phaena)
Basile Georges Casmoussa (Archbishop {personal title} and Curial Bishop of Antioch)
Flavien Joseph Melki (Curial Bishop of Antioch and Titular Archbishop of Dara dei Siri)
Jules Mikhael Al-Jamil (Auxiliary Bishop of Antioch and Titular Archbishop of Tagritum)
Gregorios Elias Tabé (Archbishop of Damascus)
Théophile Georges Kassab (Archbishop of Homs; deceased)
Denys Antoine Chahda (Archbishop of Aleppo)
Jacques Behnan Hindo (Archbishop of Hassaké-Nisibi)
Youhanna Boutros Moshe (Archbishop of Mossul)
Ephrem Yousif Abba Mansoor (Archbishop of Baghdad)
Athanase Matti Shaba Matoka (Archbishop Emeritus of Baghdad)
Clément-Joseph Hannouche (Bishop of Cairo and Protosyncellus of Sudan and South Sudan)
Yousif Benham Habash (Bishop of Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark)
Timoteo Hikmat Beylouni (Apostolic Exarch of Venezuela and Titular Bishop of Sabrata)
Iwannis Louis Awad (Apostolic Exarch Emeritus of Venezuela and Titular Bishop of Zeugma in Syria; deceased)
Michael Berbari (Patriarchal Vicar of Australia and New Zealand)
the Church was estimated to have 159,000 faithful, 10 bishoprics, 85 parishes, 106 secular priests, 12 religious-order priests, 102 men and women in religious orders, 11 permanent deacons and 31 seminarians.
Liturgy
The West Syriac Rite is rooted in the old tradition of both the churches of Jerusalem and Antioch and has ties with the ancient Jewish Berakah.
The Syriac Catholic Church follows a similar tradition to other Eastern Catholic Churches who use the West Syriac Rite, such as the Maronites and Syro-Malankara Christians. This rite is clearly distinct from the Greek Byzantine rite of Antioch of the Melkite Catholics and their Orthodox counterparts. Syriac Catholic priests were traditionally bound to celibacy by the Syriac Catholic local Synod of Sharfeh in 1888, but there are now a number of married priests.
The Liturgy of the Syriac Catholic Church is very similar to that of the Syriac Orthodox Church.
Liturgical paraphernalia
Fans
The Syriac Catholic Church uses fans with bells on them and engraved with seraphim during the Qurbono. Usually someone in the minor orders would shake these fans behind a Bishop to symbolise the Seraphim. They are also used during the consecration where two men would shake them over the altar during moments in the epliclesis and words of institution when the priest says "he took and broke" and "this is my body/blood".
Thurible
The thurible of the Syriac Catholic Church consists of 9 bells, representing the 9 levels of angels.
Liturgy of the Hours
The Liturgy of the Hours is exactly the same as in the Syriac Orthodox. There are two versions of this the Phenqitho and the Shhimo. The former is the more complicated 7 volume version. While the latter is the simple version.
Liturgical ranking
Likewise the ranking of clerics in the Syriac Church is extremely similar to that of the Syriac Orthodox Church. The most notable differences are:
Not all celibate Priests take on monastic vows. In the Syriac Orthodox Church all celibate priests are monks.
There is a solid distinction between the major orders and minor orders in the Syriac Catholic Church:
A man is tonsured as soon as he receives his first minor order of Mzamrono (Cantor).
Major Orders
Bishop
Kahno (Priest)
Mshamshono (Deacon)
Minor Orders
Afudyaqno (Sub-deacon)
Quroyo (Lector)
Mzamrono (Cantor)
Languages
The liturgical language of the Syriac Catholic Church, Syriac, is a dialect of Aramaic. The Qurbono Qadisho (literally: Holy Mass or Holy Offering/Sacrifice) of the Syriac Church uses a variety of Anaphoras, with the Anaphora of the 12 Apostles being the one mostly in use with the Liturgy of St James the Just.
Their ancient semitic language is known as Aramaic (or "Syriac" after the time of Christ since the majority of people who spoke this language belonged to the province of "Syria"). It is the language spoken by Jesus, Mary and the Apostles. Many of the ancient hymns of the church are still maintained in this native tongue although several have been translated into Arabic, English, French and other languages.
Syriac is still spoken in some few communities in eastern Syria and northern Iraq, but for most Arabic is the vernacular language.
Martyrs
Throughout the History of the Syriac Church there have been many martyrs. A recent example is Flavianus Michael Malke during the 1915 Assyrian genocide.
Syriac Catholics in Iraq
On 31 October 2010, 58 Iraqi Syriac Catholics were killed by Muslim extremists while attending Sunday Divine Liturgy, 78 others were wounded. The attack by Islamic State of Iraq on the congregation of Our Lady of Deliverance Syriac Catholic Church was the bloodiest single attack on an Iraqi Christian church in recent history.
Two priests, Fathers Saad Abdallah Tha'ir and Waseem Tabeeh, were killed. Another, Father Qatin, was seriously wounded but recovered.
See also
Dioceses of the Syriac Catholic Church
List of Syriac Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch
References
Bibliography
Claude Sélis, Les Syriens orthodoxes et catholiques, Brepols (col. Fils d'Abraham), Bruxelles, 1988,
Jean-Pierre Valognes, Vie et mort des Chrétiens d'Orient, Fayard, Paris, 1994,
R Janin, "Le rite syrien et les Églises syriennes" in Revue des études byzantines (1919), pp. 321-341
Afram Yakoub: The Path to Assyria - A Call For National Renewal. Tigris Press, Södertälje 2020,
Sources and external links
Website of the Syriac Catholic Patriarchate
GCatholic linking overview of jurisdictions
Article on the Syriac Catholic Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA web site
GCatholic.org page on the Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch
Opus Libani site: Syriac Catholic Church in Lebanon
Encyclopaedia of the Orient – Syriac Catholic Church
Catholic Churches
Syriac religious relations and the Catholic Church
Pope Benedict XIV, Allatae Sunt (On the observance of Oriental Rites), Encyclical, 1755
Addresses of Pope Paul VI and His Holiness Mar Ignatius Jacob III, 1971
Common Declaration of Pope John Paul II and His Holiness Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, 1984
Address of John Paul II on Occasion of the Visit to the Catholicos of the Malankarese Syrian Orthodox Church, 1986
Eparchies, churches and monasteries
Mass times and information of Syriac Catholic churches
Archdioceses of Syriac Catholics, Iraq
Mar Yousif Syriac Catholic Diocese (Al Mansour, Baghdad, Iraq)
Eparchy Our Lady of Deliverance North America
St. Ephrem Syriac Catholic Church (Jacksonville, Florida)
St. Joseph Syriac Catholic Church (Toronto, Canada)
Mar Touma Syriac Catholic Church, Michigan
Syriac Catholic Archbishopric (Aleppo, Syria)
Syriac Catholic Monastery of Mar Musa, Syria
St. Jan Apostel van Syrische Katholieken, Netherlands
1662 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
Apostolic sees
Organizations based in Damascus | [
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219407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch%20Peter%20VII%20of%20Alexandria | Patriarch Peter VII of Alexandria | Petros VII (September 3, 1949 – September 11, 2004) was the Greek Orthodox Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa from 1997 to 2004. During his reign, Petros VII was credited with reviving the Greek Orthodox churches in Africa by increasing the churches' attendance of about 250,000 people.
Early life
Petros was born Petros Papapetrou () in Sichari, Kyrenia District, Cyprus on September 3, 1949. He was the oldest son of a Greek Orthodox family and both his father and grandfather were priests.
Education
At the age of 12, Petros enrolled at the Machairas Monastery. Then at 17, Petros entered the Apostle Barnbas Seminary in Nicosia.
He graduated from Barnbas Seminary in 1969 and was ordained as a deacon at the Machairas Monastery.
A year later, Petros was summoned by Patriarch Nicholas VI to Alexandria. He served as a deacon under Nicholas VI while studying at the Averof High Schools. Later on, in 1974, Petros received a scholarship from the Greek Foreign Ministry to attend the School of Theology at Athens University.
Career
Work in Africa
Upon graduating from Athens University in 1978, Petros was ordained as a priest by Bishop Chrysostomos of Dodonis and left for Cairo, where he was given the title of Patriarchal Vicar. Later, in 1983, Petros was promoted to Bishop of Babylon. Throughout his career, Petros took on multiple posts throughout Africa, ranging from Johannesburg, Accra, Cameroon and Central East Africa. While in Africa, Petros focused on restoring monasteries, such as the Monastery of St. Sawas in Alexandria, and extending his missionary work in East Africa.
Patriarchate of Alexandria
Petros assumed the title of Patriarchate of Alexandria on March 9, 1997, following his election by the Holy Synod in February 1997. He had a close rapport with his predecessor, Patriarch Parthenius III of Alexandria and assumed the latter's post after his death in 1996. Throughout his reign, Petros built relationships with other church organizations and engaged with religious churches outside the Greek Orthodox community. Petros also initiated peaceful relationships between the Muslim and Christian people in the Middle East and interacted with Arab leaders, including Yasser Arafat. Petros reigned as Patriarch of Alexandria for seven years until his death.
Missionary work
Petros used his position as patriarch to connect Orthodox groups throughout the world and to "spread the voice of Orthodoxy throughout Africa, to people who have never heard of Christ, who are dying from hunger and sicknesses, where there are no schools". In 2002, Petros wrote to George W. Bush in an attempt to prevent the Iraq War. In his letter, Petros stated that invading Iraq would be viewed as an attack on Islam and create future problems on other religions.
Death
On September 11, 2004, Petros VII died in a 17-person helicopter crash alongside three other Church of Alexandria bishops. The Chinook helicopter carrying the passengers crashed into the Aegean Sea while travelling to the monasteries of Mount Athos. In 2007, Boeing was sued by the victims' families for negligence and product liability. The lawsuit was settled out of court.
He was awarded Order of the Yugoslav Crown and Order of Saint Sava.
References
External links
1949 births
2004 deaths
Greek Cypriot people
20th-century Greek Patriarchs of Alexandria
21st-century Greek Patriarchs of Alexandria
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Cyprus
Recipients of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown
Recipients of the Order of St. Sava
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Greece
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 2004
Victims of helicopter accidents or incidents | [
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219411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair | Convair | Convair, previously Consolidated Vultee, was an American aircraft manufacturing company that later expanded into rockets and spacecraft. The company was formed in 1943 by the merger of Consolidated Aircraft and Vultee Aircraft. In 1953, it was purchased by General Dynamics, and operated as their Convair Division for most of its corporate history.
Convair is best known for its military aircraft; it produced aircraft such as the Convair B-36 Peacemaker and Convair B-58 Hustler strategic bombers, and the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger and Convair F-106 Delta Dart interceptors. It also manufactured the first Atlas rockets, including the rockets that were used for the crewed orbital flights of Project Mercury. The company's subsequent Atlas-Centaur design continued this success and derivatives of the design remain in use as of 2020.
The company also entered the jet airliner business with its Convair 880 and Convair 990 designs. These were smaller than contemporary aircraft like the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, but somewhat faster than both. This combination of features failed to find a profitable niche and the company exited the airliner design business. However, the manufacturing capability built up for these projects proved very profitable and the company became a major subcontractor for airliner fuselages.
In 1994, most of the company's divisions were sold by General Dynamics to McDonnell Douglas and Lockheed, with the remaining components deactivated in 1996.
History
Origins
Consolidated produced important aircraft in the early years of World War II, especially the B-24 Liberator heavy bomber and the PBY Catalina seaplane for the U.S. armed forces and their allies. The Catalina remained in production through May 1945, and more than 4,000 were built. What was soon called "Convair" (first unofficially, and then officially), was created in 1943 by the merger of the Consolidated Aircraft Company and the Vultee Aircraft Company. This merger produced a large airplane company, ranked fourth among United States corporations by value of wartime production contracts, higher than the giants like Douglas Aircraft, Boeing, and Lockheed. Convair always had most of its research, design, and manufacturing operations in San Diego County of Southern California, and nearby counties, though other locations were involved as well.
Jet Age, Cold War, and Space Age
In March 1953, all of the Convair company was bought by the General Dynamics Corporation, a conglomerate of military and high-technology companies, and it became officially the Convair Division within General Dynamics.
After the beginning of the Jet Age of military fighters and bombers, Convair was a pioneer of the delta-winged aircraft design, along with the French Dassault aircraft company, which designed and built the Mirage fighter planes.
One of Convair's most famous products was the ten-engined Convair B-36 strategic bomber, burning four turbojets and turning six pusher propellers driven by Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major radial piston engines. The Convair B-36 was the largest landbased piston engined bomber in the world. The Atlas missile, the F-102 Delta Dagger and F-106 Delta Dart delta-winged interceptors, and the delta-winged B-58 Hustler supersonic intercontinental nuclear bomber were all Convair products. For a period of time in the 1960s, Convair manufactured its own line of jet commercial airliners, the Convair 880 and Convair 990 Coronado, but this did not turn out to be profitable. However, Convair found that it was profitable to be an aviation subcontractor and manufacture large subsections of airliners — such as fuselages — for the larger airliner companies, McDonnell Douglas, Boeing, and Lockheed. The Convair Division produced its own airplane designs, such as several airliners, until 1965, when it shifted from these to airframe/aerostructure subcontracting projects for other companies.
In the 1950s, Convair shifted money and effort to its missile and rocket projects, producing the Terrier missile ship-launched surface-to-air system for the U.S. Navy during the 1960s and 1970s. Convair's Atlas rocket was originally developed in 1957 as an ICBM for the U.S. Air Force. It was replaced in 1962 by the room-temperature liquid-fueled Titan II missile and the solid-fueled Minuteman missile. The Atlas rocket transitioned into a civilian launch vehicle and was used for the first orbital crewed U.S. space flights during Project Mercury in 1962 and 1963.
The Atlas rocket became a very reliable booster for launching of satellites and continued to evolve, remaining in use into the 21st century, when combined with the Centaur upper stage to form the Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle for launching geosynchronous communication satellites and space probes. The Centaur rocket was also designed, developed, and produced by Convair, and it was the first widely used outer space rocket to use the all-cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The use of this liquid hydrogen – liquid oxygen combination in the Centaur was an important direct precursor to the use of the same fuel-oxidizer combination in the Saturn S-II second stage and the Saturn S-IVB third stage of the gigantic Saturn V moon rocket of the Apollo program. The S-IVB had earlier also been used as the second stage of the smaller Saturn IB rocket, such as the one used to launch Apollo 7. The Centaur upper stage was first designed and developed for launching the Surveyor lunar landers, beginning in 1966, to augment the delta-V of the Atlas rockets and give them enough payload capability to deliver the required mass of the Surveyors to the Moon.
More than 100 Convair-produced Atlas-Centaur rockets (including those with their successor designations) were used to successfully launch over 100 satellites, and among their many other outer-space missions, they launched the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 space probes, the first two to be launched on trajectories that carried them out of the Solar System.
In addition to aircraft, missiles, and space vehicles, Convair developed the large Charactron vacuum tubes, a form of cathode-ray tube (CRT) computer display with a shaped mask to form characters, and to give an example of a minor product, the CORDIC algorithms, which is widely used today to calculate trigonometric functions in calculators, field-programmable gate arrays, and other small electronic systems.
Dissolution
General Dynamics announced the sale of the Missile Systems Division segment of Convair to Hughes Aircraft Company in May 1992 and the Space Systems Division segment to Martin Marietta in 1994. In July 1994, General Dynamics and McDonnell Douglas mutually agreed to terminate Convair's contract to provide fuselages for the 300-seat MD-11 airliner. Manufacturing responsibility was to be transferred to McDonnell Douglas, which said it would not preserve the operation in San Diego. General Dynamics had tried for two years to sell the Aircraft structures segment of Convair unit, but the effort ultimately failed.
The termination of the contract meant the end of the Convair Division and of General Dynamics' presence in San Diego, as well as the city's long aircraft-building tradition. The defense contractor once employed 18,000 people there but after selling its divisions, that number is now zero. General Dynamics closed its complex in Kearny Mesa, demolishing the facility between 1994 and 1996. Homes and offices now occupy the site. The Lindbergh Field plant that produced B-24s during World War II was also demolished and the consolidated rental car facility now occupies this space.
The Fort Worth, Texas factory, constructed to build the B-24 Liberator bomber, and its associated engineering locations and laboratories — all previously used to make hundreds of Consolidated B-24 bombers, General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark fighter-bombers and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters, along with dozens of smaller projects — were sold, along with all intellectual property and the legal rights to the products designed and built within, to the Lockheed Corporation. In 1996, General Dynamics deactivated all of the remaining legal entities of the Convair Division.
Timeline
1923 Consolidated Aircraft Corporation formed by Major Reuben H. Fleet
1934 AVCO acquired the Airplane Development Corporation from Cord and formed the Aviation Manufacturing Corporation (AMC)
1936 AMC liquidated to form the Vultee Aircraft Division, an autonomous subsidiary of AVCO
1939 Vultee Aircraft Division of AVCO reorganized as an independent company known as Vultee Aircraft, Inc.
1941 Consolidated Aircraft Corporation sold to AVCO
1943 Consolidated-Vultee, formed by the merger of Consolidated Aircraft and Vultee Aircraft; still controlled by AVCO
1947 Convair acquired by the Atlas Corporation
1953-1954 Convair acquired by General Dynamics
1985 General Dynamics formed their "Space Systems Division" from the Convair Space Program
1992 Missile Systems Division sold to Hughes Aircraft Company
1994 Space Systems Division sold to Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin)
1994 The Fort Worth facility sold to Lockheed Corporation
1994 Convair Aircraft Structures unit sold to McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing)
Products
Aircraft
Missiles and rockets
RTV-A-2 Hiroc (1946) – high-altitude rocket
SAM-N-2 Lark (late 1940s) – surface-to-air naval missile
MX-774 (1948) – precursor to Atlas
XSM-74 (1950s) – decoy cruise missile
RIM-2 Terrier (1951) – surface-to-air naval missile
RIM-24 Tartar (1962) – surface-to-air naval missile
XGAM-71 Buck Duck (1955) – decoy missile
Sky Scorcher (1956) – proposed air-to-air missile
Pye Wacket (1957) – air-to-air defensive missile project, cancelled during development
FIM-43 Redeye (1960) – man-portable surface-to-air missile
Atlas (rocket family) (1959) The Atlas civilian space booster
Atlas E/F
Atlas G
Atlas H
Atlas LV-3B
Atlas SLV-3
Atlas-Able
Atlas-Agena
SM-65 Atlas – The Atlas ICBM Air Force missile (1957)
Convair X-11 and SM-65A Atlas (1957) – Atlas A prototype
Convair X-12 and SM-65B Atlas (1958 – Atlas B prototype
SM-65C Atlas
SM-65D Atlas
SM-65E Atlas
SM-65F Atlas
Atlas-Centaur (1962) and its successor-designations, all of which combined an Atlas booster with a centaur upper stage – a civilian rocket to launch spacecraft to outer space.
Centaur (1962)
BGM-109 Tomahawk long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile.
AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile (1983) – stealthy, nuclear, air-launched cruise missile
In Popular Culture
Convair is mentioned in passing by one of the characters in the 1984 feature film Flashpoint, who said he worked there for forty years.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Aerospacelegacyfoundation.org
Abcdlist.nl: Complete production list of Convairliners
Employee newspaper, Convairiety, at the Fort Worth Public Library Archives.
Aerospace companies of the United States
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in California
Technology companies based in San Diego
Companies based in San Diego County, California
Manufacturing companies established in 1943
Technology companies established in 1943
1943 establishments in California
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1996
Defunct companies based in California
General Dynamics
1953 mergers and acquisitions
Lockheed Corporation
McDonnell Douglas mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1943
Defunct technology companies based in California | [
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219413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joycelyn%20Elders | Joycelyn Elders | Minnie Joycelyn Elders (born Minnie Lee Jones; August 13, 1933) is an American pediatrician and public health administrator who served as Surgeon General of the United States from 1993 to 1994. A vice admiral in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, she was the second woman, second person of color, and first African American to serve as Surgeon General. Elders is best known for her frank discussion of her views on controversial issues such as drug legalization, masturbation, and distributing contraception in schools. She was forced to resign in December 1994 amidst controversy as a result of her views. She is currently a professor emerita of pediatrics at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences.
Early life and education
Elders was born Minnie Lee Jones in Schaal, Arkansas, to a poor, farm sharecropping family, and was the eldest of eight children, and valedictorian of her school class. The family also spent two years near a wartime shipyard in Richmond, California before returning to Schaal. In college, she changed her name to Minnie Joycelyn Lee. In 1952, she received her B.S. degree in Biology from Philander Smith College in Little Rock, Arkansas, where she also pledged Delta Sigma Theta. She married briefly to Cornelius Reynolds, a Federal employee, and later to Oliver Elders, a basketball coach. After working as a nurse's aide in a Veterans Administration hospital in Milwaukee for a period, she joined the United States Army in May 1953 and became a 2nd Lieutenant. During her 3 years in the Army, she was trained as a physical therapist. She then attended the University of Arkansas Medical School, where she obtained her M.D. degree in 1960. After completing an internship at the University of Minnesota Hospital and a residency in pediatrics at the University of Arkansas Medical Center, Elders earned an M.S. in Biochemistry in 1967.
Director of Arkansas Department of Health
In 1987, then-governor Bill Clinton appointed Elders as Director of the Arkansas Department of Health, making her the first African-American woman in the state to hold this position. Some of her major accomplishments while in office include reducing the teen pregnancy rate by increasing the availability of birth control, counseling, and sex education at school-based clinics; a tenfold increase in early childhood screenings from 1988 to 1992 and a 24 percent rise in the immunization rate for two-year-olds; and an expansion of the availability of HIV testing and counseling services, breast cancer screenings, and better hospice care for the elderly. She also worked hard to promote the importance of sex education, proper hygiene, and prevention of substance abuse in public schools. In 1992, she was elected President of the Association of State and Territorial Health Officers.
Experiences with racism
Elders believed that opposition to her Surgeon General nomination was driven by sexism and racism. "Some people in the American Medical Association, a certain group of them, didn't even know that I was a physician. They were passing a resolution to say that from now on every Surgeon General must be a physician—which was a knock at me. ... They don't expect a black female to have accomplished what I have and to have done the things that I have."
During an interview, she was asked if she related to Shirley Chisholm's statement about feeling more oppressed as a woman than as an African American, and replied by saying, "I am who I am because I'm a black woman." Elders was able to be the voice for the African-American community and speak on poverty and its role in teenage pregnancy, which is a major issue within the community. Poor African-American teenage mothers are "captive to a slavery the 13th Amendment did not anticipate," which is a major reason why she stressed the importance of teaching sex education in public schools.
Views on sex education
As an endocrinologist, Elders was especially concerned with young diabetic women getting pregnant. If young teen women who have diabetes get pregnant, they have a high chance of their bodies rejecting the fetus or the fetus developing abnormalities in utero. To prevent these pregnancies from happening, she thoroughly talked to her patients about the dangers of early pregnancy and the importance of using contraceptives, and taking control of their sexuality as soon as they began puberty. Of the approximately 260 young diabetic women she treated, only one of them became pregnant.
Sex education for young African-American women
Elders strongly advocated sex and reproductive education, especially in African-American communities. She criticized older textbooks that said only white females had naturally regular periods, because white females were on birth control to regulate their periods. Black females did not readily seek out birth control because their "[black] ministers were up on the pulpit saying the birth control pills were black genocide." She was very vocal about her disgust with black men exploiting black women and stripping them of their reproductive health choices, because "If you can't control your reproduction, you can't control your life."
Surgeon General of the United States
Elders has received a National Institutes of Health career development award, also serving as assistant professor in pediatrics at the University of Arkansas Medical Center from 1967. She was promoted to associate professor in 1971 and professor in 1976. Her research interests focused on endocrinology, and she received board certification as a pediatric endocrinologist in 1978, becoming the first person in the state of Arkansas to do so. Elders received a D.Sc. degree from Bates College in 2002.
In January 1993, Bill Clinton appointed her as the United States Surgeon General, making her the first African American and the second woman (following Antonia Novello) to hold the position. At her confirmation hearing, Elders responded to criticism over an incident in which she decided not to notify the public that condoms her department had been distributing in Arkansas had been found to be defective, with a failure rate ten times the allowed rate. Elders said that "I don't know" whether the decision had been correct, but she had believed at the time that public disclosure could lead to a public loss of faith in the efficacy of condoms, which would have been the greater danger. She was a controversial choice and a strong backer of the Clinton health care plan, so she was not confirmed until September 7, 1993. As Surgeon General, Elders quickly established a reputation for being controversial. Like many of the Surgeons General before her, she was an outspoken advocate of a variety of health-related causes. She argued for an exploration of the possibility of drug legalization, and backed the distribution of contraceptives in schools. President Clinton stood by Elders, saying that she was misunderstood.
Views on drug legalization
Elders drew fire, as well as censure from the Clinton administration, when she suggested that legalizing drugs might help reduce crime and that the idea should be studied. On December 15, 1993, around one week after making these comments, charges were filed against her son Kevin for selling cocaine in an incident involving undercover officers four months prior. Elders believes the incident was a frame-up and the timing of the charges was designed to embarrass her and the president. Kevin Elders was convicted, and he was sentenced to 10 years in prison, of which he served four months. He appealed his conviction to the Arkansas Supreme Court, and that court reaffirmed the conviction. The court held that Mr. Elders failed to show that he was entrapped into making the narcotics sale. There was no further appeal.
Comments on human sexuality and abortion
In January 1994 in the context of abortion, Elders said, "We really need to get over this love affair with the fetus and start worrying about children."
Later that year, she was invited to speak at a United Nations conference on AIDS. She was asked whether it would be appropriate to promote masturbation as a means of preventing young people from engaging in riskier forms of sexual activity, and she replied, "As per your specific question in regard to masturbation, I think that is something that is a part of human sexuality and it's a part of something that perhaps should be taught. But we've not even taught our children the very basics. And I feel that we have tried ignorance for a very long time and it's time we try education." This remark caused great controversy and resulted in Elders losing the support of the White House. Clinton's chief of staff, Leon Panetta, remarked, "There have been too many areas where the President does not agree with her views. This is just one too many." In December 1994, Elders was forced to resign by President Clinton. In 1995, this led sex-positive retailer Good Vibrations to proclaim May 28 as National Masturbation Day in honor of Elders' advocacy.
A collection of her professional papers is held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.
Post-governmental activities
Since leaving her post as Surgeon General, Elders has returned to the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences as professor of pediatrics, and is currently professor emerita at UAMS. She is a regular on the lecture circuit, speaking against teen pregnancy. She has appeared on TV in Penn and Teller: Bullshit! during the episode on abstinence, where she says that she considers abstinence-only programs to be child abuse and discusses her opinions on teenage sex education, masturbation and contraceptives. In 2009 Elders teamed up with the University of Minnesota to establish the nation’s first Chair in Sexual Health Education, a fund to attract and retain outstanding tenured sexual health education faculty in the Program in Human Sexuality at the University of Minnesota Medical School. She is interviewed in the 2013 documentary How to Lose Your Virginity on her opinions regarding comprehensive sex education versus abstinence-only sex education.
Elders wrote a book in an attempt to present her side of the controversies that surrounded her during her 16-month tenure as Surgeon General.
In an October 15, 2010, article, she clearly voiced support for legalization of marijuana:
She received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1991. She was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa as an honoris causa initiate at SUNY Plattsburgh in 1996.
See also
Sticky: A (Self) Love Story, a documentary on masturbation including an interview with Elders about her experience being asked to resign from the Clinton administration
References
Joycelyn Elders, M.D. by Dr. Joycelyn Elders and David Chanoff. Another Surgeon General's autobiography.
External links
Joycelyn Elders's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project
Video of Joycelyn Elders, from the AETN documentary on her
1933 births
Living people
African-American female military personnel
African-American women scientists
American scientists
American abortion-rights activists
American endocrinologists
Women endocrinologists
American pediatricians
Women pediatricians
Surgeons General of the United States
State cabinet secretaries of Arkansas
Women in Arkansas politics
Arkansas Democrats
Philander Smith College alumni
United States Army officers
University of Arkansas faculty
University of Arkansas alumni
Clinton administration personnel
American women physicians
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps admirals
Women in the United States Army
Delta Sigma Theta members
American cannabis activists
African-American women physicians
African-American physicians
21st-century American women | [
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] |
219416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Empire%20Loyalist | United Empire Loyalist | United Empire Loyalists (or simply Loyalists) is an honorific title which was first given by the 1st Lord Dorchester, the Governor of Quebec, and Governor General of The Canadas, to American Loyalists who resettled in British North America during or after the American Revolution. At the time, the demonym Canadian or Canadien was used to refer to the indigenous First Nations groups and the descendants of New France settlers inhabiting the Province of Quebec.
They settled primarily in Nova Scotia and the Province of Quebec. The influx of loyalist settlers resulted in the creation of several new colonies. In 1784, New Brunswick was partitioned from the Colony of Nova Scotia after significant loyalist resettlement around the Bay of Fundy. The influx of loyalist refugees also resulted in the Province of Quebec's division into Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), and Upper Canada (present-day Ontario) in 1791. The Crown gave them land grants of one lot. One lot consisted of per person to encourage their resettlement, as the Government wanted to develop the frontier of Upper Canada. This resettlement added many English speakers to the Canadian population. It was the beginning of new waves of immigration that established a predominantly English-speaking population in the future Canada both west and east of the modern Quebec border.
History
American Revolution
Following the end of the American Revolutionary War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, both Loyalist soldiers and civilians were evacuated from New York City, most heading for Canada. Many Loyalists had already migrated to Canada, especially from New York and northern New England, where violence against them had increased during the war.
The Crown-allotted land in Canada was sometimes allotted according to which Loyalist regiment a man had fought in. This Loyalist resettlement was critical to the development of present-day Ontario, and some 10,000 refugees went to Quebec (including the Eastern Townships and modern-day Ontario). But Nova Scotia (including modern-day New Brunswick) received three times that number: about 35,000–40,000 Loyalist refugees.
An unknown but substantial number of individuals did not stay; they eventually returned to the United States. As some families split in their loyalties during the war years, many Loyalists in Canada continued to maintain close ties with relatives in the United States. They conducted commerce across the border with little regard to British trade laws. In the 1790s, the offer of land and low taxes, which were one-quarter those in America, for allegiance by Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe resulted in the arrival of 30,000 Americans often referred to as Late Loyalists. By the outbreak of the War of 1812, of the 110,000 inhabitants of Upper Canada, 20,000 were the initial Loyalists, 60,000 were later American immigrants and their descendants, and 30,000 were immigrants from the UK, their descendants or from the Old Province of Quebec. The later arrival of many of the inhabitants of Upper Canada suggests that land was the main reason for immigration.
Resettlement
The arrival of the Loyalists after the Revolutionary War led to the division of Canada into the provinces of Upper Canada (what is now southern Ontario) and Lower Canada (today's southern Quebec). They arrived and were largely settled in groups by ethnicity and religion. Many soldiers settled with others of the regiments they had served with. The settlers came from every social class and all thirteen colonies, unlike the depiction of them in the Sandham painting which suggests the arrivals were well-dressed upper-class immigrants.
Loyalists soon petitioned the government to be allowed to use the British legal system, which they were accustomed to in the American colonies, rather than the French system. Great Britain had maintained the French legal system and allowed freedom of religion after taking over the former French colony with the defeat of France in the Seven Years' War. With the creation of Upper and Lower Canada, most Loyalists in the west could live under British laws and institutions. The predominantly ethnic French population of Lower Canada, who were still French-speaking, could maintain their familiar French civil law and Catholic religion.
Realizing the importance of some type of recognition, on 9 November 1789, Lord Dorchester, the governor of Quebec and Governor General of British North America, declared "that it was his Wish to put the mark of Honour upon the Families who had adhered to the Unity of the Empire". As a result of Dorchester's statement, the printed militia rolls carried the notation:
Those Loyalists who have adhered to the Unity of the Empire, and joined the Royal Standard before the Treaty of Separation in the year 1783, and all their Children and their Descendants by either sex, are to be distinguished by the following Capitals, affixed to their names: UE or U.E. Alluding to their great principle The Unity of the Empire.
Because most of the nations of the Iroquois had allied with the British, which had ceded their lands to the United States, thousands of Iroquois and other pro-British Native Americans were expelled from New York and other states. They were also resettled in Canada. Many of the Iroquois, led by Joseph Brant Thayendenegea, settled at Six Nations of the Grand River, the largest First Nations Reserve in Canada. A smaller group of Iroquois led by Captain John Deserontyon Odeserundiye, settled on the shores of the Bay of Quinte in modern-day southeastern Ontario.
The government settled some 3,500 Black Loyalists in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but they faced discrimination and the same inadequate support that all Loyalists experienced. Delays in making land grants, but mostly the willingness of the blacks to under-cut their fellow Loyalist and hire themselves out to the few available jobs at a lower wage aggravated racist tensions in Shelburne. Mobs of white Loyalists attacked Black Loyalists in the Shelburne Riots in July 1784, Canada's first so-called "race" riot. The government was slow to survey the land of Black Loyalists (which meant they could not settle); it was also discriminatory in granting them smaller, poorer and more remote lands than those of white settlers; not counting those Loyalists who were resettled in what would become Upper Canada in general or around the Bay of Quinte in specific, of course. This increased their difficulties in becoming established. The majority of Black Loyalists in Canada were refugees from the American South; they suffered from this discrimination and the harsh winters.
When Great Britain set up the colony of Sierra Leone in Africa, nearly 1300 Black Loyalists emigrated there in 1792 for the promise of self-government. And so 2,200 remained. The Black Loyalists that left established Freetown in Sierra Leone. Well into the 20th century, together with other early settlers from Jamaica and slaves liberated from illegal slave ships, and despite vicious attacks from the indigenous peoples that nearly ended the Maroon colony, they and their descendants dominated the culture, economy and government of Sierra Leone. which finally pulled itself out of a civil war a decade ago and still struggles with glaring corruption until this day.
Numerous Loyalists had been forced to abandon substantial amounts of property in the United States. Britain sought restoration or compensation for this lost property from the United States, which was a major issue during the negotiation of the Jay Treaty in 1795. Negotiations settled on the concept of the United States negotiators "advising" the U.S. Congress to provide restitution. For the British, this concept carried significant legal weight, far more than it did to the Americans; the U.S. Congress declined to accept the advice.
Slavery
Slave-owning Loyalists from across the former Thirteen Colonies brought their slaves with them to Canada, as the practice was still legal there. They took a total of about 2,000 slaves to British North America: 500 in Upper Canada (Ontario), 300 in Lower Canada (Quebec), and 1,200 in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The presence and condition of slaves in the Maritimes would become a particular issue. They constituted a larger portion of the population, but it was not an area of plantation agriculture.
The settlers eventually freed many of these slaves. Together with the free Black Loyalists, many chose to go to Sierra Leone in 1792 and following years, seeking a chance for self-government. Meanwhile, the British Parliament passed an imperial law in 1790 that assured prospective immigrants to Canada that they could retain their slaves as property. In 1793, an anti-slavery law was passed, in the 1st Parliament of Upper Canada. The Act Against Slavery banned the importation of slaves into the colony, and mandated the emancipation of all children born henceforth to female slaves upon reaching the age of 25. The Act was partially introduced due to the influx of the number of slaves brought by Loyalist refugees to Upper Canada. The slave trade was abolished across the British Empire in 1807. The institution of slavery was abolished Empire-wide by 1834 (except in India, where it was considered an indigenous institution).
War of 1812
From 1812 to 1815, the United States and the United Kingdom were engaged in a conflict known as the War of 1812. On 18 June 1812, US President James Madison signed the declaration of war into law, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress.
By 1812, Upper Canada had been settled mostly by Revolution-era Loyalists from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) and postwar American and British immigrants. The Canadas were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army and the sedentary units of the Canadian Militia. American leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun, with former president Thomas Jefferson optimistically describing the potential conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching". Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. However, there was also a significant number of non-Loyalist American settlers in the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants. The Americans assumed the latter population would favour the American cause, but they did not. Although the population of Upper Canada included recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown, the American forces found strong opposition from settlers during the War of 1812.
A number of loyalists served as fencibles, provincial regulars, in the Provincial Marine, or with the sedentary militia. With the successful defence of the Canadian colonies from American invasion, the War of 1812 is seen by Loyalists as a victory. After the war, the British government transported to New Brunswick and settled about 400 of 3,000 former slaves from the United States whom they freed during and after the war. It had fulfilled its promise to them of freedom if they left Patriot slaveholders and fought with the British. Enslaved African Americans risked considerable danger by crossing to British lines to achieve freedom.
Present
While the honorific "United Empire Loyalist" is not part of the official Canadian honours system, modern-day descendants of Loyalist refugees may employ it, sometimes using "U.E." as postnominal letters. The practice, however, is uncommon today, even in original Loyalist strongholds like southeastern Ontario. Historians and genealogists use it extensively as a shorthand for identifying the ancestry of particular families.
The influence of the Loyalists on the evolution of Canada remains evident. Their ties with Britain and antipathy to the United States provided the strength needed to keep Canada independent and distinct in North America. The Loyalists' basic distrust of republicanism and "mob rule" influenced Canada's gradual, "paper-strewn" path to independence. The new British North American provinces of Upper Canada (the forerunner of Ontario) and New Brunswick were created as places of refuge for the United Empire Loyalists. The mottoes of the two provinces reflect this history: Ontario's, also found on its coat of arms, is Ut incepit fidelis sic permanet ("Loyal she began, loyal she remains"); New Brunswick's, Spem Reduxit ("Hope restored").
The word "Loyalist" appears frequently in school, street, and business names in such Loyalist-settled communities as Belleville, Ontario. The nearby city of Kingston, established as a Loyalist stronghold, was named in honour of King George III. And on the outskirts of that city is a township simply named "Loyalist".
On 1 July 1934, Royal Mail Canada issued "United Empire Loyalists, 1776–1784" designed by Robert Bruce McCracken based on Sydney March's sculpture United Empire Loyalists. The 10-cent stamps are perforated 11 and were printed by the British American Bank Note Company.
In 1996, Canadian politicians Peter Milliken (a descendant of American Loyalists) and John Godfrey sponsored the Godfrey–Milliken Bill, which would have entitled Loyalist descendants to reclaim ancestral property in the United States which had been confiscated during the American Revolution. The bill, which did not pass the House of Commons, was intended primarily as a satirical response to the contemporaneous American Helms–Burton Act.
In 1997, the Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed a bill declaring 19 June, "United Empire Loyalist Day" in Ontario. United Empire Loyalist Day is also celebrated on the same day in Saskatchewan, on 18 May in New Brunswick and on 22 July in British Columbia.
Memory and historiography
The Loyalists paid attention to their history developing an idealized image of themselves in which they took great pride. In 1898, Henry Coyne provided a glowing depiction:
According to Canadian historians Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, Coyne's memorial incorporates essential themes that have often been incorporated into patriotic celebrations. The Loyalist tradition, as explicated by Murray Barkley and Norman Knowles, includes:
Conrad and Finkel point out some exaggerations: only a small percentage of the Loyalists were colonial elite. In fact Loyalists were drawn from every stratum of colonial society, and few suffered violence and hardship. About 20 percent would later return to the United States. Most were loyal to all things British, but other Loyalists supported the United States in the War of 1812. Conrad and Finkel conclude:
From the 1870s many of their descendants returned to the United States in pursuit of cheaper land and greater employment opportunities, among whom were more recent British and Irish immigrants, French Canadians, and Europeans of other nationalities) who settled all over the US. In the New England States alone, greater than 10% of the population can trace its roots to the Maritime Provinces (2 million more of 14 million inhabitants or roughly 15% are part or wholly of French Canadian descent).
United Empire Loyalists' Association
The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada (UELAC) is an organization of Loyalist descendants and others interested in Canadian history, in particular the role of the United Empire Loyalists. The organization was incorporated on 27 May 1914 by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. In 1972, the organization was granted a coat of arms from the College of Arms through a letter patent, dated 28 March 1972.
Symbols
On 17 April 1707, Queen Anne issued a proclamation referencing the use of the Union Flag "at Sea and Land". The Union Flag began to appear on forts and as regimental colours from this point, and at the time of the American Revolution, this was the flag in use. When those loyal to the Crown left the United States for British North America, they took this flag with them, and because of this historical connection, it continues to be the official flag of the UELAC.
In Canadian heraldry, Loyalist descendants are entitled to use a Loyalist coronet in their coat of arms.
List of Loyalist settlements in Canada
18th-century names are listed first, alongside their present-day equivalents.
Adolphustown, Ontario
Antigonish, Nova Scotia
Beamsville, Ontario
Bocabec, New Brunswick
Myer's Creek → Belleville, Ontario
Buell's Bay → Brockville, Ontario
Butlersbury → Newark → Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario
Cataraqui → Kingston, Ontario
Clifton → Niagara Falls, Ontario
Country Harbour, Nova Scotia
Cobourg, Ontario
Colchester → village now within Essex, Ontario
Cornwall, Ontario
Digby, Nova Scotia
Doaktown, New Brunswick
Eastern Townships, Quebec
Effingham, Ontario
Grimsby, Ontario
Douglas Township → Kennetcook, Nova Scotia
Lincoln, Ontario
Ernestown Township → Loyalist, Ontario
Machiche → Yamachiche, Quebec
Merrittsville → Welland, Ontario
Milliken Corners Milliken, Ontario
Gravelly Bay → Port Colborne, Ontario
Port Roseway → Shelburne, Nova Scotia
Prescott, Ontario
Prince Edward County, Ontario
Rawdon, Nova Scotia
Saint John, New Brunswick
Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia
Shelburne, Nova Scotia
Six Nations and Brantford, Ontario
Smithville, Ontario
St. Andrews by-the-Sea → St. Andrews, New Brunswick
St. Anne's Point → Fredericton, New Brunswick
Summerville, Nova Scotia
The Twelve → Shipman's Corners → St. Catharines, Ontario
Turkey Point → Norfolk, Ontario
Sandwich → Windsor, Ontario
Odell Town, Quebec
Wainfleet, Ontario
Remsheg → Wallace, Nova Scotia
Westchester, Nova Scotia
York → Toronto, Ontario
See also
Loyalist (American Revolution)
Canadian honorifics
Daughters of the American Revolution
Expulsion of the Loyalists
Society of the Cincinnati
Sons of the American Revolution
Sons of the Revolution
Notes
References
Further reading
Acheson, T.W. "A Study in the Historical Demography of a Loyalist County", Social History, 1 (April 1968), pp. 53–65.
Compeau, Timothy J. "Dishonoured Americans: Loyalist Manhood and Political Death in Revolutionary America." (PhD Diss. The University of Western Ontario, 2015); online.
Jasanoff, Maya. Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. (Knopf, 2011) Ranlet (2014) [below] argues her estimate of the number of Loyalists is too high.
Jodon, Michael. Shadow Soldiers of the American Revolution; 2009, . The History Press, Charleston SC.
MacKinnon, Neil. "Nova Scotia Loyalists, 1783–1785", Social History 4 (November 1969), pp. 17–48
Moore, Christopher. The Loyalists: Revolution, Exile, Settlement; 1984, .
Norton, Mary Beth. "The fate of some black loyalists of the American revolution." Journal of Negro History 58#4 (1973): 402–426. in JSTOR
Walker, James W. St G. The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 (U of Toronto Press, 1992).
Wallace, W. Stewart. The United Empire Loyalists: A Chronicle of the Great Migration; Volume 13 of the "Chronicles of Canada (32 volumes) Toronto, 1914.
Whitehead, Ruth Holmes. Black Loyalists: Southern Settlers of Nova Scotia's First Free Black Communities (Halifax: Nimbus Publishing, 2013).
Wright, Esther Clark. The Loyalists of New Brunswick (Fredericton: 1955).
Historiography
Barkley, Murray. "The Loyalist Tradition in New Brunswick: the Growth and Evolution of an Historical Myth, 1825–1914." Acadiensis 4#2 (1975): 3–45. online
Bell, David VJ. "The Loyalist Tradition in Canada." Journal of Canadian Studies 5#2 (1970): 22+
Knowles, Norman James. Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts (University of Toronto Press, 1997).
Ranlet, Philip. "How Many American Loyalists Left the United States?." Historian 76.2 (2014): 278–307.
Upton, L.F.S. ed. The United Empire Loyalists: Men and Myths (The Copp Publishing Company, 1967), Excerpts from historians and from primary sources
Primary sources
Talman, James ed. Loyalist Narratives from Upper Canada. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1946.
"Letter, Benjamin Franklin to Baron Francis Maseres, June 26, 1785"
Gray, Rev. J. W. D. A Sermon, Preached at Trinity Church, in the parish of St. John, N. B., on 8 December 1857, by the Rev. J. W. D. Gray, D.D., and Designed to Recommend the Principles of the Loyalists of 1783. Saint John, New Brunswick: J. & A. McMillan, Printers, 1857. 15 pp. Internet Archive pdf; title incorrectly gives the year as 1847.
External links
"A Short History of the United Empire Loyalists", by Ann Mackenzie, M.A.; Une Courte Histoire des Loyalistes de l'Empire Uni, French translation
Haldimand Collection
Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1783–1854, Atlantic Canadian Portal, University of New Brunswick
Loyalist Women in New Brunswick, 1783–1827, Atlantic Canadian Portal, University of New Brunswick
The Myth of the Loyalist Iroquois
The United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada: Home Page
Photographs of the United Empire Loyalist monument at Country Harbour, Nova Scotia
American Revolution veterans and lineage organizations
Military history of Nova Scotia
Monarchy in Canada
Social history of Canada
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219421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank | Plank | Plank may refer to:
Plank (wood), flat, elongated, and rectangular timber with parallel faces
Plank (exercise), an isometric exercise for the abdominal muscles
Martins Creek (Kentucky), the location of Plank post office
The Plank (1967 film), a British comedy film with no dialogue
The Plank (1979 film), a remake of the 1967 film
Plank, a character in Ed, Edd n Eddy
An item of a political party platform
People
Alex Plank (born 1986), American autism advocate
Conny Plank (1940−1987), German record producer and musician
Ed Plank (born 1952), American baseball pitcher in the late 1970s
Eddie Plank (1875−1926), early 20th-century American baseball player
Elizabeth Plank (born 1987), Canadian blogger and online journalist
Heinz Plank (born 1945), German painter, draughtsman and graphic artist
Kevin Plank (born 1972), American businessman; founder of sports clothing company Under Armour
Peter "Plank" Clements, guitar technician for Radiohead
Raymond Plank (1922−2018), American businessman
See also
Walking the plank, form of execution associated with pirates
Plank house, homes of indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest constructed from the cedar tree
American historic carpentry discussed several types of plank houses
Tychonoff plank, a topological space that is used in mathematics as a counterexample to several plausible-sounding conjectures
Planck (disambiguation)
Planking (disambiguation)
Slats (disambiguation)
Walk the Plank (disambiguation) | [
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219424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant | Sergeant | Sergeant ( ; abbreviated to Sgt. and capitalized when used as a named person's title) is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. The alternative spelling, serjeant, is used in The Rifles and other units that draw their heritage from the British light infantry. Its origin is the Latin , 'one who serves', through the French term .
The term sergeant refers to a non-commissioned officer placed above the rank of a corporal, and a police officer immediately below a lieutenant in the US, and below an inspector in the UK. In most armies, the rank of sergeant corresponds to command of a squad (or section). In Commonwealth armies, it is a more senior rank, corresponding roughly to a platoon second-in-command. In the United States Army, sergeant is a more junior rank corresponding to a squad- (12 person) or platoon- (36 person) leader.
More senior non-commissioned ranks are often variations on sergeant, for example staff sergeant, gunnery sergeant, master sergeant, first sergeant, and sergeant major.
In many nations and services, the rank insignia for a sergeant often features three chevrons.
History
In medieval European usage, a sergeant was simply any attendant or officer with a protective duty. Any medieval knight or military order of knighthood might have "sergeants-at-arms", meaning servants able to fight if needed. The etymology of the term is from Anglo-French sergent, serjeant "servant, valet, court official, soldier", from Middle Latin servientem "servant, vassal, soldier".
Later, a "soldier sergeant" was a man of what would now be thought of as the "middle class", fulfilling a slightly junior role to the knight in the medieval hierarchy. Sergeants could fight either as heavy cavalry, light cavalry, or as trained professional infantry; either spearmen or crossbowmen. Most notable medieval mercenaries fell into the "sergeant" class, such as Flemish crossbowmen and spearmen, who were seen as reliable quality troops. The sergeant class was deemed to be 'worth half of a knight' in military value.
A specific kind of military sergeant was the serjeant-at-arms, one of a body of armed men retained by English lords and monarchs. The title is now given to an officer in modern legislative bodies who is charged with keeping order during meetings and, if necessary, forcibly removing disruptive members.
The term had also civilian applications quite distinct and different from the military sergeant, though sharing the etymological origin – for example the serjeant-at-law, historically an important and prestigious order of English lawyers.
Types of sergeant
"Sergeant" is generally the lowest rank of sergeant, with individual military entities choosing some additional words to signify higher-ranking individuals. What terms are used, and what seniority they signify, is to a great extent dependent on the individual armed service. The term "sergeant" is also used in many appointment titles.
Ranks
Chief sergeant
Chief master sergeant
Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force
Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force
Colour sergeant
Command sergeant major
Company sergeant
First sergeant
Flight sergeant
Gunnery sergeant
Master gunnery sergeant
Master sergeant
Senior master sergeant
Senior sergeant
Senior staff sergeant
Sergeant first class
Sergeant major
Sergeant Major of the Army
Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps
Staff sergeant
Station sergeant
Technical sergeant
Appointments
Academy sergeant major
Band sergeant major
Company quartermaster sergeant
Company sergeant major
Drill sergeant
Drum major
First sergeant
Garrison sergeant major
Master tailor
Petty officer
Pioneer sergeant
Pipe major
Platoon sergeant
Platoon sergeant major
Provost sergeant
Quartermaster sergeant instructor
Recruiting sergeant
Regimental quartermaster sergeant
Regimental sergeant major
Sergeant major instructor
Sergeant pilot
Squadron quartermaster sergeant
Squadron sergeant major
Staff sergeant major
Troop sergeant major
Current adaptations
In most non-naval military or paramilitary organizations, the various grades of sergeant are non-commissioned officers (NCOs) ranking above privates and corporals, and below warrant officers and commissioned officers. The responsibilities of a sergeant differ from army to army. There are usually several ranks of sergeant, each corresponding to greater experience and responsibility for the daily lives of the soldiers of larger units. In police forces, sergeants are usually team leaders in charge of an entire team of constables to senior constables at large stations, to being in charge of sectors involving several police stations. In country areas, sergeants are often in charge of an entire station and its constabulary. Senior sergeants are usually in specialist areas and are in charge of sergeants and thus act as middle management.
Australia
Sergeant (Sgt) is a rank in both the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force. The ranks are equivalent to each other and the Royal Australian Navy rank of petty officer.
Although the rank insignia of the RAAF rank of flight sergeant (Flt Sgt) and the Australian Army rank of staff sergeant (SSgt) are identical, flight sergeant in fact outranks the rank of staff sergeant in the classification of rank equivalencies. The Australian Army rank of staff sergeant is now redundant and is no longer awarded, due to being outside the rank equivalencies and the next promotional rank is warrant officer class two. Chief petty officers and flight sergeants are not required to call a warrant officer class two "sir" in accordance with Australian Defence Force Regulations 1952 (Regulation 8).
The rank of sergeant exists in all Australian police forces and is of higher ranking than a constable or senior constable, but lower than an inspector.
The sergeant structure varies among state police forces, generally two sergeant ranks are commonly classed as non-commissioned officers:
Sergeant (Sgt) (three chevrons); and
Senior sergeant (Sen Sgt) (three chevrons, crown surmounted by a laurel leaf)
South Australia Police has the additional rank of brevet sergeant (two chevrons below an inverted arrow head) which is an authorization for a temporarily higher rank. A brevet sergeant is less senior than a sergeant.
New South Wales Police Force has the additional rank of incremental sergeant (three chevrons and a crown). This is an incremental progression, following an appointment as a sergeant for seven years. An incremental sergeant rank is less senior than a senior sergeant but is more senior than a sergeant.
Upon appointment as a sergeant or senior sergeant, the sergeant is given:
A warrant of appointment under the commissioner's hand and seal.
A navy blue backing (which replaces a light blue backing to the officer's police badge)
A navy blue nameplate (which replaces a light blue nameplate)
A silver chinstrap positioned above his peaked cap on his headdress, replacing a black chinstrap.
Within the New South Wales Police Force, a sergeant is a team leader or supervisory rank, whilst the rank of senior sergeant is a middle management rank with coordination responsibilities over human and physical resources.
All three sergeant ranks are informally referred to as "sergeant", or "sarge". However, at the New South Wales Police Academy, recruits must address all ranks of sergeants as "sergeant", and senior sergeants as "senior sergeant".
Bangladesh
Army
Sergeant
Bangladesh Army
Sergeant is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Bangladesh Army, falling between master sergeant and corporal.
Airforce
Sergeant
Bangladesh Airforce
Sergeant is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Bangladesh Air Force, falling between warrant officer and corporal.
Police
Sergeant
Bangladesh Police
Sergeant is a subordinate officer rank in the Bangladesh Police, falling between assistant sub-inspector (ASI) and sub-inspector (SI).
Canada
Army and Air Force
Sergeant (Sgt) ( or ) is an Army or Air Force non-commissioned officer rank of the Canadian Armed Forces. Its naval equivalent is petty officer 2nd class (French: maître de 2e classe). It is senior to the appointment of master corporal and its equivalent naval appointment, master seaman, and junior to warrant officer and its naval equivalent, petty officer 1st class. Sergeants and petty officers 2nd class are the only senior non-commissioned officers in the Canadian Armed Forces, as WOs, MWOs and CWOs are warrant officers, not senior NCOs in accordance with the Queens Regulations and Orders. Volume 1, Article 102 "Definitions".
In army units, sergeants usually serve as section commanders; they may often be called to fill positions normally held by warrant officers, such as platoon or troop warrant, company quartermaster sergeant, chief clerk, etc.
The rank insignia of a sergeant is a three-bar chevron, worn point down, surmounted by a maple leaf. Embroidered rank badges are worn in "CF gold" thread on rifle green Melton, stitched to the upper sleeves of the service dress jacket; as miniature gold metal and rifle-green enamel badges on the collars of the army dress shirt and army outerwear jackets; in "old-gold" thread on air force blue slip-ins on air force shirts, sweaters, and coats; and in a tan thread on CADPAT slip-ins (army) or dark blue thread on olive-drab slip-ins (air force) on the operational dress uniform.
Colour sergeant in the Canadian Armed Forces is not a rank of sergeant, but a warrant officer in one of the two Foot Guards regiments (the Governor General's Foot Guards and the Canadian Grenadier Guards). Likewise, a sergeant-major (including regimental sergeant-major) is not a sergeant rank, but an appointment held by a master warrant officer or chief warrant officer.
Sergeants generally mess and billet with warrant officers, master warrant officers, and chief warrant officers, and their naval counterparts, chief petty officers and petty officers. Their mess on military bases or installations is generally named the warrant officers' and sergeants' mess.
Historically, the rank of sergeant was severely downgraded after unification of the three services in 1968. An army sergeant before unification was generally employed in supervisory positions, such as the second in command of a platoon-sized unit (i.e. an infantry platoon sergeant, or troop sergeant in an armoured unit). After unification, sergeants were downgraded in status to section commander, a job previously held by corporals, and the former "platoon/troop sergeants" were replaced by "platoon/troop warrant officers".
Police
Police forces across Canada also use the rank of sergeant and staff sergeant for senior non-commissioned officers above the rank of constable or corporal. Except in the province of Quebec and in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the insignia for a police sergeant is three chevrons, worn point down. Staff sergeants rank above sergeants and are responsible for a unit or team within a station or division. The insignia for a staff sergeant is three chevrons, worn point down surmounted by a royal crown. In the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the insignia for a sergeant is three chevrons, worn point down surmounted by a royal crown (which is the insignia of a staff sergeant in other Canadian police forces). The insignia of a staff sergeant in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is four chevrons worn point up.
Denmark
In the Danish Defence, sergeants are typically squad (6-12 soldiers) or section commanders. The sergeants in the Danish forces also act as drill sergeants and platoon instructors, training both new soldiers in basic training, as well as professional soldiers. Sergeants with 1-2 years in the rank, who are in basic training units, are often second-in-command of the platoon.
In professional units, the role of second-in-command in the platoon is sometimes given to a very experienced sergeant, but in most cases will be a Senior sergeant (), the rank above sergeant.
Sergeants in the Danish military are instructors in military drill, weapons, field-craft, small unit tactics, and physical training.
Egypt
Army/Air Force
In the Egyptian Army and Egyptian Air Force the rank of sergeant (raqib رقيب) is an enlisted one and is equivalent to NATO rank code OR-5.
Finland
Army
Kersantti is in Finnish Defence Forces the second and highest non-commissioned officer rank that a conscript who has completed the junior NCO course (aliupseerikoulu in Finnish) can reach before entering the reserve. The beginning and most common non-commissioned officer rank is alikersantti (lit. "lower sergeant"); see corporal.
Only a few non-commissioned officers in each conscript company reach the higher rank of full three-chevron kersantti. There's no difference between the 4-month squad leader training and service time of alikersantti and kersantti; all start their squad leader tour with the lower rank and the optional promotion is based on the superior's assessment of individual performance and intended duties in the wartime organization; special roles such as that of platoon sergeant or company first sergeant are typically reserved for kersantti and upwards.
A corporal can also obtain the rank of sergeant (and possibly above, the next rank being four-chevron ylikersantti, which is comparable to staff sergeant) by taking some military refresher courses while in reserve, or by enlisting to (short-term) professional service in the military.
France
Army
French sergeant ranks are used by the air force, engineers, infantry, Foreign Legion, Troupes de marine, communications, administrative service, and Gendarmerie mobile. Other branches of the army and gendarmerie use the equivalent ranks of maréchal des logis ("marshal of lodgings" in English) instead of sergeant ranks.
There were three sergeant ranks in France, although the most junior, contract sergeant, has been superseded by student sub-officer now that conscription has been suspended. When the army contained a large proportion of conscripts, contract sergeant was very common as a rank for conscripts considered to have leadership potential. In general the term sergeant was used for both contract sergeant and career sergeant. Contract sergeant was classified as the lowest sub-officer rank, the rank below being chief corporal.
Student sub-officer, élève sous-officier (formerly "contract sergeant", sergent sous contrat): One chevron, gold or silver. "Contract sergeant" was a rank used for junior sergeants, either conscripts or reservists. The rank insignia is used nowadays for students. After a certain amount of time, a student sub-officer is entitled to be addressed "sergeant".
Sergeant, sergent (formerly "career sergeant", sergent de carrière): Two chevrons.Normal sergeant rank, though normally directly recruited from civilian life into the sub-officer ranks, so the rank implies less experience and higher academic requirements than for a commonwealth sergeant. As a typical rank for the command of a squad (typically eight soldiers), a tank, or a gun, this rank is roughly equivalent to a commonwealth corporal, a US Army staff sergeant, or a US Marine Corps sergeant.
Principal sergeant, sergent-chef: Three chevrons.With long service, a sergeant's promotion to chief sergeant is automatic. Typically being a platoon second-in-command, the holder of this rank is therefore equivalent to a commonwealth sergeant or a US "sergeant first class". The next rank up is adjutant.
Germany
Army/Air Force
In modern-day usage within the German Bundeswehr the rank of sergeant is known as Unteroffizier, historically it was the German army rank of corporal. The rank has existed since the 18th century, with usage as a title dating back to the Middle Ages. The ranks of the Unteroffiziere (NCOs) are divided into two categories, the Unteroffiziere ohne Portepee making up the cadre of junior non-commissioned officers and the Unteroffiziere mit Portepee making up the cadre of senior non-commissioned officers. The duties of a sergeant Unteroffizier can vary greatly with its rank: In a typical Bundeswehr company, the Unteroffizier ohne Portepee (OR-5) are only leading one Zugtrupp (squad) whereas the position of Zugführer (platoon leader) are held by a higher ranked NCOs (typically Hauptfeldwebel OR-7) with according training. The platoon's "second in command", is usually held by a "Feldwebel / Oberfeldwebel" (OR-6).
The German Army rank order is: Unteroffizier OR-5, Fahnenjunker OR-5, Stabsunteroffizier OR-5, Feldwebel OR-6, Fähnrich OR-6, Oberfeldwebel OR-6, Hauptfeldwebel OR-7, Oberfähnrich OR-7, Stabsfeldwebel OR-8 and Oberstabsfeldwebel OR-9.
Navy
Maat is a naval rank of the German navy equivalent to the army rank of Unteroffizier. A Maat is considered the equivalent of a junior petty officer in the navies of many other nations.
The term is derived from the low German māt (comrade). Via the Dutch language, the word became a nautical term and described the assistant to a deck officer. Since the second half of the 17th century Maate were the lowest class of non-commissioned officers aboard a warship.
The German Navy rank order is: Maat OR-5, Seekadett OR-5, Obermaat OR-5, Bootsmann OR-6, Fähnrich OR-6, Oberbootsmann OR-6, Hauptbootsmann OR-7, Oberfähnrich OR-7, Stabsbootsmann OR-8 and Oberstabsbootsmann OR-9.
Greece
The rank of sergeant in the Hellenic armed forces corresponds to NATO grade OR-6 according to STANAG 2116, and it is called the following in the three branches: lochías () in the land army, sminías () in the air force and kelefstís () in the navy. There are differentiations depending on the permanence and studies of the personnel. In the land army, the insignia are colored differently depending on the command in which the personnel belongs, e.g., red-orange for infantry and green-blue for armoured cavalry.
Hong Kong
Army and air force
During British rule, the rank of sergeant was held by members of the RAF (flight sergeant or sergeant (air crew)) or British Army serving in Hong Kong.
The rank was held by local enlisted men with the Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers) and Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers) Regimental Police.
Police
Hong Kong Police Force sergeants are in charge of a section or command a vehicle on patrol. Their rank is symbolized by three chevrons and worn on their arm and/or lapel. The rank is also used by the Hong Kong Auxiliary Police Force (station sergeant (auxiliary) and sergeant (auxiliary)). There also sergeants in the Hong Kong Police Force Pipe Band, who carry their rank from their regular policing duties.
Others
Two other non-military organizations use the ranks of sergeant:
Hong Kong Air Cadet Corps
Sergeant instructor
Cadet sergeant
Hong Kong Adventure Corps
Staff sergeant
Sergeant
Cadet staff sergeant
Cadet sergeant
Indonesia
In the Indonesian military and maritime security agency, the rank "sergeant" is known as sersan. There are four levels, which are: sergeant (sersan dua), staff sergeant (sersan satu), master sergeant (sersan kepala), and sergeant major (sersan mayor).
India and Pakistan
Police
In many metropolitan police forces in both India and Pakistan, a sergeant (called armed sub-inspectors in some states) is equivalent to a police sub-inspector. They are subordinate to police inspectors in rank but are senior to assistant sub-inspectors, head constables, naiks (corporals) and police constables in Indian police forces. In British-India days, the practice began of transferring British Army NCOs to Indian constabularies to teach them foot and rifle drill and weapons handling (called "musketry") and to maintain disciplinary standards. This is the historical origin of the rank of sergeant in the forces of today's Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata (their equivalents in state forces are called armed sub-inspectors). Sergeants have always served in the non-investigative branches of the 'protective police' [e.g., armed and mounted branches; port, river, and traffic police, reserve forces, etc.] and one per police station. Their use is focused more upon security and public order situations than investigating routine domestic, commercial, and street crime which is the purview of the investigative branches of the 'detective police' where their counterparts are called sub-inspectors. Head constables (not to be confused with sergeants) wear three chevrons (rank insignia) point-down on their sleeve or three bars on their epaulettes.
Army
In the British Indian Army, the equivalent rank to sergeant was daffadar in cavalry regiments and havaldar in other units. These ranks are still used in the armies of India and Pakistan.
Air Force
In the Indian Air Force and the Pakistan Air Force, the rank of sergeant is above a corporal and below of junior warrant officer. The rank insignia is a three-pointed-down chevron. The rank of flight sergeant is now obsolete with the renomination given as junior warrant officer.
The rank of a sergeant is designated as a senior non-commissioned officer.
Navy
In the Indian Navy and the Pakistan Navy, the rank of petty officer is roughly equivalent to sergeant.
Ireland
Army
Sergeant (Sgt) (sáirsint in Gaelic) is the second rank of non-commissioned officer within the Irish Army. The naval equivalent is petty officer.
The army rank insignia consists of three winged chevrons (or "stripes"). The service dress insignia consists of three wavy red chevrons 9 cm wide bordered in yellow. The main infantry role of a sergeant is as second-in-command of a platoon or commander of a fire support section of a weapons platoon, such as an anti-tank or mortar platoon. Another role is that of company clerk and instructor. There are higher ranks of company sergeant and company quartermaster sergeant. Artillery sergeants are usually assigned as detachment and section commanders, as well as in administrative roles. The difference in roles of sergeant and corporal in the artillery corps is not as clearly defined as in the infantry corps.
Sergeant is also the second rank of non-commissioned officer in the Irish Air Corps. Before 1994, the Air Corps was considered part of the army and wore army uniforms with distinct corps badges, but the same rank insignia. With the introduction of a unique Air Corps blue uniform in 1994, the same rank markings in a white colour were worn, before the introduction of a new three-chevron with wing rank marking. There are higher ranks of flight sergeant and flight quartermaster sergeant.
Police
Sergeant is the second rank in the Garda Síochána, above garda and below inspector.
Sergeants appointed as detectives use the rank title detective sergeant (DS). They do not outrank regular sergeants, the 'detective' prefix indicates that they are permanently allocated to detective duties.
Israel
Defense forces
In the Israel Defense Forces, soldiers are promoted from corporal to sergeant after approximately 18 months of service (16 for combatants), if they performed their duties appropriately during this time, and did not have disciplinary problems. Soldiers who take a commander's course may become sergeants earlier. Sergeants get a symbolic pay raise of 1.80 NIS.
The Hebrew name for the rank is samál originated as an acronym for סגן מחוץ למנין segen mi-khutz la-minyan ("supernumerary lieutenant") (inspired by the abbreviation "NCO"). Nowadays is no longer treated as an acronym or an abbreviation .
Police
In the Israeli Police, sergeant is the third rank, coming after constable and corporal. Officers are promoted to this rank after a year as a corporal, or after 20 months of service in total. Excelling officers may be promoted to this rank (or any other rank) in up to 6 months instead of a year.
Italy
Army
In the Italian Army, the rank of sergente, ("sergeant") is the first rank of the warrant officers sergeant role, equivalent to NATO OR-5 grade. The two next senior ranks are sergente maggiore (literally "major sergeant") and sergente maggiore capo (literally "chief major sergeant"). For paratroopers, the ranks of sergente and sergente maggiore are bordered in blue.
Mexico
Army
In the Mexican Army, the corporal is junior to sargento segundo (second sergeant) and sargento primero (first sergeant).
Netherlands
See Military ranks of the Dutch armed forces
The Royal Netherlands Army, Royal Netherlands Navy and Royal Netherlands Air Force all use the rank of sergeant. Within the cavalry, artillery and in the Royal Marechaussee a sergeant is called a "wachtmeester." Within the air force and navy a sergeant is identified by three chevrons. In the army, a sergeant has one gold chevron (or silver if a wachtmeester in the cavalry or the Royal Marechaussee or a sergeant in the Military Administration).
New Zealand
Only the Royal New Zealand Air Force and New Zealand Army use sergeant as a rank, identifiable by the three chevrons. The Royal New Zealand Navy has the equivalent rank of petty officer. Promotion to sergeant in the New Zealand Defence Force is usually around nine to ten years service and commands considerable responsibility and an increase in pay.
Philippines
The rank of sergeant (Spanish: sargento; Tagalog: sarhento) existed and was used by the Philippine Revolutionary Army during the Philippine Revolution and Philippine-American War. The badge of rank was two chevrons sewn onto the Rayadillo sleeve.
The ranks of sergeant, staff sergeant, master sergeant, and chief master sergeant are today used in the Philippine Army, Philippine Marine Corps and Philippine Air Force. Rank insignia is very similar to that used in the United States. First chief master sergeant is an appointment rather than a rank and is somewhat equivalent to a sergeant major in the United States. The rank stands below staff sergeant and above corporal.
Poland
Army
In the Polish Army rank insignia system there are two grades of sergeant: sierżant (OR-6 in NATO code) and starszy sierżant (OR-7). The rank first appeared in Henryk Dąbrowski's Polish Legions in Italy in the late 18th century. Both ranks are used in the infantry, armoured forces, air force. In the cavalry the equivalent is wachmistrz (literally wachtmeister). In the artillery the equivalent is ogniomistrz (literally firemaster). In the Polish Navy, the equivalent is bosman (literally boatswain).
Russian Federation
Armed Forces
Within the Russian Armed Forces, there are three ranks which are explicitly sergeant ranks: junior sergeant (младший сержант, mladshy serzhant), sergeant (сержант, serzhant) and senior sergeant (старший сержант, starshy serzhant). There is also a rank called "starshina" (старшина), which is often translated as "master sergeant". These ranks are inherited from the Soviet Union.
In the Soviet army, most sergeants (with the exception of the aforementioned starshina) were not career non-commissioned officers but specially trained conscripts; the rank of starshina was reserved for career non-commissioned officers. In the modern Russian army, there are attempts to change this system and make most or all sergeants career non-commissioned officers; they are met with limited success.
Police
Unlike most police forces of the world, in the Russian police sergeant is a starting, entry-level rank. Ranks of "policeman" or "senior policeman" are not used in Russia (the rank of "private of police" technically exists but is rare, and most recruits become sergeants right away). It is divided into three grades the same way as the army sergeant rank.
Singapore
Singapore Armed Forces
In the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), there are five different grades of sergeant: third sergeant (3SG), second sergeant (2SG), first sergeant (1SG), staff sergeant (SSG), and master sergeant (MSG). Sergeants are considered specialists in the SAF. They are equivalent to the non-commissioned officers of other militaries.
Soldiers must complete their specialist course at the Specialist Cadet School, formerly known as the School of Infantry Specialists (SISPEC) or other training institutes before being promoted to third sergeant. While active duty national servicemen may be promoted to second sergeant, most personnel holding ranks above that are career soldiers.
Promotion from third sergeant to staff sergeant takes an average of 6 years, although there are many factors that may cause a soldier's promotion to cease. These factors include failure to pass an annual physical fitness proficiency test, poor performance, or being charged for offences.
Third sergeants are usually section commanders. They may also hold certain logistics or administrative posts such as company quartermaster sergeant. Second sergeants usually serve as platoon sergeants. First sergeants, staff sergeants and master sergeants usually serve as company sergeant majors or administrative specialists at company level or higher.
Home Team
In the Singapore Police Force, Singapore Civil Defence Force, Singapore Prison Service and Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, the rank of sergeant lies between corporal and staff sergeant. Unlike most police forces in the world, the rank of sergeant has been changed since the late 1990s to an entry-level rank for Diploma/GCE "A" Level holders rather than a supervisory one.
Uniformed Youth Organisations
In the National Cadet Corps (NCC), the rank of third sergeant is below second sergeant, and above corporal. In the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and the National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (NCDCC), the rank of sergeant is below staff sergeant, and above corporal. The rank of third sergeant and sergeant is held by cadets who have been appointed as non-commissioned officers by their units and thus have the power to command a squad.
NPCC and NCDCC sergeants wear a rank insignia of three pointed-down chevrons, with the letters 'NPCC' and 'NCDCC' located below the insignia, so as to differentiate NPCC and NCDCC cadets from Singapore Police Force and Singapore Civil Defence Force personnel respectively.
NCC third sergeants, second sergeants and first sergeants wear a rank insignia of three pointed-down chevrons, three pointed-down chevrons with one pointed-up chevron and three pointed-down chevrons with two pointed up-chevrons respectively, all with the letters 'NCC' located below the insignia, so as to differentiate NCC cadets from Singapore Armed Forces personnel.
In the St John Brigade (SJB), the rank of sergeant is above corporal and below staff sergeant. It is usually held by a non-commissioned officer.
Sri Lanka
Army
Sergeant is used as a rank in the Sri Lanka Army. It is senior to corporal and junior to staff sergeant. It is denoted by three chevrons.
Air Force
Sergeant is also used as a rank in the Sri Lanka Air Force. It is senior to corporal and junior to flight sergeant. It is denoted by three chevrons.
Police
The rank of sergeant exists in the Sri Lanka Police Service. It is senior to constable but junior to sub-inspector.
Police sergeant class 1 (PS)
Police sergeant class 2 (PS)
South Korea
South Korean armed forces share the same rank system to each other's (Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine). So here we only note the army.
In the Republic of Korea Armed Forces, the term 'sergeant' is often matched to the rank of byeong-jang (; lit. "chief soldier"). As suggested in the Korean name, byeong-jang is not a non-commissioned officer rank like in the U.S. Army; instead, it is the highest enlisted rank below non-commissioned officers. The rank insignia for byeong-jang is four horizontal bars, which also indicates that the rank is not an NCO rank, but a senior private rank. As of 2018, if a conscripted soldier doesn't opt for further service in the Armed Forces and has no reason for disqualification, his last rank before the discharge is byeong-jang. In case of the Army, byeong-jang may be given the responsibility of a 7–8 men squad if not ha-sa () (a rank right above byeong-jang, equivalent to staff sergeant of U.S. Army and the lowest NCO rank) is appointed in that position, but still not treated as an NCO in any occasion.
The ranks above byeong-jang are the true non-commissioned officer ranks: ha-sa (), jung-sa (), sang-sa (), and won-sa (). They are usually matched and translated into the U.S. Army's ranks from staff sergeant (E–6) to sergeant major (E–9), but that doesn't mean that those ranks are true equivalents in the roles and how they are treated in the Armed Forces. Most notably, if a person decides to start his/her military career as a non-commissioned officer, ha-sa (staff sergeant) is the first rank given, and it's also the last rank before the discharge if he or she opts for discharge after finishing the mandatory service years, or fails to qualify for 'long-term service.' Instead of the horizontal bars of non-NCO enlisted ranks, they use chevrons as their rank insignia.
Spain
In the Spanish military the enlisted ranks of sargento and the more senior sargento primero are junior to the brigada and senior to the ranks of cabo (corporal).
Taiwan
Sergeant () of the Taiwanese military ranks above staff sergeant and below master sergeant third class, making it different from the armed forces of other countries where sergeant ranks lower than staff sergeant. The rank of sergeant exists in the Army, Air Force and the Marine Corps, and is equivalent to the petty officer first class in the Navy.
Sweden
Army
In Sweden, Förste sergeant is the most junior specialist officers rank above överfurir (a squad leader at skill level C (advanced) and below översergeant. The Swedish rank system comprises two different types of officers, "specialist officers" (in other countries categorized as NCO:s) and "tactical officers". Though marked as OR 6 to OR 9, the Swedish rank system is that of a parallel system, and both officer categories mentioned above are recognized as officers according to the stipulations of commission, given by Swedish parliament. The rank of fanjunkare (OR 7) is superior to that of a second lieutenant (OF1). An individual officer can alternate during a career between serving as an tactical officer or specialist officer, depending on what kind of role the officer are serving in. Specialist oOfficers ranking from OR7 to OR9 can be found in the same positions as tactical officers, for example in staff positions on brigade and higher tactical levels, as advanced and skilled specialist or staff section commanders.
The creation of the specialist officers corps in 2008, meant that many former officers from OR 1b to OR 3 where commissioned to the ranks of OR 7 - OR 9.
From 1983 to 2008 there was only one professional officers corps within the Swedish armed forces (OF 1 to OF 9). All OR-ranks where hold by conscripts.
Historically, the role of the specialist officer, until 1972 categorised as "underofficer" in Sweden is reminiscent of that of a senior non-commissioned officer in Germany (unteroffizier mit portepee), hence there was a third stipulated "corps" of junior commanding ranks, that of the underbefäl, in direct translation "sub commanders" or "junior leader ranks", comprising the equivalents to the ranks of corporal (OR 4), furir (OR5) and överfurir (OR5b). This former "corps" (until 1983) was much like that of the senior gefreiter ranks within the different German-speaking armed forces. These ranks are today held by long serving and skilled professional or reservist soldiers, but are distinctly not specialist officers ranks.
In order to be appointed sergeant (until 2019 "first sergeant") in today's Swedish armed forces, it is required that the candidate have completed specialist officer training in Kvarn, and at the Military Academy Halmstad.
Turkey
Turkish Armed Forces
In Turkey, the rank of çavuş (sergeant) is above the rank of onbaşı (corporal).
Insignia is two inverted chevrons, in red or camouflage pattern, depending on the dress.
United Kingdom
Royal Marines and British Army
A sergeant in the Royal Marines and British Army wears three-point-down chevrons on their sleeve and usually serves as a platoon or troop sergeant, or in a specialist position. Staff sergeant (in technical units) or colour sergeant (in the Royal Marines and the infantry), is the next most senior rank, above which come warrant officers. The Household Cavalry use the rank of corporal of horse instead, the only regiments to preserve the old cavalry tradition of having corporals but not sergeants.
A lance-sergeant (LSgt) was formerly a corporal acting in the capacity of a sergeant. The appointment now survives only in the Foot Guards and Honourable Artillery Company, where it is awarded to all corporals. A lance-sergeant wears three chevrons and belongs to the sergeants' mess, however, functionally he remains a corporal rather than an acting sergeant (e.g., he will typically command a section). In the Household Cavalry, the equivalent appointment is lance-corporal of horse.
A sergeant in infantry regiments usually holds the appointment of "platoon sergeant" and is second in command of a platoon. In the Royal Marines a sergeant is sometimes the commander of a platoon-sized Close Combat Rifle Troop.
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force also has the rank of sergeant, wearing the same three chevrons. The rank lies between corporal and flight sergeant (or chief technician for technicians and musicians).
Between 1950 and 1964 in technical trades there was a rank of senior technician which was the equivalent of a sergeant. Senior technicians wore their chevrons point up.
On 1 July 1946, aircrew sergeants were re-designated as aircrew IV, III or II, replacing the chevrons with one, two or three six-pointed stars within a wreath and surmounted by an eagle. This was unpopular and in 1950 they returned to the old rank, but have worn an eagle above their chevrons ever since.
Sergeants of the Royal Flying Corps wore a four-bladed propeller above their chevrons.
The spelling "serjeant" was never used in the Royal Air Force.
Police
Within the British police, sergeant is the first supervisory rank. Sergeant is senior to the rank of constable, and junior to inspector. The rank is mostly operational, meaning that sergeants are directly concerned with day-to-day policing. Uniformed sergeants are often responsible for supervising a shift of constables and allocating duties to them. Prisoner-handling stations will also have one or more separate custody sergeants who are responsible for authorising and supervising the detention of arrested persons in accordance with the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, along with the daily management and effective running of the custody suite.
Detective sergeants are equal in rank to their uniformed counterparts; only the prefix 'detective' identifies them as having completed at least one of the various detective training courses authorising them to conduct and/or manage investigations into serious and/or complex crime. In British police services, not all officers deployed in plain clothes are detectives, and not all detectives are deployed within the CID. Thus, it is not unusual for detectives to supervise uniformed officers and vice versa.
Uniformed sergeants' epaulettes feature three down-pointed chevrons, above or below a personal identification number. Sergeants (and constables) in service with the Metropolitan Police, responsible for law enforcement in Greater London, have a "shoulder number", analogous to the collar number of regional forces, which is distinct from the warrant number on their warrant card. This is simply a management device to help order what is by far the largest police service in the UK. In the case of the Police Service of Northern Ireland, sergeants' chevrons point upwards. This is derived from the practices of the Royal Irish Constabulary, who were a mounted police force and followed a tradition of upward-pointing ranks.
Until the abolition of first-class detective sergeants in 1973, Metropolitan Police detective sergeants when initially promoted were officially known as second-class detective sergeants.
Unlike the military and allowing for regional variations, addressing a police sergeant as "sarge" is commonplace. Additionally, in some forces (especially the Metropolitan Police) sergeants are referred to as "skippers" and again allowing for regional variations, context and expectations it is not necessarily wrong for a constable to address their sergeant as "skip" or "skipper".
United States
History
The rank of sergeant was inherited from its use in the British Army and its colonial America regulars and militia of the several colonies. The sergeant has historically been the senior non-commissioned officer (NCO) rank immediately subordinate to an officer and superior to corporal. Commonly, in the British Army and American colonial forces there was one sergeant for each officer with the sergeants serving as the senior NCO of a section/squad (the two terms were often used interchangeably), or platoon/company (the platoon, in the British Army and its colonial America single-platoon system simply being the company formed for battle, much as the battalion was the regiment deployed in battle formation).
In British Army and its colonial America forces, infantry companies usually had three officers and three sergeants, with the sergeants' primary role in combat being to protect the officers. In battle formation, the company was marched into formation as a single platoon of three ranks consisting of the "rank and file" (i.e., the corporals and privates), also referred to as the "bayonet strength", in order to present volley fire by rank or massed bayonets for assault or defense. Therefore, the sergeants played little direct leadership role in combat as the massed company/platoon was under the direct control of the officers.
Beginning in 1775, the Thirteen Colonies' Continental Army began to organize under the Continental European (i.e., Prussian-French) model, which in addition to organizing infantry companies into two platoons and forming each platoon into two ranks by section/squad, vice the three ranks of the British model, gave a more direct leadership role to sergeants by assigning two sergeants to each platoon as section/squad leaders. Sergeants began to transition from serving as battlefield "body-guards" of aristocratic officers into being combat leaders integral to the tactical situation. In 1781, a fifth sergeant was authorized in each company to serve as company first sergeant, although a separate grade of rank was not established until 1831. However, from 1775, each regiment/battalion (these two terms were also used interchangeable during this time period as mentioned above) was authorized a sergeant major and a quartermaster sergeant.
The rank was used by both the U.S. Army and the Confederate army during the American Civil War. The same rank insignia was used similarly by both armies. Both varied the color of the stripes by assigning red for artillery, yellow for cavalry, blue for infantry and later in the war, green for sharpshooters. Some militia units varied these colors even further and had other colors including black and red with gold piping for various units. The rank was just below first sergeant and just above corporal. They usually commanded a section of twenty men with two corporals under him. As the war progressed these men were often in command of platoons and even companies as the units were depleted of officers during combat.
While the number of sergeants (including the first sergeant) authorized in an infantry company fluctuated from three to five during various periods of history, by the United States Civil War it was relatively fixed at four sergeants, a first sergeant, and a company quartermaster sergeant (added in 1861). In 1898 the infantry company was expanded to three platoons, increasing the number of sergeants in each company to six, along with a first sergeant and a company quartermaster sergeant. In 1905, the company quartermaster sergeant was renamed as company supply sergeant and a mess sergeant was added to the company.
In 1917, the Army reorganized under the "square division" plan. The size of units from company up increased significantly and there were now four rifle platoons and 12 sergeants per company, along with three "staff" NCOs (first sergeant, supply sergeant, and mess sergeant). While there were still two sergeants assigned as section leaders in each platoon, a new position of "assistant to platoon commander" was filled by the senior ranking sergeant of the three assigned to assist the lieutenant in leading the unit.
The 1939 "triangular division" reorganization eliminated sections in rifle platoons. In 1940, rifle squad leaders, who had been corporals, became sergeants (with two staff sergeants – one as a platoon leader and the other as a platoon guide in the platoon headquarters; the lieutenant was still titled platoon commander), with three squads/sergeants per rifle platoon. In 1942, sergeants became assistant squad leaders, with staff sergeants as squad leaders (and a technical sergeant and a staff sergeant, as platoon leader and platoon guide, respectively, in the platoon headquarters).
In 1943 platoon leaders (technical sergeants) were re-designated as platoon sergeants, while platoon commanders (officers – usually second or first lieutenants) became platoon leaders, with only company and higher-level commanding officers known as a "commander". (Of note, while the U.S. Marine Corps followed the Army's lead in re-designating the senior NCO in a platoon from "assistant to platoon commander" to platoon leader and then as the platoon sergeant, the Marine Corps continues to style an officer commanding a platoon as "platoon commander".) In 1948, squad leaders again became sergeants (with corporals as assistant squad leaders) and finally, in 1958, sergeants became fire-team leaders under a staff sergeant as squad leader.
Army
In the United States Army, although there are several ranks of sergeant, the lowest carries the title of sergeant. Sergeant is the enlisted rank in the U.S. Army above specialist and corporal and below staff sergeant, and is the second-lowest grade of non-commissioned officer. The rank was often nicknamed "buck sergeant" to distinguish it from other senior grades of sergeants. Sergeants in the infantry, for example, lead fire teams of four men. There are two fire teams in a nine-man rifle squad, which is led by a staff sergeant. Sergeants are normally section and team leaders and are a critical link in the NCO channel. These non-commissioned officers live and work with their soldiers every day and are responsible for their health, welfare and safety. These section and team leaders ensure that their soldiers meet standards in personal appearance and teach them to maintain and account for their individual and unit equipment and property. The NCO enforces standards and develops and trains soldiers daily in their military occupational specialty and unit mission.
In the United States Army, sergeants, staff sergeants, sergeants first class, and master sergeants are typically referred to in short form by their subordinates as "sergeant", except in some training environments. Higher ranked sergeants are referred to as "first sergeant" in the case of first sergeants and sergeant major in the case of sergeants major, command sergeants major and the Sergeant Major of the Army.
Drill sergeants are typically addressed as "drill sergeant" regardless of rank, though use of this term depends on post policy. When serving a tour as drill sergeant this is indicated by the traditional campaign hat. In late 1971, Headquarters, Continental Army Command (CONARC) received approval from the Chief of Staff of the Army for permission to include women in the Drill Sergeant Program. In February 1972, six Woman Army Corps (WAC) noncommissioned officers from Fort McClellan, Alabama, were enrolled in the Drill Sergeant Program, at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. Upon graduation, the women were authorized to wear the female drill sergeant campaign hat. Today, women drill sergeants are also referred to as "drill sergeant", regardless of their rank. Both men and women drill sergeants will always wear the drill sergeant badge indicating they completed the required training program at an authorized drill sergeant academy. The army drill sergeant badge appears on the right breast pocket.
Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps has several ranks that include the title of "sergeant", the lowest of which is sergeant (E-5). Marine sergeants are the fifth enlisted rank in the U.S. Marine Corps, ranking above corporal and below staff sergeant, and are often referred to as the backbone of the Marine Corps.
Infantry sergeants typically serve as squad leaders in either a rifle or weapons platoon or as the platoon guide (i.e., assistant platoon sergeant) in a rifle platoon.
Once a Marine attains the rank of sergeant, promotions no longer derive from a composite and cutting score-based system; instead, they receive a Fitness Report, or FITREP (i.e., a formal written evaluation, grading attributes from appearance and bearing to leadership and technical proficiency).
In the Marine Corps, enlisted ranks above sergeant are referred to as staff non-commissioned officers, or SNCOs. These ranks, staff sergeant through sergeant major, are always referred to by their full rank and never merely as "sergeant".
Staff sergeant is usually the lowest enlisted rank that reports directly to an officer. In the infantry this would typically be as a rifle platoon sergeant or as a section leader in a weapons platoon (i.e., machine guns, mortars, anti-tank/assault weapons).
Infantry gunnery sergeants usually serve as platoon sergeants for weapons platoons before moving up to a company gunnery sergeant billet. This position is filled by an experienced gunnery sergeant who is typically in charge of coordinating operations, logistics, and individual training for a company-sized group of Marines (approximately 180 personnel). Owing to their involvement in the management of unit supply/re-supply the "Company Gunny" is colloquially known to be in charge of the "3 Bs": beans, bullets, and band-aids. Gunnery sergeants are commonly addressed as "gunny", but never officially. Use of this informality by subordinates is permitted solely at the rank holder's discretion.
Infantry master sergeants typically serve as the operations chief of a weapons company (in lieu of the Company Gunnery Sergeant located in the rifle companies) or as the assistant operations chief in the headquarters of an infantry regiment. Master sergeants are addressed as either "master sergeant" or "top" at the preference of the incumbent and dependent upon the commonly accepted practice within the MOS community. For example, in Intelligence (the 02 MOS field), use of "Top" is common; in the Infantry (the 03 MOS field) its use is nearly unheard of and aggressively discouraged.
First sergeants serve as the senior enlisted advisor (SEA) to a company or battery commander and are always addressed by their full rank title as "first sergeant". However, it is common for first sergeants to be referred to as "first shirt" by those under their command. Unlike "gunny" and even "top", a first sergeant is never addressed as "first shirt" directly.
Infantry master gunnery sergeants serve as the operations chief in the headquarters of an infantry battalion or higher level organization (viz., Marine Expeditionary Unit, regiment, Marine Expeditionary Brigade, division, Marine Expeditionary Force) and follow the same verbal address protocol as master sergeants but are commonly referred to as "master guns", or "master gunny".
Sergeants major serve as the SEA to a battalion or squadron, or higher level, commander, and are always addressed by their full rank title as "sergeant major".
The history of the rank of sergeant in the USMC roughly parallels that of the US Army until 1942. From 1775 until WWII the Marine Corps used essentially the same rank and organizational structure as its common British and colonial forbearers with the Army, as well as the later Continental and U.S. Armies. In 1942, as the Army modified its triangular-division infantry organization to best fight in the European/North African/Middle Eastern theatre, the Marine Corps began modifying the triangular-division plan to best employ its amphibious-warfare doctrine in the Pacific Theatre. This meant that for the Corps, squad leaders would remain as sergeants and the rifle squad would be sub-divided into three 4-man fire teams, each led by a corporal.
Air Force
The U.S. Air Force title "sergeant" (E-4, equivalent to an Army or Marine corporal and Navy/Coast Guard petty officer third class), commonly and informally referred to as "buck sergeant", was used beginning in October 1967 in the hope that the prestige of being an NCO would increase the re-enlistment rate. The title was phased out again in the 1990s.
From 1952 through October 1967, E4s were titled "Airman First Class" (A/1c) and there was no rank titled "sergeant", though A/1cs were often called "sarge" or "sergeant" informally. During the period when the E4 title was "sergeant", senior airmen, earlier known as airmen second class (A/2c, pay grade E3), were promoted to sergeant and granted non-commissioned officer status after 12 months time in grade; this lateral promotion is no longer conferred and senior airmen compete directly for promotion to staff sergeant. The current title for airmen at the E4 grade is "senior airman". From 1976 – 1995, senior airman rank insignia had a subdued central star (light blue vice silver for sergeant and above), as did airman first class (E3) and airman (E2). Airman Basic, E1, has no rank insignia.
In today's Air Force, the term sergeant refers to all Air Force non-commissioned officers up to the rank of senior master sergeant (E-8). An Airman who has achieved the rank of senior master sergeant (E-8) may also be referred to as "senior". An airman who has achieved the rank of chief master sergeant (E-9) is referred to as "chief". Those in the grade of staff sergeant (E-5) and technical sergeant (E-6) are referred to as non-commissioned officers, while those in the grade of master sergeant (E-7) through chief master sergeant (E-9) are referred to as senior non-commissioned officers.
Space Force
On February 1, 2021, the United States Space Force established the rank of sergeant for the paygrade E-5, replacing the rank of staff sergeant used in the Air Force. This aligned the Space Force's E-5 grade with the Army and Marine Corps, in which sergeants hold the grade of E-5 and staff sergeants hold the grade of E-6. In the Air Force, staff sergeants hold the grade of E-5 and the prior rank of sergeant was a non-commissioned officer in the grade of E-4, equivalent to the U.S. Army's corporal. Sergeants rank above specialist 4 but below technical sergeant.
Vietnam
In Vietnam People's Army, sergeant (trung sĩ) is the second highest rank of non-commissioned officer. Sergeant is below master sergeant and above corporal.
See also
Comparative military ranks
Military rank
Military unit
Chevron (insignia)
Notes
External links
Enlisted ranks of the United States Air Force
Enlisted ranks of the United States Space Force
Military ranks of Australia
Military ranks of Canada
Military ranks of Ireland
Military ranks of Singapore
Military ranks of the Commonwealth
Military ranks of the Francophonie
Military ranks of the British Army
Military ranks of the United States Army
Military ranks
Police ranks in the United Kingdom
Police ranks of Sri Lanka
Police ranks
Military ranks of the United States Marine Corps
United States military enlisted ranks
Military ranks of the Royal Air Force
Military ranks of the Royal Marines | [
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219425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20calendar | Swedish calendar | The Swedish calendar () or Swedish style () was a calendar in use in Sweden and its possessions from 1 March 1700 until 30 February 1712 (see below). It was one day ahead of the Julian calendar and ten days behind the Gregorian calendar. Easter was calculated astronomically, with a minor exception, from 1740 to 1844.
Solar calendar
In November 1699, the Government of Sweden decided that, rather than adopt the Gregorian calendar outright, it would gradually approach it over a 40-year period. The plan was to skip all leap days in the period 1700 to 1740. Every fourth year, the gap between the Swedish calendar and the Gregorian would reduce by one day, until they finally lined up in 1740. In the meantime, this calendar would not be in line with either of the major alternative calendars and the differences would change every four years.
In accordance with the plan, February 29 was omitted in 1700, but the Great Northern War stopped any further omissions from being made in the following years.
In January 1711, King Charles XII declared that Sweden would abandon the calendar, which was not in use by any other nation, in favour of a return to the older Julian calendar. An extra day was added to February in the leap year of 1712, thus giving it a unique 30-day length (February 30).
In 1753, one year later than England and its colonies, Sweden introduced the Gregorian calendar. The leap of 11 days was accomplished in one step, with February 17 being followed by March 1.
Easter
Easter was to be calculated according to the Easter rules of the Julian calendar from 1700 until 1739, but from 1700 to 1711, Easter Sunday was dated in the anomalous Swedish calendar, described above.
In 1740, Sweden finally adopted the "improved calendar" already adopted by the Protestant states of Germany in 1700 (which they used until 1775). Its improvement was to calculate the full moon and vernal equinox of Easter according to astronomical tables, specifically Kepler's Rudolphine Tables at the meridian of Tycho Brahe's Uraniborg observatory (destroyed long before) on the former Danish island of Hven near the southern tip of Sweden. In addition to the usual medieval rule that Easter was the first Sunday after the first full moon after the vernal equinox, the astronomical Easter Sunday was to be delayed by one week if this calculation would have placed it on the same day as the first day of Jewish Passover week, Nisan 15. It conflicts with the Julian Easter, which could not occur on the 14th day of the moon (Nisan 14), but was permitted on Nisan 15 to 21 although those dates were calculated via Christian, not Jewish, tables (see Computus). The resulting astronomical Easter dates in the Julian calendar used in Sweden from 1740 to 1752 occurred on the same Sunday as the Julian Easter every three years but were earlier than the earliest canonical limit for Easter of March 22 in 1742, 1744 and 1750.
After the adoption of the Gregorian solar calendar in 1753, three astronomical Easter dates were one week later than the Gregorian Easter in 1802, 1805 and 1818. Before Sweden formally adopted the Gregorian Easter in 1844, two more should have been delayed in 1825 and 1829 but were not.
Finland was part of Sweden until 1809 when it became the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire due to the Finnish War. Until 1866, Finland continued to observe the astronomical Easter, which was one week after the Gregorian Easter in 1818, 1825, 1829 and 1845. However, Russia then used the Julian calendar and Julian Easter so the comparison given above applies: that the astronomical Easter agreed with the Julian Easter about every third year but was sometimes earlier than March 22 in the Julian calendar.
See also
Leap year
Holidays in Sweden
Flag flying days in Sweden
Name days in Sweden
Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
References
Obsolete calendars
Time in Sweden
Calendar
1700 introductions
1700 establishments in Sweden
1712 disestablishments in Sweden | [
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219427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobby%20%28bird%29 | Hobby (bird) | A hobby is a fairly small, very swift falcon with long, narrow wings. There are four birds called "hobby", and some others which, although termed "falcon", are very similar. All specialise in being superb aerialists. Although they take prey on the ground if the opportunity presents itself, most prey is caught on the wing; insects are often caught by hawking, and many different birds are caught in flight, where even the quick maneuvering swifts and swallows cannot escape a hobby.
The typical hobbies are traditionally considered a subgenus, Hypotriorchis, due to their similar morphology; they have ample amounts of dark slaty grey in their plumage; the malar area is black; and the underside usually has lengthwise black streaks. The tails are all-dark or have only slight bands.
Monophyly of Hypotriorchis is supported by DNA sequence data, though the exact limits of the group are still uncertain. The hobbies seem to be one of the Falco lineages which emerged around the Miocene-Pliocene boundary some 8-5 million years ago and subsequently radiated - in this case throughout the Old World. Their relationship to the peregrine falcon group and the kestrels is not well resolved, however; taxa such as the red-footed falcon appear in some respects intermediate between the kestrels and the typical hobbies.
Eurasian hobby (F. subbuteo), also known as the northern hobby
African hobby (F. cuvierii)
Oriental hobby (F. severus)
Australian hobby or little falcon (F. longipennis), uncommon but widespread in Australia, during the southern winter, some birds migrate to the north of the continent or to the islands of Southeast Asia
Sooty falcon (F. concolor) of the North African desert
Eleonora's falcon (F. eleonorae) occupies the Mediterranean area during the northern summer, and migrates south to Madagascar for the southern summer.
These species are tentatively placed here:
New Zealand falcon or karearea (F. novaeseelandiae).
Brown falcon (F. berigora)
Taita falcon (F. fasciinucha)
References
Falcons
de:Baumfalke
fr:Falco subbuteo | [
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219428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20fear | Appeal to fear | An appeal to fear (also called argumentum ad metum or argumentum in terrorem) is a fallacy in which a person attempts to create support for an idea by attempting to increase fear towards an alternative. An appeal to fear is related to the broader strategy of fear appeal and is a common tactic in marketing, politics, and media (communication).
Logic
This fallacy has the following argument form:
Either P or Q is true.
Q is frightening.
Therefore, P is true.
The argument is invalid. The appeal to emotion is used in exploiting existing fears to create support for the speaker's proposal, namely P. Also, often the false dilemma fallacy is involved, suggesting Q is the proposed idea's sole alternative.
Fear, uncertainty and doubt
Fear, uncertainty and doubt (FUD) is the appeal to fear in sales or marketing; in which a company disseminates negative (and vague) information on a competitor's product. The term originated to describe misinformation tactics in the computer hardware industry and has since been used more broadly. FUD is "implicit coercion" by "any kind of disinformation used as a competitive weapon." FUD creates a situation in which buyers are encouraged to purchase by brand, regardless of the relative technical merits. Opponents of certain large computer corporations state that the spreading of fear, uncertainty, and doubt is an unethical marketing technique that these corporations consciously employ.
As persuasion
Fear appeals are often used in marketing and social policy, as a method of persuasion. Fear is an effective tool to change attitudes, which are moderated by the motivation and ability to process the fear message. Examples of fear appeal include reference to social exclusion, and getting laid-off from one's job, getting cancer from smoking or involvement in car accidents and driving.
Fear appeals are nonmonotonic, meaning that the level of persuasion does not always increase when the claimed danger is increased. A study of public service messages on AIDS found that if the messages were too aggressive or fearful, they were rejected by the subject; a moderate amount of fear is the most effective attitude changer.
Others argue that it is not the level of fear that is decisive changing attitudes via the persuasion process. Rather, as long as a scare-tactics message includes a recommendation to cope with the fear, it can work.
See also
Appeal to emotion
Appeal to force
Culture of fear
Demagogue
Embrace, extend and extinguish
Fear appeal
Fear mongering
List of fallacies
Moral panic
Rape culture
Red Scare
Scareware
The terrorists have won
References
External links
Propaganda critic: Fear appeal
Fear
Marketing techniques
Fear
Propaganda techniques | [
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219432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaton%27s%20pintail | Eaton's pintail | Eaton's pintail (Anas eatoni) is a dabbling duck of the genus Anas. It is also known as the southern pintail. The species is restricted to the island groups of Kerguelen and Crozet in the southern Indian Ocean. It resembles a small female northern pintail. It was named after the English explorer and naturalist Alfred Edmund Eaton. It is threatened by introduced species, particularly feral cats, which prey on it.
There are two subspecies: A. eatoni eatoni (Kerguelen pintail) and A. eatoni drygalskii (Crozet pintail).
References
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet
Eaton's pintail
Birds of the Indian Ocean
Birds of subantarctic islands
Fauna of the Crozet Islands
Fauna of the Kerguelen Islands
Eaton's pintail
Eaton's pintail | [
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219434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Rivera%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20Airport | Antonio Rivera Rodríguez Airport | Antonio Rivera Rodríguez Airport is a public airport on the island of Vieques in Puerto Rico. Because a large amount of Vieques's yearly revenue comes from the tourism industry, this airport plays an important part in the Vieques economy. For decades, the airport has been the hub of Vieques Air Link, and also a destination for a number of small airlines.
It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a primary commercial service airport (more than 10,000 enplanements per year).
History
When anti-military demonstrators started flocking into Vieques in 1999, Vieques Airport saw a considerable increase to its normal yearly average of passengers. In addition, many celebrities who travelled from all over Puerto Rico and the rest of Latin America to join the protesters arrived at Vieques through this airport. When Carla Tricoli, a Vieques native, won the 2002 Miss Puerto Rico contest, her first flight as a beauty queen landed at Vieques Airport.
The airport does not accept jet aircraft, but several international flights operate from it. Most of the commercial aviation operations are domestic flights such as to Ceiba, to Isla Grande Airport in San Juan, and to Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, a suburb of San Juan. Air ambulance flights to San Juan are also available.
Early in 2005, plans were announced to expand the airport's runway, so that the airport could accept flights by smaller jets. This would be done in preparation for American Eagle to start operations to the airport on behalf of American Airlines via a code sharing agreement. The airline was expected to start flights to Vieques from San Juan's Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in early 2010; however, American Eagle decided not to begin service and then subsequently ceased all code sharing flights on behalf of American in the Caribbean.
Facilities
Antonio Rivera Rodríguez Airport covers an area of at an elevation of above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 9/27 with an asphalt surface measuring .
Airlines and destinations
Scheduled passenger service is provided by the following airlines:
Statistics
Accidents and incidents
On December 19, 1977, a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander operated by Vieques Air Link en route from St. Croix ditched off of Vieques due to fuel exhaustion. Five passengers of the 10 on board were killed.
A Beechcraft A100 King Air which belonged to Padosa Productions-a musical label to which boy band Menudo belonged-crashed with 11 people on board, 2 crew members and nine passengers, on Wednesday, August 17, 1983. The plane was on a flight from Alexander Hamilton International Airport in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands to Isla Verde International Airport in San Juan, with a stop-over at Vieques, when it confronted lifting problems on take-off from Vieques to San Juan, hitting citrus trees before it was able to stop. While there were no injuries reported, the airplane suffered substantial damage. It is unknown whether band director Edgardo Diaz or any of the band's members at the time (Johnny Lozada, Ricky Melendez, Charlie Masso, Ray Reyes and Roy Rossello) were in the plane when it crashed.
Vieques Air Link Flight 901A – On August 2, 1984, a BN-2 Islander of Vieques Air Link crashed after take-off, killing all nine passengers and crew.
See also
Transport in Puerto Rico
List of airports in Puerto Rico
References
External links
Antonio Rivera Rodriguez Airport
Vieques, Puerto Rico
Airports in Puerto Rico | [
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219435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20novelty | Appeal to novelty | The appeal to novelty (also called argumentum ad novitatem) is a fallacy in which one prematurely claims that an idea or proposal is correct or superior, exclusively because it is new and modern. In a controversy between status quo and new inventions, an appeal to novelty argument is not in itself a valid argument. The fallacy may take two forms: overestimating the new and modern, prematurely and without investigation assuming it to be best-case, or underestimating status quo, prematurely and without investigation assuming it to be worst-case.
Investigation may prove these claims to be true, but it is a fallacy to prematurely conclude this only from the general claim that all novelty is good.
Chronological snobbery is a form of appeal to novelty, in which one argues that the only relevant knowledge and practices are those established in the last decades. The opposite of an appeal to novelty is an appeal to tradition, in which one argues that the "old ways" are always superior to new ideas.
Appeals to novelty are often successful in a modern world where everyone is eager to be on the "cutting edge" of technology. The dot-com bubble of the early 2000s could easily be interpreted as a sign of the dangers of naïvely embracing new ideas without first viewing them with a critical eye. Also, advertisers frequently extoll the newness of their products as a reason to buy. Conversely, this is satirised as bleeding edge technology by skeptics (this may itself be an example of the appeal to tradition fallacy).
Explanation
The appeal to novelty is based on the reasoning that in general people will tend to try to improve the outputs resulting from their efforts. Thus, for example, a company producing a product might be assumed to know about existing flaws and to be seeking to correct them in a future revision. This line of reasoning is obviously flawed for many reasons, most notably that it ignores:
motive (a new product may be released that is functionally identical to previous products but which is cheaper to produce, or with modifications that have nothing to do with its core use, e.g. aesthetic modifications on a technological product);
cyclicality (the fashion industry continually rediscovers old styles and markets them as the next new thing);
population dynamics (the previous product may have been created by an expert who has since been replaced by a neophyte);
fallibility (while building the new product defects or negative side effects can be introduced undetected, effectively rendering it inferior);
difference between local and general improvement (a new product may be superior to its previous counterpart in its core function but made lacking in other aspects, leading to a general inferior state, e.g. a product dropping some features, or becoming restricted geographically);
cost (the new product may be better in terms of performance but have low or no return on investment if used to replace the older one).
Examples
"If you want to lose weight, your best bet is to follow the latest diet."
"The department will become more profitable because it has been reorganized."
"Upgrading all your software to the most recent versions will make your system more reliable."
"Things are bad with party A in charge, thus party B will bring an improvement if they're elected."
"If you want to make friends, you have to wear the latest fashion and the trendiest gadgets."
"Do X because it is (current year)."
"The abolition of the death penalty is an international trend, so the death penalty should be abolished."
Appeal to novelty fallacy: designation pitfalls
In some cases, there may exist one or more unnamed – but still universally acknowledged – correlations between novelty and positive traits. For example, newer technology has a tendency to be more complex and advanced than older. A correlation may, for example, exist between the newness of a virus definition file and the security of a computer, or between the newness of a computer and its speed and performance. In these precise cases, something may be more likely to be superior whenever it is new and modern, though not exclusively because it is new and modern. In some restricted cases, it may even be proven. Thus, what may seem like Appeal to novelty is not a fallacy in every case. It is only a fallacy if the invoked correlations are disputed if no correlation has been examined, or if the correlations are claimed as proofs.
Whenever something undergoes some sort of continuous decay, valuing novelty is justified as long as novelty restores some status quo with an anterior state (or improves on it). For instance, new clothes are arguably superior to their identical worn out counterparts, as are newly produced body parts to the old in the case of moulting. Much the same way, in aesthetics, for example in some arts and music, the value can be held not by the actual product or its performance, but rather by the sentiment of freshness and amazement that it causes; for example, many radio stations play only that music which is currently selling well (or is predicted to sell well following its imminent release), not that which has sold equally well only a few months before. The implication is that it is the currency of the popularity that confers value, rather than any intrinsic quality of the music itself, or of popularity at previous times. If it is the case, a novelty in itself – though not necessarily all forms of novelty – is a key aspect of evaluation. In those cases, if a statement comparing two art forms does mention their respective states of novelty, there is no fallacy (e.g. "Song A is currently a much better bet for your party than song B.").
See also
Historian's fallacy
Myth of progress
References
Novelty
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219447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20idealism | German idealism | German idealism was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. The best-known thinkers in the movement, besides Kant, were Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Arthur Schopenhauer, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and the proponents of Jena Romanticism (Friedrich Hölderlin, Novalis, and Friedrich Schlegel). August Ludwig Hülsen, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Gottlob Ernst Schulze, Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Salomon Maimon and Friedrich Schleiermacher also made major contributions.
The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism, post-Kantian philosophy, or simply post-Kantianism.
Fichte's philosophical work has controversially been interpreted as a stepping stone in the emergence of German speculative idealism, the thesis that we only ever have access to the correlation between thought and being. Another scheme divides German idealists into transcendental idealists, associated with Kant and Fichte, and absolute idealists, associated with Schelling and Hegel.
Meaning of idealism
The word "idealism" has multiple meanings. The philosophical meaning of idealism are those properties we discover in objects that are dependent on the way that those objects appear to us, as perceived subjects. These properties only belong to the perceived appearance of the objects, and not something they possess "in themselves". The term "idea-ism" is closer to this intended meaning than the common notion of idealism. The question of what properties a thing might have "independently of the mind" is thus unknowable and a moot point, within the idealist tradition.
History
Immanuel Kant's work purported to bridge the two dominant philosophical schools in the 18th century: 1) rationalism, which held that knowledge could be attained by reason alone a priori (prior to experience), and 2) empiricism, which held that knowledge could be arrived at only through the senses a posteriori (after experience), as expressed by philosopher David Hume, whom Kant sought to rebut. Kant's solution was to propose that, while we depend on objects of experience to know anything about the world, we can investigate a priori the form that our thoughts can take, determining the boundaries of possible experience. Kant called his mode of philosophising "critical philosophy", in that it was supposedly less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we can set out. The conclusion he presented, as above, he called "transcendental idealism". This distinguished it from classical idealism and subjective idealism such as George Berkeley's, which held that external objects have actual being or real existence only when they are perceived by an observer. Kant said that there are things-in-themselves (noumena, that is), things that exist other than being merely sensations and ideas in our minds. Kant held in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) that the world of appearances (phenomena) is empirically real and transcendentally ideal. The mind plays a central role in influencing the way that the world is experienced: we perceive phenomena through time, space and the categories of the understanding. It is this notion that was taken to heart by Kant's philosophical successors.
Arthur Schopenhauer considered himself to be a transcendental idealist. In his major work The World as Will and Representation (1818/1819) he discusses his indebtedness to Kant, and the work includes Schopenhauer's extensive analysis of the Critique.
The best-known German idealist thinkers, besides Kant, were Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The Young Hegelians, a number of philosophers who developed Hegel's work in various directions, were in some cases idealists. On the other hand, Karl Marx, who was numbered among them, had professed himself to be a materialist, in opposition to idealism. Another member of the Young Hegelians, Ludwig Feuerbach, advocated for materialism, and his thought was influential in the development of historical materialism, where he is often recognized as a bridge between Hegel and Marx.
Theorists
Kant
Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism consisted of taking a point of view outside and above oneself (transcendentally) and understanding that the mind directly knows only phenomena or ideas. Whatever exists other than mental phenomena, or ideas that appear to the mind, is a thing-in-itself and cannot be directly and immediately known.
Kant criticized pure reason. He wanted to restrict reasoning, judging, and speaking only to objects of possible experience. The main German Idealists, who had been theology students, reacted against Kant's stringent limits. "It was Kant’s criticism of all attempts to prove the existence of God which led to the romantic reaction of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel." "Kant sets out to smash not only the proofs of God but the very foundations of Christian metaphysics, then turns around and 'postulates' God and the immortality of the soul, preparing the way for Fichte and idealism."
Jacobi
In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism, Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself". Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known. This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi legitimized belief. "…[B]y reducing the external world to a matter of faith, he wanted merely to open a little door for faith in general..."
Reinhold
Karl Leonhard Reinhold published two volumes of Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy in 1790 and 1792. They provided a clear explication of Kant's thoughts, which were previously inaccessible due to Kant's use of complex or technical language.
Reinhold also tried to prove Kant's assertion that humans and other animals can know only images that appear in their minds, never "things-in-themselves" (things that are not mere appearances in a mind). In order to establish his proof, Reinhold stated an axiom that could not possibly be doubted. From this axiom, all knowledge of consciousness could be deduced. His axiom was: "Representation is distinguished in consciousness by the subject from the subject and object, and is referred to both."
He thereby started, not from definitions, but, from a principle that referred to mental images or representations in a conscious mind. In this way, he analyzed knowledge into (1) the knowing subject, or observer, (2) the known object, and (3) the image or representation in the subject's mind. In order to understand transcendental idealism, it is necessary to reflect deeply enough to distinguish experience as consisting of these three components: subject, subject's representation of object, and object.
Schulze
Kant noted that a mental idea or representation must be a representation of something, and deduced that it is of something external to the mind. He gave the name of Ding an sich, or thing-in-itself to that which is represented. However, Gottlob Ernst Schulze wrote, anonymously, that the law of cause and effect only applies to the phenomena within the mind, not between those phenomena and any things-in-themselves outside the mind. That is, a thing-in-itself cannot be the cause of an idea or image of a thing in the mind. In this way, he discredited Kant's philosophy by using Kant's own reasoning to disprove the existence of a thing-in-itself.
Fichte
After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself. Fichte asserted that our representations, ideas, or mental images are merely the productions of our ego, or knowing subject. For him, there is no external thing-in-itself that produces the ideas. On the contrary, the knowing subject, or ego, is the cause of the external thing, object, or non-ego.
Fichte's style was a challenging exaggeration of Kant's already difficult writing. Also, Fichte claimed that his truths were apparent to intellectual, non-perceptual, intuition. That is, the truth can be immediately seen by the use of reason.
Schopenhauer, a student of Fichte's, wrote of him:
Schelling
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling attempted to rescue theism from Kant's refutation of the proofs for God's existence. "Now the philosophy of Schelling from the first admitted the possibility of a knowledge of God, although it likewise started from the philosophy of Kant, which denies such knowledge."
With regard to the experience of objects, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So the ideas or mental images in the mind are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. According to Schelling's "absolute identity" or "indifferentism", there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real.
In 1851, Arthur Schopenhauer criticized Schelling's absolute identity of the subjective and the objective, or of the ideal and the real. "...[E]verything that rare minds like Locke and Kant had separated after an incredible amount of reflection and judgment, was to be again poured into the pap of that absolute identity. For the teaching of those two thinkers [Locke and Kant] may be very appropriately described as the doctrine of the absolute diversity of the ideal and the real, or of the subjective and the objective."
Schleiermacher
Friedrich Schleiermacher was a theologian who asserted that the ideal and the real are united in God. He understood the ideal as the subjective mental activities of thought, intellect, and reason. The real was, for him, the objective area of nature and physical being. Schleiermacher declared that the unity of the ideal and the real is manifested in God. The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other. Rather, they are both equally existent in the absolute transcendental entity which is God.
Maimon
Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other.
Maimon claimed that the dualism between these faculties was analogous to the old Cartesian dualism between the mind and body, and that all the problems of the older dualism should hold mutatis mutandis for the new one. Such was the heterogeneity between understanding and sensibility, Maimon further argued, that there could be no criterion to determine how the concepts of the understanding apply to the intuitions of sensibility. By thus pointing out these problematic dualisms, Maimon and the neo-Humean critics left a foothold open for skepticism within the framework of Kant’s own philosophy. For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that a priori concepts apply to a posteriori intuitions.
Schelling and Hegel, however, tried to solve this problem by claiming that opposites are absolutely identical. Maimon's concept of an infinite mind as the basis of all opposites was similar to the German idealistic attempt to rescue theism by positing an Absolute Mind or Spirit.
Maimon's metaphysical concept of "infinite mind" was similar to Fichte's "Ich" and Hegel's "Geist." Maimon ignored the results of Kant's criticism and returned to pre-Kantian transcendent speculation.
What characterizes Fichte’s, Schelling’s, and Hegel’s speculative idealism in contrast to Kant's critical idealism is the recurrence of metaphysical ideas from the rationalist tradition. What Kant forbade as a violation of the limits of human knowledge, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel saw as a necessity of the critical philosophy itself. Now Maimon was the crucial figure behind this transformation. By reviving metaphysical ideas from within the problematic of the critical philosophy, he gave them a new legitimacy and opened up the possibility for a critical resurrection of metaphysics.
Maimon is said to have Influenced Hegel's writing on Spinoza. "[T]here seems to be a striking similarity between Maimon’s discussion of Spinoza in the Lebensgeschichte (Maimon's autobiography) and Hegel’s discussion of Spinoza in the Lectures in the History of Philosophy."
Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. Hegel responded to Kant's philosophy by suggesting that the unsolvable contradictions given by Kant in his Antinomies of Pure Reason applied not only to the four areas Kant gave (world as infinite vs. finite, material as composite vs. atomic, etc.) but in all objects and conceptions, notions and ideas. To know this he suggested makes a "vital part in a philosophical theory." Given that abstract thought is thus limited, he went on to consider how historical formations give rise to different philosophies and ways of thinking. For Hegel, thought fails when it is only given as an abstraction and is not united with considerations of historical reality. In his major work The Phenomenology of Spirit he went on to trace the formation of self-consciousness through history and the importance of other people in the awakening of self-consciousness (see master-slave dialectic). Thus Hegel introduces two important ideas to metaphysics and philosophy: the integral importance of history and of the Other person. His work is theological in that it replaces the traditional concept of God with that of an Absolute Spirit. Spinoza, who changed the anthropomorphic concept of God into that of an abstract, vague, underlying Substance, was praised by Hegel whose concept of Absolute fulfilled a similar function. Hegel claimed that "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all". Reality results from God's thinking, according to Hegel. Objects that appear to a spectator originate in God's mind.
Responses
Neo-Kantianism
Neo-Kantianism refers broadly to a revived type of philosophy along the lines of that laid down by Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, or more specifically by Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy in his work The World as Will and Representation (1818), as well as by other post-Kantian philosophers such as Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart. It has some more specific reference in later German philosophy.
Hegelianism
Hegel was hugely influential throughout the nineteenth century; by its end, according to Bertrand Russell, "the leading academic philosophers, both in America and Britain, were largely Hegelian". His influence has continued in contemporary philosophy but mainly in Continental philosophy.
Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer contended that Spinoza had a great influence on post-Kantian German idealists. Schopenhauer wrote: "In consequence of Kant's criticism of all speculative theology, almost all the philosophizers in Germany cast themselves back on to Spinoza, so that the whole series of unsuccessful attempts known by the name of post-Kantian philosophy is simply Spinozism tastelessly got up, veiled in all kinds of unintelligible language, and otherwise twisted and distorted."
According to Schopenhauer, Kant's original philosophy, with its refutation of all speculative theology, had been transformed by the German idealists. Through the use of his technical terms such as "transcendental", "transcendent", "reason", "intelligibility" and "thing-in-itself" they attempted to speak of what exists beyond experience and, in this way, to revive the notions of God, free will, and immortality of soul. Kant had effectively relegated these ineffable notions to faith and belief.
Nietzsche
In his notebook, Nietzsche expressed his opinion of German idealism's enterprise: "The significance of German philosophy (Hegel): to devise a pantheism through which evil, error, and suffering are not felt as arguments against divinity. This grandiose initiative has been misused by the existing powers (state, etc.), as if it sanctioned the rationality of whoever happened to be ruling." He understood German Idealism to be a government-sponsored theodicy.
British idealism
In England, during the nineteenth century, philosopher Thomas Hill Green embraced German Idealism in order to salvage Christian monotheism as a basis for morality. His philosophy attempted to account for an eternal consciousness or mind that was similar to Berkeley's concept of God and Hegel's Absolute. John Rodman, in the introduction to his book on Thomas Hill Green's political theory, wrote: "Green is best seen as an exponent of German idealism as an answer to the dilemma posed by the discrediting of Christianity…."
United States
"German idealism was initially introduced to the broader community of American literati through a Vermont intellectual, James Marsh. Studying theology with Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary in the early 1820s, Marsh sought a Christian theology that would 'keep alive the heart in the head.' " Some American theologians and churchmen found value in German Idealism's theological concept of the infinite Absolute Ideal or Geist [Spirit]. It provided a religious alternative to the traditional Christian concept of the Deity. "…[P]ost–Kantian idealism can certainly be viewed as a religious school of thought…." The Absolute Ideal Weltgeist [World Spirit] was invoked by American ministers as they "turned to German idealism in the hope of finding comfort against English positivism and empiricism." German idealism was a substitute for religion after the Civil War when "Americans were drawn to German idealism because of a 'loss of faith in traditional cosmic explanations.' " "By the early 1870s, the infiltration of German idealism was so pronounced that Walt Whitman declared in his personal notes that 'Only Hegel is fit for America — is large enough and free enough.' "
Ortega y Gasset
According to José Ortega y Gasset, with Post-Kantian German Idealism, "…never before has a lack of truthfulness played such a large and important role in philosophy." "They did whatever they felt like doing with concepts. As if by magic they changed anything into any other thing." According to Ortega y Gasset, "…the basic force behind their work was not strictly and exclusively the desire for truth…." Ortega y Gasset quoted Schopenhauer's Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume II, in which Schopenhauer wrote that Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel forgot "the fact that one can feel an authentic and bitter seriousness" for philosophy. Schopenhauer, in Ortega y Gasset's quote, hoped that philosophers like those three men could learn "true and fruitful seriousness, such that the problem of existence would capture the thinker and bestir his innermost being."
George Santayana
George Santayana had strongly-held opinions regarding this attempt to overcome the effects of Kant's transcendental idealism.
G. E. Moore
In the first sentence of his The Refutation of Idealism, G. E. Moore wrote: "Modern Idealism, if it asserts any general conclusion about the universe at all, asserts that it is spiritual," by which he means "that the whole universe possesses all the qualities the possession of which is held to make us so superior to things which seem to be inanimate." He does not directly confront this conclusion, and instead focuses on what he considers the distinctively Idealist premise that "esse is percipere" or that to be is to be perceived. He analyzes this idea and considers it to conflate ideas or be contradictory.
Hannah Arendt
Hannah Arendt stated that Immanuel Kant distinguished between Vernunft ("reason") and Verstand ("intellect"): these two categories are equivalents of "the urgent need of" reason, and the "mere quest and desire for knowledge". Differentiating between reason and intellect, or the need to reason and the quest for knowledge, as Kant has done, according to Arendt "coincides with a distinction between two altogether different mental activities, thinking and knowing, and two altogether different concerns, meaning, in the first category, and cognition, in the second". These ideas were also developed by Kantian philosopher, Wilhelm Windelband, in his discussion of the approaches to knowledge named "nomothetic" and "idiographic".
Kant's insight to start differentiating between approaches to knowledge that attempt to understand meaning (derived from reason), on the one hand, and to derive laws (on which knowledge is based), on the other, started to make room for "speculative thought" (which in this case, is not seen as a negative aspect, but rather an indication that knowledge and the effort to derive laws to explain objective phenomena has been separated from thinking). This new-found room for "speculative thought" (reason, or thinking) touched-off the rise of German idealism. However, the new-found "speculative thought", reason or thinking of German idealism "again became a field for a new brand of specialists committed to the notion that philosophy's 'subject proper' is 'the actual knowledge of what truly is'. Liberated by Kant from the old school of dogmatism and its sterile exercises, they erected not only new systems but a new 'science' - the original title of the greatest of their works, Hegel's Phenomenology of the mind, was Science of the experience of consciousness - eagerly blurring Kant's distinction between reason's concern with the unknowable and the intellect's concern with cognition. Pursuing the Cartesian ideal of certainty as though Kant had never existed, they believed in all earnest that the results of their speculations possessed the same kind of validity as the results of cognitive processes".
Slavoj Žižek
Slavoj Žižek sees German idealism as the pinnacle of modern philosophy, and as a tradition that contemporary philosophy must recapture: "[T]here is a unique philosophical moment in which philosophy appears 'as such' and which serves as a key—as the only key—to reading the entire preceding and following tradition as philosophy... This moment is the moment of German Idealism..."
See also
Geisteswissenschaft
Naturphilosophie
Speculative materialism
Teleological idealism
People associated with the movement
Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann
Friedrich Schiller
John Watson
References
Bibliography
Karl Ameriks (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to German Idealism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. .
Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism. The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781-1801. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002.
James Allan Good, A search for unity in diversity: The "permanent Hegelian deposit" in the philosophy of John Dewey. Lanham: Lexington Books 2006. .
Josiah Royce, Lectures on Modern Idealism. New Haven: Yale University Press 1967.
Solomon, R., and K. Higgins, (eds). 1993. Routledge History of Philosophy, Vol. VI: The Age of German Idealism. New York: Routledge.
Tommaso Valentini, I fondamenti della libertà in J. G. Fichte. Studi sul primato del pratico, Presentazione di Armando Rigobello, Editori Riuniti University Press, Roma 2012. .
External links
The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Nineteenth-Century German Philosophy
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles on
Fichte
Hegel
Kant
Reinhold
Schelling
German Idealism from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Philosophical movements
Continental philosophy
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219448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20flattery | Appeal to flattery | Appeal to flattery is a fallacy in which a person uses flattery, excessive compliments, in an attempt to appeal to their audience's vanity to win support for their side. It is also known as apple polishing, wheel greasing, brown nosing, appeal to pride, appeal to vanity or argumentum ad superbiam. The appeal to flattery is a specific kind of appeal to emotion.
Flattery is often used to hide the true intent of an idea or proposal. Praise offers a momentary personal distraction that can often weaken judgment. Moreover, it is usually a cunning form of appeal to consequences, since the audience is subject to be flattered as long as they comply with the flatterer.
Examples:
"Surely a man as smart as you can see this is a brilliant proposal." (failing to accept the proposal is a tacit admission of stupidity)
"Is there a strong man here who could carry this for me?" (a failure to demonstrate physical strength implies weakness)
A refusal which does not deny the compliment could be formulated thus: "I may be [positive attribute], but that doesn't mean that I will [perform action] for you."
It is not necessarily a logical fallacy, however, when the compliment is sincere, and directly related to the argument. Example:
"You are a stunningly beautiful girl – you should become a model."
See also
Flattery
Superficial charm
Sycophancy
Pollyanna principle
References
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219468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archery%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Archery at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, six archery events were contested, of which three were men's and three were women's competitions. 23 men and 6 women constituted the field. As was common in early Olympic archery, the events held in 1904 had little resemblance to the previous edition's events. The events were essentially United States national championships: formally named the 26th Grand Annual Target Meeting of the National Archery Association and, while open to international entrants, having no foreign competitors (with some archers from the Philippines entering but not competing). Team archery was introduced at these Games, as was women's archery. The medalists were the same for both men's individual events (George Bryant taking gold, Robert Williams silver, and William Thompson bronze in both) and both women's individual events (Matilda Howell gold, Emma Cooke silver, Eliza Pollock bronze). Howell finished with three golds as she was a member of the only women's team to appear.
In addition to the six events recognized as Olympic events by the International Olympic Committee, there were also medals awarded for the top scores at each range in the Olympic events, separate flight shooting (longest distance) events, and an "Anthropology Days" event.
Medal summary
Schedule
Participating nations
Medal table
References
External links
International Olympic Committee medal database
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in archery | [
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219470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing%C3%B6l | Bingöl | Bingöl (, , ) is a city in Eastern Turkey. It is surrounded by mountains and numerous glacier lakes, hence the name (Turkish for a thousand lakes). Lately, the town has become a popular tourist destination. According to 2017 estimates, it has a population of over 111,000.
Bingöl is the capital of Bingöl Province, one of the 81 provinces of Turkey.
History
Bingöl is located in what was historically the region of Sophene (first an independent kingdom and later an Armenian and Roman province). The settlement is mentioned by its Armenian name, Chapaghjur (meaning "spread out water" in Armenian), by the 11th-century Armenian historian Stepanos Asoghik, who mentions it while describing the 995 Balu earthquake. Chapaghjur is sometimes identified with the Roman fortress-town of Citharizum (Ktʻaṛich in Armenian).
In the Middle Ages, Bingöl was known as Romanoupolis () after the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lekapenos, who incorporated it permanently into the Byzantine Empire in 942. It initially formed a subdivision of the thema of Mesopotamia, but it was later (ca. 970) elevated into a separate theme.
Bingöl was ruled by the Kurdish Suveydi Dynasty from 13 centuries to 1864, which ruled the Bingöl region autonomously subject to the Ottomans in 1514. Bingöl and the surrounding district had a large Armenian population prior to the Armenian genocide. Until the middle of the 20th century, the city was known as Çapakçur/Çabakçur, derived from its Armenian name. The place was then renamed Bingöl, meaning "thousand lakes" in Turkish.
Kurdish-Turkish conflict
Bingöl has been the site of several violent incidents of the Kurdish-Turkish conflict. On 23 October 2016, a car bombing targeting an armored police vehicle perpetrated by PKK militias killed 2 police officers and injured 19 others. On 8 June 2018, a group of PKK militias attacked a military station and killed 1 Turkish soldier while injuring 3 others.
Geography
Bingöl is east of Elâzığ and is situated in the high region of Eastern Anatolia. Bingöl is a mountainous area with heights reaching 3000 m, Bingöl city is at about 1120 m above sea level. The Gayt River (Gayt Çayı), a right-bank tributary of the Eastern Euphrates (Murat River), runs through the city.
Earthquakes
On 1 May 2003 the whole area suffered from a magnitude 6.4 earthquake, leaving 176 dead and 520 injured. On 8 March 2010, the area suffered another earthquake, of magnitude 5.9, with its epicenter in Elâzığ Province, west of Bingöl. On 14 June 2020, a relatively small earthquake occurred in the region, killing a village guard and injuring 21 others.
Population
Transport
Bingöl Airport opened on 12 July 2013. It has a passenger capacity of 500'000 a year.
Education
Bingöl University opened on 29 May 2007. The University continues its activities with 9 faculties, 6 vocational schools and 5 institutes.
Climate
Bingöl has a continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dsa, or Trewartha climate classification: Dca), with hot, dry summers and cold, snowy winters. The driest months are July and August and the wettest is February and December.
References
Cities in Turkey
Populated places in Bingöl Province
Districts of Bingöl Province
Kurdish settlements in Turkey | [
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219471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Athletics at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, twenty-five athletics events were contested. A total of 74 medals (25 gold, 25 silver and 24 bronze) were awarded.
Multi-event competitions, the all-around and triathlon, were introduced, along with a 56-pound weight throw, while the short steeplechase was lengthened slightly from 2500 to 2590 metres, the team race was lengthened from 5000 meters to 4 miles (), and the long steeplechase was dropped.
In all, the 25 events featured in 1904 were 2 more than were held in 1900.
A track was built specifically for the Games on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis. The cinder track was 1/3 mile in length with one long straightaway.
Medal summary
Medal table
Participating nations
233 athletes from 10 nations competed. This figure includes the athletic triathlon event, which some sources exclude.
Marathon
The marathon was the most bizarre event of the Games. It was run in brutally hot weather, over dusty roads, with horses and automobiles clearing the way and creating dust clouds.
The first to arrive at the finish line was Frederick Lorz, who actually rode the rest of the way in a car to retrieve his clothes, after dropping out after nine miles, but after the car broke down at the 19th mile, he re-entered the race and jogged back to the finish line.
As officials and fans believed he had won the race, Lorz played along with his practical joke until he was found out shortly before the medal ceremony. He admitted the ruse, and was banned for life by the AAU; however, after Lorz apologized for this stunt and it was found he had no intention to defraud, he was reinstated, and won the 1905 Boston Marathon.
Thomas Hicks was the first to the finish legally, after having received from his trainers several doses of strychnine sulfate (a common rat poison, which stimulates the nervous system in small doses) mixed with egg whites and brandy. While he was supported by his trainers when he crossed the finish line, he is still considered the winner: Hicks had to be carried off the track on a stretcher, and possibly would have died in the stadium had he not been treated by several doctors. He lost eight pounds during the course of the marathon.
A Cuban postman named Felix Carvajal joined the marathon, arriving at the last minute. He had to run in street clothes that a fellow runner cut around the legs to make them look like shorts. He stopped off in an orchard en route to have a snack on some apples which turned out to be rotten, and caused him to have to lie down and take a nap. Despite falling ill from the apples, he finished in fourth place.
References
External links
International Olympic Committee results database
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
International track and field competitions hosted by the United States
Olympics | [
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219487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar%20association | Bar association | A bar association is a professional association of lawyers as generally organized in countries following the Anglo-American types of jurisprudence. The word bar is derived from the old English/European custom of using a physical railing to separate the area in which court business is done from the viewing area for the general public.
Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are professional organizations dedicated to serving their members; in many cases, they are both. In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, the bar association comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates in particular, versus solicitors (see bar council). Membership in bar associations may be mandatory or optional for practicing attorneys, depending on jurisdiction.
Etymology
The use of the term bar to mean "the whole body of lawyers, the legal profession" comes ultimately from English custom. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall and readers or benchers on the other side. Students who officially became lawyers crossed the symbolic physical barrier and were "admitted to the bar". Later, this was popularly assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judge's seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment and where a barrister stood to plead. In modern courtrooms, a railing may still be in place to enclose the space which is occupied by legal counsel as well as the criminal defendants and civil litigants who have business pending before the court.
In Commonwealth jurisdictions
In many Commonwealth jurisdictions, including in England and Wales, the "bar association" comprises lawyers who are qualified as barristers or advocates (collectively known as "the bar", or "members of the bar"), while the "law society" comprises solicitors. These bodies are sometimes mutually exclusive, while in other jurisdictions, the "bar" may refer to the entire community of persons engaged in the practice of law.
Canada
In Canada, one is called to the bar after undertaking a post-law-school training in a provincial law society program, and undergoing an apprenticeship or taking articles. Legal communities are called provincial law societies, except for Nova Scotia, where it is called the Nova Scotia Barristers' Society, and Quebec, where it is called the Barreau du Quebec.
The Canadian Bar Association (and its provincial and territorial branches) is a professional association of barristers, solicitors and advocates that serves the roles of advocates for the profession, provides continuing legal education and member benefits. It does not play a part in the regulation of the profession, however.
India
In India under the legal framework set established under the Advocates Act, 1961, a law graduate is required to be enrolled with the Bar Council of India. The process of enrollment is delegated by the Bar Council of India to the state Bar Councils wherein almost each state has a Bar Council of its own. Once enrolled with a State Bar Council, the law graduate is recognized as an Advocate provisionally for a period of two years, within which they must clear the All India Bar Examination (AIBE) conducted by the Bar Council of India. Once the advocate clears the AIBE test, they are entitled to appear and practice before any court of law in India.
There is no formal requirement for further membership of any Bar Association. However, Advocates do become members of various local or national bar associations for reasons of recognition and facilities which these associations offer. Some well-known Bar Associations in India include the Supreme Court Bar Association, Delhi High Court Bar Association, Bombay Bar Association, Delhi Bar Association, National Bar Association of India, All India Bar Association, etc.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, a person becomes a licensee of a Provincial Bar Council after fulfilling certain requirements. He must have a valid law degree LL.B from a recognized university by the Pakistan Bar Council, must offer certain undertakings, and pay the Provincial Bar Council fees. Furthermore, he shall join any bar association as a member. Tehsil bar associations work under the umbrella of District Bar Association, District Bar Association under Provincial Bar councils, such as the Punjab Bar Council and Sindh Bar Council. To become an advocate, one must first complete six months pupillage with a practising advocate of High Court, whom they must assist on at least ten cases during a six-month pupillage.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, a person becomes an Attorney-at-Law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka after completing passing law exams at the Sri Lanka Law College which are administered by the Council of Legal Education and spending a period of six months under a practicing attorney of at least 8 years standing as an articled clerk. Once becoming an Attorney, he or she may opt to become a member of the Bar Association of Sri Lanka.
In the United States
Membership in the bar is a privilege burdened with conditions.
—Benjamin N. Cardozo, In re Rouss, 221 N.Y. 81, 84 (1917)
In the United States, admission to the bar is permission granted by a particular court system to a lawyer to practice law in that system. This is to be distinguished from membership in a bar association. In the United States, some states require membership in the state bar association for all attorneys, while others do not.
Although bar associations historically existed as unincorporated voluntary associations, nearly all bar associations have since been organized (or reorganized) as corporations. Furthermore, membership in some of them (see the next section below) is no longer voluntary, which is why some of them have omitted the word "association" and merely call themselves the "state bar" to indicate that they are the incorporated body that constitutes the entire admitted legal profession of a state.
Mandatory, integrated, or unified bar associations
Some states require membership in a regulatory agency often called the state's bar association in order to permit them to practice law in that state. Such an organization is called a mandatory, integrated, or unified bar, and is a type of government-granted monopoly. They exist at present in a slight majority of U.S. states: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington State, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands also have unified bars. The mandatory status of the Puerto Rico Bar Association was eliminated in 2009 by an act of the legislature, and ratified by the recently appointed majority of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court. By act of the Puerto Rico legislature, the mandatory status was reinstated in June 2014. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico struck down this act in October 2014, finding that it unconstitutionally usurped its powers.
In some states, like Wisconsin, the mandatory membership requirement is implemented through an order of the state supreme court, which can be revoked or canceled at any time at the court's discretion. In others, like Oregon, the state legislature passed a law and created a government agency. California went farther than any other state and wrote the State Bar of California into its constitution.
The first state to have an integrated bar association was North Dakota in 1921.
Voluntary bar associations
Although the names may be confusing, a voluntary bar association is a private organization of lawyers and often other legal professionals. These associations focus on issues including social, educational, and lobbying functions. In states where the functions of the disciplinary bar entity is separate from the statewide voluntary bar association, the voluntary association does not, however, formally regulate the practice of law, admit lawyers to practice or discipline lawyers for ethical violations. There is a statewide voluntary bar association in every state that has no mandatory or integrated bar association. For example, the "State Bar of California" is the mandatory, regulatory agency whereas the California Lawyers Association is a voluntary educational and networking group.
In addition to state-wide organizations, there are many voluntary bar associations organized by city, county, or other affiliate community. Such associations are often focused on common professional interests (such as bankruptcy lawyers or in-house counsel) or common ethnic interests (such as gender, race, religion, or national heritage), such as the Hispanic National Bar Association or Los Angeles County Bar Association.
Such associations often advocate for law reform and provide information in bar journals, pro bono services or a lawyer referral service to the general public. In 2017, the California State Legislature split off the education, lobbying, and young lawyers sections of that state's Bar in order to create the voluntary California Lawyers Association. This split was done to finalize the rationale and holding of a 1990 ruling which prohibited the required bar registration fees from being used for political purposes, relying on the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
As all attorney regulation is performed on the state level. there is no mandatory federal bar association. The Federal Bar Association is a private, voluntary group.
There are also a number of subject-specific private associations, which are not denominated as bar associations by name but which serve similar functions in terms of providing their members with useful publications, networking opportunities, and continuing legal education. The largest association of defense counsel is the Defense Research Institute, which describes itself as "The Voice of the Defense Bar", while the largest association of plaintiffs' counsel is the American Association for Justice (formerly the Association of Trial Lawyers of America). The American Bar Association (ABA) is the largest voluntary bar association in the United States with members from both defense, plaintiff, civil, criminal and other specialities. The National Lawyers Guild (NLG) is an association of progressive attorneys and legal workers, founded as the first national association for lawyers whose membership was open to all races and religions.
Most American law schools have a student bar association, which is a student organization that fulfills various functions, including sometimes serving as the student government.
Judges
Judges may or may not be members of the bar. Etymologically, they sit "on the bench", and the cases which come before them are "at bar" or "at bench". Many states in the United States require that some or all judges be members of the bar; typically these limit or completely prohibit the judges from practicing law while serving as a judge.
The United States Constitution contains no requirement that Federal judges or Supreme Court of the United States justices be members of the bar. However, there are no modern instances of the President of the United States nominating or the U.S. Senate providing advice and consent to any nominee who is not a member of any bar. The unofficial practice of the American Bar Association publicly rating the qualifications of judicial nominees has strengthened the imperative to nominate lawyers on the bar. There are various professional associations of judges, such as the American Judges Association, that perform some of the educational and other service functions of bar associations.
See also
Bar (law)
Disbarment
Law firm network
References
External links
Legal organizations | [
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219498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadism%20and%20masochism%20in%20fiction | Sadism and masochism in fiction | The role of sadism and masochism in fiction has attracted serious scholarly attention. Anthony Storr has commented that the volume of sadomasochist pornography shows that sadomasochistic interest is widespread in Western society; John Kucich has noted the importance of masochism in late-19th-century British colonial fiction. This article presents appearances of sadomasochism in literature and works of fiction in the various media.
Novels
Titles are sorted in chronological order.
Pre-19th century
Aloisiae Sigaeae, Toletanae, Satyra sotadica de arcanis Amoris et Veneris (1660) by Nicolas Chorier, translated into English as A Dialogue between a Married Woman and a Maid in various editions. depicts an older woman giving sexual instruction to a younger, recommending the spiritual and erotic benefits of a flogging.
Fanny Hill (1749) by John Cleland – depicts mutual flagellation, between Fanny and an English client. The understanding of flagellation is in transition from an aphrodisiac practice intended to improve sexual performance to a sexual activity in its own right.
Fashionable Lectures: composed and delivered with Birch Discipline (ca 1750) on the theme of flagellation by dominant women in positions of authority.
The 120 Days of Sodom (1785), Justine (1791), Philosophy in the Bedroom (1795), and Juliette (1797) by the Marquis de Sade – Have an extreme, sadistic perspective. "The term sadism derives from the Marquis de Sade (1740-1814), a French nobleman imprisoned for his libertinism, and for writing fantastic novels, such as Justine [1797] and Juliette [1797] that equated sexual pleasure with the inflicting of pain, humiliation, and cruelty".
Anti-Justine (1798) by Nicolas-Edme Rétif – A response to the works of de Sade, written in a like style, describing the opposite political point of view.
19th century
The Lustful Turk, or Lascivious Scenes from a Harem (1828) by Anonymous. First published in England by John Benjamin Brookes, the book was not widely known until it was reprinted by William Dugdale in 1893. This tale of sex and sadism consists largely of a series of letters written by its heroine, Emily Barlow, after being abducted by Moorish pirates and held prisoner in an Algerian harem. The David F. Friedman sexploitation film The Lustful Turk (1968) is based on the novel.
Exhibition of Female Flagellants (1830) attributed, probably falsely, to Theresa Berkley, published by George Cannon. The principal activity described is flagellation, mainly of women by women, described in a theatrical, fetishistic style. It was republished around 1872 by John Camden Hotten.
The New Ladies' Tickler, or Adventures of Lady Lovesport and the Audacious Harry (1866) by Edward Sellon – dealing with flagellation and lesbian incest
The Romance of Chastisement (1866) by St George Stock, a probable pseudonym, also credited with The Whippingham Papers (John Camden Hotten: London). A pornographic collection on the theme of flagellation. Reprinted by Charles Carrington in 1902 as The Magnetism of the Rod or the Revelations of Miss Darcy.
Revelries! and Devilries!! (1867), anonymous, published by William Dugdale. Said to be the collaboration of four Oxford scholars and an army officer. The book is a linked collection of stories in which sadism is a theme.
Personal Recollections of the Use of the Rod (1868) by "Margaret Anson", pseudonym of British author James Glass Bertram (John Camden Hotten: York, date given as 1857). As is common in this genre, the author/narrator is given as female, and the perpetrators and victims are mainly women. Reprinted by Blue Moon Books in 2000; also published as The Merry Order of St. Bridget. Translated in French as Une société de flagellantes. Réminiscences et révélations d'une soubrette de grande maison (1901) by Jean de Villiot, illustrated by Martin van Maële.
Flagellation & the Flagellants: A History of the Rod (1868) by "Rev. William Cooper", again James Glass Bertram, a best-seller for Hotten.
Memoiren einer Sängerin (1868). Translated to French as Les Memoirs d'une chanteuse allemande and to English as Pauline, the Prima Dona or Memoirs of an Opera Singer. Published anonymously but likely authored by Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient. Originally published after her death in two installments in 1868 and 1875; reprinted often since.
Venus in Furs (1870) by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch – Autobiographical novel wherein the protagonist encourages his mistress to enslave and mistreat him. Many of Sacher-Masoch's other works contain themes of sadomasochism and female dominance of the male. The term 'Masochism' derives from von Sacher-Masoch's name.
The Romance of Lust (1873–6) published by William Lazenby includes flagellation by a governess among a variety of sexual activities, such as incest, orgies, masturbation, lesbianism, fellatio, cunnilingus, gay sex, anal sex, and double penetration.
The Convent School, or Early Experiences of A Young Flagellant (1876) by "Rosa Coote", pseudonym of the author and publisher, William Dugdale, in which a woman is whipped and tortured by two men.
Experimental Lecture (1878/9) by "Colonel Spanker", published by Charles Carrington, on sadistic flagellation. The Colonel and his circle have a house in Park Lane where young ladies are kidnapped, humiliated, whipped and raped.
Miss Coote's Confession (1879–1880), an epistolary serial novella also supposedly by Rosa Coote in The Pearl, a pornographic magazine published by William Lazenby, deals with flagellation at home and at school.
In The Brothers Karamazov (1880), Fyodor Pavlovitch says,
The Mysteries of Verbena House, or, Miss Bellasis Birched for Thieving (1882) by "Etonensis" [pseud.], actually by George Augustus Sala and James Campbell Reddie (co-author of The Sins of the Cities of the Plain).
The Whippingham Papers (1888) with poetry ascribed to Algernon Charles Swinburne, edited by St. George H. Stock, a probable pseudonym, also credited with The Romance of Chastisement (1866). A collection of Victorian stories and verse about erotic flagellation.
First Training (1890) also known as Clara Birch by anonymous recounts the sexual coming-of-age of a young English lady. Under the tutelage of her imperious stepmother, the voluptuous Clara learns how to make all around her cater to her every whim.
The Yellow Room (1891) by anonymous (generally attributed to "M. Le Comte Du Bouleau", aka Stanislas Matthew de Rhodes). – Novella about an eighteen-year-old girl educated and disciplined by her stern aunt and uncle. Reprinted along with the novella Letters to a Lady Friend, in Whipped into Shape: Two Classic Erotic Novellas by Renaissance E Books Inc. (2004).
Gynecocracy: A Narrative of the Adventures and Psychological Experiences of Julian Robinson, by "Viscount Ladywood" [pseud.] (1893), the author recounts his punishment as a boy at the hands of the governess to whom he is sent, along with three female cousins, after having taken indecent liberties with a household maid. Forced to wear girls' clothing as his ordinary attire, Julian, now Julia, is subjected to frequent flagellations, as are his cousins, one of whom he later marries, submitting to her dominance through continued forced feminization and crossdressing.
The Confessions of Georgina (1893) by Julian Robinson (aka Le Compte Du Bouleau, Stanislas Matthew de Rhodès) – a tale of bondage and domination that satirizes the hypocrisy of Victorian morality. Author of The Petticoat Dominant, or Woman's Revenge – The Autobiography of a Young Nobleman (1898), an early classic of male-submissive pinafore eroticism.
Raped on the Railway: a True Story of a Lady who was first ravished and then flagellated on the Scotch Express (1894), anonymous, by Charles Carrington A married woman is raped by a stranger in a locked railway compartment and in a common trope in later Victorian pornography is depicted as ultimately taking pleasure in the act: she is then flagellated by her brother-in-law for the latter transgression. The plot may have been inspired by the real-life case of Colonel Valentine Baker, who was convicted of an indecent assault on a young woman in a railway carriage in 1875. An American adaptation, or plagiarism, was published in New York City under the title Raped on the Elevated Railway, a True Story of a Lady who was First Ravished and then Flagellated on the Uptown Express, illustrating the Perils of Travel in the New Machine Age set in New York.
A Full and True Account of the Wonderful Mission of Earl Lavender (1895) by John Davidson (London: Ward & Downey). A burlesque on the Decadent movement with private whipping clubs and other flagellatory adventures from noted poet, playwright, and humorist John Davidson.
Tales of Fun and Flagellation (1896) by Lady Gay Spanker [pseud.]. A diverse collection of anecdotes and stories.
The Torture Garden (1899) by Octave Mirbeau An allegorical examination of Western society, and of the human condition.
The Memoirs of Dolly Morton: The Story of A Woman's Part in the Struggle to Free the Slaves, An Account of the Whippings, Rapes, and Violences that Preceded the Civil War in America, with Curious Anthropological Observations on the Radical Diversities in the Conformation of the Female Bottom and the Way Different Women Endure Chastisement (1899) under the pseudonym Jean de Villiot, probably Hugues Rebell or Charles Carrington. Edited and published in London and Paris by Charles Carrington. Another edition was published in Philadelphia in 1904.
Lashed into Lust: The Caprice of a Flagellator (1899) by Anonymous. – French novel reprinted in 1908 with "James Lovebirch" as author. Reprinted in 2000 by Blue Moon Books (New York).
20th century
"Frank" and I (1902) by Anonymous. Originally published in three volumes in England. Edwardian novel of flagellation pornography. A wealthy young man, who is "a lover of the rod", takes in "Frank", a teenage girl disguised as a boy. A 1983 film was released under the alternative titles Frank and I and Lady Libertine.
Vanessa, The Vicar's Girl (1903) by Anonymous. Reverend Jubstone delights in bending the Markham household to his lascivious will through the vigorous application of the Scottish tawse.
Maud Cameron and her Guardian (1903) written anonymously, though some attribute it to the pseudonymous Charles Sackville, privately printed for subscribers only (Golden Birch House: London). Author of numerous flagellation novels published in London and Paris including: Two Lascivious Adventures of Mr. Howard – A continuation of Maud Cameron and her Guardian (1907), The Amazing Chastisements of Miss Bostock (1908), Three Chapters in the Life of Mr. Howard (1908), Whipping as a Fine Art – Being an Account of Exquisite and Refined Chastisement Inflicted by Mr. Howard on Grown-up Schoolgirls (1909), et al.
Woman and Her Master (1904) by Jean de Villiot, pseudonym of Georges Grassal – a novel of flagellation erotica translated into English by Charles Carrington from the original 1902 French edition, La Femme et son maître.
Birch in the Boudoir (1905) by anonymous (attributed to Hugues Rebell, real name Georges Grassal), translated and published in Paris by Charles Carrington. Reprinted in 1989 by Blue Moon Books as Beauty in the Birch. – An exchange of racy letters about the amatory and disciplinary experiences of a new master of an English school for wayward girls and a woman living in an Arabian harem.
The Mistress and The Slave (1905) by George Merder – a study of female domination and sadomasochism as an upper-class businessman is enslaved and brutalized by a Parisian street-girl. Translated from the original French edition, La Maitresse et l'Esclave (Maison Mystere, ca. 1903).
La Flagellation Passionnelle (1906) by Don Brennus Aléra, pseudonym of Paul Guérard. Between 1903 and 1936 he wrote and illustrated around 100 historical and contemporary novels about flagellation and crossdressing petticoat punishment.
Les Onze Mille Verges (The eleven thousand rods) by Guillaume Apollinaire – written in the 1906–1907 period; the publication is unsigned and undated. Picasso thought this was the finest book he had ever read.
Sadopaideia: Being the Experiences of Cecil Prendergast Undergraduate of the University of Oxford Shewing How he was Led Through the Pleasant Paths of Masochism to the Supreme joys of Sadism. (1907) by anonymous. – Two-volume tale of a man who experiences both dominance and submission. Anthony Storr attributes it to Algernon Charles Swinburne.
The Beautiful Flagellants of New York (1907) by Lord Drialys (The Society of British Bibliophiles [Charles Carrington]: Paris) – follows an intrepid traveller's adventures from Chicago to Boston to New York. Originally published in three volumes, one for each city. Reprinted by Olympia Press as The Beautiful Flagellants of Chicago, Boston and New York.
Nos Belles flagellantes (1907) by Aimé Van Rod (Édition Parisienne: Paris). French author of dozens of flagellation novels including: Nouveax Contes de Fouet (1907), The Conjugal Whip (Le fouet conjugal) (1908), Le Fouet dominateur ou L'École des vierges, Les Mystéres du Fouet (both 1909), The Humiliations of Miss Madge (1912), Les Malheurs de Colette (1914), Visites fantastiques au pays du fouet (1922), Le Precepteur (1923), Memories d'une Fouettee (1924), et al.
The Way of a Man with a Maid (ca. 1908) by Anonymous. First published in France, exact date and author unknown. Three-volume Edwardian novel of abduction, sex and sadism. Often reprinted as a single volume under the shorter title A Man with a Maid. Adapted to film in 1975 called What the Swedish Butler Saw.
La Comtesse au fouet (1908), by Pierre Dumarchey (Pierre Mac Orlan) – the story of a cruel dominatrix who turns the male hero into a "dog-man". Under the pen-name Miss Sadie Blackeyes, he wrote popular flagellation novels such as Baby douce fille (1910), Miss: The memoirs of a young lady of quality containing recollections of boarding school discipline and intimate details of her chastisement (1912), and Petite Dactylo et autres textes de flagellation (1913). And as "Anonymous" wrote Masochists in America (Le Masochisme en Amérique: Recueil des récits et impressions personnelles d'une victime du féminisme) (1905).
Éducation Anglaise (1908) by Lord Kidrodstock (Édition Parisienne: Paris) – early and unusual text featuring forced cross-dressing and flagellation. Boys and girls in an English boarding school are dressed alike in girls' clothes. They receive training by means of the discipline of tight corsets, narrow high-heeled boots, etc., reinforced by frequent application of the whip or the birch. Illustrated with ten drawings by Del Giglio.
Coups de Fouet (1908) by Lord Birchisgood [pseud.] (Édition Parisienne, Roberts & Dardailons Éditeurs: Paris). Author of Le Tour d'Europe d'un flagellant (1909), et al.
Les Cinq fessées de Suzette (Five Smackings of Suzette) (1910) by James Lovebirch [pseud.], published in Paris. Author of many popular flagellation novels such as L'Avatar de Lucette (The Misadventures of Lucette), Peggy Briggs, Au Bon Vieux Temps (all from 1913), and The Flagellations of Suzette (1915), Paris: Library Aristique.
Qui Aime Bien (1912) by Jacques d'Icy, pseudonym of author and artist Louis Malteste (Jean Fort: Paris), illustrated by Malteste. Writer of many books of spanking/whipping erotica such as: Chatie Bien (1913), Monsieur Paulette et Ses Epouses (1921), Paulette Trahie (1922), Brassée de faits (1925), Les Mains Chéries (1927), et al.
Le règne de la cravache et de la bottine (The Reign of the Riding Crop and the Boot) (1913) by Roland Brévannes, pseudonym of Paul Guérard (Select Bibliothèque: Paris) – humiliating animal roleplay, female-dominated men are forced to crawl about in bear suits. A theme explored in several of his books; in Les Esclaves-montures (Slave Mountings) (1920) and Le Club des Monteurs Humaines (1924), men are turned into obedient cart ponies.
Fred: The True History of a Boy Raised as a Girl (1913) by Don Brennus Alera, pseudonym of Paul Guérard – classic story of humiliating petticoat punishment (Pinafore eroticism). Followed by the sequels Frederique (1921), Frida (1924), Fridoline (1926), and Lina Frido (1927).
Récits Piquants, chaudes aventures: scènes de féminisme. (1914) by Gilbert Natès, illustrated by G. Topfer. French compilation of various episodes of whipping. The punishers are all women, the victims boys and girls, young men and women. In several cases the male victims are forced to wear female clothing.
Ulysses (1918–1920; 1922) by James Joyce employs themes of masochism, especially in the "Circe" section which has multiple allusions to Venus in Furs.
Two Flappers in Paris (1920) by "A. Cantab" [pseud.] – two young women visiting Paris are lured into a flagellatory brothel.
Esclaves Modernes (Modern Slaves) (1922) by Jean de Virgans, illustrated by Gaston Smit – unusual tale of power exchange (BDSM) with white European women whipped and abused by African natives. Virgans also wrote Flagellees in 1909.
The Metamorphosis of Lisette Joyaux (1924) by Anonymous; a tale of the education of young Lisette indoctrinated into the pleasures of lesbianism and chastisement by five Sapphists who employ rope, cane, and birch. Written and published in English, the novel is set in France, and often printed alongside The Story of Monique (1924) again anonymously written, which explores an underground society's clandestine rituals and scandalous encounters that reveals the sexual rituals that beckon the ripe and willing Monique.
Histoire de l'oeil (Story of the Eye) (1928) by Georges Bataille – A short novel.
Le Dressage de la Maid-Esclave (1930) by Bernard Valonnes, pseudonym of Paul Guérard (Select Bibliothèque: Paris) – two-volume story of women trained as cart-pulling ponygirl slaves.
The Discipline of Odette (1930) by Jean Martinet [pseud.] (Éditions Prima); English translation of the French whipping/spanking novel Matée par le fouet.
The Erotic Picture of Dorian Gray (1929) 2 volumes by Anonymous; translation by Alfred Richard Allinson of the German novel Das Bildnis des Dorian Gray
Bagne de femmes (Jail for Girls) (1931) by Alan Mac Clyde [pseud.], Librairie Générale: Paris. One of the earliest of dozens of sadomasochistic novels by this unknown author. Followed by Dressage (1931), La Cité de l'horreur (1933), Servitude (1934), Dolly, Esclave (1936), et al.
Dresseuses d'hommes (1931) by Florence Fulbert (Jean Fort: Paris), illustrated by Jim Black [Luc Lafnet]. Story of men dominated and punished by women.
Sous la tutelle (Under Supervision) (1932) by René-Michel Desergy (Jean Fort: Paris), illustrated by Luc Lafnet – story of spanking, whipping and enema punishment. Author of numerous spanking and flagellation novels such as Trente Ans (1928), Severe Education (1931), Diana Gantee (1932), and Chambrieres De Haute Ecole (1934).
Memoirs of a Dominatrice (1933) by Jean Claqueret (Jean Fort: Paris). French author of many whipping/spanking novels: Clotilde et Quelques Autres (1935), Humiliations chéries (1936), Pantalons sans défense (1938), et al.
La Volupté du Fouet (The Pleasure of the Whip) (1938) by Armand du Loup, illustrated by famous French artist Étienne Le Rallic under the alias R. Fanny.
Story of O (1954) by Pauline Réage – To prove her love, the protagonist submits to being kept in a château and abused by a group of men, one her official lover. Later, she resumes her normal life, while secretly becoming the property of a friend of her lover's. It was made into a film in 1975.
The Whip Angels (1955) by XXX or Selena Warfield, pseudonyms of Diane Bataille, second wife of French writer Georges Bataille (The Olympia Press: Paris) – a pastiche of a Victorian erotic novel.
L'Image (1956) by Jean de Berg (pseudonym of Catherine Robbe-Grillet). In 1975, it was made into a film, The Image, also titled as The Punishment of Anne.
The Passionate Lash or The Revenge of Sir Hilary Garner (c. 1957) by Alan McClyde [pseud.] (Pall Mall Press: Paris) – Alan Mac Clyde was a popular house name used for English-language erotic books from the 1950s onward
The Ordeal of the Rod (1958) by Bernard R. Burns [pseud]. (Ophelia Press: Paris).
The English Governess (Ophelia Press, 1960), revised as Harriet Marwood, Governess (1967) by John Glassco under the pseudonym, "Miles Underwood".
Gordon (1966) by Edith Templeton – once-banned novel about a woman in postwar London who falls into an intense submissive relationship with a psychiatrist.
The Master Spanker (1966) by Edward Landon (Unique Books), Venus In Bondage (1969) by Lurene Jones (N. P. Inc.), and Margo Lee: Diary of a Teenage Sado-Masochist (1969) by Red Young (Classic Publications: Los Angeles) are representative examples of the hundreds of S&M pulp novels produced in the U.S. in the 1960s by Corinth Publications, Taurus Press, Black Cat Books, Gargoyle Press, et al.
Tarnsman of Gor (1967) by John Norman – first in a series of 35 (as of this date) erotic science fiction novels set on the planet Gor. The novels describe an elaborate culture of sexual master/slave relationships which have spawned a BDSM lifestyle subculture of followers who call themselves Goreans.
Je... Ils... (1969) by Arthur Adamov – With stories like Fin Août. About Masochism, regarded as an "immunisation against death", but does not aim at erotic arousal.
Hogg (1969) by Samuel Delany.
The Marquesa de Sade: Erotic Mistress of Exquisite Evil (1970) by Joseph LeBaron [pseud.] (Hanover House: North Hollywood) – adapted from the film produced by Jaybird Enterprises.
Gravity's Rainbow (1973) by Thomas Pynchon.
Memoirs of a Slave (1976) by Rene Michel Desergy (Janus Publications: London) – a typical example of the many books and magazines fetish publisher Janus produced in the 1970s.
Pagan Sex Orgy (1976) by Randy Palmer (Eros Publishing Co., Inc.: Wilmington, Delaware) – reflects the 1970s revival of occultism in books and film. Cover and illustrations by Bill Ward.
9½ Weeks (1978) an erotic memoir by Elizabeth McNeill, later made into the film 9½ Weeks starring Kim Basinger and Mickey Rourke in 1986.
Spanking the Maid (1982) by Robert Coover
The Correct Sadist (1983) by Terence Sellers (Grove Press: New York City) – reverses the dominant-submissive roles of The Story of O to create a post-feminist American myth about power.
Die Klavierspielerin (Reinbeck, 1983) by Elfriede Jelinek, made into the film The Piano Teacher by director Michael Haneke.
Anne Rice's sadomasochistic writing includes: Exit to Eden (1985), Belinda (1986), and The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty (1983) and its sequels, Beauty's Punishment (1984) and Beauty's Release (1985). The Sleeping Beauty books she wrote as A.N. Roquelaure.
The Hellbound Heart (1986), by popular horror writer Clive Barker, is a gruesome study of sadomasochism featuring brutal rituals by demonic entities.
Ironwood (1988) by Don Winslow is the first in a series (Blue Moon Books, New York). A modern pastiche of Victorian novels such as Birch in the Boudoir about a young man who becomes master of a strict English school for girls. Followed by Images of Ironwood, Ironwood Revisited, Master of Ironwood, The Many Pleasures of Ironwood, et al.
Macho Sluts (1988) by Pat Califia
Something Leather (1990) by Alasdair Gray has as its framing story an initiation into sadomasochistic activities by the female operators of a leather clothing shop in Glasgow.
American Psycho (Vintage, 1991) by Bret Easton Ellis.
The Wet Forever (1991) by David Aaron Clark, about the sadomasochistic relationship between a grifter named Janus and a dominatrix named Madchen.
The Ties that Bind (Le Lien) (1993) by Vanessa Duriès.
Matriarchy: Freedom in Bondage, 1997 by Malcolm McKesson (An Outsider artist) – A boy undergraduate student in Harvard college is dominated by his mistress, and forced to dress as a woman.
Killing Me Softly (1999) by Nicci French. Made into a film of the same name in 2002 starring Heather Graham
21st century
Mark Ramsden's three novels The Dark Magus and the Sacred Whore, The Dungeonmaster's Apprentice (Serpent's Tail, both 1999) and The Sacred Blood (Serpent's Tail, 2001) are a darkly comic series of thrillers about the occult, fetishism and the BDSM scene.
The Marketplace (2000–2001), a series of novels by Laura Antoniou.
Kushiel's Dart (2001) by Jacqueline Carey – A dual-genre work, belonging to fantasy fiction and BDSM fiction, along with its sequels.
Role Plays (2003) by Andrei Gusev – a collection of BDSM stories and short stories. Themes include female domination, bondage, erotic spanking and BDSM fiction.
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2005) by Stieg Larsson is a popular mystery-thriller that features scenes of sadism, sodomy, and torture. The two films adapted from it, by Niels Arden Oplav and David Fincher also depicted scenes that made the book controversial.
Fifty Shades of Grey (2011) by E. L. James begins a best-selling trilogy of novels followed by the sequels Fifty Shades Darker (2011), and Fifty Shades Freed (2012). There are also films based on the novels. However, the novels and films have been criticized for their inaccurate and harmful depiction of BDSM.
Never the Face (2011) by Ariel Sands, an account of a dominant-submissive relationship that descends into abuse between a man and a woman named only as "Kitten" or "Bitch".
Mainstream films
The following films feature BDSM as a major plot point.
Dramas:
The Whip and the Body (La Frusta e il Corpo) (1963), directed by Mario Bava and starring Christopher Lee and Daliah Lavi
The Embryo Hunts In Secret (1966), Japanese film directed by Kōji Wakamatsu
Belle de jour (1967), directed by Luis Buñuel and starring Catherine Deneuve
De Sade (1969), directed by Cy Endfield and starring Keir Dullea and Senta Berger
Venus in Furs (1969), directed by Massimo Dallamano and starring Laura Antonelli and Régis Vallée
Marquis de Sade: Justine (1969), directed by Jess Franco
The Libertine (La Matriarca) (1968)
Eugenie… The Story of Her Journey into Perversion (1970), directed by Jess Franco
The Laughing Woman, aka Femina Ridens, The Frightened Woman (1969), directed by Piero Schivazappa
Eugenie de Sade (1970), another Jesus Franco adaptation of de Sade
Daughters of Darkness, (Le Rouge aux Lèvres) (1971), directed by Harry Kümel and starring Delphine Seyrig and John Karlen
The Nightcomers (1971), directed by Michael Winner and starring Marlon Brando and Stephanie Beacham
Last Tango in Paris (1972), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and starring Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider
Justine de Sade (1972), directed by Claude Pierson
The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant (Die bitteren Tränen der Petra von Kant) (1972) directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder
The Punishment (La punition) (1973) directed by Pierre-Alain Jolivet
Flower and Snake (花と蛇 - Hana to Hebi) (1974), directed by Masaru Konuma and starring Naomi Tani
The Night Porter, (Il Portiere di notte) (1974), directed by Liliana Cavani and starring Dirk Bogarde and Charlotte Rampling
School of the Holy Beast (1974), nunsploitation classic starring Yumi Takigawa
Wife to Be Sacrificed (生贄夫人 - Ikenie Fujin) (1974), directed by Masaru Konuma and starring Naomi Tani
Story of O (Histoire d'O) (1975), directed by Just Jaeckin and starring Corinne Cléry
The Image (The Punishment of Anne) (1975), directed by Radley Metzger
Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom (Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma) (1975), directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini
In the Realm of the Senses (1976), directed by Nagisa Oshima
Maîtresse (1976), directed by Barbet Schroeder starring Gérard Depardieu and Bulle Ogier
Blood Sucking Freaks (The Incredible Torture Show) (1976)
Sadomania (1981), directed by Jess Franco
Lady Libertine (Frank and I) (1983), directed by Gérard Kikoïne and starring Sophie Favier
A Woman in Flames (Die Flambierte Frau) (1983)
Crimes of Passion (1984), directed by Ken Russell and starring Kathleen Turner and Anthony Perkins
Seduction: The Cruel Woman (Verführung: Die grausame Frau) (1985)
Blue Velvet (1986), written and directed by David Lynch and starring Kyle MacLachlan, Isabella Rossellini, Dennis Hopper and Laura Dern
9½ Weeks (1986), directed by Adrian Lyne and starring Kim Basinger and Mickey Rourke
S&M Hunter (1986)
Tras el cristal (1986)
Marquis de Sade's Prosperities of Vice (1988), Japanese "pink" film by Akio Jissoji
Life Is Sweet (1990), directed by Mike Leigh
Singapore Sling (1990), directed by Nikos Nikolaidis
Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1990), directed by Pedro Almodóvar and starring Antonio Banderas and Victoria Abril
Tokyo Decadence (Topazu) (1991), directed by Ryu Murakami and starring Miho Nikaido
Bitter Moon (1992), directed by Roman Polanski and starring Hugh Grant, Kristin Scott Thomas, Emmanuelle Seigner, and Peter Coyote
Spanking Love (1994)
Venus in Furs (1994)
Breaking the Waves by Lars von Trier (1996)
Conspirators of Pleasure (1996), directed by Jan Švankmajer
The Bondage Master (1996), a Japanese indie film directed by Keisuke Konishi
Dark Prince (1996) (starring Nick Mancuso as the Marquis de Sade)
Dark Secrets (1997)
Of Freaks and Men (Pro urodov i lyudej) (1998)
Lies (Gojitmal) (1999)
Moonlight Whispers (Sasayaki) (1999)
Romance (Romance X) (1999), directed by Catherine Breillat and starring Caroline Ducey and Rocco Siffredi
Quills (2000), directed by Philip Kaufman and starring Geoffrey Rush, Kate Winslet, Joaquin Phoenix and Michael Caine
The Piano Teacher (La Pianiste) (2001), directed by Michael Haneke and starring Isabelle Huppert and Benoît Magimel
Secretary (2002), directed by Steven Shainberg and starring James Spader and Maggie Gyllenhaal
Bettie Page: Dark Angel (2004), a biopic starring Paige Richards
The Dominatrix (2004), British drama on the life of a career dominatrix
Going Under (2004)
The Passion of Life (2005)
A Year Without Love (Un año sin amor) (2005), directed by Anahi Berneri
The Zero Years (2005), directed by Nikos Nikolaidis
The Notorious Bettie Page (2006), a biopic directed by Mary Harron and starring Gretchen Mol in the title role
Hounded (Verfolgt) (2007), directed by Angelina Maccarone
The Pet (2006), a woman (Andrea Edmondson) agrees to live like a pet dog for her master (Pierre Du Lat)
New Tokyo Decadence – The Slave (2007), directed by Osamu Satō and starring Rinako Hirasawa and Kikujiro Honda
SM-rechter (2009), Belgian drama based on a real life case
Antichrist (2009), directed by Lars von Trier
Pimp (2010), British thriller with Robert Cavanah as a Soho pimp
Leap Year (Año bisiesto) (2010), Mexican drama directed by Michael Rowe
A Dangerous Method (2011), directed by David Cronemberg, starring Keira Knightley, Viggo Mortensen and Michael Fassbender
Nymphomaniac, Volume II (2013), directed by Lars von Trier
Venus in Fur (La Vénus à la fourrure) (2013), directed by Roman Polanski, is based upon the 2011 two-person play, Venus in Fur, by David Ives
The Duke of Burgundy (2014), directed by Peter Strickland
Fifty Shades of Grey (2015), directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson
Professor Marston and the Wonder Women (2017), biopic of Wonder Woman creator William Moulton Marston
Dogs Don't Wear Pants (2019), directed by J-P Valkeapää, starring Pekka Strang and Krista Kosonen
Comedy:
The Choirboys (1977), directed by Robert Aldrich
Eating Raoul (1982), directed by Paul Bartel and starring Mary Woronov
Personal Services (1987), directed by Terry Jones and starring Julie Walters
Exit to Eden (1994), directed by Garry Marshall and starring Rosie O'Donnell and Dan Aykroyd
Preaching to the Perverted (1997), directed by Stuart Urban and starring Guinevere Turner and Christien Anholt
Tomcats (2001)
EuroTrip (2004) Lucy Lawless plays dominatrix Madame Vadersexxx in a segment of the movie.
Walk All Over Me (2007), starring Tricia Helfer as a dominatrix and Leelee Sobieski
Modern Love is Automatic (2009), bored nurse moonlights as a dominatrix
Thrillers/Horrors:
Videodrome (1983), written and directed by David Cronenberg and starring James Woods and Deborah Harry
Tightrope (1984), directed by Richard Tuggle and starring Clint Eastwood and Geneviève Bujold
Hellraiser (1987), an American horror film written and directed by Clive Barker, starring Andrew Robinson and Clare Higgins
Basic Instinct (1992), directed by Paul Verhoeven and starring Michael Douglas and Sharon Stone
Body of Evidence (1993), directed by Uli Edel and starring Madonna and Willem Dafoe
Strangeland (1998), Directed by John Pieplow, written by and starring musician Dee Snider of Twisted Sister
8 mm (1999), directed by Joel Schumacher and starring Nicolas Cage and Joaquin Phoenix
The Cell (2000), directed by Tarsem Singh
Ichi the Killer (2001), directed by Takashi Miike
Killing Me Softly (2002), directed by Chen Kaige
Television
Full Exposure: The Sex Tapes Scandal (1989), made-for-TV film. Police investigate underground S&M clubs looking for a serial killer. Vanessa Williams plays a hooker/dominatrix who videotapes her clients.
Mercy (film) (2000) HBO cable-television movie starring Ellen Barkin and Peta Wilson. Murder mystery leads to a secret S&M society.
Jack of All Trades is a comedy-adventure series set in the 19th century starring Bruce Campbell. In the episode "X Marquis the Spot" (2000), Jack visits the island resort of the Marquis de Sade and competes in an S&M-themed obstacle course race that parodies Survivor.
Doc Martin, British television comedy-drama series starring Martin Clunes. In the episode "Old Dogs" (2005), the title character is consulted by a man who seems to have a habit of inexplicably injuring himself; it is later revealed that the man and his wife engage in BDSM, with the husband as the submissive.
Secret Diary of a Call Girl (2007); in the fourth episode, "Belle" (Billie Piper) takes BDSM lessons from a professional dominatrix as a favor for her accountant who is a closet submissive.
Dollhouse (2009); the beginning of the 9th episode shows Echo (Eliza Dushku), returning from an assignment as a leather-clad whip-wielding dominatrix.
On the Alias (2003) 2nd-season episode "Second Double", Agent Bristow (Jennifer Garner) goes undercover as a German dominatrix in a Berlin leather bar.
The FOX series The Inside episode "Old Wounds" dealt exclusively with S&M, and was criticized by the Parents Television Council as a result.
The television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation has featured Melinda Clarke as professional dominatrix Lady Heather in six episodes, most notably in the 90-minute special episode "Lady Heather's Box".
Season 4 of HBO series Six Feet Under features a character (Joe) who wants to adopt a submissive sexual role in his relationship with Brenda.
A Family Guy gag (from the episode "Let's Go to the Hop") depicts main characters Lois and Peter suiting up for a sadomasochistic session while having a mundane conversation about how wholesome their children are, and why they can be trusted. Toys have been made of this scene. In the audio commentary for that episode it is noted that such a practice seemed normal to them.
Season 1 of the FOX medical drama House, episode "Love Hurts" a patient is deeply involved in a BDSM relationship.
Rex Van de Kamp of Desperate Housewives was unveiled as a lover of S&M, much to the disgust of his wife, Bree. In Come Back to Me, Sharon Lawrence plays Maisy Gibbons, a dominatrix who walks across Rex's back in stiletto heels.
Season 2 of NBC's Friday night drama Homicide: Life on the Street, in the episode "A Many Splendored Thing". Detectives Bayliss and Pembleton investigate a murder in the S&M club scene. Bayliss expresses his disgust at the 'perversion', but the episode ends with his return to a leather shop, where he purchases a studded and belted leather jacket. This episode is the beginning of the character's sexual awakening, as he becomes comfortable with his bisexual feelings.
ER – a professional dominatrix with broken fingers and her male slave, who was injured in a fall during a bondage/suspension session, are admitted to the emergency room.
Private Practice – in the 2nd season, cast member KaDee Strickland is seen roleplaying as a German dominatrix with a latex outfit, studded collar, and a whip.
Season 5 of FX's Nip/Tuck has Sean crossing paths with a Hollywood agent (Craig Bierko) with horrific wounds on his chest and the dominatrix (Tia Carrere) who inflicted them on him in the episode "Carly Summers".
Rescue Me (2009) – In "Initiation" (Season 5, episode 15), Callie Thorne's character seduces Tommy (Denis Leary) dressed as a cheerleader, Playboy bunny and latex-clad dominatrix. They are briefly seen paddling each other in a fast-motion sequence.
Castle, "The Mistress Always Spanks Twice" (ABC, season 2, episode 16, 2010): a murder investigation leads to the underground world of the professional dominatrix.
HBO's series, The Sopranos, features multiple characters who engage in sadomasochism.
In The Sopranos episode, "Mergers and Acquisitions", Valentina La Paz reports, in disgust, to Tony Soprano that in lieu of having conventional sexual relations, Soprano family mob captain, Ralph Cifaretto, asks her to scrape a cheese grater across his back and pour hot candle wax on his testicles.
In The Sopranos episode "The Knight in White Satin Armor" (2000), Janice Soprano tells her sister-in-law, Carmela, that Janice allows Richie Aprile to hold a gun to Janice's head when they have sex.
In the anime and manga Gin Tama, characters Sogo Okita and Sarutobi Ayame often practice sadism and masochism respectively.
In the manga Nana to Kaoru by Amazume Ryuta, the protagonista Nana and Kaoru are shown to be in an SM relationship to help Nana with her "breathers". It also depicts different cultural practices related to SM. The manga has been adapted to into OVAs and live-action television movies.
Kakegurui – Compulsive Gambler, features Midari Ikishima, a crazed and mentally unstable student with sadistic, masochistic and suicidal tendencies.
American Horror Story: Asylum – FX network series about an insane asylum in 1964 run by a sadistic nun, Sister Jude (Jessica Lange). In "Welcome to Briarcliff" (episode 2:1, 2012) and "Tricks and Treats" (2:2) she canes a male patient. In "Unholy Night" (2:8), a deranged male patient gets revenge for being beaten (seen in brief flashback) by caning Sister Jude.
Holby City episode 356 (#41 of Series 9, (2007)) involves a man being admitted to hospital with a stiletto heel in his chest. His Dominatrix, who accompanies him to hospital, has been trampling him, and penetrated his ribs.Stage
Thomas Shadwell's play The Virtuoso (1676) includes an old libertine named Snarl who entreats a prostitute, Mrs Figgup, to bring out the birch rods. It is unclear if he is to flog her or be flogged.
Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery (1684), an obscene Restoration closet drama thought to be by John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.
In Thomas Otway's play Venice Preserv'd (1682), Act III, Scene i, an old senator, Antonio, visits the house of Aquilina, a Greek courtesan. Antonio pretends to be a bull, then a frog, begging her to spit on him, and then a dog, biting her legs. She whips him, then throws him out and tells her footmen to keep him out.
Jean Genet's play The Maids (1947) concerns two maids who play out dominant and submissive roles.
Genet's play The Balcony (1957) is set in a brothel where clients and staff perform various fetishized roles while a revolution brews outside.
Venus in Fur (2011) is a two-person play by David Ives set in modern New York City.
PoetryThe Rodiad (1871), a pornographic poem on the subject of flagellation, falsely attributed to George Colman the Younger: probably by Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton.
Algernon Charles Swinburne wrote poetry on erotic flagellation, some of which was published anonymously in The Whippingham Papers (ca. 1888).Squire Hardman (1967) by John Glassco, purporting to be a reprint of an 18th-century poem by George Colman the Younger, is a long poem in heroic couplets on the theme of flagellation.
Music
"The Masochism Tango" (1959) by Tom Lehrer uses the powerful rhythm of tango music and iconic implements like castanets and roses to comedic effect.
"Venus in Furs" (1966) by The Velvet Underground takes its title and subject matter from the 1870 novella of the same name by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. It is quite possibly the first pop song to detail an S&M encounter and relationship in explicit, unequivocal terms.
"Little Toy Soldier" (1967) by David Bowie is an early, unreleased track which recites lyrics from the Velvet Underground's "Venus in Furs" as part of its chorus; although the song's humorous treatment of S&M owes more to the cockeyed psychedelia of Syd Barrett.
"I Wanna Be Your Dog" (1969), "Dirt" (1970) and "Gimme Danger" (1973) by The Stooges all clearly indicate powerful masochistic tendencies and behavior on the part of the singer, Iggy Pop.
"Submission" (1976) by The Sex Pistols is a song which uses wordplay ("submission" as short for "submarine mission") to convey the ambiguities of an obsessive S&M relationship, albeit obliquely.
"Whips & Furs" and "I Need a Slave" (both 1977) by The Vibrators are two classic London punk-era songs which address the topic of recreational S&M.
"Bobby Brown" from 1979's Sheik Yerbouti by Frank Zappa is a narrative of a man who transforms from a misogynist teenager to a BDSM-practicing homosexual disc jockey after an unpleasant encounter from Freddie, a woman's rights activist.
"Whip in My Valise" (1979) by Adam and the Ants expresses a fascination with S&M play in fairly explicit terms; many of Adam Ant's other early songs of the 1970s, such as "Rubber People", "B-Side Baby", "Ligotage" and "Beat My Guest", also describe similar kinds of sexual fetishes.
"Melt!" (1982) by Siouxsie and the Banshees describes an intense romantic relationship in terms evocative of an S&M encounter.
"Twisted Little Sister" (1983) & "The Whip" (1984) by Savatage
"Master and Servant" (1984) by Depeche Mode
"Pleasureslave" (1988) by Manowar
"Bed of Nails" (1989) by Alice Cooper
"Pretty Tied Up" (1991) by Guns N' Roses
"Happiness in Slavery" (1992) by Nine Inch Nails takes its title and refrain from Jean Paulhan's preface to Story of O. Also 1994's "Closer" dealt with the subject, as well as the visually provocative video, which showed images of lead singer Trent Reznor tied up and blind-folded.
"Dominated Love Slave" (1992) by Green Day, lyrics by Tré Cool, told from the point of view of a submissive masochist.
"Fetish" and "Baby Blue" (both 1999) by Joan Jett and the Blackhearts are two songs focused on this theme.
The video for "Missile" (2004) by IAMX shows Chris Corner first bound-down to a chair and then handcuffed with leather straps while his ex-girlfriend Sue Denim acts as a dominatrix.
"Ich Tu Dir Weh" (2009) by Rammstein contains fairly extreme examples of S&M, enough to get it banned from public display or sale to minors in Germany in November 2009 by the Federal Office for the Examination of Media Harmful to Young People (Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien). After a hearing, the ban was lifted in 2010. Several other songs by the band have also dealt with BDSM themes, such as "Feuerräder" and "Bück Dich".
"S&M" (2011) by Rihanna from her album Loud.
British electronic singer Andi Fraggs released a single "Eroction" in 2011 which heavily featured sadomasochism in its lyrics. Limited 100 CD copies were dispatched to UK S&M clubs in a PVC sleeve.
Madonna also embraced the S&M aesthetic and content in much of her music. Firstly, 1990's "Justify My Love" dealt with submission and sadomasochism both in the song and its controversial accompanying video. Then again in 1992 with her best-selling, widely notorious publication Sex and her coinciding album Erotica. The title track was accompanied again by another scandalous and provoking music video.
OperaLady Bumtickler's Revels'' (1872), a comic opera on the theme of flagellation written and published by John Camden Hotten.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
See also
Fetish magazine
BDSM in culture and media
List of BDSM literature
List of dominatrices in popular culture
Marquis de Sade in popular culture
External links
Biblio Curiosa, a bibliography of erotic and s&m literature in English and French | [
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219506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Boxing at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, seven boxing events were contested. The competitions were held on Wednesday, September 21, 1904 and on Thursday, September 22, 1904. Contestants in lighter weight classes could also compete in heavier classes. Oliver Kirk, winning the bantamweight and featherweight categories, thus became the only boxer to have won two gold medals in the same Olympics. George Finnegan, Harry Spanjer and Charles Mayer won one gold and one silver medal.
There was also a demonstration bout of women's boxing, which would be added to the Olympic program in 2012.
Medal summary
Jack Egan originally won the silver medal in the lightweight competition and the bronze medal in the welterweight competition. Later it was discovered that his real name was Frank Joseph Floyd while the AAU rules made it illegal to fight under an assumed name. In November 1905 the AAU disqualified Egan from all AAU competitions and he had to return all his prizes and medals. Russell van Horn got silver, Peter Sturholdt got bronze in the lightweight competition and Joseph Lydon keeps bronze in the welterweight competition.
Participating nations
A total of 18 boxers competed at the St. Louis Games:
Medal table
References
International Olympic Committee medal database
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in boxing | [
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219508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuj%C5%8D%20Yoritsune | Kujō Yoritsune | , also known as , was the fourth shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan. His father was kanpaku Kujō Michiie and his grandmother was a niece of Minamoto no Yoritomo. His wife was a granddaughter of Minamoto no Yoritomo and daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. He was born in the year (according to Chinese astrology) of the Tiger, in the month, on the day, and so his given name at birth was Mitora (三寅, "Triple Tiger").
Yoritsune was a member of the great Fujiwara clan. The Kujō family was one of the five branches of the historically powerful Fujiwara clan of courtiers.
Family
Father: Kujō Michiie
Mother: Saionji Rinko
Wife: Minamoto no Yoshiko (1202–1234)
Concubine: Omiya no Tsubone
Children:
Kujō Yoritsugu by Omiya
Kujō Michijo by Omiya
Minamoto no Meguhime by Omiya
Events of Yoritsune's bakufu
At the age of seven, in 1226, Yoritsune became Sei-i Taishōgun in a political deal between his father and the Kamakura shogunate regent Hōjō Yoshitoki and Hōjō Masako who set him up as a puppet shogun.
1225 (Karoku 1, 11th month): At Kamakura, Yoritsune's coming of age ceremonies took place at age 8; but control of all bakufu affairs remained entirely in the hands of Hōjō Yasutoki, the regent (shikken).
1226 (Karoku 2, 1st month): Emperor Go-Horikawa raised Yoritsune to the first rank of the fifth class in the apex of artistocratic court hierarchy (the dōjō kuge).
1230 (Kangi 2, 12th month): Yoritsune is married to the daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. She is 15 years older than he is.
1231 (Kangi 3, 2nd month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 4th class in the dōjō kuge.
1231 (Kangi 3, 3rd month): Yoritsune is created a general of the left.
1231 (Kangi 3, 4th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 4th class in the dōjō kuge.
1232 (Jōei 1, 2nd month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 3rd class in the dōjō kuge.
1233 (Tenpuku 1, 1st month): Yoritsune is granted the court post of provisional
1234 (Bunryaku 1, 12th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 3rd class in the dōjō kuge.
1235 (Katei 1, 11th month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the second class in the dōjō kuge.
1236 (Katei 2, 7th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the second class in the dōjō kuge.
1237 (Katei 3, 8th month): Yoritsune ordered the building of a mansion in the Rokuhara section of Miyako.
1238 (Ryakunin 1, 1st month): Yoritsune leaves Kamakura en route to Miyako, accompanied by Yaskutoki and the troupes of several provinces. Fujiwara no Yukimitis stays at Kamakura to preserve order in the land.
1238 (Ryakunin 1, 2nd month): Yoritsune arrives in Miyako and begins to live in his new palace at Rokuhara.
1238 (Ryakunin 1, 10th month): Yoritsune leaves Miyako to return to Kamakura.
July 14, 1242 (Ninji 3, 15th day of the 6th month): Hōjō Yasutoki died at age 60. From Gennin 1, or during 19 years, Yasutoki had been the regent or prime minister (shikken) of the Kamakura shogunate. Yasutoki's son, Hōjō Tsunetoki succeeded him as shikken, but Yoritsune himself took charge of the bakufu.
1244 (Kangen 2): In the spring of this year, a number of extraordinary phenomena in the skies over Kamakura troubled Yoritsune deeply.
1244 (Kangen 2, 4th month): Yoritsune's son, Yoritsugu, had his coming-of-age ceremonies at age 6. In the same month, Yoritsune asked Emperor Go-Saga for permission to give up his responsibilities as shogun in favor of his son, Kujō Yoritsugu.
September 11, 1245 (Kangen 3, 7th month): Yoshitsune shaved his head and became a Buddhist priest.
1246 (Kangen 4, 7th month): Yoritsune's son, now Shogun Yoritsugu (who is only 7 years old) marries the sister of Hōjō Tsunetoki (who is himself only 16 years old).
September 1, 1256 (Kōgen 1, 11th day of the 8th month): Kujō Yoritsune, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsune, died at the age of 39 years.
October 14, 1256 (Kōgen 1, 24th day of the 9th month): Yoritsune's son and successor as Kamakura shogun, Kujō Yoritsugu, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsugu, died at the age of 18 years.
Eras of Yoritsune's bakufu
The years in which Yoritsune was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Karoku (1225–1227)
Antei (1227–1229)
Kangi (1229–1232)
Jōei (1232–1233)
Tenpuku (1233–1234)
Bunryaku (1234–1235)
Katei (1235–1238)
Ryakunin (1238–1239)
En'ō (1239–1240)
Ninji (1240–1243)
Kangen (1243–1247)
Notes
References
Mass, Jeffrey P. (1976). The Kamakura bakufu: a study in documents. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
__. (1974). Warrior government in early medieval Japan: a study of the Kamakura Bakufu, shugo and jitō New Haven: Yale University Press.
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Ōyama Kyōhei. Kamakura bakufu 鎌倉幕府. Tokyo: Shōgakkan 小学館, 1974.
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 6042764
1218 births
1256 deaths
13th-century Japanese people
13th-century shōguns
Kamakura shōguns
People of Kamakura-period Japan
Fujiwara clan | [
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219509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20school%20in%20the%20United%20States | Law school in the United States | In the United States, a law school is an institution where students obtain a professional education in law after first obtaining an undergraduate degree.
Law schools in the U.S. confer the Juris Doctor degree (J.D.), which is a professional doctorate, and is the degree usually required to practice law in the United States, and the final degree obtained by most practitioners in the field. Law schools' Juris Doctor programs are usually three-year programs if done full-time or four-year programs if done via evening classes. Some U.S. law schools include an Accelerated JD program.
Other degrees that are awarded include the Master of Laws (LL.M.) and the Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) degrees, which can be more international in scope. Most law schools are colleges, schools, or other units within a larger post-secondary institution, such as a university. Legal education is very different in the United States from that in many other parts of the world.
Terminology
A 2006 study found that the names of the 192 law schools approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) at the time included one of five generic identifiers: "school of law" (118), "college of law" (38), "law school" (28), "law center" (7), and "faculty of law" (1). However, in ordinary speech, "law school" is universally preferred for its "brevity and clarity."
Admission
In the United States, law schools require a bachelor's degree in any discipline, a satisfactory undergraduate grade point average (GPA), and a satisfactory score on the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) as prerequisites for admission. Some states that have non-ABA-approved schools or state-accredited schools have equivalency requirements that usually equal 90 credits toward a bachelor's degree. Additional personal factors are evaluated through essays, short-answer questions, letters of recommendation, and other application materials. The standards for grades and LSAT scores vary from school to school.
Though undergraduate GPA and LSAT score are the most important factors considered by law school admissions committees, individual factors are also somewhat important. Interviews—either in person or via video chat—are sometimes used as optional or by-invite application components. Many law schools actively seek applicants from outside the traditional pool to boost racial, economic, and experiential diversity on campus. Most law schools now factor in extracurricular activities, work experience, and unique courses of study in their evaluation of applicants. A growing number of law school applicants have several years of work experience, and correspondingly fewer law students enter immediately after completing their undergraduate education. However, law schools generally only consider undergraduate and not post-collegiate transcripts when considering an applicant for admission; the former are considered by law schools to be a more uniform standard than the latter for judging academic performance.
Many law schools offer substantial scholarships and grants to many of their students, dramatically reducing the actual cost of attending law school compared to sticker tuition. Some law schools condition scholarships on maintaining a certain GPA.
there were 128,641 students enrolled in JD programs at the 204 approved ABA law schools.
Accreditation
To sit for the bar exam, the vast majority of state bar associations require accreditation of an applicant's law school by the American Bar Association. The ABA has promulgated detailed requirements covering every aspect of a law school, down to the precise contents of the law library and the minimum number of minutes of instruction required to receive a law degree. , there are 203 ABA-accredited law schools that award the J.D., divided between 202 with full accreditation and one with provisional accreditation. The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School in Charlottesville, Virginia, a school operated by the United States Army that conducts a post-J.D. program for military attorneys, is also ABA-accredited.
Non-ABA approved law schools have much lower bar passage rates than ABA-approved law schools, and do not submit or disclose employment outcome data to the ABA.
In addition, individual state legislatures or bar examiners may maintain a separate accreditation system, which is open to non-ABA accredited schools. If that is the case, graduates of these schools may generally sit for the bar exam only in the state in which their school is accredited. California is the most famous example of state-specific accreditation. The State Bar of California's Committee of Bar Examiners approves many schools that may not qualify for or request ABA accreditation. Graduates of such schools can sit for the bar exam in California, and once they have passed that exam, a large number of states allow those students to sit for their bars (after practicing for a certain number of years in California).
California is also the first state to allow graduates of distance legal education (online and correspondence) to take its bar exam. However, online and correspondence law schools are generally not accredited by the ABA or state bar examiners, and the eligibility of their graduates to sit for the bar exam may vary from state to state. Even in California, for instance, the State Bar deems certain online schools as "registered," meaning their graduates may take the bar exam, but also specifically says the "Committee of Bar Examiners does not approve nor accredit correspondence schools." Kentucky goes further by specifically disqualifying correspondence school graduates from admission to the bar. This applies even if the graduate has gained admission in another jurisdiction.
Curriculum
Law students are referred to as 1Ls, 2Ls, and 3Ls based on their year of study. In the United States, the American Bar Association does not mandate a particular curriculum for 1Ls. ABA Standard 302(a)(1) requires only the study of "substantive law" that will lead to "effective and responsible participation in the legal profession." However, most law schools have their own mandatory curriculum for 1Ls, which typically includes:
Civil procedure (Federal Rules of Civil Procedure)
Constitutional law (United States Constitution, especially Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, and the Commerce Clause)
Contracts (Article 2 (Sales) of the Uniform Commercial Code and Restatement (Second) of Contracts)
Criminal law (General common law, Model Penal Code, and state criminal statutes)
Property (General common law and Restatement of Property)
Torts (General common law, Restatement (Second) and Restatement (Third) of Torts)
Legal research (Use of a law library, LexisNexis, and Westlaw)
Legal writing (including objective analysis, persuasive analysis, and legal citation)
These basic courses are intended to provide an overview of the broad study of law. Not all ABA-approved law schools offer all of these courses in the 1L year; for example, many schools do not offer constitutional law and/or criminal law until the second and third years. Most schools also require Evidence but rarely offer the course to first-year students. Some schools combine legal research and legal writing into a single year-long "lawyering skills" course, which may also include a small oral argument component.
Because the first year curriculum is always fixed, most schools do not allow 1L students to select their own course schedules, and instead hand them their schedules at new student orientation.
At most schools, the grade for an entire course depends upon the outcome of only one or two examinations, usually in essay form, which are administered via students' laptop computers in the classroom with the assistance of specialized software. Some professors may use multiple choice exams in part or in full if the course material is suitable for it (e.g., professional responsibility). Legal research and writing courses tend to have several major projects (some graded, some not) and a final exam in essay form. Most schools impose a mandatory grade curve (see below).
After the first year, law students are generally free to pursue different fields of legal study. All law schools offer (or try to offer) a broad array of upper-division courses in areas of substantive law like administrative law, corporate law, international law, admiralty law, intellectual property law, and tax law, and in areas of procedural law not normally covered in the first year, like criminal procedure and remedies. Many law schools also offer upper-division practical training courses in client counseling, trial advocacy, appellate advocacy, and alternative dispute resolution. Depending upon the law school, practical training courses may involve fictional exercises in which students interact with each other or with volunteer actors playing clients, witnesses, and judges, or real-world cases at legal clinics.
Graduation is the assured outcome for the majority of students who pay their tuition on time, behave honorably and responsibly, maintain a minimum per-semester unit count and grade point average, take required upper-division courses, and successfully complete a certain number of units by the end of their sixth semester.
The ABA also requires that all students at ABA-approved schools take an ethics course in professional responsibility. Typically, this is an upper-level course; most students take it in the 2L year. This requirement was added after the Watergate scandal, which seriously damaged the public image of the profession because President Richard Nixon and most of his alleged co-conspirators were lawyers. The ABA desired to demonstrate that the legal profession could regulate itself, wished to reassert and maintain its position of leadership, and hoped to prevent direct federal regulation of the profession.
As of 2004, to ensure that students' research and writing skills do not deteriorate, the ABA has added an upper division writing requirement. Law students must take at least one course, or complete an independent study project, as a 2L or 3L that requires the writing of a paper for credit.
Most law courses are less about doctrine and more about learning how to analyze legal problems, read cases, distill facts and apply law to facts.
In 1968, the Ford Foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make "law school clinics" part of their curriculum. Clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. However, conservative critics charge that the clinics have been used instead as an avenue for the professors to engage in left-wing political activism. Critics cite the financial involvement of the Ford Foundation as the turning point when such clinics began to change from giving practical experience to engaging in advocacy.
Law schools that offer accelerated JD programs have unique curricula for such programs. Nonetheless, ABA-approved law schools with Accelerated JD programs must meet ABA rules.
Finally, the emphasis in law schools is rarely on the law of the particular state in which the law school sits, but on the law generally throughout the country. Although this makes studying for the bar exam more difficult since one must learn state-specific law, the emphasis on legal skills over legal knowledge can benefit law students not intending to practice in the same state they attend law school.
Grades, grading, and GPA curves
Grades in law school are very competitive. Most schools grade on a curve. In most law schools, the first year curve (1L) is considerably lower than courses taken after the first year of law school.
Many schools use a "median" grading system, that can range from "B-plus medians" to "C-minus medians". Some professors are obliged to determine which exam or paper was the exact median in terms of quality (e.g., the 26th best out of 51), give that paper the relevant grade depending on the system used, and then grade the other exams based on how much better or worse they are than the median. A few schools, such as Yale Law School, Stanford Law School, Harvard Law School, University of California, Berkeley School of Law, and Northeastern University School of Law have alternate grading systems that put less emphasis (or no emphasis) on rank. Other schools, such as New York's Fordham Law School, use a much more demanding grading system in which precise percentages of students are to receive certain grades. For instance, such a system could oblige professors to award a minimum and maximum number of "A's" and "F's" (e.g., 3.5%/7% A's and 4.5%/10% F's). Many professors chafe against the lack of discretion provided by such systems, especially the required failing of a certain number of students whose performance may have been sub-par but not, in the professor's estimation, worthy of a failing grade. The "median" system seeks to provide some parity among teachers' grading scales while giving the teacher discretion to award a grade below the median only when deserved.
Even with curved grading, some law schools such as Syracuse University College of Law still have a policy of "Dismissal for Academic Deficiency", in which students failing to meet a minimum GPA are dismissed from the school.
One school that has deviated from the system of competitive grading common to most American law schools is Northeastern University School of Law. Northeastern does not have any system of grade point averages or class rank, Instead, the school uses a system of narrative evaluations to measure student performance.
A system of anonymous grading known as blind grading is used in many law schools in the United States. It is intended to counter bias by the grader. Each semester students are assigned random numbers, usually by the Registrar's Office, which students must include on their exams. Professors then grade the exams on an anonymous basis, only discovering student names after grades have been submitted to the Registrar's Office. General adoption of blind grading followed admission of significant numbers of minority students to law schools.
Accelerated JD programs
An Accelerated JD program may refer to one of the following:
A program that combines a bachelor's degree with a juris doctor degree ("3+3 JD program" or "BA to JD program").
A two-year juris doctor degree that is offered in a condensed period, separately from a bachelor's degree ("2-year JD program").
As a result of student concerns about the time and cost (both in terms of tuition and the opportunity cost associated with foregoing a salary for three years) required to complete a law degree, there has been an emerging trend to develop accelerated JD programs.
Pedagogical methods
Most law school education in the United States is based on standards developed by Christopher Columbus Langdell and James Barr Ames at Harvard Law School during the 1870s. Professors generally lead in-class debates over the issues in selected court cases, compiled into "casebooks" for each course. Traditionally, law professors chose not to lecture extensively, and instead used the Socratic method to force students to teach each other based on their individual understanding of legal theory and the facts of the case at hand.
Many law schools continue to use the Socratic method—consisting of calling on a student at random, asking him or her about an argument made in an assigned case, asking the student whether he or she agrees with the argument, and then using a series of questions designed to expose logical flaws in the student's argument. Examinations usually entail interpreting the facts of a hypothetical case, determining how legal theories apply to the case, and then writing an essay. This process is intended to train students in the reasoning methods necessary to interpret theories, statutes, and precedents correctly, and argue their validity, both orally and in writing. In contrast, most civil law countries base their legal education on professorial lectures and oral examinations, which are more suited for the mastery of complicated civil codes.
This style of teaching is often disorienting to first-year law students who are more accustomed to taking notes from professors' lectures. Most casebooks do not clearly outline the law; instead, they force the student to interpret the cases and derive the basic legal concepts from the cases themselves. As a result, many publishers market law school outlines that concisely summarize the basic concepts of each area of law, and good outlines are highly sought after by many students, although some professors discourage their use.
Legal pedagogy has also been criticized by scholars like Alan Watson in his book, The Shame of Legal Education. Some law schools, such as Savannah Law School, have changed direction and created collaborative learning environments to allow students to work directly with each other and professors in order to model the teamwork of attorneys working on a case.
For purposes of passing state bar examinations, some law school graduates find law school instruction inadequate, and resort to specialized bar review courses from private course providers. These bar reviews typically consist of lectures, often video recorded.
History
Until the late 19th century, law schools were uncommon in the United States. Most people entered the legal profession through reading law, a form of independent study or apprenticeship, often under the supervision of an experienced attorney. This practice usually consisted of reading classic legal texts, such as Edward Coke's Institutes of the Lawes of England and William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England.
In colonial America, as in Britain at the time, law schools did not exist. Within a few years following the American Revolution, some universities such as the College of William and Mary and the University of Pennsylvania established a "Chair in Law". Columbia College appointed its first Professor of Law, James Kent, in 1793. Those who held these positions were the sole purveyors of legal education (per se) for their institutions—though law was, of course, discussed in other academic areas as a matter of course—and gave lectures designed to supplement, rather than replace, an apprenticeship.
The first institution established for the sole purpose of teaching law was the Litchfield Law School, set up by Judge Tapping Reeve in 1784 to organize the large number of would-be apprentices or lecture attendees that he attracted. Despite the success of that institution, and of similar programs set up thereafter at Harvard University (1817), Dickinson College (1834), Yale University (1843), Albany Law School (1851), and Columbia University (1858), law school attendance would remain a rare exception in the profession. Apprenticeship would be the norm until the 1890s, when the American Bar Association (which had been formed in 1878) began pressing states to limit admission to the bar to those who had satisfactorily completed several years of post-graduate instruction. In 1906, the Association of American Law Schools adopted a requirement that law school consist of a three-year course of study.
Women
Women were not allowed in most law schools during the late 1800s and the early 1900s. In 1869, Washington University School of Law became the first chartered law school in America to admit women. The "first woman on record to have received a law degree was Ada Kepley from Union College of Law in Illinois (Northwestern)" in 1870. Some law schools that allowed women before most others were Buffalo Law School which "begun in 1887 . . . and open to women and immigrant groups"; University of Iowa which "admitted women as law students" since at least 1869; University of Michigan; and Boston University Law School which started admitting women in 1872. "In 1878 two women successfully sued to be admitted to the first class at Hastings Law School [University of California]," one of whom was Clara S. Foltz. When the University of California established a second law program in 1894, this time on the Berkeley campus, it was open to women and men on an equal basis. Ellen Spencer Mussey and Emma Gillett founded the Washington Law School for women and men in 1898 (now known as, American University Washington College of Law).
The difficulty for women law students was further aggravated by the fact that courts did not allow women to be admitted as lawyers, as demonstrated in the famous case involving Myra Bradwell as the plaintiff in Bradwell v. Illinois (1870). The federal courts were subsequently opened to women in 1878 due to a successful campaign by Belva Ann Lockwood.
The elite law schools remained closed to women for a while after. Pushed by the suffragist movement for women, Harvard Law School started considering admitting women in 1899 but without success. Partly in response to the pressures of the suffragist movement and the unwillingness of elite law schools to open their doors, "in 1908, Portia Law School was founded in Boston" which later became the New England School of Law and was the only law school at the time with "an all women student body". In 1915, due to Harvard's continued refusal to admit women, the Cambridge Law School for Women was established as an alternative to elite law schools, and was to be "as nearly as possible a replica of the Harvard Law School as is possible to make it." World War I encouraged the movement toward admitting women to law schools, and in 1918, Fordham Law School and Yale Law School started admitting women. Northeastern University School of Law, at the time a YMCA institution, started admitting women in 1923. Harvard Law School did not admit women until 1950. In 1966, Notre Dame Law School started admitting women.
Despite all of these advances, "[i]n 1963, women had comprised only 2.7 percent of the profession. In the academic year 1969–70, only 6.35 percent of the degree candidates at law school were women." A prevalent attitude has been mentioned several times by Hillary Clinton, who recalled that she had been accepted at Harvard Law School in 1969 but had been repelled by a professor who told her at a student-recruitment party, "we don't need any more women at Harvard." (She went to Yale Law School instead.) Attendance of women at law schools did however improve significantly in the next 10-year period. "In 1968, 3,704 of the 62,000 law students in approved schools were women; by 1979, there were 37,534 women out of 117,279 students in approved schools" although still represented in larger proportions in less elite law schools. In 2016, the number of women enrolled in ABA-approved law schools reached the majority (50.09%), with female students comprising 55,766 of the total 111,327.
Credentials obtainable while in law school
Within each U.S. law school, key credentials include:
Law review/Law journal membership or editorial position (based either on grades or write-on competition or both). This is important for at least three reasons. First, because it is determined by either grades or writing ability, membership is an indicator of strong academic performance. This leads to the second reason, which is that potential employers sometimes use law review membership in their hiring criteria. Third, work on law review exposes a student to legal scholarship and editing, and often allows the student to publish a significant piece of legal scholarship on his or her own. Most law schools have a "flagship" journal usually called "School name Law Review" (for example, the Harvard Law Review—although some schools call their flagship journal "School name Law Journal"; see Yale Law Journal) that publishes articles on all areas of law, and one or more other specialty law journals that publish articles concerning only a particular area of the law (for example, the Harvard Journal of Law & Technology).
Moot court membership or award (based on oral and written argument). Success in moot court can distinguish one as an outstanding oral advocate and provides a degree of practical legal training that is often absent from law review membership. Moot court and related activities, such as Trial Advocacy and Dispute Resolution, may appeal especially to employers hiring for litigation positions, such as a district attorney's office.
Mock trial membership and awards (based on trial level advocacy skills) also can distinguish one as an outstanding trial advocate and help develop "real world" skills that are often valuable to employers hiring for litigation positions.
Order of the Coif membership (based on grade point average). This is often coupled with Latin honors (summa and magna cum laude, though often not cum laude). However, a slight majority of law schools in the U.S. do not have Order of the Coif chapters.
State and federal court clerkship
On the basis of a student's credentials, as well as favorable faculty recommendations, some students obtain a one or two-year clerkship with a judge after graduation. It is becoming more common for clerkships to begin after a few years in private practice. Clerkships may be with state or federal judges.
Clerkships are meant to provide the recent law school graduate with experience working for a judge. Often, clerks engage in significant legal research and writing for the judge, writing memos to assist a judge in coming to a legal conclusion in some cases, and writing drafts of opinions based on the judge's decisions. Appellate court clerkships, although generally more prestigious, do not necessarily give one a great deal of practical experience in the day-to-day life of a lawyer in private practice. The average litigator might get much more out of a clerkship at the trial court level, where he or she will be learning about motions practices, dealing with lawyers, and generally learning how a trial court works on the inside. What a lawyer might lose in prestige he or she might gain in experience.
By and large, though, clerkships provide other valuable assets to a young lawyer. Judges often become mentors to young clerks, providing the young attorney with an experienced individual to whom he or she can go for advice. Fellow clerks can also become lifelong friends and/or professional connections. Clerkships are great experiences for the new lawyers, and law schools encourage graduates to engage in a clerkship to broaden their professional experiences. However, there simply are not enough clerkships to accommodate all the academically eligible graduates.
United States Supreme Court clerkship
Some law school graduates are able to clerk for one of the Justices on the Supreme Court (each Justice takes two to four clerks per year). Often, these clerks are graduates of elite law schools, with Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan, Columbia, the University of Virginia, and Stanford being among the most highly represented schools. Justice Clarence Thomas is the major exception to the rule that Justices hire clerks from elite schools; he takes pride in selecting clerks from non-top-tier schools, and publicly noted that his clerks have been attacked on the Internet as "third tier trash."
Most Supreme Court clerks have clerked in a lower court, often for a year with a highly selective federal circuit court judge (such as Judges Alex Kozinski, Michael Luttig, J. Harvie Wilkinson, David Tatel, Richard Posner) known as a "feeder judge". It is perhaps the most highly selective and prestigious position a recently graduated lawyer can have, and Supreme Court clerks are often highly sought after by law firms, the government, and law schools. Law firms give Supreme Court clerks as much as a $400,000 bonus for signing with their firm. The vast majority of Supreme Court clerks either become academics at elite law schools, enter private practice as appellate attorneys, or take highly selective government positions.
Controversies involving U.S. law schools
Employment statistics and salary information
After the JD, a large study of law graduates who passed the bar examination, found that even graduates of lower ranked law schools were typically making six figure ($100,000+) incomes within 12 years after graduation. Graduates of higher ranking schools typically earned more than $170,000. The Economic Value of a Law Degree, a peer reviewed study which included law graduates who did not pass the bar exam and were not practicing law, found that law graduates at the 25th percentile of earnings ability typically earned around $20,000 more every year than they would have earned with only a bachelor's degree. Graduates at the 75th percentile earned around $80,000 more per year than they likely would have earned with a bachelor's degree. However, only around 60 to 70 percent of law graduates practice law. Some authors have criticized employment information supplied directly by law schools; however, these studies report information supplied directly by law graduates, and in the case of the latter study, collected by the United States Census Bureau as part of a broader economic survey.
New York Times negative press coverage
Starting in 2011, American law schools became the subject of a series of critical articles in mainstream news publications, starting with a series of New York Times articles by David Segal. Such articles have reported on the debt loads of law graduates, the difficulty of securing employment in the legal profession, and insufficient practical training at American law schools. A number of critics have pointed out factual inaccuracies and logical errors in New York Times' higher education coverage, especially related to law schools.
More recent press coverage by some higher education reporters has noted that peer reviewed studies and comprehensive data suggests that law graduates are still typically better off financially than they would be had they not attended law school, notwithstanding challenges facing recent graduates.
Lawsuits related to American legal education
In 2011, several law schools were sued for fraud and for misleading job placement statistics. Most of these suits have been dismissed on the merits.
In 1995, the United States Department of Justice Sued the American Bar Association, the accrediting body of American law schools, for allegedly violating the Sherman Antitrust Act. The settlement of the suit prohibited the ABA from using salary of faculty or administrators as an accreditation criterion.
Political balance
Liberal professors have claimed that there is conservative bias in law schools, particularly within law and economics and business law fields. Liberals have also argued for affirmative action to increase the representation of women and minorities among law students and law faculty.
Conservative students have argued that there is a liberal bias among top tier law faculty.
Law school rankings
There are several different law school rankings, each with a different emphasis and different methodology. Most either emphasize inputs or readily measurable outcomes (i.e., outcomes shortly after graduation); none measure value-added or long-term outcomes. In general, these rankings are controversial, not universally accepted as authoritative.
The U.S. News and World Report's regularly publishes a list of the "Top 100 Law Schools" based on various qualitative and quantitative factors, e.g., entering student LSAT scores and GPAs, reputation surveys, expenditures per student, etc. U.S. News ratings heavily emphasize inputs—student test scores and grades, law school expenditures—but includes some outcomes such as bar passage and employment shortly after graduation. U.S. News rankings are heavily weighted toward "reputation", which is measured through a survey with small sample size and low response rates. The reputation scores are highly correlated with the previous years' reputation scores and may not reflect changes in law school quality over time.
The Social Science Research Network—a repository for draft and completed scholarship in law and the social sciences—publishes monthly rankings of law schools based on the number of times faculty members' scholarship was downloaded. Rankings are available by total number of downloads, total number of downloads within the last 12 months, and downloads per faculty member to adjust for the size of different institutions. SSRN also provides rankings of individual law school faculty members on these metrics.
Brian Leiter compiles a regular series of evaluations called "Brian Leiter's Law School Reports" in which he and other commentators discuss law schools. Leiter's rankings tend to emphasize the quality and quantity of faculty scholarship, as measured by citations in a select group of journals.
Several other ranking systems are explicitly designed to focus on employment outcomes at or shortly after graduation, including rankings by the National Law Journal, Vault.com and Above the Law. The National Law Journal provides a comparison of its employment-based rankings to U.S. News rankings. For students who are primarily interested in lucrative employment outcomes rather than scholarly prestige, this comparison may suggest which law schools are most undervalued by the market.
U.S. News Rankings and Earnings
Graduates of the top 14 law schools tend to have higher earnings, on average, than graduates of the other 190 law schools. Those 14 schools, alphabetically, are: Berkeley, Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, Duke, Georgetown, Harvard, Michigan, New York University, Northwestern, Penn, Stanford, Virginia, and Yale. In addition, graduates with higher law school GPAs tend to have higher earnings than students with lower law school GPAs. Even graduates of non-elite law schools who passed the bar and are working full-time are typically earning close to $100,000 per year within seven years of graduating law school.
It is unclear whether attending a higher ranked law school provides a larger boost to law school graduates' earnings than attending a lower ranked law school. Higher earnings and improved outcomes for graduates of higher ranked law schools may be due to these students' greater earnings potential compared to graduates of lower ranked law schools before they attended law school — higher standardized test scores and undergraduate GPAs, wealthier families and friends, etc. One study suggests that, after controlling for students incoming credentials, earnings and employment outcomes are better at lower ranked ABA approved law schools than at higher ranked law schools — that is, lower ranked law schools may do more to improve outcomes than higher ranked schools.
Regional tiers and lower-tier national schools
Most law schools outside the top tier are more regional in scope and often have very strong regional connections to these post-graduation opportunities. For example, a student graduating from a lower-tier law school may find opportunities in that school's "home market": the legal market containing many of that school's alumni, where most of the school's networking and career development energies are focused. In contrast, an upper-tier law school may find employment opportunities in a broader geographic region.
State-authorized schools
Many schools are authorized or accredited by a state and some have been in continuous operation for over 95 years. Most are located in Alabama, California, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Tennessee, and in Puerto Rico. Some state authorized law schools are maintained to offer a non-ABA option, experimenting with lower cost options.
Graduates of non-ABA approved law schools have much lower bar passage rates than same-race graduates of ABA-approved law schools in the same state.
Unaccredited schools
Some schools are not accredited by a state or the American Bar Association. Most are located in California. Such schools in California are registered and licensed to operate by The State Bar of California Committee of Bar Examiners (CBE), but are not accredited by the CBE. Their first year students are required to take the First-Year Law Students' Examination ("Baby Bar"), which then authorizes them to continue their studies in years following. Graduates of these schools may then take the California Bar Examination. Once they pass the Bar, they are licensed to practice law in California. However, many other jurisdictions do not allow graduates of unaccredited law schools to sit for their bar examination. In California, graduates of non-ABA approved law schools have much lower bar passage rates than same-race graduates of ABA-approved law schools in the same state.
Oldest active law schools
Law schools are listed by the dates from when they were first established.
Marshall-Wythe School of Law (The College of William & Mary) established 1779 (closed in 1861 and reopened in 1920)
University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law established 1816, held first classes in 1824 (closed during the American Civil War and reopened shortly after its end)
Harvard Law School established 1817 (oldest continuously open school)
University of Virginia School of Law established 1819
Yale Law School established 1824
University of Cincinnati College of Law established 1833
Pennsylvania State University Dickinson School of Law established 1834
New York University School of Law established 1835
Indiana University Maurer School of Law established 1842
Saint Louis University School of Law established in 1843 (closed in 1847 and reopened in 1908)
University of North Carolina School of Law established 1845
Louis D. Brandeis School of Law (University of Louisville) established 1846
Cumberland School of Law established in 1847
Tulane University Law School established 1847
Washington and Lee University School of Law established 1849
Baylor Law School established 1849 (closed in 1883 and reestablished 1920)
University of Pennsylvania Law School established 1850
Albany Law School established 1851
University of Mississippi School of Law established 1854
Columbia Law School established 1858
See also
List of law schools in the United States
List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court justices
IRAC
Law School Admission Council
Correspondence law school
Catholic University of America School of Canon Law
References
School types
United States law
Higher education in the United States | [
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219512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Cycling at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, seven cycling events were contested.
It was the only time distances based on the mile were used to determine the length of events.
Medal summary
Participating nations
18 American cyclists competed at the 1904 Summer Olympics.
Medal table
References
Sports reference on cycling at the 1904 Olympics
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in cycle racing
1904 in track cycling | [
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219514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Diving at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, in St. Louis, diving debuted as an official two-event Olympic sport. The competitions were held on Monday, 5 September 1904 and on Wednesday, 6 September 1904. It included the only Olympic appearance of the plunge for distance event.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of ten divers from two nations competed at the St. Louis Games:
Medal table
References
Sources
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in diving | [
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] |
219523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Fencing at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, five fencing events were contested. The third edition of the Olympic fencing program included a team event (in men's foil) for the first time, as well as the only Olympic singlestick competition. Events for fencing professionals were eliminated. The competitions were held on September 7, 1904 and September 8, 1904.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 11 fencers from 3 nations competed at the St. Louis Games:
Medal table
References
International Olympic Committee results database
Spalding's Athletic Almanac for 1905 (digitized copy online)
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in fencing
International fencing competitions hosted by the United States | [
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219527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Football at the 1904 Summer Olympics | Men's association football (soccer) was contested at the 1904 Summer Olympics. A total of three club teams competed, two representing the United States, both from host city St. Louis, and one representing Canada, from Galt (now Cambridge), Ontario. Originally two other Canadian teams had also been scheduled for the competition, Berlin Rangers and the University of Toronto, but both withdrew before the competition.
The 1904 Olympic Games were spread over several months, linked to the St. Louis World's Fair, and football, in November, was the last sport to be contested. The tournament was played as a straight round-robin, although the game between Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish was replayed due to a draw in their first game.
Gold medals were awarded at these Olympics for the first time. Galt F.C. (Canada) won the gold medal, Christian Brothers College (United States) the silver, and St. Rose Parish (United States) the bronze. These results are the best that either Canada or the United States have achieved in men's Olympic football. The 1904 contest is considered to be an official contest by IOC, although not by FIFA because no national teams were involved in the competition.
Teams entered
Galt F.C.
Cadets of Christian Brothers College
St. Rose Parish
Competition schedule
The match schedule of the tournament.
Venue
Squads
Matches
Galt F.C. had little difficulty with either of the U.S. squads, defeating them both without conceding a goal. The U.S. teams played a scoreless draw before Christian Brothers College won a rematch against St. Rose Parish, 2–0.
Final ranking
Medal summary
Medal table
According to a report in the Toronto Mail and Empire newspaper of November 18, 1904, medals were awarded to the players in St. Louis.
The report states that "Immediately after the game, the Galt aggregation, numbering about 50 persons, retired to the office of James E. Sullivan, chief of the Department of Physical Culture, where they received their prize. After a talk by Mr. James A. Conlon, of the Physical Culture Department, Mayor Mundy, of the City of Galt, presented each player on the winning team with a beautiful gold medal."
The medal awarded to Fred Steep of Galt, held by The Soccer Hall of Fame and Museum in Vaughan, Ontario, clearly shows that the medals were made in St. Louis, Missouri.
Medalists
References
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
1904 in association football
Soccer in St. Louis
Summer Olympics 1904
1904–05 in American soccer | [
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] |
219528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingala%20%28disambiguation%29 | Lingala (disambiguation) | Lingala can refer to:
Lingala language in central Africa
Lingala, Mandavalli mandal a village in Mandavalli mandal, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Lingala, Vatsavai mandal a village in Vatsavai mandal, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Lingala, Kadapa district, a village and mandal in Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Lingala, Telangana, a village in Khammam district, state of Telangana, India.
See also
Lingala music, a synonym for Soukous music | [
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219532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance%20tours | Romance tours | Romance tours are tours that men take in search of a relationship, girlfriend or even a marriage. In some such tours, the men and potential brides interact in brief parties arranged by the hosting company.
A large number of romance tours take place every year throughout the world. Romance tours first began in Russia and CIS, but have recently moved into other parts of the world such as South America. Tours also take place in many parts of Asia.
Once couples have met on a romance tour, an agency arranges "one on one" dates between the man and the women he found most compatible. The ultimate goal of the tour is for the man to find a compatible wife.
Romance tours are just one part of the mail-order bride business, which may also include catalogs, CD-ROMs and the Internet. The traditional romance tour, seen by some as superficial, is being somewhat replaced by the internet as technology evolves. However, the two are closely linked as a man eventually has to meet his prospective wife using a well-organized method of meeting and dating.
Romance tours should not be confused with sex tourism, because the ultimate goal of a sex tourist is usually not marriage.
See also
A Foreign Affair (company)
Female sex tourism
Mail Order Brides
Love Translated - a 2010 documentary film in which a group of men travel to Ukraine on a romance tour.
References
Types of tourism
Matchmaking | [
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] |
219539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Golf at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, two golf events were contested – men's individual and team tournaments. The competitions were held from September 17, 1904 to September 24, 1904. It was the second and final appearance of the sport at the Olympics until the 2016 Summer Olympics. The men's individual event was switched to a match play tournament rather than the stroke play used four years earlier.
Format
There were two golf events at the 1904 Olympic Games. The first was a team championship open to golf associations, and contested over 36 holes of stroke play by teams of ten amateur golfers with all scores counting towards the team total. It was followed by an individual event contested as a match play knockout by the leading 32 players following a 36-hole stroke play qualifying round, with each match played over 36 holes.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 77 golfers from 2 nations competed at the St. Louis Games:
Medal table
Notes
References
Sources
International Olympic Committee results database
George Seymour Lyon - Olympic Individual gold medal winner 1904
1904
1904 Summer Olympics events
Golf tournaments in the United States
Golf in Missouri
1904 in golf
1904 in sports in Missouri | [
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219544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk%20%28ship%29 | Junk (ship) | A junk is a type of Chinese sailing ship with fully battened sails. There are two types of junk in China: the northern junk, which developed from Chinese river boats, and southern junk, which developed from Austronesian ship designs used in trade with the Eastern Han dynasty since the 2nd century AD. They continued to evolve in later dynasties, and were predominantly used by Chinese traders throughout Southeast Asia. Similar junk designs were also adopted by other East Asian countries, most notably Japan where junks were used as merchant ships to trade goods with China. They were found, and in lesser numbers are still found, throughout Southeast Asia and India, but primarily in China. Historically, a Chinese junk could be one of many types of small coastal or river ships, usually serving as a cargo ship, pleasure boat, or houseboat, but also ranging in size up to large ocean-going vessel. Found more broadly today is a growing number of modern recreational junk-rigged sailboats. There can be significant regional variations in the type of rig or the layout of the vessel; however, they all employ fully battened sails.
The term "junk" (Portuguese junco; Dutch jonk; and Spanish junco) was also used in the colonial period to refer to any medium- to large-sized ships of the Austronesian cultures in Island Southeast Asia, with or without the junk rig. Examples include the Indonesian and Malaysian jong, the Philippine karakoa and lanong, and the Maluku kora kora.
Etymology
Views diverge on whether the origin of the word is from a dialect of Chinese or from a Javanese word. The term may stem from the Chinese chuán (, "boat; ship") — The modern Mandarin Chinese word for an ocean-going wooden cargo vessel is cáo ().
Pierre-Yves Manguin and Zoetmulder, among others, point to an Old Javanese origin, in the form of jong. The word can be traced from an Old Javanese inscription in the 9th century. It entered the Malay and Chinese languages by the 15th century, when a Chinese word list identifies it as a Malay word for ship. The late 15th century Undang-Undang Laut Melaka, a maritime code composed by Javanese shipowners in Melaka, uses jong frequently as the word for freight ships. European writings from 1345 through 1601 use a variety of related terms, including jonque (French), ioncque, ionct, giunchi, zonchi (Italian), iuncque, joanga, juanga (Spanish), junco (Portuguese), and ionco, djonk, jonk (Dutch). These terms commonly used to describe all kinds of large ships encountered in the Southeast Asia, as well as Chinese ships.
The origin of the word "junk" in the English language can be traced to the Portuguese word junco, which is rendered from the Arabic word j-n-k (جنك). This word comes from the fact that the Arabic script cannot represent the sound spelled with the digraph "ng". The word was used to denote both the Javanese/Malay ship (jong or djong) and the Chinese ship (chuán), even though the two were markedly different vessels. After the disappearance of jongs in the 17th century, the meaning of "junk" (and other similar words in European languages), which until then was used as a transcription of the word "jong" in Malay and Javanese, changed its meaning to exclusively refer to the Chinese ship (chuán).
Construction
The historian Herbert Warington Smyth considered the junk as one of the most efficient ship designs, stating that "As an engine for carrying man and his commerce upon the high and stormy seas as well as on the vast inland waterways, it is doubtful if any class of vessel… is more suited or better adapted to its purpose than the Chinese or Indian junk, and it is certain that for flatness of sail and handiness, the Chinese rig is unsurpassed".
Sails
The sail of Chinese junks is an adoption of the Malay junk sail, which used vegetable matting attached to bamboo battens, a practice originated from Indonesia. The full-length battens keep the sail flatter than ideal in all wind conditions. Consequently, their ability to sail close to the wind is poorer than other fore-and-aft rigs.
Hull
Classic junks were built of softwoods (although after the 17th century teak was used in Guangdong) with the outside shape built first. Then multiple internal compartment/bulkheads accessed by separate hatches and ladders, reminiscent of the interior structure of bamboo, were built in. Traditionally, the hull has a horseshoe-shaped stern supporting a high poop deck. The bottom is flat in a river junk with no keel (similar to a sampan), so that the boat relies on a daggerboard, leeboard or very large rudder to prevent the boat from slipping sideways in the water.
Another characteristic of junks, interior compartments or bulkheads, strengthened the ship and slowed flooding in case of holing. Ships built in this manner were written of in Zhu Yu's book Pingzhou Table Talks, published by 1119 during the Song dynasty. Again, this type of construction for Chinese ship hulls was attested to by the Moroccan Muslim Berber traveler Ibn Battuta (1304–1377 AD), who described it in great detail (refer to Technology of the Song dynasty).
Benjamin Franklin wrote in a 1787 letter on the project of mail packets between the United States and France:
Due to the numerous foreign primary sources that hint to the existence of true watertight compartments in junks, historians such as Joseph Needham proposed that the limber holes were stopped up as noted above in case of leakage. He addresses the quite separate issue of free-flooding compartments on pg 422 of Science and Civilisation in Ancient China:
Similar wet wells were also apparent in Roman small craft of the 5th century CE.
Leeboards and centerboards
Other innovations included the square-pallet bilge pump, which was adopted by the West during the 16th century for work ashore, the western chain pump, which was adopted for shipboard use, being of a different derivation. Junks also relied on the compass for navigational purposes. However, as with almost all vessels of any culture before the late 19th century, the accuracy of magnetic compasses aboard ship, whether from a failure to understand deviation (the magnetism of the ship's iron fastenings) or poor design of the compass card (the standard drypoint compasses were extremely unstable), meant that they did little to contribute to the accuracy of navigation by dead reckoning. Indeed, a review of the evidence shows that the Chinese embarked magnetic pointer was probably little used for navigation. The reasoning is simple. Chinese mariners were as able as any and, had they needed a compass to navigate, they would have been aware of the almost random directional qualities when used at sea of the water bowl compass they used. Yet that design remained unchanged for some half a millennium. Western sailors, coming upon a similar water bowl design (no evidence as to how has yet emerged) very rapidly adapted it in a series of significant changes such that within roughly a century the water bowl had given way to the dry pivot, a rotating compass card a century later, a lubberline a generation later and gimbals seventy or eighty years after that. These were necessary because in the more adverse climatic context of north western Europe, the compass was needed for navigation. Had similar needs been felt in China, Chinese mariners would also have come up with fixes. They didn't.
Steering
Junks employed stern-mounted rudders centuries before their adoption in the West for the simple reason that Western hull forms, with their pointed sterns, obviated a centreline steering system until technical developments in Scandinavia created the first, iron mounted, pintle and gudgeon 'barn door' western examples in the early 12th century CE. A second reason for this slow development was that the side rudders in use were, contrary to a lot of very ill-informed opinion, extremely efficient. Thus the junk rudder's origin, form and construction was completely different in that it was the development of a centrally mounted stern steering oar, examples of which can also be seen in Middle Kingdom (c.2050–1800 BCE) Egyptian river vessels. It was an innovation which permitted the steering of large ships and due to its design allowed height adjustment according to the depth of the water and to avoid serious damage should the junk ground. A sizable junk can have a rudder that needed up to twenty members of the crew to control in strong weather. In addition to using the sail plan to balance the junk and take the strain off the hard to operate and mechanically weakly attached rudder, some junks were also equipped with leeboards or dagger boards. The world's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a junk dating from before the 1st century AD.
History
2nd century (Han dynasty)
Chinese sea-going ships engaged in cross-ocean expeditions by 2nd century BC. The Book of Han mentions sea-going voyages taking 12 months to reach the furthest country. Large Austronesian trading ships docking in Chinese seaports with as many as four sails were recorded by scholars as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). They called them the kunlun bo or kunlun po (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of the [dark-skinned] Kunlun people"). They were booked by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims for passage to Southern India and Sri Lanka.
The 3rd century book "Strange Things of the South" (南州異物志) by Wan Chen (萬震) describes one of these Austronesian ships as being capable of 600-700 people together with more than 10,000 hu (斛) of cargo (250-1000 tons according to various interpretations - 600 tons deadweight according to Manguin). The ships could be more than 50 meters in length and had a freeboard of 5.2–7.8 meters. When seen from above they resemble covered galleries. He explains the ships' sail design as follows:
A 260 CE book by K'ang T'ai (康泰) described ships with seven sails called po for transporting horses that could travel as far as Syria. He also made reference to monsoon trade between the islands (or archipelago), which took a month and a few days in a large po.
Southern Chinese junks were based on keeled and multi-planked Austronesian jong (known as po by the Chinese, from Javanese or Malay perahu - large ship). Southern Chinese junks showed characteristics of Austronesian jong: V-shaped, double-ended hull with a keel, and using timbers of tropical origin. This is different from northern Chinese junks, which are developed from flat bottomed riverine boats. The northern Chinese junks had flat bottoms, no keel, no frames (only water-tight bulkheads), transom stern and stem, and would have been built out of pine or fir wood, and would have its planks fastened with iron nails or clamps.
10–13th century (Song dynasty)
The trading dynasty of the Song developed the first junks based on Southeast Asian ships. By this era they also have adopted the Malay junk sail. The ships of the Song, both mercantile and military, became the backbone of the navy of the following Yuan dynasty. In particular the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–84), as well as the Mongol invasion of Java (both failed), essentially relied on recently acquired Song naval capabilities. Worcester estimates that Yuan junks were 11 m (36 ft) in beam and over 30 m (100 ft) long. In general they had no keel, stempost, or sternpost. They did have centreboards, and watertight bulkhead to strengthen the hull, which added great weight. Further excavations showed that this type of vessel was common in the 13th century. By using the ratio between number of soldiers and ships in both invasions, it can be concluded that each ship may carry 20-70 men.
14th century (Yuan dynasty)
Yuan dynasty ships carry on the tradition of Song, the Yuan navy is essentially Song navy. Both Song and Yuan employed large trading junks. The large ships (up to 5,000 liao or 1520-1860 tons burden) would carry 500-600 men, and the second class (1,000-2,000 liao) would carry 200-300 men. Unlike Ming treasure ships, Song and Yuan great junks are propelled by oars, and have with them smaller junks, probably for maneuvering aids. The largest junks (5,000 liao) may have a hull length twice that of Quanzhou ship (1,000 liao), that is 68 m.
The enormous dimensions of the Chinese ships of the Medieval period are described in Chinese sources, and are confirmed by Western travelers to the East, such as Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta and Niccolò da Conti. According to Ibn Battuta, who visited China in 1347:…We stopped in the port of Calicut, in which there were at the time thirteen Chinese vessels, and disembarked. On the China Sea traveling is done in Chinese ships only, so we shall describe their arrangements. The Chinese vessels are of three kinds; large ships called chunks (junks), middle sized ones called zaws (dhows) and the small ones kakams. The large ships have anything from twelve down to three sails, which are made of bamboo rods plaited into mats. They are never lowered, but turned according to the direction of the wind; at anchor they are left floating in the wind. A ship carries a complement of a thousand men, six hundred of whom are sailors and four hundred men-at-arms, including archers, men with shields and crossbows, who throw naphtha. Three smaller ones, the "half", the "third" and the "quarter", accompany each large vessel. These vessels are built in the towns of Zaytun (a.k.a. Zaitun; today's Quanzhou; 刺桐) and Sin-Kalan. The vessel has four decks and contains rooms, cabins, and saloons for merchants; a cabin has chambers and a lavatory, and can be locked by its occupants. This is the manner after which they are made; two (parallel) walls of very thick wooden (planking) are raised and across the space between them are placed very thick planks (the bulkheads) secured longitudinally and transversely by means of large nails, each three ells in length. When these walls have thus been built the lower deck is fitted in and the ship is launched before the upper works are finished. - Ibn Battuta
15–17th century (Ming dynasty)
Expedition of Zheng He
The largest junks ever built were possibly those of Admiral Zheng He, for his expeditions in the Indian Ocean (1405 to 1433), although this is disputed as no contemporary records of the sizes of Zheng He's ships are known. Instead the dimensions are based on Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi (1597), a romanticized version of the voyages written by nearly two centuries later. Maodeng's novel describes Zheng He's ships as follows:
Treasure ships, used by the commander of the fleet and his deputies (Nine-masted junks, claimed by the Ming Shi to be about 420 feet long and 180 feet wide).
Horse ships, carrying tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (Eight-masted junks, about 340 feet long and 140 feet wide)
Supply ships, containing food-staple for the crew (Seven-masted junks, about 260 feet long and 115 feet wide).
Troop transports (Six-masted junks, about 220 feet long and 83 feet wide).
Fuchuan warships (Five-masted junks, about 165 feet long).
Patrol boats (Eight-oared, about 120 feet long).
Water tankers, with 1 month's supply of fresh water.
Louise Levathes suggests that the actual length of the biggest treasure ships may have been between long and wide. Modern scholars have argued on engineering grounds that it is highly unlikely that Zheng He's ship was 450 ft in length, Guan Jincheng (1947) proposed a much more modest size of 20 zhang long by 2.4 zhang wide (204 ft by 25.5 ft or 62.2 m by 7.8 m) while Xin Yuan'ou (2002) put them as 61–76 m (200–250 feet) in length.
Comparing to other Ming records, the Chinese seem to have exaggerated their dimensions. European East Indiamen and galleons were said to be 30, 40, 50, and 60 zhang (90, 120, 150, and 180 m). It was not until the mid to late 19th century that the length of the largest western wooden ship began to exceed 100 meters, even this was done using modern industrial tools and iron parts.
Sea ban
From the mid-15th to early 16th century, all Chinese maritime trading was banned under the Ming Dynasty. The shipping and shipbuilding knowledge acquired during the Song and Yuan dynasties gradually declined during this period.
Capture of Taiwan
In 1661, a naval fleet of 400 junks and 25,000 men led by the Ming loyalist Zheng Chenggong (Cheng Ch'eng-kung in Wade–Giles, known in the West as Koxinga), arrived in Taiwan to oust the Dutch from Zeelandia. Following a nine-month siege, Cheng captured the Dutch fortress Fort Zeelandia. A peace treaty between Koxinga and the Dutch Government was signed at Castle Zeelandia on February 1, 1662, and Taiwan became Koxinga's base for the Kingdom of Tungning.
Javanese junk
Javanese junks differed from Chinese junks in several respects. The Javanese junk was made of very thick wood, and as the ship got old, it was fixed with new boards, with four closing boards, stacked together. The rope and the sail was made with woven rattan. The jong was made using jaty/jati wood (teak) at the time of this report (1515), at that time Chinese junks are using softwood as the main material. The jong's hull is formed by joining planks to the keel and then to each other by wooden dowels, without using either a frame (except for subsequent reinforcement), nor any iron bolts or nails. The planks are perforated by an auger and inserted with dowels, which remains inside the fastened planks, not seen from the outside. On some of the smaller vessels parts may be lashed together with vegetable fibers. The vessel was similarly pointed at both ends, and carried two oar-like rudders and lateen-rigged sails (actually tanja sail), but it may also use junk sail, a sail of Indonesian origin. It differed markedly from the Chinese vessel, which had its hull fastened by strakes and iron nails to a frame and to structurally essential bulkheads which divided the cargo space. The Chinese vessel had a single rudder on a transom stern, and (except in Fujian and Guangdong) they had flat bottoms without keels.
Encounters with giant jongs were recorded by Western travelers. Florentine merchant Giovanni da Empoli (1483-1517), one of the first Italian agents to join a Portuguese armada to India in 1503-1504, said that the junks of Java were no different in their strength than a castle, because the three and four boards, layered one above the other, could not be harmed with artillery. They sailed with their women, children, and families, with everyone mainly keeping to their respective rooms. Portuguese recorded at least two encounters with large Djongs, one was encountered off the coast of Pacem (Samudera Pasai Sultanate) and the other was owned by Pati Unus, who went on to attack Malacca in 1513. Characteristics of the 2 ships were similar, both were larger than Portuguese ship, built with multiple plankings, resistant to cannon fire, and had two oar-like rudders on the side of the ship. At least Pati Unus' jong was equipped with three layers of sheathing which the Portuguese said over one cruzado in thickness each. The Chinese banned foreign ships from entering Guangzhou, fearing the Javanese or Malay junks would attack and capture the city, because it is said that one of these junk would rout twenty Chinese junks.
Main production location of Djong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially around Rembang-Demak (along the Muria strait) and Cirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and adjacent islands. A common feature of these places was their accessibility to forests of teak, this wood was highly valued because of its resistance to shipworm, whereas Borneo itself would supply ironwood. Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there.
Accounts of medieval travellers
Niccolò da Conti in relating his travels in Asia between 1419 and 1444, describes huge junks of about 2,000 tons in weight:
Other translations of the passage give the size as a 2000 butts, which would be around a 1000 tons, a butt being half a ton. Christopher Wake noted that the transcription of the unit is actually vegetes, that is Venetian butt, and estimated a burthen of 1300 tons. The ship of Conti may have been a Burmese or Indonesian jong.
Also, in 1456, the Fra Mauro map described the presence of junks in the Indian Ocean as well as their construction:
Fra Mauro further explains that one of these junks rounded the Cape of Good Hope and travelled far into the Atlantic Ocean, in 1420:
19th century (Qing dynasty)
Large, ocean-going junks played a key role in Asian trade until the 19th century. One of these junks, Keying, sailed from China around the Cape of Good Hope to the United States and England between 1846 and 1848. Many junks were fitted out with carronades and other weapons for naval or piratical uses. These vessels were typically called "war junks" or "armed junks" by Western navies which began entering the region more frequently in the 18th century. The British, Americans and French fought several naval battles with war junks in the 19th century, during the First Opium War, Second Opium War and in between.
At sea, junk sailors co-operated with their Western counterparts. For example, in 1870 survivors of the English barque Humberstone shipwrecked off Formosa, were rescued by a junk and landed safely in Macao.
20th century
In 1938, E. Allen Petersen escaped the advancing Japanese armies by sailing a junk, Hummel Hummel, from Shanghai to California with his wife Tani and two White Russians (Tsar loyalists).
In 1955, six young men sailed a Ming dynasty-style junk from Taiwan to San Francisco. The four-month journey aboard the Free China was captured on film and their arrival into San Francisco made international front-page news. The five Chinese-born friends saw an advertisement for an international trans-Atlantic yacht race, and jumped at the opportunity for adventure. They were joined by the then US Vice-Consul to China, who was tasked with capturing the journey on film. Enduring typhoons and mishaps, the crew, having never sailed a century-old junk before, learned along the way. The crew included Reno Chen, Paul Chow, Loo-chi Hu, Benny Hsu, Calvin Mehlert and were led by skipper Marco Chung. After a journey of , the Free China and her crew arrived in San Francisco Bay in fog on August 8, 1955. Shortly afterward the footage was featured on ABC television's Bold Journey travelogue. Hosted by John Stephenson and narrated by ship's navigator Paul Chow, the program highlighted the adventures and challenges of the junk's sailing across the Pacific, as well as some humorous moments aboard ship.
In 1959 a group of Catalan men, led by Jose Maria Tey, sailed from Hong Kong to Barcelona on a junk named Rubia. After their successful journey this junk was anchored as a tourist attraction at one end of Barcelona harbor, close to where La Rambla meets the sea. Permanently moored along with it was a reproduction of Columbus' caravel Santa Maria during the 1960s and part of the 1970s.
In 1981, Christoph Swoboda had a 65 feet (LoA) Bedar built by the boatyard of Che Ali bin Ngah on Duyong island in the estuary of the Terengganu river on the East coast of Malaysia. The Bedar is one of the two types of Malay junk schooners traditionally built there. He sailed this junk with his family and one friend to the Mediterranean and then continued with changing crew to finally finish a circumnavigation in 1998. He sold this vessel in 2000 and in 2004 he started to build a new junk in Duyong with the same craftsmen: the Pinas (or Pinis) Naga Pelangi, in order to help keep this ancient boat building tradition alive. This boat finished to be fitted out in 2010 and is working as a charter boat in the Andaman and the South China Sea.
Notes
See also
Casco (barge), flat hulled barges of the Philippines
Junk rig
Pinisi
Keying
Lorcha
Tongkang
Shipyards in Macau
References
Works cited
External links
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Keying II Hong Kong Junk
China Seas Voyaging Society
The Free China, homepage of one of the last remaining 20th century junks, with video.
The Junk and Advanced Cruising Rig Association, The JRA
Pirates and Junks in Late Imperial South China
Chinese inventions
Four-masted ships
Naval history of China
Sailboat types
Ship types
Merchant sailing ship types
Sailing rigs and rigging
Ships of China
Three-masted ships
Traditional boats
Austronesian ships | [
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219545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseed | Rapeseed | Rapeseed (Brassica napus subsp. napus), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. Canola are a group of rapeseed cultivars which were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein in the world.
Description
Brassica napus grows to in height with hairless, fleshy, pinnatifid and glaucous lower leaves which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no petioles. Brassica napus can be distinguished from Brassica nigra by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from Brassica rapa by its smaller petals which are less than across.
Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about across. They are radial and consist of four petals in a typical cross-form, alternating with four sepals. They have indeterminate racemose flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral stamens with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.
The rapeseed pods are green and elongated siliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on pedicels long, and can range from 5 to 10 cm in length. Each pod has two compartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develop. The seeds are round and have a diameter of . They have a reticulate surface texture, and are black and hard at maturity.
Etymology and taxonomy
The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for turnip, rapa or rapum, cognate with the Greek word rhapys.
The species Brassica napus belongs to the flowering plant family Brassicaceae. Rapeseed is a subspecies with the autonym B. napus subsp. napus. It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape. Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form variety (B. napus var. pabularia) which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable. The second subspecies of B. napus is B. napus subsp. rapifera (also subsp. napobrassica; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).
Brassica napus is a digenomic amphidiploid that occurred due to the interspecific hybridization between Brassica oleracea and Brassica rapa. It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid brassica species.
Ecology
In Northern Ireland, U K B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.
Uses
Rapeseed is grown for the production of animal feed, edible vegetable oils, and biodiesel. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and palm oil. It is the world's second-leading source of protein meal after soybean.
Animal feed
Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. The feed is employed mostly for cattle feeding, but is also used for pigs and poultry. However, natural rapeseed oil contains 50% erucic acid and high levels of glucosinolates that significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed.
Vegetable oil
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to cardiac muscle of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed. Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid. Food-grade canola oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, also known as rapeseed 00 oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, LEAR oil, and rapeseed canola-equivalent oil, has been generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US and 2% in the EU, with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human infants.
Biodiesel
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.
Other
Rapeseed is also used as a cover crop in the US during the winter as it prevents soil erosion, produces large amounts of biomass, suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.
Rapeseed has a high melliferous potential and is a main forage crop for honeybees. Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly. The low fructose-to-glucose ratio in monofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in the honeycomb, forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped.
As a biolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes. Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although they are typically more expensive.
Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.
Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China.
Cultivation
Crops from the genus Brassica, including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by mankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.
Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.
In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as wheat and barley, and break crops such as peas and beans. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another. Winter rape is less susceptible to crop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests.
Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination.
Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a pH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity. It is predominantly a wind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when bee-pollinated, almost double the final yield but the effect is cultivar-dependent. It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates N2O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O.
Diseases and pests
The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are canker, light leaf spot, alternaria and sclerotinia stem rot. Canker causes leaf spotting, and premature ripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter period. A conazole or triazole fungicide treatment is required in late autumn and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control. Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, verticillium wilt and clubroot.
Pests
Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, nematodes, slugs as well as wood pigeons. The brassica pod midge, cabbage seed weevil, cabbage stem weevil, cabbage stem flea beetle, rape stem weevil and pollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe. The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of prophylactic insecticides in many countries. Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.
Genetics and breeding
In 2014 an SNP array was released for B. napus by Dalton-Morgan et al., and another by Clarke et al. in 2016, both of which have since become widely used in molecular breeding. In a demonstration of the importance of epigenetics, Hauben et al. 2009 found that isogenic lines did not have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences. Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) was applied to B. napus by Geng et al. in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and being used to construct a high-density linkage map.
History of the cultivars
In 1973, Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption. Seed, oil and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which is low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the Canola Council of Canada, as "canola". This is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."
Following the European Parliament's Transport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.
Bayer Cropscience, in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China, Keygene N.V., the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of B. napus and its constituent genomes present in B. rapa and B. oleracea in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B. napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project.
A genetically modified-for-glyphosate-tolerance variety of rapeseed which was developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort, adoption of which, however, has not been free of controversy.
GMO cultivars
The Monsanto company genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide, Roundup. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the Roundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, Roundup Ready volunteers were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.
In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of Roundup Ready in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops. In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAD $660.
Production
The Food and Agriculture Organization reports global production of 36 million tons of rapeseed in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated 58.4 million tons in the 2010–2011 season.
Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and USA to 6 million metric tons in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.
See also
Triangle of U
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General sources
External links
Asian vegetables
Brassica
Crops
Edible nuts and seeds
Energy crops
Fodder
Leaf vegetables
Medicinal plants
Plants described in 1753 | [
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219547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annulment | Annulment | Annulment is a legal procedure within secular and religious legal systems for declaring a marriage null and void. Unlike divorce, it is usually retroactive, meaning that an annulled marriage is considered to be invalid from the beginning almost as if it had never taken place (though some jurisdictions provide that the marriage is only void from the date of the annulment; for example, this is the case in section 12 of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 in England and Wales). In legal terminology, an annulment makes a void marriage or a voidable marriage null.
Void vs voidable marriage
A difference exists between a void marriage and a voidable marriage.
A void marriage is a marriage that was not legally valid under the laws of the jurisdiction where the marriage occurred, and is void ab initio. Although the marriage is void as a matter of law, in some jurisdictions an annulment is required to establish that the marriage is void or may be sought in order to obtain formal documentation that the marriage was voided. Under the laws of most nations, children born during a void marriage are considered legitimate. Depending upon the jurisdiction, reasons for why a marriage may be legally void may include consanguinity (incestual marriage), bigamy, group marriage, or child marriage.
A voidable marriage is a marriage that can be canceled at the option of one of the parties. The marriage is valid, but may be annulled if contested in court by one of the parties to the marriage. The petition to void the marriage must be brought by one of the parties to the marriage, and a voidable marriage thus cannot be annulled after the death of one of the parties. A marriage may be voidable for a variety of reasons, depending on jurisdiction. Common reasons for allowing a party to void a marriage include entry into the marriage as a result of threat or coercion. Some jurisdictions have a distinction between legal age of majority and legal age of marriage; in this case, it is usually the custom that the marriage can proceed with parental or guardian consent, and the marital parties being able to ratify or void the marriage upon reaching the age of majority. These are also considered voidable marriages.
The principal difference between a void and voidable marriage is that, as a void marriage is invalid from the beginning, no legal action is required to set the marriage aside. A marriage may be challenged as void by a third party, for example in probate proceedings during which a party to the void marriage is claiming inheritance rights as a spouse. In contrast, a voidable marriage may be ended only through the judgment of a court, and may be voided only upon the petition of one of the parties to the marriage or, if a party is under a legal disability, by a third party representative such as a parent or legal guardian.
The legal distinction between void and voidable marriages can be significant in relation to forced marriage. In a jurisdiction that classifies forced marriages as void, then the state can cancel the marriage even against the will of the spouses. In contrast, if the law provides that a forced marriage is voidable then, even if it can be proved that the marriage was forced, the state cannot act to end the marriage in the absence of an application by a spouse.
Christianity
Catholicism
In the canon law of the Catholic Church, an annulment is properly called a "Declaration of Nullity", because according to Catholic doctrine, the marriage of baptized persons is a sacrament and, once consummated and thereby confirmed, cannot be dissolved as long as the parties to it are alive. A "Declaration of Nullity" is not dissolution of a marriage, but merely the legal finding that a valid marriage was never contracted. This is analogous to a finding that a contract of sale is invalid, and hence, that the property for sale must be considered to have never been legally transferred into another's ownership. A divorce, on the other hand, is viewed as returning the property after a consummated sale.
The Pope may dispense from a marriage ratum sed non consummatum since, having been ratified (ratum) but not consummated (sed non-consummatum), it is not absolutely unbreakable. A valid natural marriage is not regarded as a sacrament if at least one of the parties is not baptized. In certain circumstances it can be dissolved in cases of Pauline privilege and Petrine privilege, but only for the sake of the higher good of the spiritual welfare of one of the parties.
Although an annulment is thus a declaration that "the marriage never existed", the Church recognizes that the relationship was a putative marriage, which gives rise to "natural obligations". In canon law, children conceived or born of either a valid or a putative marriage are considered legitimate, and illegitimate children are legitimized by a putative marriage of their parents, as by a valid marriage.
Certain conditions are necessary for the marriage contract to be valid in canon law. Lack of any of these conditions makes a marriage invalid and constitutes legal grounds for a declaration of nullity. Accordingly, apart from the question of diriment impediments dealt with below, there is a fourfold classification of contractual defects: defect of form, defect of contract, defect of willingness, defect of capacity. For annulment, proof is required of the existence of one of these defects, since canon law presumes all marriages are valid until proven otherwise.
Canon law stipulates canonical impediments to marriage. A diriment impediment prevents a marriage from being validly contracted at all and renders the union a putative marriage, while a prohibitory impediment renders a marriage valid but not licit. The union resulting is called a putative marriage. An invalid marriage may be subsequently convalidated, either by simple convalidation (renewal of consent that replaces invalid consent) or by sanatio in radice ("healing in the root", the retroactive dispensation from a diriment impediment). Some impediments may be dispensed from, while those de jure divino (of divine law) may not be dispensed.
In some countries, such as Italy, in which Catholic Church marriages are automatically transcribed to the civil records, a Church declaration of nullity may be granted the exequatur and treated as the equivalent of a civil divorce.
Anglicanism
The Church of England, the mother church of the worldwide Anglican Communion, historically had the right to grant annulments, while divorces were "only available through an Act of Parliament." Examples in which annulments were granted by the Anglican Church included being under age, having committed fraud, using force, and lunacy.
Methodism
Methodist Theology Today, edited by Clive Marsh, states that:
Islam
Faskh means "to annul" in Islam. It is a Sharia-granted procedure to judicially rescind a marriage.
A man does not need grounds to divorce his wife in Islam. To divorce, he can simply invoke Talaq and part with the dower he gave her before marriage; alternatively, he can invoke the Lian doctrine in case of adultery, either by bringing four witnesses who saw the wife committing adultery or by self-testifying and swearing by Allah four times. Sharia law then requires the court to grant the divorce requested by the man. Talaq is controversial, though it is a widely held belief, the Qu'ran insists counseling between two parties is necessary first before considering divorce when there is dissention/contention between spouses (Qu'ran 4:35). It is also important to note that the marriage contract clauses agreed upon must be honored when divorce is invoked.
Also, Sharia does grant a Muslim woman simple ways to end her marital relationship and without declaring the reason. Faskh or (kholo) (annulment) doctrine specifies certain situations when a Sharia court can grant her request and annul the marriage.
Grounds for Faskh are: (a) irregular marriage (fasid), (b) forbidden marriage (batil), (c) the marriage was contracted by non-Muslim husband who adopted Islam after marriage, (d) the husband or wife became an apostate after marriage, (e) husband is unable to consummate the marriage. In each of these cases, the wife must provide four independent witnesses acceptable to the Qadi (religious judge), who has the discretion to declare the evidence unacceptable.
In Sunni Maliki school of jurisprudence (fiqh), cruelty, disease, life-threatening ailment and desertion are additional Sharia approved grounds for the wife or the husband to seek annulment of the marriage. In these cases too, the wife must provide two male witnesses or one male and two female witnesses or in some cases four witnesses, acceptable to the Qadi (religious judge), who has the discretion to declare the evidence unacceptable.
In certain circumstances, an unrelated Muslim can petition a Qadi to void (faskh) the marriage of a Muslim couple who may not want the marriage to end. For example, in case the third party detects apostasy from Islam by either husband or wife (through blasphemy, failure to respect Sharia, or conversion of husband or wife or both from Islam to Christianity, etc.). In cases of apostasy, in addition to annulment of the marriage, the apostate may face additional penalties such as death sentence, imprisonment and civil penalties unless they repent and return to Islam.
United States
In the United States, the laws governing annulment are different in each state. Although the grounds for seeking an annulment differ, as can factors that may disqualify a person for an annulment, common grounds for annulment include the following:
Marriage between close relatives. States typically prohibit marriages between a parent and child, grandparent and grandchild, or between siblings, and many restrict marriages between first cousins.
Mental incapacity. A person who is not legally capable of consenting to marriage based upon mental illness or incapacity, including incapacity caused by intoxication, may later seek an annulment.
Underage marriage. If one or both spouses are below the legal age to marry, then the marriage is subject to being annulled.
Duress. A person who enters a marriage due to threats or force may later seek an annulment.
Fraud. A spouse is tricked into marrying the other spouse, through the misrepresentation or concealment of important facts about the other spouse, such as a criminal record, pregnancy by another man, or infection with a sexually transmitted disease.
Bigamy. One spouse was already married at the time of the marriage for which annulment is sought.
For some grounds of annulment, such as concealment of infertility, if after discovering the potential basis for an annulment a couple continues to live together as a married couple, that reason may be deemed forgiven. For underage marriages, annulment must typically be sought while the underage spouse remains a minor, or shortly after that spouse reaches the age of majority, or the issue is deemed waived.
Arizona
In Arizona, a "voidable" marriage is one in which there is "an undissolved prior marriage, one party being underage, a blood relationship, the absence of mental or physical capacity, intoxication, the absence of a valid license, duress, refusal of intercourse, fraud, and misrepresentation as to religion."
Illinois
In Illinois, an annulment is a judicial determination that a valid marriage never existed. One of the parties must file with the court a petition for invalidity of marriage. There are four grounds for annulment in Illinois:
Inability to consent to marriage, for example as a result of mental disability, intoxication, force, duress or fraud;
One spouse cannot have sexual intercourse, with that fact being unknown to the other spouse at the time of marriage;
One spouse was under the age of 18, and married without the consent of a parent, legal guardian, or court; and
The marriage was illegal, such as in the case of bigamy or certain close blood relationships.
Nevada
In Nevada, annulment is available when: a marriage that was void at the time performed (such as blood relatives, bigamy), lacked consent (such as, underage, intoxication, insanity), or is based on some kind of dishonesty.
A couple who was married in Nevada will qualify to file for annulment in that state, no matter where they live at the time of filing. Those who were married outside Nevada must establish residency by living there for a minimum of six weeks before filing.
New York
New York law provides for: Incestuous and void marriages (DRL §5); Void marriages (DRL §6)
Voidable marriages (DRL §7).
The cause of action for annulment of a voidable marriage in New York State is generally fraud (DRL §140 (e)). There are other arguments. Fraud generally means the intentional deception of the Plaintiff by the Defendant in order to induce the Plaintiff to marry. The misrepresentation must be substantial in nature, and the Plaintiff's consent to the marriage predicated on the Defendant's statement. The perpetration of the fraud (prior to the marriage), and the discovery of the fraud (subsequent to the marriage) must be proven by corroboration of a witness or other external proof, even if the Defendant admits guilt (DRL §144). The time limit is three years (not one year). This does not run from the date of the marriage, but the date the fraud was discovered, or could reasonably have been discovered.
Annulments may also be granted to a spouse under the age of 18, where marriage occurred without lawful parental consent or court approval, where a party lacked the mental capacity to consent to marriage, where one of the parties lacked the physical capacity to consummate the marriage and the other was not aware of that disability at the time of marriage, or for incurable mental illness for a period of five years or more.
A bigamous marriage (one where one party was still married at the time of the second marriage) as well as an incestuous marriage is void ab initio (not legal from its inception). However, there is still the need for an "Action to Declare the Nullity of a Void Marriage" (DRL §140 (a)), upon which the Court, after proper pleadings, renders a judgment that the marriage is void. There may be effects of marriage such as a property settlement and even maintenance if the court finds it equitable to order such relief.
Wisconsin
In Wisconsin, the possible requirements for annulment include: bigamy, incest, or inducing the bride to be married under duress (see Shotgun marriage). Marriages may also be nullified due to one or more of the parties being: underage, intoxicated, or being mentally unsound.
Marriages may also be nullified due to fraud from one or more of three categories: defendant, marriage witness(es), or marriage officiant. Any misrepresentation by those three parties, including but not limited to lying about: status as officiant, ability to perform the ceremony, age of the participants or witnesses, felony status or current marriage status of either member of the married couple can be grounds for an annulment on the basis of fraud. Fraud in this cases is prosecuted under Wisconsin Law 943.39 as a Class H felony.
England and Wales
England and Wales provides for both void and voidable marriages.
Void marriage: spouses are closely related; one of the spouses was under 16; one of the spouses was already married or in a civil partnership
Voidable marriage: non-consummation; no proper consent to entering the marriage (forced marriage); the other spouse had a sexually transmitted disease at the time of marriage; the woman was pregnant by another man at the time of marriage
Section 13 of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 provides for certain restrictions in regard to the possibility of annulling voidable marriages, including where the petitioner knew of the "defect" and of the possibility of annulment, but induced the respondent to believe that s/he would not seek an annulment; or where it would be "unjust" to the respondent to grant the decree of nullity. There is usually a time limit of three years from the date of the marriage in order to institute the proceedings.
Australia
Since 1975, Australian law provides only for void marriages. Before 1975, there were both void and voidable marriages. Today, under the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth.) a decree of nullity can only be made if a marriage is void.
A marriage is void if:
one or both of the parties were already married at the time (i.e. bigamy)
the parties are in a prohibited relationship (i.e. closely related such as siblings)
the parties did not comply with the marriage laws in the jurisdiction where they were married (note that although a marriage contracted abroad is in general considered valid in Australia, in certain cases, such as when there are serious contradictions with the marriage laws of Australia, the marriage is void)
one or both of the parties were under-age and did not have the necessary approvals, (minimum marriageable age is 16, but 16 and 17 years-olds need special court approval) or
one or both of the parties were forced into the marriage.
France
In France, a country of Roman Catholic tradition, annulment features prominently in law, and can be obtained for many reasons. The law provides for both void and voidable marriages. (see articles 180 to 202, and articles 144, 145, 146, 146–1, 147, 148, 161, 162, 163, and 164 of the French Civil Code)
void marriage: forced marriage (not to be confused with consent obtained under deception which makes a marriage voidable not void); underage marriage; bigamy; incestuous marriage; lack of legal competence of the registrar; and clandestine marriage (i.e. hiding the marriage from the public, no witnesses present)
voidable marriage: vices of consent, i.e. consent obtained under deception/by misrepresentation of one's personal characteristics, personal past, intentions after marriage, etc., where the deceived spouse discovers after the marriage the deceit (given a very broad interpretation by the courts); and failure to secure the authorization of the person who should have authorized the marriage (i.e. lack of authorization of guardians of a mentally challenged spouse)
Multiple annulments for Henry VIII
Henry VIII of England had three of his six marriages annulled. These marriages were to Catherine of Aragon (on the grounds that she had already been married to his brother—although this annulment is not recognized by the Catholic Church); Anne Boleyn (on the grounds that she had allegedly seduced him with witchcraft and was unfaithful—not wishing to execute his legal wife, he offered her an easy death if she would agree to an annulment); and Anne of Cleves (on the grounds of non-consummation of the marriage and the fact that she had previously been engaged to someone else). Catherine Howard never had her marriage annulled. She had committed adultery with Thomas Culpeper during the marriage, and she had flirted with members of his court. Because of this, on November 22, 1541, it was proclaimed at Hampton Court that she had "forfeited the honour and title of Queen," and was from then on to be known only as the Lady Catherine Howard. Under this title she was executed for high treason three months later.
Controversies
The grounds of annulment in regard to a voidable marriage, and indeed the concept of a voidable marriage itself, have become controversial in recent years. According to a paper in Singapore Academy of Law Journal:
"Where divorce is available to all, it seems somewhat inconsistent to favour some groups of unhappily married people by giving them the privilege of choosing whether to put an end to their misery by way of annulment or by way of divorce. It is also worthy of note that some judges, like Coomaraswamy J. in Chua Ai Hwa (mw), have noted that some of the grounds making a marriage voidable have tended to be abused by parties who hope the court will grant the petition on fairly skimpy evidence simply because the petition is not defended."
See also
Alimony
Catholic marriage theology
Nullity (conflict) for a discussion of the rules relating to the annulment of marriage (conflict) in the Conflict of Laws
Separation
References
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia "Canonical Impediments"
Catholic Encyclopedia "Validation of Marriage"
New York State Domestic Relations Law, Article 9
Catholic matrimonial canon law | [
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219550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Gymnastics at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics of St. Louis, Missouri, eleven gymnastics events were contested for the first time.
The 1904 Games had a program of events spread out over several months, and the gymnastics competition was no different. The International Olympic Committee considers two sets of events as "Olympic":
International Turners' Championship held July 1–2, comprising the all-around, triathlon, and team events
Olympic Gymnastics Championships held October 29, comprising the seven individual apparatus events and the combined event.
The individual all-around was a combination of the gymnastic triathlon competition and the athletics triathlon. The team competition was a combination of individual scores from the individual all-around.
The parallel bars, horizontal bar, vault, and pommel horse scores for each gymnast were summed to get the combined score.
Medal summary
Participating nations
119 gymnasts from 4 nations competed.
Medal table
References
Citations
Sources
1904
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904 in gymnastics | [
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219558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20segment | Network segment | A network segment is a portion of a computer network. The nature and extent of a segment depends on the nature of the network and the device or devices used to interconnect end stations.
Ethernet
According to the defining IEEE 802.3 standards for Ethernet, a network segment is an electrical connection between networked devices using a shared medium. In the original 10BASE5 and 10BASE2 Ethernet varieties, a segment would therefore correspond to a single coax cable and all devices tapped into it. At this point in the evolution of Ethernet, multiple network segments could be connected with repeaters (in accordance with the 5-4-3 rule for 10 Mbit Ethernet) to form a larger collision domain.
With twisted-pair Ethernet, electrical segments can be joined together using repeaters or repeater hubs as can other varieties of Ethernet. This corresponds to the extent of an OSI layer 1 network and is equivalent to the collision domain. The 5-4-3 rule applies to this collision domain.
Using switches or bridges, multiple layer-1 segments can be combined to a common layer-2 segment, i.e. all nodes can communicate with each other through MAC addressing or broadcasts. A layer-2 segment is equivalent to a broadcast domain. Traffic within a layer-2 segment can be separated into virtually distinct partitions by using virtual LANs (VLANs). Each VLAN forms its own logical layer-2 segment.
IP
A layer-3 segment in an IP network is called a subnetwork, formed by all nodes sharing the same network prefix as defined by their IP addresses and the network mask. Communication between layer-3 subnets requires a router. Hosts on a subnet communicate directly using the layer-2 segment that connects them. Most often a subnetwork corresponds exactly with the underlying layer-2 segment but it is also possible to run multiple subnets on a single layer-2 segment.
References
Ethernet
Network architecture | [
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219560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrosse%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Lacrosse at the 1904 Summer Olympics | The sport of field lacrosse was played at the 1904 Summer Olympics, which marked the first time that lacrosse had been featured at the Olympic Games. Three teams participated — two from Canada and one from the United States. One of the Canadian teams consisted entirely of Mohawk nation players. The victorious Shamrock Lacrosse Team is more commonly known as the Winnipeg Shamrocks.
A second American team, the Brooklyn Crescents, was originally slated to round out the field but did not participate. They were scheduled to play a semi-final against the Shamrocks, but arrived too late and were disqualified.
Medal table
Medal summary
Results
Rosters
Shamrock Lacrosse Team
Élie Blanchard
William Brennaugh
George Bretz
William Burns
George Cattanach
George Cloutier
Sandy Cowan
Jack Flett
Benjamin Jamieson
Hilliard Laidlaw
Hilliard Lyle
William F. L. Orris
Lawrence Pentland
Sources:
St. Louis Amateur Athletic Association
J. W. Dowling
W. R. Gibson
Hugh Grogan
Philip Hess
Tom Hunter
Albert Lehman
William Murphy
William Partridge
George Passmore
William T. Passmore
W. J. Ross
Jack Sullivan
Albert Venn
A. M. Woods
Source:
Mohawk Indians
Black Hawk
Black Eagle
Almighty Voice
Flat Iron
Spotted Tail
Half Moon
Lightfoot
Snake Eater
Red Jacket
Night Hawk
Man Afraid Soap
Rain in Face
“Man Afraid of Soap” was also known as Freeman Joseph Isaacs, the father of Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame inductee, Bill Isaacs. The English names of those players were Joe Crawford, Philip Jackson, Eli Warner, Amos Obediah, Thomas Will. Berman L. Snow, L. Bumbary, J. B. Eaver, Eli Martin, Sandy Turkey, Austin Bill, W. E. Martin, Jacob Jamieson, Eli Henry, Joe Clark, Frank Seneca, Charlie Johnon and Robert Lottridge.
See also
World Lacrosse
World Lacrosse Championship
References
External links
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904s
1904
1904 in lacrosse
Men's events at the 1904 Summer Olympics | [
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219561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20habit | Crystal habit | In mineralogy, crystal habit is the characteristic external shape of an individual crystal or crystal group. A single crystal's habit is a description of its general shape and its crystallographic forms, plus how well developed each form is.
Recognizing the habit may help in identifying a mineral. When the faces are well-developed due to uncrowded growth a crystal is called euhedral, one with partially developed faces is subhedral, and one with undeveloped crystal faces is called anhedral. The long axis of a euhedral quartz crystal typically has a six-sided prismatic habit with parallel opposite faces. Aggregates can be formed of individual crystals with euhedral to anhedral grains. The arrangement of crystals within the aggregate can be characteristic of certain minerals. For example, minerals used for asbestos insulation often grow in a fibrous habit, a mass of very fine fibers.
The terms used by mineralogists to report crystal habits describe the typical appearance of an ideal mineral. Recognizing the habit can aid in identification as some habits are characteristic. Most minerals, however, do not display ideal habits due to conditions during crystallization. Euhedral crystals formed in uncrowded conditions with no adjacent crystal grains are not common; more often faces are poorly formed or unformed against adjacent grains and the mineral's habit may not be easily recognized.
Factors influencing habit include: a combination of two or more crystal forms; trace impurities present during growth; crystal twinning and growth conditions (i.e., heat, pressure, space); and specific growth tendencies such as growth striations. Minerals belonging to the same crystal system do not necessarily exhibit the same habit. Some habits of a mineral are unique to its variety and locality: For example, while most sapphires form elongate barrel-shaped crystals, those found in Montana form stout tabular crystals. Ordinarily, the latter habit is seen only in ruby. Sapphire and ruby are both varieties of the same mineral: corundum.
Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit: this process is called pseudomorphous replacement. A classic example is tiger's eye quartz, crocidolite asbestos replaced by silica. While quartz typically forms prismatic (elongate, prism-like) crystals, in tiger's eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved.
The names of crystal habits are derived from:
Predominant crystal faces (prism – prismatic, pyramid – pyramidal, and pinacoid – platy)
Crystal forms (cubic, octahedral, dodecahedral)
Aggregation of crystals or aggregates (fibrous, botryoidal, radiating, massive)
Crystal appearance (foliated/lamellar (layered), dendritic, bladed, acicular, lenticular, tabular (tablet shaped))
List of crystal habits
See also
Abnormal grain growth
Grain growth
References
Crystallography
Mineralogy concepts
Mineral habits | [
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219569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Rowing at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics, five rowing events were contested. All competitions were held on Saturday, July 30.
It was the second appearance of the sport in Olympic competition. Coxless forms of the pairs and fours were introduced, replacing the coxed pairs and fours that had been used four years earlier. Sculling was expanded, with double sculls as well as singles.
Medal summary
Participating nations
A total of 44 rowers from two nations competed at the St. Louis Games:
Medal table
Only one of the 44 rowers who competed, Divie Duffield, did not win a medal. Duffield finished fourth in the single sculls event.
References
External links
1904 Summer Olympics events
1904
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219570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Tits | Jacques Tits | Jacques Tits () (12 August 1930 – 5 December 2021) was a Belgian-born French mathematician who worked on group theory and incidence geometry. He introduced Tits buildings, the Tits alternative, the Tits group, and the Tits metric.
Life and career
Tits was born in Uccle to Léon Tits, a professor, and Lousia André. Jacques attended the Athénée of Uccle and the Free University of Brussels. His thesis advisor was Paul Libois, and Tits graduated with his doctorate in 1950 with the dissertation Généralisation des groupes projectifs basés sur la notion de transitivité. His academic career includes professorships at the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) (1962–1964), the University of Bonn (1964–1974) and the Collège de France in Paris, until becoming emeritus in 2000. He changed his citizenship to French in 1974 in order to teach at the Collège de France, which at that point required French citizenship. Because Belgian nationality law did not allow dual nationality at the time, he renounced his Belgian citizenship. He has been a member of the French Academy of Sciences since 1979.
Tits was an "honorary" member of the Nicolas Bourbaki group; as such, he helped popularize H.S.M. Coxeter's work, introducing terms such as Coxeter number, Coxeter group, and Coxeter graph.
Honors
Tits received the Wolf Prize in Mathematics in 1993, the Cantor Medal from the Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung (German Mathematical Society) in 1996, and the German distinction "Pour le Mérite". In 2008 he was awarded the Abel Prize, along with John Griggs Thompson, "for their profound achievements in algebra and in particular for shaping modern group theory". He was a member of several Academies of Sciences.
He was a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1988.
Death
Tits died on 5 December 2021, at the age of 91.
Contributions
He introduced the theory of buildings (sometimes known as Tits buildings), which are combinatorial structures on which groups act, particularly in algebraic group theory (including finite groups, and groups defined over the p-adic numbers). The related theory of (B, N) pairs is a basic tool in the theory of groups of Lie type. Of particular importance is his classification of all irreducible buildings of spherical type and rank at least three, which involved classifying all polar spaces of rank at least three. The existence of these buildings initially depended on the existence of a group of Lie type in each case, but in joint work with Mark Ronan he constructed those of rank at least four independently, yielding the groups directly. In the rank-2 case spherical building are generalized n-gons, and in joint work with Richard Weiss he classified these when they admit a suitable group of symmetries (the so-called Moufang polygons). In collaboration with François Bruhat he developed the theory of affine buildings, and later he classified all irreducible buildings of affine type and rank at least four.
Another of his well-known theorems is the "Tits alternative": if G is a finitely generated subgroup of a linear group, then either G has a solvable subgroup of finite index or it has a free subgroup of rank 2.
The Tits group and the Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction are named after him. He introduced the Kneser–Tits conjecture.
Publications
J. Tits, Oeuvres - Collected Works, 4 vol., Europ. Math. Soc., 2013. J. Tits, Résumés des cours au Collège de France, S.M.F., Doc.Math. 12, 2013.
References
External links
Biography at the Abel Prize site (pdf)
List of publications at the Université libre de Bruxelles
1930 births
2021 deaths
People from Uccle
20th-century French mathematicians
21st-century French mathematicians
Abel Prize laureates
Belgian expatriates in France
Belgian mathematicians
Collège de France faculty
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) alumni
Group theorists
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Nicolas Bourbaki
Officers of the National Order of Merit (France)
University of Bonn faculty
Wolf Prize in Mathematics laureates
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) faculty | [
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219572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roque%20at%20the%201904%20Summer%20Olympics | Roque at the 1904 Summer Olympics | At the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, a roque tournament was contested. It was the only time that roque was included in the Olympic program.
Participating nations
All four players who competed in the event were from the United States.
Results
The competitors played a double round-robin tournament, with each player facing every other player twice.
Source: Sports Reference.
Medal table
See also
Croquet at the 1900 Summer Olympics
List of Olympic venues in discontinued events
References
Sources
International Olympic Committee results database
Roque at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Games at Sports-reference.com
1904 Summer Olympics events
Croquet at the Summer Olympics
Discontinued sports at the Summer Olympics
Roque
1904 in croquet
Croquet in the United States
Men's events at the 1904 Summer Olympics | [
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