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219885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ned%20Overend | Ned Overend | Edmund ("Ned") Overend (born 20 August 1955) is an American former professional cross-country mountain bike racer. He is a six-time NORBA cross-country mountain bike national champion who became the first-ever cross-country world champion by winning the inaugural UCI Mountain Bike World Championship in 1990. Overend was inducted into the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame in 1990 and into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame in 2001.
Cycling career
The son of a U.S. diplomat, Overend was born in Taipei, Taiwan and raised in Ethiopia and Iran. He attended high school in San Diego, California and was involved in motocross racing. Overend moved to Durango, Colorado in the early 1980s where he first became involved in cycling by entering Durango’s Iron Horse Classic, a 47-mile road race with 6,700 feet of climbing along a narrow gauge railroad. From road racing, he eventually moved on to mountain bike racing, where his previous motocross experience combined with his physical fitness from road racing made him an exceptional competitor.
Overend was hired to race for the Schwinn factory racing team in 1984 and won two consecutive NORBA Mountain Biking National Championships for the team in 1986 and 1987. He then signed a contract to race for Specialized Bicycles and went on to win the NORBA Mountain Biking National Championship in 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992. At the age of 40, Overend made an attempt to qualify for the United States Olympic team to compete in the inaugural Olympic Cross-Country Mountain Biking competition in the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. He needed to finish the qualifier race in fourth place to qualify for the Olympic team alongside Tinker Juarez but, one and a half miles from the finish line, he suffered a flat tire and finished in eighth place.
Even though he retired from professional mountain bike competition in 1996, he continued competing in endurance competitions, winning the XTERRA Triathlon in 1998 and 1999 and competing in regular road triathlons. He won the U.S. National Winter Triathlon Championship in 2000 and the UCI Masters Cyclo-cross World Championship in 2012. In 2015, Overend won the first-ever U.S. Fat Bike championship. During his professional mountain biking career, Overend earned the nicknames "Deadly Nedly" and "The Lung", because he was very difficult to beat and for his exceptional aerobic endurance at altitude (especially so for a man of his age), respectively. He is the current captain of the Specialized Cross Country Team.
Overend appeared in "the world's first mountain biking video, aptly named, The Great Mountain Biking Video released in 1988 by New & Unique Videos of San Diego, California. Overend also appears in competition sequences of "The Sun Valley Mountain Bike Challenge," a video chronicle of that year's NORBA Championships also released in 1988. He also appeared in a mountain-bike race video entitled "Battle At Durango: The First-Ever World Mountain Biking Championships" videotaped in Durango, Colorado in 1990, and released by New & Unique Videos in 1991.
Major achievements
Incomplete list
UCI World Mountain Biking Champion (Gold, 1990; Bronze 1991)
NORBA National Mountain Biking Champion (1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992)
NORBA National Point Series Champion (1987)
XTERRA World Champion (1998, 1999, 2nd 1997)
National Winter Triathlon Champion (2000)
National XTERRA Series Champion (2001, 2002)
UCI Masters Cyclocross World Champion [Men 55-59] (2012)
Colorado Road Champion (2004)
Road Apple Rally Champion (2004, 2009)
Bob Cook Memorial Mount Evans Hill Climb (1st, 1985–1986; 2nd, 2006; 4th, 2005; 5th, 2008; 2nd, 2010)
Mount Washington Auto Road Bicycle Hillclimb (1st 2011; 2nd, 2006, 2009)
Teva Mountain Games Hillclimb (1st, 2007)
USA National Fat Bike Champion 2015
References
External links
Ned Overend at the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame
Ned Overend at the U.S Bicycling Hall of Fame
Cyclenews.com interview, August 18, 2005
Bikeradar.com interview with Gary Boulanger, August 23, 2008
1955 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Taipei
People from Durango, Colorado
American male cyclists
Cross-country mountain bikers
UCI Mountain Bike World Champions (men)
San Diego State University alumni
American mountain bikers
Cyclists from Colorado | [
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219897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary%20Brown%20%28spiritualist%29 | Rosemary Brown (spiritualist) | Rosemary Isabel Brown (27 July 191616 November 2001) was an English composer, pianist and spirit medium who claimed that dead composers dictated new musical works to her. She created a small media sensation in the 1970s by presenting works purportedly dictated to her by Claude Debussy, Edvard Grieg, Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, Frédéric Chopin, Igor Stravinsky, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms, Ludwig van Beethoven, Robert Schumann and Sergei Rachmaninoff.
Life
Rosemary Isabel Dickeson was born in London in 1916. She claimed to have been only seven years old when she was first introduced to the world of dead musicians. She reported that a spirit with long white hair and a flowing black cassock appeared and told her he was a composer and would make her a famous musician one day. She did not know who he was until, about ten years later, she saw a picture of Franz Liszt. Many other members of Brown's family were allegedly psychic, including her parents and grandparents.
She worked for the Post Office from the age of 15. In 1948 she acquired a second-hand upright piano, and took some lessons for three years. In 1952 she married Charles Brown, a government scientist. They had a son and a daughter before her husband died in 1961.
Then in 1964 Liszt supposedly renewed contact and Brown began transcribing original compositions she said were dictated to her by great musicians of the past. Brown transcribed pieces from Johannes Brahms, Johann Sebastian Bach, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Franz Schubert, Edvard Grieg, Claude Debussy, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Liszt. These included a 40-page sonata she attributed to Schubert, a Fantaisie-Impromptu in three movements she attributed to Chopin, 12 songs she attributed to Schubert, and two sonatas and two symphonies she attributed to Beethoven.
Brown claimed that each composer had his own way of dictating to her: Liszt controlled her hands for a few bars at a time, and then she wrote down the notes; Chopin told her the notes and pushed her hands on to the right keys; Schubert tried to sing his compositions; and Beethoven and Bach simply dictated the notes. She claimed the composers spoke to her in English.
Critical reception
Brown's claims about spirit communication were disputed by sceptics.
After studying her compositions, musicologists and psychologists came to the conclusion they were the work of Brown's own subconscious. Leonard Zusne and Warren H. Jones in their book Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking (1989) noted that "Brown wrote hundreds of pieces of music dictated by the various composers. They were passable works, entirely in the style of these composers, but appeared to be simply reworkings of existing pieces."
Professor of psychology John Sloboda wrote that Brown's music offers "the most convincing case of unconscious composition on a large scale."
Psychologist Robert Kastenbaum analysed Brown's music compositions and came to doubt that they were dictated to Brown by spirits of well known composers. According to Kastenbaum:
Kastenbaum suggested the composers were secondary personalities of Brown herself.
Brown maintained that she had never had any musical training aside from a few piano lessons, though paranormal investigator Harry Edwards says:
According to the psychologist Andrew Neher:
Musicologist Denis Matthews described her music as "charming pastiches" and suggested she was re-creating compositions. Similarly Alan Rich, music critic of New York magazine, having heard a privately issued record of Brown's piano pieces, concluded that they were just sub-standard re-workings of some of their purported composers' better-known compositions.
Concert pianists Peter Katin, Philip Gammon, Howard Shelley, Cristina Ortiz and John Lill have all performed her music.
Brown was the subject of a BBC Radio 4 drama, The Lambeth Waltz by Daniel Thurman, first broadcast in 2017.
Publications
Rosemary Brown published three books:
Unfinished Symphonies: Voices from the Beyond William Morrow, 1971;
Immortals at My Elbow Bachman & Turner, 1974;
Look Beyond Today Bantam Press, 1986;
''Sheet music available at Keturi Musikverlag (Germany)
References
1916 births
2001 deaths
20th-century classical composers
English classical composers
British women classical composers
English spiritual mediums
20th-century English composers
20th-century English women musicians
20th-century women composers | [
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219906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracranial%20aneurysm | Intracranial aneurysm | An intracranial aneurysm, also known as a brain aneurysm, is a cerebrovascular disorder in which weakness in the wall of a cerebral artery or vein causes a localized dilation or ballooning of the blood vessel.
Aneurysms in the posterior circulation (basilar artery, vertebral arteries and posterior communicating artery) have a higher risk of rupture. Basilar artery aneurysms represent only 3–5% of all intracranial aneurysms but are the most common aneurysms in the posterior circulation.
Classification
Cerebral aneurysms are classified both by size and shape. Small aneurysms have a diameter of less than 15 mm. Larger aneurysms include those classified as large (15 to 25 mm), giant (25 to 50 mm), and super-giant (over 50 mm).
Berry (saccular) aneurysms
Saccular aneurysms, also known as berry aneurysms, appear as a round outpouching and are the most common form of cerebral aneurysm. Causes include connective tissue disorders, polycystic kidney disease, arteriovenous malformations, untreated hypertension, tobacco smoking, cocaine, and amphetamines, intravenous drug abuse (can cause infectious mycotic aneurysms), alcoholism, heavy caffeine intake, head trauma, and infection in the arterial wall from bacteremia (mycotic aneurysms).
Fusiform aneurysms
Fusiform dolichoectatic aneurysms represent a widening of a segment of an artery around the entire blood vessel, rather than just arising from a side of an artery's wall. They have an estimated annual risk of rupture between 1.6–1.9 percent.
Microaneurysms
Microaneurysms, also known as Charcot–Bouchard aneurysms, typically occur in small blood vessels (less than 300 micrometre diameter), most often the lenticulostriate vessels of the basal ganglia, and are associated with chronic hypertension. Charcot–Bouchard aneurysms are a common cause of intracranial hemorrhage.
Signs and symptoms
A small, unchanging aneurysm will produce few, if any, symptoms. Before a larger aneurysm ruptures, the individual may experience such symptoms as a sudden and unusually severe headache, nausea, vision impairment, vomiting, and loss of consciousness, or no symptoms at all.
Subarachnoid bleed
If an aneurysm ruptures, blood leaks into the space around the brain. This is called a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Onset is usually sudden without prodrome, classically presenting as a "thunderclap headache" worse than previous headaches. Symptoms of a subarachnoid hemorrhage differ depending on the site and size of the aneurysm. Symptoms of a ruptured aneurysm can include:
a sudden severe headache that can last from several hours to days
nausea and vomiting
drowsiness, confusion and/or loss of consciousness
visual abnormalities
meningism
dizziness
Almost all aneurysms rupture at their apex. This leads to hemorrhage in the subarachnoid space and sometimes in brain parenchyma. Minor leakage from aneurysm may precede rupture, causing warning headaches. About 60% of patients die immediately after rupture. Larger aneurysms have a greater tendency to rupture, though most ruptured aneurysms are less than 10 mm in diameter.
Microaneurysms
A ruptured microaneurysm may cause an intracerebral hemorrhage, presenting as a focal neurological deficit.
Rebleeding, hydrocephalus (the excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid), vasospasm (spasm, or narrowing, of the blood vessels), or multiple aneurysms may also occur. The risk of rupture from a cerebral aneurysm varies according to the size of an aneurysm, with the risk rising as the aneurysm size increases.
Vasospasm
Vasospasm, referring to blood vessel constriction, can occur secondary to subarachnoid hemorrhage following a ruptured aneurysm. This is most likely to occur within 21 days and is seen radiologically within 60% of such patients. The vasospasm is thought to be secondary to the apoptosis of inflammatory cells such as macrophages and neutrophils that become trapped in the subarachnoid space. These cells initially invade the subarachnoid space from the circulation in order to phagocytose the hemorrhaged red blood cells. Following apoptosis, it is thought there is a massive degranulation of vasoconstrictors, including endothelins and free radicals, that cause the vasospasm.
Risk factors
Intracranial aneurysms may result from diseases acquired during life, or from genetic conditions. Hypertension, smoking, alcoholism, and obesity are associated with the development of brain aneurysms. Cocaine use has also been associated with the development of intracranial aneurysms.
Other acquired associations with intracranial aneurysms include head trauma and infections.
Genetic associations
Coarctation of the aorta is also a known risk factor, as is arteriovenous malformation. Genetic conditions associated with connective tissue disease may also be associated with the development of aneurysms. This includes:
autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease,
neurofibromatosis type I,
Marfan syndrome,
multiple endocrine neoplasia type I,
pseudoxanthoma elasticum,
hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome types II and IV.
Specific genes have also had reported association with the development of intracranial aneurysms, including perlecan, elastin, collagen type 1 A2, endothelial nitric oxide synthase, endothelin receptor A and cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor. Recently, several genetic loci have been identified as relevant to the development of intracranial aneurysms. These include 1p34–36, 2p14–15, 7q11, 11q25, and 19q13.1–13.3.
Pathophysiology
Aneurysm means an outpouching of a blood vessel wall that is filled with blood. Aneurysms occur at a point of weakness in the vessel wall. This can be because of acquired disease or hereditary factors. The repeated trauma of blood flow against the vessel wall presses against the point of weakness and causes the aneurysm to enlarge. As described by the law of Young-Laplace, the increasing area increases tension against the aneurysmal walls, leading to enlargement. In addition, a combination of computational fluid dynamics and morphological indices have been proposed as reliable predictors of cerebral aneurysm rupture.
Both high and low wall shear stress of flowing blood can cause aneurysm and rupture. However, the mechanism of action is still unknown. It is speculated that low shear stress causes growth and rupture of large aneurysms through inflammatory response while high shear stress causes growth and rupture of small aneurysm through mural response (response from the blood vessel wall). Other risk factors that contributes to the formation of aneurysm are: cigarette smoking, hypertension, female gender, family history of cerebral aneurysm, infection, and trauma. Damage to structural integrity of the arterial wall by shear stress causes an inflammatory response with the recruitment of T cells, macrophages, and mast cells. The inflammatory mediators are: interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), MMP1, MMP2, MMP9, prostaglandin E2, complement system, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and angiotensin II. However, smooth muscle cells from the tunica media layer of the artery moved into the tunica intima, where the function of the smooth muscle cells changed from contractile function into pro-inflammatory function. This causes the fibrosis of the arterial wall, with reduction of number of smooth muscle cells, abnormal collagen synthesis, resulting in a thinning of the arterial wall and the formation of aneurysm and rupture. No specific gene loci has been identified to be associated with cerebral aneurysms.
Generally, aneurysms larger than 7 mm in diameter should be treated because they are prone for rupture. Meanwhile, aneurysms less than 7 mm arise from the anterior and posterior communicating artery and are more easily ruptured when compared to aneurysms arising from other locations.
Saccular aneurysms
Saccular aneurysms are almost always the result of hereditary weaknesses in blood vessels and typically occur within the arteries of the circle of Willis, in order of frequency affecting the following arteries:
Anterior communicating artery
Posterior communicating artery
Middle cerebral artery
Internal carotid artery
Tip of basilar artery
Saccular aneurysms tend to have a lack of tunica media and elastic lamina around their dilated locations (congenital), with a wall of sac made up of thickened hyalinized intima and adventitia. In addition, some parts of the brain vasculature are inherently weak—particularly areas along the circle of Willis, where small communicating vessels link the main cerebral vessels. These areas are particularly susceptible to saccular aneurysms. Approximately 25% of patients have multiple aneurysms, predominantly when there is a familial pattern.
Diagnosis
Once suspected, intracranial aneurysms can be diagnosed radiologically using magnetic resonance or CT angiography. But these methods have limited sensitivity for diagnosis of small aneurysms, and often cannot be used to specifically distinguish them from infundibular dilations without performing a formal angiogram. The determination of whether an aneurysm is ruptured is critical to diagnosis. Lumbar puncture (LP) is the gold standard technique for determining aneurysm rupture (subarachnoid hemorrhage). Once an LP is performed, the CSF is evaluated for RBC count, and presence or absence of xanthochromia.
Treatment
Emergency treatment for individuals with a ruptured cerebral aneurysm generally includes restoring deteriorating respiration and reducing intracranial pressure. Currently there are two treatment options for securing intracranial aneurysms: surgical clipping or endovascular coiling. If possible, either surgical clipping or endovascular coiling is typically performed within the first 24 hours after bleeding to occlude the ruptured aneurysm and reduce the risk of recurrent hemorrhage.
While a large meta-analysis found the outcomes and risks of surgical clipping and endovascular coiling to be statistically similar, no consensus has been reached. In particular, the large randomised control trial International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial appears to indicate a higher rate of recurrence when intracerebral aneurysms are treated using endovascular coiling. Analysis of data from this trial has indicated a 7% lower eight-year mortality rate with coiling, a high rate of aneurysm recurrence in aneurysms treated with coiling—from 28.6–33.6% within a year, a 6.9 times greater rate of late retreatment for coiled aneurysms, and a rate of rebleeding 8 times higher than surgically-clipped aneurysms.
Surgical clipping
Aneurysms can be treated by clipping the base of the aneurysm with a specially-designed clip. Whilst this is typically carried out by craniotomy, a new endoscopic endonasal approach is being trialled. Surgical clipping was introduced by Walter Dandy of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1937.
After clipping, a catheter angiogram or CTA can be performed to confirm complete clipping.
Endovascular coiling
Endovascular coiling refers to the insertion of platinum coils into the aneurysm. A catheter is inserted into a blood vessel, typically the femoral artery, and passed through blood vessels into the cerebral circulation and the aneurysm. Coils are pushed into the aneurysm, or released into the blood stream ahead of the aneurysm. Upon depositing within the aneurysm, the coils expand and initiate a thrombotic reaction within the aneurysm. If successful, this prevents further bleeding from the aneurysm. In the case of broad-based aneurysms, a stent may be passed first into the parent artery to serve as a scaffold for the coils.
Cerebral bypass surgery
Cerebral bypass surgery was developed in the 1960s in Switzerland by Gazi Yasargil. When a patient has an aneurysm involving a blood vessel or a tumor at the base of the skull wrapping around a blood vessel, surgeons eliminate the problem vessel by replacing it with an artery from another part of the body.
Prognosis
Outcomes depend on the size of the aneurysm. Small aneurysms (less than 7 mm) have a low risk of rupture and increase in size slowly. The risk of rupture is less than one percent for aneurysms of this size.
The prognosis for a ruptured cerebral aneurysm depends on the extent and location of the aneurysm, the person's age, general health, and neurological condition. Some individuals with a ruptured cerebral aneurysm die from the initial bleeding. Other individuals with cerebral aneurysm recover with little or no neurological deficit. The most significant factors in determining outcome are the Hunt and Hess grade, and age. Generally patients with Hunt and Hess grade I and II hemorrhage on admission to the emergency room and patients who are younger within the typical age range of vulnerability can anticipate a good outcome, without death or permanent disability. Older patients and those with poorer Hunt and Hess grades on admission have a poor prognosis. Generally, about two-thirds of patients have a poor outcome, death, or permanent disability.
Increased availability and greater access to medical imaging has caused a rising number of asymptomatic, unruptured cerebral aneurysms to be discovered incidentally during medical imaging investigations. This may lead to surgery including endovascular, or simple monitoring. Recently, an increasing number of aneurysm features have been evaluated in their ability to predict aneurysm rupture status, including aneurysm height, aspect ratio, height-to-width ratio, inflow angle, deviations from ideal spherical or elliptical forms, and radiomics morphological features.
Epidemiology
The prevalence of intracranial aneurysm is about 1–5% (10 million to 12 million persons in the United States) and the incidence is 1 per 10,000 persons per year in the United States (approximately 27,000), with 30- to 60-year-olds being the age group most affected. Intracranial aneurysms occur more in women, by a ratio of 3 to 2, and are rarely seen in pediatric populations.
See also
Interventional neuroradiology
Intradural pseudoaneurysm
References
External links
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
Cerebrovascular diseases
Neurosurgery | [
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219917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave | Mojave | Mojave or Mohave most often refers to:
Mojave Desert
Mojave River
Mohave people
Mojave or Mohave may also refer to:
Places
Fort Mojave Indian Reservation
Mohave County, Arizona
Mohave Valley, a valley in Arizona
Mohave Valley, Arizona, a town
Fort Mohave, Arizona, a town
Fort Mohave, a historic fort in Arizona
Mojave, California
Mojave County, California, a county proposed in the 1990s
Mojave National Preserve
Lake Mojave
Mojave (crater) a large crater on Mars
Music
Mojave (band), a Canadian acoustic and folk band
Mojave (album), an album by Concrete Blonde
"Mojave", a song by the Afro Celt Sound System from Volume 5: Anatomic
Transportation
Mojave Road
Mojave Air and Space Port
Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave, a type of helicopter
Kia Mohave, a sport-utility vehicle
Piper PA-31 Mojave, a piston engine airplane
Other uses
Mojave (film)
Mojave language
macOS Mojave, a computer software version made by Apple
Mojave rattlesnake
Mojave Experiment, an advertising campaign by Microsoft
Mojave High School
Mohave War
See also
Mojave 3, a British band
Mojave Solar Project, a solar power plant in California, United States | [
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219918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic%20cormorant | Pelagic cormorant | The pelagic cormorant (Urile pelagicus), also known as Baird's cormorant or violet-green cormorant, is a small member of the cormorant family Phalacrocoracidae. Analogous to other smallish cormorants, it is also called the pelagic shag occasionally. This seabird lives along the coasts of the northern Pacific; during winter it can also be found in the open ocean. Pelagic cormorants have relatively short wings due to their need for economical movement underwater, and consequently have the highest flight costs of any bird.
It was formerly classified in the genus Phalacrocorax, but a 2014 study supported reclassifying it and several other Pacific cormorant species into the genus Urile. The IOC followed this classification in 2021.
Description
This is a smallish cormorant which measures in length, with a wingspan of about and a weight of when fully grown. Adults in nonbreeding plumage are all-black with a metallic iridescence. In breeding plumage they grow two short crests (one on top of the head and one at the nape), white thighs, and scattered white filoplumes on the head and neck. The long thin bill and the large feet with all-webbed toes are black throughout the year, while the patch of dark naked skin below the eye turns a vivid magenta in the breeding season.
Males and females do not differ in appearance, though the latter is a bit smaller. Immature birds lack iridescence and are dark brown, grading into slightly lighter brown on the underside.
The widely sympatric red-faced cormorant (U. urile) looks very similar. Breeding adults are easily told apart by the amount of naked facial skin, which does not noticeably extend beyond the eye in U. pelagicus, but extends to above the bill and above and behind the eye in U. urile; the latter species also has larger crests. Juveniles and nonbreeding adults of the two species are often indistinguishable even to trained observers when in mixed flocks, or if they cannot be observed up close. In the former case, the large naked face "mask" and light bill of U. urile can be easily recognized, in the latter case its larger size (though male pelagic cormorants can be as large as female red-faced cormorants). Unlike the red-faced cormorant, the present species usually calls out before taking off, particularly during the breeding season. In courtship display, nest material is typically torn and moved about (which U. urile might not do) and the males apparently do not bow their heads before the females as U. urile males do. Other North Pacific cormorants and shags are larger, with a thicker bill, and/or lack the white thighs in breeding plumage.
Range
The pelagic cormorant inhabits the shores and the neritic zone of the North Pacific. Its North American range extends from Alaska to the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. It furthermore is found on the Aleutian and other Bering Strait islands, and from the Russian Far East Chukchi Peninsula via Sakhalin south to Kamchatka, and ultimately Kyūshū (though not the rest of Japan). The subarctic populations are migratory, while the birds from temperate and subtropical regions only disperse locally after breeding, but even so Asian birds may reach China or Korea. Vagrants have been recorded in the Hawaiian Islands.
Ecology and biology
Diet
On land, pelagic cormorants are rather clumsy and walk with the high-stepped waddling gait typical for all Sulae except darters; after landing they often scratch the ground, as is typical for cormorants. When they feel threatened, they will dart their bills at the intruder, and shake their heads and make a gargling noise. This bird forages by swimming to locate prey, then diving and going after it underwater, propelled by its feet and steering with the wings. It can dive as deep as to feed on or near the seafloor. Typical hunting grounds are sheltered inlets and bays; especially outside the breeding season they can also be seen fishing out at sea. They prefer to hunt in the vicinity of kelp beds or among rocks. Typical prey are smallish, bottom-living non-schooling fishes, such as Ammodytes sand eels, sculpins (Cottidae), gunnels (Pholidae) and Sebastes (rockfish). Apart from fish, small crustaceans – in particular shrimp – are also often eaten. It has been observed to join mixed-species feeding flocks going after schools of young Pacific herrings (Clupea pallasii). Like all cormorants, due to their vestigial uropygial gland their plumage is not waterproof. Thus, the birds return to a safe place after foraging to preen and dry their feathers, typically adopting a spread-winged posture.
Breeding
The pelagic cormorant breeds on rocky shores and islands. They do not form large colonies, but smaller groups may nest together. In some cases these birds alternate between two or three nesting sites in a region from one year to another. The nest is built at the cliff face, usually on ledges, less often in crevices or caves. The nest is built from stringy plants, such as grasses or seaweed, and held together by the birds' own guano. Once the birds have found a nest site they like, they tend to remain faithful to it for the rest of their lives. The nest is repaired and improved in each season if need be; it can thus grow up to {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on} deep.
Males searching for a mate or bonding with their partner give an elaborate courtship display, as is typical for Sulae. Like all cormorants, this includes stretching the gular sac with the hyoid bone and repeated "yawning"; as in many but not all cormorants, the pelagic cormorant's display furthermore includes arching the neck and hopping, lifting the folded wings and rapidly fluttering them to show the white thigh patches. During the yawning display, the head is thrown back and calls are given which differ between males and females; when the birds land, males and females give an identical call. Otherwise, the displays are given in silence.
The clutch is generally between two and five eggs, most often three or four, but clutches of up to seven eggs have been recorded. Incubation lasts for 3 weeks to one month. At hatching, the young weigh somewhat more than an ounce (35 g) and are naked, but they soon grow sooty-gray down feathers. In normal years, all young of a typical clutch may be raised successfully, but less than four rarely fledge. On the other hand, during unfavorable phases of the Pacific decadal oscillation, most pairs manage to raise only two young at most. They reach sexual maturity at two years of age, and a maximum age of almost eighteen years has been recorded in the wild.
Status
This numerous and widespread species is not considered threatened by the IUCN. The bulk of its population is found in the relatively inaccessible waters of the Bering Sea region; about 50,000 each breed in the Kuril Islands, the Bering Sea islands, and the U.S. state of Alaska and its offshore islands (including the Aleuts). About 25,000 breed down the Pacific coast of North America, some 60% of which are found in California. Local populations may be all but wiped out temporarily by oil spills, and on a larger scale competition with gillnet fisheries and drowning in such nets is putting a limit to its stocks.
The acanthocephalan parasite Andracantha phalacrocoracis was described from this cormorant.
Taxonomy and systematics
The cormorant family Phalacrocoracidae has traditionally been included – like all other birds with fully webbed toes – in the Pelecaniformes. But the namesake pelicans (Pelecanidae) are actually closer relatives of storks (Ciconiidae) than of cormorants. Hence, it has been proposed to separate the Phalacrocoracidae and relatives as order Phalacrocoraciformes. More recent evidence indicates that they and the darters actually belong in the order Suliformes, alongside the boobies and gannets.
This species was formerly placed in the catch-all genus Phalacrocorax. Modern authors were previously reserved about uniting all cormorants in one "wastebin genus", but most revisions published had on phylogenetic merit. Though it was proposed to place the pelagic cormorant in Stictocarbo for example, this is quite certainly wrong, as the present species is by no means closely related to the spotted shag (P. punctatus), the type species of Stictocarbo. Similarly, Leucocarbo would refer to the group around the imperial shag (P. atriceps) complex, which occurs on the opposite end of the Earth from P. pelagicus. The supposed "cliff shag" subfamily Leucocarboninae is entirely paraphyletic cannot be accepted as originally circumscribed. If subfamilies are to be accepted in the Phalacrocoracidae, the pelagic shag and its relatives would go in the Phalacrocoracinae like most Northern Hemisphere cormorants and shags, while Leucocarboninae would include mainly Southern Hemisphere taxa.
Another theory held that the genus name for the pelagic cormorant, if Phalacrocorax was to be split up, would be Compsohalieus. This name would apply to the group around its type species (Brandt's cormorant, P. penicillatus). This is a North Pacific clade, which apart from Brandt's and the pelagic cormorant also includes the red-faced cormorant (P. urile) and probably also the extinct spectacled cormorant (P. perspicillatus). They all have black feet, and in breeding plumage grow white filoplumes on the head and/or neck, and usually also two head-crests and white thigh patches like the present species does. They also share the back-thrown head during the "yawning" and the rapid wing-flutter in courtship display. Among the Compsohalieus group, the red-faced cormorant is the sister species of P. pelagicus. Apart from looking almost alike, these two species also "yawn" many times in a row instead of giving the display just once, twist their bodies before taking flight during courtship, and the male and female post-landing calls are identical. The point-and-gargle response to threats is also an apomorphy of these two species. In 2014, a study was published supporting this treatment, albeit classifying the species in the genus Urile rather than Compsohalieus. The IUCN, BirdLife International, and the IOC have since followed this classification, legitimizing it.
Its former scientific name was the literal Latinized Ancient Greek equivalent of the common name: Phalacrocorax is an ancient term for cormorants; literally, it means "bald raven", from falakrós (φᾶλακρός, "bald") + kórax (κόραξ, "raven"). Pelagicus is – like the English loanword "pelagic" – derived from (πελᾶγιος, "of the open seas"). Compsohalieus, meanwhile, means "sleek fisher"; it derives from (κομψός, "elegant" or "sleek") + ' (ἇλιεύς, "fisherman"). Urile is a term coined by Bonaparte in 1855 as the species name for the red-faced cormorant.
Subspecies
Two subspecies are generally recognized. The difference between them is slight and generally agrees with Bergmann's Rule:
Urile pelagicus pelagicus Pallas, 1811 – Northern pelagic cormorant. northwest Pacific east to south Alaska. The larger subspecies (but see below).
Urile pelagicus resplendens Audubon, 1838 – Southern pelagic cormorant. British Columbia to northwest Mexico. The smaller subspecies.
The Amchitka cormorant or Kenyon's shag (U. kenyoni) is a supposed species that was presumed to be closely related to the pelagic cormorant. It was described from the bones of three individuals snared in fishing nets in the late 1950s at Constantine Harbor on Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands. The specific name kenyoni honors USFWS biologist Karl W. Kenyon, who collected the type specimen USNM 431164 on 22 February 1959. Some bones from prehistoric middens on Amchitka were also attributed to this taxon. As distinctive cormorants were never seen alive in recent years on Amchitka, it was conjectured by some that Kenyon's shag might have gone extinct in the 1960s–1970s (marine pollution and overfishing would be possible reasons).
However, a subsequent analysis of a larger number of comparison specimens of the pelagic cormorant – mainly from birds that fell victim to the Exxon Valdez oil spill – determined that the bones were attributable to small females of the latter species, and that their apparent distinctness was due to the original canonical analysis being distorted by insufficient specimens. The researchers also found that contrary to what was generally assumed, pelagic cormorants from the Aleutians were generally small birds – as opposed to western Alaskan individuals, which are usually very large. If the Aleutian population were to be considered a distinct subspecies, the name kenyoni would apply. Verification of subspecies status would require DNA sequence analyses however, since the differences in morphology are not large and there is much variation between individuals.
In 2003, during an USFWS survey three small pelagic cormorants whose bills appeared to be red were noted at Karab Cove on Agattu Island. It may be that these were kenyoni, but whether the bill color distinguishes the presumed subspecies or whether it is due to a simple mutation has not been determined. The large birds from the Prince William Sound region were formerly called U. p. robustus, but are not considered distinct today. Since there appear to be at least two recognizable and allopatric size groups in the northern subspecies alone, more research is clearly necessary.
Footnotes
References
AnAge [2009]: Phalacrocorax pelagicus life history data. Retrieved 2009-SEP-12.
Byrd, G.V. & Williams, J.C. (2004): Cormorant surveys in the Near Island Group, Aleutian Islands, Alaska in July 2003 with notes on other species. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Reports ANMWR 03/13.
Christidis, Les & Boles, Walter E. (2008): Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia.
Fuller, Errol (2000): Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York.
Hobson, K.A. (1997): Pelagic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax pelagicus). In: Poole, A. & Gill, F. (eds.): The Birds of North America 282. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA & The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.
Erratum:
Orta, Jaume (1992a): 12. Pelagic Cormorant. In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World (Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks): 346, plate 22. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Orta, Jaume (1992b): Family Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants). In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World (Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks): 326–353, plates 22–23. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
SORA link
Woodhouse, S.C. (1910): English-Greek Dictionary – A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. George Routledge & Sons Ltd., Broadway House, Ludgate Hill, E.C.
pelagic cormorant
pelagic cormorant
Native birds of Alaska
Birds of the Aleutian Islands
Birds of North Asia
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the West Coast of the United States
pelagic cormorant
Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas | [
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219922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks%20Range | Brooks Range | The Brooks Range (Gwich'in: Gwazhał) is a mountain range in far northern North America stretching some from west to east across northern Alaska into Canada's Yukon Territory. Reaching a peak elevation of on Mount Isto, the range is believed to be approximately 126 million years old.
In the United States, these mountains are considered a subrange of the Rocky Mountains, whereas in Canada they are considered separate, the northern border of the Rocky Mountains regarded as the Liard River far to the south in the province of British Columbia.
While the range is mostly uninhabited, the Dalton Highway and Trans-Alaska Pipeline System run through the Atigun Pass (1,415 m, 4,643 ft) on their way to the oil fields at Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope. The Alaska Native villages of Anaktuvuk and Arctic Village, as well as the very small communities of Coldfoot, Wiseman, Bettles, and Chandalar, are the range's only settlements. In the far west, near the Wulik River in the De Long Mountains is the Red Dog mine, the largest zinc mine in the world.
The range was named by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1925 after Alfred Hulse Brooks, chief USGS geologist for Alaska from 1903 to 1924.
Various historical records also referred to the range as the Arctic Mountains, Hooper Mountains, Meade Mountains and Meade River Mountains. The Canadian portion of the range is officially called the British Mountains. Ivvavik National Park is located in Canada's British Mountains.
Peaks
Mount Isto
Mount Hubley
Mount Chamberlin
Mount Michelson at 8,855 ft (2,699 m)
The Gates of Kiev at 7,775 ft (2,370 m), the highest point in the central part of the range, and
Black Mountain at 5,020 ft (1,530 m), the highest point in the far western part of the range.
Mount Doonerak
Mount Igikpak
Frigid Crags West Gate
Boreal Mountain East Gate
Limestack Mountain
Cockedhat Mountain
History
Bob Marshall explored the North Fork Koyukuk River area of the range in 1929. He named Mount Doonerak, explaining "the name Doonerak I took from an Eskimo word which means a spirit or, as they would translate it, a devil." Marshall described the mountain as, a "towering, black, unscalable-looking giant, the highest peak in this section of the Brooks Range."
Ecology
The Brooks Range forms the northernmost drainage divide in North America, separating streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the North Pacific. The range roughly delineates the summer position of the Arctic front. It represents the northern extent of the tree line, with little beyond isolated balsam poplar stands occurring north of the continental drainage divide. Trembling aspen and white spruce also occur north of the Brooks Range, though they are limited to sites that have been disturbed by human activity. Southern slopes have some cover of black spruce, Picea mariana, marking the northern limit of those trees. As the global mean temperature increases, tree line has been observed to move further north, changing the boundaries of where these trees are found. An increase in shrub abundance is also being experienced in areas which were previously dominated by tundra, impacting the ecology of the area.
As one of the most remote and least-disturbed wildernesses of North America, the mountains are home to Dall sheep, grizzly bears, black bear, gray wolf, moose and porcupine caribou.
In Alaska, the Western Arctic Caribou herd (490,000 strong in 2004) traverses the Brooks Range in its annual migration. The smaller Central Arctic herd (32,000 in 2002), as well as the 123,000 animal Porcupine Caribou herd, likewise migrate through the Brooks range on their annual journeys in and out of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The migration path of the Porcupine Caribou herd is the longest of any terrestrial mammal on earth.
Paleontology
Because the rocks of the range were formed in an ancient seabed, the Brooks Range contains fossils of marine organisms. In addition to the coral fossils shown, trilobites and brachiopods from the middle Cambrian have been found in the sandy limestones of the Central Brooks Range.
Remains of a woolly mammoth that died about 17,100 years ago were found north of the Brooks Range, a research report on its movement range was published in 2021.
Climate
While other Alaskan ranges to the south and closer to the coast can receive to of snow, the average snow precipitation on the Brooks Range is reported at to . Due to a changing climate, between the years 1969–2018 the Eastern and Western portions of the Brooks Range have experienced a 17.2% increase in annual precipitation.
As measured at the Anaktuvuk Pass weather station (elevation ), the average summer temperatures are as a high and as a low. During the winter the average high is while the average low is . Polar amplification is a force experienced in this region as global temperatures are rising. The northern and western regions of Alaska, where the Brooks Range lies, is experiencing a warming rate twice that of southeastern Alaska. The Brooks Range has experienced an increase in average summer temperature between 4.2 °F and 5.8 °F between the years 1969–2018.
In certain areas of the Brooks Range, year round snow cover or "perennial snowfields", can be found. In 1985, 34 square miles of snowfields were recorded, where as that number has dropped to under four square miles in 2017.
Films
2007 - Gates of the Arctic: Alaska's Brooks Range
2008 - Alone Across Alaska: 1,000 Miles of Wilderness
2011 - The Edge of the Earth (short film)
2014 - The World Beyond the World (short film)
See also
Philip Smith Mountains
Richardson Mountains
Notes
Further reading
Allan, C. (2013). Arctic citadel : a history of exploration in the Brooks Range region of Northern Alaska. Washington, D.C,: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
Witmer, Dennis "Far to the North: Photographs from the Brooks Range" Far to the North Press (2008)
Kauffmann, John M. "Alaska's Brooks Range: The Ultimate Mountains" (Second Edition) Mountaineers Books (2005)
Brown, William E. "History of the Central Brooks Range: Gaunt Beauty, Tenuous Life" University of Alaska Press (2007)
Cooper, David "Brooks Range Passage" Mountaineers Books (1983)
Dover, J.H., I.L. Tailleur, and J.A. Dumoulin. (2004). Geologic and fossil locality maps of the west-central part of the Howard Pass quadrangle and part of the adjacent Misheguk Mountain quadrangle, Western Brooks Range, Alaska [Miscellaneous Field Studies; Map MF-2413]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Krumhardt, A.P., A.G. Harris, and K.F. Watts. (1996). Lithostratigraphy, microlithofacies, and conodont biostratigraphy and biofacies of the Wahoo Limestone (Carboniferous), eastern Sadlerochit Mountains, northeast Brooks Range, Alaska U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1568. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Marshall, R. (1970). Alaska wilderness; exploring the Central Brooks Range 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Mayfield, C.F. et al. (1984). Reconnaissance geologic map of southeastern Misheguk Mountain quadrangle, Alaska [Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I-1503]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Morin, R.L. (1997). Gravity and magnetic maps of part of the Drenchwater Creek stratiform zinc-lead-silver deposit, Howard Pass quadrangle, northwestern Brooks Range, Alaska [Open-file report 97-705]. Menlo Park, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Morin, R.L. (1997). Gravity models of Abby Creek and Bion barite deposits, Howard Pass quadrangle, northwestern Brooks Range, Alaska [U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 97-704]. Menlo Park, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Mull, C.G. et al. (1994). Geologic map of the Killik River quadrangle, Brooks Range, Alaska [U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 94-679]. Reston, Va: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Nelson, P.H. et al. (2006). Potential tight gas resources in a frontier province, Jurassic through Tertiary strata beneath the Brooks Range foothills, Arctic Alaska U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 2006–1172. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. (2003). The natural dispersal of metals to the environment in the Wulik River-Ikalukrok Creek area, western Brooks Range, Alaska U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 107–03. Reston, VA: author.
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. (1995). Natural environmental effects of silver-lead-zinc deposits in the Brooks Range, Alaska U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 092–95. Reston, VA: author.
Landforms of Yukon–Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska
Mountain ranges of Yukon
Mountains of North Slope Borough, Alaska
Mountains of Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska
Mountains of Unorganized Borough, Alaska | [
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219927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20bittern | American bittern | The American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) is a species of wading bird in the heron family. It has a Nearctic distribution, breeding in Canada and the northern and central parts of the United States, and wintering in the U.S. Gulf Coast states, all of Florida into the Everglades, the Caribbean islands and parts of Central America.
It is a well-camouflaged, solitary brown bird that unobtrusively inhabits marshes and the coarse vegetation at the edge of lakes and ponds. In the breeding season it is chiefly noticeable by the loud, booming call of the male. The nest is built just above the water, usually among bulrushes and cattails, where the female incubates the clutch of olive-colored eggs for about four weeks. The young leave the nest after two weeks and are fully fledged at six or seven weeks.
The American bittern feeds mostly on fish but also eats other small vertebrates as well as crustaceans and insects. It is fairly common over its wide range, but its numbers are thought to be decreasing, especially in the south, because of habitat degradation. However the total population is large, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "Least Concern".
Description
The American bittern is a large, chunky, brown bird, very similar to the Eurasian bittern (Botaurus stellaris), though slightly smaller, and the plumage is speckled rather than being barred. It is in length, with a wingspan and a body mass of .
The crown is chestnut brown with the centers of the feathers being black. The side of the neck has a bluish-black elongated patch which is larger in the male than in the female. The hind neck is olive, and the mantle and scapulars are dark chestnut-brown, barred and speckled with black, some feathers being edged with buff. The back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are similar in color but more finely speckled with black and with grey bases to the feathers. The tail feathers are chestnut brown with speckled edges, and the primaries and secondaries are blackish-brown with buff or chestnut tips. The cheeks are brown with a buff superciliary stripe and a similarly colored mustachial stripe. The chin is creamy-white with a chestnut central stripe, and the feathers of the throat, breast, and upper belly are buff and rust-colored, finely outlined with black, giving a striped effect to the underparts. The eyes are surrounded by yellowish skin, and the iris is pale yellow. The long, robust bill is yellowish-green, the upper mandible being darker than the lower, and the legs and feet are yellowish-green. Juveniles resemble adults, but the sides of their necks are less olive.
Taxonomy
The American bittern was first described in 1813 by the English clergyman Thomas Rackett from a vagrant individual he examined in Dorset, England. No extant subspecies are accepted. However, fossils found in the Ichetucknee River in Florida, and originally described as a new form of heron (Palaeophoyx columbiana McCoy, 1963) were later recognized to be a smaller, prehistoric subspecies of the American bittern which lived during the Late Pleistocene (Olson, 1974) and would thus be called B. l. columbianus. Its closest living relative is the pinnated bittern (Botaurus pinnatus) from Central and South America.
The generic name Botaurus was given by English naturalist James Francis Stephens, and is derived from Medieval Latin , "bittern", constructed from the Middle English name for the Eurasian bittern, . Pliny gave a fanciful derivation from (ox) and (bull), because the bittern's call resembles the bellowing of a bull. The species name lentiginosus is Latin for "freckled", from lentigo (freckle), and refers to the speckled plumage.
Many folk names are given for its distinctive call. In his book on the common names of American birds, Ernest Choate lists "bog bumper" and "stake driver". Other vernacular names include "thunder pumper", "bog bull", "bog thumper", "mire drum", and "water belcher".
Distribution and habitat
Its range includes much of North America. It breeds in southern Canada as far north as British Columbia, the Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay, and in much of the United States and possibly central Mexico. It migrates southward in the fall and overwinters in the southern United States of the Gulf Coast region, most notably in the marshy Everglades of Florida, the Caribbean Islands and Mexico, with past records also coming from Panama and Costa Rica. As a long-distance migrant, it is a very rare vagrant in Europe, including Great Britain and Ireland. It is an aquatic bird and frequents bogs, marshes and the thickly-vegetated verges of shallow-water lakes and ponds, both with fresh and brackish or saline water. It sometimes feeds out in the open in wet meadows and pastures.
Behavior
The American bittern is a solitary bird and usually keeps itself well-hidden and is difficult to observe. It usually hunts by walking stealthily in shallow water and among the vegetation, stalking its prey, but sometimes it stands still in ambush. If it senses that it has been seen, it remains motionless, with its bill pointed upward, its cryptic coloration causing it to blend into the surrounding foliage. It is mainly nocturnal and is most active at dusk. More often heard than seen, the male bittern has a loud, booming call that resembles a congested pump and which has been rendered as "oong, kach, oonk". While uttering this sound, the bird's head is thrown convulsively upward and then forward, and the sound is repeated up to seven times.
The process by which the bittern produces its distinctive sound is not fully understood. It has been suggested that the bird gradually puffs out its neck by inflating its esophagus with air accompanied by a mild clicking or hiccuping sound. The esophagus is kept inflated by means of flaps beside the tongue. Once this action is completed and the esophagus is fully inflated, the distinctive gulping sound is made in the syrinx. When the sound is finished, the bird deflates its esophagus.
Like other members of the heron family, the American bittern feeds in marshes and shallow ponds, preying mainly on fish but also consuming amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, crustaceans and insects. It is a territorial bird and has a threat display which involves slowly erecting long, white, previously-concealed, plumes on its shoulders, to form wing-like extensions that nearly meet across its back, resembling a ruff. The bird then stands still in a threatening posture, or stalks the intruder in a crouching position, with its head retracted and a gliding gait.
This bird nests solitarily in marshes among coarse vegetation such as bulrushes and cattails, with the female building the nest and the male guarding it. The nest is usually about above the water surface and consists of a rough platform of dead stalks and rushes, sometimes with a few twigs mixed in, and lined with bits of coarse grass. Up to about six eggs are laid and are incubated by the female for twenty-nine days. The eggs are bluntly ovoid in shape, olive-buff and unspeckled, averaging in size. The chicks are fed individually, each in turn pulling down the female's beak and receiving regurgitated food directly into its beak. They leave the nest at about two weeks and are fully-fledged at six to seven weeks.
Status
The bird's numbers are declining in many parts of its range because of habitat loss. This is particularly noticeable in the southern part where chemical contamination and human development are reducing the area of suitable habitat. However, the bird has an extremely large range and a large total population, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern". The American bittern is protected under the United States Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. It is also protected under the Canadian Migratory Birds Convention Act of 1994 to which both Canada and the United States are signatories.
References and notes
Further reading
National Geographic Society (2002). Field Guide to the Birds of North America. National Geographic, Washington DC.
External links
American Bittern – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
American bittern – Botaurus lentiginosus – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus – ENature.com
Bitterns
Botaurus
Birds of North America
Birds described in 1813
Taxa named by Thomas Rackett | [
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219935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAC | AAC | AAC may refer to:
Aviation
Advanced Aircraft, a company from Carlsbad, California
Alaskan Air Command, a radar network
American Aeronautical Corporation, a company from Port Washington, New York
American Aviation, a company from Cleveland, Ohio
Amphibian Airplanes of Canada, a company from Squamish, British Columbia
El Arish International Airport's IATA code
Civil Aviation Authority (El Salvador) (Autoridad de Aviación Civil)
Civil Aviation Authority (Panama) (Autoridad Aeronáutica Civil)
Education
Anthony Abell College, a secondary school in Brunei
Art Academy of Cincinnati, a private college
Association of American Colleges known today as the American Association of Colleges and Universities
Coimbra Academic Association, a Portuguese students' union
Military
Anti-Aircraft Warfare
Advanced Armament Corporation, manufacturer of sound suppressors
Airborne aircraft carrier, a type of aircraft
United States Army Acquisition Corps
United States Army Air Corps, a former component of the United States Army
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom), a component of the British Army
Army Apprentices College, a former UK college
Australian Air Corps, immediate predecessor of the Royal Australian Air force
Australian Army Cadets, a youth organisation
Organizations
Adult Association of Canada, a coalition of strip club owners and their agents
Affirming Anglican Catholicism, a religious movement
Alameda Arts Council
American Anglican Council, a religious organization
Australian Agricultural Company, a company
Australian Aluminium Council, an industry association
Sports
American Airlines Center, a multipurpose arena in Dallas, Texas
American Alpine Club, a climbing organization
American Athletic Conference, an NCAA college conference made up of primarily Big East Conference teams before 2013
Appalachian Athletic Conference, an NAIA college athletics conference
Western North Carolina Athletic Conference, a high school organization known as the Appalachian Athletic Conference until 2009
Asia-Pacific Amateur Championship, formerly Asian Amateur Championship, an APGC golf tournament
Associação Académica de Coimbra – O.A.F., a Portuguese football organization
Associação Académica de Coimbra – basketball, a Portuguese basketball club
Associação Académica de Coimbra – volleyball, a Portuguese volleyball club
Associação Académica de Coimbra, the students' union of the University of Coimbra, which sponsors other sports, including rugby
Association of Alabama Camps, a youth camp organization
Atlanta Athletic Club, a private athletic club in Duluth, Georgia
Audax Alpine Classic, a bicycle event in Victoria, Australia
Technology
Advanced Audio Coding, an audio compression format, with the .aac file extension
Air arc cutting, a gouging process for metals
Auto Avio Costruzioni 815, a car by Ferrari
Autoclaved aerated concrete, a building material
Photochrom, also known as the Aäc process
Other uses
Anesthesiologist assistant (sometimes abbreviated AA-C), an assistant to an anesthesiologist
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, an academic journal
Ari language (New Guinea), coded aac in ISO 639-3
Augmentative and alternative communication, a class of communications methods for people with speech impairments
Pseudomembranous colitis, also known as antibiotic associated colitis, a medical complication
AAC, a codon for the amino acid asparagine | [
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219938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike%20Out | Strike Out | Strike Out (1969–1998) was a Standardbred North American Harness racing champion.
Background
Strike Out was foaled in 1969 at Castleton Farm in Lexington, Kentucky, and is by Bret Hanover out of the mare Golden Miss.
He was purchased at a yearling auction for $15,000 by Beejay Stables of Oshawa, Ontario, a partnership between harness-racing trainer/driver John Hayes and Montreal, Quebec textile executives, the Shapiro brothers, Robert, Conrad, and Leo. For Hayes, who recognized the horse's talent, it was an opportunity for which he had been waiting a long time.
Racing career
As a two-year-old pacer, Strike Out earned more money than any horse in his age group and was named by Harness Tracks of America (HTA) and the United States Trotting Association (USTA) as the top harness horse his age in North America. In 1972 he became the first horse to win a Canadian harness race with a $100,000 purse. That year he went on to race in the United States, capturing the important Adios Stakes in a dead heat with Jay Time, the Fox Stake, the Roosevelt Futurity, the Beaver Pace and other major races all over North America, including the Prix d'Été at Montreal's Blue Bonnets Raceway. By the end of the summer, his owners had set their sights on the most prestigious race of all, the Little Brown Jug in Delaware, Ohio. Strike Out, was trained by Bruce K. Nickells for two months the previous winter, before he won the Jug with a time of 1:56.3 which set a world record for a three-year-old pacer on a half mile track.
On September 21, 1972, driven by Keith Waples, Strike Out became the first Canadian owned horse to win the Little Brown Jug. Not only did he do it in straight heats, but he won setting a world record over a half-mile track for a 3-year-old pacer in a time of 1:56 3/5. Strike Out was named by the HTA and USTA as top three-year-old.
Stud career
After compiling a 29-9-1 record in 44 races, Strike Out was retired to stud at the end of the 1972 season. While retaining a half interest in him, Beejay Stables sold the $15,000 bargain-basement colt for $1.5 million. His son, Striking Image became the first 2 year old Standardbred Horse ever to run a mile in the time of 1:55. Strike Out also went on to sire 1979 Jug winner Hot Hitter.
In 1976 Strike Out was part of the inaugural class inducted into the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame.
Strike Out died on July 4, 1998 and was buried in the horse cemetery at Castleton Farms.
Pedigree
References
1969 racehorse births
1998 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Racehorses trained in Canada
Horse racing track record setters
Little Brown Jug winners | [
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219939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma | Mycoplasma | Mycoplasma (plural mycoplasmas or mycoplasmata) is a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall around their cell membranes. This characteristic makes them naturally resistant to antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis (like the beta-lactam antibiotics). They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of "walking" pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and M. genitalium, which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. Mycoplasma species are the smallest bacterial cells yet discovered, can survive without oxygen, and come in various shapes. For example, M. genitalium is flask-shaped (about 300 x 600 nm), while M. pneumoniae is more elongated (about 100 x 1000 nm). Hundreds of mycoplasma species infect animals.
Etymology
The term mycoplasma, from the Greek μύκης, (fungus) and πλάσμα, (formed), was first used by Albert Bernhard Frank in 1889 to describe an altered state of plant cell cytoplasm resulting from infiltration by fungus-like microorganisms. Julian Nowak later proposed the genus name Mycoplasma for certain filamentous microorganisms imagined to have both cellular and acellular stages in their lifecycles, which could explain how they were visible with a microscope, but passed through filters impermeable to other bacteria.
Later, the name for Mycoplasma was pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), broadly referring to organisms similar in colonial morphology and filterability to the causative agent (a mycoplasma) of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia.
Species
M. adleri
M. agalactiae
M. agassizii
M. alkalesens
M. alligatoris
M. amphoriforme
M. anatis
M. anseris
M. arginini
M. arthritidis
M. auris
M. bovigenitalium
M. bovirhinis
M. bovis
M. bovoculi
M. buccale
M. buteonis
M. californicum
M. canadense
M. canis
M. capricolum
M. caviae
M. cavipharyngis
M. citelli
M. cloacale
M. coccoides
M. collis
M. columbinasale
M. columbinum
M. columborale
M. conjunctivae
M. corogypsi
M. cottewii
M. cricetuli
M. crocodyli
M. cynos
M. dispar
M. edwardii
M. elephantis
M. ellychniae
M. equigenitalium
M. equirhinis
M. falconis
M. fastidiosum
M. faucium
M. felifacium
M. feliminutum
M. feriruminatoris
M. fermentans
M. flocculare
M. gallinaceum
M. gallinarum
M. gallisepticum
M. gallopavonis
M. gaeteae
M. genitalium
M. glycophilium
M. gypis
M. haemocanis
M. haemofelis
M. haemolamae
M. haemomuris
M. haemosuis
M. hominis
M. hyopneumoniae
M. hypopharyngis
M. hyorhinis
M. hyosynoviae
M. iguanae
M. imitans
M. incognitus
M. indiense
M. iners
M. iowae
M. lacutcae
M. lagogenitalium
M. leachii
M. leonicptivi
M. leopharyngis
M. lipofaciens
M. lipophilum
M. lucivorax
M. luminosum
M. maculosum
M. melaleucae
M. meleagridis
M. microti
M. moatsii
M. mobile
M. molare
M. muscosicanis
M. muris
M. mustelae
M. mycoides
M. neophronis
M. neurolyticvum
M. opalescens
M. orale
M. ovipneumoniae
M. ovis
M. oxoniensis
M. penetrans
M. phocae
M. phocicerebrale
M. phocidae
M. phocirhinis
M. pirum
M. pneumoniae
M. primatum
M. pullorum
M. pulmonis
M. putrefaciens
M. salivarium
M. simbae
M. spermatophilum
M. spumans
M. sturni
M. sualvi
M. subdolum
M. suis
M. synoviae
M. testudineum
M. testudinis
M. verecunum
M. wenyonii
M. yeatsii
Species that infect humans
Species of Mycoplasma, other than those listed below, have been recovered from humans, but are assumed to have been contracted from a non-human host. The following species use humans as the primary host:
M. amphoriforme
M. buccale
M. faucium
M. fermentans
M. genitalium
M. hominis
M. incognitus
M. lipophilum
M. orale
M. penetrans
M. pirum
M. pneumoniae
M. primatum
M. salivarium
M. spermatophilum
Pathophysiology
Mycoplasma species have been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis. M. genitalium is found in women with pelvic inflammatory disease. In addition, infection is associated with increased risk of cervicitis, infertility, preterm birth and spontaneous abortion. Mycoplasma genitalium has developed resistance to some antibiotics. Mycoplasmas are associated with infant respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants.
Characteristics
Over 100 species have been included in the genus Mycoplasma. Microbes of the class Mollicutes, to which Mycoplasma belongs, are parasites or commensals of humans, animals, and plants. The genus Mycoplasma uses vertebrate and arthropod hosts.
Dietary nitrogen availability has been shown to alter codon bias and genome evolution in Mycoplasma and Phytoplasma.
Mycoplasmal bacteria are also known as mollicutes. They are the simplest and the smallest free-living prokaryotes.
Mycoplasmal bacteria have been found in the pleural cavities of cattle suffering from pleuropneumonia. These organisms are often called MLO (mycoplasma-like organisms) or PPLO (pleuropneumonia-like organisms).
Important characteristics of mycoplasmal bacteria
Cell wall is absent and plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell.
Due to the absence of cell walls these organisms can change their shape and are pleomorphic.
Lack of nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Genetic material is a single DNA duplex and is naked.
Ribosomes are 70S type.
Possess a replicating disc at one end which assists replication process and also the separation of the genetic materials.
Heterotrophic nutrition. Some live as saprophytes but the majority are parasites of plants and animals. The parasitic nature is due to the inability of mycoplasmal bacteria to synthesise the required growth factor.
Cell morphology
Due to the lack of a rigid cell wall, Mycoplasmataceae can contort into a broad range of shapes, from round to oblong. They therefore cannot be classified as rods, cocci or spirochetes.
Laboratory contaminant
Mycoplasma species are often found in research laboratories as contaminants in cell culture. Mycoplasmal cell culture contamination occurs due to contamination from individuals or contaminated cell culture medium ingredients. Mycoplasma cells are physically small – less than 1 µm, so are difficult to detect with a conventional microscope.
Mycoplasmae may induce cellular changes, including chromosome aberrations, changes in metabolism and cell growth. Severe Mycoplasma infections may destroy a cell line. Detection techniques include DNA probe, enzyme immunoassays, PCR, plating on sensitive agar and staining with a DNA stain including DAPI or Hoechst.
An estimated 11 to 15% of U.S. laboratory cell cultures are contaminated with mycoplasma.
A Corning study showed that half of U.S. scientists did not test for Mycoplasma contamination in their cell cultures. The study also stated that, in former Czechoslovakia, 100% of cell cultures that were not routinely tested were contaminated while only 2% of those routinely tested were contaminated (study p. 6). Since the U.S. contamination rate was based on a study of companies that routinely checked for Mycoplasma, the actual contamination rate may be higher. European contamination rates are higher and that of other countries are higher still (up to 80% of Japanese cell cultures).
About 1% of published Gene Expression Omnibus data may have been compromised. Several antibiotic-containing formulations of antimycoplasmal reagents have been developed over the years.
Synthetic mycoplasma genome
A chemically synthesized genome of a mycoplasmal cell based entirely on synthetic DNA which can self-replicate has been referred to as Mycoplasma laboratorium.
Pathogenicity
The P1 antigen is the primary virulence factor of mycoplasma. P1 is a membrane associated protein that allows adhesion to epithelial cells. The P1 receptor is also expressed on erythrocytes which can lead to autoantibody agglutination from mycobacteria infection. Several Mycoplasma species can cause disease, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of atypical pneumonia (formerly known as "walking pneumonia"), and M. genitalium, which has been associated with pelvic inflammatory diseases. Mycoplasma infections in humans are associated with skin eruptions in 17% of cases.
Sexually transmitted infections
Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma species are not part of the normal vaginal flora. Some Mycoplasma species are spread through sexual contact.
Infertility
Some mycoplasmae have a negative effect on fertility. M. hominis causes male sterility/Genitals inflammation in humans.
Infant mortality
Low birth-weight, preterm infants are susceptible to Mycoplasma infections.
Links to cancer
Several species of Mycoplasma are frequently detected in different types of cancer cells. These species are:
M. fermentans
M. genitalium
M. hyorhinis
M. penetrans
U. urealyticum
The majority of these mycoplasmae have shown a strong correlation to malignant transformation in mammalian cells in vitro.
Mycoplasma infection and host cell transformation
The presence of Mycoplasma was first reported in samples of cancer tissue in the 1960s. Since then, several studies tried to find and prove the connection between Mycoplasma and cancer, as well as how the bacterium might be involved in the formation of cancer. Several studies have shown that cells that are chronically infected with the bacteria go through a multistep transformation. The changes caused by chronic mycoplasmal infections occur gradually and are both morphological and genetic. The first visual sign of infection is when the cells gradually shift from their normal form to sickle-shaped. They also become hyperchromatic due to an increase of DNA in the nucleus of the cells. In later stages, the cells lose the need for solid support to grow and proliferate, as well as the normal contact-dependent inhibition cells.
Possible intracellular mechanisms of mycoplasmal malignant transformation
Karyotypic changes related to mycoplasma infections
Cells infected with Mycoplasma for an extended period of time show significant chromosomal abnormalities. These include the addition of chromosomes, the loss of entire chromosomes, partial loss of chromosomes, and chromosomal translocation. All of these genetic abnormalities may contribute to the process of malignant transformation. Chromosomal translocation and extra chromosomes help create abnormally high activity of certain proto-oncogenes, which caused by these genetic abnormalities and include those encoding c-myc, HRAS, and vav. The activity of proto-oncogenes is not the only cellular function that is affected; tumour suppressor genes are affected by the chromosomal changes induced by mycoplasma, as well. Partial or complete loss of chromosomes causes the loss of important genes involved in the regulation of cell proliferation. Two genes whose activities are markedly decreased during chronic infections with mycoplasma are the Rb and the p53 tumour suppressor genes. Another possible mechanism of carcinogenesis is RAC1 activation by a small GTPase-like protein fragment of Mycoplasma. A major feature that differentiates mycoplasmas from other carcinogenic pathogens is that the mycoplasmas do not cause the cellular changes by insertion of their own genetic material into the host cell. The exact mechanism by which the bacterium causes the changes is not yet known.
Partial reversibility of malignant transformations
The malignant transformation induced by mycoplasmae is also different from that caused by other pathogens in that the process is reversible. The state of reversal is, however, only possible up to a certain point during the infection. The window of time when reversibility is possible varies greatly; it depends primarily on the Mycoplasma involved. In the case of M. fermentans, the transformation is reversible until around week 11 of infection and starts to become irreversible between weeks 11 and 18. If the bacteria are killed using antibiotics (i.e. ciprofloxacin or Clarithromycin) before the irreversible stage, the infected cells should return to normal.
Connections to cancer in vivo and future research
Epidemiologic, genetic, and molecular studies suggest infection and inflammation initiate certain cancers, including those of the prostate. M. genitalium and M. hyorhinis induce malignant phenotype in benign human prostate cells (BPH-1) that were not tumorigenic after 19 weeks of exposure.
Types of cancer associated with Mycoplasma
Colon cancer: In a study to understand the effects of Mycoplasma contamination on the quality of cultured human colon cancer cells, a positive correlation was found between the number of M. hyorhinis cells present in the sample and the percentage of CD133-positive cells (a glycoprotein with an unknown function).
Gastric cancer: Strong evidence indicates the infection of M. hyorhinis contributes to the development of cancer within the stomach and increases the likelihood of malignant cancer cell development.
Lung cancer: Studies on lung cancer have supported the belief that more than a coincidental positive correlation exists between the appearance of Mycoplasma strains in patients and the infection with tumorigenesis.
Prostate cancer: p37, a protein encoded for by M. hyorhinis, has been found to promote the invasiveness of prostate cancer cells. The protein also causes the growth, morphology, and gene expression of the cells to change, causing them to become a more aggressive phenotype.
Renal cancer: Patients with renal cell carcinoma (RCC) exhibited a significantly high amount of Mycoplasma sp. compared with the healthy control group. This suggests Mycoplasma may play a role in the development of RCC.
See also
International Organization for Mycoplasmology (IOM)
Sexually transmitted disease
Vaginal flora
Vaginal infection
Vaginal disease
Vaginal health
Phytoplasma
References
External links
Ureaplasma Infection: eMedicine Infectious Diseases
Mycoplasmataceae
Bacteria genera
Rodent-carried diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases and infections
Infectious causes of cancer
Infertility
Bacterial vaginosis | [
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219940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrio | Vibrio | Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape, several species of which can cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. Typically found in salt water, Vibrio species are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores. All members of the genus are motile. They are able to have polar or lateral flagellum with or without sheaths. Vibrio species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria. Each chromosome has a distinct and independent origin of replication, and are conserved together over time in the genus. Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocus sequence analysis).
O. F. Müller (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus Vibrio (included in Infusoria), three of which were spirilliforms. Some of the other species are today assigned to eukaryote taxa, e.g., to the euglenoid Peranema or to the diatom Bacillaria. However, Vibrio Müller, 1773 became regarded as the name of a zoological genus, and the name of the bacterial genus became Vibrio Pacini, 1854. Filippo Pacini isolated micro-organisms he called "vibrions" from cholera patients in 1854, because of their motility. In Latin "vibrio" means "to quiver".
Vibrio spp. are commonly found in marine environments. Marine Vibrio species are highly salt tolerant and can grow in wide range of salinity. S.I. Paul et al. (2021) isolated, characterized, and identified multiple strains of Vibrio species (Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus) from marine sponges of the Saint Martin's Island Area of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. Where, Vibrio species were found most dominant bacteria in marine environment.
Biochemical characteristics of Vibrio spp.
The genus Vibrio contains a large number of species. So, variation in the biochemical characteristics are most common in case of the genus Vibrio. Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genus Vibrio are shown in the Table below.
Note: Group-1: Vibrio alginolyticus; Group-2: Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus; + = Positive; – =Negative; V =Variable (+/–)
Pathogenic strains
Several species of Vibrio are pathogens. Most disease-causing strains are associated with gastroenteritis, but can also infect open wounds and cause sepsis. They can be carried by numerous marine animals, such as crabs or prawns, and have been known to cause fatal infections in humans during exposure. Risk of clinical disease and death increases with certain factors, such as uncontrolled diabetes, elevated iron levels (cirrhosis, sickle cell disease, hemochromatosis), and cancer or other immunocompromised states. Pathogenic Vibrio species include V. cholerae (the causative agent of cholera), V. parahaemolyticus, and V. vulnificus. V. cholerae is generally transmitted by contaminated water. Pathogenic Vibrio species can cause foodborne illness (infection), usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. When ingested Vibrio bacteria can primarily result in watery diarrhea along with other secondary symptoms.The pathogenic features can be linked to quorum sensing, where bacteria are able to express their virulence factor via their signalling molecules.
V. vulnificus outbreaks commonly occur in warm climates and small, generally lethal, outbreaks occur regularly. An outbreak occurred in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, and several lethal cases occur most years in Florida. As of 2013 in the United States, Vibrio infections as a whole were up 43% when compared with the rates observed in 2006–2008. V. vulnificus, the most severe strain, has not increased. Foodborne Vibrio infections are most often associated with eating raw shellfish.
V. parahaemolyticus is also associated with the Kanagawa phenomenon, in which strains isolated from human hosts (clinical isolates) are hemolytic on blood agar plates, while those isolated from nonhuman sources are not hemolytic.
Many Vibrio species are also zoonotic. They cause disease in fish and shellfish, and are common causes of mortality among domestic marine life.
Treatment
Medical care depends on the clinical presentation and the presence of underlying medical conditions.
Vibrio gastroenteritis
Because Vibrio gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required. Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy.
Although most Vibrio species are sensitive to antibiotics such as doxycycline or quinolones, antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or a quinolone can be initiated.
Noncholera Vibrio infections
Patients with noncholera Vibrio wound infection or sepsis are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:
Prompt initiation of effective antibiotic therapy (doxycycline or a quinolone)
Intensive medical therapy with aggressive fluid replacement and vasopressors for hypotension and septic shock to correct acid-base and electrolytes abnormalities that may be associated with severe sepsis
Early fasciotomy within 24 hours after development of clinical symptoms can be life-saving in patients with necrotizing fasciitis.
Early debridement of the infected wound has an important role in successful therapy and is especially indicated to avoid amputation of fingers, toes, or limbs.
Expeditious and serial surgical evaluation and intervention are required because patients may deteriorate rapidly, especially those with necrotizing fasciitis or compartment syndrome.
Reconstructive surgery, such as skin grafts, are used in the recovery phase.
Other strains
V. harveyi is a pathogen of several aquatic animals, and is notable as a cause of luminous vibriosis in shrimp (prawns). V. fischeri (or Aliivibrio fishceri) is known for its mutualistic symbiosis with the Hawaiian bobtail squid, which is dependent on microbial luminescence.
Flagella
The "typical", early-discovered Vibrio species, such as V. cholerae, have a single polar flagellum (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus, have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as V. fischeri, have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).
Natural transformation
Natural transformation is a common bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that employs numerous bacterial gene products. For a recipient bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiologic state. The DNA-uptake process of naturally competent V. cholerae involves an extended competence-induced pilus and a DNA-binding protein that acts as a rachet and reels DNA into the periplasm. Natural transformation has also been described for V. fisheri, V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus.
Small RNA
V. cholerae has been used in discoveries of many bacterial small RNAs. Using sRNA-Seq and Northern blot candidate sRNAs were identified and characterised as IGR-sRNA (intragenic region), AS-sRNAs (transcribed from the antisense strand of the [[open reading frame (ORF) and ORF-derived. One of the candidates from this study, IGR7, was shown to be involved in carbon metabolism and later renamed MtlS RNA. Other sRNAs identified in V. cholerae through genetic screens and computational methods include Qrr RNA, Vibrio regulatory RNA of OmpA, MicX sRNA, Vibrio cholerae ToxT activated RNAs, tfoR RNA, and VqmR sRNA.
See also
Cholera toxin
References
External links
Vibrio genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
Bacteriological Analytical Manual Online
Bacteria genera
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219947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayyubid%20dynasty | Ayyubid dynasty | The Ayyubid dynasty ( ; ) was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. A Sunni Muslim of Kurdish origin, Saladin had originally served Nur ad-Din of Syria, leading Nur ad-Din's army in battle against the Crusaders in Fatimid Egypt, where he was made Vizier. Following Nur ad-Din's death, Saladin was proclaimed as the first Sultan of Egypt, and rapidly expanded the new sultanate beyond the frontiers of Egypt to encompass most of the Levant (including the former territories of Nur ad-Din), in addition to Hijaz, Yemen, northern Nubia, Tarabulus, Cyrenaica, southern Anatolia, and northern Iraq, the homeland of his Kurdish family. By virtue of his sultanate including Hijaz, the location of the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, he was the first ruler to be hailed as the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, a title that would be held by all subsequent Sultans of Egypt until the Ottoman conquest of 1517. Saladin's military campaigns in the first decade of his rule, aimed at uniting the various Arab and Muslim states in the region against the Crusaders, set the general borders and sphere of influence of the Sultanate of Egypt for the almost three and a half centuries of its existence. Most of the Crusader states, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem, fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. However, the Crusaders reconquered the coast of Palestine in the 1190s.
After Saladin's death in 1193, his sons contested control of the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil ultimately became the Sultan in 1200. All of the later Ayyubid Sultans of Egypt were his descendants. In the 1230s, the emirs of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and the Ayyubid realm remained divided until Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored its unity by subduing most of Syria, except Aleppo, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hijaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After his death in 1249, as-Salih Ayyub was succeeded in Egypt by his son al-Mu'azzam Turanshah. However, the latter was soon overthrown by his Mamluk generals who had repelled a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt. Attempts by the emirs of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to wrest back Egypt failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and conquered the Ayyubids' remaining territories soon after. The Mamluks, who expelled the Mongols, maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341.
Despite their relatively short tenure, the Ayyubid dynasty had a transformative effect on the region, particularly Egypt. Under the Ayyubids, Egypt, which had previously been a formally Shi'a caliphate, became the dominant Sunni political and military force, and the economic and cultural centre of the region, a status that it would retain until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. Throughout the sultanate, Ayyubid rule ushered in an era of economic prosperity, and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the Islamic world. This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening Sunni Muslim dominance in the region by constructing numerous madrasas (Islamic schools of law) in their major cities. Even after being toppled by the Mamluks, the sultanate built by Saladin and the Ayyubids would continue in Egypt, the Levant and the Hijaz for another 267 years.
For his celebrated triumph over the Crusaders, the crowning achievement of which was the recapture of Jerusalem 99 years after the Crusaders themselves conquered the city from Fatimid Egypt, Saladin is today celebrated as a national hero in several countries that were part of his sultanate, chiefly Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and his birth place of Iraq, with each country, save for Syria, having his heraldic eagle as their national coat of arms.
History
Origins
The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty, Najm ad-Din Ayyub ibn Shadhi, belonged to the Kurdish Rawadiya tribe, itself a branch of the large Hadhabani tribe. Ayyub's ancestors settled in the town of Dvin, in northern Armenia. The Rawadiya were the dominant Kurdish group in the Dvin district, forming part of the political-military elite of the town.
Circumstances became unfavorable in Dvin when Turkish generals seized the town from its Kurdish prince. Shadhi left with his two sons Ayyub and Asad ad-Din Shirkuh. His friend Mujahid ad-Din Bihruz—the military governor of northern Mesopotamia under the Seljuks—welcomed him and appointed him governor of Tikrit. After Shadhi's death, Ayyub succeeded him in governance of the city with the assistance of his brother Shirkuh. Together they managed the affairs of the city well, gaining them popularity from the local inhabitants. In the meantime, Imad ad-Din Zangi, the ruler of Mosul, was defeated by the Abbasids under Caliph al-Mustarshid and Bihruz. In his bid to escape the battlefield to Mosul via Tikrit, Zangi took shelter with Ayyub and sought his assistance in this task. Ayyub complied and provided Zangi and his companions boats to cross the Tigris River and safely reach Mosul.
As a consequence for assisting Zangi, the Abbasid authorities sought punitive measures against Ayyub. Simultaneously, in a separate incident, Shirkuh killed a close confidant of Bihruz on charges that he had sexually assaulted a woman in Tikrit. The Abbasid court issued arrest warrants for both Ayyub and Shirkuh, but before the brothers could be arrested, they departed Tikrit for Mosul in 1138. When they arrived in Mosul, Zangi provided them with all the facilities they needed and he recruited the two brothers into his service. Ayyub was made commander of Ba'albek and Shirkuh entered the service of Zangi's son, Nur ad-Din. According to historian Abdul Ali, it was under the care and patronage of Zangi that the Ayyubid family rose to prominence.
Establishment in Egypt
In 1164, Nur al-Din dispatched Shirkuh to lead an expeditionary force to prevent the Crusaders from establishing a strong presence in an increasingly anarchic Egypt. Shirkuh enlisted Ayyub's son, Saladin, as an officer under his command. They successfully drove out Dirgham, the vizier of Egypt, and reinstated his predecessor Shawar. After being reinstated, Shawar ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt, but Shirkuh refused, claiming it was Nur al-Din's will that he remain. Over the course of several years, Shirkuh and Saladin defeated the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shawar's troops, first at Bilbais, then at a site near Giza, and in Alexandria, where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in Lower Egypt.
Shawar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier, but he too died later that year. After Shirkuh's death, Saladin was appointed vizier by the Fatimid caliph al-Adid because there was "no one weaker or younger" than Saladin, and "not one of the emirs obeyed him or served him", according to medieval Muslim chronicler Ibn al-Athir. Saladin soon found himself more independent than ever before in his career, much to the dismay of Nur al-Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt. He permitted Saladin's elder brother, Turan-Shah, to supervise Saladin in a bid to cause dissension within the Ayyubid family and thus undermining its position in Egypt. Nur al-Din satisfied Saladin's request that he be joined by his father Ayyub. However, Ayyub was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt, which Saladin was reluctant to undertake due to his position as the vizier of the Fatimids. Although Nur al-Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry, the extended Ayyubid family, particularly a number of local governors in Syria, did not entirely back Saladin.
Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after ordering Turan-Shah to put down a revolt in Cairo staged by the Fatimid army's 50,000-strong Nubian regiments. After this success, Saladin began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni Muslim influence in Shia Muslim-dominated Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the Maliki school of jurisprudence of Sunni Islam in the city, and another for the Shafi'i school, to which he belonged, in al-Fustat. In 1171, al-Adid died and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum, effectively taking control of the country. Upon seizing power, he switched Egypt's allegiance to the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam.
Expansion
Conquest of North Africa and Nubia
Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171–72 and found himself facing the dilemma of having many supporters in the city, but little money. A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar, Saladin's nephew, would launch an expedition against the coastal region of Barqa (Cyrenaica) west of Egypt with a force of 500 cavalry. In order to justify the raid, a letter was sent to the Bedouin tribes of Barqa, rebuking them for their robberies of travelers and ordering them to pay the alms-tax (zakat). The latter was to be collected from their livestock.
In late 1172, Aswan was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from Nubia and the governor of the city, Kanz al-Dawla—a former Fatimid loyalist—requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied. The reinforcements had come after the Nubians had already departed Aswan, but Ayyubid forces led by Turan-Shah advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of Ibrim. Turan-Shah and his Kurdish soldiers temporarily lodged there. From Ibrim, they raided the surrounding region, halting their operations after being presented with an armistice proposal from the Dongola-based Nubian king. Although Turan-Shah's initial response was hawkish, he later sent an envoy to Dongola, who upon returning, described the poverty of the city and of Nubia in general to Turan-Shah. Consequently, the Ayyubids, like their Fatimid predecessors, were discouraged from further southward expansion into Nubia due to the poverty of the region, but required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and Upper Egypt. The Ayyubid garrison in Ibrim withdrew to Egypt in 1175.
In 1174, Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush, a commander under al-Muzaffar Umar, conquered Tripoli from the Normans with an army of Turks and Bedouins. Subsequently, while some Ayyubid forces fought the Crusaders in the Levant, another of their armies, under Sharaf al-Din, wrested control of Kairouan from the Almohads in 1188.
Conquest of Arabia
In 1173, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer Yemen and the Hejaz. Muslim writers Ibn al-Athir and later al-Maqrizi wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear that should Egypt fall to Nur al-Din, they could seek refuge in a faraway territory. In May 1174, Turan-Shah conquered Zabid and later that year captured Aden. Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the Indian Ocean and the principal city of Yemen, although the official capital of Ayyubid Yemen was Ta'iz. The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure, the establishment of new institutions, and the minting of its own coins. Following this prosperity, the Ayyubids implemented a new tax which was collected by galleys.
Turan-Shah drove out the remaining Hamdanid rulers of Sana'a, conquering the mountainous city in 1175. With the conquest of Yemen, the Ayyubids developed a coastal fleet, al-asakir al-bahriyya, which they used to guard the sea coasts under their control and protect them from pirate raids. The conquest held great significance for Yemen because the Ayyubids managed to unite the previous three independent states (Zabid, Aden, and Sana'a) under a single power. However, when Turan-Shah was transferred from his governorship in Yemen in 1176, uprisings broke out in the territory and were not quelled until 1182 when Saladin assigned his other brother Tughtekin Sayf al-Islam as governor of Yemen. The Ayyubid na'ib (deputy governor) of Yemen, Uthman al-Zandjili, conquered the greater part of Hadramaut in 1180, upon Turan-Shah's return to Yemen.
From Yemen, as from Egypt, the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the Red Sea trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip over the Hejaz, where an important trade stop, Yanbu, was located. To favor trade in the direction of the Red Sea, the Ayyubids built facilities along the Red Sea-Indian Ocean trade routes to accompany merchants. The Ayyubids also aspired to back their claims of legitimacy within the Caliphate by having sovereignty over the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The conquests and economic advancements undertaken by Saladin effectively established Egypt's hegemony in the region.
Conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia
Although still nominally a vassal of Nur al-Din, Saladin adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy. This independence became more publicly pronounced after Nur al-Din's death in 1174. Thereafter, Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the Zengids, and on November 23 he was welcomed in Damascus by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of Hama and Homs, but failed to take Aleppo after besieging it. Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and Hama was given to Saladin's nephew, al-Muzaffar Umar. Saladin's successes alarmed Emir Saif al-Din of Mosul, the head of the Zengids at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to confront Saladin near Hama. Although heavily outnumbered, Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids. After his victory, Saladin proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of as-Salih Ismail al-Malik (Nur al-Din's adolescent son) in Friday prayers and Islamic coinage, replacing it with his own name. The Abbasid caliph, al-Mustadi, graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and gave him the title of "Sultan of Egypt and Syria".
In the spring of 1176, another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids, this time at the Sultan's Mound, from Aleppo. Saladin again emerged victorious, but Saif al-Din managed to narrowly escape. The Ayyubids proceeded to conquer other Syrian cities in the north, namely Ma'arat al-Numan, A'zaz, Buza'a, and Manbij, but failed to capture Aleppo during a second siege. An agreement was laid out, however, whereby Gumushtigin, the governor of Aleppo, and his allies at Hisn Kayfa and Mardin, would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of the Ayyubids' possessions in Syria, while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as-Salih al-Malik to continue their rule over Aleppo.
While Saladin was in Syria, his brother al-Adil governed Egypt, and in 1174–75, Kanz al-Dawla of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule. His main backers were the local Bedouin tribes and the Nubians, but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups, including the Armenians. Coincidental or possibly in coordination, was an uprising by Abbas ibn Shadi who overran Qus along the Nile River in central Egypt. Both rebellions were crushed by al-Adil. For the rest of that year and throughout early 1176, Qaraqush continued his raids in western North Africa, bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the Almohads who ruled the Maghreb.
In 1177, Saladin led a force of some 26,000 soldiers, according to Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, into southern Palestine after hearing that most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem's soldiers were besieging Harem, Syria west of Aleppo. Suddenly attacked by the Templars under Baldwin IV of Jerusalem near Ramla, the Ayyubid army was defeated at the Battle of Montgisard, with the majority of its troops killed. Saladin encamped at Homs the following year and a number of skirmishes between his forces, commanded by Farrukh Shah, and the Crusaders occurred. Undeterred, Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and defeated Baldwin at the Battle of Marj Ayyun in 1179. The following year, he destroyed the newly built Crusader castle of Chastellet at the Battle of Jacob's Ford. In the campaign of 1182, he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive Battle of Belvoir Castle in Kawkab al-Hawa.
In May 1182, Saladin captured Aleppo after a brief siege; the new governor of the city, Imad al-Din Zangi II, had been unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore Zangi II's previous control over Sinjar, Raqqa, and Nusaybin, which would thereafter serve as vassal territories of the Ayyubids. Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on 12 June. The day after, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held Antioch and captured the city when its garrison forced out their leader, Surhak, who was then briefly detained and released by al-Muzaffar Umar. The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin's allegiance with Zangi II had left Izz al-Din al-Mas'ud of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids. Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182, but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph an-Nasir, Saladin withdrew his forces. Mas'ud attempted to align himself with the Artuqids of Mardin, but they became allies of Saladin instead. In 1183, Irbil too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids. Mas'ud then sought the support of Pahlawan ibn Muhammad, the governor of Azerbaijan, and although he did not usually intervene in the region, the possibility of Pahlawan's intervention made Saladin cautious about launching further attacks against Mosul.
An arrangement was negotiated whereby al-Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin's son al-Afdal, while Egypt would be governed by al-Muzaffar Umar in the name of Saladin's other son Uthman. When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories, but if any died, one of Saladin's brothers would take their place. In the summer of 1183, after ravaging eastern Galilee, Saladin's raids there culminated in the Battle of al-Fule in the Jezreel Valley between him and the Crusaders under Guy of Lusignan. The mostly hand-to-hand fighting ended indecisively. The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters, Saladin captured the Golan Plateau, cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source. In October 1183 and then on 13 August 1184, Saladin and al-Adil besieged Crusader-held Karak, but were unable to capture it. Afterward, the Ayyubids raided Samaria, burning down Nablus. Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and a relative peace between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire subsequently ensued in 1184–1185.
Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas'ud, but failed due to the city's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to Harran. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested.
Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan
Saladin besieged Tiberias in the eastern Galilee on 3 July 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of Kafr Kanna. After hearing of the Crusaders' march, Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at Kafr Sabt, leaving a small detachment at Tiberias. With a clear view of the Crusader army, Saladin ordered al-Muzaffar Umar to block the Crusaders' entry from Hattin by taking a position near Lubya, while Gökböri and his troops were stationed at a hill near al-Shajara. On 4 July the Crusaders advanced toward the Horns of Hattin and charged against the Muslim forces, but were overwhelmed and defeated decisively. Four days after the battle, Saladin invited al-Adil to join him in the reconquest of Palestine, Galilee and Lebanese coast. On 8 July the Crusader stronghold of Acre was captured by Saladin, while his forces seized Nazareth and Saffuriya; other brigades took Haifa, Caesarea, Sebastia and Nablus, while al-Adil conquered Mirabel and Jaffa. On 26 July, Saladin returned to the coast and received the surrender of Sarepta, Sidon, Beirut, and Jableh. In August, the Ayyubids conquered Ramla, Darum, Gaza, Bayt Jibrin, and Latrun. Ascalon was taken on 4 September. In September–October 1187, the Ayyubids besieged Jerusalem, taking possession of it on 2 October, after negotiations with Balian of Ibelin.
Karak and Mont Real in Transjordan soon fell, followed by Safad in the northeastern Galilee. By the end of 1187 the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the Levant with the exception of Tyre, which held out under Conrad of Montferrat. In December 1187, an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo, Hama, and Egypt besieged Tyre. Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad's forces on 29 December, followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city. On 1 January 1188, Saladin held a war council where a withdrawal from Tripoli was agreed.
Third Crusade
Pope Gregory VIII called for a Third Crusade against the Muslims in early 1189. Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lionheart of England formed an alliance to reconquer Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements from Europe. From 1189 to 1191, Acre was besieged by the Crusaders, and despite initial Muslim successes, it fell to Crusader forces. A massacre of 2,700 Muslim prisoners of war ensued, and the Crusaders then made plans to take Ascalon in the south.
The Crusaders, now under the unified command of Richard, defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf, allowing for the Crusader conquest of Jaffa and much of coastal Palestine, but they were unable to recover the interior regions. Instead, Richard signed a treaty with Saladin in 1192, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut. It was the last major war effort of Saladin's career, as he died the next year, in 1193.
Quarrels over the sultanate
Rather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among his kinsmen, with family members presiding over semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities. Although these princes (emirs) owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, they maintained relative independence in their own territories. Upon Saladin's death, az-Zahir took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and al-Aziz Uthman held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus, which also included Palestine and much of Mount Lebanon. Al-Adil then acquired al-Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay. In 1193, Mas'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi II of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to conquer al-Jazira. However, before any major results could be achieved, Mas'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul, and al-Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids. Al-Adil's son al-Mu'azzam took possession of Karak and Transjordan.
Soon, however, Saladin's sons squabbled over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal to the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the jihad (struggle) against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his father's subordinate emirs left the city for Cairo to lobby Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and intended to oust the Ayyubid old guard. Al-Adil further encouraged Uthman to act in order prevent al-Afdal's incompetence putting the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Thus, in 1194, Uthman openly demanded the sultanate. Uthman's claim to the throne was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a lesser post at Salkhad. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of Uthman, but wielded great influence within the empire.
When Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan (although Uthman's son al-Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt), al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. Al-Adil returned and managed to occupy the Citadel of Damascus, but then faced a strong assault from the combined forces of al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir of Aleppo. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil resumed his offensive. Upon Uthman's death, two clans of mamluks (slave soldiers) entered into conflict. They were the Asadiyya and Salahiyya, both of which Shirkuh and Saladin had purchased. The Salahiyya backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200, and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment. He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son al-Kamil. Also around 1200, a sharif (tribal head related to the Islamic prophet Muhammad), Qatada ibn Idris, seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the emir of the city by al-Adil.
Al-Afdal attempted unsuccessfully to take Damascus his final time. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201. Thereafter, al-Adil's line, rather than Saladin's line, dominated the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule. However, az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given Samosata in Anatolia. Al-Adil redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, al-Ashraf received al-Jazira, and al-Awhad was given Diyar Bakr, but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after al-Awhad died.
Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the Hanbali lobby in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. Al-Adil believed that the Crusader army could not be defeated in a direct fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Muslim coalition. The trend under al-Adil was the steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and incorporation of Shah-Armen domains (in eastern Anatolia). The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207.
By 1208 Kingdom of Georgia challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia and besieged Khilat (possessions of al-Awhad). In response al-Adil assembled and personally led large Muslim army that included the emirs of Homs, Hama and Baalbek as well as contingents from other Ayyubid principalities to support al-Awhad. During the siege, Georgian general Ivane Mkhargrdzeli accidentally fell into the hands of the al-Awhad on the outskirts of Khilat and was released in 1210, only after the Georgians agreed to sign a Thirty Years' Truce. The truce ended the Georgian menace to Ayyubid Armenia, leaving the Lake Van region to the Ayyubids of Damascus.
A Crusader military campaign was launched on 3 November 1217, beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he rejected his son's proposal. In 1218, the fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta was besieged by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on 25 August. Six days later al-Adil died of apparent shock at Damietta's loss.
Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake Damietta, but was forced back by John of Brienne. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for a withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak. This was refused by the leader of the Fifth Crusade, Pelagius of Albano, and in 1221, the Crusaders were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at Mansura.
Disintegration
Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem
In the east, the Khwarezemids under Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu captured the town of Khilat from al-Ashraf, while the traditionally loyalist Rasulids began to encroach on Ayyubid holdings in Arabia. In 1222 the Ayyubids appointed the Rasulid leader Ali ibn Rasul as governor of Mecca. Ayyubid rule in Yemen and the Hejaz was declining and the Ayyubid governor of Yemen, Mas'ud ibn Kamil, was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223. He appointed Nur ad-Din Umar as his deputy governor while he was absent. In 1224 a local dynasty gained control of Hadramaut from the Ayyubids, whose control of it had been weakened due to their troubled situation in Yemen proper. Following Mas'ud ibn Kamil's death in 1229, Nur ad-Din Umar declared his independence and discontinued the annual tribute payment to the Ayyubids in Egypt.
Under Frederick II, a Sixth Crusade was launched, capitalizing on the ongoing strife between al-Kamil of Egypt and al-Mu'azzam of Syria. Subsequently, al-Kamil offered Jerusalem to Frederick to help prevent a Syrian invasion of Egypt, but Frederick refused. Al-Kamil's position was strengthened when al-Mu'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son an-Nasir Dawud. Al-Kamil continued negotiations with Frederick in Acre in 1228, leading to a truce signed in February 1229. The agreement gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, but also guaranteed Muslim control over Islamic holy places in the city. Although the treaty held little military significance, an-Nasir Dawud used it as a pretext to provoke the sentiments of Syria's inhabitants. A Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the Umayyad Mosque "reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears".
The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed redistribution of the Ayyubid principalities whereby Damascus and its territories would by governed by al-Ashraf, who recognized al-Kamil's sovereignty. An-Nasir Dawud resisted, incensed by the Ayyubid-Crusader truce. Al-Kamil's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229. The ensuing siege levied significant pressure on the inhabitants, but they rallied to an-Nasir Dawud, having been supportive of his father's stable rule and angered at the treaty with Frederick. After one month, an-Nasir Dawud sued for peace and was granted a new principality, centered around Karak, while al-Ashraf, the governor of Diyar Bakr, assumed the governorship of Damascus.
Meanwhile, the Seljuks were advancing towards al-Jazira. The descendants of Qatada ibn Idris challenged Ayyubid rule in Mecca. The Rasulids took advantage of this to end Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the region under their control, which they accomplished in 1238 when Nur al-Din Umar captured Mecca.
Syro-Egyptian divide
Al-Ashraf's rule in Damascus was stable, but he and the other emirs of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo. Amid these tensions, al-Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four-month illness and was succeeded by his brother as-Salih Ismail. Two months later, al-Kamil's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus, but as-Salih Ismail had destroyed the suburbs of the city to deny al-Kamil's forces shelter. In 1232, al-Kamil installed his eldest son as-Salih Ayyub to govern Hisn Kayfa, but upon al-Kamil's death in 1238, as-Salih Ayyub disputed the proclamation of younger brother al-Adil II as sultan in Cairo. As-Salih Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238, but his uncle Ismail retrieved the city in September 1239. Ismail's cousin an-Nasir Dawud had Ismail detained in Karak in a move to prevent the latter's arrest by al-Adil II. Ismail entered into an alliance with Dawud who released him the following year, allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al-Adil II in May 1240.
Throughout the early 1240s, as-Salih Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al-Adil II, and he then quarreled with an-Nasir Dawud who had reconciled with as-Salih Ismail of Damascus. The rival sultans as-Salih Ayyub and Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other. In 1244, the breakaway Ayyubids of Syria allied with the Crusaders and confronted the coalition of as-Salih Ayyub and the Khwarizmids at Hirbiya, near Gaza. A large battle ensued, resulting in a major victory for as-Salih Ayyub and the virtual collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Restoration of unity
In 1244–1245, as-Salih Ayyub had seized the area approximate to the modern-day West Bank from an-Nasir Dawud; he gained possession of Jerusalem, then marched on to take Damascus, which fell with relative ease in October 1245. Shortly afterward, Sayf al-Din Ali surrendered his exposed principality of Ajlun and its fortress to as-Salih Ayyub. The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and as-Salih Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by al-Mansur Ibrahim, the Ayyubid emir of Homs, in October 1246. With the Khwarizimid defeat, as-Salih Ayyub was able to complete the conquest of southern Syria. His general Fakhr ad-Din went on to subdue an-Nasir Dawud's territories. He sacked the lower town of Karak, then besieged its fortress. A stalemate followed with neither an-Nasir Dawud or Fakhr ad-Din strong enough to dislodge the other's forces. A settlement was eventually reached whereby an-Nasir Dawud would retain the fortress, but cede the remainder of his principality to as-Salih Ayyub. Having settled the situation in Palestine and Transjordan, Fakhr ad-Din moved north and marched to Bosra, the last place still held by Ismail. During the siege, Fakhr ad-Din fell ill, but his commanders continued the assault against the city, which fell in December 1246.
By May 1247, as-Salih Ayyub was master of Syria south of Lake Homs, having gained control over Banyas and Salkhad. With his fellow Ayyubid opponents subdued, except for Aleppo under an-Nasir Yusuf, as-Salih Ayyub undertook a limited offensive against the Crusaders, sending Fakhr ad-Din to move against their territories in the Galilee. Tiberias fell on 16 June, followed by Mount Tabor and Kawkab al-Hawa soon thereafter. Safad with its Templar fortress seemed out of reach, so the Ayyubids marched south to Ascalon. Facing stubborn resistance from the Crusader garrison, an Egyptian flotilla was sent by as-Salih Ayyub to support the siege and on 24 October, Fakhr ad-Din's troops stormed through a breach in the walls and killed or captured the entire garrison. The city was razed and left deserted.
As-Salih Ayyub returned to Damascus to keep an eye on developments in northern Syria. Al-Ashraf Musa of Homs had ceded the important stronghold of Salamiyah to as-Salih Ayyub the previous winter, perhaps to underline their patron-client relationship. This troubled the Ayyubids of Aleppo who feared it would be used as a base for a military take-over of their city. An-Nasir Yusuf found this intolerable and decided to annex Homs in the winter of 1248. The city surrendered in August and an-Nasir Yusuf's terms forced al-Ashraf Musa to hand over Homs, but he was allowed to retain nearby Palmyra and Tell Bashir in the Syrian Desert. As-Salih Ayyub sent Fakhr ad-Din to recapture Homs, but Aleppo countered by sending an army to Kafr Tab, south of the city. An-Nasir Dawud left Karak for Aleppo to support an-Nasir Yusuf, but in his absence, his brothers al-Amjad Hasan and az-Zahir Shadhi detained his heir al-Mu'azzam Isa and then personally went to as-Salih Ayyub's camp at al-Mansourah in Egypt to offer him control of Karak in return for holdings in Egypt. As-Salih Ayyub agreed and sent the eunuch Badr al-Din Sawabi to act as his governor in Karak.
Fall
Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt
In 1248, a Crusader fleet of 1,800 boats and ships arrived in Cyprus with the intent of launching a Seventh Crusade against the Muslims by conquering Egypt. Their commander, Louis IX, attempted to enlist the Mongols to launch a coordinated attack on Egypt, but when this failed to materialize, the Crusader force sailed to Damietta and the local population there fled as soon as they landed. When as-Salih Ayyub, who was in Syria at the time, heard of this, he rushed back to Egypt, avoiding Damietta, instead reaching Mansurah. There, he organized an army and raised a commando force which harassed the Crusaders.
As-Salih Ayyub was ill and his health deteriorated further due to the mounting pressure from the Crusader offensive. His wife Shajar al-Durr called a meeting of all the war generals and thus became commander-in-chief of the Egyptian forces. She ordered the fortification of Mansurah and then stored large quantities of provisions and concentrated her forces there. She also organized a fleet of war galleys and scattered them at various strategic points along the Nile River. Crusader attempts to capture Mansurah were thwarted and King Louis found himself in a critical position. He managed to cross the Nile to launch a surprise attack against Mansurah. Meanwhile, as-Salih Ayyub died, but Shajar al-Durr and as-Salih Ayyub's Bahri Mamluk generals, including Rukn al-Din Baybars and Aybak, countered the assault and inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders. Simultaneously, Egyptian forces cut off the Crusader's line of supply from Damietta, preventing the arrival of reinforcements. As-Salih Ayyub's son and the newly proclaimed Ayyubid sultan al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah reached Mansurah at this point and intensified the battle against the Crusaders. The latter ultimately surrendered at the Battle of Fariskur, and King Louis and his companions were arrested.
Al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah alienated the Mamluks soon after their victory at Mansurah and constantly threatened them and Shajar al-Durr. Fearing for their positions of power, the Bahri Mamluks revolted against the sultan and killed him in April 1250. Aybak married Shajar al-Durr and subsequently took over the government in Egypt in the name of al-Ashraf II who became sultan, but only nominally.
Dominance of Aleppo
Intent on restoring the supremacy of Saladin's direct descendants within the Ayyubid family, an-Nasir Yusuf was eventually able to enlist the backing of all of the Syria-based Ayyubid emirs in a common cause against Mamluk-dominated Egypt. By 1250, he took Damascus with relative ease and except for Hama and Transjordan, an-Nasir Yusuf's direct authority stood unbroken from the Khabur River in northern Mesopotamia to the Sinai Peninsula. In December 1250, he attacked Egypt after hearing of al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's death and the ascension of Shajar al-Durr. An-Nasir Yusuf's army was much larger and better-equipped than that of the Egyptian army, consisting of the forces of Aleppo, Homs, Hama, and those of Saladin's only surviving sons, Nusrat ad-Din and Turan-Shah ibn Salah ad-Din. Nonetheless, it suffered a major defeat at the hands of Aybak's forces. An-Nasir Yusuf subsequently returned to Syria, which was slowly slipping out of his control.
The Mamluks forged an alliance with the Crusaders in March 1252 and agreed to jointly launch a campaign against an-Nasir Yusuf. King Louis, who had been released after al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's murder, led his army to Jaffa, while Aybak intended to send his forces to Gaza. Upon hearing of the alliance, an-Nasir Yusuf immediately dispatched a force to Tell al-Ajjul, just outside Gaza, in order to prevent the junction of the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ayyubid army was stationed in the Jordan Valley. Realizing that a war between them would greatly benefit the Crusaders, Aybak and an-Nasir Yusuf accepted Abbasid mediation via Najm ad-Din al-Badhirai. In April 1253, a treaty was signed whereby the Mamluks would retain control over all of Egypt and Palestine up to, but not including, Nablus, while an-Nasir Yusuf would be confirmed as the ruler of Muslim Syria. Thus, Ayyubid rule was officially ended in Egypt. After conflict arose between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids reignited, al-Badhirai arranged another treaty, this time giving an-Nasir Yusuf control of the Mamluks' territories in Palestine and al-Arish in Sinai. Instead of placing Ayyubids in charge, however, an-Nasir Yusuf handed Jerusalem to a Mamluk named Kutuk while Nablus and Jenin were given to Baibars.
For over a year after the settlement with the Mamluks, calm settled over an-Nasir Yusuf's reign, but on 11 December 1256 he sent two envoys to the Abbasids in Baghdad seeking formal investiture from the caliph, al-Musta'sim, for his role as "Sultan". This request was connected to an-Nasir's rivalry with Aybak, as the title would be useful in future disputes with the Mamluks. However, the Mamluks had sent their envoys to Baghdad previously to precisely ensure that an-Nasir Yusuf would not gain the title, putting al-Musta'sim in a difficult position.
In early 1257, Aybak was killed in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son, al-Mansur Ali, while Saif ad-Din Qutuz held an influential position. Soon after al-Mansur Ali's ascendancy rumors of another conspiracy to which an-Nasir Yusuf had an alleged connection emerged. The accused conspirator, al-Mansur Ali's vizier, Sharaf ad-Din al-Fa'izi, was strangled by Egyptian authorities. The Bahri Mamluks in Syria led by Baibars pressured an-Nasir Yusuf to intervene by invading Egypt, but he would not act, fearing the Bahri dynasty would usurp his throne if they gained Egypt.
Karak asserts independence
Relations between an-Nasir Yusuf and the Bahri Mamluks grew tense after the former refused to invade Egypt. In October 1257, Baibars and his fellow Mamluks left Damascus or were expelled from the city and together they moved south to Jerusalem. When the governor Kutuk refused to aid them against an-Nasir Yusuf, Baibars deposed him and had al-Mugith Umar, the emir of Karak, pronounced in the khutba at the al-Aqsa Mosque; over the years, al-Mugith Umar had allowed the political dissidents of Cairo and Damascus, who sought protection from either the Mamluk and Ayyubid authorities, a safe haven within his territory.
Soon after gaining Jerusalem, Baibars conquered Gaza and an-Nasir Yusuf sent his army to Nablus in response. A battle ensued and the Mamluks ultimately fled across the Jordan River to the Balqa area. From there they reached Zughar at the southern tip of the Dead Sea where they sent their submission to Karak. Al-Mughith Umar's new relationship with Baibars solidified his independence from an-Nasir Yusuf's Syria. To ensure his independence, al-Mughith Umar began to distribute the territories of Palestine and Transjordan among the Bahri Mamluks. The new allies assembled a small army and headed for Egypt. In spite of initial gains in Palestine and al-Arish, they withdrew after seeing how overwhelmingly outnumbered they were by the Egyptian army. Al-Mughith Umar and Baibars were not discouraged, however, and launched an army 1,500 regular cavalry to Sinai at the beginning of 1258, but again were defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt.
Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire
The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the Mongol Empire after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244. An-Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital Karakorum in 1250, shortly after assuming power. These understandings did not last, however, and the Mongol Great Khan, Möngke, issued a directive to his brother Hulagu to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River. The latter raised an army of 120,000 and in 1258, sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants, including Caliph al-Musta'sim and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city. That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols.
An-Nasir Yusuf sent a delegation to Hulagu afterward, repeating his protestations to submission. Hulagu refused to accept the terms and so an-Nasir Yusuf called on Cairo for aid. This plea coincided with a successful coup by the Cairo-based Mamluks against the remaining symbolic Ayyubid leadership in Egypt, with strongman Qutuz officially taking power. Meanwhile, an Ayyubid army was assembled at Birzeh, just north of Damascus to defend the city against the Mongols who were now marching towards northern Syria. Aleppo was soon besieged within a week and in January 1260 it fell to the Mongols. The Great Mosque and the Citadel of Aleppo were razed and most of the inhabitants were killed or sold into slavery. The destruction of Aleppo caused panic in Muslim Syria; The Ayyubid emir of Homs, al-Ashraf Musa, offered to ally with Mongols at the approach of their army and was allowed to continue governance of the city by Hulagu. Hama also capitulated without resisting, but did not join forces with the Mongols. An-Nasir Yusuf opted to flee Damascus to seek protection in Gaza.
Hulagu departed for Karakorum and left Kitbuqa, a Nestorian Christian general, to continue the Mongol conquest. Damascus capitulated after the arrival of the Mongol army, but was not sacked like other captured Muslim cities. However, from Gaza, an-Nasir Yusuf managed to rally the small garrison he left in the Citadel of Damascus to rebel against the Mongol occupation. The Mongols retaliated by launching a massive artillery assault on the citadel and when it became apparent that an-Nasir Yusuf was unable to relieve the city with a newly assembled army, the garrison surrendered.
The Mongols proceeded by conquering Samaria, killing most of the Ayyubid garrison in Nablus, and then advanced south, as far as Gaza, unhindered. An-Nasir Yusuf was soon captured by the Mongols and used to persuade the garrison at Ajlun to capitulate. Afterward, the junior Ayyubid governor of Banyas allied with the Mongols, who had now gained control of most of Syria and al-Jazira, effectively ending Ayyubid power in the region. On 3 September 1260, the Egypt-based Mamluk army led by Qutuz and Baibars challenged Mongol authority and decisively defeated their forces in the Battle of Ain Jalut, outside of Zir'in in the Jezreel Valley. Five days later, the Mamluks took Damascus and within a month, most of Syria was in Bahri Mamluk hands. Meanwhile, an-Nasir Yusuf was killed in captivity.
Remnants of the dynasty
Many of the Ayyubid emirs of Syria were discredited by Qutuz for collaborating with the Mongols, but since al-Ashraf Musa defected and fought alongside the Mamluks at Ain Jalut, he was allowed to continue his rule over Homs. Al-Mansur of Hama had fought alongside the Mamluks from the start of their conquest and because of this, Hama continued to be ruled by the Ayyubid descendants of al-Muzaffar Umar. After al-Ashraf Musa's death in 1262, the new Mamluk sultan, Baibars, annexed Homs. The next year, al-Mughith Umar was tricked into surrendering Karak to Baibars and was executed soon after for having previously sided with the Mongols.
The last Ayyubid ruler of Hama died in 1299 and Hama briefly passed through direct Mamluk suzerainty. However, in 1310, under the patronage of the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, Hama was restored to the Ayyubids under the well-known geographer and author Abu al-Fida. The latter died in 1331 and was succeeded by his son al-Afdal Muhammad, who eventually lost the favor of his Mamluk overlords. He was removed from his post in 1341 and Hama was formally placed under Mamluk rule.
In southeastern Anatolia, the Ayyubids continued to rule the principality of Hisn Kayfa and managed to remain an autonomous entity, independent of the Mongol Ilkhanate, which ruled northern Mesopotamia until the 1330s. After the breakup of the Ilkhanate, their former vassals in the area, the Artuqids, waged war against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa in 1334, but were decisively defeated, with the Ayyubids gaining the Artuqids' possessions on the left bank of the Tigris River. In the 14th century, the Ayyubids rebuilt the castle of Hisn Kayfa which served as their stronghold. The Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa were vassals of the Mamluks and later the Dulkadirids until being supplanted by the Ottoman Empire in the early 16th century.
Government
Structure
Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. a confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule. Under this arrangement there existed numerous "petty sultans" while one family member, as-Sultan al-Mu'azzam, reigned supreme. After the death of Saladin, this coveted position became open to whoever was strong enough to seize it. Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other. Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions. In Syria, each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member, while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo. It was Baghdad, seat of the Caliphate, however, that exercised cultural and political hegemony over the Ayyubid territories, particularly those in Southwest Asia. For instance, the qadi ("chief justice") of Damascus was still appointed by the Abbasids during Ayyubid rule.
Political power was concentrated in the Ayyubid household which was not necessarily characterized only by blood relation; slaves and intimates could acquire great, and even supreme power within it. It was a common occurrence for the mothers of young Ayyubid rulers to act as independent powers or in a few cases, rulers in their own right. Eunuchs exercised substantial power under the Ayyubids, serving as attendants and atabegs within the household or as emirs, governors, and army commanders outside the household. One of Saladin's most important supporters was the eunuch Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad who helped him depose the Fatimids, dispossess their properties, and construct the wall of Cairo's citadel. Following the death of al-Aziz Uthman, he became the regent of his son al-Mansur and effectively ruled over Egypt for a short time before the arrival of al-Adil. Later sultans appointed eunuchs as deputy sultans and even awarded them sovereignty over certain cities, such as Shams al-Din Sawab who was given the Jaziran cities of Amid and Diyar Bakr in 1239.
The Ayyubids had three principal means of recruiting the educated elites whom they needed to administer their cities and towns. Some of these local leaders, known as shaykhs, entered the service of an Ayyubid ruling household and thus their bids for power were supported from Ayyubid household revenues and influence. Others were paid directly out of revenues made from the diwan, a high governmental body of the state. The third method was assignment to the shaykhs of the revenues of charitable endowments, known as waqfs. The Ayyubids, like their various predecessors in the region, had relatively few state agencies by which they could penetrate their cities and towns. To link themselves with the educated elite of their cities, they relied on the political usage of patronage practices. The assignment of waqf revenue to this elite was similar to the assignment of fiefs (iqta'at) to the commanders and generals of the army. In both cases, it enabled the Ayyubids to recruit a dependent, but not administratively subordinate elite.
Following their conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, the Ayyubids under Saladin may have been the first to establish the position of amir al-hajj (commander of the pilgrimage) to protect the annual Hajj caravans leaving Damascus for Mecca with the appointment of Tughtakin ibn Ayyub to the office.
Seat of government
The seat of Ayyubid government from Saladin's rule from the 1170s up to al-Adil's reign in 1218 had been Damascus. The city provided a strategic advantage in the constant war with the Crusaders and allowed the sultan to keep an eye on his relatively ambitious vassals in Syria and al-Jazira. Cairo was too remote to serve as a base of operations, but had always served as the economic foundation of the empire. This rendered the city a critical constituent in the repertoire of the Ayyubid possessions. When Saladin was proclaimed sultan in Cairo in 1171, he chose the Fatimid-built Lesser Western Palace (part of a larger palace complex in Cairo isolated from the urban sprawl) as the seat of government. Saladin himself resided in the former Fatimid vizier palace, Turan-Shah took up a former Fatimid prince's living quarter, and their father occupied the Pearl Pavilion which was situated outside of Cairo overlooking the city's canal. The successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt would live in the Lesser Western Palace.
After al-Adil I seized the throne in Cairo and with it the sultanate of the Ayyubid oligarchy, the period of rivalry between Damascus and Cairo to become capital of the Ayyubid empire commenced. Under al-Adil and al-Kamil, Damascus continued as an autonomous province whose ruler reserved the right to designate his own heir, but during as-Salih Ayyub's rule, military campaigns against Syria reduced Damascus to a vassal of Cairo. In addition, Ayyub established new rules both in administration and government in order to centralize his regime; he conferred the most prominent positions of the state to his close confidants, instead of his Ayyubid relatives. His wife Shajar al-Durr, for example, managed the affairs of Egypt while he was in Syria. Ayyub officially delegated his authority to his dead son Khalil and made al-Durr act formally on Khalil's behalf.
Demographics
Religion, ethnicity and language
By the 12th century, Islam was the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is not certain, however, if it was the religion of the majority outside the Arabian Peninsula. Arabic was the language of high culture and of the urban population, although other languages dating to pre-Islamic rule were still being used to a certain extent. Most Egyptians were speaking Arabic by the time the Ayyubids took power there.
Kurdish was the mother tongue of the early Ayyubids, at the time of their departure from Dvin. Sultan Saladin spoke both Arabic and Kurdish, and likely Turkish as well. There was a strong ethnic consciousness between the Ayyubids and other Kurds. According to the historian R. Stephen Humphreys, Saladin obtained the Fatimid vizierate partly on the strength of it. Kurdish ethnic consciousness was reinforced by the existence of ethnic friction. After Shirkuh's death, Saladin's close associate Diya' al-Din Isa al-Hakkari, a Kurd, visited the leaders of each faction contending for power to try to win them over to the election of Saladin, and to one Kurdish emir, Qutb al-Din Khusrau ibn al-Talal, he used the following argument: "Verily, everybody is for Saladin except you and al-Yaruqi [a Turkmen amir from the north Syrian Yürük tribe]. What is needed now, above all, is an understanding between you and Saladin, especially because of his Kurdish origin, so that the command does not go from him to the Turks." Within a few months of Saladin's election, all the Turkish amirs had returned to Syria save those in the late Shirkuh's Asadiyya corps. Saladin was at least twice subjected to taunts about his Kurdish origins by the Turkish soldiers of Mosul.
According to Yasser Tabbaa, an anthropologist specializing in medieval Islamic culture, the Ayyubid rulers who reigned in the late 12th-century were far removed from their Kurdish origins, and unlike their Seljuq predecessors and their Mamluk successors, they were firmly "Arabized." Arabic culture and language formed the main component of their identity instead of their Kurdish heritage. Arabic surnames were much more prevalent among the Ayyubids, a tribe that had already been partially assimilated into the Arabic-speaking world before its members came to power, than non-Arabic names. Some exceptions included the non-Arabic surname Turan-Shah. Most of the Ayyubid rulers spoke fluent Arabic and a number of them, such as az-Zahir Ghazi, al-Mu'azzam Isa and the minor emirs of Hama, composed Arabic poetry.
Kurds and Turks dominated the cavalry and nomadic Turcomans and Arabs filled the ranks of the infantry. These groups typically settled in the pastoral areas outside of the cities, the centers of cultural life, and as such they were relatively isolated from the Arabic-dominant urban environment. This isolation allowed them to preserve their traditions. Like their Fatimid predecessors, the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt maintained a substantial force of mamluks (military slaves). By the first half of the 13th century mamluks were mostly drawn from Kipchak Turks and Circassians and there is strong evidence that these forces continued to speak Kipchak Turkish.
In Egypt, there were large communities of Coptic Christians, Melkites, Turks, Armenians, and Black Africans—the latter two groups had a large presence in Upper Egypt. Under the Fatimids, non-Muslims in Egypt generally prospered, with the exception of Caliph al-Hakim's reign. However, with Shirkuh's ascendancy to the vizier position, a number edicts were enacted against the non-Muslim population. With the advent of the Syrian expeditionary force (consisting of Oghuz Turks and Kurds) into Egypt, waves of maltreatment of minorities occurred, irrespective of religion. These incidents occurred while Shirkuh and Saladin were viziers to the Fatimid caliph.
At the beginning of Saladin's reign as sultan in Egypt, upon the encouragement of his adviser, Qadi al-Fadil, Christians were prohibited from employment in the fiscal administration, but various Ayyubid emirs continued to allow Christians to serve in their posts. A number of other regulations were imposed, including the bans on alcohol consumption, religious processions, and the ringing of church bells. Conversion of formerly high-ranking Christians and their families to Islam took place throughout the early period of Ayyubid rule. According to historian Yaakov Lev, the persecution of non-Muslims had some permanent effects on them, but nonetheless, the effects were local and contained. To manage Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids permitted Europeans—mainly Italians, but also French and Catalans—to settle in Alexandria in large numbers. However, in the aftermath of the Fifth Crusade, 3,000 merchants from the area were arrested or expelled.
The majority of Syria's population in the 12th century consisted of Sunni Muslims, typically from Arab or Kurdish backgrounds. There were also sizable Muslim communities of Twelver Shias, Druzes, and Alawites. The Ismaili presence was small and most were of Persian origin, having migrated from Alamut. They mostly resided in the mountainous area near the northern Syrian coastline. Large Christian communities existed in northern Syria, Palestine, Transjordan and Upper Mesopotamia. They were Aramaic-speaking and indigenous to the area, mostly belonging to the Syriac Orthodox Church. They lived in villages of Christian or mixed Christian and Muslim population, monasteries, and in small towns where they appear to have been on friendly terms with their Muslim neighbors. Ideologically, they were led by the Patriarch of Antioch.
In Yemen and Hadramaut, much of the population adhered to Shia Islam in its Zaydi form. The inhabitants of Upper Mesopotamia were made up of Sunni Muslim Kurds and Turks, although there was a significant Yazidi minority in that region as well. Jews were spread throughout the Islamic world and most Ayyubid cities had Jewish communities due to the important roles Jews played in trade, manufacture, finance, and medicine. In Yemen and some parts of Syria, Jews also lived in rural towns. The Ayyubid emir of Yemen in 1197–1202, al-Malik Mu'izz Isma'il, attempted to forcibly convert the Jews of Aden, but this process ceased after his death in 1202. Within the Jewish community, particularly in Egypt and Palestine, there existed a minority of Karaites.
The Ayyubids generally employed Kurds, Turks, and people from the Caucasus for the higher-ranking posts of the military and bureaucratic fields. Not much is known about the foot soldiers of the Ayyubid army, but the numbers of cavalrymen are known to have fluctuated between 8,500 and 12,000. The cavalry was largely composed of free-born Kurds and Turks whom Ayyubid emirs and sultans purchased as military slaves or mamluks; in the early days of the Ayyubids, there was also a large contingent of Turkomans. In addition, there existed Arab auxiliaries, former Fatimid units such as the Nubians, and separate Arab contingents—notably from the Kinaniyya tribe, who were largely devoted to the defense of Egypt. Rivalry between Kurdish and Turkish troops occurred occasionally when leading positions were at stake and towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Turks outnumbered Kurds in the army. Despite their Kurdish background, the sultans remained impartial to both groups.
Population
There is no accurate figure for the population of the various territories under Ayyubid rule. Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones suggest that in the 12th century, Syria had a population of 2.7 million, Palestine and Transjordan had 500,000 inhabitants, and Egypt had a population of under 5 million. Josiah C. Russel states that in this same period there were 2.4 million people in Syria living in 8,300 villages, leaving a population of 230,000–300,000 living in ten cities, eight of which were Muslim cities under Ayyubid control. The largest were Edessa (pop. 24,000), Damascus (pop. 15,000), Aleppo (pop. 14,000), and Jerusalem (pop. 10,000). Smaller cities included Homs, Hama, Gaza, and Hebron.
Russel estimated the Egyptian village population to be 3.3 million in 2,300 villages, a high density for rural populations in the time period. He attributes it to the high productivity of Egyptian soil which allowed for increased agricultural growth. The urban population was much lower, 233,100, consisting of 5.7% of the total Egyptian population. The largest cities were Cairo (pop. 60,000), Alexandria (pop. 30,000), Qus (pop. 25,000), Damietta (pop. 18,000), Fayyum (pop. 13,000), and Bilbeis (pop. 10,000). Numerous smaller cities dotted the Nile River. Among the latter were Damanhur, Asyut, and Tanta. Cities in Egypt were also densely populated, mainly because of greater urbanization and industrialization than elsewhere.
Economy
Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria, the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them. The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with European states. This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity, particularly in agriculture and trade.
Numerous measures were undertaken by the Ayyubids to increase agricultural production. Canals were dug to facilitate the irrigation of agricultural lands throughout the empire. Cultivation of sugarcane was officially encouraged to meet the great demand of it by both the local inhabitants and the Europeans. Meanwhile, as a result of the Crusades, several new plants were introduced to Europe, including sesame, carob, millet, rice, lemons, melons, apricots, and shallots.
The main factor which boosted industry and trade under the Ayyubids was the new interests Europeans developed when they came into contact with the Muslims. Commodities included incense, scents, fragrant oils, and aromatic plants from Arabia and India, as well as ginger, alum, and aloes. Likewise, Europeans developed new tastes in the matter of fashions, clothing, and home furnishing. Rugs, carpets, and tapestries manufactured in the Middle East and Central Asia were introduced to the West through Crusader-Ayyubid interaction. Christian pilgrims visiting Jerusalem returned with Arab reliquaries for the keeping of relics. In addition, eastern works of art in glass, pottery, gold, silver, etc., were highly prized in Europe.
The European demand for agricultural products and industrial commodities stimulated maritime activity and international trade to an unprecedented extent. The Ayyubids played a leading role in this as they controlled sea-trade routes which passed through the ports of Yemen and Egypt via the Red Sea. The trade policy of the Ayyubids placed them in a position of great advantage; although they cooperated with the Genoans and Venetians in the Mediterranean Sea, they prevented them from having access to the Red Sea. Thus, they kept the trade of the Indian Ocean exclusively in their hands. In the Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids also profited through taxes and commissions levied upon Italian merchants.
Upon the development of international trade, the elementary principles of credit and banking were developed. Both Jewish and Italian merchants had regular banking agents in Syria, who transacted business on behalf of their masters. Bills of exchange were also used by them in their dealings with one another and money was deposited in various banking centers throughout Syria. The encouragement of trade and industry provided the Ayyubid sultans with the funds needed for military expenditure as well as for developmental and everyday lifestyle works. Special attention was made to the economic state of the empire under al-Adil and al-Kamil. The latter maintained a strict control over expenditure; it is said that on his death he left a treasury which was equivalent to the budget of one full year.
Education
Being well-educated themselves, the Ayyubid rulers became munificent patrons of learning and educational activity. Different madrasa-type schools were built by them throughout the empire, not only for education, but also to popularize knowledge of Sunni Islam. According to Ibn Jubayr, under Saladin, Damascus had 30 schools, 100 baths, and a large number of Sufi dervish monasteries. He also built several schools in Aleppo, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, and in various cities in the Hejaz. Similarly, many schools were built by his successors also. Their wives and daughters, commanders, and nobles established and financed numerous educational institutions as well.
Although the Ayyubids were from the Shafi'i denomination, they built schools for imparting instruction in all four of the Sunni systems of religious-juridical thought. Before the Ayyubid takeover, there were no schools for the Hanbali and Maliki denominations in Syria, but the Ayyubids founded separate schools for them. In the mid-13th century, Ibn Shaddad counted in Damascus 40 Shafi'i, 34 Hanafi, 10 Hanbali, and three Maliki schools.
When Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt, 10 madrasas were established in Cairo during his reign, and an additional 25 during the entire Ayyubid period of rule. Each of their locations had religious, political, and economic significance, in particular those in al-Fustat. Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi'i denomination, but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi madhabs. The madrasas built near the tomb of Imam al-Shafi'i were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and were a major focus of Sunni devotion.
About 26 schools were built in Egypt, Jerusalem and Damascus by high-ranking government officials, and unusual for the time, commoners also founded in Egypt about 18 schools, including two medical institutions. Most schools were residential whereby both teachers and students resided as a rule. The teachers appointed were jurists, theologians, and traditionalists who received their salary from endowments to the institutions they taught in. Each student was offered a lodging where he would resort, a teacher to instruct him in whatever art he requested, and regular grants to cover all his needs. Madrasas were considered prestigious institutions in society. Under the Ayyubids, it was not possible to obtain a job in the government without receiving an education from a madrasa.
Science and medicine
The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled. They took special interest in the fields of medicine, pharmacology, and botany. Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well-known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients, but also provided medical schooling. Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. Among them were Maimonides, Ibn Jami, Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi, al-Dakhwar, Rashidun al-Suri, and Ibn al-Baitar. Some of these scholars served the Ayyubid household directly, becoming the personal physicians of sultans.
Architecture
Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously Shia-dominated Egypt by constructing Sunni madrasas. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall. Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the Crusaders, such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like machicolations and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.
Muslim women, particularly those from the Ayyubid family, the families of local governors, and the families of the ulema ("religious scholars") took an active role in Ayyubid architecture. Damascus witnessed the most sustained patronage of religious architecture by women. They were responsible for the construction of 15 madrasas, six Sufi hospices, and 26 religious and charitable institutions. In Aleppo, the Firdaws Madrasa, known as the most impressive Ayyubid building in Syria, had regent queen Dayfa Khatun as its patron.
In September 1183, construction of the Cairo Citadel began under Saladin's orders. According to al-Maqrizi, Saladin chose the Muqattam Hills to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city, but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria. The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al-Kamil. Al-Kamil completed the citadel; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers (such as two of Saladin's towers that were enlarged by totally encasing them in semi-circular units), and also added a number of square towers which served as self-contained keeps. According to Richard Yeomans, the most impressive of al-Kamil's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure. All of al-Kamil's fortifications can be identified by their embossed, rusticated masonry, whereas Saladin's towers have smooth dressed stones. This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications, and can be seen in the Citadel of Damascus and that of Bosra in Syria.
Aleppo underwent major transformations in the Ayyubid period, specifically during the reign of az-Zahir Ghazi. Ayyubid architectural achievements focused on four areas: the citadel, the waterworks, fortifications, and the extramural developments. The total rebuilding of the city enclosure began when az-Zahir Ghazi removed the vallum of Nur ad-Din—which by then outlived its temporary need—and rebuilt the northern and northwestern walls—the most susceptible to outside attack—from Bab al-Jinan to Bab al-Nasr. He parceled out the building of the towers on this stretch of the wall to his princes and military officers; each tower was identified with a particular prince who inscribed his name into it. Later, az-Zahir Ghazi extended the eastern wall to the south and east, reflecting his desire to incorporate a dilapidated fortress, Qala'at al-Sharif, outside the city into Aleppo's enclosure. Bab Qinnasrin was completely rebuilt by an-Nasir Yusuf in 1256. This gate stands today as a masterpiece of medieval Syrian military architecture. Cumulatively, Ayyubid architecture left a lasting impression in Aleppo. The citadel was rebuilt, the water network was expanded, and streets and quarters were provided fountains and baths. In addition, dozens of shrines, mosques, madrasas, and mausoleums were built throughout the city.
The Ayyubid period in Jerusalem following its conquest by Saladin was marked by a huge investment in the construction of houses, markets, public bathes, and pilgrim hostels. Numerous works were undertaken at the Temple Mount. Saladin ordered all the inner walls and pillars of the Dome of the Rock to be covered in marble and he initiated the renovation of the mosaics on the dome's drum. The mihrab of the al-Aqsa Mosque was repaired and in 1217, al-Mu'azzam Isa built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates. The Dome of the Ascension was also built and restoration work was done to the existing free-standing domes of the Temple Mount.
See also
List of Ayyubid rulers
List of Kurdish dynasties and countries
List of Sunni dynasties
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an Aga Khan Foundation/CyArk research partnership
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Historical transcontinental empires | [
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] |
219948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeshi%20Kitano | Takeshi Kitano | is a Japanese comedian, television presenter, actor, filmmaker, and author. While he is known primarily as a comedian and TV host in his native Japan, he is better known abroad for his work as a filmmaker and actor as well as TV host. With the exception of his works as a film director, he is commonly known by the stage name .
Kitano rose to prominence in the 1970s as one half of the comedy duo Two Beat, before going solo and becoming one of the three biggest comedians in the country. After several small acting roles, he made his directorial debut with 1989's Violent Cop and garnered international acclaim for Sonatine (1993). He was not widely accepted as an accomplished director in Japan until Hana-bi won the Golden Lion in 1997. In October 2017, Kitano completed his Outrage crime trilogy with the release of Outrage Coda. He is also known internationally for hosting the game show Takeshi's Castle (1986–1990) and starring in the film Battle Royale (2000).
He has received critical acclaim for his idiosyncratic cinematic work, winning numerous awards with Japanese film critic Nagaharu Yodogawa having once dubbed him "the true successor" to influential filmmaker Akira Kurosawa. Many of Kitano's films are dramas about yakuza gangsters or the police. Described by critics as using an acting style that is highly deadpan or a camera style that approaches near-stasis, Kitano often uses long takes during which little appears to be happening, or editing that cuts immediately to the aftermath of an event. Many of his films express a bleak worldview, but are also filled with humor and affection for their characters.
Life and career
Early life
Takeshi Kitano was born in Adachi, Tokyo, with two older brothers and an older sister. His father worked as a house painter, with Kitano revealing that he used to live like a yakuza, while his mother was a strict disciplinarian and educator who worked in a factory. In his working-class neighborhood, the children looked up to baseball players and yakuza, with many of his neighbors being the latter. Kitano entered Meiji University and studied engineering, before dropping out at age 19. He went to the Asakusa district in 1972 to become a comedian. While working as an elevator operator at the Asakusa France-za strip club, he became an apprentice of its comedian Senzaburo Fukami and eventually the theater's MC.
Comedy career and success
In the 1970s, he formed a comedy duo with his friend Nirō Kaneko (also called Kiyoshi Kaneko). They took on the stage names Beat Takeshi and Beat Kiyoshi; together referring to themselves as . This sort of duo comedy, known as manzai in Japan, usually features a great deal of high-speed back-and-forth banter between the two performers. Kiyoshi played the straight man (tsukkomi) against Takeshi's funny man (boke). In 1976, they performed on television for the first time and became a success, propelling their act onto the national stage. The reason for their popularity had much to do with Kitano's material, which was much more risqué than traditional manzai. The targets of his jokes were often the socially vulnerable, including the elderly, the handicapped, the poor, children, women, the ugly and the stupid. Complaints to the broadcaster led to censorship of some of Kitano's jokes and the editing of offensive dialogue. Kitano confirmed in a video interview that he was forbidden to access the NHK studios for five years for having exposed his body during a show when it was totally forbidden.
Although Two Beat was one of the most successful acts of its kind during the late 1970s and early 1980s, Kitano decided to go solo and the duo was dissolved. Together with Sanma Akashiya and Tamori, Kitano is said to be one of the "Big Three" television comedians (owarai tarento) of Japan. Some autobiographical elements relating to his manzai career can be found in his 1996 film Kids Return. Beat Kiyoshi has a bit part in Kitano's 1999 film Kikujiro, as "Man at the Bus Stop". Kitano had also become a popular television host. Takeshi's Castle was a game show hosted by Kitano in the 1980s, featuring slapstick-style physical contests. It was broadcast years later in the United States under the title Most Extreme Elimination Challenge, with Takeshi renamed "Vic Romano".
Many of Kitano's routines involved him portraying a gangster or other harsh characters. Kitano said that after playing comedy clubs he would be invited to drink with yakuza, who would tell him stories about the big crime bosses. His first major film role in Nagisa Oshima's Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (cast as a tough POW camp sergeant during World War II opposite Tom Conti, Ryuichi Sakamoto and David Bowie). Kitano said that he was happy with his performance and snuck into a showing of the film to see how the audience would accept him as a serious actor instead of a comedian. He was devastated when the audience burst into laughter upon his appearing on screen, but vowed to stick to serious and dark characters in film.
In 1986, Kitano worked on the Family Computer video game Takeshi no Chōsenjō (translated as Takeshi's Challenge), as a consultant and partial designer. He was the first Japanese celebrity to actively contribute to the development of a video game and starred in several commercials promoting its release. Due to the title's difficulty and confusing gameplay mechanics, it was placed first in Famitsu magazine's kusoge (shit game) ranking, and is often referred to as one of the worst video games of all time. Takeshi no Chōsenjō and its development was later the subject of the first episode of GameCenter CX, a gaming variety show hosted by Osaka comedian Shinya Arino.
In 1988, he published a memoir, Asakusa Kid. He has also published a number of novels and other books which have been translated into French. After several other acting roles, mostly comedic, in 1989 he was cast as the lead in Violent Cop. When director Kinji Fukasaku stepped down over scheduling conflicts with Kitano, due to Kitano's TV commitments, the distributor suggested the comedian direct it at his own pace. He also rewrote the script heavily, and this marked the beginning of Kitano's career as a filmmaker.
1990–2000: Film recognition
Kitano's second film as director and first as screenwriter was Boiling Point (3-4X10 October) released in 1990. Mark Schilling cited it as the film in which Kitano defined his style with long takes, minimal camera movement, brief dialogue, sly humor, and sudden violence.
Kitano's third film, A Scene at the Sea, was released in 1991. It follows a deaf garbage collector who is determined to learn how to surf after discovering a broken surfboard. Kitano's more delicate, romantic side came to the fore here, along with his trademark deadpan approach. The film garnered numerous nominations and awards, including Best Film at the prestigious Blue Ribbon Awards. It also started a long-running collaboration with composer Joe Hisaishi, which would last until 2002.
Although 1993's Sonatine did poorly in Japan, it received rave reviews in Europe when it was shown at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. Kitano plays a Tokyo yakuza who is sent by his boss to Okinawa to help end a gang war there. He is tired of gangster life, and when he finds out the whole mission is a ruse, he welcomes what comes with open arms. All four of his films were screened at the 1994 London Film Festival.
In August 1994, Kitano was involved in a motorscooter accident and suffered injuries that caused partial paralysis of the right-side of his face. As reported by Dan Edwards, Kitano later said that the accident was an "unconscious suicide attempt". Kitano made Kids Return in 1996, soon after his recovery.
The 1995 release of Getting Any? (Minna Yatteruka!), which was filmed before the accident, showed Kitano returning to his comedy roots. This Airplane!-like assemblage of comedic scenes, all centering loosely around a Walter Mitty-type character trying to have sex in a car, met with little acclaim in Japan. Much of the film satirizes popular Japanese culture, such as Ultraman or Godzilla and even the Zatoichi character that Kitano himself would go on to play eight years later. That year Kitano also appeared in the film adaptation of William Gibson's 1995 Johnny Mnemonic, credited by the mononym "Takeshi", although his on-screen time was greatly reduced for the American cut of the film.
After his motorscooter accident, Kitano took up painting. His paintings have been published in books, featured in gallery exhibitions, and adorn the covers of many of the soundtrack albums for his films. His paintings were featured prominently in his most critically acclaimed film, 1997's Hana-bi. Although for years already Kitano's largest audience had been the foreign arthouse crowd, Hana-bi cemented his status internationally as one of Japan's foremost modern filmmakers. Although it was not a big success financially, it won the Golden Lion award at the 1997 Venice Film Festival. Kitano himself said it was not until he won this award that he was accepted as a serious director in Japan; prior his films were looked at as just the hobby of a famous comedian.
Among his most significant acting roles were Nagisa Oshima's 1999 film Taboo, in which he played Captain Hijikata Toshizo of the Shinsengumi. Kikujiro, released in 1999 and named after his father, was a semi-comedy featuring Kitano as a ne'er-do-well crook who winds up paired up with a young boy looking for his mother, and goes on a series of misadventures with him.
He hosted Koko ga Hen da yo Nihonjin (English translation, This doesn't make sense, Japanese people!) which was a Japanese TV show that was broadcast weekly from 1998 to 2002, a talk show on which a large panel of Japanese-speaking foreigners from around the world debate current issues in Japanese society. He currently hosts Unbelievable, which was relaunched in 2001, and the weekly television program Beat Takeshi's TV Tackle. TV Tackle is a kind of panel discussion among entertainers and politicians regarding controversial current events. Another of his shows is Sekai Marumie TV ("The World Exposed"), a weekly collection of various interesting video clips from around the world, often focusing on the weird aspects of other countries. On this show, he plays a childlike idiot, insulting the guests, and usually appearing wearing strange costumes during the show.
2000–present
Kitano played a similarly named character in the controversial 2000 Japanese blockbuster Battle Royale, which takes place in a future in which a group of teenagers are randomly selected each year to eliminate each other on a deserted island.
His 2000 film Brother was deliberately intended to be a hit abroad. Shot in Los Angeles, it starred Kitano as a deposed and exiled Tokyo yakuza setting up a drug empire in Los Angeles with the aid of a local gangster played by Omar Epps. However, the film met with tepid international response. Although in Japan it did better financially than Hana-bi. Dolls in 2002 had Kitano directing but not starring in a romantic drama with three different stories about undying love, and was loosely based on a bunraku play.
Following the disappointing response to the film Brother and the film Dolls, Kitano received a sequence of unsympathetic reviews from the press in the United States. Criticism was less severe in Europe and Asia though many commentators were not as lavish with their praise as they had been with his previous films. 2003's Zatōichi, directed by and starring Kitano, silenced many of these dissenters. With a new take on the character from Shintaro Katsu's long-running film and TV series, Zatōichi was Kitano's biggest box office success in Japan, did quite well in limited release across the world, and won countless awards at home and abroad, including the Silver Lion award at the Venice Film Festival. Kitano revealed that he was approached by others to create the film and therefore differed from his own techniques and followed the common filmmaking process in order to please them and make a pure-entertainment film.
From April 2005 to 2008, Kitano was an instructor at the Graduate School of Visual Arts, Tokyo University of the Arts.
Kitano's film, Takeshis' was released in Japan in November 2005, as the first installment in his surrealist autobiographical series. This was followed in 2007, by his second surrealist autobiographical film Glory to the Filmmaker! (appearing as Beat Takeshi), and a third in 2008, titled Achilles and the Tortoise. In between these films, Kitano appeared in a number of other television projects and smaller projects. In 2007 he appeared in Dots and Lines (a TV mini-series) as Jūtarō Torikai. Also in 2007, Kitano appeared in To Each His Own Cinema as the projectionist (in the segment "Rencontre unique") as Beat Takeshi, and in the TV movie Wada Akiko Satsujin Jiken. In 2008, he did the voice-over in The Monster X Strikes Back: Attack the G8 Summit, for Take-Majin, a heroic monster based on Kitano.
In 2010, the Fondation Cartier pour l'art contemporain in Paris held a one-man show displaying his paintings and installations. A room in the basement played a 12-hour loop of his work as a TV host.
Kitano's 2010 film Outrage was screened at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival. He admitted he tried something different for Outrage by adding a lot of dialogue, stepping back as the main character to make an ensemble piece, and having the feel of a nature documentary watching the characters kill each other. A sequel, 2012's Outrage Beyond, was screened in competition at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. He also appeared in Yasuo Furuhata's 2012 film, Dearest. In September 2012, Takeshi Kitano said that the producers wanted him to make a third Outrage film depending on the box office. On 7 March 2013, Minkei News of Hong Kong reported that Kitano won the Best Director award for Outrage Beyond at the 7th Asian Film Awards in Hong Kong.
On 10 August 2013, in an interview reported by John Bleasdale, Kitano revealed his current plans for a sequel to Outrage Beyond and an untitled personal film project. As Kitano stated, "Ideally what would happen would be this: Outrage Beyond becomes a huge hit, so huge that my producer allows me to make one film I really want to do and then come back to the sequel after I've made the film I really want to do."
In September 2015, it was announced that Kitano would be contributing his voice and likeness to the character Toru Hirose in the SEGA video game Yakuza 6: The Song of Life. This collaboration marked Kitano's first involvement with the video game industry in 30 years since the 1986 release of Takeshi no Chōsenjō.
Takeshi co-starred in the live action adaptation of the manga Ghost in the Shell, marking his return to American cinema nearly twenty years after Johnny Mnemonic in 1995. Although he has expressed his dislike of anime and manga in the past, he accepted the role because "even though this stylish piece of entertainment is totally different from the films I've directed, I thought it was interesting that Aramaki, the role I play, is a character who gives off a peculiar vibe and, in various episodes, is set at the core of the characters' relationships. I'm looking forward to see how the movie turns out."
In 2017, Kitano released the third and final installment in the successful Outrage series titled Outrage Coda.
Awards
Kitano won the Golden Lion award at the 54th Venice International Film Festival in 1997 for his film Hana-bi. In 2008, at the 30th Moscow International Film Festival, Kitano was given the Lifetime Achievement Award. In March 2010 Kitano was named a Commander of the Order of the Arts and Letters of France.
Agency
2018.4-: T.N Gon
-2018.3: Office Kitano
is a Japanese talent management company founded in February 1988 by Kitano.
On January 1, 2020, the name of Office Kitano became no longer valid due to the change of its commercial name to TAP.
In 2015, Kitano established . He left Office Kitano in March 2018.
Filmography
Films
As director
Violent Cop (1989)
Boiling Point (1990)
A Scene at the Sea (1991)
Sonatine (1993)
Getting Any? (1995)
Kids Return (1996)
Hana-bi (1997)
Kikujiro (1999)
Brother (2000)
Dolls (2002)
Zatōichi (2003)
Takeshis' (2005)
Glory to the Filmmaker! (2007)
Achilles and the Tortoise (2008)
Outrage (2010)
Beyond Outrage (2012)
Ryuzo and the Seven Henchmen (2015)
Outrage Coda (2017)
As actor
Go, Go, Second Time Virgin (1969)
Shinjuku Mad (1970)
Makoto (1980)
Dump Migratory Bird (1981)
Manon (1981)
Sukkari... Sono Kide (1981)
Secret of Summer (1982)
Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983)
Mosquito on the Tenth Floor (1983)
Kanashii kibun de joke (1985)
Yasha (1985)
Comic Magazine (1986)
Anego (1988)
Violent Cop (1989)
Boiling Point (1990)
Setsuna Kimono, Sore wa Ai (1990)
Hoshi wo tsugu mono (1990)
A Legend of Turmoil (1992)
Dioxin from Fish! (1992)
Erotic Liaisons (1992)
Silver Ball (1992)
Sonatine (1993)
Kyoso Tanjo (1993)
Getting Any? (1995)
Johnny Mnemonic (1995)
Gonin (1995)
Hana-bi (1997)
Tokyo Eyes (1998)
Kikujiro (1999)
Taboo (1999)
Remains of Chivalry Zankyo (1999)
Brother (2000)
Battle Royale (2000)
Battle Royale: Special Edition (2001)
Zatoichi (2003)
Battle Royale II: Requiem (2003)
Izo (2004)
Blood and Bones (2004)
The Golden Cups One More Time (2004)
Takeshis' (2005)
Arakimentari (2005)
Glory to the Filmmaker! (2007)
The Monster X Strikes Back/Attack the G8 Summit (2008) - Take-Majin
Achilles and the Tortoise (2008)
Outrage (2010)
Dearest (2012)
Beyond Outrage (2012)
Ryuzo 7 (2015)
Mozu (2015)
While the Women Are Sleeping (2016)
Ghost in the Shell (2017) - Chief Daisuke Aramaki
Outrage Coda (2017)
Television
Thousand Stars and One Night (1980–1981)
The Manzai (1980–1982)
Oretachi Hyōkin-zoku (1981–1989)
Bakumatsu Seishun Graffiti: Sakamoto Ryōma (1982), Yamauchi Yōdō
Waratte Pon! (1983)
Super Jockey (1983–1999)
Sports Taisho (1985–1990)
Owarai Ultra Quiz (1989–1996, 2007)
Genki TV (1985–1996)
Takeshi's Castle (1986–1989)
TV Tackle (1989–present)
Heisei Board of Education (1991–1997)
Daredemo Picasso (1997–present)
Kiseki Taiken! Anbiribabō (1997–present)
Koko ga Hen da yo Nihonjin (1998–2002)
Musashi (2003)
Quiz $ Millionaire (2009)
Fuji Television midnight broadcasting series (1991–present)
Kitano Fan Club
Kitano Fuji
Adachi-ku no Takeshi, Sekai no Kitano
Saitoh Singu-ten
Kitano Talent Meikan
Takeshi Kitano presents Comăneci University Mathematics
Aka Medaka (2015)
Hagoku (2017)
Idaten (2019), Kokontei Shinshō V
Two Homelands (2019), Hideki Tojo
The Forgotten Army - Azaadi ke liye (1 episode) (2020)
Radio
All Night Nippon by Beat Takeshi (1981–1990)
Beatnik Radio (1997–2000)
Beat Takeshi's literary night talk (NRN)
International men's friendship book show
Books
Video games
As designer
Takeshi no Chōsenjō (1986)
As actor
Yakuza 6: The Song of Life (2016)
References
Further reading
External links
Takeshi Kitano official site
1947 births
Living people
Male actors from Tokyo
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Japanese comedians
Japanese male film actors
Japanese film directors
Japanese film editors
Japanese film producers
Japanese game show hosts
Japanese painters
Japanese screenwriters
Japanese male television actors
Japanese television personalities
Japanese television talk show hosts
Yakuza film directors
20th-century Japanese male actors
21st-century Japanese male actors
Directors of Golden Lion winners
Venice Best Director Silver Lion winners
Best Director Asian Film Award winners
European Film Awards winners (people)
Asian film producers
Meiji University alumni | [
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] |
219949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20oil%20fields | List of oil fields | This list of oil fields includes some major oil fields of the past and present.
The list is incomplete; there are more than 65,000 oil and gas fields of all sizes in the world. However, 94% of known oil is concentrated in fewer than 1500 giant and major fields. Most of the world's largest oilfields are located in the Middle East, but there are also supergiant (>10 billion bbls) oilfields in Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Kazakhstan, and Russia.
Amounts listed below, in billions of barrels, are the estimated ultimate recoverable petroleum resources (proved reserves plus cumulative production), given historical production and current extraction technology. Oil shale reserves (perhaps ) and coal reserves, both of which can be converted to liquid petroleum, are not included in this chart. Other non-conventional liquid fuel sources are similarly excluded from this list.
Oil fields greater than
See also
Athabasca Oil Sands
Giant oil and gas fields
List of coalfields
List of natural gas fields
List of oil and gas fields of the North Sea
OAPEC
Oil megaprojects
Oil shale reserves
OPEC
Petrol
Petroleum Reservoir
References
Geology-related lists
Peak oil | [
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219952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20of%20Saint%20Benedict%20and%20Saint%20John%27s%20University | College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University | The College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University are two closely related private, Roman Catholic higher education institutions in Minnesota. The College of Saint Benedict is in St. Joseph and is a women's college; Saint John's University is in Collegeville and is a men's college. Students at both institutions have a shared curriculum and access to the resources of both campuses.
History
College of Saint Benedict
The College of St. Benedict is a four-year undergraduate institution. The college opened in 1913, with six students enrolled, and grew out of St. Benedict's Academy, which was founded by Saint Benedict's Monastery in 1889. The Benedictine community incorporated CSB in 1961.
Saint John's University
Saint John's University was founded in 1857 by the Benedictine monks of Saint John's Abbey, having emigrated from Bavaria, Germany, under the patronage of King Ludwig II. In addition to its undergraduate offerings, SJU includes Saint John's School of Theology and Seminary (SOT), a graduate school that confers Master of Divinity and master of arts degrees and also prepares seminarians for the priesthood.
Minnesota Public Radio began on January 22, 1967, when KSJR signed on from the campus of Saint John's University. The station's director of broadcasting was SJU alumnus William H. Kling.
SJU has produced its own coarse-grained bread, Johnnie Bread, since 1856, and used the proceeds to fund projects such as the Abbey Church.
Institutional partnership
Starting in 1955, CSB and SJU began offering joint evening classes. The relationship expanded soon after CSB incorporated in 1961, and since then the two institutions have shared a common academic program. Men and women attend classes together on both campuses. About 4,000 students are enrolled in CSB/SJU combined. They attend coed classes taught by a joint faculty of approximately 350 professors, mostly full-time, permanent appointees.
Academics
Ninety percent of CSB/SJU graduates finish in four years, 95% of CSB/SJU students receive financial aid, and 95% of CSB/SJU alums rate their college experience as good or excellent.
CSB and SJU have produced two Rhodes Scholars; six Truman Scholars; and at least two Goldwater Scholars. CSB/SJU is also a consistent producer of Fulbright scholarship winners. From 2013 to 2020, 39 students from CSB/SJU received Fulbright Scholarships. CSB/SJU has also been recently recognized as a top producer of Peace Corps volunteers.
85% of CSB and SJU professors are full-time, the student-to-faculty ratio is 12:1, and the average class size is 19.
Phi Beta Kappa
Phi Beta Kappa is the nation's oldest academic honor society. CSB/SJU's Phi Beta Kappa chapter, Theta of Minnesota, was established in 2009.
Study abroad
CSB/SJU has achieved national recognition for its strength in study abroad and international education opportunities. The Institute of International Education ranks CSB/SJU among the top baccalaureate institutions in the nation for the number of students who study abroad. According to Open Doors 2018, CSB/SJU ranked second in the nation among undergraduate institutions for participation in semester-long study abroad programs. There are 17 semester-long study abroad sites available on six different continents. These destinations include: Austria, Chile, China, France, Germany, Greece/Italy, Japan, London, Australia, Guatemala, South Africa, Spain, Northern Ireland and multiple cities in Republic of Ireland.
Internationalization
CSB/SJU enroll approximately 250 students from 50 countries and offer 200 undergraduate courses that have a global focus. In 2012, CSB/SJU received the Senator Paul Simon Award for Comprehensive Internationalization.
Music
The CSB/SJU music department is expansive considering the size of the school; over half of the students at CSB/SJU participate in some kind of music ensemble. The department of music has many ensembles including four choirs, an orchestra, a wind ensemble, a jazz ensemble, and several small chamber ensembles. Many of these ensembles tour extensively both domestically and abroad. The department also presents an opera every year and recently performed a Stephen Paulus oratorio about the Holocaust entitled "To Be Certain of the Dawn", jointly with choirs and orchestra from Saint Cloud State University in Europe in May 2008. There are also several student-run groups, including the male a cappella group Johnnie Blend and the female a cappella group CSBeats.
Center for Ethical Leadership in Action
In 2017, an anonymous donor provided a $10-million gift to create the Center for Ethical Leadership in Action at the College of Saint Benedict. This gift is now used to fund student experiences and research as well as provide financial assistance for students completing unpaid internships.
Campus
The campuses are located on of forests, prairies, and lakes. Since CSB and SJU are located about three and a half miles apart, a regular inter-campus bus service known as "The Link" connects the campuses.
Marcel Breuer, renowned Brutalist architect, designed several buildings on the Saint John's campus in the 1960s, including the Saint John's Abbey Church and bell banner; Alcuin Library; Peter Engel Science Center; the Ecumenical Institute, and Saints Thomas, Bernard, Boniface, and Patrick Residence Halls.
The central cores of the College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University are both listed as historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places.
Saint John's Outdoor University
The Saint John's Outdoor University consists of four different branches which include the Peer Resource Program (PRP), Outdoor Leadership Center (OLC), Saint John's Abby Arboretum, and Saint John's Maple Syrup.
The PRP mission statement is to challenge students to learn new physical and mental skills that will push them out of their comfort zone and allow them to develop leadership skills and increased self-confidence through wilderness trips, challenge courses, and on-campus events. The PRP also sponsors Collegebound, a pre-orientation wilderness trip for incoming freshman to northern Minnesota.
The mission of the OLC is to promote experiential learning through outdoor programming, provide alternative outdoor leadership opportunities, and introduce CSB/SJU community to new areas of the outdoors. The OLC achieves this by sponsoring on-campus programs and clinics and by providing students with access to outdoor equipment.
The SJU campus is surrounded by Saint John's Arboretum, more than 2,500 acres of oak savanna, forest, prairie, wetlands, and lakes. These lands were designated as natural arboretum in 1997. The Arboretum is crisscrossed with groomed Nordic skiing and hiking trails, including the popular "chapel walk" along Lake Sagatagan to Stella Maris Chapel.
Starting in 1942, monks at the Saint John's Abbey began making maple syrup due to sugar shortages caused by World War II. The tradition of making Saint John's Maple Syrup has continued ever since, and remains a popular outdoor education opportunity for local schools. Saint John's Maple Syrup is made annually by the dedicated community and CSB/SJU student volunteers, and in 2019 alone over 2,800 people participated in the syrup making process in some capacity.
Sustainability
As a result of their strong Benedictine tradition and belief in stewardship, CSB-SJU place a high value on sustainability. CSB/SJU was listed in "The Princeton Review's Guide to 361 Green Colleges: 2016 Edition" as an institution that "demonstrates notable commitments to sustainability in their academic offerings, campus infrastructure, activities and career preparation." The campuses each have their own sustainability office to foster a strong culture of sustainability among the students and the broader community. The institutions signed the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment (ACUPCC) in 2007, which formalized their goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2035. Dramatic steps have been taken by CSB/SJU to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In the most recent report, Saint John's reported a 56 per cent reduction in emissions since 2008 levels. Both institutions also complete STARS reports on sustainability and are signatories of the Catholic Climate Covenant. CSB/SJU seeks to educate and engage the campus community through hosting events, speakers, energy challenges, and other activities.
Saint John's Abbey Energy Farm. The Saint John's Abbey is well known for having one of the largest solar fields in the state. The original 3.9-acre facility was built in 2009, and its tracking panels provide the university with about 4% of its annual energy needs and up to 20% of its real-time needs in peak conditions. In 2014, the Solar Farm was expanded to include 616 additional fixed panels. These new panels will allow the Solar Farm to produce more than 600 kilowatts of electricity—enough energy to power up to 30% of the SJU campus in peak conditions, and 6% of its energy annually. This project creates a research opportunity for students and others to compare the performance differences between the two types of panels.
Fine arts
Fine Arts Programming is a department of CSB-SJU that presents professional performances and art exhibitions from a range of national and international artists, and also supports and enhances the academic mission of CSB-SJU through its programming, resources, and personnel. Events take place in either the Benedicta Arts Center, a performing and visual arts center located on the CSB campus, or the Stephen B. Humphrey Theater or Alice R. Rogers Gallery and Target Gallery in the Art Center at SJU.
The Benedicta Arts Center is home to Escher Auditorium, Gorecki Family Theater, Colman Black Box Theater, Darnall Amphitheater, Helgeson Dance Studio, Gorecki Gallery & Gallery Lounge, the BAC Box Office, and classroom and rehearsal spaces, faculty and staff offices, and other music, theater, and art-related spaces.
Residential life
Residency requirement
Both Saint John's University and College of Saint Benedict have a four-year residency requirement, which requires students to live on-campus for four years.
Saint John's residence halls
First-year and sophomore halls consist of two-person dorm rooms. First-year dorms include Saint Thomas Aquinas Hall (Tommy Hall) and Saint Mary Hall. Many sophomores, and some juniors live in four residence halls: St. Bernard (Bernie), St. Boniface (Bonnie), St. Patrick (Pat), and St. Benet as well as the first floor of Tommy Hall. There are also on-campus apartment options for juniors and seniors, including Placid House, Maur House, Saint Vincent Court, Metten Court, and Flynntown Apartments.
St. Benedict residence halls
First-year residence halls include Corona, Aurora, and Regina which have singles, doubles, and triples for rooms. Sophomores live in three residence halls: Lottie, Brian, and Margretta. Juniors and seniors can live in either the West Apartments (Dominica, Gable, Girgen, Schumacher, Smith, Sohler, and Westkaemper), the East Apartments (Luetmer, McDonald, Wirth, and Zierden), or in the College Avenue Apartments, which consists of two buildings and houses 33 students in one-person or two-person units with private bedrooms. Opened for housing in the fall of 2012, Centennial Commons is the newest addition to CSB's residential facilities. Students can also choose to live in "living communities" such as the Health and Wellness Community, as well as in other campus houses, such as the Rainbow House or the Anne House.
Rankings
The College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University both consistently rank among the top 100 liberal arts colleges in the country. In 2017, ''U.S. News & World Report'' ranked St. John's University as tied for the 77th-best liberal arts college in the United States, and College of St. Benedict as tied for the 87th-best liberal arts college in the United States.
CSB and SJU are two of the nation's best colleges for students seeking great academics, outstanding career preparation, and generous financial aid, according to The Princeton Review's book Colleges That Pay You Back: The 200 Best Value Colleges and What It Takes to Get In – 2015 Edition.
CSB-SJU were rated very highly in MONEY's list of Best Liberal Arts Colleges for 2016 (SJU was No. 3, while CSB was No. 11) and lower as Best Colleges overall (SJU was No. 25, while CSB was No. 47). In the Best Colleges list, CSB and SJU were the only two institutions in Minnesota ranked in the top 50. They also rated well in MONEY's 2015 lists.
Student life
Student government
The Saint John's Senate (SJS) is SJU's elected student government, and the Saint Ben's Senate (SBS) is CSB's elected student government. The Senates, while individually governing in the interest of their own student body, work closely together with students, faculty, staff, and university administrators to enhance all aspects of student life.
The Saint Ben's Senate (SBS) is CSB's elected student government. The Senates, while individually governing in the interest of their own student body, work closely together with students, faculty, staff, and university administrators to enhance all aspects of student life.
Student-run media
All student media are run independently of the CSB-SJU administration.
The Record: The official SJU newspaper since 1888, The Record also became the official newspaper of CSB in 2001. Its coverage is exclusively focused on CSB/SJU related news and sports. It also features an opinion section, with articles supplemented by submissions from students, faculty, and community members. The newspaper is published weekly during the fall and spring semesters and has been recognized among the best weekly college newspapers in Minnesota and the U.S. The Record is a member of the Associated Collegiate Press (ACP) and the Minnesota Newspaper Association, and has won dozens of awards from each body for its work. Most recently, it took home second place accolades for General Excellence at the 2019 ACP "Best of the Midwest" awards. All content is written, edited, and designed by student volunteers. All back issues of CSB newspapers are available through Vivarium, the CSB/SJU Digital Image Collection.
Johnnie Bennie Media: Johnnie Bennie Media is "a student-run organization that strives to provide engaging learning opportunities for students at the College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University while producing relevant media content for the campus communities. Johnnie Bennie Media's goal is to foster media literacy as part of the organization's partnership with Media Services and Clemens and Alcuin libraries." Alcuin Library's new Dietrich Reinhart Learning Commons features a state-of-the-art video studio, control room, and editing room. Johnnie Bennie Media combines four previously existing student clubs: Johnnie Bennie Campus News, KJNB Radio, Johnnie Bennie Productions, and the StreamTeam.
Johnnie Bennie Campus News: Produces a weekly online video news show highlighting CSB/SJU events and information.
KJNB: The official CSB/SJU student-run radio station allows students to host an hour-long talk and music-oriented shows. Broadcasts are streamed online, on closed-circuit campus TV Channel 8. When KJNB first started out in 1954 (as KSJU), it was a carrier-current AM station located in the basement of Mary Hall, which broadcast on FM from 1977 to 1988. In 2001, the studio moved to its current location in the lower level of Guild Hall. New automation software was recently purchased "to allow for operating, organizing, and scheduling the streaming audio content.
Johnnie Bennie Productions: Creates online video programming that includes talk shows, short films, and documentaries.
StreamTeam: A CSB/SJU group that provides live streaming of SJU athletic events."
Extending the LINK: (ETL) is a non-profit student-founded and run documentary organization. Every year ETL identifies one under-reported global social justice issue to highlight in their documentary. In the process of filming, a small group of students from ETL travel to the international location to film in the country, and return to CSB/SJU to share their film. ETL's mission states that "Through the creation of annual documentaries, ETL fosters discussion on global issues. By applying these documentaries as vehicles for positive social change, ETL inspires and empowers students, faculty, alumni and the greater community to work for improved social justice at home and abroad."
Channel Eight is the local CSB-SJU television station; it launched during the 2011–2012 school year. The channel features student-produced television shows and other campus-related activities, such as live broadcasts of Senate meetings.
Current presidents
Laurie Hamen, J.D., currently serves as the interim president of the College of Saint Benedict. She is the College of Saint Benedict's sixteenth president. Hamen became president of the college on July 1, 2020, after serving for six years as the president of Mount Mercy University in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. She graduated from St. Catherine University in St. Paul, Minnesota, and holds a master's degree in educational administration from Winona State University and a Juris Doctorate from DePaul University College of Law in Chicago. Hamen succeeded former CSB president Mary Dana Hinton, PhD who now sits as the thirteenth president of Hollins University in Roanoke, Virginia.
Eugene McAllister, PhD currently serves as the interim president of Saint John's University. McAlister assumed the role following the departure of Michael Hemesath, PhD, former Carleton College economics professor, who was the thirteenth president of Saint John's University and the first lay president in the history of the institution. McAlister previously served as vice president of academic affairs at Jacksonville University (1997–2001) and president of the University of Great Falls (2003–2016).
Hill Museum & Manuscript Library
The Hill Museum & Manuscript Library at SJU is home to The Saint John's Bible and a collection of religious sculpture, paintings, prints, and artifacts.
Athletics
The College of Saint Benedict (CSB) and Saint John's University (SJU) are members of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC). Their athletic teams are respectively known as the Bennies and the Johnnies.
Johnnies athletics (SJU)
Sports offered are: baseball; basketball; cross country; football; golf; hockey; rugby; soccer; swim and dive; tennis; track and field; and wrestling.
Baseball: The Johnnies finished the 2012 season second with a MIAC record of 14–6 and a total of 29 wins. This tied an SJU record for most wins in a season. The team also qualified for the NCAA tournament for the first time since 1998. This was the third time the Johnnies were able to claim the MIAC Playoff championship. The head coach, Jerry Haugen, has coached the SJU baseball team for 36 seasons with a career record of 665-567-5. He is in the top 25 on the NCAA Division III most winning active coaches win list.
Basketball: SJU tied for fifth and played in the playoffs. The SJU basketball team ended the 2012–2013 season with a loss to Augsburg in the quarterfinal round of the MIAC playoffs. Their record for the season was 74–67. Three Johnnies earned All-MIAC recognition. The head coach of this team is Jim Smith, and he has a 755–535 career record. The 2013–2014 season will be his 50th season coaching the Johnnies.
Cross country: The cross country team of Saint John's finished fourth of 27 teams at the NCAA Central Regional. They followed behind St. Olaf, Central of Iowa, and Luther of Iowa. The Johnnies were ranked seventh in regular season. The 2012 SJU cross country team earned U.S. Track & Field Cross Country Coaches' Association All-Academic recognition.
Football: St. John's is widely known for its football program, which consistently ranks in the top 25 in the nation at the NCAA Division III level. They are the winningest football program in Division III history, boasting a 653–251–24 record following the 2019 season. SJU is a 34-time conference champion, and four time national champion, having most recently won in 2003 against the University of Mount Union by a score of 24–6. Their rivalry with the nearby University of St. Thomas (UST) is considered to be one of the greatest rivalries in Division III football, with games regularly drawing tens of thousands of fans. Former St. John's offensive tackle Ben Bartch was drafted in the 4th round (116th overall) by Jacksonville Jaguars in the 2020 NFL draft. He is the first MIAC player to be drafted into the NFL since 2003.
Golf: The 2012 SJU golf team was ranked third in the final Golf World/Nike Golf Coaches' Division III poll. They were ranked behind Oglethorpe (Ga.) and Methodist (N.C.). The Johnnies moved up a total of 15 spots throughout the year.
Hockey: The 2012–2013 SJU hockey season ended in the first round of the NCAA Division III Men's Hockey Tournament in Eau Claire, Wisconsin. The Johnnies lost to Wisconsin-Eau Claire 4–2. Wisconsin was ranked fourth and had beaten the Johnnies earlier in the season 5 to 1. SJU's record was 16–8–4 (9–4–3 MIAC).
Rugby: Thomas Haigh, an instructor in the St. John's department of mathematics, founded the St. John's Rugby Club in the spring of 1968. A former St. John's Prep School student, he learned the game while an undergraduate at the University of Wisconsin. Rugby is a club sport at Saint John's. The Saint John's University rugby team captured the National Small College championship with a 31–16 win over Duke University Sunday, April 28, 2013, at Infinity Park, Glendale, Colo. They repeated this accomplishment again, defeating New England College 37–25 in a comeback win on April 27, 2014, at Infinity Park. A total of 211 teams competed for the National Small College championship, which is based on men's enrollment (schools must have fewer than 4,500 male students to compete in this division).
Soccer: SJU opened at its new soccer complex in the 2013 season. In 2012, the Johnnies ended the soccer season with a 9-6-4 (6-2-2 MIAC) record and finished fourth.
Track and Field: The SJU Track and Field team finished fifth out of eleven teams at the 2013 MIAC Indoor Track & Field Championships. They were only 1.5 points from fourth place. Kevin Horton placed second in the 200-meter dash and was awarded his second All-MIAC performance. He was only 0.05 from the conference title. Brady O'Brien earned his first All-MIAC honor when he finished second in the triple jump. Willie Versen was awarded his first All-MIAC when he won third place in the 3,000 meters.
Wrestling: Seniors Mitch Hagen and Chris Stevermer will compete at the NCAA Division III Championships on March 15–16. Mitch Hagen is ranked fourth in the 2013 tournament. Chris Stevermer was third at regionals and is unranked in the tournament. Both competed in the tournament in 2012, but lost against higher-ranked opponents. Four other Johnnies will compete in the national tournament. Ryan Arne, Ryan Michaelis, John Scepaniak, and Nick Schuler are all appearing at the national tournament for the first time.
Lacrosse: The club was founded in 1986 by Peter Farrell, under faculty advisement of Brother Dietrich Reinhardt, OSB. The club is a non-varsity, athletic program affiliated with and partially funded by SJU Student Services. A student board of directors consists of a president, vice-president, treasurer and secretaries that help run the administrative part of the club. The Johnnies participate in the Men's College Lacrosse Association and the Upper Midwest Lacrosse Conference. The Johnnies have been the UMLC Division II Champions in 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2011 and 2014. They have earned a trip to the MCLA Division II National Championship Tournament in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014—appearing in the Final Four of the Tournament in 2006, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014. The streak of 10-straight appearances in the National Championship Tournament is an MCLA record. The Johnnies were the National Runner-Up in 2006, 2007 and 2014.
Swim & Dive: The St. Johns Swim and Dive team is coached by Ben Gill.
Bennie athletics (CSB)
Sports offered are: basketball; cross country; golf; hockey; rugby; soccer; softball; swim and dive; tennis; track and field; and volleyball. In 2019 the Athletic teams at CSB were officially rebranded and changed from the "Blazers" to the "Bennies".
A renovation and expansion of Haehn Campus Center and Murray Hall is underway. The new center includes a fitness center with racquetball courts, climbing wall, and an exercise science lab. Future phases include a new field house, hockey arena, and a natatorium. The renovation is being led by JLG Architects and Hastings+Chivetta.
Basketball: Blazers basketball has won the MIAC championship five times in recent years and has made 15 NCAA Division III tournament appearances. Blazers basketball coach Mike Durbin is MIAC career wins leader and celebrated his 500th win in the 2008–2009 basketball season.
Golf: Blazer golf is coached by Daryl Schomer, who started as head coach in the 2011–2012 season. In his first season at CSB as head coach, Schomer led the Blazers to finish third in the MIAC. The Blazers finished in fifth place at the 2012 MIAC Championships. The Blazers shot the seventh-best round of the tournament in the final round, led by a 79 from Bridget Cummings, who place 11th individually. The MIAC Tournament wrapped up the Blazers' fall season, where they won twice and finished in the top-five four times.
Hockey: Bennie hockey is coached my Nick Thibault and assisted by Dale Sager. The 2018–2019 season was coach Thibaults first year coaching for the Bennies following prior coach Jennifer Kranz who was with the team from 2011 to 2018. The Bennies ended the 2018–2019 season with a 7–14–2 record, which is one of the best they have had in decades.
Volleyball: Blazers volleyball had made appearances in the NCAA National Tournament 14 times, most recently in 2012, and has won the MIAC Conference Championship seven times, most recently in 2009. The volleyball team has been coached by Nicole Hess since 2009, with assistant coaches Amanda Anderson, Theresa Naumann, and Heather Piper-Olsen. Coach Nicole Hess achieved her 100th win as a coach on November 1, 2011, against Gustavus Adolphus College.
Rugby: CSB rugby is a club sport founded in 1978. In fall 2009 the team won the DIII State Championship moving to DII status. In 2011 the team placed second in the DII State Championship and moved on to compete in the Midwest Sweet Sixteen in Champaign, Illinois. The team is DIII and coached by CSB rugby alumna Carolyn Cooper. In fall 2014 the team competed in the Sweet Sixteen in Rochester, MN. NSCRO released its top-20 rankings for the fall season with CSB being 13th. The team finished the season 3rd in Minnesota and 4th in the Midwest Region.
Tennis: Blazers tennis is coached by Michael Engdahl, who just became head coach in the 2016–2017 season. He is joined by Emily Heying, also in her first year as an assistant coach. Blazers tennis was previously coached by Scott Larsen, who was head coach for nine years.
Lacrosse: Bennie lacrosse is a club sport offered at the College of Saint Benedict. Bennie lacrosse is coached by Amanda Dvorak. In 2010, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 the team participated in the WCLA Nationals Tournament at the Division II club level. CSB has placed in these tournaments, allowing it to be ranked among the top 10 club teams in the nation. In the 2019 season, the team finished 20th in the Nation.
Softball: Bennie Softball is coached by head coach Rachael Click and is assisted by Mike Eveslage, Tyler Thomes, and Ashley Thell. Head coach Rachael Click is in her 7th season as the CSB head coach after a very successful college career herself at Gustavus Adolphus College. Click has guided Bennie softball to a school-record of 36 wins. In 2018 the team made its first NCAA appearance and made it as high as 13th in the Nation.
Swim and Dive: St. Bens Swim and Dive is coached by Amanda Wolvert and is assisted by Jon Hazen and Sam Engel. Diving coach, Jon Hazen has been working with St. Bens since the 2010–11 season and coached high school for 9 years prior.
Cross Country: Cross Country is coached by Robin Balder-Lanoue. Robin is in her 22nd season as the head coach.
Track and Field: Track and Field are coached by Robin Balder-Lanoue and assisted by John Pollack.
Soccer: Bennie soccer is coached by Steve Kimble.
Club sports
Club sports at CSB-SJU have a "no-cut policy". At CSB, club sports include crew, dance team, figure skating, lacrosse, Nordic skiing, rugby, ultimate Frisbee, and volleyball. At SJU, club sports include crew, lacrosse, Nordic skiing, rugby, ultimate Frisbee, water polo, and volleyball.
Notable alumni
Roger E. Birk: ('52) chairman and CEO of Merrill Lynch, 1981–1986; vice chairman of New York Stock Exchange; president of Fannie Mae.
Tom Burnett: hero of United Airlines Flight 93 during the September 11, 2001 attacks. Attended SJU for two years, but did not graduate.
William Joseph "Bill" Cody, Jr.: Hollywood B-western film actor, who attended SJU but may not have graduated
Edward Devitt ('34): U.S. Congressman 1947–1949 and U.S. District Court Judge
David Durenberger: former U.S. Senator
Canning Fok: Hong Kong entrepreneur
Connor Franta: American vlogger, Internet personality, writer and entrepreneur. Attended SJU for two years, but did not graduate.
Jon Hassler: novelist
Patrick Hicks ('92): novelist, poet
Vedie Himsl ('38): baseball player and coach
Mark Kennedy: former U.S. Congressman
Michael King (2013): handball player, US Olympic Handball team
Bill Kling: co-founder and president of American Public Media
Bernie Kukar: former National Football League referee
Tom Love: owner, founder, and chairman of Love's Travel Stops & Country Stores (dropped out)
January Yusuf Makamba: Tanzanian CCM politician and Member of Parliament for Bumbuli constituency
Eugene McCarthy ('35): American politician, poet, and a long-time Congressman from Minnesota. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the United States Senate from 1959 to 1971.
Mike McCarthy: businessman
John McCutcheon: Grammy-winning folk musician
Denis McDonough ('92): chief of staff to President Barack Obama. Incumbent United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs under President Joseph Biden.
John McDowell: National Football League player
John McNally, a.k.a. "Johnny Blood": National Football League Hall of Famer
Larry Millett: journalist and author
Paul M. Nakasone ('86): U.S. Army general, commander, United States Army Cyber Command; director, National Security Agency
Lino Rulli ('93): Emmy-winning producer and radio host (The Catholic Guy)
Michael D. Ryan: U.S. Marine Corps lieutenant, recipient of two Purple Hearts and a Bronze Star, (Vietnam), Arizona state supreme court justice
Richard Sabers ('60): South Dakota supreme court justice
Matt Schnobrich: 2008 Summer Olympics bronze medalist in rowing
Eugene P. Sheehy: head academic librarian at Columbia University, 1967–1986
George Sinner ('50): Governor of North Dakota 1985–1992
Erik Sommer (2000): contemporary artist
Stephen Sommers: movie director
Mark Vande Hei ('89): astronaut
Jack Webb: television producer, star of Dragnet (franchise)
Jerome J. Workman, Jr.: prolific author and editor of scientific reference works on the subject of spectroscopy; a noted analytical spectroscopist.
Gordon Zahn: writer and pacifist who attended briefly but was pressured to leave. Zahn later wrote In Solitary Witness: The Life and Death of Franz Jägerstätter and German Catholics and Hitler's Wars. He received St. John's Pax Christi Award.
Notable alumnae
Kimberly M. Blaeser: author; 2015-2016 Wisconsin Poet Laureate
Elizabeth A. Hayden: retired Minnesota judge
Baulu Kuan: Chinese-American artist and curator
Ann Lenczewski: politician and former member of the Minnesota House of Representatives (DFL)
Mary Ellen Otremba: politician and former member of the Minnesota House of Representatives (DFL)
Michele Specht: actress and comedian
Yuko Taniguchi ('98): poet and author
Corie (Dumdie) Barry (‘97): chief executive officer, Best Buy
Kaleb (Billy) Newman (‘03): The Source
Notable faculty and staff
John Gagliardi: SJU football coach 1953–2012, has the most wins of any coach in college football history
Fr. Columba Stewart OSB: executive director of HMML and 2016 Guggenheim Fellowship awardee
Theology professor Miguel H. Díaz, ambassador to the Holy See (2009–12)
See also
List of colleges and universities in Minnesota
Saint John's Preparatory School (Minnesota)
References
External links
Official CSB Blazers athletics website
Official SJU Johnnies athletics website
Saint John's University (Minnesota)
Saint Benedict, College of
Saint Benedict, College of
Benedictine colleges and universities
Education in Stearns County, Minnesota
Buildings and structures in Stearns County, Minnesota
Tourist attractions in Stearns County, Minnesota
Catholic universities and colleges in Minnesota
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Liberal arts colleges in Minnesota
1913 establishments in Minnesota
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota | [
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219958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardbred | Standardbred | The Standardbred is an American horse breed best known for its ability in harness racing, where members of the breed compete at either a trot or pace. Developed in North America, the Standardbred is recognized worldwide, and the breed can trace its bloodlines to 18th-century England. They are solid, well-built horses with good dispositions. In addition to harness racing, the Standardbred is used for a variety of equestrian activities, including horse shows and pleasure riding, particularly in the Midwestern and Eastern United States and in Southern Ontario.
History
In the 17th century, the first trotting races were held in the Americas, usually in fields on horses under saddle. However, by the mid-18th century, trotting races were held on official courses, with the horses in harness. Breeds that have contributed foundation stock to the Standardbred breed included the Narragansett Pacer, Canadian Pacer, Thoroughbred, Norfolk Trotter, Hackney, and Morgan.
The foundation bloodlines of the Standardbred trace to a Thoroughbred foaled in England in 1780 named Messenger. He was a gray stallion imported to the United States in 1788. He sired a number of flat racing horses, but was best known for his great-grandson, Hambletonian 10, also known as Rysdyk's Hambletonian, foaled in 1849 and considered the foundation sire of the breed and from whom all Standardbreds descend. Hambletonian 10 was out of a dam with Norfolk Trotter breeding, and the mare and foal were purchased by William Rysdyk, a farm hand from New York state, who successfully raced the colt as a three-year-old against other horses. The horse went on to sire 1,331 offspring, 40 of whom trotted a mile in under 2 minutes 30 seconds.
Another influential sire was the Thoroughbred Diomed, born in 1777. Diomed's Thoroughbred grandson American Star, foaled in 1822, was influential in the development of the breed through the mares of his progeny by American Star 14 being bred to Hambletonian 10. When the sport started to gain popularity, more selective breeding was done to produce the faster harness trotter.
The Standardbred breed registry was formed in United States in 1879 by the National Association of Trotting Horse Breeders. The name arose due to the "standard" required of breeding stock, to be able to trot or pace a mile within a certain time limit. Every Standardbred had to be able to trot a mile in less than two minutes and 30 seconds. Today, many Standardbreds are faster than this original standard, with several pacing the mile within 1 min, 50 sec, and trotters only a few seconds slower than pacers. Slightly different bloodlines are found in trotters than in pacers, though both can trace their heritage back to Hambletonian 10.
Characteristics
Standardbreds tend to be more muscled and longer bodied than the Thoroughbred. They also are of more placid dispositions, as suits horses whose races involve more strategy and more changes of speed than do Thoroughbred races. Standardbreds are considered people-oriented, easy-to-train horses.
They are generally a bit heavier in build than Thoroughbreds, but have refined, solid legs and powerful shoulders and hindquarters. Standardbreds have a wide range of heights, from , although most are between . They are most often bay, brown or black, although other colors such as chestnut are seen. Gray and roan are also found.
The Standardbred typically weighs between . Their heads are refined and straight with broad foreheads, large nostrils, and shallow mouths. The typical Standardbred body is long, with the withers being well defined, with strong shoulders and the muscles being long and heavy, which helps with the long strides. The neck of the Standardbred is muscular and should be slightly arched, with a length of medium to long. Their legs are muscular and solid, with generally very tough and durable hooves.
Individual Standardbreds tend to either trot or pace. Trotters' preferred racing gait is the trot, where the horses' legs move in diagonal pairs; when the right foreleg moves forward, so does the left hind leg, and vice versa. The pace is a two-beat lateral gait; pacers' forelegs move in unison with the hind legs on the same side. However, the breed also is able to perform other horse gaits, including the canter, though this gait is penalized in harness racing.
The ability to pace is linked to a single-point mutation in gene DMRT3, which is expressed in the I6 subdivision of spinal cord neurons; this area is responsible for coordinating the locomotor network controlling limb movements. The point mutation causes early termination of the gene by coding for a stop codon, thus altering the function of this transcription factor.
Uses
Harness racing
Standardbreds are known for their skill in harness racing, being the fastest trotting horses in the world. Because of their speed, Standardbreds are often used to upgrade other breeds of harness racers around the world, such as the Orlov Trotter and French Trotter.
In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, races are held for both trotters and pacers. In continental Europe, all harness races are conducted between trotters. Major races for North American trotters include the Peter Haughton Memorial for two-year-olds, and the World Trotting Derby, Yonkers Trot, Hambletonian, and Kentucky Futurity for three-year-olds. The Hambletonian is sometimes referred to as the "Kentucky Derby of Harness Racing". The Trotting Triple Crown is made up of the Yonkers Trot, Hambletonian Stakes, and Kentucky Futurity.
Some of the major pacing races in North America include the Woodrow Wilson and Metro Stake for two-year-olds, and the Little Brown Jug, Meadowlands Pace, North America Cup and the Adios Pace for three-year-olds. The Little Brown Jug, the Messenger Stakes, and the Cane Pace comprise the Pacing Triple Crown. Major races in Australia and New Zealand include the New Zealand Trotting Cup, the Miracle Mile Pace and the Inter Dominion series.
In 1968, New Zealand-bred Cardigan Bay became the first Standardbred horse ever to win US$1 million, and the ninth horse to do so worldwide (the first eight were Thoroughbreds). He was popular in the United States, and appeared with Stanley Dancer on The Ed Sullivan Show as the "million dollar horse".
Other uses
Standardbreds are also used in horse shows and for pleasure riding. They are also popular as light buggy horses for the Amish people, who eschew motorized vehicles. Many retired Standardbreds find a second career off the track with the help of organizations such as the Standardbred Pleasure Horse Organization.
The breed is quite good at jumping, making them suitable for the sport horse disciplines of hunt seat, show jumping, show hunter, and eventing. The breed is also seen in dressage, and their excellent temperaments make them good trail riding and ranch horses.
In addition, because of the genetics of the breed, they can also be encouraged and trained to perform smooth ambling gaits, notably the rack and the stepping pace. The number of gaited Standardbreds is steadily growing in the United States, with some stud farms dedicated to breeding individuals with this characteristic. Standardbreds are also gaining popularity in Australia as endurance horses, from the 20 km social rides and 40 km training rides, up to the 80 km endurance rides. They are known for their strong and dense bones, suitable conformation and ability to maintain high trotting speeds for extended periods of time comfortably. The kind and manageable temperament of the breed also contributes to its popularity. These features are especially attractive to riders who do not wish to be competitive against the purpose-bred Arabian horses, which are often more difficult and competitive to ride.
References
Sources
External links
USTA breed information and versatility program
Horse breeds
Horse breeds originating in the United States
Standardbreds
Harness racing | [
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219959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruitt%E2%80%93Igoe | Pruitt–Igoe | The Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments, known together as Pruitt–Igoe (), were joint urban housing projects first occupied in 1954 in the US city of St. Louis, Missouri. Living conditions in Pruitt–Igoe began to decline soon after completion in 1956. By the late 1960s, the complex had become internationally infamous for its poverty, crime and racial segregation. The 11-story high rises within the complex almost exclusively accommodated African-Americans. All 33 buildings were demolished with explosives in the mid-1970s, and the project has come to represent some of the failures of urban renewal, public-policy planning and public housing.
The complex was designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, who also designed the original World Trade Center towers and the St. Louis Lambert International Airport main terminal.
History
During the 1940s and 1950s, the city of St. Louis was overcrowded, with housing conditions in some areas being said to resemble "something out of a Charles Dickens novel". Its housing stock had deteriorated between the 1920s and the 1940s, and more than 85,000 families lived in 19th century tenements. An official survey from 1947 found that 33,000 homes had communal toilets. Middle-class, predominantly white, residents were leaving the city, and their former residences became occupied by low-income families. Black (north) and white (south) slums of the old city were segregated and expanding, threatening to engulf the city center. To save central properties from an imminent loss of value, city authorities settled on redevelopment of the "inner ring" around the central business district. As there was so much decay there, neighborhood gentrification never received serious consideration.
In 1947, St. Louis planners proposed to replace DeSoto-Carr, a run-down neighborhood, with new two- and three-story residential blocks and a public park. The plan did not materialize; instead, Democratic mayor Joseph Darst, elected in 1949, and Republican state leaders favored clearing the slums and replacing them with high-rise, high-density public housing. They reasoned that the new projects would help the city through increased revenues, new parks, playgrounds and shopping space. Darst stated in 1951:
We must rebuild, open up and clean up the hearts of our cities. The fact that slums were created with all the intrinsic evils was everybody's fault. Now it is everybody's responsibility to repair the damage.
In 1948, voters rejected the proposal for a municipal loan to finance the change, but soon the situation was changed with the Housing Act of 1949 and Missouri state laws that provided co-financing of public housing projects. The approach taken by Darst, urban renewal, was shared by President Harry S. Truman's administration and fellow mayors of other cities overwhelmed by industrial workers recruited during the war. Specifically, St. Louis Land Clearance and Redevelopment Authority was authorized to acquire and demolish the slums of the inner ring and then sell the land at reduced prices to private developers, fostering middle-class return and business growth. Another agency, St. Louis Housing Authority, had to clear land to construct public housing for the former slum dwellers.
By 1950, St. Louis had received a federal commitment under the Housing Act of 1949 to finance 5,800 public housing units. The first large public housing in St. Louis, Cochran Gardens, was completed in 1953 and intended for low-income whites. It contained 704 units in 12 high-rise buildings and was followed by Pruitt–Igoe, Darst-Webbe and Vaughn. Pruitt–Igoe was intended for young middle-class white and black tenants, segregated into different buildings, Darst-Webbe for low-income white tenants. Missouri public housing remained racially segregated until 1956.
Design and construction
In 1950, the city commissioned the firm of Leinweber, Yamasaki & Hellmuth to design Pruitt–Igoe. It was named for St. Louisans Wendell O. Pruitt, an African-American fighter pilot in World War II, and William L. Igoe, a former U.S. Congressman. Originally, the city planned two partitions: Captain W. O. Pruitt Homes for the black residents, and William L. Igoe Apartments for whites. The site was bound by Cass Avenue on the north, North Jefferson Avenue on the west, Carr Street on the south, and North 20th Street on the east.
The project was architect Minoru Yamasaki's first large independent job, performed under supervision and constraints imposed by the federal authorities. His initial proposal provided a mix of high-rise, mid-rise and walk-up buildings. It was acceptable to St. Louis authorities, but exceeded the federal cost limits imposed by the PHA; the agency intervened and imposed a uniform building height of 11 floors. Shortages of materials caused by the Korean War and tensions in the Congress further tightened PHA controls.
In 1951, an Architectural Forum article praised Yamasaki's original proposal as "the best high apartment" of the year. Overall density was set at a moderate level of 50 units per acre (higher than in downtown slums), yet, according to the planning principles of Le Corbusier and the International Congresses of Modern Architects, residents were raised up to 11 floors above ground in an attempt to save the grounds and ground floor space for communal activity. Architectural Forum praised the layout as "vertical neighborhoods for poor people". Each row of buildings was supposed to be flanked by a "river of trees", developing a Harland Bartholomew concept.
As completed in 1955, Pruitt–Igoe consisted of 33 11-story apartment buildings on a site, on St. Louis's lower north side. The complex totaled 2,870 apartments, one of the largest in the country. The apartments were deliberately small, with undersized kitchen appliances. "Skip-stop" elevators stopped only at the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth floors, forcing many residents to use the stairs in an attempt to lessen elevator congestion. The same "anchor floors" were equipped with large communal corridors, laundry rooms, communal rooms and garbage chutes.
Despite federal cost-cutting regulations, Pruitt–Igoe initially cost $36 million, 60% above national average for public housing. Conservatives attributed cost overruns to inflated unionized labor wages and the steamfitters union influence that led to the installation of an expensive heating system; overruns on the heating system caused a chain of arbitrary cost cuts in other vital parts of the building.
Nevertheless, Pruitt–Igoe was initially seen as a breakthrough in urban renewal. Residents considered it to be "an oasis in the desert" compared to the extremely poor quality of housing they had occupied previously, and considered it to be safe. Some referred to the apartments as "poor man's penthouses".
Despite poor build quality, material suppliers cited Pruitt–Igoe in their advertisements, capitalizing on the national exposure of the project.
Decay
On December 7, 1955, in a decision by Federal District Judge George H. Moore, St. Louis and the St. Louis housing authority were ordered to stop their practice of segregation in public housing. In 1957, occupancy of Pruitt–Igoe peaked at 91%, after which it began to decline. Sources differ on how quickly depopulation occurred: according to Ramroth, occupancy fell to two-thirds of capacity by 1965; according to Newman, after a certain point occupancy never rose above 60%. All authors agree that by the end of the 1960s, Pruitt–Igoe was nearly abandoned and had deteriorated into a decaying, dangerous, crime-infested neighborhood; its architect lamented: "I never thought people were that destructive."
Residents cited a lack of maintenance almost from the very beginning, including the regular breakdown of elevators, as being a primary cause of the deterioration of the project. Local authorities cited a lack of funding to pay for the workforce necessary for proper upkeep of the buildings. In addition, ventilation was poor, and the buildings lacked centralized air conditioning. The stairwells and corridors attracted muggers, a situation exacerbated (or even caused) by the "skip-stop" elevators. The project's parking and recreation facilities were inadequate; playgrounds were added only after tenants petitioned for their installation.
In 1971, Pruitt–Igoe housed only 600 people in 17 buildings; the other 16 buildings were boarded up. Meanwhile, adjacent Carr Village, a low-rise area with a similar demographic makeup, remained fully occupied and largely trouble-free throughout the construction, occupancy and decline of Pruitt–Igoe.
Despite the decay of the public areas and gang violence, Pruitt–Igoe contained isolated pockets of relative well-being throughout its worst years. Apartments clustered around small, two-family landings with tenants working to maintain and clear their common areas were often relatively successful. When corridors were shared by 20 families and staircases by hundreds, public spaces immediately fell into disrepair. When the number of residents per public space rose above a certain level, none would identify with these "no man's land[s]" – places where it was "impossible to feel ... to tell resident from intruder". The inhabitants of Pruitt–Igoe organized an active tenant association, bringing about community enterprises. One such example was the creation of craft rooms; these rooms allowed the women of the Pruitt–Igoe to congregate, socialize, and create ornaments, quilts, and statues for sale.{[cn}}
Demolition
In 1968, the federal Department of Housing began encouraging the remaining residents to leave Pruitt–Igoe. In December 1971, state and federal authorities agreed to demolish two of the Pruitt–Igoe buildings with explosives. They hoped that a gradual reduction in population and building density could improve the situation; by this time, Pruitt–Igoe had consumed $57 million, an investment which they felt could not be abandoned at once. Authorities considered different scenarios and techniques to rehabilitate Pruitt–Igoe, including conversion to a low-rise neighborhood by collapsing the towers down to four floors and undertaking a "horizontal" reorganization of their layout.
After months of preparation, the first building was demolished with an explosive detonation at 3 pm, on March 16, 1972. The second one went down on April 21, 1972. After more implosions on June 9, the first stage of demolition was over. As the government scrapped rehabilitation plans, the rest of the Pruitt–Igoe blocks were imploded during the following three years, and the site was finally cleared in 1976 with the demolition of the last block.
Legacy
Explanations for the failure of Pruitt–Igoe are complex. It is often presented as an architectural failure. While it was praised by one architectural magazine prior to its construction as "the best high apartment of the year", Pruitt–Igoe never won any awards for its design. However, the same architects behind Pruitt–Igoe also designed the award-winning Cochran Gardens elsewhere in St. Louis, which may have been confused with Pruitt–Igoe.
Other critics cite social factors including the economic decline of St. Louis, white flight into suburbs, lack of tenants who were employed, and politicized local opposition to government housing projects as factors in the project's failure. Pruitt–Igoe has become a frequently used textbook case in architecture, sociology and politics, "a truism of the environment and behavior literature". A noted study of the families who lived in the complex was published in book form in 1970 by Harvard sociologist Lee Rainwater, titled Behind Ghetto Walls: Black Families in a Federal Slum.
Pruitt–Igoe was one of the first demolitions of modernist architecture; postmodern architectural historian Charles Jencks called its destruction "the day Modern architecture died". Its failure is often seen as a direct indictment of the society-changing aspirations of the International school of architecture. Jencks used Pruitt–Igoe as an example of modernists' intentions running contrary to real-world social development, though others argue that since the location, population density, cost constraints, and even the specific number of floors were imposed by the federal and state authorities, the failure of the project cannot be attributed entirely to architectural factors.
As of 2020, the former Pruitt–Igoe site remains largely undeveloped. On its south-eastern corner, adjacent to the now privately operated school, new public schools were built: Gateway Middle School and Gateway Elementary School, combined magnet schools specializing in science and technology, as well as Pruitt Military Academy, a military-themed magnet middle school. The larger part of the Pruitt–Igoe site is made up of oak and hickory woodland and fenced-off waste land, with the Pruitt–Igoe electrical substation located in the center of the latter. The former DeSoto-Carr slums around the Pruitt–Igoe have also been torn down and replaced with low-density, single-family housing.
In popular culture
Footage of the demolition of Pruitt–Igoe was prominently featured in the film Koyaanisqatsi.
The 2011 documentary The Pruitt-Igoe Myth discusses the causes of the failure of Pruitt-Igoe.
See also
Panel house, in various former communist countries
Cidade de Deus, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Regent Park, in Toronto, Canada
St. James Town, in Toronto, Canada
Lees Avenue, in Ottawa, Canada
Habitations Jeanne-Mance, in Montreal, Canada
Cité Radieuse and Ville Contemporaine, France (Le Corbusier's modernist scheme for urban development)
Ballymun Flats, in Dublin, Ireland
Conjunto Urbano Nonoalco Tlatelolco, in Mexico City, Mexico
Bijlmermeer, in Amsterdam, Netherlands
Red Road Flats, in Glasgow, United Kingdom
Roundshaw Estate, Wallington, Sutton, United Kingdom
Aylesbury Estate, in London, United Kingdom
Robin Hood Gardens, in Poplar, London, United Kingdom
Cabrini–Green, in Chicago, Illinois
Robert Taylor Homes, in Chicago, Illinois
Glenny Drive Apartments, in Buffalo, New York
Father Panik Village in Bridgeport, Connecticut
Vele di Scampia in Scampia, Napoli, Italy
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
History of St. Louis
Public housing in St. Louis
Residential buildings completed in 1955
Buildings and structures demolished in 1972
Buildings and structures demolished in 1976
Demolished buildings and structures in St. Louis
Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion
Public housing in the United States
Urban decay in the United States
Residential skyscrapers in St. Louis
African-American history in St. Louis
Minoru Yamasaki buildings
1955 establishments in Missouri
1976 disestablishments in Missouri | [
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219962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson%27s%20rule | Simpson's rule | In numerical integration, Simpson's rules are several approximations for definite integrals, named after Thomas Simpson (1710–1761).
The most basic of these rules, called Simpson's 1/3 rule, or just Simpson's rule, reads
In German and some other languages, it is named after Johannes Kepler, who derived it in 1615 after seeing it used for wine barrels (barrel rule, ). The approximate equality in the rule becomes exact if f is a polynomial up to 3rd degree.
If the 1/3 rule is applied to n equal subdivisions of the integration range [a, b], one obtains the composite Simpson's rule. Points inside the integration range are given alternating weights 4/3 and 2/3.
Simpson's 3/8 rule, also called Simpson's second rule, requires one more function evaluation inside the integration range and gives lower error bounds, but does not improve on order of the error.
Simpson's 1/3 and 3/8 rules are two special cases of closed Newton–Cotes formulas.
In naval architecture and ship stability estimation, there also exists Simpson's third rule, which has no special importance in general numerical analysis, see Simpson's rules (ship stability).
Simpson's 1/3 rule
Derivations
Quadratic interpolation
One derivation replaces the integrand by the quadratic polynomial (i.e. parabola) that takes the same values as at the end points and and the midpoint . One can use Lagrange polynomial interpolation to find an expression for this polynomial,
Using integration by substitution, one can show that
Introducing the step size , this is also commonly written as
Because of the factor, Simpson's rule is also referred to as "Simpson's 1/3 rule" (see below for generalization).
Averaging the midpoint and the trapezoidal rules
Another derivation constructs Simpson's rule from two simpler approximations: the midpoint rule
and the trapezoidal rule
The errors in these approximations are
and
respectively, where denotes a term asymptotically proportional to . The two terms are not equal; see Big O notation for more details. It follows from the above formulas for the errors of the midpoint and trapezoidal rule that the leading error term vanishes if we take the weighted average
This weighted average is exactly Simpson's rule.
Using another approximation (for example, the trapezoidal rule with twice as many points), it is possible to take a suitable weighted average and eliminate another error term. This is Romberg's method.
Undetermined coefficients
The third derivation starts from the ansatz
The coefficients α, β and γ can be fixed by requiring that this approximation be exact for all quadratic polynomials. This yields Simpson's rule. (This derivation is essentially a less rigorous version of the quadratic interpolation derivation, where one saves significant calculation effort by guessing the correct functional form.)
Error
The error in approximating an integral by Simpson's rule for is
where (the Greek letter xi) is some number between and .
The error is asymptotically proportional to . However, the above derivations suggest an error proportional to . Simpson's rule gains an extra order because the points at which the integrand is evaluated are distributed symmetrically in the interval .
Since the error term is proportional to the fourth derivative of at , this shows that Simpson's rule provides exact results for any polynomial of degree three or less, since the fourth derivative of such a polynomial is zero at all points. Another way to see this result is to note that any interpolating cubic polynomial can be expressed as the sum of the unique interpolating quadratic polynomial plus an arbitrarily scaled cubic polynomial that vanishes at all three points in the interval, and the integral of this second term vanishes because it is odd within the interval.
If the second derivative exists and is convex in the interval , then
Composite Simpson's rule
If the interval of integration is in some sense "small", then Simpson's rule with subintervals will provide an adequate approximation to the exact integral. By "small" we mean that the function being integrated is relatively smooth over the interval . For such a function, a smooth quadratic interpolant like the one used in Simpson's rule will give good results.
However, it is often the case that the function we are trying to integrate is not smooth over the interval. Typically, this means that either the function is highly oscillatory or lacks derivatives at certain points. In these cases, Simpson's rule may give very poor results. One common way of handling this problem is by breaking up the interval into small subintervals. Simpson's rule is then applied to each subinterval, with the results being summed to produce an approximation for the integral over the entire interval. This sort of approach is termed the composite Simpson's rule.
Suppose that the interval is split up into sub-intervals, with an even number. Then, the composite Simpson's rule is given by
where for with ; in particular, and . This composite rule with corresponds with the regular Simpson's Rule of the preceding section.
The error committed by the composite Simpson's rule is
where is some number between and , and is the "step length". The error is bounded (in absolute value) by
This formulation splits the interval in subintervals of equal length. In practice, it is often advantageous to use subintervals of different lengths and concentrate the efforts on the places where the integrand is less well-behaved. This leads to the adaptive Simpson's method.
Simpson's 3/8 rule
Simpson's 3/8 rule, also called Simpson's second rule, is another method for numerical integration proposed by Thomas Simpson. It is based upon a cubic interpolation rather than a quadratic interpolation. Simpson's 3/8 rule is as follows:
where b − a = 3h.
The error of this method is
where is some number between and . Thus, the 3/8 rule is about twice as accurate as the standard method, but it uses one more function value. A composite 3/8 rule also exists, similarly as above.
A further generalization of this concept for interpolation with arbitrary-degree polynomials are the Newton–Cotes formulas.
Composite Simpson's 3/8 rule
Dividing the interval into subintervals of length and introducing the nodes , we have
While the remainder for the rule is shown as
we can only use this if is a multiple of three. The 1/3 rule can be used for the remainding subintervals without changing the order of the error term (conversely, the 3/8 rule can be used with a composite 1/3 rule for odd-numbered subintervals).
Alternative extended Simpson's rule
This is another formulation of a composite Simpson's rule: instead of applying Simpson's rule to disjoint segments of the integral to be approximated, Simpson's rule is applied to overlapping segments, yielding
The formula above is obtained by combining the original composite Simpson's rule with the one consisting of using Simpson's 3/8 rule in the extreme subintervals and the standard 3-point rule in the remaining subintervals. The result is then obtained by taking the mean of the two formulas.
Simpson's rules in the case of narrow peaks
In the task of estimation of full area of narrow peak-like functions, Simpson's rules are much less efficient than trapezoidal rule. Namely, composite Simpson's 1/3 rule requires 1.8 times more points to achieve the same accuracy as trapezoidal rule. Composite Simpson's 3/8 rule is even less accurate. Integral by Simpson's 1/3 rule can be represented as a sum of 2/3 of integral by trapezoidal rule with step h and 1/3 of integral by rectangle rule with step 2h, and its accuracy is governed by the second (2h step) term. Averaging of Simpson's 1/3 rule composite sums with properly shifted frames produces the following rules:
where two points outside of the integrated region are exploited, and
where only points within integration region are used. Application of the second rule to the region of 3 points generates 1/3 Simpon's rule, 4 points - 3/8 rule.
These rules are very much similar to Press's alternative extended Simpson's rule. Coefficients within the major part of the region being integrated equal one, differences are only at the edges. These two rules can be associated with Euler–MacLaurin formula with the first derivative term and named First order Euler–MacLaurin integration rules. Two rules presented above differ only in the way how the first derivative at the region end is calculated. First derivative term in Euler–MacLaurin integration rules accounts for integral of the second derivative, which equals difference of the first derivatives at the edges of the integration region. It is possible to generate higher order Euler-Maclaurin rules by adding a difference of 3rd, 5th and so on derivatives with coefficients, defined by Euler–MacLaurin formula.
Composite Simpson's rule for irregularly spaced data
For some applications, the integration interval needs to be divided into uneven intervals – perhaps due to uneven sampling of data, or missing or corrupted data points. Suppose we divide the interval into even number of subintervals of widths . Then the composite Simpson's rule is given by
where
are the function values at the th sampling point on the interval .
In case of odd number of subintervals, the above formula are used up to the second to last interval,
and the last interval is handled separately by adding the following to the result:
where
See also
Gaussian quadrature
Notes
References
External links
Application of Simpson's Rule — Earthwork Excavation (Note: The formula described in this page is correct but there are errors in the calculation which should give a result of 569m3 and not 623m3 as stated)
Simpson's 1/3rd rule of integration — Notes, PPT, Mathcad, Matlab, Mathematica, Maple at Numerical Methods for STEM undergraduate
A detailed description of a computer implementation is described by Dorai Sitaram in Teach Yourself Scheme in Fixnum Days, Appendix C
Integral calculus
Numerical integration (quadrature)
Numerical analysis
Articles with example Python (programming language) code
Articles with example C code | [
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] |
219965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzai | Manzai | is a traditional style of comedy in Japanese culture comparable to double act comedy or stand-up comedy.
usually involves two performers ()—a straight man () and a funny man ()—trading jokes at great speed. Most of the jokes revolve around mutual misunderstandings, double-talk, puns and other verbal gags.
In recent times, has often been associated with the Osaka region, and comedians often speak in the Kansai dialect during their acts.
In 1933, Yoshimoto Kogyo, a large entertainment conglomerate based in Osaka, introduced Osaka-style to Tokyo audiences, and coined the term "" (one of several ways of writing the word in Japanese; see below). In 2015, Matayoshi Naoki's manzai novel, won the Akutagawa Prize. A mini-series adaptation was released on Netflix in 2016.
History
Originally based around a festival to welcome the New Year, traces its origins back to the Heian period. The two performers came with messages from the gods and this was worked into a standup routine, with one performer showing some sort of opposition to the word of the other. This pattern still exists in the roles of the and the .
Continuing into the Edo period, the style focused increasingly on the humor aspects of stand-up, and various regions of Japan developed their own unique styles of , such as , , and . With the arrival of the Meiji period, began to implement changes that would see it surpass in popularity the styles of the former period, although at the time was still considered the more popular form of entertainment.
With the end of the Taishō period, Yoshimoto Kōgyō—which itself was founded at the beginning of the era, in 1912—introduced a new style of lacking much of the celebration that had accompanied it in the past. This new style proved successful and spread all over Japan, including Tokyo. Riding on the waves of new communication technology, quickly spread through the mediums of stage, radio, and eventually, television, and video games.
Etymology
The kanji for have been written in various ways throughout the ages. It was originally written as , using rather than the alternative form of the character, , and the simpler form for (which also can be used to write a word meaning "talent, ability"). The arrival of brought another character change, this time changing the first character to .
and
Similar in execution to the concepts of "funny man" and "straight man" in double act comedy (e.g. Abbott and Costello), these roles are a very important characteristic of . comes from the verb which carries the meaning of "senility" or "air headed-ness" and is reflected in the 's tendency for misinterpretation and forgetfulness. The word refers to the role the second comedian plays in "butting in" and correcting the 's errors. In performances it is common for the to berate the and hit them on the head with a swift smack; one traditional prop often used for this purpose is a pleated paper fan called a . Another traditional prop is a small drum, usually carried (and used) by the . A Japanese bamboo and paper umbrella is another common prop. These props are usually used only during non-serious routines as traditional requires there to be no props in terms of routine and in competitions. The use of props would put the comedy act closer to a conte rather than manzai.
The tradition of and is often used in other Japanese comedy, although it may not be as obviously portrayed as it usually is in .
Notable acts
Downtown
Takeshi Kitano; Japanese film director, television host, and former performer in the group "Two Beat". is mentioned and referenced in a number of his other works.
Literary associations
Kikaku wrote with affectionate mockery a haiku on the dancers: "The New Year Dancers / Never miss a single gate - / Millet for the crane".
Buson more positively wrote: "Yes, New Year's dancers - / Pounding good and properly, / The dirt in Kyoto".
See also
References
http://japanese.about.com/library/blhiraculture31.htm
External links
"Commodified Comedians and Mediatized Manzai: Osakan Comic Duos and Their Audience" by Xavier Benjamin Bensky. A study in the cultural effects of manzai.
Comedy genres
Culture in Osaka
Japanese comedy
Performing arts in Japan
Stand-up comedy | [
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219972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hayes%20%28harness%20racer%29 | John Hayes (harness racer) | John G. Hayes, Sr. (July 17, 1919 – December 8, 1998), was a harness racing driver/trainer/owner who was inducted into the Canadian and American Harness Racing Halls of Fame.
Born in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada, he was the son of a dairy farmer who went on to become a prominent figure in harness racing and the first Canadian to be selected to the Little Brown Jug's Wall of Fame. His greatest accomplishment was in training horses in particular when he developed the great champion, Strike Out.
A longtime director of the Canadian Trotting Association, for ten years John Hayes served as its president and was Vice-Chairman of the Ontario Racing Commission.
It had been Hayes' lifelong dream to win the Little Brown Jug and was famous for having told a newspaper reporter: "I'd rather win the Little Brown Jug than go to heaven." When he died in 1998, the Little Brown Jug itself, won by Strike Out in 1972, was placed at the head of his casket.
John Hayes was inducted into the Little Brown Jug Wall of Fame in 1990, the Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 1991, and the United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame in 2005.
Beejay Stable
The Beejay Stable was a harness racing stable and breeding business owned by John Hayes as managing partner in a partnership formed in 1959 with Montreal's Shapiro brothers, Conrad, Leo, and Robert. Among the horses owned by the partnership were Sharp 'n' Smart, Penn Hanover, Keystone Pat, Alley Fighter, and their most successful, the Hall of Fame pacer, Strike Out. Twenty-five years after the partnership was first formed, they established the Quarter Century Club as a vehicle for investments in various racing stock such as a share in sire Albatross and businesses including Castleton Farm and the Tattersalls Sales Company in Lexington, Kentucky.
References
1919 births
1998 deaths
Canadian harness racing drivers
Canadian harness racing trainers
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian racehorse owners and breeders
Sportspeople from Oshawa | [
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219973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FRG | FRG | FRG may refer to:
Family Readiness Group in the United States Army
Federal Republic of Germany
West Germany
FMN reductase (NAD(P)H)
Friendship Radiosport Games
Functional renormalization group
Guatemalan Republican Front (Spanish: ), a defunct political party in Guatemala
Republic Airport in East Farmingdale, New York, United States | [
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219974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Brown%20Jug%20%28horse%20race%29 | Little Brown Jug (horse race) | The Little Brown Jug is a harness race for three-year-old pacing standardbreds hosted by the Delaware County Agricultural Society since 1946 at the Delaware County Fairgrounds racetrack in Delaware, Ohio. The race takes place every year on the third Thursday after Labor Day. Along with the Hambletonian, a race for trotters, it is one of the two most coveted races for Standardbred horses. The event is named after the Little Brown Jug, a pacer, who won nine consecutive races and became a USTA Hall of Fame Immortal in 1975.
The race is the counterpart to the Jugette for three-year-old fillies.
History
It began in 1937 when the Delaware County Agricultural Society's members, at their annual meeting, voted to move the County Fair, held since its inception at Powell, to Delaware on a tract of land at the northern edge of the city. Two years later a half-mile track was built and provided the stage for harness racing. R.K. McNamara, a local contractor, designed and built the lightning fast track. Enter attorney Joe Neville, whose family had been identified with the standardbred sport for many years, and his friend, Henry C. "Hank" Thomson, sports editor of The Delaware Gazette. Neville, who had campaigned horses on the Grand Circuit and was familiar with its officers and stewards, was successful in obtaining Grand Circuit dates for the new Delaware track. Neville, concerned over the years by the emphasis placed on the trotter, turned his efforts toward showcasing the pacers, particularly the 3-year-olds. The Little Brown Jug Society was formed to stage the Grand Circuit meeting. Neville headed the organization with Thomson as secretary-treasurer. Then came the birth of the Little Brown Jug, named through a newspaper contest won by Major Lanning Parsons, with its previews in 1944 and 1945. The initial Jug in 1946, with a purse of $35,358, was won by Ensign Hanover with Delaware's Wayne "Curly" Smart driving. Smart, a most successful trainer-driver on the Grand Circuit, was later to become an integral part of the Jug's operation as the track superintendent. Over the years the track monopolized the half-mile record section with world standard performances, mainly through Smart's skill in maintaining the fastest racing strip of its size in the country.
Through its humble beginnings, the Jug grew slowly to become perhaps the most traditional stake on the pacing gait. In 1956 the Jug provided the anchor for the newly designated Triple Crown of Pacing to go along with The Cane Pace at Yonkers (N.Y.) Raceway and the Messenger Stake then at Roosevelt Raceway in Westbury, N.Y.
The Little Brown Jug is contested in heats. The first heat is split into several divisions, with the top finishers in each division returning to contest the second heat. A horse wins the Little Brown Jug by winning both heats. If a horse does not win both heats, a race off is conducted between the first heat division winners, and the winner of the second heat, to determine the champion.
The Little Brown Jug is the third and final leg of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers.
Ever since 1946 the administrators of the Little Brown Jug have glazed the winners of the horse race on a jug. In 2005, they ran out of room on the first jug and had to make another one. This time, instead of making it out of clay, they made it out of plastic so it would be lighter. The Little Brown Jug takes place at Delaware county fair (Delaware, OH).
Records
Most wins by a driver
5 – Billy Haughton (1955, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1974)
5 – Michel Lachance (1988, 1989, 1994, 1997, 2001)
5 – David Miller (2003, 2008, 2011, 2016, 2018)
Most wins by a trainer
6 – Billy Haughton (1955, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1985)
Stakes record
1:49 0/0 – Betting Line (2016)
Little Brown Jug winners
References
Recurring sporting events established in 1946
Harness races in the United States
Harness races for three-year-old pacers
United States Triple Crown of Harness Racing
Tourist attractions in Delaware County, Ohio
Horse racing in Ohio
1946 establishments in Ohio
Delaware, Ohio | [
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219975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poti | Poti | Poti ( ; Mingrelian: ფუთი; Laz: ჶაში/Faşi or ფაში/Paşi) is a port city in Georgia, located on the eastern Black Sea coast in the region of Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti in the west of the country. Built near the site of the ancient Greek colony of Phasis and deriving its name from the same, the city has become a major port city and industrial center since the early 20th century. It is also home to a main naval base and the headquarters of the Georgian Navy.
Etymology
The name Poti is linked to Phasis, but the etymology is a matter of a scholarly dispute. "Phasis" () is first recorded in Hesiod's Theogony (c. 700 BC) as a name of the river, not a town. Since Erich Diehl, 1938, first suggested a non-Hellenic origin of the name and asserted that Phasis might have been a derivative of a local hydronym, several explanations have been proposed, linking the name to the Proto-Georgian-Zan *Poti, Svan *Pasid, and even to a Semitic word, meaning "a gold river".
History
Ancient and medieval history
The recorded history of Poti and its environments spans over 26 centuries. In Classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the area was occupied by the Greek polis of Phasis which was established by the colonists from Miletus led by one Themistagoras at the very end of the 7th, and probably at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The famed Greek semi-mythological voyage of Jason and the Argonauts in search of the Golden Fleece would have entered Georgia at this port and traveled up the river to what is today Kutaisi.
After many years of uncertainty and academic debate, the site of this settlement now seems to be established, thanks to underwater archaeology under tough conditions. Apparently, the lake which the well-informed Ancient Greek author Strabo reported as bounding one side of Phasis has now engulfed it, or part of it. Yet, a series of questions regarding the town’s exact location and identification of its ruins remain open due largely to the centuries-long geomorphological processes of the area as the lower reaches of the Rioni are prone to changes of course across the wetland. Phasis appears to have been an important center of trade and culture in Colchis throughout the Classical period. The section along the river Phasis was a vital component of the presumed trade route from India to the Black Sea, attested by Strabo and Pliny.
Between the 6th and 2nd centuries BC, the town played an active role in these contacts. During the Third Mithridatic War, Phasis came under Roman control. It was where the Roman commander-in-chief Pompey, having crossed into Colchis from Iberia, met the legate Servilius, the admiral of his Euxine fleet in 65 BC. After the introduction of Christianity, Phasis was a seat of a Greek diocese, one of whose bishops, Cyrus, became a Patriarch of Alexandria between 630 and 641 AD. During the Lazic War between the Eastern Roman and Sassanid Iranian empires (542-562) Phasis was attacked, unsuccessfully, by Iranian soldiers.
In the 8th century, the name Poti entered Georgian written sources. It remained a place of maritime trade within the Kingdom of Georgia and was known to medieval European travelers as Fasso. In the 14th century, the Genoese established a trading factory, which proved to be short-lived.
Modern history
In 1578, Poti was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, who knew the town as Faş, heavily fortified it and made it into one of their Caucasian outposts which were also home to a great slave market. A combined army of the western Georgian princes recovered Poti in 1640, but the town fell under the Ottoman sway again in 1723. Another futile attempt to dispossess the Ottomans of Poti was made by Russo-Georgian forces in 1770 and 1771. Once Russia took control of most of the principal Georgian lands in the 1800s, it again attempted to evict the Turkish garrison from Poti and succeeded in doing so with the help of Georgian auxiliaries under the command of Nino, Princess of Mingrelia in 1809, but was coerced to return the fortress to the Ottomans in the Treaty of Bucharest (1812). The next Russo-Turkish War resulted in the capture of Poti by Russia in 1828. (See Russian conquest of the Caucasus#Black Sea Coast.) The town was subordinated to the Governorate of Kutais and granted the status of a port town in 1858. The seaport was reconstructed between 1863 and 1905. In 1872, the town became the terminus of the Caucasian railway, whence the line led directly to Tiflis (Tbilisi).
Poti particularly grew in size and importance during the mayorship of Niko Nikoladze between 1894 and 1912. Considered to be the founding father of modern Poti, Nikoladze presided over a series of modernizing and construction projects, including a theatre, a large cathedral, two gymnasia, a power station, an oil refinery, etc. By 1900, Poti had become one of the major ports on the Black Sea, exporting most of Georgia’s manganese and coal. During the First Russian Revolution, Poti became a scene of workers' strikes and barricade fighting in December 1905. At the beginning of World War I, on November 7, 1914, the Ottoman SMS Breslau appeared off the port of Poti and subjected the railway yards there to a bombardment that lasted three-quarters of an hour, without any direct results.
During a brief period of independence in 1918–1921, Poti was Georgia’s principal window to Europe, also serving as the portal of entry for successive German and British expeditionary forces. On May 28, 1918, a German-Georgian preliminary treaty of alliance was signed at Poti. On March 14, 1921, Poti was occupied by the invading Red Armies of Soviet Russia which installed a Soviet government in Georgia. During the Soviet era, Poti retained its principal function as a seaport and the town was further industrialized and militarized.
During the 2008 war with Russia Russian warplanes attacked the port. Although a ceasefire was declared on August 12, the Russian troops continued to occupy the environs of the city until being withdrawn the next month.
Politics
Poti City Assembly (Georgian: მარტვილის საკრებულო) is the representative body in Poti City, consisting of 35 members, which is elected every four years. The last election was held in October 2021. Beka Vacharadze of Georgian Dream was elected mayor through the 2nd round against a candidate of the United National Movement.
Geography and climate
Poti is situated west of Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi, in a marshy delta created by the major river of western Georgia, the Rioni, at its entrance into the Black Sea. The city lies at an altitude of above sea level. A portion of Poti's environs recovered from the marshes now accommodate citrus plantation. The city is surrounded by the Kolkheti National Park. It is flanked by the small river Kaparchina to the south-east and Lake Paliastomi to the south-west. Some to the south is the village Maltaqva, a local beach resort. The city's climate is humid subtropical with cool winters and warm summers. The average annual temperature is , in January, and in July. Average annual precipitation is .
Economy
The service and food industries represent the most important sectors of the economy. The Poti Sea Port (7.7 million tons per annum) is operational. The railway to Tbilisi makes this a more useful port than the natural harbor at Batumi.
In April 2008, Georgia sold a 51% stake of the Poti port to the Investment Authority of the UAE’s Ras Al Khaimah (RAK) emirate to develop a free industrial zone (FIZ) in a 49-year management concession, and to manage a new port terminal. The creation of a new FEZ was officially inaugurated by the President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili on April 15, 2008.
As of November 2009, there are plans for a Kerch–Poti ferry route.
Sport
The town's main football team is Kolkheti 1913 Poti who play at the multi-use Fazisi Stadium.
Fiber optic network
A long haul submarine communications cable - Bulgaria–Georgia communications cable - stretching from Varna, Bulgaria across the Black Sea to Poti Georgia was laid during the month of July 2008 onboard the American cable ship CS Tyco Decisive, just a couple of weeks prior to the South Ossetia War. This cable system will be Georgia's first privately owned fiber-optic system for the citizens of Georgia. Instead of paying high prices for internet/TV/phone usage through Turkey, Georgians will now be able to pay much less for their own private high-speed fiber optic cable internet cable system usage.
Military
The Poti naval base was organized by the Soviet government in July 1941, a month after the German invasion during World War II. Commanded by Major-General Mikhail Kumanin, the base operated as a part of the Black Sea Fleet and included two submarine divisions, a torpedo boat division, coastal guard boat division, two minesweepers, four coastal and six missile batteries, etc. After the German capture of Sevastopol and Novorossiysk in 1942, several destroyers were transferred to be based at Poti which, together with another Georgian port city, Batumi, functioned as a secondary harbor in the Black Sea Campaigns (1941–44). By the early 1990s, the Poti base had accommodated several smaller units of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, but became essentially defunct after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In December 1992, Russia withdrew all its vessels and ammunition from the Poti naval base, but an ethnic Georgian commander of one landing ship refused to obey Moscow’s order and displayed a Georgian flag. At almost the same time, the Georgian government created a Joint Naval Brigade, consisting of several boats, a battalion of marines, an artillery division, and a communication detachment. Since then, the Brigade has been enlarged and reequipped with the help of the NATO-member states.
On October 9, 1993, a war-torn Georgia had to legalize the Russian military presence in the country, and lease, among other military facilities, the Poti base to the Russian navy. However, Georgia continued, though fruitlessly, to claim the vessels formerly stationed at Poti as a part of a tripartite Russo-Ukrainian-Georgian dispute over the Soviet Black Sea Fleet shares. By September 1998, the Russian military personnel had been withdrawn from Poti to the Russian base at Batumi under a Russo-Georgian agreement signed earlier that year.
Currently, Poti is a military facility assignment to several of Georgia’s units. These are the headquarters and main base of the Georgian navy, a primary naval logistic support base, a station of a naval squadron, and barracks for a separate light infantry battalion of the Georgian Armed Forces.
International relations
Twin towns—Sister cities
Berdyansk, Ukraine
Chornomorsk, Ukraine
Kiryat Yam, Israel
LaGrange, United States
Larnaca, Cyprus
Nafplio, Greece
Östhammar, Sweden
Pazar, Turkey
Sevastopol, Ukraine
Shanwei, China
Yazd, Iran (1990)
See also
Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti
Notes
References
Otar Lordkipanidze (2000), Phasis: The River and City in Colchis. Franz Steiner Verlag, .
Stephen F. Jones (2005), Socialism in Georgian Colors: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883-1917. Harvard University Press, .
Richard J. A. Talbert et al. (ed., 2000), Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton University Press, .
External links
www.poti.ge (Poti city Portal)
Poti city web site
Poti Sea Port Authority
Chart of Poti port
@bbc - The Georgian foreign ministry said the Black Sea port of Poti, which is the site of a major oil shipment facility, had been "devastated" by a Russian aerial bombardment.
New fiber optic cable connected to Europe
Cities and towns in Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti
Greek colonies in Colchis
Port cities in Europe
Port cities of the Black Sea
Georgian Black Sea coast
Russian and Soviet Navy bases | [
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219984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwi | Iwi | Iwi () are the largest social units in Aotearoa (New Zealand) Māori society. The Māori-language word roughly translates to "people" or "nation", and is often translated as "tribe", or "a confederation of tribes". The word is both singular and plural in the Māori language. Māori use the word rohe to describe the territory or boundaries of iwi.
groups trace their ancestry to the original Polynesian migrants who, according to tradition, arrived from Hawaiki. Some cluster into larger groupings that are based on (genealogical tradition) and known as (literally "canoes", with reference to the original migration voyages). These super-groupings generally serve symbolic rather than practical functions. In pre-European times, most Māori were allied to relatively small groups in the form of ("sub-tribes") and ("family"). Each contains a number of ; among the of the Ngāti Whātua iwi, for example, are Te Uri-o-Hau, Te Roroa, Te Taoū, and Ngāti Whātua-o-Ōrākei.
In modern-day New Zealand, can exercise significant political power in the recovery and management of land and of other assets. (Note for example the 1997 Treaty of Waitangi settlement between the New Zealand Government and Ngāi Tahu, compensating that for various losses of the rights guaranteed under the Treaty of Waitangi of 1840.) affairs can have a real impact on New Zealand politics and society. A 2004 attempt by some to test in court their ownership of the seabed and foreshore areas polarised public opinion (see New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy).
Naming
In Māori and in many other Polynesian languages, literally means "bone". Māori may refer to returning home after travelling or living elsewhere as "going back to the bones" — literally to the burial-areas of the ancestors. Māori author Keri Hulme's novel The Bone People (1985) has a title linked directly to the dual meaning of bone and "tribal people".
Many names begin with or with (from and respectively, both meaning roughly "the offspring of"). has become a productive morpheme in New Zealand English to refer to groups of people: examples are Ngāti Pākehā (Pākehā as a group), Ngāti Poneke (Māori who have migrated to the Wellington region), and Ngāti Rānana (Māori living in London). Ngāti Tūmatauenga ("Tribe of Tūmatauenga", the god of war) is the official Māori-language name of the New Zealand Army, and ("Black Tribe") is a Māori-language name for the All Blacks.
In the southern dialect of Māori, Ngāti and Ngāi become and , terms found in such iwi as Kāti Māmoe and Ngāi Tahu/Kãi Tahu.
Structure
Each has a generally recognised territory (), but many of these overlap, sometimes completely. This has added a layer of complication to the long-running discussions and court cases about how to resolve historical Treaty claims. The length of coastline emerged as one factor in the final (2004) legislation to allocate fishing-rights in settlement of claims relating to commercial fisheries.
Self-determination
can become a prospective vehicle for ideas and ideals of self-determination and/or . Thus does the Māori Party mention in the preamble of its Constitution "the dreams and aspirations of to achieve self-determination for , and within their own land". Some Tūhoe envisage self-determination in specifically -oriented terms.
Iwi identity
Increasing urbanisation of Māori has led to a situation where a significant percentage do not identify with any particular . The following extract from a 2000 High Court of New Zealand judgment (discussing the process of settling fishing rights) illustrates some of the issues:
... 81 percent of Māori now live in urban areas, at least one-third live outside their tribal influence, more than one-quarter do not know their iwi or for some reason do not choose to affiliate with it, at least 70 percent live outside the traditional tribal territory and these will have difficulties, which in many cases will be severe, in both relating to their tribal heritage and in accessing benefits from the settlement. It is also said that many Māori reject tribal affiliation because of a working class unemployed attitude, defiance and frustration. Related but less important factors, are that a hapu may belong to more than one iwi, a particular hapu may have belonged to different iwi at different times, the tension caused by the social and economic power moving from the iwi down rather than from the hapu up, and the fact that many iwi do not recognise spouses and adoptees who do not have kinship links.
In the 2006 census, 16 per cent of the 643,977 people who claimed Māori ancestry did not know their . Another 11 per cent did not state their , or stated only a general geographic region, or merely gave a name. Initiatives like the Iwi Helpline are trying to make it easier for people to identify their , and the proportion who "don't know" dropped relative to previous censuses.
Pan-tribalism
Some established pan-tribal organisations may exert influence across divisions. The Rātana Church, for example, operates across divisions, and the Māori King Movement, though principally congregated around Waikato/Tainui, aims to transcend some functions in a wider grouping.
Iwi radio
Many operate or are affiliated with media organisations. Most of these belong to (the National Māori Radio Network), a group of radio stations which receive contestable Government funding from Te Māngai Pāho (the Māori Broadcast Funding Agency) to operate on behalf of and . Under their funding agreement, the stations must produce programmes in the local Māori language and actively promote local Māori culture.
A two-year Massey University survey of 30,000 people published in 2003 indicated 50 per cent of Māori in National Māori Radio Network broadcast areas listened to an station. An Auckland University of Technology study in 2009 suggested the audience of radio stations would increase as the growing New Zealand Māori population tried to keep a connection to their culture, family history, spirituality, community, language and .
The Victoria University of Wellington Te Reo Māori Society campaigned for Māori radio, helping to set up Te Reo o Poneke, the first Māori-owned radio operation, using airtime on Wellington student-radio station Radio Active in 1983. Twenty-one radio stations were set up between 1989 and 1994, receiving Government funding in accordance with a Treaty of Waitangi claim. This group of radio stations formed various networks, becoming .
Major iwi
Largest iwi by population
Ngāpuhi – 125,601 (in 2013) – based in the Northland Region
Ngāti Porou – 71,049 (in 2013) – based in Gisborne and East Cape
Ngāti Kahungunu – 61,626 (in 2013) – based on the east coast of the North Island
Ngāi Tahu – 54,819 (in 2013) – based in the South Island
Waikato Tainui – 40,083 (in 2013) – based in the Waikato Region
Ngāti Tūwharetoa – 35,874 (in 2013) – based in the central North Island
Ngāti Maniapoto – 35,358 (in 2013) – based in Waikato and Waitomo
Tūhoe – 34,890 (in 2013) – based in Te Urewera and Whakatane
Te Arawa – 19,719 (in 2013) – based in the Bay of Plenty
Largest iwi groupings by population
No affiliation – 110,928 (in 2013) – includes New-Zealand-based Māori with no affiliation
Waikato Tainui – 55,995 (in 2013) – based in the Waikato Region
Ngāi Tahu Whanui – 55,986 (in 2013) – based in the South Island
Te Arawa – 43,374 (in 2013) – confederation of and based in Rotorua and the Bay of Plenty
Te Hiku, or Muriwhenua – 33,711 (in 2013) – group of and in the Northland region
Ngāti Raukawa – 29,442 (in 2013) – group of and in the Waikato region, Taupo and Manawatū
Te Atiawa – 23,094 (in 2013) – group of and in Taranaki and Wellington
Hauraki Māori – 14,313 (in 2013) – group of and at or around the Hauraki Gulf
Other notable iwi
Ngāti Tama (based in Taranaki, Chatham Islands, Wellington and Te Tau Ihu)
Ngāti Toa (based in Porirua, having migrated from Waikato in the 1820s under the leadership of Te Rauparaha)
Ngāti Ruanui (based in the Taranaki region)
Ngāti Whātua (based in and north of Auckland – notably Bastion Point in Orakei)
Te Ātiawa – Taranaki and Lower Hutt
Whakatōhea (based in the Ōpōtiki district)
Ngāti Hikairo -rangatiratanga in Kāwhia, Ōpārau and Waipā in the King Country)
References
External links
Te Kāhui Māngai – Directory of Iwi and Māori Organisations
Urban Māori article in The New Zealand Herald (details on the creation and rationale for the National Urban Māori Authority)
Tribal organisation in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Iwi
Māori words and phrases
Māori society | [
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219986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk%20%28warlord%29 | Seljuk (warlord) | Seljuk Beg () Saljūq; also romanized Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq; ; died 1007 or 1009) was an Oghuz Turkic warlord, eponymous founder of the Seljuk dynasty.
Etymology
The personal name Seljuk appears as "Selcük" in Mahmud al-Kashgari's Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk and the Book of Dede Korkut.
There are different theories about the etymology of Seljuk:
selçük, meaning "small flood"
salçuk, meaning "small float"
salçığ, meaning "disputant"
According to Caferoğlu (1993), the name was derived from the root sil- in Old Uyghur, meaning "clean". Although, the root of sil- was transformed as i > e, and that the name was created by adding the diminutive of -çük. Which could be "small clean man".
According to Hungarian Turkologist László Rásonyi, his name should be read as Selcik. Josef Markwart proposed that the name should be read as Salçuk. Peter Benjamin Golden suggested the vocalization Salçuq ~ Saljuq, based on Islamic and Syriac transcriptions ', and saw a connection with root sal- "to move (something), to put into motion with some implication of violent motion", an etymology consistent with contemporary Turkic anthroponymy.
Seljuk's name was written in various ways as "سلجوك" ,"سلجك" ,"سلچوق" ,"سلجوق" ,"سلجق" in Arabic and Persian sources.
Origin
Seljuk was the son of Tuqaq or Tuqaq Beg ( Dûqâq Demur Yalığ), known as Temür Yalığ (meaning "iron bow") because of his skills in his works. In Oghuz culture, arrow and bow are considered as a sign of sovereignty and considering Duqaq's nickname, he wasn't an ordinary soldier, but a sü-başı (commander-in-chief). According to various sources, Duqaq was a powerful statesman and possessed great power and influence in the Oghuz Yabgu State and passed away around 924.
Immigration to Jand
Seljuk had great power and influence among the people of his tribe who lived within the territory of the Oghuz Yabgu State. The relationship between Seljuk and Oghuz Yabgu was overshadowed by an incident that is not well known because of lack of reliable sources. Nonetheless, Seljuk left the Oghuz Yabgu State and immigrated, along with his tribe, to the town of Jand, located on the left bank of the Syr Darya. It is rumored that there were 100 horseman, 1.500 camels and 50.000 sheep with Seljuk Beg during this migration. If each horseman equates to a family, the Seljuks who migrated to Jand were likely a small nomadic community of about 500 people.
Jand was an important border town in the steppes during the X to XIII centuries. This town, inhabited by both nomadic and sedentary people, served as gateway to the steppes. Jand was a relatively popular destination for Muslims and religious propagandists from Transoxiana as well as merchants from various places. There, Seljuk accepted Islam together with his Oghuz tribe. This event took place between 985-986, after when Seljuk had migrated to Jand, and before 992, when Seljuk would leave for Transoxiana to help the Samanians.
After accepting Islam, Seljuk expelled the officials sent by the Oghuz Yabgu to Jand to collect the annual tax, saying "Muslims will not pay tribute to the unbelievers" and set up a war against the non-Muslim Turks. This may well be proved by Al-Bayhaqi who calls Seljuk Beg as al-Malik al-Ghâzî Seljuk (meaning "ruler and religious fighter Seljuk").
The most important event that took place during this period was the death of Seljuk's elder son Mikâ'îl, who was the father of Tughrul Beg and Chaghri Beg, founders of the Great Seljuk Empire. After this incident, the wife of Mikâ'îl (Tughril and Chaghri's mother) married Yusuf, the other son of Seljuk. According to the old Turkic traditions (the reason for such a tradition was that someone could use a widowed noblewoman to gain strength among the tribe/country), while two of his sons, Tughrul and Chaghri, were raised by their grandfather Seljuk Beg.
Relations with Samanids
Seljuk, who gained power with his war activities in Jand and its vicinity, gradually began to enter into political events in Transoxiana. After Kara-khanid Hasan b. Sulayman Bughra Khan captured Samanid city Bukhara, Samanid's requested Seljuk to help against Bughra Khan. Upon this, Seljuk sent his son Arslân (Isrâ'il) to Transoxiana.
Since Seljuk was getting old in this period, the administration was now actually in the hands of his eldest son Arslân (Isrâ'il). In the meantime, the Samani state, which thoroughly lost her power, was subjected to frequent renewed attacks by Kara-khanids, which gave Arslan the opportunity to prove his military prowess. In a period when the Samani state was shaken by the internal turmoil caused by Fâ'ik, Abû 'Alî Simcûr and Bek-tüzün, and the Kara-khanids who entered Transoxiana and seized Bukhara for the second time (999), Seljuks under Arslân provided military assistance to Abû İbrâhîm İsma'îl al-Muntasir (1000–1005), the last member of the Samani dynasty (1003). Although al-Muntasir gained some success against the Kara-khanid army under the command of Ilig Khan Nasr with the support he received from the Seljuks, he couldn't prevent the collapse of the Samani state. After this incident, the entire Transoxiana came under the Kara-khanid administration and the Seljuks had to recognize the administration of Kara-khanids.
Relationship with Khazars
It is speculated that according to some sources, Seljuk began his career as an officer in the Khazar army. These sources provide information about the ancestors of the Seljuks, records that Duqaq is connected to Khazar Melik. The fact that these records, which appear ambiguous in Melik-nâme, was repeated by Ibn Hassûl who wrote his work during the time of Tughrul Beg, does not leave any doubt about the Seljuk's relationship with the Khazars. Due to a lack of resources, it is not possible to reveal the nature of this relationship nor to fully define its framework, yet it is difficult to say whether this relationship was done via Oghuz Yabgu state or independent. However, if political contact has been established between the ancestors of the Seljuks and the Khazars, the most appropriate date for this must be the middle of the second quarter of the X. century, when the Khazar Khaganate needed military help. As a result, it is possible that Duqaq had political and military relations with the Khazars during their collapse either directly or through the Oghuz Yabgu State, and that these memories could only be spoken verbally in the family reflect only the vague records of the Seljuk histories written about one hundred and fifty years later.
Founding of the Seljuk dynasty
Under Mikâîl's sons Tughrul and Chaghri, the Seljuks migrated into Khurasan. Ghaznavid attempts to stop Seljuks raiding the local Muslim populace led to the Battle of Dandanaqan on 23 May 1040. Victorious Seljuks became masters of Khurasan, expanding their power into Transoxiana and across Iran. By 1055, Tuğrul had expanded his control all the way to Baghdad, setting himself up as the champion of the Abbasid caliph, who honored him with the title sultan. Earlier rulers may have used this title but the Seljuks seem to have been the first to inscribe it on their coins.
Death
Seljuk Beg died in Jand at the age of about a hundred towards the year 1009. After his death, Arslân, one of his three surviving sons, took over the administration under the old Oghuz traditions. His son Arslân, who had the title of yabgu, was assisted by Yusuf, who had the title of inal and Mûsâ, who had the title of inanç from his brothers. Meanwhile, Mikâ'îl's sons Tughrul and Chaghri took their place in the administration as "beg" at the age of 14-15. Although Arslan Yabgu was the head of the family, the sons and grandchildren of Seljuk ruled the Turkoman Begs and other forces affiliated to them in a semi-connected manner in the line with the old Oghuz traditions.
Family
According to various sources, Seljuk had four or five sons: Isrâ'îl (Israel, Arslân), Mikâ'îl (Michael), Mûsâ (Moses), Yusuf (Joseph) and/or Yûnus (Jonah). All five names mentioned are related to Judaism. Some researchers who pointed out the religious status of the names have concluded that the Seljuk family was either Khazar Judaic or Nestorian Christianity before accepting Islam. However, given that the names of these individuals are widely used in the Islamic world, Turkish historians state that such an interpretation cannot be solely based on names.
See also
Selçuk (given name)
Seljuk dynasty
Seljuk Empire
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Notes
References
Seljuk rulers
Khazar military history
1000s deaths
Year of birth unknown | [
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219990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjudication | Adjudication | Adjudication is the legal process by which an arbiter or judge reviews evidence and argumentation, including legal reasoning set forth by opposing parties or litigants, to come to a decision which determines rights and obligations between the parties involved.
Adjudication can also refer to the processes at dance competitions, in television game shows and at other competitive forums, by which competitors are evaluated and ranked and a winner is found.
Legal processes
Adjudication may be defined as "the legal process of resolving a dispute. The formal giving or pronouncing of a judgment or decree in a court proceeding; also the judgment or decision given. The entry of a decree by a court in respect to the parties in a case. It implies a hearing by a court, after notice, of legal evidence on the factual issue(s) involved. The equivalent of a determination. It indicates that the claims of all the parties thereto have been considered and set at rest." In some cases, an application for adjudication is an alternative legal process instead of applying for a court hearing.
Construction law
Australia
Each state and territory has enacted security of payment legislation which provide for adjudication of progress construction claims, starting with New South Wales in 1999. There is very little harmony between the legislation in each jurisdiction regarding the scope of contract covered and the adjudication procedure. However, in all jurisdictions, adjudications are interim pending final resolution of the dispute under the relevant terms of the contract.
New South Wales
The Building and Construction Industry Security of Payment Act 1999 came into effect in New South Wales on 26 March 2000 and applies to all construction contracts commenced on or after that date. It is not possible to contract out of the legislation. Amendments to the Act made in 2013 are not retrospective, however, earlier amendments are. The Act does not apply to mining work, however, construction work ancillary to the operation of a mine is covered. The Act also does not apply to work undertaken for a resident owner within the meaning of the Home Building Act 1989.
In NSW, the 2016 case of Probuild Constructions (Aust) Pty Ltd v Shade Systems Pty Ltd has allowed an adjudicator's determination for a non-jurisdictional error to be overturned through judicial review. The case went against Brodyn Pty Ltd v Davenport which previously held judicial intervention was limited to cases of a breach of essential and basic requirements.
Queensland
The Building and Construction Industry Payments Act 2004 (BCIPA) came into effect in Queensland in October, 2004. Through a statutory-based adjudication process a claimant can seek to resolve payment on account disputes. The act covers construction, and related supply of goods and services, contracts, whether written or verbal. BCIPA is regulated by the Building and Construction Industry Payments Agency, a branch of the Queensland Building Services.
Victoria
Adjudication is a relatively new process introduced by the government of Victoria, Australia, to allow for the rapid determination of progress claims under building contracts or sub-contracts and contracts for the supply of goods or services in the building industry. This process was designed to ensure cash flow to businesses in the building industry, without parties getting tied up in lengthy and expensive litigation or arbitration. It is regulated by the Building and Construction Industry Security of Payment Act 2002.
Builders, sub-contractors and suppliers need to carefully choose a nominating authority to which they make an adjudication application.
United Kingdom
The relevant legislation in regard to construction in the United Kingdom is the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 (1996 Chapter 53), later amended by Part 8 of the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009.
Any party to a construction contract has the right to refer a dispute arising under the contract to a third party for adjudication, whose decision shall be binding unless the courts or an arbitrator have already made a determination on the referred issue. The Act does not define "adjudication" or an "adjudicator", but an adjudicator's obligation is to act "impartially" (section 108(2)(e)). The "Scheme for Construction Contracts" set up under the Scheme for Construction Contracts (England and Wales) Regulations 1998 contains a set of adjudication provisions which are to apply to a construction contract unless the contract itself includes arrangements for adjudication which comply with statutory requirements. In Scotland, the Scheme for Construction Contracts (Scotland) Regulations 1998 apply.
Section 108(3) of the 1996 Act and paragraph 23(2) of the Scheme for Construction Contracts state that "the decision of the adjudicator shall be binding on the parties, and they shall comply with it until the dispute is finally determined by legal proceedings, by arbitration ... or by agreement between the parties". In the case of Aspect Contracts (Asbestos) Limited (Respondent) v Higgins Construction Plc (Appellant), heard in 2015, the Supreme Court of England and Wales argued that the wording would have been clearer if had said "unless and until" instead of merely "until".
The phrase "true value adjudication" is sometimes used in relation to the role of an adjudicator, meaning that the adjudicator is asked to determine the true value of a completed construction where this may be different from the value claimed by the contractor and/or paid by the client. The term "smash and grab" claim refers to the practice of submitting a large interim payment application at the end of the construction phase of a project, but before completion of the final account, and the term "'smash and grab' adjudication" has been used in relation to several adjudication decisions regarding liability for interim payment of such claims.
Healthcare
"Claims adjudication" is a phrase used in the insurance industry to refer to the process of paying claims submitted or denying them after comparing claims to the benefit or coverage requirements. The adjudication process consists of receiving a claim from an insured person and then utilizing software to process claims and make a decision or doing so manually. If it is done automatically using software or a web-based subscription, the claim process is called auto-adjudication. Automating claims often improve efficiency and reduce expenses required for manual claims adjudication. Many claims are submitted on paper and are processed manually by insurance workers.
After the claims adjudication process is complete, the insurance company often sends a letter to the person filing the claim describing the outcome. The letter, which is sometimes referred to as remittance advice, includes a statement as to whether the claim was denied or approved. If the company denied the claim, it has to provide an explanation for the reason why under regional laws. The company also often sends an explanation of benefits that includes detailed information about how each service included in the claim was settled. Insurance companies will then send out payments to the providers if the claims are approved or to the provider's billing service.
The process of claims adjudication, in this context, is also called "medical billing advocacy".
Background investigations (Employment)
Adjudication is the process directly following a background investigation where the investigation results are reviewed to determine if a candidate should be awarded a security clearance, or be suitable for a public trust position, which is a job that requires a very knowledgeable and responsible person, often related to national security. It may be determined that the person is not suitable for a public trust position, but is suitable for a non-sensitive position. However, a person may be deemed unsuitable for any position.
From the United States Department of the Navy Central Adjudication Facility: "Adjudication is the review and consideration of all available information to ensure an individual's loyalty, reliability, and trustworthiness are such that entrusting an individual with national security information or assigning an individual to sensitive duties is clearly in the best interest of national security."
Emergency response
Adjudication is the "process of identifying, with reasonable certainty, the type or nature of material or device that set off an alarm and assessing the potential threat that the material or device might pose with corresponding implications for the need to take further action."
Referring to a minor
Referring to a minor, the term adjudicated can refer to children that are under a court's jurisdiction, usually as a result of having engaged in delinquent behavior and not having a legal guardian that could be entrusted with being responsible for him or her. A child dependency or neglect adjudication can also result in a determination that a child is in need of services. Different US states have different processes for declaring a child as adjudicated. Arizona state law defines a dually adjudicated child as "a child who is found to be dependent or temporarily subject to court jurisdiction pending an adjudication of a dependency petition and who is alleged or found to have committed a delinquent or incorrigible act." According to Illinois state law, "adjudicated" means that the Juvenile Court has entered an order declaring that a child "is neglected, abused, dependent, a minor requiring authoritative intervention, a delinquent minor or an addicted minor".
See also
Administrative law
Alternative dispute resolution (e.g. Arbitration, Mediation)
Collateral estoppel
Dispute resolution (e.g. Lawsuit)
Jurisprudence
Res judicata
References
Further reading
Darren Noble, Users' Guide to Adjudication in Victoria (Anstat 2009)
Alexander Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics, 2nd ed. (Yale University Press, 1986).
Gad Barzilai, Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).
Erwin Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies (Aspen Publishers, 2006).
Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Harvard University Press, 2005, originally 1977).
Conor Gearty, Principles of Human Rights Adjudication (Oxford University Press, 2005).
Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Controversies in Criminal Law: Philosophical Essays on Responsibility and Procedure (Westview Press, 1992).
Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Crime and Punishment: Philosophic Explorations (Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000; originally Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1996).
H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford University Press, 1961).
Sterling Harwood, Judicial Activism: A Restrained Defense (Austin & Winfield Publishers, 1993).
Allan C. Hutchinson, It's All in the Game: A Nonfoundationalist Account of Law and Adjudication (Duke University Press, 2000).
David Lyons, Ethics and the Rule of Law (Cambridge University Press, 1984).
David Lyons, Moral Aspects of Legal Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1993).
John T. Noonan and Kenneth I. Winston, eds., The Responsible Judge: Readings in Judicial Ethics (Praeger Publishers, 1993).
Kathleen M. Sullivan and Gerald Gunther, Constitutional Law, 15th ed. (Foundation Press, 2004).
Harry H. Wellington, Interpreting the Constitution: The Supreme Court and the Process of Adjudication (Yale University Press, 1992).
Lectures
Lecture by Sir Christopher Greenwood entitled International Law in the Age of Adjudication in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Lecture by Stephen M. Schwebel entitled The Merits (and Demerits) of International Adjudication and Arbitration in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Judgment (law)
Administrative law
Civil procedure | [
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219995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zengid%20dynasty | Zengid dynasty | The Zengid or Zangid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Oghuz Turkic origin, which ruled parts of the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia on behalf of the Seljuk Empire. The dynasty was founded by Imad ad-Din Zengi.
History
Zengi, son of Aq Sunqur al-Hajib, became the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul in 1127. He quickly became the chief Turkic potentate in Northern Syria and Iraq, taking Aleppo from the squabbling Artuqids in 1128 and capturing the County of Edessa from the Crusaders after the siege of Edessa in 1144. This latter feat made Zengi a hero in the Muslim world, but he was assassinated by a slave two years later, in 1146.
On Zengi's death, his territories were divided, with Mosul and his lands in Iraq going to his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, and Aleppo and Edessa falling to his second son, Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo. Nur ad-Din proved to be as competent as his father. In 1149, he defeated Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, at the battle of Inab, and the next year conquered the remnants of the County of Edessa west of the Euphrates. In 1154, he capped off these successes by his capture of Damascus from the Burid dynasty that ruled it.
Now ruling from Damascus, Nur ad-Din's success continued. Another Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon was captured, and the territories of the Principality of Antioch were greatly reduced. In the 1160s, Nur ad-Din's attention was mostly held by a competition with the King of Jerusalem, Amalric of Jerusalem, for control of the Fatimid Caliphate. Ultimately, Nur ad-Din's Kurdish general Shirkuh was successful in leading an expeditionary force to prevent the Crusaders from establishing a strong presence in an increasingly anarchic Egypt. Shirkuh's army arrived in time and defeated the Crusaders' army. He took control as governor of Egypt, but unexpectedly died shortly afterwards.
Shirkuh's nephew Saladin was appointed vizier by the Fatimid caliph al-Adid and Governor of Egypt, in 1169. Al-Adid died in 1171, and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum, effectively taking control of the country. Upon seizing power, he switched Egypt's allegiance to the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam, rather than traditional Fatimid Shia practice. Three years later, he was proclaimed sultan following the death of his former master, Nur al-Din of the Zengid dynasty and established himself as the first Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.
Nur ad-Din was preparing to invade Jerusalem when he unexpectedly died in 1174. His son and successor As-Salih Ismail al-Malik was only a child, and was forced to flee to Aleppo, which he ruled until 1181, when he died of illness and was replaced by his cousin Imad al-Din Zengi II. Saladin conquered Aleppo two years later, ending Zengid rule in Syria.
Zengid princes continued to rule in Northern Iraq as Emirs of Mosul well into the 13th century, ruling Mosul and Sinjar until 1234; their rule did not finally come to an end until 1250.
Zengid rulers
Zengid Atabegs and Emirs of Mosul
See Rulers of Mosul.
Zengi, 1127–1146
Sayf al-Din Ghazi I, son of Zengi, 1146–1149
Qutb al-Din Mawdud, son of Zengi, 1149–1170
Sayf al-Din Ghazi II, son of Qutb al-Din Mawdud, 1170–1180
Izz al-Din Mas'ud, son of Qutb al-Din Mawdud, 1180–1193
Nur al-Din Arslan Shah I, son of Izz al-Din Mas'ud, 1193–1211
Izz al-Din Mas'ud II, son of Nur al-Din Arslan Shah I, 1211–1218
Nur al-Din Arslan Shah II, son of Izz al-Din Mas'ud II, 1218–1219
Nasir ad-Din Mahmud, son of Izz al-Din Mas'ud, 1219–1234.
Mosul was taken over by Badr al-Din Lu'lu', atabeg to Nasir ad-Din Mahmud, whom he murdered in 1234.
Zengid Emirs of Aleppo
See Rulers of Aleppo.
Zengi, 1128–1146
Nur al-Din, son of Zengi, 1146–1174
As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, son of Nur al-Din, 1174–1182
Imad al-Din Zengi II,1182
Aleppo was conquered by Saladin in 1183 and ruled by Ayyubids until 1260.
Zengid Emirs of Damascus
See Rulers of Damascus.
Nur al-Din, son of Zengi, 1154–1174
As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, son of Nur al-Din, 1174.
Damascus was conquered by Saladin in 1174 and ruled by Ayyubids until 1260.
Zengid Emirs of Sinjar
See Sinjar, Islamic Era.
Imad al-Din Zengi II, son of Qutb al-Din Mawdud, 1171–1197
Qutb ad-Din Muhammad, son of Zengi II, 1197–1219
Imad al-Din Shahanshah, son of Qutb ad-Din Muhammad, 1219–1220
Jalal al-Din Mahmud (co-ruler), son of Qutb ad-Din Muhammad, 1219–1220
Fath al-Din Umar (co-ruler), son of Qutb ad-Din Muhammad, 1219–1220.
Sinjar was taken by the Ayyubids in 1220 and ruled by al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid emir of Diyar Bakr. It later came under the control of Badr al-Din Lu'lu', ruler of Mosul beginning in 1234.
Zengid Emirs of al-Jazira (in Northern Iraq)
See Upper Mesopotamia, Islamic Empires.
Mu'izz al-Din Sanjar Shah, son of Sayf al-Din Ghazi II, 1180–1208
Mu'izz al-Din Mahmud, son of Mu'izz al-Din Sanjar Shah, 1208–1241
Mahmud al-Malik al-Zahir, son of Mu'izz al-Din Mahmud, 1241–1250.
In 1250, al-Jazira fell under the domination of an-Nasir Yusuf, Ayyubid emir of Aleppo.
See also
List of Emirs of Mosul
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
References
Sources
Taef El-Azharii (2006). Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades, Routledge, Abington, UK.
Medieval Syria
Medieval Jordan
Seljuk Empire
Atabegs
Muslims of the Second Crusade
Former vassal states
States and territories established in 1127
States and territories disestablished in 1250
Syrian people of Turkish descent
Iraqi people of Turkish descent
12th-century establishments in the Seljuk Empire
12th-century establishments in Asia
1250 disestablishments in Asia
Turkic dynasties | [
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220000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakeskating | Wakeskating | Wakeskating is a water sport and an adaptation of wakeboarding that employs a similar design of board manufactured from maple or fibreglass. Unlike wakeboarding, the rider is not bound to the board in any way, similar to the skateboard, from which the name derives.
Design
Fins are constructed of plastic, fiberglass or aluminum. Shorter fins must be deeper to get the same amount of tracking. A shallower fin does not track as well as a deeper one. But a deeper fin has more drag in the water, and does not release from the water as fast.
Wakeskating shoes are designed with quick drying materials and drainage channels. The drainage channels are a system of holes in the sole and channels through the midsole.
Most of Wakeskate boards are made with a grip tape on the upside part just as a skateboard. That grip tape is like a sand paper, it helps the rider to stay on the board and provide a good traction. It is the major reason why rider wears shoes. Some boards are made with a foam instead of the regular skateboard grip-tape. That surface is easier on the skin if you fall. Also that kind of surface can be ridden bare feet.
History
Wakeskating was pioneered by Thomas Horrell in the United States. Wakeskating has become urbanized due to the advent of the "winch", a mechanical device with a small horizontal shaft engine that holds a spool of rope and pulls the rope in at riding speed.
A wakeskate is an integral part of Wakeskating. There are five factors that differentiate one wakeskate from another. They are size, material, deck shape, deck surface and rocker type of a wakeskate.
Size
The size of a wakeskate is determined by the weight of the rider. The smallest wakeskate is available in the size of 39 inches which are suitable for a rider with a weight of 180 pounds. The length of a wakeskate can be more than 41 inches which are best for riders with a weight of 250 pounds or more. Shorter wakeskates are easy to maneuver and can be easily flicked because of their lighter weight and smaller size. However, they are comparatively unstable as the rider lands on the surface of the water. Larger wakeskates offer more surface area that offers higher stability to the rider.
Material
A wakeskate is available in two types of material: wood and composite. Wood wakeskate consists of a wooden skate that is covered by marine grade epoxy that gives it a finished look and long life. However, the life of wood wakeskates is always shorter as compared to composite wakestakes because of the degradation of wood as a result of constant exposure to water. Thus, they do not usually come with any sort of manufacturer's warranty.
Composite wakeskates are more popular especially among the professional riders because of its lighter weight and longer life. They are completely made of synthetic materials that do not degrade quickly due to exposure to water. They are more expensive as compared to wood wakeskates.
See also
Reed Hansen
Skateboarding
References
Boardsports
Sports originating in Australia
Towed water sports
Wakeboarding | [
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220003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20bittern | Eurasian bittern | The Eurasian bittern or great bittern (Botaurus stellaris) is a wading bird in the bittern subfamily (Botaurinae) of the heron family Ardeidae. There are two subspecies, the northern race (B. s. stellaris) breeding in parts of Europe and across the Palearctic, as well as on the northern coast of Africa, while the southern race (B. s. capensis) is endemic to parts of southern Africa. It is a secretive bird, seldom seen in the open as it prefers to skulk in reed beds and thick vegetation near water bodies. Its presence is apparent in the spring, when the booming call of the male during the breeding season can be heard. It feeds on fish, small mammals, fledgling birds, amphibians, crustaceans and insects.
The nest is usually built among reeds at the edge of bodies of water. The female incubates the clutch of eggs and feeds the young chicks, which leave the nest when about two weeks old. She continues to care for them until they are fully fledged some six weeks later.
With its specific habitat requirements and the general reduction in wetlands across its range, the population is thought to be in decline globally. However the decline is slow, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its overall conservation status as being of "least concern". Nevertheless, some local populations are at risk and the population of the southern race has declined more dramatically and is cause for concern. In the United Kingdom it is one of the most threatened of all bird species.
Taxonomy and etymology
This species was first described as Ardea asteria sive stellaris as early as 1603 by Ulisse Aldrovandi in his Ornithologiae. In 1660 the ornithologist Thomas Browne referred to it as Ardea stellaris botaurus and then the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758 named it again as Ardea stellaris. It is placed in the subfamily Botaurinae, and its closest relatives are the American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), the pinnated bittern (Botaurus pinnatus) and the Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus). Two races of Eurasian bittern are recognised; the nominate subspecies B. s. stellaris has a palearctic distribution and occurs across a broad swathe of Europe, North Africa and Asia, while the other subspecies, B. s. capensis, occurs only in southern Africa. The name capensis was used for species found in the Afrotropics for which no exact range was known.
The generic name Botaurus was given by the English naturalist James Francis Stephens, and is derived from Medieval Latin butaurus, "bittern", itself constructed from the Middle English name for the bird, botor. Pliny gave a fanciful derivation from Bos (ox) and taurus (bull), because the bittern's call resembles the bellowing of a bull. The species name stellaris is Latin for "starred", from stella, "star", and refers to the speckled plumage.
Its folk names, often local, include many variations on the themes of "barrel-maker", "bog-bull", "bog hen", "bog-trotter", "bog-bumper", "mire drum[ble]", "butter bump", "bitter bum", "bog blutter", "bog drum", "boom bird", "bottle-bump", "bull of the bog", "bull of the mire", "bumpy cors", and "heather blutter". Most of these were onomatopoeic colloquial names for the bird; the call was described as "bumping" or "booming". Mire and bog denote the bird's habitat.
Description
Bitterns are thickset herons with bright, pale, buffy-brown plumage covered with dark streaks and bars As its alternate name suggests, this species is the largest of the bitterns, with males being rather larger than females. The Eurasian or great bittern is in length, with a wingspan and a body mass of .
The crown and nape are black, with the individual feathers rather long and loosely arranged, tipped with buff narrowly barred with black. The sides of the head and neck are a more uniform tawny-buff, irregularly barred with black. The mantle, scapulars and back are of a similar colour but are more heavily barred, the individual feathers having black centres and barring. The head has a yellowish-buff superciliary stripe and a brownish-black moustachial stripe. The sides of the neck are a rusty-brown with faint barring. The chin and throat are buff, the central feathers on the throat having longitudinal stripes of rusty-brown. The breast and belly are yellowish-buff, with broad stripes of brown at the side and narrow stripes in the centre. The tail is rusty-buff with black streaks in the centre and black mottling near the edge. The wings are pale rusty-brown irregularly barred, streaked and mottled with black. The plumage has a loose texture, and elongated feathers on the crown, neck and breast can be erected. The powerful bill is greenish-yellow with a darker tip to the upper mandible. The eye has a yellow iris and is surrounded by a ring of greenish or bluish bare skin. The legs and feet are greenish, with some yellow on the tarsal joint and yellow soles to the feet. Juveniles have similar plumage to adults but are somewhat paler with less distinct markings.
Distribution and habitat
The breeding range of B. s. stellaris extends across temperate parts of Europe and Asia from the British Isles, Sweden and Finland eastwards to Sakhalin Island in eastern Siberia and Hokkaido Island in Japan. The bird's northern extent of occurrence is around 57°N in the Ural Mountains and 64°N in eastern Siberia. Its southern limit is the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, Iran, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Hebei Province in northern China. Small resident populations also breed in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It typically inhabits reed beds (Phragmites) and swamps, as well as lakes, lagoons and sluggish rivers fringed by rank vegetation. It sometimes nests by ponds in agricultural areas, and even quite near habitations where suitable habitat exists, but for preference, chooses large reed beds of at least in which to breed.
Some populations are sedentary and stay in the same areas throughout the year. More northerly populations usually migrate to warmer regions but some birds often remain; birds in northern Europe tend to move south and west to southern Europe, northern and central Africa, and northern Asian birds migrate to parts of the Arabian peninsula, the Indian sub-continent, and the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia in eastern China. Outside the breeding season it has less restrictive habitat requirements, and as well as living in reed beds, it visits rice fields, watercress beds, fish farms, gravel pits, sewage works, ditches, flooded areas and marshes.
The subspecies B. s. capensis is endemic to southern Africa, where it is found sparingly in marshes near the east coast, the Okavango Delta and the upland foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains. This population is sedentary.
Behaviour
Usually solitary, the Eurasian bittern forages in reed beds, walking stealthily or remaining still above a body of water where prey may occur. It is a shy bird, and if disturbed, often points its bill directly upwards and freezes in that position, causing its cryptic plumage to blend into the surrounding reeds, an action known as bitterning. While in this position, the shield of elongated feathers on throat and breast droop downwards and hide the neck, so that the outline of the head and body is obscured. Sometimes it resorts to applying powder down produced by patches of specialist down feathers at the side of its breast. This white dusty material seems to help it to rid its head and neck of slime after feeding on eels. It then removes the excess powder by scratching vigorously before applying preen oil from the gland at the base of its tail.
The bird has a secretive nature, keeping largely hidden in the reeds and coarse vegetation. Occasionally, especially in hard winter weather, it stands in the open beside the water's edge, although usually close to cover to facilitate a hasty retreat. In flight, its wings can be seen to be broad and rounded, and its legs trail behind it in typical heron fashion. Its neck is extended when it takes off, but is retracted when it has picked up speed. It seldom flies however, except when feeding young, preferring to move through the vegetation stealthily on foot. Its gait is slow and deliberate and it can clamber over reeds by gripping several at a time with its toes. It is most active at dawn and dusk, but also sometimes forages by day.
Eurasian bitterns feed on fish, small mammals, amphibians and invertebrates, hunting along the reed margins in shallow water. British records include eels up to and other fish, mice and voles, small birds and fledglings, frogs, newts, crabs, shrimps, molluscs, spiders and insects. In continental Europe, members of over twenty families of beetle are eaten, as well as dragonflies, bees, grasshoppers and earwigs. Some vegetable matter such as aquatic plants is also consumed.
Males are polygamous, mating with up to five females. The nest is built in the previous year's standing reeds and consists of an untidy platform some across. It may be on a tussock surrounded by water or on matted roots close to water and is built by the female using bits of reed, sedges and grass stalks, with a lining of finer fragments. The eggs average in size and are non-glossy, olive-brown, with some darker speckling at the broader end. Four to six eggs are laid in late March and April and incubated by the female for about twenty-six days. After hatching, the chicks spend about two weeks in the nest before leaving to swim amongst the reeds. The female rears them without help from the male, regurgitating food into the nest from her crop, the young seizing her bill and pulling it down. They become fully fledged at about eight weeks.
Voice
The mating call or contact call of the male is a deep, sighing fog-horn or bull-like boom with a quick rise and an only slightly longer fall, easily audible from a distance of on a calm night. The call is mainly given between January and April during the mating season. Surveys of Eurasian bitterns are carried out by noting the number of distinct male booms in a given area. Prior to modern science, it was unknown how such a small bird produced a call so low-pitched: common explanations included that the bird made its call into a straw or that it blew directly into the water. It is now known that the sound is produced by expelling air from the oesophagus with the aid of powerful muscles surrounding it.
Status
The Eurasian bittern has a very wide range and a large total population, estimated to be 110,000 to 340,000 individuals. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its overall conservation status as being of "least concern because although the population trend is downward, the rate of decline is insufficient to justify rating it in a more threatened category. The chief threat the bird faces is destruction of reed beds and drainage and disturbance of its wetland habitats. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. The southern race has suffered catastrophic decline during the 20th century due to wetland degradation and, unlike the northern race, is of high conservation concern.
In the United Kingdom the species was once thought extinct, but by 2007 there were an estimated 44 breeding pairs, concentrated mainly in Lancashire and East Anglia. The Lancashire population at Leighton Moss RSPB reserve declined in recent decades, while bitterns have been attracted to new reed beds in the West Country. After extensive reedbed restoration, nesting and breeding was observed in north Wales, while in 2020, two pairs successfully bred at Newport Wetlands in Gwent, south Wales. These were the first bitterns to breed in the county in some 250 years. In the 21st century, bitterns are regular winter visitors to the London Wetland Centre, enabling city dwellers to view these scarce birds. In Ireland, it died out as a breeding species in the mid-19th century, but in 2011 a single bird was spotted in County Wexford and there have been a number of subsequent sightings.
In literature
Thomas Bewick records that the bittern "was formerly held in much estimation at the tables of the great".
Booming
The Eurasian bittern is proposed as one of rational explanations behind the drekavac, a creature of the graveyard and darkness originating in south Slavic mythology. It is mentioned in the short story "Brave Mita and Drekavac from the Pond" by Branko Ćopić.
The 18th-century Scottish poet James Thomson refers to the bittern's "boom" in his poem "Spring" (written 1728), published as part of his The Seasons (1735):
The species is mentioned in George Crabbe's 1810 narrative poem The Borough, to emphasise the ostracised, solitary life of the poem's villain, Peter Grimes:
The Irish poet Thomas MacDonagh translated the Gaelic poem "The Yellow Bittern" ("An Bonnán Buí" in Irish) by Cathal Buí Mac Giolla Ghunna. His friend, the poet Francis Ledwidge, wrote a "Lament for Thomas MacDonagh" with the opening line "He shall not hear the bittern cry".
In the Sherlock Holmes novel The Hound of the Baskervilles by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the naturalist Stapleton proposes the boom of a bittern as an explanation for the howl attributed to the mystical hound.
Because of its secretive and skulking nature, it was for long unclear exactly how the bittern produced its distinctive booming call. A Mediaeval theory held that the bittern thrust its beak into the boggy ground of the marsh in which it lived, making its vocalization which was amplified and deepened as it reverberated through the water. A reference to this theory appears in 1476 in Chaucer's The Wife of Bath's Tale, lines 972-73:
The English 17th century physician Sir Thomas Browne disputed this claim, stating in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica, Book III, Ch.27: "That a Bittor maketh that mugient noise, or as we term it Bumping, by putting its bill into a reed as most believe, or as Bellonius and Aldrovandus conceive, by putting the same in water or mud, and after a while retaining the air by suddenly excluding it again, is not so easily made out. For my own part, though after diligent enquiry, I could never behold them in this motion". Browne even kept a captive bittern to discover how its "boom" was produced.
Invisibility
The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer argued in his ill-advised 1909 venture into zoology, Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, that animals were concealed by a combination of countershading and disruptive coloration, which together "obliterated" their self-shadowing and their shape. On the disruptive effect of bittern plumage, he wrote:
On the Eurasian bittern's markings, he wrote:
The zoologist Hugh Cott, in his classic 1940 study of camouflage, Adaptive Coloration in Animals, cites William Palmer's account of seeing a bittern:
References
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
BBC Wildlife Finder – videos and information
Bittern – The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Eurasian bittern
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
Eurasian bittern
Eurasian bittern
Articles containing video clips
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220007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Security%20Administration | Social Security Administration | The United States Social Security Administration (SSA) is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government that administers Social Security, a social insurance program consisting of retirement, disability and survivor benefits. To qualify for most of these benefits, most workers pay Social Security taxes on their earnings; the claimant's benefits are based on the wage earner's contributions. Otherwise benefits such as Supplemental Security Income (SSI) are given based on need.
The Social Security Administration was established by the Social Security Act of 1935 and is codified in (). It was created in 1935 as the "Social Security Board", then assumed its present name in 1946. Its current leader is Kilolo Kijakazi, who serves on an acting basis.
SSA is headquartered in Woodlawn, Maryland, just to the west of Baltimore, at what is known as Central Office. The agency includes 10 regional offices, 8 processing centers, approximately 1300 field offices, and 37 Teleservice Centers. , about 60,000 people were employed by SSA. Headquarters non-supervisory employees of SSA are represented by American Federation of Government Employees Local 1923. Social Security is the largest social welfare program in the United States. For 2014, the net cost of Social Security was $906.4 billion, an amount corresponding to 21% of US Federal Government expenditures. By 2020, it had increased to $1.10 trillion.
History
The Social Security Act created a Social Security Board (SSB), to oversee the administration of the new program. It was created as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal with the signing of the Social Security Act of 1935 on August 14, 1935. The Board consisted of three presidentially appointed executives, and started with no budget, no staff, and no furniture. It obtained a temporary budget from the Federal Emergency Relief Administration headed by Harry Hopkins. The first counsel for the new agency was Thomas Elliott, one of Felix Frankfurter's "happy hot dogs".
The first Social Security office opened in Austin, Texas, on October 14, 1936. Social Security taxes were first collected in January 1937, along with the first one-time, lump-sum payments. The first person to receive monthly retirement benefits was Ida May Fuller of Brattleboro, Vermont. Her first check, dated January 31, 1940 was in the amount of US$22.54.
In 1939, the Social Security Board merged into a cabinet-level Federal Security Agency, which included the SSB, the U.S. Public Health Service, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and other agencies. In January 1940, the first regular ongoing monthly benefits began.
In 1946, the SSB was renamed the Social Security Administration under President Harry S. Truman's Reorganization Plan.
In 1953, the Federal Security Agency was abolished and SSA was placed under the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, which became the Department of Health and Human Services in 1980. In 1994, President Bill Clinton amended non-positive law and returned SSA to the status of an independent agency in the executive branch of government. In 1972, Cost of Living Adjustments (COLAs) were introduced into SSA programs to deal with the effects of inflation on fixed incomes.
Leaders
Social Security Commissioners
Headquarters
SSA was one of the first federal agencies to have its national headquarters outside of Washington, D.C., or its adjacent suburbs. It was located in Baltimore initially due to the need for a building that was capable of holding the unprecedented amount of paper records that would be needed. Nothing suitable was available in Washington in 1936, so the Social Security Board selected the Candler Building on Baltimore's harbor as a temporary location. Soon after locating there, construction began on a permanent building for SSA in Washington that would meet their requirements for record storage capacity. However, by the time the new building was completed, World War II had started, and the building was commandeered by the War Department. By the time the war ended, it was judged too disruptive to relocate the agency to Washington. The Agency remained in the Candler Building until 1960, when it relocated to its newly built headquarters in Woodlawn.
The road on which the headquarters is located, built especially for SSA, is named Security Boulevard (Maryland Route 122) and has since become one of the major arteries connecting Baltimore with its western suburbs. Security Boulevard is also the name of SSA's exit from the nearby Baltimore Beltway (Interstate 695). A nearby shopping center has been named Security Square Mall, and Woodlawn is often referred to informally as "Security." Interstate 70, which runs for thousands of miles from Utah to Maryland, terminates in a park and ride lot that adjoins the SSA campus.
Due to space constraints and ongoing renovations, many headquarters employees work in leased space throughout the Woodlawn area. Other SSA components are located elsewhere. For example, the headquarters (also known as Central Office) of SSA's Office of Disability Adjudication and Review is located in Falls Church, Virginia.
Field Offices
SSA has a network of more than 1,200 community-based field offices. In fiscal year 2019, 43 million individuals visited these field offices to apply for benefits, get an original or replacement Social Security card, or receive other services.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, SSA temporarily closed its field offices to the public in March 2020. Members of the public can still apply for benefits by calling SSA's national toll-free number (1-800-772-1213) or calling their local field office. In addition, retirement and disability benefits can be applied for online. For other benefits, such as survivor benefits and Supplemental Security Income benefits, members of the public may have to call SSA to apply.
In many cases, individuals seeking a replacement Social Security card can apply for one online.
Program Service Centers
Much of the actual processing of initial benefits and subsequent adjustments to benefits is done in six large Program Service Centers located around the country.
The two main positions in Program Service Centers have long been Claims Authorizers and Benefits Authorizers. Claims Authorizers, now sometimes called claims specialists, establish initial benefits for program recipients. Benefits Authorizers process complicated changes of entitlements to existing beneficiaries, including life events, overpayments, underpayments, and so forth. The claims position is the higher-ranking of the two and initially required a college degree whereas the post-entitlement position did not. For decades, post-entitlement actions have been processed through a system known as Manual Adjustment, Credit and Award Processes (MADCAP).
The six service centers are:
Northeastern Program Service Center, Jamaica, Queens, New York (as of late 1980s; previously in Rego Park, Queens and College Point, Queens)
Mid-Atlantic Program Service Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Southeastern Program Service Center, Birmingham, Alabama
Great Lakes Program Service Center, Chicago, Illinois
Mid-America Program Service Center, Kansas City, Missouri
Western Program Service Center, Richmond, California (as of mid 1970s; previously in San Francisco)
They have been located in these six cities going back to at least the early 1950s.
The origins of the payment centers date back to 1942, when they were known as Area Offices. The first one was established in Philadelphia, with ones in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and New Orleans, Louisiana soon following.
In addition, there are specialized processing centers for the Office of Earnings and International Operations and the Office of Disability Operations, both located in Baltimore.
Before the mid-1970s, the Program Service Centers were called Payment Centers. By the late 1960s, the Payment Centers had acquired a reputation as sources of poor bureaucratic performance that people did not want to work in, and a reorganization under a modules system was undertaken during the 1970s in an effort to improve matters. Each module would be assigned a certain block of social security numbers and it would process all aspects of a claim, from initial entitlement through various changes, notifications to beneficiaries, and so forth. Decades later, the modules system was still seen as one of the great improvements in SSA processing.
The centers have each employed around two thousand people or more,
giving them a major local economic impact,
and even relocations within the same metropolitan area have created political conflict.
When in the early 1970s, SSA and the General Services Administration said it intended to move payment center
operations out of San Francisco and across the East Bay to Richmond, the move was opposed by San Francisco-representing Congressman Phillip Burton.
Burton's efforts were in vain, however, as construction in a redevelopment area in Richmond commenced and the move was made around 1975.
Similarly, in the late 1970s, SSA, the General Services Administration, and the Carter administration devised a plan to move the program service center from its main location, in two leased buildings on Horace Harding Expressway in Lefrak City in Rego Park, to a new federal building planned for a revitalization zone in the center of the Jamaica area of Queens. The move was championed by Congressman Joseph P. Addabbo, who represented Jamaica and whose district would gain the over 2,000 federal workers involved, but was opposed by Congressman Benjamin Rosenthal, whose district would lose them. According to Rosenthal, the potential negative impact of the move affected the Elmhurst and Corona neighborhoods most strongly.
The move was also supported by Representative Geraldine Ferraro, another powerful Queens figure, who sat on the House Public Works Committee.
The dispute was aired in Congressional hearings and embroiled Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan and developer Richard Lefrak, supporting and opposing the move respectively, as well.
In the event, the move went forward and the new, 11-story building in Jamaica – by then named the Joseph P. Addabbo Federal Building, as the congressman had died in the interim – opened in 1988.
Coverage
Initially, only 56 percent of the jobs in the United States were covered by Social Security. Today, the system is nearly universal, with 94 percent of individuals in paid employment in the United States working in covered employment.
State and local government workers are not required to participate in the Social Security program if they participate in a public retirement system through their employers. However, state and local governments, through agreements known as Section 218 agreements, may elect to participate in the program. Of the 23.2 million state and local workers in the United States, about 6.6 million are not covered by Social Security. Other workers not covered by Social Security include federal employees hired before 1984, railroad workers, some family employees, some students, and some members of the clergy.
If a job is not covered by Social Security, workers and employers do not pay Social Security payroll taxes. Social Security retirement and disability benefits are not payable unless individuals have sufficient work in Social Security covered employment. Individuals who work part of their careers in covered employment and part of their careers in non-covered employment and who receive pensions from non-covered employment may have their Social Security benefits reduced through the Windfall Elimination Provision (WEP) or the Government Pension Offset (GPO).
Railroad workers were covered by the Railroad Retirement Board before Social Security was founded. Today, they still are, though a portion of each railroad pension is designated as "equivalent" to Social Security. Railroad workers also participate in Medicare. All state and local government employees hired since 1986, or whom are covered by Section 218 Agreements, participate in Medicare even if not covered for purposes of Social Security benefits.
Old age, survivors and disability
SSA administers the retirement, survivors, and disabled social insurance programs, which can provide monthly benefits to aged or disabled workers, their spouses and children, and to the survivors of insured workers. In 2010, more than 54 million Americans received approximately $712 billion in Social Security benefits. The programs are primarily financed by taxes which employers, employees, and the self-insured pay annually. These revenues are placed into a special trust fund. These programs are collectively known as Retirement, Survivors, Disability Insurance (RSDI).
SSA administers its disability program partly through its Office of Disability Adjudication and Review (ODAR), which has regional offices and hearing offices across the United States. ODAR publishes a manual, called HALLEX, which contains instructions for its employees regarding how to implement its guiding principles and procedures.
The RSDI program is the primary benefits program administered by the U.S. federal government, and for some beneficiaries is the vital source of income. Increasing access to this benefit program for low-income or homeless individuals is one of SSA's goals. SSA is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness and works with other municipal, county, state, local and federal partners to increase access and approval for SSI/SSDI benefits who are eligible.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
SSA also administers the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, which is needs-based, for the aged, blind, or disabled. Prior to the 1972 Amendments to the Social Security Act, low-income aged, blind, or disabled persons received benefits from state-run programs called Old-Age Assistance, Aid to the Blind, and Aid to the Permanently and Totally Disabled. These programs received federal funding, but varied in terms of eligibility requirements and benefit payments. The 1972 Amendments replaced these programs with the SSI program. SSA was assigned responsibility for the SSI program and began operations in 1974. Federal benefit payments up to $794 for an SSI individual and $1,191 for an SSI couple are available from the program. SSI benefits are paid out of the general revenue of the United States of America. Some states supplement the federal amount.
Because SSI is needs-based, eligibility is restricted to persons with limited income and resources. In addition, eligibility is generally restricted to U.S. citizens, nationals, and some other groups (such as some refugees) who reside in one of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S. citizens and nationals who reside in American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are not eligible for SSI. In 2019, 8 million individuals received SSI, including 1.1 million disabled children, 4.6 million disabled adults, and 2.3 million persons 65 or older.
In some cases, individuals may be eligible for Social Security (RSDI) benefits and SSI benefits. For example, a disabled individual who worked in Social Security-covered employment and who has limited income and resources may receive a Social Security disability benefit (due to employment prior to disability) and a partial SSI benefit (due to limited income and resources). SSA refers to these beneficiaries as "concurrent" beneficiaries.
Medicare
The administration of the Medicare program is a responsibility of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, but SSA offices are used for determining initial eligibility, some processing of premium payments, and for limited public contact information. They also administer a financial needs-based program called Extra Help, which helps beneficiaries pay the premiums, deductibles, and coinsurance associated with prescription drug coverage under Part D of Medicare. Benefits under this program are estimated to be worth about $5,000 per year. Individuals may apply online for the Extra Help program or by calling SSA.
Operations
To ensure consistent and efficient treatment of Social Security beneficiaries across its vast bureaucracy, SSA has compiled a giant book known as the Program Operations Manual System (POMS) which governs practically all aspects of SSA's internal operations. POMS describes, in excruciating detail, a huge variety of situations regularly encountered by SSA personnel, and the exact policies and procedures that apply to each situation.
Automation
While the establishment of Social Security predated the invention of the modern digital computer, punched card data processing was a mature technology, and the Social Security system made extensive use of automated unit record equipment from the program's inception. This allowed the Social Security Administration to achieve a high level of efficiency. SSA expenses have always been a small fraction of benefits paid. As a percentage of assets, the administration costs are 0.39%.
Adjudication
SSA operates its own administrative adjudication system, which has original jurisdiction when claims are denied in part or in full. SSA decisions are issued by Administrative Law Judges and Senior Attorney Adjudicators (supported by about 6,000 staff employees) at locations throughout the United States of the U.S. Office of Hearing Operations (OHO pronounced "oh,oh") formerly Office of Disability Adjudication and Review (ODAR), who hear and decide challenges to SSA decisions. Dissatisfied claimants can appeal to ODAR's Appeals Council, and if still dissatisfied can appeal to a U.S. District Court.
Over the years, OHO aka ODAR has developed its own procedural system, which is documented in the Hearings and Appeals Litigation Law Manual (HALLEX). ODAR was formerly known as the Office of Hearings and Appeals (OHA) and, prior to the 1970s, the Bureau of Hearings and Appeals. The name was changed to ODAR in 2007 to reflect the fact that about 75% of the agency's docket consists of disability cases. OHO aka ODAR also adjudicates disputes relating to retirement claims and has jurisdiction when the paternity of a claimant or the validity of a marriage is at issue when a claim is filed for benefits under the earnings record of a spouse or parent. The agency also adjudicates a limited number of Medicare claim issues, which is a residual legacy from when SSA was part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Criticism and controversy
Bloomberg reported that SSA made a $32.3 billion mistake when reporting 2009 U.S. wage statistics. The error when corrected, further reduces the average 2009 U.S. wage to $39,055. In 2009 the average U.S. wage was reported as $39,269.
Baby name popularity report
Each year, just before Mother's Day, SSA releases a list of the names most commonly given to newborn babies in the United States in the previous year, based on applications for Social Security cards. The report includes the 1,000 most common names for both genders. The Popular Baby Names page on the SSA website provides the complete list and allows searches for past years and particular names. For privacy reasons, SSA does not publish data for names with fewer than five occurrences in any given year.
See also
Social programs in the United States
Public finance
Social Security Death Index
Social Security Disability Insurance
Michael J. Astrue, Commissioner of the Social Security Administration from 2007 to 2013
NOSSCR, National Organization of Social Security Claimants' Representatives
Richardson v. Perales
Ticket to Work, SSA's Ticket to Work Program
Title 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Data.gov
USAFacts
SSA impersonation scam
References
All Social Security Offices in USA
Further reading
Social Security Disability Advocate's Handbook, by David Traver, James Publishing, 2006,
Social Security Handbook, Germania Publishing, 2006.
External links
Program Operations Manual System (POMS) – public online version of the procedure by which SSA employees process decisions about benefits
Historical Background And Development Of Social Security by Social Security Administration
Social Security Administration on USAspending.gov
Social Security Administration in the Federal Register
Papers of Charles I. Schottland, former Commissioner of Social Security, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Social Security Administration Office Locations
SSA Pub. No 25-1556. Teleservice Representative Basic Training Curriculum Introduction Unit 1 Lessons 01-08 Student. pp. 7–15. Social Security Administration''. April 2006.
Baltimore County, Maryland landmarks
Government agencies established in 1935
Independent agencies of the United States government
New Deal agencies
Administration | [
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220009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bittern | Bittern | Bitterns are birds belonging to the subfamily Botaurinae of the heron family Ardeidae. Bitterns tend to be shorter-necked and more secretive than other members of the family. They were called hæferblæte in Old English; the word "bittern" came to English from Old French butor, itself from Gallo-Roman butitaurus, a compound of Latin būtiō (buzzard) and taurus (bull).
Bitterns usually frequent reed beds and similar marshy areas and feed on amphibians, reptiles, insects, and fish.
Bitterns, like herons, egrets, and pelicans, fly with their necks retracted, unlike the similar storks, ibises, and spoonbills, which fly with necks outstretched.
Species
There are currently 14 species divided into three genera within Botaurinae:
Ixobrychus contains mainly smaller bitterns:
Little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus)
Australian little bittern (Ixobrychus dubius)
†New Zealand little bittern (Ixobrychus novaezelandiae)
Cinnamon bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus)
Stripe-backed bittern (Ixobrychus involucris)
Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis)
Yellow bittern (Ixobrychus sinensis)
Schrenck's bittern (Ixobrychus eurhythmus)
Dwarf bittern (Ixobrychus sturmii)
Black bittern (Ixobrychus flavicollis)
Botaurus contains the larger bitterns:
American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosa)
Eurasian bittern or great bittern (Botaurus stellaris)
South American bittern (Botaurus pinnatus)
Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus)
†Botaurus hibbardi (fossil)
Zebrilus includes only one species:
Zigzag heron or zigzag bittern (Zebrilus undulatus)
Notes
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach | [
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220011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20American%20Digest%20System | West American Digest System | The West American Digest System is a system of identifying points of law from reported cases and organizing them by topic and key number. The system was developed by West Publishing to organize the entire body of American law. This extensive taxonomy makes the process of doing case law legal research less time consuming as it directs the researcher to cases that are similar to the legal issue under consideration.
History
The problem of finding cases on a particular topic was a large problem for the rapidly growing American legal system of the 19th century. John B. West, the founder of West Publishing, described this problem in his article A multiplicity of reports. To solve the problem, he developed a system with two major parts. First, his company began to regularly publish cases from many American jurisdictions in bound volumes called reporters (the West National Reporter System now covers all state and federal appellate courts, as well as certain trial courts). Second, he put together a classification system in which he divided the law into major categories which he called topics (such as "Contracts"). He then created hundreds of subcategories. To save space in printing, these were given a number called a key number. He then applied this "topic and key number" system to the cases he published. The key number is identified in the books with a key number and a key symbol graphic.
How it works
Each case published in a West reporter is evaluated by an editor who identifies the points of law cited or explained in the case. The editor places the summaries of the points of law covered in the case at the beginning of the case. These summaries are usually a paragraph long, and are called headnotes. Each headnote is then assigned a topic and key number. The headnotes are arranged according to their topic and key number in multi-volume sets of books called Digests. A digest serves as a subject index to the case law published in West reporters. Headnotes are merely editorial guides to the points of law discussed or used in the cases, and the headnotes themselves are not legal authority.
West publishes West's Analysis of American Law, which is a complete guide to the topic and key number system, and it is revised periodically.
Print digest
In print, a digest works like an encyclopedia, in that the topics are listed in alphabetical order and printed on the spines. The "Descriptive Word Index" provides guidance as to the proper topics and key numbers.
The digest system includes digests for the individual states (except for Delaware, Nevada and Utah). The U.S. Supreme Court, Bankruptcy Courts, Federal Claims Court, and military courts each have an individual digest, as well as their decisions being included in the Federal Practice Digest with the notes of decisions from the federal District Courts and Courts of Appeals. Digests are also published for West's National Reporter System. Specialty subject digests exist, such as the Education Law Digest, and the Social Security Digest.
For nationwide research, about once a month, West publishes a General Digest volume, which incorporates classified digest notes from all reporters of the West National Reporter System. These are then cumulated into a Decennial Digest. Decennial implies that this occurs every ten years, but in the past several decades, there have been Decennial Digest Parts I and II (the 11th Series now has Part III ), so the cumulation is now more frequent. However, the various Decennial Digests are not cumulated. Thus, completing such a search over several decades requires consulting the Decennial Digests, and then updating that work with the most recent series of the General Digest.
Some of the state and topical digests are revised to include the first cases in the jurisdiction, while the spines of the books of some of the other digests indicate that they are from "1933 to date," for instance, indicating that one must consult a prior series for references to earlier cases. The state, federal, regional, and topical digests are updated by interim pamphlets, pocket parts, replacement volumes, or a new series.
The Digest on Westlaw
Researchers can also search the digest electronically using Westlaw:
with the "Key Number Search Tool", which uses a word search to identify up to five key numbers,
with the "Key Numbers and Digest" feature (browse by subject using an expandable tree – no search terms required),
by a key number search using the "Terms and Connectors" method (with a known topic and key number – in the form of 134k261; topic 134 is Divorce and the key number is 261 for "Enforcement, In general"),
by using the KeySearch feature (a menu of hierarchical links that automatically generates a search without the need to see the key numbers or the terms and connectors query), or
by finding a relevant case using keyword searching and then using the key number hyperlinks in the document to find related cases.
Most secondary sources published by Thomson West, such as Corpus Juris Secundum and American Jurisprudence, also have key number hyperlinks in their on-line Westlaw versions.
The "Key Numbers and Digest" feature and the hyperlinks create a "Custom Digest".
The Custom Digest allows:
selection of the jurisdiction of interest (so that headnotes from cases in that jurisdiction will appear in the results);
limiting the time frame of the search; and
adding additional search terms.
Selecting key numbers and jurisdictions in the "Key Number Search Tool" results in a similar display of digest headnotes.
Since all West headnote annotations are merged on Westlaw into a single database from which each Custom Digest is generated, there is no need to consult each separate series of the hard copy Decennial Digest. Full text of the cases may be accessed from the Custom Digest by clicking on the underlined case citation. The key number search or KeySearch will retrieve entire cases from a case law database.
Other digest systems
Other digest systems exist, including Butterworth's Digest for the United Kingdom (also containing references to cases decided in other Commonwealth countries), the Canadian Abridgment, digests associated with official state reports, such as in California and Wisconsin, and digests associated with topical reporters, such as the Uniform Commercial Code Case Digest. Most of these use a topic and section format, while some, like the U.C.C. Case Digest, use a section format based on the statute or rules being annotated. The A.L.R. Digest, accompanying the American Law Reports, formerly had its own classification system, but was replaced in 2004 by West's American Law Reports Digest, which follows West's topic and key number system.
See also
Citator
Legal research
External references
West Topic & Key Number System - Westlaw Quick Reference Guide(.pdf)
West product search for Key Number Digest
West's Analysis of American Law product description
West's A.L.R. Digest product description
References
West (publisher)
Legal research
Case law reporters
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220016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Gomera | La Gomera | La Gomera () is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. With an area of , it is the third smallest of the eight main islands of this archipelago. It belongs to the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. La Gomera is the third least populous of the eight main Canary Islands with 22,426 inhabitants. Its capital is San Sebastián de La Gomera, where the cabildo insular (island council) is located.
Political organisation
La Gomera is part of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. It is divided into six municipalities:
The island government (cabildo insular) is located in the capital, San Sebastián.
Geography
The island is of volcanic origin and roughly circular; it is about in diameter. The island is very mountainous and steeply sloping and rises to at the island's highest peak, Alto de Garajonay. Its shape is rather like an orange that has been cut in half and then split into segments, which has left deep ravines or barrancos between them.
Ecology
The uppermost slopes of these barrancos, in turn, are covered by the laurisilva - or laurel rain forest, where up to 50 inches of precipitation fall each year.
The upper reaches of this densely wooded region are almost permanently shrouded in clouds and mist, and as a result are covered in lush and diverse vegetation: they form the protected environment of Spain's Garajonay National Park, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. The slopes are criss-crossed by paths that present varying levels of difficulty to visitors, and stunning views to seasoned hikers.
The central mountains catch the moisture from the trade wind clouds and yield a dense jungle climate in the cooler air, which contrasts with the warmer, sun-baked cliffs near sea level.
Between these extremes one finds a fascinating gamut of microclimates; for centuries, the inhabitants of La Gomera have farmed the lower levels by channelling runoff water to irrigate their vineyards, orchards and banana groves.
Natural symbols
The official natural symbols associated with La Gomera are Columba junoniae (Paloma rabiche) and Persea indica (Viñátigo).
Culture
The local wine is distinctive and often accompanied with a tapa (snack) of local cheese, roasted pork, or goat meat. Other culinary specialities include almogrote, a cheese spread, miel de palma, a syrup extracted from palm trees, and "escaldón", a porridge made with gofio flour.
The inhabitants of La Gomera have an ancient way of communicating across deep ravines by means of a whistled speech called Silbo Gomero, which can be heard 2 miles away. This whistled language is indigenous to the island, and its existence has been documented since Roman times. Invented by the original inhabitants of the island, the Guanches, Silbo Gomero was adopted by the Spanish settlers in the 16th century and survived after the Guanches were entirely assimilated. When this means of communication was threatened with extinction at the dawn of the 21st century, the local government required all children to learn it in school. Marcial Morera, a linguist at the University of La Laguna has said that the study of silbo may help understand how languages are formed.
In the mountains of La Gomera, its original inhabitants worshipped their god, whom they called Orahan; the summit and centre of the island served as their grand sanctuary. Indeed, many of the natives took refuge in this sacred territory in 1489, as they faced imminent defeat at the hands of the Spaniards, and it was here that the conquest of La Gomera was drawn to a close. Modern-day archaeologists have found several ceremonial stone constructions here that appear to represent sacrificial altar stones, slate hollows, or cavities. It was here that the Guanches built pyres upon which to make offerings of goats and sheep to their god. This same god, Orahan, was known on La Palma as Abora and on Tenerife and Gran Canaria as Arocan. The Guanches also interred their dead in caves. Today, saints, who are worshipped through village festivals, are principally connected with Christianity. But in some aspects, the Guanches’ god-like idealising of Gomeran uniqueness plays a role as well besides their pre-Christian and pre-colonial implication and shows strong local differences.
Christopher Columbus made La Gomera his last port of call before crossing the Atlantic in 1492 with his three ships. He stopped here to replenish his crew's food and water supplies, intending to stay only four days. Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, the Countess of La Gomera and widow of Hernán Peraza the Younger, offered him vital support in preparations of the fleet, and he ended up staying one month. When he finally set sail on 6 September 1492, she gave him cuttings of sugarcane, which became the first to reach the New World. After his first voyage of Discovery, Columbus again provisioned his ships at the port of San Sebastián de La Gomera in 1493 on his second voyage to the New World, commanding a fleet of 17 vessels. He visited La Gomera for the last time in 1498 on his third voyage to the Americas. The house in San Sebastián in which he is reputed to have stayed is now a tourist attraction.
Genetics
An autosomal study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by the Spanish in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Parallelling mtDNA findings (50.1% of U6 and 10.83% of L haplogroups), the largest average Northwest African contribution (42.50%) was found for the samples from La Gomera. According to Flores et al. (2003), genetic drift could be responsible for the contrasting difference in Northwest African ancestry detected with maternal (51% of Northwest African lineages) and paternal markers (0.3–10% of Northwest African lineages) in La Gomera. Alternatively, it could reflect the dramatic way the island was conquered, producing the strongest sexual asymmetry in the archipelago.
Festivals
The festival of the Virgin of Guadalupe, patron saint of the island, is the Monday following the first Saturday of October.
Every five years (most recently in 2018) is celebrated the Bajada de la Virgen de Guadalupe (the Bringing the Virgin) from her hermitage in Puntallana to the capital. She is brought by boat to the beach of San Sebastián de La Gomera, where several people host her, and transported throughout the island for two months.
Notable natives and residents
Antonio José Ruiz de Padrón (1757–1823), Franciscan priest and politician.
José Aguiar (1895–1975), painter.
Pedro García Cabrera (1905–1981), writer and poet.
Tim Hart (1948–2009), English folk musician.
Manuel Mora Morales (born 1952), writer, filmmaker and editor.
Oliver Weber (born 1970), German photographer, physician and professor of visual arts.
References
External links
Green, Lawrence G.: South African beachcomber. Memories of the people of the shore and the stories they told; sand and dunes and treasure, seabirds and creatures of the sea; and personal impressions of certain islands in African waters. Cape Town: Howard B. Timmins, 1958.
Cabildo de La Gomera
La Gomera - Official Canary Islands Tourism
La Gomera
Islands of the Canary Islands
Volcanoes of the Canary Islands
Extinct volcanoes
Biosphere reserves of Spain | [
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220018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Sheraton | Thomas Sheraton | Thomas Sheraton (1751 – 22 October 1806) was a furniture designer, one of the "big three" English furniture makers of the 18th century, along with Thomas Chippendale and George Hepplewhite. Sheraton gave his name to a style of furniture characterized by a feminine refinement of late Georgian styles and became the most powerful source of inspiration behind the furniture of the late 18th century.
Biography
Sheraton was born in Stockton-on-Tees, County Durham, England - where nowadays there is a pub named after him. He was one of the leaders and preachers of the Stockton Baptist church and also preached elsewhere on his travels. He was apprenticed to a local cabinet maker and continued working as a journeyman cabinet maker until he moved to London in 1790, aged 39. There he set up as professional consultant and teacher, teaching perspective, architecture, and cabinet design for craftsmen. It is not known how he gained either the knowledge or the reputation which enabled him to do this but he appears to have been moderately successful.
Starting in 1791 he published in four volumes The Cabinet Maker's and Upholsterer's Drawing Book. At least six hundred cabinet makers and joiners subscribed to his book and it was immediately widely influential over a large part of the country. During this period he did not have a workshop of his own and it is believed that Sheraton himself never made any of the pieces shown in his books. No pieces of furniture have ever been traced to him directly. So a piece of furniture described as being "by Sheraton" refers to the design and not to the maker of the piece.
In 1803 he published The Cabinet Dictionary, a compendium of instructions on the techniques of cabinet and chair making. Then a year before his death, in 1805 he published the first volume of The Cabinet Maker, Upholsterer and General Artist's Encyclopaedia.
Sheraton's name is associated with the styles of furniture fashionable in the 1790s and early 19th century. Many of the designs are based on classical architecture, knowledge of which was an essential part of a designer's technical education. Not all of the drawings are of his own design – he acknowledged that some of them came from works in progress in the workshops of practicing cabinet makers – but he was a superb draughtsman and he set his name on the style of the era.
See also
Luke Vincent Lockwood
Lyre arm
References
English furniture designers
People from Stockton-on-Tees
1751 births
1806 deaths
18th-century English people
19th-century English people
English Baptist ministers | [
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220021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court%20of%20Cassation%20%28France%29 | Court of Cassation (France) | The Court of Cassation ( ) is one of the four courts of last resort in France. It has jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters triable in the judicial system, and is the supreme court of appeal in these cases. It has jurisdiction to review the law, and to certify questions of law, to determine miscarriages of justice. The Court is located in the Palace of Justice in Paris.
The Court does not have jurisdiction over cases involving claims against administrators or public bodies, which fall within the jurisdiction of administrative courts, for which the Council of State acts as the supreme court of appeal; nor over cases involving constitutional issues, which fall within the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Council; nor over cases involving disputes about which of these courts has jurisdiction, which are heard by the Jurisdictional Disputes Tribunal. Collectively, these four courts form the topmost tier of the French court system.
The Court was established in 1790 under the name Tribunal de cassation during the French Revolution, and its original purpose was to act as a court of error with revisory jurisdiction over lower provincial prerogative courts (Parlements). However, much about the Court continues the earlier Paris Parlement.
The Court is the seat of the Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the European Union.
Composition
The Court is made up of justices, the Office of the Prosecutor, and an Administrative Office of Courts. In addition, a separate bar of specially certified barristers exists for trying cases at the French Court.
Judges and divisions
Overall, the Court consists of nearly 85 trial judges (conseillers) and about 40 deputy judges (conseillers référendaires), each divided among six different divisions (chambres):
First Civil Division (première chambre civile) deals with contractual liability, international private law, arbitration, consumer law, family law, successions (wills), child custody, professional discipline, individual rights,
Second Civil Division (deuxième chambre civile) handles civil procedural issues, torts, insurance law, social insurance law and electoral matters
Third Civil Division (troisième chambre civile) (or "Land Court") for immovable property (real estate), housing, commercial leases, construction law, urban planning law, environmental law
Commercial Division (chambre commerciale, financière et économique) handles corporate law, bankruptcy, commercial law, business contracts, competition law, financial law and intellectual property rights
Labor Division (chambre sociale) handles labor disputes, worker compensation.
Criminal Division (chambre criminelle) deals with criminal cases and criminal procedural rules
Each division is headed by a presiding justice referred to in French as a président, or President of Division. The Chief Justice bears the title of the premier président, or President of the Court, who supervises the presiding justices of the various divisions. The Chief Justice is the highest-ranking judicial officer in the country and is responsible for administration of the Court and the discipline of justices. The current Chief Justice is . The Court also includes 12 masters (auditeurs), the lowest rank of justice, who are primarily concerned with administration.
There is, in addition to the abovementioned six divisions, a separate organization known as the Divisional Court (chambre mixte). The Divisional Court adjudicates where the subject matter of an appeal falls within the purview of multiple divisions. The Bench of the Divisional Court seats the Chief Justice and a number of other judges from at least three other divisions relevant to a given case. Any participating division is represented by its Presiding Justice and two puisne judges.
Finally, a Full Court (Assemblée plénière) is called, presided over by the Chief Justice or, if he is absent, by the most senior presiding justice. It also seats all divisional presiding justices and senior justices, assisted by a puisne judge from each division. The Full Court is the highest level of the Court.
Office of the Prosecutor
The prosecution, or parquet général, is headed by the Chief Prosecutor (procureur général). The Chief Prosecutor is a judicial officer, but does not prosecute cases; instead, his function is to advise the Court on how to proceed, analogous to the Commissioner-in-Council's role within the Conseil d'État (lit. Council of State, but function may vary). Duties include filing motions to bring cases before the Court "in the name of the law" and bringing cases before the French Court of Justice (Cour de justice de la République), which tries government officials for crimes committed while in office. The Chief Prosecutor is assisted by two Chief Deputy Prosecutors (premiers avocats généraux) and a staff of about 22 deputy prosecutors (avocats généraux), and two assistant prosecutors (substituts).
Supreme Court bar
Barristers (avocats), though not technically officers of the Court, play an integral role in the justice system. Except for a few types of actions, advocate counsel in the form of a barrister is mandatory for any case heard at the Court or Council of State. Barristers with exclusive rights of audience and admitted to practice law in either senior court are titled avocat au Conseil d'État et à la Cour de Cassation, or avocats aux Conseils ("Counsel at Senior Court") for short. Admission to the Supreme Court bar is particularly difficult, requiring special training and passing a notoriously stringent examination. Once admitted, bar members can advise litigants on whether their actions are justiciable, that is, issuable and exceeding de minimis requirements—an important service since the Court hears appeals only on points of law and not issues of fact. Membership is restricted to 60 total positions and is considered a public office.
General counsel
In May 2019, Jean-François Ricard was appointed General Counsel at the Court of Cassation to exercise the function of anti-terrorism public prosecutor at the Tribunal de grande instance de Paris, heading a new National Terrorism Prosecution Office (; PNAT), beginning on 25 June 2019. He leads a team of 25 magistrates.
Proceedings
The Court's main purpose is to review lower court rulings on the grounds of legal or procedural error. As the highest court of law in France, it also has other duties.
Appeals
The Court has inherent appellate jurisdiction for appeals (called pourvois en cassation) from courts of appeal or, for certain types of small claims cases not appealable to appellate courts, from courts of record. The Supreme Court reviews the appeal on the record and may affirm or set aside lower court rulings; if set aside, the ruling is said to be cassé (French for "quashed"), hence the French name of Cour de cassation, or "Quashing Court". The Court adjudicates by strict appeal, or appeal stricto sensu, which is limited to review of the decision and of the decision-making process on a point of law, and may only allow the appeal in cases of serious error; fresh evidence is not admissible. The typical outcome of a successful appeal is setting aside of the lower court's decision and remittal for reconsideration.
An intermediate appellate court, the Cour d'appel, hears general appeals de novo on points of law and procedure as well as errors of fact and reasoning. The Court of Cassation only decides matters of points of law or procedure on the record, as opposed to factual errors. Lower courts may petition the Court for an interlocutory order during the proceedings on any new and complex point of law; any such order, however, is not final or conclusive.
Appeal procedure
A case is heard by a bench of three or five relevant divisional justices. For either civil or criminal appeals, the bench seats by three judges unless the Chief Justice or the divisional presiding justice orders a Full Bench of five judges. Furthermore, any one of the three judges originally assigned to the Bench may order it expanded to five. If the case falls in the legal areas handled by more than one division, the Chief Justice may order the Divisional Court, rather than a Bench, to consider the case.
The Court can affirm a decision from below by dismissing the appeal (rejet du pourvoi) or overturn or amend the decision by allowing the appeal (accueil du pourvoi). If it finds that the lower court erred, it sets aside the lower court decision and remits the case with its opinion to an appellate court for reconsideration (cassation avec renvoi). If only a portion of a ruling is overturned, it is called cassation partielle, or partial setting aside. Sometimes, the Court may overturn a lower court ruling and judge the case ex proprio motu without being petitioned (cassation sans renvoi), as long as the merits and facts of the case are on record.
When overturned, the case is remanded to a second appellate court, in other words not the appellate court whose decision is being appealed; never to the same judges. The decision of the Bench of the Court of Cassation or Divisional Court is not binding on the lower court, and the appellate court has full discretion to decide the case, but the higher court's ruling has persuasive authority. The appellate court's ruling may again be appealed to the Court of Cassation. If so, the Full Court hears and judges the case. It may, again, uphold an earlier decision or reverse it and remand the case to another appellate court. In the latter case, the determination of the Full Court is binding; the facts, however, may be reviewed by the court retrying the case.
Published judgments are extremely brief, containing a statement of the case—citing relevant statutory authorities—and a summary of ruling. The ruling does not contain a ratio decidendi in the style of common-law jurisdictions. Instead, it is left to legal experts to explain the importance of rulings. The Court often drastically changes the way the Civil Code or other statutory laws are interpreted. Legal digests, such as the Recueil Dalloz, and treatises written by legal scholars analyze and explain rulings through precedents. Much of this information is available through online databases.
Unlike common-law jurisdictions, there is no doctrine of binding precedent (stare decisis) in France. Therefore, previous decisions of higher courts do not bind lower courts in the same hierarchy, though they are often followed and have persuasive authority. Instead, the French legal system subscribes to the legal doctrine of jurisprudence constante according to which courts should follow a series of decisions that are in accord with each other and judges should rule on their own interpretation of the law.
Criminal appeals
Major felonies (indictable offences), called crimes in French, are tried by jury in a county Court of Assizes. In the past, their decisions were not open to appeal in an intermediate appellate court, and before 2001, could only be appealed to the Supreme Court. The Court would review the case on points of procedure and law only, and when handing down a reversal, which was uncommon except for capital punishment cases, vested a second Court of Assizes to retry the case. An argument in favor of this system was that allowing appeals to be tried by active judges after having been decided by a jury would in essence deny popular sovereignty. Since 2001, Assize court rulings may be appealed on points of fact to a Court of Assizes in another county, vested by the Court, and before a larger jury. The case is then fully retried. For procedural issues, appeals to the Supreme Court are still possible since assize courts, which operate by jury trial, would not be competent to hear them.
Certified questions
Where no appeal has been made but the government disagrees with the lower court's interpretation of the law, it may order the Chief Prosecutor to "lay an appeal before the Court in the interest of law" (former un pourvoi dans l'intérêt de la loi), i.e., appeal to certify a question of general public importance. The Chief Prosecutor may do so sua sponte or at the Court's behest in either civil or criminal cases. The Court will then issue an advisory opinion which has no bearing on the lower court's ruling since it was satisfactory to all parties involved and no motion was made to appeal. If the government is dissatisfied with the law as stated by the courts, it may ask Parliament to rewrite the law, as long as no constitutional issue is involved.
Other duties
The Court publishes an annual report on the French court system. The report includes a section with suggested changes to laws concerning the legal system, including criminal procedure. The Court awards damages to defendants exonerated after incarceration. Some high-level members of the court are ex officio members of special ad hoc courts; the investigatory commission of the High Court of Justice (Haute Cour de Justice), which may be convened to try the French President for high treason; the French Court of Justice (Cour de Justice de la République), which may be convened to try current or former cabinet ministers for crimes committed while in office; and the National Judicial Council (Conseil supérieur de la magistrature), which serves as a court of judicial discipline and disciplinary counsel. The High Court of Justice has never been convened during the Fifth Republic and the French Court of Justice, only rarely.
Other related courts
The Court is not the only court of last resort in France. Cases involving claims against government bodies, local authorities, or the central government, including all delegated legislation (e.g., statutory instruments, ministerial orders), are heard by the administrative courts, for which the court of last resort is the Conseil d'État. In cases where there appears to be concurrent jurisdiction or a conflict of laws between the judicial and administrative courts, whether both retain jurisdiction ("positive dispute") or decline jurisdiction ("negative dispute"), the Jurisdictional Disputes Court (Tribunal des Conflits) decides the issue. The Court is composed of 4 members from both senior courts and occasionally, to break a tie, the justice minister who, if present, presides.
Neither court has the power to strike down primary legislation, such as acts of Parliament. The courts can, however, refuse to apply any statutory provision they consider inconsistent with France's international treaty obligations. Constitutional review lies in the Constitutional Council, which can strike down any law that it deems unconstitutional. Before a law is enacted, the French President, the speaker of either house of Parliament, or, more commonly, 60 parliamentarians from the same house may petition the Council for review. Some laws, mostly constitutional laws (loi organique), come before the Constitutional Council for review without first being petitioned. Courts may adopt a restrictive approach to applying statute. A 2009 reform, effective on 1 March 2010, enables parties to a lawsuit or trial to question the constitutionality of the law that is being applied to them. The procedure, known as question prioritaire de constitutionnalité, is broadly as follows: the question is raised before the trial judge and, if it has merit, it is forwarded to the appropriate supreme court (Council of State if the referral comes from an administrative court, Cour de Cassation for other courts). The supreme court collects such referrals and submits them to the Constitutional Council. If the Constitutional Council rules a law is unconstitutional, the law is struck down and no longer has legal force; this decision applies to everybody and not just the appelant in the case at hand.
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has jurisdiction over claims of government violations in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights in any ECHR member country, which includes all EU member countries. Before the ECtHR grants appeal, a claimant must have exhausted all available judicial recourse in the violating country; in France this means following the appeals process to either of the senior courts. Even so, the ECtHR has original jurisdiction, not appellate jurisdiction.
Additionally, French courts may petition the European Court of Justice to certify a question of law concerning EU law.
See also
Notes
External links
Official site
Cour de cassation cases (English translations)
Judiciary of France
French society
Judiciaries
Courts in France
France
1790 establishments in France
Courts and tribunals established in 1790 | [
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] |
220022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20furniture%20designers | List of furniture designers | This is a list of notable people whose primary occupation is furniture design.
A
Alvar Aalto (1898-1976)
Eero Aarnio (born 1932)
Robert Adam (1728-1792)
Thomas Affleck (1745-1795)
Davis Allen (1916-1999)
Ron Arad (born 1951)
David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon (born 1961)
Jean Avisse (1723-1796)
B
Fred Baier (born 1949)
Milo Baughman (1923-2003)
Mario Bellini (born 1935)
Harry Bertoia (1915-1978)
Lina Bo Bardi (1914-1992)
André Charles Boulle (1642-1732)
Marcel Breuer (1902-1981)
Jeremy Broun (born 2000)
Busk + Hertzog
Bustper DS
C
Louise Campbell (born 1970)
Achille Castiglioni (1918-2002)
Wendell Castle (1932-2018)
William Chambers (1723-1796)
Giovanni Cagnato
Eliphalet Chapin (1741-1807)
Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779)
Thomas Chippendale, the younger (1749-1822)
Antonio Citterio (born 1950)
John Cobb (1715-1778)
Kenneth Cobonpue (born 1968)
Muriel Coleman (1917-2003)
Joe Cesare Colombo (1930-1971)
Henry Copland (1728-1754)
Charles Cressent (1685-1768)
D
Nanna Ditzel (1923-2005)
Tom Dixon (born 1959)
E
Ray (1912-1988) and Charles Eames (1907-1978)
Charles Eastlake (1836-1906)
Olav Eldøy (born 1948)
Paul Evans (1931-1987)
F
Pierre François Léonard Fontaine (1762-1853)
Paul T. Frankl (1887-1958)
G
Peter Ghyczy (born 1940)
Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721)
Ernest Gimson (1864-1919)
Eileen Gray (1878-1976)
Hector Guimard (1867-1942)
H
Christopher Guy Harrison (1960-2020)
Ambrose Heal (1872-1959)
George Hepplewhite (c. 1727-1786)
James Hilton (born 1973)
Matthew Hilton (born 1957)
Jacques Hitier (1917-1999)
Josef Hoffman (1870-1956)
Thomas Hope (1769-1831)
Luke Hughes (born 1957)
J
Arne Jacobsen (1902-1971)
Dakota Jackson (born 1949)
Charles Hollis Jones (born 1945)
Finn Juhl (1912-1989)
K
Vladimir Kagan (1927-2016)
William Kent (1685-1748)
Poul Kjærholm (1929-1980)
Florence Knoll (1917-2019)
Silas Kopf (born 1949)
James Krenov (1920-2009)
Shiro Kuramata (1934-1991)
L
Charles-Honoré Lannuier (1779-1819)
Paul László (1900-1993)
Charles Limbert (1854-1923)
François Linke (1855-1946)
David Linley (born 1961)
Piero Lissoni (born 1956)
Mathias Locke (18th century)
Samuel Loomis (1748-1814)
Ross Lovegrove (born 1958)
Fred Lowen (1919-2005)
M
Sal Maccarone (born 1949)
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928)
Vico Magistretti (1920-2006)
Terence Main (born 1954)
John Makepeace (born 1939)
Sam Maloof (1916-2009)
Cecilie Manz (born 1972)
Enzo Mari (born 1932)
Daniel Marot (1661-1752)
Wendy Maruyama (born 1952)
Bruno Mathson (1907-1988)
Judy Kensley McKie (born 1944)
Alessandro Mendini (1931-2019)
Børge Mogensen (1914-1972)
Thomas C. Molesworth (1890-1977)
Carlo Mollino (1905-1973)
Jasper Morrison (born 1959)
N
George Nakashima (1905-1990)
George Nelson (1908-1986)
Marc Newson (born 1963)
Nolen Niu (born 1975)
Isamu Noguchi (1904-1988)
Arne Norell (1917-1971)
Wallace Nutting (1861-1941)
O
Jean Francis Oeben (1721-1763)
Sergio Orozco
P
Verner Panton (1926-1998)
Kenneth Peacock (1922-2000)
Charlotte Perriand (1903-1999)
Charles Percier (1764-1838)
Alan Peters (1933-2009)
Duncan Phyfe (1768-1854)
Ferdinand Plitzner (1678-1724)
Jean Prouvé (1901-1984)
R
Ernest Race (1913-1964)
Dieter Rams (born 1932)
Karim Rashid (born 1960)
Lilly Reich (1885-1947)
Jean Henri Riesener (1734-1806)
Gerrit Rietveld (1888-1964)
Jens Risom (1916-2016)
T. H. Robsjohn-Gibbings (1905-1976)
David Roentgen (1743-1807)
André Jacob Roubo (1739-1791)
Alexander Roux (1813-1886)
David Rowland (1924-2010)
S
Eero Saarinen (1910-1961)
Kasper Salto (born 1967)
Sergio Savarese (1958-2006)
Timothy Schreiber
Frans Schrofer (born 1956)
George Seddon (1727-1801)
Maarten van Severen (1956-2005)
Thomas Shearer (18th century)
Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806)
Alma Siedhoff-Buscher (1899-1944)
Bořek Šípek (1949-2016)
Janice Smith
Rosanne Somerson (born 1954)
Ettore Sottsass (1917-2007)
Russell Spanner (1916-1974)
Mart Stam (1899-1986)
Philippe Starck (born 1949)
Gustav Stickley (1858-1942)
Bill Stumpf (1936-2006)
Sympson (fl. 1660s)
T
Michael Thonet (1796-1871)
Frederick William Tod (1879-1958)
David Trubridge
U
Patricia Urquiola (born 1961)
V
Henry van de Velde (1863-1957)
William Vile (c. 1700-1767)
Arne Vodder (1926-2009)
W
Katie Walker (born 1969)
Marcel Wanders (born 1963)
Hans J. Wegner (1914-2007)
Russel Wright (1904-1976)
Y
Tokujin Yoshioka (born 1967)
References
Lists of people by occupation
Design-related lists | [
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220028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association | Association | Association may refer to:
Club (organization), an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal
Trade association, an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry
Voluntary association, a body formed by individuals to accomplish a purpose, usually as volunteers
Association in various fields of study
Association (archaeology), the close relationship between objects or contexts.
Association (astronomy), combined or co-added group of astronomical exposures
Association (chemistry)
Association (ecology), a type of ecological community
Genetic association, when one or more genotypes within a population co-occur
Association (object-oriented programming), defines a relationship between classes of objects
Association (psychology), a connection between two or more concepts in the mind or imagination
Association (statistics), a statistical relationship between two variables
File association, associates a file with a software application
Security association, the establishment of security attributes between two communication networks
Particular entities
Continental Association, often called the "Association", an economic boycott during the American Revolution
HMS Association (1697), a Royal Navy ship which sank in 1707
L'Association, a French comic book publisher
The Association, an American soft rock band
The Association (album), 1969
See also
Associate (disambiguation)
Free association (disambiguation)
Associative property in mathematics
Interpersonal relationship
Friendship
Association Football
Registered association (Germany) (An eingetragener Verein) | [
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220039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Arbitration%20Association | American Arbitration Association | The American Arbitration Association (AAA) is a not-for-profit organization in the field of alternative dispute resolution, providing services to individuals and organizations who wish to resolve conflicts out of court, and one of several arbitration organizations that administers arbitration proceedings. The AAA also administers mediation through www.AAAMediation.org and other forms of alternative dispute resolution. It is headquartered in New York City, with regional offices in Atlanta, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, East Providence, Rhode Island, Fresno, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, Philadelphia, Phoenix, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Somerset, New Jersey and Washington, DC.
The International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR), established in 1996 by the AAA, administers international arbitration proceedings initiated under the institution's rules. ICDR currently () has offices in New York City, Mexico City, Singapore, and Bahrain.
History
The AAA was founded in 1926 by the merger of the Arbitration Society of America and the Arbitration Foundation to provide dispute resolution and avoid Civil Court proceedings.
Many contracts include an arbitration clause naming the AAA as the organization that will administer arbitration between the parties. The AAA does not itself arbitrate disputes, but provides administrative support to arbitrations before a single arbitrator or a panel of three arbitrators. The arbitrators are chosen in accordance with the parties' agreement or, if the parties do not agree otherwise, in accordance with the AAA rules. Under its rules, the AAA may appoint an arbitrator in some circumstances, for example, where the parties cannot agree on an arbitrator or a party fails to exercise its right to appoint an arbitrator.
The AAA role in the dispute resolution process is to administer cases, from filing to closing. The AAA provides administrative services in the U.S., as well as abroad through the ICDR. The AAA's and ICDR's administrative services include assisting in the appointment of mediators and arbitrators, setting hearings, conducting cases under the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Arbitration Rules, and hosting hearings at its hearing centers. The AAA/ICDR provides users with information on dispute resolution options, including settlement through mediation. Ultimately, the AAA/ICDR aims to move cases through arbitration or mediation in a fair and impartial manner until completion.
Additional AAA services include the design and development of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) systems for corporations, unions, government agencies, law firms, and the courts. The Association also provides elections services as well as education, training, and publications for those seeking an understanding of alternative dispute resolution.
In July 2009, the AAA stopped accepting consumer debt collection cases, after the National Arbitration Forum was forced to do so after questions arose about the fairness of its process.
In April 2013, the New York State Department of Financial Services hired the AAA to host mediation sessions between insurance companies and Hurricane Sandy victims.
The AAA has actively promoted the use of mediation around the world, including through its participation as a co-founder in 2007 and current board member of the Netherlands-based International Mediation Institute.
See also
Arbitration in the United States
Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service
International arbitration
London Court of International Arbitration
International Chamber of Commerce
National Academy of Arbitrators
References
External links
American Arbitration Association
International Centre for Dispute Resolution
Mediation.org
Guide to the American Arbitration Association. Voluntary Labor Arbitation Tribunal case files, 1955-1960. #5119. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library.
Arbitration organizations
Trade associations based in the United States
1926 establishments in New York (state) | [
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220044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20granularity%20locking | Multiple granularity locking | In computer science, multiple granularity locking (MGL) is a locking method used in database management systems (DBMS) and relational databases.
In multiple granularity locking, locks are set on objects that contain other objects. MGL exploits the hierarchical nature of the contains relationship. For example, a database may have files, which contain pages, which contain records. This can be thought of as a tree of objects, where each node contains its children. A lock on this structure (such as a shared or exclusive lock) locks the targeted node as well as all of its descendants.
Multiple granularity locking is usually used with non-strict two-phase locking to guarantee serializability.
Lock modes
In addition to shared (S) locks and exclusive (X) locks from other locking schemes, like strict two-phase locking, MGL also uses intentional "locks", which do not directly lock a node, but instead denote the existence, or intent to add, a lock of the specified type lower in the node hierarchy. Intentional locks include "intention shared" (IS), "intention exclusive" (IX), and the combined "shared and intention exclusive" (SIX) locks. IS locks conflict with X locks, while IX locks conflict with S and X locks. The null lock (NL) is compatible with everything.
To lock a node in S (or X), MGL has the transaction lock on all of its ancestors with IS (or IX), so if a transaction locks a node in S (or X), no other transaction can access its ancestors in X (or S and X). This protocol is shown in the following table:
Determining what level of granularity to use for locking is done by locking the finest level possible (i.e., at the lowest leaf), and then escalating these locks to higher levels in the file hierarchy to cover more records or file elements as needed in a process known as "lock escalation". MGL locking modes are compatible with each other as defined in the following matrix.
Following the locking protocol and the compatibility matrix, if one transaction holds a node in S mode, no other transactions can have locked any ancestor in X mode.
See also
Atomicity (programming)
Concurrency control
Lock (computer science)
References
Concurrency control | [
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] |
220046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20chemistry%20articles | Index of chemistry articles | Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth") is the physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.
Below is a list of chemistry-related articles. Chemical compounds are listed separately at list of organic compounds, list of inorganic compounds or list of biomolecules.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
References
Indexes of science articles | [
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220048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTL | RTL | RTL may refer to:
Media
RTL Group, a European TV, radio, and production company
RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg, usually referred to simply as RTL
RTL (German TV channel)
RTL (French radio)
RTL Nederland
List of RTL Group's television stations (including part-owned channels)
List of RTL Group's radio stations
RTL 102.5, Italian radio station unaffiliated with RTL Group
RTL9, Luxembourg television channel formerly owned by RTL Group
Electronics
Prefix for some Realtek integrated circuits
Register-transfer level or register-transfer logic, of a digital logic circuit
Register transfer language, a type of computer language
Hewlett-Packard Raster Transfer Language, a subset of PCL
Resistor–transistor logic, a class of digital circuits
Others
RTL Turboliner, a gas turbine trainset
Right-to-left, writing direction of a script
Re-education through labor in the prison system of China
, Quebec, Canada
Runtime library, in computer software | [
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220050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropy | Philanthropy | Philanthropy is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives, for the public good, focusing on quality of life". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material gain; and with government endeavors, which are public initiatives for public good, e.g., focusing on provision of public services. A person who practices philanthropy is a philanthropist.
Philanthropy is different from charity, though there is some overlap. Charity aims to relieve the pain of a particular social problem, whereas philanthropy attempts to address the root cause of the problem.
Etymology
The word philanthropy comes , from phil- "love, fond of" and anthrōpos "humankind, mankind". In the second century AD, Plutarch used the Greek concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings. During the Roman Catholic Middle Ages, philanthrôpía was superseded by Caritas charity, selfless love, valued for salvation and escape from purgatory. Philanthropy was modernized by Sir Francis Bacon in the 1600s, who is credited in great part with preventing the word from being owned by horticulture. Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with "goodness", correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue, as consciously instilled habits of good behaviour. Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as "love of mankind; good nature". This definition still survives today and is often cited more gender-neutrally as the "love of humanity."
Europe
Great Britain
In London, prior to the 18th century, parochial and civic charities were typically established by bequests and operated by local church parishes (such as St Dionis Backchurch) or guilds (such as the Carpenters' Company). During the 18th century, however, "a more activist and explicitly Protestant tradition of direct charitable engagement during life" took hold, exemplified by the creation of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and Societies for the Reformation of Manners.
In 1739, Thomas Coram, appalled by the number of abandoned children living on the streets of London, received a royal charter to establish the Foundling Hospital to look after these unwanted orphans in Lamb's Conduit Fields, Bloomsbury. This was "the first children's charity in the country, and one that 'set the pattern for incorporated associational charities' in general." The hospital "marked the first great milestone in the creation of these new-style charities."
Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era, established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarer's charity, in a bid to aid the recruitment of men to the navy. By 1763, the society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes. These organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. They raised public awareness of their activities through the emerging popular press and were generally held in high social regard—some charities received state recognition in the form of the Royal Charter.
19th century
Philanthropists, such as anti-slavery campaigner William Wilberforce, began to adopt active campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause and lobby the government for legislative change. This included organized campaigns against the ill treatment of animals and children and the campaign that succeeded in ending the slave trade throughout the Empire starting in 1807. Although there were no slaves allowed in Britain itself, many rich men owned sugar plantations in the West Indies, and resisted the movement to buy them out until it finally succeeded in 1833.
Financial donations to organized charities became fashionable among the middle-class in the 19th century. By 1869 there were over 200 London charities with an annual income, all together, of about £2 million. By 1885, rapid growth had produced over 1000 London charities, with an income of about £4.5 million. They included a wide range of religious and secular goals, with the American import, YMCA, as one of the largest, and many small ones such as the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association. In addition to making annual donations, increasingly wealthy industrialists and financiers left generous sums in their wills. A sample of 466 wills in the 1890s revealed a total wealth of £76 million, of which £20 million was bequeathed to charities. By 1900 London charities enjoyed an annual income of about £8.5 million.
Led by the energetic Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885), philanthropists organized themselves. In 1869 they set up the Charity Organisation Society. It was a federation of district committees, one in each of the 42 Poor Law divisions. Its central office had experts in coordination and guidance, thereby maximizing the impact of charitable giving to the poor. Many of the charities were designed to alleviate the harsh living conditions in the slums. such as the Labourer's Friend Society founded in 1830. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for "cottage husbandry" that later became the allotment movement, and in 1844 it became the first Model Dwellings Company—an organization that sought to improve the housing conditions of the working classes by building new homes for them, while at the same time receiving a competitive rate of return on any investment. This was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavor that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century, brought about by the growth of the middle class. Later associations included the Peabody Trust, and the Guinness Trust. The principle of philanthropic intention with capitalist return was given the label "five per cent philanthropy."
Switzerland
In 1863, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant used his fortune to fund the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, which became the International Committee of the Red Cross. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Dunant personally led Red Cross delegations that treated soldiers. He shared the first Nobel Peace Prize for this work in 1901.
The French Red Cross played a minor role in the war with Germany (1870–71). After that, it became a major factor in shaping French civil society as a non-religious humanitarian organization. It was closely tied to the army's Service de Santé. By 1914 it operated one thousand local committees with 164,000 members, 21,500 trained nurses, and over 27 million francs in assets.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) played a major role in working with POW's on all sides in World War II. It was in a cash-starved position when the war began in 1939, but quickly mobilized its national offices set up a Central Prisoner of War Agency. For example, it provided food, mail and assistance to 365,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers and civilians held captive. Suspicions, especially by London, of ICRC as too tolerant or even complicit with Nazi Germany led to its side-lining in favour of the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) as the primary humanitarian agency after 1945.
France
In France, the Pasteur Institute had a monopoly of specialized microbiological knowledge allowed it to raise money for serum production from both private and public sources, walking the line between a commercial pharmaceutical venture and a philanthropic enterprise.
By 1933, at the depth of the Great Depression, the French wanted a welfare state to relieve distress but did not want new taxes. War veterans came up with a solution: the new national lottery proved highly popular to gamblers, while generating the cash needed without raising taxes.
American money proved invaluable. The Rockefeller Foundation opened an office in Paris and helped design and fund France's modern public health system, under the National Institute of Hygiene. It also set up schools to train physicians and nurses.<ref>Timothy B. "The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914–1943." The Historical Journal 41#4 (1998): 1055–1087.</ref>
Germany
The history of modern philanthropy on the European Continent is especially important in the case of Germany, which became a model for others, especially regarding the welfare state. The princes and in the various Imperial states continued traditional efforts, such as monumental buildings, parks and art collections. Starting in the early 19th century, the rapidly emerging middle classes made local philanthropy a major endeavor to establish their legitimate role in shaping society, in contradistinction to the aristocracy and the military. They concentrated on support for social welfare institutions, higher education, and cultural institutions, as well as some efforts to alleviate the hardships of rapid industrialization. The bourgeoisie (upper-middle-class) was defeated in its effort to it gain political control in 1848, but they still had enough money and organizational skill that could be employed through philanthropic agencies to provide an alternative powerbase for their world view. Religion was a divisive element in Germany, as the Protestants, Catholics and Jews used alternative philanthropic strategies. The Catholics, for example, continued their medieval practice of using financial donations in their wills to lighten their punishment in purgatory after death. The Protestants did not believe in purgatory, but made a strong commitment to the improvement of their communities here and now. Conservative Protestants Raised concerns about deviant sexuality, alcoholism and socialism, as well as illegitimate births. They used philanthropy to eradicate social evils that were seen as utterly sinful.Andrew Lees, Cities, Sin and Social Reform in Imperial Germany (2002). All the religious groups used financial endowments, which multiplied in the number and wealth as Germany grew richer. Each was devoted to a specific benefit to that religious community. Each had a board of trustees; these were laymen who donated their time to public service. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, an upper class Junker, used his state-sponsored philanthropy, in the form of his invention of the modern welfare state, to neutralize the political threat posed by the socialistic labor unions. The middle classes, however, made the most use of the new welfare state, in terms of heavy use of museums, gymnasiums (high schools), universities, scholarships, and hospitals. For example, state funding for universities and gymnasiums covered only a fraction of the cost; private philanthropy became the essential ingredient. 19th century Germany was even more oriented toward civic improvement then Britain or the United States, when measured in terms of voluntary private funding for public purposes. Indeed, such German institutions as the kindergarten, the research university, and the welfare state became models copied by the Anglo-Saxons. The heavy human and economic losses of the First World War, the financial crises of the 1920s, as well as the Nazi regime and other devastation by 1945, seriously undermined and weakened the opportunities for widespread philanthropy in Germany. The civil society so elaborately build up in the 19th century was practically dead by 1945. However, by the 1950s, as the "economic miracle" was restoring German prosperity, the old aristocracy was defunct, and middle-class philanthropy started to return to importance.
War and postwar: Belgium and Eastern Europe
The Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB) was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by Herbert Hoover. Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed 11,000,000 Belgians by raising the necessary money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping the food to Belgium and controlling it there. For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium. Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen." Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization was feeding nine million Belgians and French a day.Frank M. Surface and Raymond L. Bland, American food in the world war and reconstruction period : operations of the organizations under the direction of Herbert Hoover, 1914 to 1924 (1932) online; 1034 detailed pages
United States
The first corporation founded in the 13 Colonies was Harvard College (1636), designed primarily to train young men for the clergy. A leading theorist was the Puritan theologian Cotton Mather (1662–1728), who in 1710 published a widely read essay, Bonifacius, or an Essay to Do Good. Mather worried that the original idealism had eroded, so he advocated philanthropic benefaction as a way of life. Though his context was Christian, his idea was also characteristically American and explicitly Classical, on the threshold of the Enlightenment.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe's An Essay upon Projects (1697) and Cotton Mather's Bonifacius: an essay upon the good. (1710). Franklin attempted to motivate his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city: examples included the Library Company of Philadelphia (the first American subscription library), the fire department, the police force, street lighting and a hospital. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751) – which became the University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743) to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate.
By the 1820s, newly rich American businessmen were initiating philanthropic work, especially with respect to private colleges and hospitals. George Peabody (1795–1869) is the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy. A financier based in Baltimore and London, in the 1860s he began to endow libraries and museums in the United States, and also funded housing for poor people in London. His activities became the model for Andrew Carnegie and many others.
Andrew Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) was the most influential leader of philanthropy on a national (rather than local) scale. After selling his steel corporation in the 1890s he devoted himself to establishing philanthropic organizations, and making direct contributions to many educational, cultural and research institutions. He financed over 1800 libraries built across the nation, and his final and largest project was the Carnegie Corporation of New York, founded in 1911 with a $25 million endowment, later enlarged to $135 million. In all, Carnegie gave away 90% of his fortune.
John D. Rockefeller
Other prominent American philanthropists of the early 20th century included John D. Rockefeller, Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932) and Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage (1828–1918). Rockefeller (1839–1937) retired from business in the 1890s; he and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960) made large-scale national philanthropy systematic, especially with regard to the study and application of modern medicine, higher education and scientific research. Of the $530 million the elder Rockefeller gave away, $450 million went to medicine. Their leading advisor Frederick Taylor Gates launched several very large philanthropic projects staffed by experts who sought to address problems systematically at the roots rather than let the recipients deal only with their immediate concerns. By 1920, the Rockefeller Foundation was opening offices in Europe. It launched medical and scientific projects in Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere. It supported the health projects of the League of Nations. By the 1950s the Rockefeller Foundation was investing heavily in the Green Revolution, especially the work by Norman Borlaug that enabled India, Mexico and many poor countries to dramatically upgrade their agricultural productivity.
Ford Foundation
With the acquisition of most of the stock of the Ford Motor Company in the late 1940s, the Ford Foundation became the largest American philanthropy, splitting its activities between the United States, and the rest of the world. Outside the United States, it established a network of human rights organizations, promoted democracy, gave large numbers of fellowships for young leaders to study in the United States, and invested heavily in the Green Revolution, whereby poor nations dramatically increased their output of rice, wheat and other foods. Both Ford and Rockefeller were heavily involved. Ford also gave heavily to build up research universities in Europe and worldwide. For example, in Italy in 1950 it sent a team to help the Italian ministry of education reform the nation's school system, based on the principles of 'meritocracy" (rather than political or family patronage), democratisation (with universal access to secondary schools). It reached a compromise between the Christian Democrats and the Socialists, to help promote uniform treatment and equal outcomes. The success in Italy became a model for Ford programs and many other nations.
The Ford Foundation in the 1950s wanted to modernize the legal systems in India and Africa, by promoting the American model. The plan failed, because of India's unique legal history, traditions, and profession, as well as its economic and political conditions. Ford, therefore, turned to agricultural reform. The success rate in Africa was no better, and that program closed in 1977.
Asia
While charity has a long history in Asia, philanthropy or a systematic approach to doing good remains nascent. Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 – c. 391 BC) developed the concept of "universal love" (jiān'ài, 兼愛), a reaction against perceived over-attachment to family and clan structures within Confucianism. Other interpretations of Confucianism see concern for others as an extension of benevolence.
Muslims in countries such as Indonesia are bound by zakat (almsgiving), while Buddhists and Christians throughout Asia may participate in philanthropic activities. In India, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is now mandated, with 2% of net profits to be directed towards charity.
Asia is home to the majority of the world's billionaires, surpassing the United States and Europe in 2017. Wikipedia's list of countries by number of billionaires shows three Asian economies in the top ten: 698 in China, 237 in India and 71 in Hong Kong (as of March 2021).
Whilst the region's philanthropy practices are relatively under-researched compared to those of the United States and Europe, the Centre for Asian Philanthropy and Society (CAPS) produces a study of the sector every two years. In 2020, its research found that if Asia were to donate the equivalent of two per cent of its GDP, the same as the United States, it would unleash US$507 billion (HK$3.9 trillion) annually, more than 11 times the foreign aid flowing into the region every year and one-third of the annual amount needed globally to meet the sustainable development goals by 2030.
Oceania
Australia
Structured giving in Australia through foundations is slowly growing, although public data on the philanthropic sector is sparse. There is no public registry of philanthropic foundations as distinct from charities more generally.
Two foundation types for which some data is available are Private Ancillary Funds (PAFs) and Public Ancillary Funds (PubAFs). Private Ancillary Funds have some similarities to private family foundations in the US and Europe, and do not have a public fundraising requirement. Public Ancillary Funds include community foundations, some corporate foundations, and foundations that solely support single organisations such as hospitals, schools, museums and art galleries. They must raise funds from the general public.
Differences between traditional and new philanthropy
Impact investment versus traditional philanthropy
Traditional philanthropy and impact investment can be distinguished by how they serve society. Traditional philanthropy is usually short-term, where organizations obtain resources for causes through fund-raising and one-off donations. The Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation are examples of such; they focus more on the financial contributions to social causes and less on the actual actions and processes of benevolence. Impact investment, on the other hand, focuses on the interaction between individual wellbeing and broader society through the promotion of sustainability. Stressing the importance of impact and change, they invest in different sectors of society, including housing, infrastructure, healthcare and energy.
A suggested explanation for the preference for impact investment philanthropy to traditional philanthropy is the gaining prominence of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since 2015. Almost every SDG is linked to environmental protection and sustainability because of raising concerns about how globalisation, liberal consumerism and population growth may affect the environment. As a result, development agencies have seen increased accountability on their part, as they face greater pressure to fit with current developmental agendas.
Traditional philanthropy versus philanthrocapitalism
Philanthrocapitalism differs from traditional philanthropy in how it operates. Traditional philanthropy is about charity, mercy, and selfless devotion improving recipients' wellbeing. Philanthrocapitalism, is philanthropy transformed by business and the market, where profit-oriented business models are designed that work for the good of humanity. Share value companies are an example. They help develop and deliver curricula in education, strengthen their own businesses and improve the job prospects of people. Firms improve social outcomes, but while they do so, they also benefit themselves.
The rise of philanthrocapitalism can be attributed to global capitalism. There is an understanding that philanthropy is not worthwhile if no economic benefit can be derived by philanthropy organisations, both from a social and private perspective. Therefore, philanthropy has been seen as a tool to sustain economic growth and the firm's own growth, based on human capital theory. Through education, specific skills are taught which enhance people's capacity to learn and their productivity at work.
Intel invests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curricular standards in the US and provides learning resources and materials for schools, for its own innovation and revenue. The New Employment Opportunities initiative in Latin America is a regional collaboration to train 1 million youth by 2022 to raise employment standards and ultimately provide a talented pool of labour for companies.
Celebrity philanthropy
Celebrity philanthropy refers to celebrity-affiliated charitable and philanthropic activities. It is an increasingly prevalent topic of scholarship in studies of 'the popular' vis-à-vis the modern and post-modern world. Structured and systematised charitable giving by celebrities is a relatively new phenomenon. Although charity and fame are associated historically, it was only in the 1990s that entertainment and sports celebrities from affluent western societies became involved with a particular type of philanthropy. Celebrity philanthropy in contemporary western societies is not isolated to large one-off monetary donations by definition. It involves celebrities using their publicity, brand credibility and personal wealth to promote not-for-profit organisations, which are increasingly 'business-like' in form. This is sometimes termed as 'celanthropy' – the fusion of celebrity and cause as a representation of what the organisation advocates.
Implications on government and governance
The advent of celebrity philanthropy has seen the contraction of government involvement in areas such as welfare support and foreign aid to name a few. This can be identified from the proliferation of neoliberal policies. Conversely, public interest groups, not-for-profit organisations and the United Nations now budget extensive amounts of time and money to use celebrity endorsers in their campaigns. An example of this is the People's Climate March, which took place on 21 September 2014. The demonstration was part of the larger People's Climate Movement, which aims to raise awareness of climate change and environmental issues more generally. Notable celebrities who are part of this campaign include actors Leonardo DiCaprio, Mark Ruffalo and Edward Norton.
Examples
The Concert for Bangladesh
Band Aid
LiveAid
NetAid
Danny Thomas and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital
Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media
Jerry Lewis and the MDA Telethon
List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
Newman's Own
Tiger Woods Foundation
Richard Gere Activism
Remote Area Medical
Philanthropic capitalism
Philanthropic capitalism or Philanthrocapitalism is a way of doing philanthropy through the capitalist realm. Instead of it being for profit, the philanthropist does it as a non-profit and only breaks even or even takes a small loss, but the overall gain to the community would be greater than the small loss they in-cured. For example, if a philanthropist puts up $10 million dollars for neighborhood revitalization to build new homes in place of dilapidated housing and only breaks even or takes on a small loss selling the homes. If they took a $1,000 loss on each home, 10,000 homes could be made with that initial philanthropic donation. It could be run like a nonprofit organization so they wouldn't have to pay property taxes on the homes as they were waiting to be sold.
Criticism
Despite the initial observed benefits of philanthropy as a variant form of charity, it has been noted that philanthropy has been used by ultra high-net-worth individuals to offset their larger tax liabilities, through charitable contribution deductions enabled by the tax code. In the book Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World by Anand Giridharadas, he notes that various philanthropic initiatives by the wealthy elite in practice function to entrench the power structures and special interests of the wealthy elite. For example, despite Robert F. Smith's generosity by paying off the student debt incurred by the Morehouse class of 2019, he simultaneously fought against changes to the tax code that would have made more money available to help low-income students pay for college. As a result, Giridharadas argues, Smith's philanthropic giving functions to reinforce the prevailing status quo and perpetuates income inequality, instead of addressing the root cause of social issues.
The ability of wealthy people to deduct a significant amount of their tax liabilities in the form of philanthropic giving, as noted by the late German billionaire shipping magnate and philanthropist Peter Kramer, functioned as "a bad transfer of power", from democratically elected politicians to unelected billionaires, whereby it is no longer "the state that determines what is good for the people, but rather the rich who decide". The Global Policy Forum, an independent policy watchdog which functions to monitor the activities of the United Nations General Assembly, warned governments and international organisations that they should "assess the growing influence of major philanthropic foundations, and especially the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation … and analyse the intended and unintended risks and side-effects of their activities" prior to accepting money from rich donors. In 2015, Global Policy Forum also warned elected politicians that they should be particularly concerned about "the unpredictable and insufficient financing of public goods, the lack of monitoring and accountability mechanisms, and the prevailing practice of applying business logic to the provision of public goods".
Giridharadas also argues that philanthrophy also functions to distract the general public from some of the ill-gotten gains that were derived for profit from the marketplace. For example, the Sackler family were known for their generous philanthropic giving to various cultural institutions worldwide. However, their philanthropic giving functioned as deception and propaganda, as their legacy of generosity was tainted by the subsequent exposure of Purdue Pharma's role in encouraging and exacerbating the opioid epidemic. As a result of their exposed ill-gotten gains from the social issues caused by the philanthropic donors, the British institutions of the National Portrait Gallery, London and the Tate, along with the American institution Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, announced their rejection of charitable giving from the Sackler family trusts.
See also
List of philanthropists
List of wealthiest charitable foundations
Charitable organization
Ethics of philanthropy
Effective altruism
Foundation (charity)
Non-profit organization
Venture philanthropy
Visiting the sick
Misanthropy
Philanthropic capitalism
References
Further reading
Adam, Thomas. Philanthropy, Patronage, and Civil Society: Experiences from Germany, Great Britain, and North America (2008)
Burlingame, D.F. Ed. (2004). Philanthropy in America: A comprehensive historical encyclopaedia (3 vol. ABC Clio).
Curti, Merle E. American philanthropy abroad: a history (Rutgers UP, 1963).
Grimm, Robert T. Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering (2002) excerpt
Hitchcock, William I. (2014) "World War I and the humanitarian impulse." The Tocqueville Review/La revue Tocqueville 35.2 (2014): 145–163.
Ilchman, Warren F. et al. Philanthropy in the World's Traditions (1998) Examines philanthropy in Buddhist, Islamic, Hindu, Jewish, and Native American religious traditions and in cultures from Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. online
Jordan, W.K. Philanthropy in England, 1480–1660: A Study of the Changing Pattern of English Social Aspirations (1959) online
Kiger, Joseph C. Philanthropists and foundation globalization (Transaction Publishers, 2011).
Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Klaus Petersen, and Søren Kolstrup. "Autonomy, Cooperation or Colonization? Christian Philanthropy and State Welfare in Denmark." Journal of Church and State 56#1 (2014): 81–104.
Reich, Rob, Chiara Cordelli, and Lucy Bernholz, eds. Philanthropy in democratic societies: History, institutions, values (U of Chicago Press, 2016).
Zunz, Olivier. Philanthropy in America: A history'' (Princeton UP, 2014).
External links
History of Philanthropy, 1601–present compiled and edited by National Philanthropic Trust | [
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220051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teia | Teia | Teia (died 552 or 553 AD), also known as Teja, Theia, Thila, Thela, and Teias, was the last Ostrogothic King of Italy. He led troops during the Battle of Busta Gallorum and had noncombatant Romans slaughtered in its aftermath. In late 552/early 553, he was killed during the Battle of Mons Lactarius. Archaeological records attesting to his rule show up in coinage found in former Transalpine Gaul.
Life
Teia (Teja) was a military officer serving under Totila, who was chosen as his successor and raised over a shield after Totila was killed in the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) in July 552. After this major Gothic defeat Teia gathered together the remaining Goths. In an act of revenge for the losses at Busta Gallorum, Teia ordered the death of all the Roman senators in Campania including Flavius Maximus, who had been exiled by Belisarius. He also had some 300 Roman children slaughtered, whom Totila had held hostage. Teia then made his way to Pavia, where he took possession of the available treasures and as the new king, made a pact with the Franks.
On his way fleeing to southern Italy, he gathered support from prominent figures within Totila's armies, including Scipuar, Gundulf (Indulf), Gibal and Ragnaris, to make his last stand against the Byzantine eunuch general Narses at the Battle of Mons Lactarius—south of present-day Naples near Nuceria Alfaterna—in late 552/early 553. Historian Guy Halsall called this battle, which occurred in the shadow of Mount Vesuvius, a "cataclysmic showdown." The Ostrogothic army was defeated there and Teia fell during the fighting. His head was paraded around the battlefield by the Romans, but as Peter Heather relates, "the Goths kept on fighting until dusk on that day and all through the next." Other prominent Goths like Scipuar and Gibal were probably also killed during the fighting. Those Goths who survived the battle and remained, negotiated an armistice. Gundulf and Ragnaris escaped from the field; the latter was later mortally wounded after a failed assassination attempt by an agent of Narses. With that defeat, organized Ostrogothic resistance ended. By 554, the Ostrogothic Kingdom had faded into obscurity, and the Gothic people who remained began assimilating into the broader Italian population.
Although his reign was brief, silver coins in his name circulated all the way from his capital at Pavia along the Alpine trade routes into Gaul.
References
Bibliography
550s deaths
Ostrogothic kings
6th-century kings of Italy
6th-century monarchs in Europe
Gothic warriors
People of the Gothic War (535–554)
Year of birth unknown
6th-century Ostrogothic people
Monarchs killed in action | [
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220053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzzard | Buzzard | Buzzard is the common name of several species of birds of prey.
Buteo species
Archer's buzzard (Buteo archeri)
Augur buzzard (Buteo augur)
Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus)
Common buzzard (Buteo buteo)
Eastern buzzard (Buteo japonicus)
Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis)
Forest buzzard (Buteo trizonatus)
Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis)
Grey hawk (Buteo plagiatus)
Grey-lined hawk (Buteo nitidus)
Hawaiian hawk (Buteo solitarius)
Jackal buzzard (Buteo rufofuscus)
Long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus)
Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus)
Mountain buzzard (Buteo oreophilus)
Puna hawk (Buteo poecilochrous)
Red-backed hawk (Buteo polyosoma)
Red-necked buzzard (Buteo auguralis)
Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus)
Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)
Ridgway's hawk (Buteo ridgwayi)
Roadside hawk (Buteo magnirostris)
Rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus)
Rufous-tailed hawk (Buteo ventralis)
Short-tailed hawk (Buteo brachyurus)
Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni)
Upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius)
White-rumped hawk (Buteo leucorrhous)
White-tailed hawk (Buteo albicaudatus)
White-throated hawk (Buteo albigula)
Zone-tailed hawk (Buteo albonotatus)
Other species
Black-breasted buzzard (Hamirostra melanosternon)
Black-chested buzzard-eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus)
Grasshopper buzzard (Butastur rufipennis)
Grey-faced buzzard (Butastur indicus)
Honey-buzzards, genus Pernis and Henicopernis, superficially resembling Buteo buzzards are specialist feeders on wasp nests and larvae
Barred honey buzzard (Pernis celebensis)
Black honey buzzard (Henicopernis infuscatus)
Crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus)
European honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus)
Long-tailed honey buzzard (Henicopernis longicauda)
Lizard buzzard (Kaupifalco monogrammicus)
Rufous-winged buzzard (Butastur liventer)
White-eyed buzzard (Butastur teesa)
In parts of the US, the turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) is colloquially called a "buzzard".
Bird common names
Birds of prey
Falconry
Vultures | [
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220056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties%20of%20Norway | Counties of Norway | Norway is divided into 11 administrative regions, called counties (singular , plural ; from Old Norse: fylki from the word "folk", , , , ) which until 1918 were known as amter. The counties form the first-level administrative divisions of Norway and are further subdivided into 356 municipalities (kommune, pl. kommuner / kommunar). The island territories of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are outside the county division and ruled directly at the national level. The capital Oslo is considered both a county and a municipality.
In 2017 the government decided to abolish some of the counties and to merge them with other counties to form larger ones, reducing the number of counties from 19 to 11, which was implemented on 1 January 2020. However, two of the newly merged counties (Viken and Troms og Finnmark) have seen popular opposition before, during, or after the mergers, and have stated their desire to split up again, with one (Vestfold og Telemark) seeing opposition in the area of one of the two former counties constituting it. Some opposition parties have stated their willingness to undo any of the aforementioned mergers if they win a majority in the next general election if the residents of the area so choose.
List of counties
Below is a list of the Norwegian counties, with their current administrative centres. Note that the counties are administered both by appointees of the national government and to a lesser extent by their own elected bodies. The county numbers are from the official numbering system ISO 3166-2:NO, which originally was set up to follow the coastline from the Swedish border in the southeast to the Russian border in the northeast, but with the numbering has changed with county mergers.
The island territories of Svalbard and Jan Mayen lie outside of the county system of Norway. Svalbard is administered by the Governor of Svalbard, and Jan Mayen is administered by the County Governor of Nordland (but not part of Nordland).
Responsibilities and significance
Every county has two main organisations, both with underlying organisations.
The county municipality (no: Fylkeskommune) has a county council (Norwegian: Fylkesting), whose members are elected by the inhabitants. The county municipality is responsible mainly for some medium level schools, public transport organisation, regional road planning, culture and some more areas.
The county governor (no: Fylkesmannen) is an authority directly overseen by the Norwegian government. It surveills the municipalities and receives complaints from people over their actions. It also controls areas where the government needs local direct ruling outside the municipalities.
History
Fylke (1st period)
From the consolidation to a single kingdom, Norway was divided into a number of geographic regions that had its own legislative assembly or Thing, such as Gulating (Western Norway) and Frostating (Trøndelag). The second-order subdivision of these regions was into fylker, such as Egdafylke and Hordafylke. In 1914, the historical term fylke was brought into use again to replace the term amt introduced during the union with Denmark. Current day counties (fylker) often, but not necessarily, correspond to the historical areas.
Fylke in the 10th-13th centuries
Counties (folkland) under the Borgarting, located in Viken with the seat at Sarpsborg:
Rånrike
Vingulmark
Vestfold
Grenland
Counties (first three fylke, last two bilandskap) under the Eidsivating, located in Oplandene with the seat at Eidsvoll:
Raumafylke (Glåmdalen, Romerike, Solør)
Heinafylke (Gjøvik, Hedmarken)
Hadafylke (Hadeland, Land, Toten)
Gudbrandsdal
Østerdal
Counties under the Gulating, located in Vestlandet with the seat at Gulen:
Sunnmærafylke
Firdafylke (Nordfjord, Sunnfjord)
Sygnafylke
Valdres and Hallingdal
Hordafylke
Rygjafylke
Setesdal
Egdafylke
Counties under the Frostating, located in Trøndelag with the seat at Frosta:
Eynafylke
Sparbyggjafylke
Verdælafylke
Skeynafylke
Orkdælafylke
Gauldælafylke
Stjordælafylke
Strindafylke
Naumdælafylke
Nordmærafylke
Romsdælafylke
Counties not attached to a thing:
Jamtaland
Herjedalen
Håløygjafylke
Helgeland
Salten
Lofoten and Vesterålen
Trondenes
Finnmark (including northern Troms), the Faroe Islands, the Orkney Islands, Shetland, the Hebrides, Isle of Man, Iceland and Greenland were Norwegian skattland ("taxed countries"), and did not belong to any known counties or assembly areas.
Syssel
Syssel in 1300
From the end of the 12th century, Norway was divided into several syssel. The head of the various syssel was the syslemann, who represented the king locally. The following shows a reconstruction of the different syssel in Norway c. 1300, including sub-syssel where these seem established.
Elvesysle
Rånrike
Borgarsysle (two parts)
Romerike (two parts, "northern" and "southern")
Hedmark (two parts, "northern" and "southern")
Østerdalen
"north of Åmot"
"south of Åmot"
Gudbrandsdalen
"north of Ruste"
"south of Ruste"
Hadeland (later Ringerike, two parts, "northern" and "outer")
Valdres and Hallingdal (two parts)
Numedal and Telemark?
Tverrdalane and Modum?
Oslosysle (northern lut and western lut)
Tønsbergsysle
Skiensysle
Eastern part (later Nedenes)
Robyggjelag
Agder Midtsysla
Lista
Rygjafylke
"north of the fjord"
"south of the fjord"
Hordaland (Nordhordland? and Sunnhordland?)
Hardanger
Voss
Sogn (two parts?)
Sunnfjord
Nordfjord
Sunnmøre
Romsdal
Nordmøre?
Nordmørafylke
Orkdal
Gauldal
Strinda
Herjedalen
Jemtland
Stjørdal
Skogn
Verdal
Sparbu
Eynafylke
Northern part? (later Fosen)
Namdalen
"upper half" (Overhalla)
"lower half (later Njardøy)
Hålogaland (two parts)
Troms?
Finnmark?
Len
From 1308, the term len (plural len) in Norway signified an administrative region roughly equivalent to today's counties. The historic len was an important administrative entity during the period of Dano-Norwegian unification after their amalgamation as one state, which lasted for the period 1536–1814.
At the beginning of the 16th century the political divisions were variable, but consistently included four main len and approximately 30 smaller sub-regions with varying connections to a main len. Up to 1660 the four principal len were headquartered at the major fortresses Bohus Fortress, Akershus Fortress, Bergenhus Fortress and the fortified city of Trondheim. The sub-regions corresponded to the church districts for the Lutheran church in Norway.
Len in 1536
Båhus len (later termed Bohuslän after Denmark-Norway ceded it to Sweden by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658)
Akershus len
Trondheim len
Bergenhus len (which included Northern Norway)
These four principal len were in the 1530s divided into approximately 30 smaller regions. From that point forward through the beginning of the 17th century the number of subsidiary len was reduced, while the composition of the principal len became more stable.
Len in 1660
From 1660 Norway had nine principal len comprising 17 subsidiary len:
Bergenhus len
Len written as län continues to be used as the administrative equivalent of county in Sweden to this day. Each len was governed by a lenman.
Amt
With the royal decree of February 19, 1662, each len was designated an amt (plural amt) and the lenmann was titled amtmann, from German Amt (office), reflecting the bias of the Danish court of that period.
Amt in 1671
After 1671 Norway was divided into four principal amt or stiftsamt and there were nine subordinate amt:
Akershus amt
Smålenene amt
Brunla amt
Agdesiden amt
Bratsberg amt
Stavanger amt
Bergenhus amt
Halsnøy klostergods
Hardanger amt
Nordlandene amt
Trondheim amt
Romsdalen amt
Vardøhus amt
Amt in 1730
From 1730 Norway had the following amt:
Vardøhus amt
Tromsø amt
Nordlands amt
Nordre Trondhjems amt
Søndre Trondhjems amt
Romsdalen amt
Nordre Bergenhus amt
Søndre Bergenhus amt
Stavanger amt
Lister og Mandals amt
Nedenes amt
Bratsberg amt
Buskerud amt
Oplandenes amt
Hedemarkens amt
Akershus amt
Smaalenenes amt
At this time there were also two counties (grevskap) controlled by actual counts, together forming what is now Vestfold county:
Laurvigen county
Jarlsberg county
Amt in 1760
In 1760 Norway had the following stiftamt and amt:
Akershus stiftamt
Opplands amt
Akershus amt
Smålenenes amt
Laurvigen county
Jarlsberg county
Bratsberg amt (eastern half)
Agdesiden stiftamt
Bratsberg amt (western half)
Nedenes amt
Lister and Mandal amt
Stavanger amt
Bergenhus stiftamt
Romsdal amt (southern half)
Trondheim stiftamt
Romsdal amt (northern half)
Nordlands amt
Vardøhus amt
Fylke (2nd period)
From 1919 each amt was renamed a fylke (plural fylke(r)) (county) and the amtmann was now titled fylkesmann (county governor).
Østfold fylke
Akershus fylke
Oslo fylke
Hedmark fylke
Oppland fylke
Buskerud fylke
Vestfold fylke
Telemark fylke
Aust-Agder fylke
Vest-Agder fylke
Rogaland fylke
Bergen fylke, merged into Hordaland fylke in 1972
Hordaland fylke
Sogn og Fjordane fylke
Møre og Romsdal fylke
Sør-Trøndelag fylke, merged into Trøndelag fylke in 2018
Nord-Trøndelag fylke, merged into Trøndelag fylke in 2018
Trøndelag fylke, created in 2018
Nordland fylke
Troms fylke
Finnmark fylke
The county numbers are from the official numbering system ISO 3166-2:NO, which originally was set up to follow the coastline from the Swedish border in the southeast to the Russian border in the northeast, but with the numbering has changed with county mergers. The number 13, 16 and 17 were dropped, and the number 50 was added to account for changes over the years. The lack of a county number 13 is due to the city of Bergen no longer being its own county, and is unrelated to fear of the number 13.
In 2018, Sør-Trøndelag was merged with Nord-Trøndelag into the new county of Trøndelag, and several followed.
Fylke (3rd period)
In 2017 the Norwegian government announced the merge of the existing 19 fylker into 11 new fylker by 2020. As a result, several government tasks will be transferred to the new regions.
New fylker
Troms og Finnmark, by merging Finnmark and Troms counties in 2020
Nordland, no change, same as Nordland county
Trøndelag, no change, same as Trøndelag county
Møre og Romsdal, no change, same as Møre og Romsdal county
Vestland, by merging Hordaland and Sogn og Fjordane counties in 2020
Rogaland, no change, same as Rogaland county
Agder, by merging Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder counties in 2020
Vestfold og Telemark, by merging Vestfold and Telemark counties in 2020
Innlandet, by merging Hedmark and Oppland counties in 2020
Viken, by merging Akershus, Buskerud, and Østfold counties in 2020
Oslo, no change, same as Oslo county
See also
Municipalities of Norway
Regions of Norway
Traditional districts of Norway
Metropolitan regions of Norway
Subdivisions of the Nordic countries
Lists of County Governors of Norway
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Subdivisions of Norway
Counties
Norway 1
Counties, Norway
Norway geography-related lists
21st-century disestablishments in Norway | [
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] |
220057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association%20Litt%C3%A9raire%20et%20Artistique%20Internationale | Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale | The Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale (ALAI) was founded in 1878 in Paris. Victor Hugo was the honorary president and founder of the association. The group gave itself the objective of creating an international convention for the protection of writers' and artists' rights, which was achieved eight years later with the Berne Convention on September 9, 1886. It continues to exist today and it is considered one of the premier international organizations that continues to suggest law reform in connection with the movement for international copyright law.
History
V. On the history of ALAI and its role in the advent of international and national copyright including its role in Egypt : Yasser Omar Amine, La mémoire oubliée de l’histoire du droit d’auteur égyptien : Les juristes M. Linant de Bellefonds, M. Pupikofer et E. Piola Caselli (The Forgotten Memory of the History of the Egyptian Copyright Law : the jurist M. Linant de Bellefonds, M. Pupikofer and E. Piola Caselli), éd. Dar El Nahda El Arabia, Le Caire, 2014–2015, 602 p. (en Arabe et une partie en Français).
On the contribution of ALAI members to the protection of motion pictures and the definition of film authorship by the Berne convention and French copyright law : Jérôme Pacouret, Qu'est-ce qu'un auteur de cinéma ? Copyright, droit d'auteur et division du travail (années 1900-2010), PhD. dissertation in sociology, under the supervision of Gisèle Sapiro, EHESS, Paris, 2018, 774 p. (read online)
References
External links
Official ALAI website
Official website of ALAI Czech Republic
French writers' organizations
Copyright law organizations
Arts organizations established in 1878
Organizations based in Paris | [
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] |
220065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20international%20public%20law%20articles | Index of international public law articles | List of international public law topics:
This is a comprehensive list of pages dealing with public international law, i.e. those areas of law dealing with the United Nations System and the Law of Nations. It is being started as a sublist as it is a specialized area of law that often does not interact with general legal topics. There is also a separate List of treaties.
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
Convention on Biological Diversity
Convention on the Rights of the Child
Crime against international law
Declaration of war
Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection
EU Copyright Directive
European Union law
European Company Statute
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Geneva Conventions
History of public international law
Human Rights Committee
International copyright
International Court of Justice
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
International Criminal Court
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
International human rights law
International humanitarian law
International judicial institutions
International Prize Court
International trade law
Laws of war
List of treaties
Madrid Agreement
Notable UN General Assembly Resolutions
Permanent Court of Arbitration
Refugees
Treaty of Maastricht
UN Economic and Social Council
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
United Nations System
Universal Copyright Convention
WIPO Copyright Treaty
WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty
World Health Organization
World Intellectual Property Organization
World Trade Organization
Law-related lists
International public law topics | [
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220066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia%20Galactica | Encyclopedia Galactica | The Encyclopedia Galactica is a fictional or hypothetical encyclopedia containing all the knowledge accumulated by a galaxy-spanning (Type III in Kardashev scale) civilization. The name evokes the exhaustive aspects of the real-life Encyclopædia Britannica.
Asimov's Encyclopedia Galactica
Encyclopedia Galactica first appeared in Isaac Asimov's short story "Foundation" (Astounding Science Fiction, May 1942), later republished as "The Encyclopedists" in the short-story collection Foundation (1951). Asimov's Encyclopedia Galactica was a compendium of all knowledge then available in the Galactic Empire, intended to preserve that knowledge in a remote region of the galaxy in the event of a foreseen galactic catastrophe. The Encyclopedia is later revealed to be an element in an act of misdirection, with its real purpose being to concentrate a group of knowledgeable scientists on a remote, resource-poor planet named Terminus, with the long-term aim of revitalizing the technologically stagnant and scientifically dormant empire. Originally published in a physical medium, it later becomes computerized and subject to continual change.
Asimov used the Encyclopedia Galactica as a literary device throughout his Foundation series, beginning many of the book sections or chapters with a short extract from the Encyclopedia discussing a key character or event in the story. This provides the reader with a hazy idea of what is to come.
The first citation, in the chronological order is present in Prelude to Foundation. It is about Emperor Cleon, First of the Name, and last of the Entun Dynasty.
Theodore Wein considers the Encyclopedia Galactica as possibly inspired by a reference in H. G. Wells's The Shape of Things to Come (1933). The future world envisioned by Wells includes an "Encyclopaedic organization which centres upon Barcelona, with seventeen million active workers" and which is tasked with creating "the Fundamental Knowledge System which accumulates, sorts, keeps in order and renders available everything that is known". As pointed out by Wein, this Wells book was at its best-known and most influential in the late 1930s – coinciding with "the period of incubation" when the young Asimov became interested in science fiction, reading a lot of it and starting to formulate his own ideas.
Later instances in fiction
Various authors have invoked the Encyclopædia Galactica in both science and science fiction. The first may have been author Frank Holby's short story "The Strange Case of the Missing Hero" in the July 1942 issue of Astounding Science Fiction which featured Sebastian Lelong, editor of the Encyclopedia. It was also a common fixture in previous incarnations of the Legion of Super-Heroes comic books, and has appeared in the Star Wars expanded universe and Superman comics set in the future. The "Encyclopedia Galactica" was also mentioned as being a collection of all the knowledge of a galactic Empire in the science fiction short story called "The Originist", which was written by American novelist Orson Scott Card in 1989, and took place in Isaac Asimov's fictional "Foundation" Universe.
In the comic science fiction series by Douglas Adams, the Galactica is frequently contrasted with the apparently more popular Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy:
Robert A. Heinlein mentioned the Encyclopedia in chapter three of To Sail Beyond the Sunset (1987): "... the computer that led the Lunar Revolution on time line three, code 'Neil Armstrong.' Let's skip the details; it's all in Encyclopedia Galacta (sic) and other books."
In Arthur C. Clarke's and Gentry Lee's novel Rama II (1989), Nicole des Jardins says to Richard Wakefield, "Just think, the sum of everything all human beings know or have ever known might be nothing more than an infinitesimal fraction of the Encyclopedia Galactica."
"Encyclopedia Galactica" is mentioned by Charlie Sheen's character in The Arrival (1996), and by Jodie Foster's character in Contact (1997).
Other uses
There was a series of five video documentaries in 1993, collectively called Encyclopædia Galactica, with the episode titles “The Inner Solar System”, “The Outer Solar System”, “Star Trekking”, “Discovery”, and “Astronomy and the Stars”. The videos were produced by York Films of England and distributed by Encyclopædia Britannica (Australia). Other entities associated with the production of the video series were Encyclopædia Britannica Educational Corporation, The Learning Channel, The Discovery Channel Europe, S4C Wales, System TV France and Yleisradio Finland.
There was an Encyclopedia Galactica: from the Fleet Library aboard the Battlestar Galactica published in 1978. Aimed at a juvenile audience, this was a tie in to the Battlestar Galactica television series being broadcast at the time.
In reality
The term has been used in non-fictional contexts as well. One example is its use by Carl Sagan (1934–1996) in his 1980 book Cosmos, and his documentary video series of the same name, to refer to a text where hypothetical extraterrestrial civilizations could store all of their information and knowledge.
See also
Interplanetary Internet
Future history
False document
Library of Trantor
Web archiving
Recorded history
References
External links
Encyclopedia Galactica - A Guide to Asimov's Foundation Universe ()
Encyclopaedia Galactica - a guide to the Orion's Arm Universe
Foundation universe
Galactica, Encyclopaedia
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Science fiction themes
Fictional elements introduced in 1942
Interstellar communication | [
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220067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20streams | Standard streams | In computer programming, standard streams are interconnected input and output communication channels between a computer program and its environment when it begins execution. The three input/output (I/O) connections are called standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr). Originally I/O happened via a physically connected system console (input via keyboard, output via monitor), but standard streams abstract this. When a command is executed via an interactive shell, the streams are typically connected to the text terminal on which the shell is running, but can be changed with redirection or a pipeline. More generally, a child process inherits the standard streams of its parent process.
Application
Users generally know standard streams as input and output channels that handle data coming from an input device, or that write data from the application. The data may be text with any encoding, or binary data.
In many modern systems, the standard error stream of a program is redirected into a log file, typically for error analysis purposes.
Streams may be used to chain applications, meaning that the output stream of one program can be redirected to be the input stream to another application. In many operating systems this is expressed by listing the application names, separated by the vertical bar character, for this reason often called the pipeline character. A well-known example is the use of a pagination application, such as more, providing the user control over the display of the output stream on the display.
Background
In most operating systems predating Unix, programs had to explicitly connect to the appropriate input and output devices. OS-specific intricacies caused this to be a tedious programming task. On many systems it was necessary to obtain control of environment settings, access a local file table, determine the intended data set, and handle hardware correctly in the case of a punch card reader, magnetic tape drive, disk drive, line printer, card punch, or interactive terminal.
One of Unix's several groundbreaking advances was abstract devices, which removed the need for a program to know or care what kind of devices it was communicating with. Older operating systems forced upon the programmer a record structure and frequently non-orthogonal data semantics and device control. Unix eliminated this complexity with the concept of a data stream: an ordered sequence of data bytes which can be read until the end of file. A program may also write bytes as desired and need not, and cannot easily declare their count or grouping.
Another Unix breakthrough was to automatically associate input and output to terminal keyboard and terminal display, respectively, by default — the program (and programmer) did absolutely nothing to establish input and output for a typical input-process-output program (unless it chose a different paradigm). In contrast, previous operating systems usually required some—often complex—job control language to establish connections, or the equivalent burden had to be orchestrated by the program.
Since Unix provided standard streams, the Unix C runtime environment was obliged to support it as well. As a result, most C runtime environments (and C's descendants), regardless of the operating system, provide equivalent functionality.
Standard input (stdin)
Standard input is a stream from which a program reads its input data. The program requests data transfers by use of the read operation. Not all programs require stream input. For example, the dir and ls programs (which display file names contained in a directory) may take command-line arguments, but perform their operations without any stream data input.
Unless redirected, standard input is inherited from the parent process. In the case of an interactive shell, that is usually associated with the keyboard.
The file descriptor for standard input is 0 (zero); the POSIX <unistd.h> definition is STDIN_FILENO; the corresponding C <stdio.h> variable is FILE* stdin; similarly, the C++ <iostream> variable is std::cin.
Standard output (stdout)
Standard output is a stream to which a program writes its output data. The program requests data transfer with the write operation. Not all programs generate output. For example, the file rename command (variously called mv, move, or ren) is silent on success.
Unless redirected, standard output is inherited from the parent process. In the case of an interactive shell, that is usually the text terminal which initiated the program.
The file descriptor for standard output is 1 (one); the POSIX <unistd.h> definition is STDOUT_FILENO; the corresponding C <stdio.h> variable is FILE* stdout; similarly, the C++ <iostream> variable is std::cout.
Standard error (stderr)
Standard error is another output stream typically used by programs to output error messages or diagnostics. It is a stream independent of standard output and can be redirected separately. This solves the semi-predicate problem, allowing output and errors to be distinguished, and is analogous to a function returning a pair of values – see Semi-predicate problem: Multi valued return. The usual destination is the text terminal which started the program to provide the best chance of being seen even if standard output is redirected (so not readily observed). For example, output of a program in a pipeline is redirected to input of the next program, but errors from each program still go directly to the text terminal.
It is acceptable and normal to direct standard output and standard error to the same destination, such as the text terminal. Messages appear in the same order as the program writes them, unless buffering is involved. For example, in common situations the standard error stream is unbuffered but the standard output stream is line-buffered; in this case, text written to standard error later may appear on the terminal earlier, if the standard output stream buffer is not yet full.
The file descriptor for standard error is defined by POSIX as 2 (two); the <unistd.h> header file provides the symbol STDERR_FILENO; the corresponding C <stdio.h> variable is FILE* stderr. The C++ <iostream> standard header provides two variables associated with this stream: std::cerr and std::clog, the former being unbuffered and the latter using the same buffering mechanism as all other C++ streams.
Bourne-style shells allow standard error to be redirected to the same destination that standard output is directed to using
2>&1
csh-style shells allow standard error to be redirected to the same destination that standard output is directed to using
>&
Standard error was added to Unix in the 1970s after several wasted phototypesetting runs ended with error messages being typeset instead of displayed on the user's terminal.
Timeline
1950s: Fortran
Fortran has the equivalent of Unix file descriptors: By convention, many Fortran implementations use unit numbers UNIT=5 for stdin, UNIT=6 for stdout and UNIT=0 for stderr. In Fortran-2003, the intrinsic ISO_FORTRAN_ENV module was standardized to include the named constants INPUT_UNIT, OUTPUT_UNIT, and ERROR_UNIT to portably specify the unit numbers.
! FORTRAN 77 example
PROGRAM MAIN
INTEGER NUMBER
READ(UNIT=5,*) NUMBER
WRITE(UNIT=6,'(A,I3)') ' NUMBER IS: ',NUMBER
END
! Fortran 2003 example
program main
use iso_fortran_env
implicit none
integer :: number
read (unit=INPUT_UNIT,*) number
write (unit=OUTPUT_UNIT,'(a,i3)') 'Number is: ', number
end program
1960: ALGOL 60
ALGOL 60 was criticized for having no standard file access.
1968: ALGOL 68
ALGOL 68's input and output facilities were collectively referred to as the transput. Koster coordinated the definition of the transput standard. The model included three standard channels: stand in, stand out, and stand back.
1970s: C and Unix
In the C programming language, the standard input, output, and error streams are attached to the existing Unix file descriptors 0, 1 and 2 respectively. In a POSIX environment the <unistd.h> definitions STDIN_FILENO, STDOUT_FILENO or STDERR_FILENO should be used instead rather than magic numbers. File pointers stdin, stdout, and stderr are also provided.
Ken Thompson (designer and implementer of the original Unix operating system) modified sort in Version 5 Unix to accept "-" as representing standard input, which spread to other utilities and became a part of the operating system as a special file in Version 8. Diagnostics were part of standard output through Version 6, after which Dennis M. Ritchie created the concept of standard error.
1995: Java
In Java, the standard streams are referred to by (for stdin), (for stdout), and (for stderr).
public static void main(String args[]) {
try {
BufferedReader br =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
String s = br.readLine();
double number = Double.parseDouble(s);
System.out.println("Number is:" + number);
} catch (Exception e) {
System.err.println("Error:" + e.getMessage());
}
}
2000s: .NET
In C# and other .NET languages, the standard streams are referred to by System.Console.In (for stdin), System.Console.Out (for stdout) and System.Console.Error (for stderr). Basic read and write capabilities for the stdin and stdout streams are also accessible directly through the class System.Console (e.g. System.Console.WriteLine() can be used instead of System.Console.Out.WriteLine()).
System.Console.In, System.Console.Out and System.Console.Error are System.IO.TextReader (stdin) and System.IO.TextWriter (stdout, stderr) objects, which only allow access to the underlying standard streams on a text basis. Full binary access to the standard streams must be performed through the System.IO.Stream objects returned by System.Console.OpenStandardInput(), System.Console.OpenStandardOutput() and System.Console.OpenStandardError() respectively.
// C# example
public static int Main(string[] args)
{
try {
string s = System.Console.In.ReadLine();
double number = double.Parse(s);
System.Console.Out.WriteLine("Number is: {0:F3}", number);
return 0;
// If Parse() threw an exception
} catch (ArgumentNullException) {
System.Console.Error.WriteLine("No number was entered!");
} catch (FormatException) {
System.Console.Error.WriteLine("The specified value is not a valid number!");
} catch (OverflowException) {
System.Console.Error.WriteLine("The specified number is too big!");
}
return -1;
}
' Visual Basic .NET example
Public Function Main() As Integer
Try
Dim s As String = System.Console.[In].ReadLine()
Dim number As Double = Double.Parse(s)
System.Console.Out.WriteLine("Number is: {0:F3}", number)
Return 0
' If Parse() threw an exception
Catch ex As System.ArgumentNullException
System.Console.[Error].WriteLine("No number was entered!")
Catch ex2 As System.FormatException
System.Console.[Error].WriteLine("The specified value is not a valid number!")
Catch ex3 As System.OverflowException
System.Console.[Error].WriteLine("The specified number is too big!")
End Try
Return -1
End Function
When applying the System.Diagnostics.Process class one can use the instance properties StandardInput, StandardOutput, and StandardError of that class to access the standard streams of the process.
2000 - : Python (2 or 3)
The following example shows how to redirect the standard input both to the standard output
and to a text file.
#!/usr/bin/env python
import sys
# Save the current stdout so that we can revert sys.stdout
# after we complete our redirection
stdin_fileno = sys.stdin
stdout_fileno = sys.stdout
# Redirect sys.stdout to the file
sys.stdout = open('myfile.txt', 'w')
ctr = 0
for inps in stdin_fileno:
ctrs = str(ctr)
# Prints to the redirected stdout ()
sys.stdout.write(ctrs + ") this is to the redirected --->" + inps + '\n')
# Prints to the actual saved stdout handler
stdout_fileno.write(ctrs + ") this is to the actual --->" + inps + '\n')
ctr = ctr + 1
# Close the file
sys.stdout.close()
# Restore sys.stdout to our old saved file handler
sys.stdout = stdout_fileno
GUIs
Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) don't always make use of the standard streams; they do when GUIs are wrappers of underlying scripts and/or console programs, for instance the Synaptic package manager GUI, which wraps apt commands in Debian and/or Ubuntu. GUIs created with scripting tools like Zenity and KDialog by KDE project make use of stdin, stdout, and stderr, and are based on simple scripts rather than a complete GUI programmed and compiled in C/C++ using Qt, GTK, or other equivalent proprietary widget framework.
The Services menu, as implemented on NeXTSTEP and Mac OS X, is also analogous to standard streams. On these operating systems, graphical applications can provide functionality through a system-wide menu that operates on the current selection in the GUI, no matter in what application.
Some GUI programs, primarily on Unix, still write debug information to standard error. Others (such as many Unix media players) may read files from standard input. Popular Windows programs that open a separate console window in addition to their GUI windows are the emulators pSX and DOSBox.
GTK-server can use stdin as a communication interface with an interpreted program to realize a GUI.
The Common Lisp Interface Manager paradigm "presents" GUI elements sent to an extended output stream.
See also
Redirection (computing)
Stream (computing)
Input/output
C file input/output
SYSIN and SYSOUT
Standard streams in OpenVMS
References
Sources
"Standard Streams", The GNU C Library
KRONOS 2.1 Reference Manual, Control Data Corporation, Part Number 60407000, 1974
NOS Version 1 Applications Programmer's Instant, Control Data Corporation, Part Number 60436000, 1978
Level 68 Introduction to Programming on MULTICS, Honeywell Corporation, 1981
Evolution of the MVS Operating System, IBM Corporation, 1981
Lions' Commentary on UNIX Sixth Edition, John Lions, , 1977
Console Class, .NET Framework Class Library, Microsoft Corporation, 2008
External links
Standard Input Definition - by The Linux Information Project
Standard Output Definition - by The Linux Information Project
Standard Error Definition - by The Linux Information Project
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] |
220072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20standards%20articles | Index of standards articles | Articles related to standards include:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
W
Standards
Standards | [
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220075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.%20D.%20Birla | G. D. Birla | Ghanshyam Das Birla (10 April 1894 – 11 June 1983) was an Indian businessman and member of the Birla Family.
Birla family history
Ghanshyam Das Birla was born on 10 April 1894 at Pilani town in Jhunjhunu district, in the Indian state then known as Rajputana, as a member of the Maheshwari Marwari community. His father was Raja Baldevdas Birla. In 1884 A.D. Baldeo Das Birla went to Bombay in search of new avenues of trade. He established his firm Shiv Narian Baldeo Das in Bombay in 1884 and Baldeo Das Jugal Kishore in 1897 in Calcutta. The firms started business in silver, cotton, grain and other commodities. He was succeeded by 4 sons, Jugal Kishore, Rameshwar Das, Ghanshyam Das and Braj Mohan. Ghanshyam Das was the most successful of the four brothers.
Business of Birla family
GD Birla inherited the family business and moved to further diversify them into other areas. Of these, at least three contemporary family business groups existing in India today can trace their ancestry to him. Of these businesses, he wanted to turn the moneylending business into manufacturing. So he left for Calcutta in Bengal Presidency, the world's largest jute producing region. There, he began "[i]ndependently as a jute broker". In 1918, he established Birla Jute Mills, much to the consternation of established European merchants, whom the biased policies of the British government favoured other than the local Bengali merchants. He had to scale a number of obstacles as the British and Scottish merchants tried to shut his business by unethical and monopolistic methods, but he was able to persevere. When World War I resulted in supply problems throughout the British Empire, Birla's business skyrocketed.
With an investment of 5 million in 1919, the Birla Brothers Limited was formed. A mill was set up in Gwalior in the same year.
In 1926, he was elected to the Central Legislative Assembly of British India. He became the founding president of Harijan Sevak Sangh founded by Mahatma Gandhi in Delhi in 1932 .
In the 1940s, he ventured into the territory of cars and established Hindustan Motors. After independence, Birla invested in tea and textiles through a series of acquisitions of erstwhile European companies. He also expanded and diversified into cement, chemicals, rayon and steel tubes. Ghanshyam Das Birla during the Quit India Movement of 1942, had conceived the idea of organising a commercial bank with Indian capital and management, and the United Commercial Bank Limited was incorporated to give shape to that idea. UCO Bank, formerly United Commercial Bank, established in 1943 in Kolkata, is one of the oldest and major commercial bank of India.
Philanthropy
Envisioning infrastructural development in his hometown, Birla founded the Birla Engineering College (rechristened as Birla Institute of Technology and Science in 1964) in Pilani and the Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences in Bhiwani among other educational institutions in 1943. Both colleges have evolved over the years to develop into one of India's best engineering schools. Now Pilani also houses Birla Public School, a famous residential public school named after Birla's family and a number of polytechnic colleges. The town of Pilani and the local population enjoy a highly symbiotic relationship with these institutions, thereby stepping towards realising Birla's dream. TIT&S also evolved as the Center of Excellence in Textile based education and training. Moreover, G.D. Birla Memorial School, Ranikhet, a premier residential school has also been established in his honour by his son B.K. Birla and is today one of the best residential schools in the country and The Birla School in Kalyan, India was founded by his efforts with the collaboration of Kalyan Citizens' Education Society (KCES).
In 1957, he was awarded India's second-highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan by the Government of India.
Ghanshyam Das Birla died in London on 11 June 1983 at the age of 89. There is a memorial to him in Golders Green Crematorium, Hoop Lane, London. It comprises a large statue overlooking the gardens with an inscription.
Relationship with Mahatma Gandhi
Birla was a close associate and a steady supporter of Mahatma Gandhi, whom he met for the first time in 1916. Gandhi stayed at Birla's home in New Delhi during the last four months of his life.
Legacy
G. D. Birla had remarried after the death of his first wife. He had three sons, Lakshmi Nivas (son of his first wife Durga Devi), Krishna Kumar and Basant Kumar, (both sons of his second wife Mahadevi Birla). Kumar Mangalam Birla is his great grandson. Lakshmi Nivas was technically adapted by his older brother Jugal Kishor.
Writings by Ghanshyam Das Birla
His writings are mainly collections of memoirs, letters, essays and lectures.
डायरी के कुछ पन्ने (Diary Ke Kuch Panne or Some pages of diary), 1940
रुपए की कहानी (Rupaye Ki Kahani or Story of Rupee), 1948
बापू (Bapu), 1941
कुछ देखा कुछ सुना (Kuch Dekha Kuch Suna or Saw Something Heard Something), 1966
जमनालाल बजाज (Jamnalal Bajaj)
ध्रुवोपाख्यान, 1960
रूप और स्वरूप : चार विचार-प्रेरक निबंध, 1960
Paths to Prosperity, 1950
In the Shadow of the Mahatma: a personal memoir (Calcutta, 1953)
Further reading
Jajni, R. N., G. D. Birla (New Delhi, 1985)
Ross, A., The Emissary: G. D. Birla, Gandhi and Independence (1986)
See also
Basant Kumar Birla, his son
Birla Family
Birla Vidya Mandir
G.D.Birla Centre For Education
G D Birla Memorial School
Birla Education Trust
Birla Senior Secondary School
Birla Public School
Birla Balika Vidyapeeth
Birla Shishu Vihar
References
External links
Rs 2.80 Billion BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus Foundation Laid
AP CM Readies BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus
Milestone for BITS Pilani Hyderabad
Chief Minister AP Lays the BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus Foundation
BITS Pilani Makes the Right Move at the Right Time
People who shaped India
In the Shadow of the Mahatma by Ghanshyam Das Birla
1894 births
1983 deaths
Rajasthani people
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in trade & industry
G.D.
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
Members of Central Legislative Assembly of India
Gandhians
Indian philanthropists
Businesspeople from Rajasthan
Businesspeople from Kolkata
Businesspeople from Delhi
People from Jhunjhunu district
Indian revolutionaries
Indian independence activists from Rajasthan | [
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220080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese%201061 | Gliese 1061 | Gliese 1061 is a red dwarf star located approximately from Earth in the southern constellation of Horologium. Even though it is a relatively nearby star, it has an apparent visual magnitude of about 13, so it can only be seen with at least a moderately-sized telescope.
The proper motion of Gliese 1061 has been known since 1974, but it was estimated to be further away: approximately distant based upon an estimated parallax of 0.130″. The RECONS accurately determined its distance in 1997. At that time, it was the 20th-nearest star system to the Sun. The discovery team noted that many more stars like this are likely to be discovered nearby.
This star is a tiny, dim, red dwarf, close to the lower mass limit. It has an estimated mass of about 11.3% of the Sun and is only about 0.2% as luminous. The star displays no significant infrared excess due to circumstellar dust.
Planetary system
On August 13, 2019, a planetary system was announced orbiting the star Gliese 1061 by the Red Dots project of detecting terrestrial planets around nearby red dwarf stars. The planet Gliese 1061 d orbits in the conservative circumstellar habitable zone of its star and the planet Gliese 1061 c orbits in the inner edge of the habitable zone. Gliese 1061 is a non-variable star that does not suffer flares, so there is a greater probability that the exoplanets still conserve their atmosphere if they had one.
Gliese 1061 c
Gliese 1061 c (also known as GJ 1061 c) is a potentially habitable exoplanet orbiting within the limits of the optimistic defined habitable zone of its red dwarf parent star.
Gliese 1061 c is 75% more massive than the Earth.
The planet receives 35% more stellar flux than Earth and has an equilibrium temperature of . The average temperature on the surface would be warmer, , provided the atmosphere is of similar composition to the Earth's.
Gliese 1061 c orbits its parent star very closely, every 6.7 days at a distance of just 0.035 au, so it is probably gravitationally locked and in synchronous rotation with its star.
Gliese 1061 d
Gliese 1061 d (also known as GJ 1061 d) is a potentially habitable exoplanet largely orbiting within the limits of the conservative defined habitable zone of its parent red dwarf star.
The exoplanet is 68% more massive than the Earth.
The planet receives about 40% less stellar flux than Earth and has an estimated equilibrium temperature of . The average temperature on the surface would be colder than Earth's and at around , provided the atmosphere is similar to that of Earth.
Gliese 1061 d orbits its star every 13 days, and due to its close-in semi-major axis, it is likely that the exoplanet is tidally locked. However, if the planet's orbit is confirmed to be highly eccentric then this eccentricity could be desynchronising it, enabling the existence of non-synchronised states of equilibrium in its rotation, relative to which side of the planet is facing the star, and thereby it will experience a day/night cycle.
See also
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
Research Consortium On Nearby Stars
Notes
References
External links
SolStation.com: GJ 1061
1061
Horologium (constellation)
Local Bubble
M-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with three confirmed planets
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220082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Bashir | Martin Bashir | Martin Henry Bashir (born 19 January 1963) is a British journalist. He was a presenter on British and American television and for the BBC's Panorama programme and gained an interview with Diana, Princess of Wales for the programme in 1995. Much heralded at the time, it was later determined that he used forgery and deception to gain the interview.
Bashir worked for the BBC from 1986 until 1999 on programmes including Panorama before joining ITV. He presented the 2003 ITV documentary about Michael Jackson. From 2004 to 2016, he worked in New York, first as an anchor for ABC's Nightline and then as a political commentator for MSNBC, hosting his own programme, Martin Bashir, and a correspondent for NBC's Dateline NBC. He resigned from his position at MSNBC in December 2013 after making "ill-judged" comments about the former Governor of Alaska and Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin. In 2016, he returned to the BBC as religious affairs correspondent.
In 2020, the BBC's director general Tim Davie apologised to the brother of the princess, Earl Spencer, for Bashir's use of faked bank statements to secure his 1995 Panorama interview with the Princess of Wales, Spencer's sister. Former Justice of the Supreme Court Lord Dyson conducted an independent inquiry into the issue. Lord Dyson's inquiry concluded Bashir had commissioned fake statements to deceive Earl Spencer in order to gain access to Diana and in so doing had "acted inappropriately and in serious breach of the 1993 edition of the Producers’ Guidelines on straight dealing." Bashir resigned from the BBC in May 2021, citing health reasons.
Early life and education
Bashir was born and raised in Wandsworth, London, to liberal Muslim parents from Pakistan. His father had served in the Royal Navy during World War II. Bashir was educated at the boys' state comprehensive Wandsworth School, King Alfred's College of Higher Education, Winchester, studying English and History from 1982–1985 (at the time degrees at King Alfred's were approved by the Council for National Academic Awards), and at King's College London, where he completed a master's degree in theology.
Bashir was one of five children, one of whom suffered from muscular dystrophy and died in 1991. Bashir dedicated his decisions in life to his late brother, including his appearance on The X Factor: Celebrity. Bashir said in 2019, "Every time I have faced a challenge I have heard him whispering saying, 'What excuse do you have? You have no excuse.'"
Career
BBC and ITV
Bashir worked as a freelance sports journalist before joining the BBC in 1986. He worked for the BBC until 1999, on programmes including Songs of Praise, Public Eye and Panorama. For Panorama, Bashir interviewed Diana, Princess of Wales in a 1995 edition.
In 1999, he joined ITV, working on special documentary programmes and features for Tonight with Trevor McDonald.
ABC and NBC
In 2004 Bashir moved to New York, where he worked for ABC, co-anchoring their current affairs show Nightline; along with Cynthia McFadden and Terry Moran, he took over Nightline from Ted Koppel in 2005.
In 2008, while working as a reporter for Nightline, Bashir was suspended from ABC News after making remarks described as "crude and sexist" during a dinner speech at the Asian American Journalists Association convention in Chicago. During the speech, he stated, "I'm happy to be in the midst of so many Asian babes. I'm happy that the podium covers me from the waist down." He continued and said that a speech should be "like a dress on a beautiful woman – long enough to cover the important parts and short enough to keep your interest – like my colleague Juju's", referring to his ABC News colleague Juju Chang, a reporter for 20/20. ABC News suspended him. He wrote an apology to the journalists association which stated, "Upon reflection, it was a tasteless remark that I now bitterly regret. I … hope that the continuing work of the organization will not be harmed or undermined by my moment of stupidity."
In August 2010, Bashir left ABC for MSNBC, where he served as a political commentator and occasional substitute host for Lawrence O'Donnell, hosted his own programme, Martin Bashir, and was a correspondent for NBC's Dateline NBC.
On 15 November 2013, Bashir criticised Sarah Palin for comments that she made comparing the Federal debt to slavery. Bashir attempted to counter Palin's comparison by referencing the punishment of slaves described by slave overseer Thomas Thistlewood, specifically a punishment called "Derby's dose", which involved forcing slaves to defecate or urinate into the mouth of another slave as punishment, and concluded by saying "if anyone truly qualified for a dose of discipline from Thomas Thistlewood, she would be the outstanding candidate". On 18 November he apologised, stating among other things: "My words were wholly unacceptable. They were neither accurate, nor fair. They were unworthy of anyone who would claim to have an interest in politics." On 2 December, Bashir was suspended by the network; he resigned two days later, issuing a statement saying: "I deeply regret what was said, will endeavour to work hard at making constructive contributions in the future and will always have a deep appreciation for our viewers."
BBC religious affairs correspondent
In late 2016 Bashir returned to BBC News as religious affairs correspondent, succeeding Caroline Wyatt in the post. He left the BBC on 14 May 2021 after a period of ill health and shortly before the publication of a report from an inquiry into his 1995 interview with Diana, Princess of Wales.
Interviews
Princess of Wales interview
In November 1995, Bashir interviewed Diana, Princess of Wales about her failed marriage to the Prince of Wales for the BBC's Panorama programme. The programme was watched by nearly 23 million viewers in the UK. At the time, the BBC hailed it as the scoop of a generation.
In November 2020, 25 years later, the BBC director general Tim Davie apologised to The Earl Spencer, the brother of the princess, for the use of fake bank statements falsely indicating people close to her had been paid for spying. The fake bank statements had been created by one of the corporation's freelance graphic designers, Matt Wiessler. However a 1996 internal BBC investigation concluded that the fake documents were not used to secure the interview and cleared Bashir of any wrongdoing. The inquiry, following a Mail on Sunday account of the falsified documents, was headed by Tony Hall, who later became BBC director-general and was succeeded by Tim Davie in 2020. Hall acknowledged having never interviewed Matt Wiessler for the 1996 internal inquiry. Wiessler said in 2020 that work dried up for him after the 1996 inquiry cleared Bashir, and said he had been made the scapegoat.
The Earl Spencer, another individual who was not interviewed in 1996, rejected the apology and demanded an inquiry. Spencer told Davie he possessed records of all his contacts with Bashir which apparently imply the journalist told the princess false information to gain her trust. He said that Bashir had made false and defamatory claims about senior members of the royal family and, without the faked documents, he would not have introduced Bashir to his sister. Davie announced on 9 November the corporation was in the process of commissioning an independent inquiry. Michael Grade, a former chairman of the BBC, said that the allegations left "a very dark cloud hanging over BBC journalism".
At the time of the revelations about his interview with the princess, Bashir was seriously ill, which the BBC said had required postponing full investigation of the controversy.
On 13 November 2020, it was reported that the BBC had found the note from the Princess of Wales which cleared Bashir of pressuring her to give the interview. The former BBC royal correspondent Jennie Bond wrote in The Sunday Times the princess told Bond she did not regret the broadcast in a private meeting in late 1996. Diana said she feared a gagging order in her imminent divorce settlement, meaning it might be her only chance to give an interview.
On 18 November 2020, the BBC announced an independent investigation into how the interview was obtained, to be headed by former Supreme Court judge John Dyson. After the conclusion of the inquiry, with which the BBC said that Bashir had co-operated fully, a broadcast of Panorama dedicated to the interview and the inquiry was scheduled for 17 May 2021, but was postponed after Bashir resigned.
On 4 March 2021, the Metropolitan Police announced that they would not begin a criminal investigation into the allegations after a "detailed assessment" and consultation with the Metropolitan police lawyers, independent counsel and the Crown Prosecution Service. Later that month Bashir told the BBC inquiry that he was not responsible for spreading smears about the royal family to convince the princess to sit for the interview, and it was probably Diana herself who was the source of those claims. Among the smears were allegations of Prince Edward being treated for AIDS, the Queen suffering from cardiac problems and her intention to abdicate, and that the Prince of Wales was having an affair with his children's nanny Tiggy Legge-Bourke. Bashir argued that bringing up such allegations in front of Diana would have exposed him as a "complete fantasist" and narrowed down the chance of doing any interviews with her. Bashir added that Diana had revealed to him that she spoke with mystics and clairvoyants, who could have been the source of the false information given to her.
In May 2021, Dyson's inquiry found Bashir guilty of using "deceitful methods" and breaching BBC editorial conduct to obtain the interview. The Dyson report maintained that Bashir was "unreliable", "devious" and "dishonest".
The Metropolitan Police stated, "Following the publication of Lord Dyson's report we will assess its contents to ensure there is no significant new evidence." In September 2021, they announced that they would not be launching a criminal investigation into the interview.
Michael Jackson interviews
In 2003, while working at ITV, Bashir conducted a series of interviews with American singer Michael Jackson, for the documentary Living with Michael Jackson, part of the Tonight with Trevor McDonald series for ITV, which Jackson's friend, Uri Geller, arranged. Bashir followed the singer for eight months. However, Bashir's colleagues have claimed that he only landed the Jackson interview after promising him they would plan a trip for Jackson to Africa to visit children with AIDS, accompanied by Kofi Annan, the then UN Secretary-General; when this was put to Bashir, while under oath in a California court, he refused to answer.
Following the broadcast, viewed by 14 million in the UK and 38 million in the US, Jackson complained to the Independent Television Commission and the Broadcasting Standards Commission, accusing Bashir of yellow journalism. In response, Jackson and his personal cameraman released a rebuttal interview, which showed Bashir complimenting Jackson for the "spiritual" quality of the Neverland Ranch. After Jackson's death in 2009, Dieter Wiesner, the pop star's manager from 1996 to 2003, said of Jackson's response to Bashir's documentary:
Bashir later said during ABC's coverage of Jackson's death:
Other interviews and programmes
In 2003, Bashir presented a documentary titled Major Fraud detailing the story of British Army major Charles Ingram, who attempted to cheat his way to the prize money in an unbroadcast episode of Who Wants To Be a Millionaire?. The original programme featuring Ingram, recorded in September 2001, was withheld from broadcast because the production team quickly became suspicious. The documentary had a larger audience than Bashir's interview with Michael Jackson.
In December 2004, Bashir interviewed Victor Conte, the controversial founder of BALCO on ABC's 20/20 program, in which Conte admitted to running doping programs, which have broken Olympic records, as well as revealing that: "The whole history of the games is just full of corruption, cover-up, performance-enhancing drug use."
Bashir also conducted interviews with, among others, Louise Woodward, the five suspects in the Stephen Lawrence case, Michael Barrymore, Jeffrey Archer, Joanne Lees, and George Best.
Honours
Bashir and producer Mike Robinson were the recipients of the BAFTA Award for Best Talk Show at the 1996 British Academy Television Awards for their work on the interview with Diana for Panorama. Bashir also won the Factual or Science Based Programme of the Year from the Television and Radio Industries Club, TV Journalist of the Year from the Broadcasting Press Guild, and Journalist of the Year from the Royal Television Society for the Diana interview.
In May 2021, after the conclusion of the Dyson inquiry that found Bashir guilty of deceit in obtaining the interview with Diana, the BBC decided to give the BAFTA Award back.
Other activities
Bashir had a role as himself in the 2001 satirical comedy film Mike Bassett: England Manager.
He plays the bass guitar. He released a reggae album, Bass Lion, on 26 October 2010.
Personal life
Bashir is fluent in English and Urdu. He converted from Islam to Christianity in his late teens after attending a church in south London, and identifies as a committed Christian, having been interested in Christianity as a child. While in New York he was sometimes seen visiting Redeemer Presbyterian Church.
He and his wife, Deborah, have three children. He has been diagnosed with a brain tumour affecting his pituitary gland, was reported to be "seriously unwell" with the coronavirus in October 2020, and underwent quadruple heart bypass surgery in late 2020 and further surgical procedures in spring 2021.
References
External links
Profile and Martin Bashir show at MSNBC
1963 births
Living people
ABC News personalities
Alumni of King's College London
Alumni of the University of Winchester
BAFTA winners (people)
BBC newsreaders and journalists
English Christians
English bass guitarists
English expatriates in the United States
English people of Pakistani descent
English reggae musicians
English reporters and correspondents
English television journalists
ITN newsreaders and journalists
MSNBC people
Panorama (British TV programme)
People from Wandsworth
Religion journalists
ITV people
Converts to Christianity from Islam | [
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220086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabeer%20Bhatia | Sabeer Bhatia | Sabeer Bhatia (born 30 December 1968) is an Indian-American businessman who co-founded the webmail company Hotmail.com.
Career
Sabeer Bhatia briefly worked for Apple Computer (as a hardware engineer) and Firepower Systems Inc. He, along with his colleague Jack Smith, set up Hotmail on 4 July 1996, American Independence Day, symbolizing "freedom" from ISP-based e-mail and the ability to access a user's inbox from anywhere in the world
As President and CEO, Bhatia led Hotmail until its eventual acquisition by Microsoft in 1998 for an estimated $400 million. Bhatia worked at Microsoft for one year after the Hotmail acquisition and in April 1999, left Microsoft to start another venture, Arzoo Inc, an e-commerce firm with investment from Mohammed Asif, a top Indian-American banker at JP Morgan.
Bhatia started a free messaging service called JaxtrSMS. He said that JaxtrSMS would do to SMS what Hotmail did for e-mail. Claiming it to be a disruptive technology, he says that the operators will lose revenue on the reduction in number of SMSes on their network but will benefit from the data plan that the user has to buy. To date, JaxtrSMS service has failed to replicate the success of Hotmail. Recently, he invested in email collaboration software, ccZen and another e-commerce technology provider E-junkie.
Personal life
Bhatia is of Sindhi heritage. His father, Baldev Bhatia, was a captain in the Indian Army and his mother worked for the Central Bank of India.
Sabeer Bhatia did his schooling from Bishops School, Pune.
Sabeer married Tanya Sharma in 2008 and they have a daughter together. Later, they filed for divorce in January 2013 in a court in San Francisco, citing "irreconcilable differences".
References
Further reading
Bronson, Po, "HotMale: Sabeer Bhatia started his company on $300,000 and sold it two years later for $400 million. So, is he lucky, or great?", Wired, Issue 6.12, December 1999
1968 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Chandigarh
Indian emigrants to the United States
American computer scientists
American businesspeople of Indian descent
Apple Inc. employees
Indian company founders
American technology company founders
Hardware engineers
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani alumni
California Institute of Technology alumni
Stanford University alumni
American chief executives
Microsoft employees
American people of Sindhi descent
20th-century Indian engineers
21st-century American inventors | [
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220087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20marsh%20harrier | Western marsh harrier | The western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) is a large harrier, a bird of prey from temperate and subtropical western Eurasia and adjacent Africa. It is also known as the Eurasian marsh harrier.
Formerly, a number of relatives were included in C. aeruginosus, which was then known as "marsh harrier". The related taxa are now generally considered to be separate species: the eastern marsh harrier (C. spilonotus), the Papuan harrier (C. spilothorax) of eastern Asia and the Wallacea, the swamp harrier (C. approximans) of Australasia and the Madagascar marsh harrier (C. maillardi) of the western Indian Ocean islands.
The western marsh harrier is often divided into two subspecies, the widely migratory C. a. aeruginosus which is found across most of its range, and C. a. harterti which is resident all-year in north-west Africa.
Taxonomy
The western marsh harrier was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco aeruginosus. Linnaeus specified the locality as Europe but restricted this to Sweden in 1761. The western marsh harrier is now placed in the genus Circus that was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. The genus name Circus is derived from the Ancient Greek kirkos, referring to a bird of prey named for its circling flight (kirkos, "circle"), probably the hen harrier. The specific aeruginosus is Latin for "rusty".
Two subspecies are recognised:
C. a. aeruginosus (Linnaeus, 1758) – breeding in Europe and the Middle East to central Asia south Europe, Africa, south Asia; wintering in south Europe, Africa and south Asia
C. a. harterti Zedlitz, 1914 – resident in northwest Africa
Description
The western marsh harrier is in length, has a wingspan of and a weight of in males and in females. It is a large, bulky harrier (larger than other European harriers but slightly smaller than the eastern marsh harrier) with fairly broad wings, and has a strong and peculiar sexual dichromatism. The male's plumage is mostly a cryptic reddish-brown with lighter yellowish streaks, which are particularly prominent on the breast. The head and shoulders are mostly pale greyish-yellowish. The rectrices and the secondary and tertiary remiges are pure grey, the latter contrasting with the brown forewing and the black primary remiges at the wingtips. The upperside and underside of the wing look similar, though the brown is lighter on the underwing. Whether from the side or below, flying males appear characteristically three-colored brown-grey-black. The legs, feet, irides and the cere of the black bill are yellow.
The female is almost entirely chocolate-brown. The top of the head, the throat and the shoulders have of a conspicuously lighter yellowish colour; this can be clearly delimited and very contrasting, or (particularly in worn plumage) be more washed-out, resembling the male's head colours. But the eye area of the female is always darker, making the light eye stand out, while the male's head is altogether not very contrastingly coloured and the female lacks the grey wing-patch and tail. Juveniles are similar to females, but usually have less yellow, particularly on the shoulders.
There is a rare hypermelanic morph with largely dark plumage. It is most often found in the east of the species' range. Juveniles of this morph may look entirely black in flight.
Distribution and habitat
This species has a wide breeding range from Europe and northwestern Africa to Central Asia and the northern parts of the Middle East. It breeds in almost every country of Europe but is absent from mountainous regions and subarctic Scandinavia. It is rare but increasing in Great Britain where it has spread as far as eastern Scotland. In the Middle East there are populations in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, while in Central Asia the range extends eastwards as far as north-west China, Mongolia, and the Lake Baikal region of Siberia.
Most populations of the western marsh harrier are migratory or dispersive. Some birds winter in milder regions of southern and western Europe, while others migrate to the Sahel, Nile basin and Great Lakes region in Africa, or to Arabia, the Indian subcontinent, and Myanmar. The all-year resident subspecies harterti inhabits Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
Vagrants have reached Iceland, the Azores, Malaysia, and Sumatra. The first documented (but unconfirmed) record for the Americas was one bird reportedly photographed on 4 December 1994 at Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge in Accomack County, Virginia. Subsequently, there were confirmed records from Guadeloupe (winter of 2002/2003), from Laguna Cartagena National Wildlife Refuge in Puerto Rico (early 2004 and January/February 2006) and in Bermuda (December 2015).
Like the other marsh harriers, it is strongly associated with wetland areas, especially those rich in common reed (Phragmites australis). It can also be met with in a variety of other open habitats, such as farmland and grassland, particularly where these border marshland. It is a territorial bird in the breeding season, and even in winter it seems less social than other harriers, which often gather in large flocks. But this is probably simply due to habitat preferences, as the marsh harriers are completely allopatric while several of C. aeruginosus grassland and steppe relatives winter in the same regions and assemble at food sources such as locust outbreaks. Still, in Keoladeo National Park of Rajasthan (India) around 100 Eurasian marsh harriers are observed to roost together each November/December; they assemble in tall grassland dominated by Desmostachya bipinnata and vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides), but where this is too disturbed by human activity they will use floating carpets of common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes'') instead – the choice of such roost sites may be to give early warning of predators, which will conspicuously rustle through the plants if they try to sneak upon the resting birds
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
The start of the breeding season varies from mid-March to early May. Western marsh harrier males often pair with two and occasionally three females. Pair bonds usually last for a single breeding season, but some pairs remain together for several years.
The ground nest is made of sticks, reeds and grasses. It is usually built in a reedbed, but the species will also nest in arable fields. There are between three and eight eggs in a normal clutch. The eggs are oval in shape and white in colour, with a bluish or greenish tinge when recently laid. The eggs are incubated for 31–38 days and the young birds fledge after 30–40 days.
Food and feeding
It hunts in typical harrier fashion, gliding low over flat open ground on its search for prey, with its wings held in a shallow V-shape and often with dangling legs.
It feeds on small mammals, small birds, insects, reptiles, and frogs.
Status and conservation
The western marsh harrier declined in many areas between the 19th and the late 20th centuries due to persecution, habitat destruction and excessive pesticide use. It is now a protected species in many countries. In Great Britain, the population was likely extinct by the end of the 19th century. A single pair in Horsey, Norfolk bred in 1911, and by 2006, the Rare Breeding Birds Panel had recorded at least 265 females rearing 453 young. It made a comeback in Ireland as well, where it had become extinct in 1918.
It still faces a number of threats, including the shooting of birds migrating through the Mediterranean region. They are vulnerable to disturbance during the breeding season and also liable to lead shot poisoning. Still, the threats to this bird have been largely averted and it is today classified as Species of Least Concern by the IUCN.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Marsh harrier at RSPB's Birds by Name
Birds of Britain - Marsh Harrier
Western Marsh Harrier or European Marsh Harrier species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Western Marsh-Harrier text, map & photos at Oiseaux.net
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.7 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
western marsh harrier
Birds of prey of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
western marsh harrier
western marsh harrier | [
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220089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-builder%20notation | Set-builder notation | In set theory and its applications to logic, mathematics, and computer science, set-builder notation is a mathematical notation for describing a set by enumerating its elements, or stating the properties that its members must satisfy.
Defining sets by properties is also known as set comprehension, set abstraction or as defining a set's intension.
Sets defined by enumeration
A set can be described directly by enumerating all of its elements between curly brackets, as in the following two examples:
is the set containing the four numbers 3, 7, 15, and 31, and nothing else.
is the set containing , , and , and nothing else (there is no order among the elements of a set).
This is sometimes called the "roster method" for specifying a set.
When it is desired to denote a set that contains elements from a regular sequence, an ellipses notation may be employed, as shown in the next examples:
is the set of integers between 1 and 100 inclusive.
is the set of natural numbers.
is the set of all integers.
There is no order among the elements of a set (this explains and validates the equality of the last example), but with the ellipses notation, we use an ordered sequence before (or after) the ellipsis as a convenient notational vehicle for explaining which elements are in a set. The first few elements of the sequence are shown, then the ellipses indicate that the simplest interpretation should be applied for continuing the sequence. Should no terminating value appear to the right of the ellipses, then the sequence is considered to be unbounded.
In general, denotes the set of all natural numbers such that . Another notation for is the bracket notation . A subtle special case is , in which is equal to the empty set . Similarly, denotes the set of all for .
In each preceding example, each set is described by enumerating its elements. Not all sets can be described in this way, or if they can, their enumeration may be too long or too complicated to be useful. Therefore, many sets are defined by a property that characterizes their elements. This characterization may be done informally using general prose, as in the following example.
addresses on Pine Street is the set of all addresses on Pine Street.
However, the prose approach may lack accuracy or be ambiguous. Thus, set-builder notation is often used with a predicate characterizing the elements of the set being defined, as described in the following section.
Sets defined by a predicate
Set-builder notation can be used to describe a set that is defined by a predicate, that is, a logical formula that evaluates to true for an element of the set, and false otherwise. In this form, set-builder notation has three parts: a variable, a colon or vertical bar separator, and a predicate. Thus there is a variable on the left of the separator, and a rule on the right of it. These three parts are contained in curly brackets:
or
The vertical bar (or colon) is a separator that can be read as "such that", "for which", or "with the property that". The formula is said to be the rule or the predicate. All values of x for which the predicate holds (is true) belong to the set being defined. All values of for which the predicate does not hold do not belong to the set. Thus is the set of all values of that satisfy the formula . It may be the empty set, if no value of satisfies the formula.
Specifying the domain
A domain can appear on the left of the vertical bar:
or by adjoining it to the predicate:
The ∈ symbol here denotes set membership, while the symbol denotes the logical "and" operator, known as logical conjunction. This notation represents the set of all values of that belong to some given set for which the predicate is true (see "Set existence axiom" below). If is a conjunction , then is sometimes written , using a comma instead of the symbol .
In general, it is not a good idea to consider sets without defining a domain of discourse, as this would represent the subset of all possible things that may exist for which the predicate is true. This can easily lead to contradictions and paradoxes. For example, Russell's paradox shows that the expression although seemingly well formed as a set builder expression, cannot define a set without producing a contradiction.
In cases where the set E is clear from context, it may be not explicitly specified. It is common in the literature for an author to state the domain ahead of time, and then not specify it in the set-builder notation. For example, an author may say something such as, "Unless otherwise stated, variables are to be taken to be natural numbers," though in less formal contexts where the domain can be assumed, a written mention is often unnecessary.
Examples
The following examples illustrate particular sets defined by set-builder notation via predicates. In each case, the domain is specified on the left side of the vertical bar, while the rule is specified on the right side.
is the set of all strictly positive real numbers, which can be written in interval notation as .
is the set . This set can also be defined as ; see equivalent predicates yield equal sets below.
For each integer m, we can define . As an example, and .
is the set of pairs of real numbers such that y is greater than 0 and less than f(x), for a given function f. Here the cartesian product denotes the set of ordered pairs of real numbers.
is the set of all even natural numbers. The sign stands for "and", which is known as logical conjunction. The ∃ sign stands for "there exists", which is known as existential quantification. So for example, is read as 'there exists an x such that P(x)".
is a notational variant for the same set of even natural numbers. It is not necessary to specify that is a natural number, as this is implied by the formula on the right.
is the set of rational numbers; that is, real numbers that can be written as the ratio of two integers.
More complex expressions on the left side of the notation
An extension of set-builder notation replaces the single variable with an expression. So instead of , we may have which should be read
.
For example:
, where is the set of all natural numbers, is the set of all even natural numbers.
, where is the set of all integers, is the set of all rational numbers.
is the set of odd integers.
creates a set of pairs, where each pair puts an integer into correspondence with an odd integer.
When inverse functions can be explicitly stated, the expression on the left can be eliminated through simple substitution. Consider the example set . Make the substitution , which is to say , then replace t in the set builder notation to find
Equivalent predicates yield equal sets
Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Sets defined by set builder notation are equal if and only if their set builder rules, including the domain specifiers, are equivalent. That is
if and only if
.
Therefore, in order to prove the equality of two sets defined by set builder notation, it suffices to prove the equivalence of their predicates, including the domain qualifiers.
For example,
because the two rule predicates are logically equivalent:
This equivalence holds because, for any real number x, we have if and only if x is a rational number with . In particular, both sets are equal to the set .
Set existence axiom
In many formal set theories, such as Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, set builder notation is not part of the formal syntax of the theory. Instead, there is a set existence axiom scheme, which states that if is a set and is a formula in the language of set theory, then there is a set whose members are exactly the elements of that satisfy :
The set obtained from this axiom is exactly the set described in set builder notation as .
Parallels in programming languages
A similar notation available in a number of programming languages (notably Python and Haskell) is the list comprehension, which combines map and filter operations over one or more lists.
In Python, the set-builder's braces are replaced with square brackets, parentheses, or curly braces, giving list, generator, and set objects, respectively. Python uses an English-based syntax. Haskell replaces the set-builder's braces with square brackets and uses symbols, including the standard set-builder vertical bar.
The same can be achieved in Scala using Sequence Comprehensions, where the "for" keyword returns a list of the yielded variables using the "yield" keyword.
Consider these set-builder notation examples in some programming languages:
The set builder notation and list comprehension notation are both instances of a more general notation known as monad comprehensions, which permits map/filter-like operations over any monad with a zero element.
See also
Glossary of set theory
Notes
Set theory
Mathematical notation
Articles with example Haskell code
Articles with example Python (programming language) code
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] |
220090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20anatomy%20articles | Index of anatomy articles | Articles related to anatomy include:
A
abdomen
abdominal aorta
abducens nerve
abducens nucleus
abducent
abducent nerve
abduction
accessory bone
accessory cuneate nucleus
accessory nerve
accessory olivary nucleus
accommodation reflex
acetabulum
Achilles tendon
acoustic nerve
acromion
adenohypophysis
adenoids
adipose
aditus
aditus ad antrum
adrenal gland
adrenergic
afferent neuron
agger nasi
agnosia
agonist
alar ligament
albuginea
alimentary
allantois
allocortex
alpha motor neurons
alveolar artery
alveolar process
alveolus
alveus of the hippocampus
amatory anatomy
amaurosis
Ammon's horn
ampulla
Ampulla of Vater
amygdala
amygdalofugal pathway
amygdaloid
amylacea
anaesthesia
analgesia
analogous
anastomosis
anatomical pathology
anatomical position
anatomical snuffbox
anatomical terms of location
anatomical terms of motion
anatomy
Anatomy of the human heart
anconeus
angiography
angiology
angular gyrus
anhidrosis
animal morphology
anisocoria
ankle
ankle reflex
annular ligament
annulus of Zinn
anomaly
anomic aphasia
anosognosia
ansa cervicalis
ansa lenticularis
anterior cerebral artery
Anterior chamber of eyeball
anterior choroidal artery
anterior commissure
anterior communicating artery
anterior corticospinal tract
anterior cranial fossa
anterior cruciate ligament
anterior ethmoidal foramen
anterior ethmoidal nerve
anterior funiculus
anterior horn cells
anterior horn of the lateral ventricle
anterior hypothalamus
anterior inferior cerebellar artery
anterior limb of the internal capsule
anterior lobe of cerebellum
anterior nucleus of the thalamus
anterior perforated substance
anterior pituitary
anterior root
anterior spinal artery
anterior spinocerebellar tract
anterior superior alveolar artery
anterior tibial artery
anterior vertebral muscle
anterior white commissure
anterolateral region of the neck
anterolateral system
antidromic
antihelix
antrum
anulus fibrosus
anulus tendineus
anus
aorta
aortic body
aponeurosis
apophysis
appendage
appendicular skeleton
appendix
aprosody
aqueductal stenosis
aqueous humor
arachnoid
arachnoid granulation
arbor vitae
archicerebellum
archicortex
archipallium
archistriatum
arcuate line
arcuate nucleus
area postrema
areola
arm
arrectores pilorum
arteria dorsalis pedis
arterial arcades
artery
articular condyle of mandible
articular disc
articulation
aryepiglotticus muscle
arytenoid
arytenoid cartilage
arytenoideus muscle
astereognosis
asterion
asterixis
astrocyte
asynergy
ataxia
atlanto-occipital joint
atlas
atresia
atrioventricular node
atrium
auditory aphasia
auditory cortex
auditory meatus
auditory ossicles
auditory radiations
auditory system
auditory tube
auricle
auriculotemporal nerve
auscultation
autonomic
autonomic ganglion
axial skeleton
axial view
axilla
axillary artery
axis
axon
axon collateral
axon hillock
azygos
B
Babinski sign
baculum
ball and socket joint
band of Baillarger
Bartholin's gland
basal cistern
basal forebrain
basal ganglia
basalis nucleus of Meynert
basal lamina
basement membrane
basilar artery
basilar membrane
basis pedunculi
basket cell
basolateral amygdala
biceps
bicipital aponeurosis
bicuspid valve
bifurcation
bilateral symmetry
bile duct
biology
bipolar cells of the retina
bitemporal heminopia
blastomere
blood
blood brain barrier
body
bone
bone marrow
bony labyrinth
Bowman's capsule
brachial artery
brachial plexus
brachiocephalic vein
brachioradialis reflex
brachium conjunctivum
brachium of the inferior colliculus
brachium of the superior colliculus
brachium pontis
brachium restiformis
brain
brain stem
brainstem
branchia
branchiomeric musculature
breast
bregma
bridging veins
broad ligament of the uterus
Broca's area
bronchi
bronchiole
bronchus
Broner
Brunner's gland
buccal fatpad
buccal membrane
buccal nerve
buccinator
bulbospongiosus
bulbourethral gland
bulbus
bulla
bundle of His
bursa
buttock
C
cafe-au-lait spots
calamus scriptorius
calcaneus
calcar
calcar avis
calcar femorale
calcarine cortex
calcarine fissure
calcarine sulcus
calf
calix
calvaria
calyx
canal of Schlemm
canaliculus
cancellous
canine tooth
canthus
capillary
capitate
capitulum
caput
caput medusae
carapace
cardiac
Cardiac skeleton
cardiophrenic angle
cardiovascular system
carina
carotid
carotid bifurcation
carotid body
carotid canal
carotid groove
carotid plexus
carotid sheath
carotid sinus
carotid siphon
carpus
cartilage
caruncle
catheter
cauda
cauda equina
caudal
caudate
caudate nucleus
cava
cavernous sinus
cavum tympani
cavum subdurale
cecum
celiac
celiac artery
celiac ganglion
celiac trunk
celom
central canal
Central gelatinous substance of spinal cord
central nucleus of inferior colliculus
central retinal artery
central sulcus
central tegmental tract
centromedian nucleus
centrum semi
centrum semiovale
cephalic
cephalic vein
cerebellar peduncle
cerebellar projection
cerebellar tonsil
cerebellopontine angle
cerebellorubral tract
cerebellothalamic tract
cerebellum
cerebral aqueduct
cerebral arterial circle
cerebral hemisphere
cerebral peduncle
cerebrospinal fluid
cerebrum
cerumen
cervical
cervical enlargement
cervical fascia
cervical plexus
cervical spinal nerves
cervical spine
cervical sympathetic ganglia
cervical vertebrae
cervicothoracic ganglion
cervix
chaetae
cheek
chest
Cheyne-Stokes respiration
chiasma
chiasmatic sulcus
choanae
chorda tympani
Chorionic villi
choroid
choroid plexus
chyle
ciliary arteries
ciliary body
ciliary ganglion
ciliary muscle
ciliary nerves
ciliospinal reflex
cilium
cingulate gyrus
cingulum
circle of Willis
circulatory system
circumflex artery
cisterna
cisterna chyli
cisterna magna
Clarke's column (dorsal nucleus)
claustrum
clava
clavicle
climbing fiber
clinoid
clitoris
clivus
cloaca
clonus
coccyx
cochlea
cochlear duct
cochlear nerve
coeliac
coelom
coeruleus
collar bone
collateral eminence
collateral fissure
collateral trigone
colliculus
collum
colon
columns of the fornix
commissure
common carotid artery
common facial vein
communicating veins
comparative anatomy
conchae
condylar process of mandible
condyle
cone cell
confluence of the sinuses
conjoint tendon
conjugate eye movement
conjunctiva
connective tissue
conoid
consensual reflex
constrictor
contralateral
conus elasticus
conus medullaris
Coracobrachialis muscle coracoid
coracoid process
cordotomy
cornea
corneal reflex
corniculate
cornu
corona
corona radiata
coronal plane
coronal suture
coronal view
coronary
coronary arteries
coronary sinus
coronoid
coronoid process
corpora quadrigemina
corpus albicans
corpus callosum
corpus striatum
corpuscle
corrugator
cortex
corticobulbar axons
corticomedial amygdala
corticopontine fibers
corticospinal tract
corticostriate fiber
costal cartilages
costal margin
costophrenic angle
Cowper's gland
coxae
cranial
cranial autonomic ganglia
cranial bone
cranial nerve ganglia
cranial nerve lesion
cranial nerve nuclei
cranial nerves
cranium
cremaster
cribriform
cribriform plate
cricoarytenoid ligament
cricoarytenoid muscle
cricoid
cricoid cartilage
cricothyroid joint
cricothyroid ligament
cricothyroid muscle
crista
crista galli
crossed extensor reflex
cruciform ligament
crus of cerebrum
crus of clitoris
crus of diaphragm
crus of fornix
crus of heart
crus of penis
crura of superficial inguinal ring
cubital
cuboid
culmen
cuneate
cuneate fasciculus
cuneate nucleus
cuneate tubercle
cuneiforms
cuneocerebellar fibers
cuneus
cupula
cusp
cutaneous
cyst
cystic duct
cystogram
D
dartos
DCML
decerebrate response
declive
decomposition of movement
decorticate response
deep cerebellar nuclei
deep lingual artery
deglutition
deltoid
deltopectoral triangle
demyelination
dendrite
dendritic spine
dens
dental alveolus
dental caries
dental formula
dental pulp
dentate gyrus
dentate nucleus
dentatothalamic tract
denticulate ligament
dentine
dentition
depressor anguli oris muscle
dermatoglyphics
dermatome
dermis
descendens cervicalis
descending aorta
descending duodenum
detrusor
deviated septum
diagonal band
diagonal band of Broca
diaphragm
diaphragma sellae
diaphragmatic recess
diaphysis
diastole
diencephalon
digastric fossa
digastric muscle
digastric triangle
digestive system
diplopia
diploë
dislocation
dissection
distal
diverticulum
doll's eyes phenomenon
dorsal
dorsal cochlear nucleus
dorsal column
dorsal column nuclei
dorsal funiculus
dorsal horn
dorsal root
dorsal root ganglion
dorsal spinocerebellar tract
dorsal trigeminothalamic tract
dorsolateral fasciculus
dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus
dorsum sellae
dowager's hump
ductless gland
ductus
ductus deferens
duodenum
dura mater
dural septae
dural venous sinus
E
ear
eardrum
ectopia (medicine)
Edinger-Westphal nucleus
efferent ducts
efferent nerve fiber
efferent limb
ejaculatory duct
elbow
electrical conduction system of the heart
emboliform nucleus
embolus
embryo
embryonic yolk stalk
emissary veins
enamel
encephalon
encephalopathy
endocardium
endocranium
endocrine gland
endocrine system
endoderm
endolymph
endometrium
endoneurium
endorphin
endothelium
enkephalin
entorhinal cortex
ependyma
epicanthus
epicardium
epicondyle
epicranial aponeurosis
epidermis
epididymis
epidural hematoma
epidural space
epigastrium
epiglottic cartilage
epiglottis
epimysium
epineurium
epiphyseal growth plates
epiphysis
epiploic foramen
epithalamus
epithelium
epitympanic recess
erector spinae
esophageal plexus
esophageal sphincter
esophagus
essential tremor
ethmoid bone
ethmoid sinus
ethmoidal air cells
ethmoidal bulla
Europhiles
eustachian tube
excretory system
exocrine gland
exophthalmos
exoskeleton
exotropia
extensor plantar response
extensor posturing
extensor retinaculum
external auditory meatus
external capsule
external carotid artery
external ear
external iliac artery
external jugular vein
external laryngeal nerve
external medullary lamina
external nasal nerve
external occipital protuberance
external ophthalmoplegia
extraocular muscles
extraperitoneal
extrapyramidal motor system
extrapyramidal signs
extrapyramidal system
extreme capsule
extrinsic muscle
eye
eyebrow
eyelash
eyelid
F
fabella
face
facet joint
facial artery
facial bone
facial colliculus
facial nerve
facial nucleus
facial vein
falciform ligament
Fallopian tube
false vocal cord
falx cerebri
fascia
fascia lata
fasciculation
fasciculus lenticularis
fastigial nucleus
fastigium
fat
fauces
femoral artery
femoral neck
femoral triangle
femur
fenestra
fenestra cochleae
fenestra ovalis
fenestra vestibuli
fetus
fibre
fibril
fibrillation
fibrous coat of the eye
fibrous pericardium
fibrous skeleton of the heart
fibula
fields of Forel
filiform papillae
filum
filum terminale
fimbriae
finger
fingernail
first thoracic ganglion
fissure
fistula
flaccid paralysis
flaccidity
flank
flexion
flexor retinaculum
floating ribs
flocculonodular lobe
flocculus
fluent aphasia
foetus
fontanelle
foot
foramen
foramen lacerum
foramen magnum
foramen of Luschka
foramen of Magendie
foramen of Monro
foramen ovale (heart)
foramen ovale (skull)
foramen rotundum
foramen spinosum
forceps major
forearm
forebrain
forehead
foreskin
formication
fornix
fossa
Fourth trochanter
fourth ventricle
fovea
foveola
frenulum
frenulum linguae
frenum
frontal air sinus
frontal bone
frontal eye field
frontalis
frontal horn of lateral ventricle
frontal lobe
frontal nerve
frontal plane
frontal pole
frontal sinus
frontonasal duct
fundiform ligament
fundus
fungiform papillae
funiculus
furcula
fusiform gyrus
G
gag reflex
galea aponeurotica
gall bladder
gamma motoneurons
ganglion
ganglion cell
ganglion cell of the retina
gasserian ganglion
gastrocnemius
gastroduodenal artery
gastroesophageal junction
gastrohepatic ligament
gastrointestinal tract
gemellus
geniculate ganglion
geniculate nucleus
geniculocalcarine tract
geniculum
genioglossus muscle
geniohyoid muscle
genitalia
genu of corpus callosum
genu of the internal capsule
gill
gingiva
gizzard
glabella
gland
glandula
glans
glenohumeral joint
glenoid fossa
glia
globose nucleus
globus pallidus
glomerulus
glossoepiglottic fold
glossopharyngeal nerve
glottis
gluteus maximus
gluteus medius
gluteus minimus
goiter
Golgi apparatus
gonad
gracile fasciculus
gracile nucleus
gracile tubercle
Gracilis muscle
granular layer
gravid
gray matter
Gray's Anatomy
great cerebral vein
great toe
greater auricular nerve
greater horn of the hyoid
greater occipital nerve
greater omentum
greater palatine artery
greater palatine canal
greater palatine foramen
greater palatine nerve
greater petrosal nerve
greater superficial petrosal nerve
Greater trochanter
greater wing of sphenoid
groin
gubernaculum
gums
gustatory
gyrencephalic
gyrus
H
habenula
habenular nuclei
haemorrhoid
hair
hair cells
hair follicle
hallux
hamate
hamstrings
hamulus of hamate
hand
hard palate
haustrum
Haversian system
head of rib
heart
heel
helicotrema
helix
hematoma
hemiazygos vein
hemiballismus
hemidiaphragm
hemiparesis
hemisphere
hemothorax
hepatic
hepatic artery
hepatic flexure
hepatic portal vein
hepatic veins
hepatoduodenal ligament
hepatopancreatic ampulla hepatopancreatic sphincter
hernia
herniated disk
hiatus
hiatus semilunaris
hilar vessels
Hilton's law
hilum
hindbrain
hip bone
hippocampal formation
hippocampal pyramidal cell
hippocampal sulcus
hippocampus
histology
history of anatomy
Hoffmann's reflex
homologous
hormone
horn
human anatomical parts named after people
human anatomy
human body
human skeleton
humerus
humours
hunchback
hyaline cartilage
hymen
hyoglossus muscle
hyoid bone
hypaxial muscles
hypogastric artery
hypogastric nerve
hypoglossal canal
hypoglossal nerve
hypoglossal nucleus
hypoglossal trigone
hypopharynx
hypophyseal artery
hypophyseal fossa
hypophyseal portal system
hypophysis
hypophysis cerebri
hypothalamic sulcus
hypothalamohypophyseal portal system
hypothalamohypophyseal tract
hypothalamoreticular tract
hypothalamospinal tract
hypothalamotegmental tract
hypothalamus
hypothalmotegmental axon
hypothenar muscles
I
ileal vessels
ileocecal valve
ileocolic artery
ileum
iliac crest
iliac lymph nodes
iliac region
iliac spine
iliacus muscle
iliolumbar artery
iliopsoas muscle
iliotibial band
ilium
immune system
impar ligament
incisive canal
incisive fossa
incisor
incisura
incus
index finger
indusium griseum
infarction
inferior alveolar artery
inferior alveolar nerve
inferior cerebellar peduncle
inferior cervical sympathetic ganglion
inferior colliculus
inferior concha
inferior frontal gyrus
inferior gluteal artery
inferior horn
inferior meatus
inferior mesenteric artery
inferior mesenteric vein
inferior nasal concha
inferior oblique muscle
inferior olivary nucleus
inferior orbital fissure
inferior petrosal sinus
inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle
inferior pubic ramus
inferior rectus muscle
inferior sagittal sinus
inferior salivatory nucleus
inferior temporal gyrus
inferior thyroid artery
inferior thyroid vein
Inferior tibiofibular joint
inferior vena cava
inferior vestibular nucleus
infraglottic cavity
infrahyoid strap muscles
infraorbital canal
infraorbital foramen
infraorbital groove
infraorbital nerve
infraspinatus muscle
infratemporal fossa
infratentorial
infundibular nucleus
infundibulum
inguinal
inguinal canal
inguinal ligament
inguinal lymph nodes
inguinal rings
inguinal triangle
inion
inner table of skull
innervate
innominate
insula
integument
integumentary system
interatrial septum
intercalated disc
intercondylar eminences
intercostal muscles
interdigitation
interhemispheric fissure
intermediate horn cell
intermediolateral cell column
intermediolateral nucleus
internal acoustic meatus
internal arcuate fiber
internal capsule
internal carotid artery
internal cerebral vein
internal ear
internal iliac artery
internal iliac vein
internal jugular vein
internal laryngeal nerve
internal medullary lamina
internal oblique muscle
internal thoracic artery
internal thoracic veins
interneuron
internuncial
interosseus membrane
interpeduncular cistern
interpeduncular fossa
interstitial
interthalamic adhesion
intertrochanteric line
interventricular foramen of Monro
interventricular septum
intervertebral disc
Intestinal villus
intestine
intrafusal
intrafusal muscle fibers
intralaminar thalamic nuclei
intramedullary
intrathalamic adhesion
intravenous
intrinsic muscles of the tongue
introitus
ipsilateral
iris
iris dilator muscle
iris sphincter muscle
ischemia
ischial spine
ischial tuberosity
ischiorectal fossa
ischium
Islets of Langerhans
isthmus
J
Jacksonian seizure
jaw
jejunum
joint
joint capsule
joint space
jugular
jugular foramen
jugular notch
jugum
juxtaglomerular apparatus
K
keel
keloid
keratin
kidney
kinesthesia
kinocilium
knee
knee jerk reflex
kneecap
knuckle
koniocortex
kyphosis
L
labia majora
labia minora
labium
labrum
labyrinth
lacrimal bone
lacrimal canaliculus
lacrimal fossa
lacrimal gland
lacrimal nerve
lacrimal papilla
lacrimal punctum
lacrimal sac
lactation
lacteal
lactiferous duct
lacuna
lacunae laterales
lacus lacrimalis
lambdoid suture
lamella
lamina
lamina papyracea
lamina terminalis
laminectomy
language center
lanugo
large intestine
laryngeal inlet
laryngopharynx
larynx
lateral aperture
lateral cervical muscle
lateral corticospinal tract
lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
lateral cuneate nucleus
lateral dorsal nucleus of thalamus
lateral fissure
lateral funiculus
lateral geniculate body or nucleus
lateral horn
lateral hypothalamus
lateral lemniscus
lateral olfactory stria
lateral posterior nucleus
lateral pterygoid muscle
lateral pterygoid plate
lateral recess (of the fourth ventricle)
lateral rectus muscle
lateral sclerosis
lateral semicircular canal
lateral spinothalamic tract
lateral striate arteries
lateral thalamic nucleus
lateral ventricles
lateral vertebral muscle
lateral vestibular nucleus
lateral vestibulospinal tract
latissimus dorsi
Laurer's canal
left atrium
left colic artery
left common carotid artery
left gastroepiploic artery
left mainstem bronchi
left marginal artery
left pulmonary artery
left ventricle
leg
lemniscus
lens
lenticular nucleus
lenticulostriate artery
lentiform
lentiform nucleus
leptomeninx
lesser occipital nerve
lesser omentum
lesser palatine foramen
lesser petrosal nerve
Lesser trochanter
lesser wing of sphenoid
levator muscle
levator labii superioris muscle
levator palpebrae muscle
levator palpebrae superioris
levator scapulae muscle
levator velum palatini muscle
ligament
ligament of Treitz
ligamentum arteriosum
ligamentum flavum
ligamentum teres
light reflex
limbic system
limen insulae
line of Gennari
linea alba
linea aspera
lingua
lingual artery
lingual nerve
lingual tonsil
lingual vein
lingula
lip
lipofuscin
Lissauer's tract
lissencephalic
list of human anatomical features
Little's area
liver
lobule
locus coeruleus
loin
long bone
long ciliary nerves
longitudinal fissure
longus capitis muscle
longus colli muscle
love handles
lower motor neuron
lumbar
lumbar artery
lumbar enlargement
lumbar spine
lumbar vertebrae
lumbosacral enlargement
lumbosacral plexus
lumbrical
lunate
lung
lymph
lymph nodes
lymphatic system
lymphatic vessels
M
macroscopic
macula
macular sparing
magnocellular nuclei
main pulmonary artery
major duodenal papilla
malleolus
malleus
Malpighian layer
mammae
mammary gland
mammilla
mammillary bodies
mammillothalamic tract
mammogram
mandible
mandibular condyles
mandibular foramen
mandibular fossa
mandibular nerve
mandibular notch
manubrium
massa intermedia
masseter muscle
masseteric vessels
mastication
mastoid air cells
mastoid process
matrix
maxilla
maxillae
maxillary antrum
maxillary artery
maxillary nerve
maxillary sinus
meconium
medial forebrain bundle
medial geniculate boby
medial geniculate nucleus or body
medial lemniscus
medial longitudinal fasciculus
medial meniscus
medial olfactory stria
medial pterygoid plate
medial rectus muscle
medial vestibular nucleus
medial vestibulospinal tract
median aperture
median eminence
median neuropathy
mediastinum
medulla oblongata
medullary cavity
medullary velum
Meissner's corpuscle
membrane
membraneous urethra
membranous labyrinth
mengingioma
meninges
meningiomas
meniscus (anatomy)
mental foramen
mental nerve
mentalis muscle
mentum
mesencephalic reticular formation
mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus and tract
mesencephalon
midbrain
mesenchyme
mesentery
mesoderm
mesosalpinx
metacarpus
metaphysis
metastatic lesion
metatarsals
metatarsus
metathalamus
metencephalon
metopic
Meyer's loop
microglia
micturition
midbrain
middle cerebellar peduncle
middle cerebral artery
middle cervical sympathetic ganglion
middle colic artery
middle concha
middle cranial fossa
middle ear
middle ear bone complex
middle meatus
middle meningeal artery
middle meningeal vein
middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle
middle sacral artery
middle superior alveolar artery
middle temporal gyrus
midline nuclei
miosis
mitral cell
modiolus
molar
monaminergic neurons
mononeuropathy multiplex
mons pubis
moro reflex
morphology
morula
mossy fiber ending
motor aphasia
motor cortex
motor endplate
motor neuron
motor unit
mouth
mucoperiosteum
mucosa
mucous membranes
multifidus
muscle
muscle fascicle
muscle spindle
muscle tissue
muscles of the thorax
muscular atrophy
muscular system
muscular triangle
mydriasis
myelencephalon
myelin
myelogram
myelomeningocele
myelopathy
mylohyoid
mylohyoid groove
mylohyoid line
mylohyoid muscle
mylohyoid nerve
myocardium
myocyte
myology
myotome
myotonia
myotonic dystrophy
N
nape
naris
nasal bone
nasal choanae
nasal concha
nasal septum
nasal turbinates
nasion
nasociliary nerve
nasolacrimal canal
nasolacrimal duct
nasopalatine nerve
nasopharynx
natal
navicular
neck
neocerebellum
neocortex
neonatal
neopallium
neospinothalamic axon
neostriatum
nephron
nerve of the pterygoid canal
nerve
nerve fascicle
nervi erigentes
nervous system
neural crest cell
neural foramen
neural groove
neural tube defect
neural tube
neural
neuroectoderm
neuroglia
neurohypophysis
neurolemma
neurology
neuromuscular junction
neuron
neuropil
nevus
nictitating membrane
nigrostriatal axon
nipple
Nissl body
nociception
nodes of Ranvier
nodose ganglion
nodule
nodulus
norma frontalis
norma lateralis
nose
nostril
nares
notochord
nuchal ligament
nucleus
nucleus accumbens
nucleus ambiguus
nucleus fastigius
nucleus of Luys
nucleus pulposus
nucleus solitarius
nystagmus, pathologic
nystagmus, physiologic
O
obex
oblique muscles
obturator canal
obturator externus muscle
obturator foramen
obturator internus muscle
occipital artery
occipital bone
occipital horn
occipital lobe
occipitalis muscle
occiput
occlusion
oculocephalic reflex
oculomotor
oculomotor complex
oculomotor nerve
oculomotor nucleus
oculus
odontoid process
oesophagus
olecranon process
olfaction
olfactory association cortex
olfactory bulb
olfactory cortex
olfactory epithelium
olfactory mucosa
olfactory nerve
olfactory striae
olfactory system
olfactory tract
olfactory trigone
oligodendroglia
oligodendroglial cells
olive
olivocerebellar axon
olivopontocerebellar degeneration
omental bursa
omentum
omohyoid
omohyoid fascia
omohyoid muscle
ontogeny
operculum
ophthalmology
ophthalmic artery
optic canal
optic chiasm
optic disc
optic foramen
optic nerve
optic papilla
optic radiation
optic recess
optic tract
ora serrata
oral cavity
orbicularis oculi muscle
orbicularis oris muscle
orbit
orbitofrontal cortex
organ
organ of Corti
organelle
orifice
oropharynx
os multangulum minus
os penis
ossicles
ossification
osteology
osteon
ostium
otic ganglion
otolith
outer table of skull
oval window
ovarian follicle
ovary
ovum
P
pachymeninx
pacinian corpuscle
palate
palatine bone
palatine glands
palatine process
palatine tonsils
palatoglossal arch
palatoglossus muscle
palatopharyngeal arch
palatopharyngeus muscle
paleocerebellum
paleopallium
paleospinothalamic axon
paleostriatum
pallidothalamic fiber
palmar aponeurosis
palmomental reflex
palpation
palpebral commissures
pampiniform plexus
pancreas
pancreatic duct
pancreaticoduodenal branches
panniculus
papilla
papillary muscles
paraaortic lymph nodes
paracentral lobule
paracolic gutters
paradidymis
paraesthesia
parafascicular nucleus
parahippocampal gyrus
parailiac lymph nodes
parallel fibers
paralysis
paramedian pontine reticular formation
parametrium
paraphasia
pararenal
parasagittal
parasternal
parasympathetic
paraterminal gyrus
parathyroid glands
paraventricular nucleus
parenchyma
paresis
paresthesia
parietal bones
parietal cell
parietal lobe
parotid bed
parotid duct
parotid gland
parturition
parotid papilla
parotid sheath
pars flaccida
pars opercularis
pars tensa
parvicellular neurosecretory nuclei
patella
patellar reflex
pecten pubis
pectinate
pectineal
pectineus
pectoral
pectoral girdle
pectoralis
pectoralis major
pectoralis minor
pedicle
peduncle
pellucidum
pelvic diaphragm
pelvic floor
pelvic inlet
pelvic outlet
pelvis
penis
pennate
pennatus
periamygdaloid area
periamygdaloid cortex
perianal
periaqueductal gray
pericardium
perichondrium
pericranium
perikaryon
perilymph
perineum
perineurium
periodontal ligament
periosteum
peripheral
peripheral nervous system
perirhinal cortex
peristalsis
peritoneal cavity
peritoneum
periventricular nucleus
peroneal artery
Persistent truncus arteriosus
pes anserinus
pes hippocampi
petrosal ganglion
petrosal ridge
petrous bone
petrous pyramid
Peyer's patches
phalanges
phalanges of the foot
phalanges of the hand
phallus
pharyngeal constrictor muscles
pharyngeal plexus
pharyngeal recess
pharyngeal tonsil
pharyngobasilar fascia
pharyngotympanic tube
pharynx
philtrum
phonation
photoreceptors
phrenic nerve
phylogeny
pia mater
pilar cell
pillar of fauces
pilomotor
pilus
pineal body
pineal gland
pinna
piriformis
piriform sinus
pisiform
pituitary gland
placenta
plantar aponeurosis
platysma muscle
pleura
plexus
plica semilunaris
pollex
pollicis
pollux
pons
pontine nuclei
pontocerebellum
popliteal artery
popliteal bursa
popliteal fossa
popliteal vein
popliteus
portal vein
postcentral gyrus
posterior atlantooccipital membrane
posterior auricular artery
posterior cerebral artery
Posterior chamber of eyeball
posterior clinoid
posterior column-medial lemniscus tract
posterior commissure
posterior communicating artery
posterior cranial fossa
posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
posterior cruciate ligament
posterior ethmoidal foramina
posterior funiculus
posterior hypothalamus
posterior inferior cerebellar artery
posterior lobe of the cerebellum
posterior nasal artery
posterior septal artery
posterior spinal arteries
posterior spinocerebellar tract
posterior superior alveolar artery
posterior tibial artery
posterior triangle of the neck
posterolateral fissure
Postganglionic neuron
posture
precentral gyrus
precuneus
prefrontal cortex
preganglionic
preganglionic neurons
preganglionic parasympathetic neurons
preganglionic sympathetic neurons
premolar
premotor cortex
preoccipital notch
preoptic recess
preoptic region
prepuce
prepyriform cortex
presacral space
prevertebral fascia
primary fissure
primary olfactory cortex
primary sensory neuron
primary somatosensory cortex
proboscis
procerus
process
processus
profunda femoris artery
profundus
projection fibers
prominens
promontory
pronate
prone
proprioception
proprioceptive
proprius
prosection
prosector
prosencephalon
forebrain
prosopagnosia
prostate
prostatic urethra
protract
protrude
protuberance
proximal
psoas muscle
pterion
pterygoid plate
pterygoid process
pterygomandibular ligament
pterygopalatine foramen
pterygopalatine fossa
pterygopalatine ganglion
ptosis
puberty
pubic hair
pubic symphysis
pubis
pudendal nerve
pulmonary
pulmonary alveolus
pulmonary trunk
pulmonary vein
pulp
pulvinar
punctum
pupil
pupillary dilatation
pupillary light reflex
purkinje cells
putamen
pyloric antrum
pyloric valve
pylorus
pyramid
pyramidal cell
pyramidal system
pyramidal tract
pyriform cortex
pyriform lobe
Q
quadrangular membrane
quadrangular space
quadrate
quadratojugal
quadriceps
quadrigeminal body
quadrigeminal plate
quadrigeminal plate cistern
quadrigeminus
quadriplegia
R
radial artery
radius
radula
rami communicantes
ramus
raphe
raphe nuclei
receptor layer of retina
rectum
rectus abdominis muscle
rectus capitis anterior muscle
rectus capitis lateralis muscle
rectus femoris muscle
rectus sheath
recurrent laryngeal nerve
red nucleus
reflex
Reissner's membrane
Reissner's fibre
renal artery
renal calices
renal capsule
renal cortex
renal hilus
renal pyramids
renal system
reproductive system
respiratory system
restiform body
rete
rete testis
reticular formation
reticular nucleus of thalamus
reticulospinal tract
reticulum (anatomy)
retina
retinaculum
retinal artery
retinotopic
retrobulbar neuritis
retrogastric area
retromandibular vein
Retromolar space
retroperitoneal
retropharyngeal space
retroversion
retrovisceral space
Rexed's laminae
rhinencephalon
rhombencephalon
rhomboid fossa
rib
right atrium
right colic artery
right common carotid artery
right gastroepiploic artery
right mainstem bronchi
right marginal artery
right pulmonary artery
right ventricle
rima glottidis
risorius
rod cells
rostrum of corpus callosum
rotator cuff
round ligament of the uterus
round window
rubrospinal tract
rugae
S
saccade
saccule
sacral ala
sacral vertebrae
sacral promontory
sacroiliac joint
sacrum
sagittal crest
sagittal suture
saliva
salivary gland
salpinx
saphenous vein
sartorius
satellite cells
scala media
scala tympani
scala vestibuli
scalp
scaphoid
scaphoid fossa
scapula
scar
Schwann cell
sciatic nerve
sclera
scleral venous sinus
sclerotome
scoliosis
scotoma
scrotum
scutum
sebaceous glands
secondary oocyte
secondary sensory neuron relay
secretion
sella turcica
semen
semicircular canal
semilunaris
semimembranosus
seminal vesicles
seminiferous tubules
semitendinosus
sensorimotor cortex
sensory decussation
sensory system
septal cartilage
septal nuclei
septal vein
septum
septum pellucidum
septum primum
septum secundum
serous
serous membrane
serous pericardium
sesamoid bone
sex organ
Sharpey's fibres
short ciliary nerves
shoulder
shoulder blade
shin
sight
sigmoid colon
sigmoid sinus
Simian crease
simian shelf
sinoatrial node
sinus
skeletal system
skeleton
skin
skull
small intestine
smegma
soft palate
sole (foot)
soleus
solitary nucleus
solitary tract
somatic
somatic motor nuclei
somite
spasm
spasticity
specific sensory nucleus of thalamus
spermatheca
spermatic cord
sphenoethmoidal recess
sphenoid bone
sphenoidal sinus
sphenopalatine artery
sphenopalatine foramen
sphincter
sphincter of the bile duct
sphincter of the pancreatic duct
spicule (nematode)
spicule (sponge)
spina bifida
spinal accessory nucleus
spinal cord
spinal lemniscus
spinal nerve
spine
spine of the scapula
spinocerebellar tract
spinocerebellum
spinocervical pathway
spinothalamic tract
spinous process
spiral ganglion
splanchnic nerves
spleen
splenic artery
splenic flexure
splenic vein
splenium of the corpus callosum
splenius capitis muscle
squamous
stapedius
stapes
stellate cell
stellate ganglion
stereocilia
stereognosis
sternoclavicular articulation
sternocleidomastoid muscle
sternohyoid muscle
sternothyroid muscle
sternum
stoma
stomach
straight sinus
strap muscles
Stratum lucidum
stratum zonale
stretch reflex
striae gravidarum
stria medullaris thalami
stria terminalis
striate cortex
striate nucleus
striatum
stroma
stylet
styloglossus muscle
stylohyoid muscle
styloid process
stylopharyngeus muscle
subarachnoid cisternae
subarachnoid space
subcallosal gyrus
subclavian artery
subclavian vein
subdural hematoma
subdural space
subglottic airway
subiculum
sublingual fossa
sublingual region
sublingual salivary gland
subluxation
submandibular duct
submandibular ganglion
submandibular gland
submandibular triangle
submental triangle
suboccipital muscle
suboccipital triangle
subscapularis muscle
Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
substantia innominata
substantia nigra
subthalamic nucleus
succus
sulcus
sulcus limitans
superciliary arch
superciliary line
superficial cervical muscle
superficial muscular aponeurotic system
superficial temporal artery
superior alveolar artery
superior cerebellar artery
superior cerebellar peduncle
superior cervical ganglion
superior colliculus
superior concha
superior gluteal artery
superior jugular bulb
superior laryngeal artery
superior laryngeal nerve
superior meatus
superior mesenteric artery
superior mesenteric vein
superior oblique muscle
superior olivary nucleus
superior ophthalmic vein
superior orbital fissure
superior petrosal sinus
superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle
superior pubic ramus
superior rectus
superior rectus muscle
superior sagittal sinus
superior salivatory nucleus
superior temporal gyrus
superior thyroid artery
superior thyroid vein
Superior tibiofibular joint
superior vena cava
superior vesicle artery
superior vestibular nucleus
supplementary motor cortex
supporting cell
suprachiasmatic cistern
supraclavicular nerves
supramarginal gyrus
supraoptic nucleus
supraorbital artery
supraorbital foramen
supraorbital nerve
suprapatellar bursa
sural nerve
suspensory ligament
sustentaculum tali
suture
sweat glands
sylvian fissure
sympathetic chain ganglion
sympathetic nerve
sympathetic nervous system
sympathetic trunk
symphysis
synapse
synaptic bouton
syncytium
syndesmosis
synovial fluid
synovial joint
systole
T
tabes dorsalis
taenia coli
tail of pancreas
talus
tapetum lucidum
tarsus
taste buds
taste pore
Tectorial membrane (cochlea)
Tectorial membrane of atlanto-axial joint
tectospinal tract
tectum
tegmen tympani
tegmentum
tela choroidae
telencephalon
temporal artery
temporal bone
temporal fascia
temporal gyrus
temporal lobe
temporal pole
temporalis muscle
temporomandibular joint
tendon
tensor tympani muscle
tensor veli palatini
tentorial incisure
tentorial notch
tentorium cerebelli
Terminal sulcus (heart)
Terminal sulcus of tongue
terminal vein
tertiary sensory neuron
testicle
testis
thalamic fasciculus
thalamogeniculate artery
thalamostriate fibers
thalamotomy
thalamus
thenar eminence
thigh
thigh bone
Third trochanter
third ventricle
thoracic aorta
thoracic cavity
thoracic duct
thoracic spine
thoracic vertebrae
thorax
thrombus
thymus
thyroarytenoid muscle
thyrocervical trunk
thyroepiglotticus muscle
thyroglossal duct
thyrohyoid membrane
thyrohyoid muscle
thyroid
thyroid cartilage
thyroid gland
tibia
tibial tuberosity
toe
tomogram
tongue
tonsil
tonsil of cerebellum
tooth
torcular herophili
torso
torticollis
torus
trabecula
trabecular meshwork
trachea
tract of Lissauer
tractus solitarius
tragus
transverse cervical artery
transverse cervical nerve
transverse colon
transverse facial artery
transverse pericardial sinus
transverse process
transverse sinus
transversus abdominis muscle
trapezium
trapezius
trapezoid
trapezoid body
triangle of auscultation
triangles of the neck
triceps
triceps reflex
tricuspid valve
trigeminal ganglion
trigeminal lemniscus
trigeminal nerve
Trigone of urinary bladder
triquetral
triticeal cartilage
Trochlea of humerus
Trochlea of superior oblique
trochlear nerve
trochlear nucleus
Trochlear process
true vocal cords
Truncus arteriosus (embryology)
tuber cinereum
tuberal nuclei
tuberal region of hypothalamus
tubercle
tubercle of rib
tuberculum impar
tuberoinfundibular tract
tuberosity
tunica vaginalis testis
turbinate
turbinate bone
tympanic cavity
tympanic membrane
tympanic plexus
tympanum
U
ulna
ulnar artery
ulnar nerve
umbilical folds
umbilicus
umbo
uncal cortex
uncal herniation
Uncinate process of ethmoid bone
Uncinate process of pancreas
Uncinate process of vertebra
Uncinate processes of ribs
upper motor neuron
urachus
ureter
urethra
urinary bladder
urogenital system
uterine cavity
uterine tube
uterus
utricle
uvea
uvula
V
vagina
vagus ganglia
vagus nerve
vallate papillae
vallecula
Valsalva maneuver
varicocele
varus deformity
vasa recta
vascular system
vein
velum
velum interpositum
vena terminalis
venogram
venter
ventral amygdalofugal pathway
ventral anterior thalamic nucleus
ventral cochlear nucleus
ventral corticospinal tract
ventral horn cell
ventral lateral nucleus of thalamus
ventral posterolateral nucleus
ventral posterolateral thalamus
ventral posteromedial nucleus
ventral root
ventral spinocerebellar tract
ventral trigeminothalamic tract
ventricle
ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus
vermiform appendix
vertebra
vertebral artery
vertebral body
vertebral canal
vertebral column
vertebral vein
vertebrobasilar system
vertigo
vesicle
vesiculae seminales
vestibular folds
vestibular ganglion
vestibular membrane
vestibular nuclei
Vestibule of the ear
vestibulocerebellar fiber
vestibulocerebellum
vestibulocochlear nerve
vestibuloocular reflexes
vestibulospinal tract
vibrissae
vidian nerve
vinculum (ligament)
viscera
visceromotor nuclei
viscus
Visible Human Project
visual cortex
visual fields
visual radiation
vitreous body
vitreous humor
vocal folds
vocal ligaments
vocalis muscle
volvulus
vomer
vomeronasal organ
vomiting center
vorticosae
vulva
W
Waldeyer's ring
Wernicke's area
Wharton's duct
Wharton's jelly
white matter
withdrawal reflex
wrist
X
xiphoid process
Z
zona incerta
zona pellucida
zootomy
zygapophysis
zygoma
Zygomatic arch
Zygomatic bone
Zygomatic branches of the facial nerve
Zygomaticus major muscle
Zygomaticus minor muscle
Zygomatic nerve
Zygomatic process
Zygomatic process of frontal bone
Zygomatic process of maxilla
Zygomatic process of temporal bone
zygote
Anatomy
Anatomical topics | [
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220092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divya | Divya | Divya may refer to:
Divya (name), a Hindu first name meaning "divine"
Divya Bhaskar, a Gujarati newspaper
Divya Desams, Srivaishnava shrines that were sung about by Azhvars
Divya Prabha Eye Hospital, eye care hospital in Kerala
Divya Shakti, 1993 Bollywood film
Divya Prabandha, a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses
Divya (rural locality), a rural locality (a settlement) in Perm Krai, Russia
Divya Barge (Dirsha) | [
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220097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Quebec | Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec | The Archdiocese of Québec (; ) is a Catholic archdiocese in Quebec, Canada. Being the first see in the New World north of Mexico, the Archdiocese of Québec is also the primatial see for Canada. The Archdiocese of Québec is also the ecclesiastical provincial for the dioceses of Chicoutimi, Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière and Trois-Rivières. The archdiocese's cathedral is Notre-Dame de Québec in Quebec City.
History
New France
From the beginning of colonisation of the New World, the Church influenced the politics and policies of New France. Even during the first voyages of Jacques Cartier in the 16th Century, missionary priests would accompany the explorers on their voyages to the New World. After two failed attempts to settle in Acadia, in 1608, Québec City was founded by Samuel de Champlain, giving the Church a solid base to spread the faith to the Indigenous populations. In 1615, the Recollet missionaries arrived in Québec, followed by the Jesuit missionaries 10 years later. Their presence would help drive the colonies, giving the colonizers a moral reason for their presence, as well as giving the Church an influential position in domestic and local policy. In 1658, the Church would establish an Apostolic Vicariate by Pope Alexander VII, 124 years since the first voyage of Jacques Cartier in 1534. The vicar apostolic was François de Laval. As The vicar apostolic of Québec, Laval was a central member of the Sovereign Council of New France. Arguably, while he was charged with only the spiritual matters of New France, he had the most influence as he was the highest representative of the Church, as well as having excellent relations with King Louis XIV. In 1663, Laval would establish the Seminary of Québec. In 1674, with the population of New France growing rapidly and the Seminary of Québec enrolling more students, Pope Clement X elevated the Apostolic Vicariate to a diocese, which would depend directly on the Holy See; this provision would later secure its permanence after New France passed into the hands of Great Britain in 1760. At its peak, in 1712, the Diocese of Québec covered the entire American continent to the Gulf of Mexico. Only the British colonies that would later become the United States and the Spanish colony of Florida were not under the authority of the Bishop of Quebec.
British Rule
Under British Rule, The peoples of Québec were discriminated against in respect of their Catholic faith and their language. Any person in the Empire wanting to take a position had to take the Test Oath which denounced their faith. Because almost all the colonists were French-speaking Catholics, the Test Oath prevented the local population from participating in local politics. However, in 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act that allowed Québec to restore the use of French customary law ("") in private matters alongside the British common law system, and allowed the Church to collect tithes on Roman Catholics businesses and property. In 1819, the diocese was elevated to an archdiocese. By 1840, political leaders formally recognized the Church. The Archdiocese of Québec was split into new dioceses as the population increased.
Today
It lost large pieces of its territory with the formation of the Dioceses of Halifax and Kingston in 1817, the Diocese of Charlottetown in 1829, the Diocese of St. Boniface in 1844 and the Diocese of Montréal in 1852.
It is common, but not inherent to the title, for the Archbishops of Québec to either be named to the cardinalate while serving or when transferred to a larger archdiocese or to a post in the Roman Curia.
Primate of Canada
Since 24 January 1956, the Archbishop of Québec has the ceremonial title of Primate of Canada; the title was given to the reigning Archbishop of Québec by Pope Pius XII.
Bishop's Palace and Chapel of Bishop's Palace
Built in 1693 to 1694 on order by Jean-Baptiste de La Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, the Chapel of Bishop's Palace was a private place of worship for the Bishop of Quebec and located within the residence (or Bishop's Palace).
Following the British conquest the Chapel was leased to Legislative Council of the Province of Quebec from 1777 to 1791 and successors Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada and Legislative Council of Lower Canada from 1791 to 1833.
The chapel was demolished in 1831 to build a new addition where the two legislative houses met from 1834 to 1839. The new addition and Bishop's residence would survived until it was demolished in 1852-1853. A new Bishop's residence by Thomas Baillarge was built in 1844 to 1847 slight north.
Preparing for the return of Parliament to Quebec City, a new parliamentary building was completed from 1853 to 1854 on Côte de la Montagne, but it burned down shortly after.
Parliament relocated within the city to Quebec Music Hall and Quebec City Courthouse until capital rotated out again.
Rebuilt by 1860 and served Parliament until 1866. The building was repurposed as Parliament of the new province of Quebec in 1867. A fire destroyed this building in 1883 and decision was made to relocate to the nearly complete new home which had begun construction since 1877. The burned out building was demolished by 1894. Today the old Parliament site is now home to Parc Montmorency.
Leadership
Ordinaries
Below is a list of individuals who have led the Archdiocese of Quebec and its antecedent jurisdictions since its founding.
Apostolic Vicars of New France
François de Laval (1658–1674)
Bishops of Québec
François de Laval (1674–1688)
Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier (1688–1727)
Louis-François Duplessis de Mornay (1727–1733)
Pierre-Herman Dosquet (1733–1739)
François-Louis de Pourroy de Lauberivière (1739–1740)
Henri-Marie Dubreil de Pontbriand (1741–1760)
Jean-Olivier Briand (1766–1784)
Louis-Philippe Mariauchau d'Esgly (1784–1788)
Jean-François Hubert (1788–1797)
Pierre Denaut (1797–1806)
Joseph-Octave Plessis (1806–1819)
Archbishops of Québec
Joseph-Octave Plessis (1819–1825)
Bernard-Claude Panet (1825–1833)
Joseph Signay (1833–1850)
Pierre-Flavien Turgeon (1850–1867)
Charles-François Baillargeon (1867–1870)
Cardinal Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau (1870–1898)
Cardinal Louis Nazaire Bégin (1898–1925)
Paul-Eugène Roy (1925–1926)
Cardinal Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau (1926–1931)
Cardinal Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve (1931–1947)
Cardinal Maurice Roy (1947–1981)
Cardinal Louis-Albert Vachon (1981–1990)
Maurice Couture (1990–2002)
Cardinal Marc Ouellet (2002–2010), appointed Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops
Cardinal Gérald Lacroix (2011–present)
Coadjutor archbishops
Under the Code of Canon Law, the coadjutor bishop has the right of succession (cum jure successionis) upon the death, retirement or resignation of the diocesan bishop he is assisting. All coadjutor ordinaries except for Charles-François Bailly de Messein eventually succeeded to become head of the Archdiocese of Quebec or its antecedent jurisdictions.
Louis-François Duplessis de Mornay (1713–1727), as coadjutor bishop
Pierre-Herman Dosquet (1729–1733), as coadjutor bishop
Louis-Philippe Mariauchau d'Esgly (1772–1784), as coadjutor bishop
Jean-François Hubert (1785–1788), as coadjutor bishop
Charles-François Bailly de Messein (1788–1794), as coadjutor bishop; did not succeed to the see
Pierre Denaut (1794–1797), as coadjutor bishop
Joseph-Octave Plessis (1800–1806), as coadjutor bishop
Bernard-Claude Panet (1806–1825)
Joseph Signay (1826–1833)
Pierre-Flavien Turgeon (1834–1850)
Charles-François Baillargeon (1851–1867)
Louis Nazaire Bégin (1892–1898); future Cardinal
Paul-Eugène Roy (1920–1925)
Auxiliary bishops
Unlike coadjutors, auxiliary bishops do not have the right of succession, per canon 975, §1 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Four auxiliaries went on to become Archbishop of Quebec.
Pierre-Herman Dosquet (1727–1729), appointed coadjutor of this archdiocese
Aeneas Bernard MacEachern (1819–1821), appointed Bishop of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island
Jean-Jacques Lartigue (1820–1836), appointed Bishop of Montréal, Québec
Pierre-Antoine Tabeau (1834); did not take effect
Joseph Norbert Provencher (1820–1844), appointed Vicar Apostolic of North-West (Nord-Ouest)
Paul-Eugène Roy (1908–1920), appointed coadjutor of this archdiocese
Joseph Alfred Langlois (1924–1926), appointed Bishop of Valleyfield, Québec
Joseph-Omer Plante (1927–1948)
Georges Léon Pelletier (1942–1947), appointed Bishop of Trois-Rivières, Québec
Charles-Omer Garant (1948–1962)
Lionel Audet (1952–1983)
Laurent Noël (1963–1975) (Apostolic Administrator of Hauterive, Québec, 1974–1975), appointed Bishop of Trois-Rivières, Québec
Louis-Albert Vachon (1977–1981), appointed Archbishop of this archdiocese; future Cardinal
Jean-Paul Labrie (1977–1995)
Maurice Couture (1982–1988), appointed Bishop of Baie-Comeau, Québec; later returned to this archdiocese as Archbishop
Marc Leclerc (1982–1998)
Joseph Paul Pierre Morissette (1987–1990), appointed Bishop of Baie-Comeau, Québec
Clément Fecteau (1989–1996), appointed Bishop of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, Québec
Eugène Tremblay (1994–2004), appointed Bishop of Amos, Québec
Jean-Pierre Blais (1994–2008), appointed Bishop of Baie-Comeau, Québec
Jean Gagnon (1998–2002), appointed Bishop of Gaspé, Québec
Pierre-André Fournier (2005–2008), appointed Archbishop of Rimouski, Québec
Gilles Lemay (2005–2011), appointed Bishop of Amos, Québec
Gérald Lacroix (2009–2011), appointed Archbishop of this archdiocese; future Cardinal
Paul Lortie (2009–2012), appointed Bishop of Mont-Laurier, Québec
Denis Grondin (2011–2015), appointed Archbishop of Rimouski, Québec
Louis Corriveau (2016–2019), appointed Bishop of Joliette, Québec
Marc Pelchat (2016–present)
Martin Laliberté (2019–present)
Other priests of this diocese who became bishops
Thomas Maguire, appointed Coadjutor Vicar Apostolic of Nova Scotia in 1819; did not take effect
Rémi Gaulin, appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Kingston, Ontario in 1833
Michael Power, appointed Bishop of Toronto, Ontario in 1841
William Dollard (Dullard), appointed Bishop of New Brunswick in 1842
Francis Xavier Norbert Blanchet, appointed Vicar Apostolic of Oregon Territory, USA in 1843
John Charles Prince, appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Montréal, Québec in 1844
Augustin Magloire Alexandre Blanchet, appointed Bishop of Walla Walla, Oregon, USA in 1846
Joseph La Rocque, appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Montréal, Québec in 1852
Charles LaRocque, appointed Bishop of Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec in 1866
Jean-Pierre-François Laforce Langevin, appointed Bishop of Rimouski (St. Germain of), Québec in 1867
Olivier Elzéar Mathieu, appointed Bishop of Regina, Saskatchewan in 1911
Arthur Douville, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec in 1939
Bruno Desrochers, appointed Bishop of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, Québec in 1951
Paul Bernier, appointed titular Archbishop in 1952
Louis Joseph Jean Marie Fortier, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, Québec in 1960
Jean-Guy Couture, appointed Bishop of Hauterive, Québec in 1975
Noël Simard, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Sault Sainte Marie, Ontario in 2008
Recent appointments
On February 22, 2011, Vatican Information Service (VIS) and Catholic News Service (CNS), announced that Pope Benedict XVI had named the 53-year-old Bishop Gérald Lacroix, until then an Auxiliary Bishop (assistant bishop) of Quebec (since 2009), as the new Metropolitan Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and Primate of Canada. As archbishop, he succeeds Marc Ouellet, his former superior, who became the prefect of one of the Roman Curia's most important administrative departments, the Sacred Congregation for Bishops, in July 2010. Lacroix is a member of the Quebec-based Saint Pope Pius X Secular Institute. Lacroix was born in Saint-Hilaire-de-Dorset, Quebec, on July 27, 1957, the eldest son in a family of seven children. At the age of 8, his family settled in Manchester, largest city of New Hampshire (in the U.S.), where he attended the parochial elementary school of Saint Anthony of Padua and Trinity High School. He studied one year at Saint Anselm College in neighboring Goffstown. He joined the Pius X Secular Institute as a consecrated lay member in 1975, and made perpetual vows in 1982. The same year, he was named secretary general of the institute. He earned a master's degree in pastoral theology at Laval University, and from 1985 to 1987, directed the La Maison du Renouveau, a formation and Christian renewal centre. He was ordained a priest on October 8, 1988, in the parish of Notre-Dame-de-la-Recouvrance. He was ordained to the episcopacy as Auxiliary Bishop of Quebec on May 24, 2009.
On December 12, 2011, Pope Benedict appointed Gaetan Proulx and Denis Grondin Jr. as Auxiliary Bishops of the Archdiocese of Quebec to serve under Lacroix. They were ordained to the episcopacy as Auxiliary Bishops of Quebec on February 25, 2012.
On May 4, 2015, Pope Francis appointed Bishop Grondin as Archbishop of Rimouski.
On July 2, 2016, Pope Francis appointed Bishop Proulx as Bishop of Gaspé. On October 25, 2016, the same pope appointed Louis Corriveau and Marc Pelchat as Auxiliary Bishops of the Archdiocese. In 2019, he transferred Bishop Corriveau to a diocesan post elsewhere, and on November 25 appointed Martin Laliberté, P.M.E. as auxiliary here.
References
External links
Voisine, Nive. Histoire Du Catholicisme Québécois. Montréal, Montreal: Boréal Express, Boreal express, 1984.
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220101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinling%20Gibbons | Grinling Gibbons | Grinling Gibbons (4 April 1648 – 3 August 1721) was an Anglo-Dutch sculptor and wood carver known for his work in England, including Windsor Castle and Hampton Court Palace, St Paul's Cathedral and other London churches, Petworth House and other country houses, Trinity College, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge. Gibbons was born and educated in Holland of English parents, his father being a merchant. He was a member of the Drapers' Company of London. He is widely regarded as the finest wood carver working in England, and the only one whose name is widely known among the general public. Most of his work is in lime (Tilia) wood, especially decorative Baroque garlands made up of still-life elements at about life size, made to frame mirrors and decorate the walls of churches and palaces, but he also produced furniture and small relief plaques with figurative scenes. He also worked in stone, mostly for churches. By the time he was established he led a large workshop, and the extent to which his personal hand appears in later work varies.
Life
Very little is known about his early life. The name Grinling is formed from sections of two family names.
He was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and it is sometimes thought that his father may have been the Englishman Samuel Gibbons, who worked under Inigo Jones, but even two of his closest acquaintances, the portrait painter Thomas Murray and the diarist John Evelyn, cannot agree on how he came to be introduced to King Charles II. He moved to Deptford, England, around 1667, and by 1693 had accepted commissions from the royal family and had been appointed as a master carver. By 1680 he was already known as the "King's Carver", and carried out exquisite work for St Paul's Cathedral, Windsor Castle, and the Earl of Essex's house at Cassiobury. His carving was so fine that it was said a pot of carved flowers above his house in London would tremble from the motion of passing coaches.
The diarist Evelyn first discovered Gibbons' talent by chance in 1671. Evelyn, from whom Gibbons rented a cottage near Evelyn's home in Sayes Court, Deptford (today part of south-east London), wrote the following: "I saw the young man at his carving, by the light of a candle. I saw him to be engaged on a carved representation of Tintoretto's "Crucifixion", which he had in a frame of his own making." Later that same evening, Evelyn described what he had seen to Sir Christopher Wren. Wren and Evelyn then introduced him to King Charles II who gave him his first commission – still resting in the dining room of Windsor Castle.
Gibbons was a member of the Drapers' Company in the City of London, being admitted by patrimony in 1672 and called to the livery in 1685. He was elected to the court and as a warden and then stood for election to be Master in 1718, 1719 and 1720, losing to an alderman each time.
Horace Walpole later wrote about Gibbons: "There is no instance of a man before Gibbons who gave wood the loose and airy lightness of flowers, and chained together the various productions of the elements with the free disorder natural to each species."
Gibbons is buried at St Paul's, Covent Garden, London.
Work
Gibbons was employed by Wren to work on St Paul's Cathedral and later was appointed as master carver to George I. He was also commissioned by King William III to create carvings, some of which adorn Kensington Palace today. An example of his work can be seen in the Presence Chamber above the fireplace, which was originally intended to frame a portrait of Queen Mary II after her death in 1694. Also in the Orangery at Kensington, you can see some his pieces. Many fine examples of his work can still be seen in the churches around London, particularly the choir stalls and organ case of St Paul's Cathedral. Some of the finest Gibbons carvings accessible to the general public are those on display at the National Trust's Petworth House in West Sussex. At Petworth the Carved Room is host to a fine and extensive display of intricate wooden carvings by Gibbons.
His work can be seen in the London churches of St Michael Paternoster Royal and St James, Piccadilly, where he carved the wood reredos and marble font. The Anglican dislike of painted altarpieces typically left a large space on the east wall that needed filling, which often gave Grinling's garlands a very prominent position, as here.
In 1682 King Charles II commissioned Gibbons to carve a panel as a diplomatic gift for his political ally Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Cosimo Panel is an allegory of art triumphing over hatred and turmoil and includes a medallion with a low relief of Pietro da Cortona, Cosimo's favourite painter. The panel is housed in the Pitti Palace in Florence. It was recently displayed in the United Kingdom in the Grinling Gibbons and the Art of Carving exhibition held at the V&A from 22 October 1998 until 24 January 1999.
In 1685 the new king James II asked Gibbons to carve a panel for another Italian ally, the Duke of Modena Francesco II, brother to his second wife Mary of Modena. The Modena Panel is a memento mori for Charles II who died earlier that year and includes a funeral dirge from the play The Contention of Ajax and Ulysses by dramatist James Shirley: "There is no armour against fate; Death lays its icy hand on kings: Sceptre and crown must tumble down". It also features a medallion self-portrait of Gibbons. The panel is displayed in the Estense Gallery in Modena.
St Peter and St Paul church in Exton, Rutland, has a fine marble tomb by Gibbons, dating from 1685, showing Viscount Campden with his fourth wife, Elizabeth Bertie, and carvings of his 19 children.
Many experienced Flemish sculptors such as Arnold Quellin (the son of Artus Quellinus II), John Nost, Anthony Verhuke, Laurens van der Meulen and Peter van Dievoet also worked in Gibbon's London workshop as "servants", i.e. collaborators. As these Flemish artists were not trainees they were never entered in the Draper's records. In a document dated 1679 van der Meulen, Quellin and Verhuke are referred to as servants of Gibbons. Many of them left London and returned to their home country after the revolution of 1688. In the Gibbons workshop these Flemish artists worked on various commissions but the contributions of particular artists active in the workshop are not always identifiable. Laurens van der Meulen and Peter van Dievoet are known to have collaborated on the creation of the statue of King James II during their stay in the workshop of Gibbons.
St Michael and All Angels Church, Badminton, has a monument by Gibbons to Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort (1629–1700). He was buried alongside his ancestors in the Beaufort Chapel in St George's Chapel, Windsor, but the monument was moved to Badminton in 1878. The monument by Gibbons is now on the north side of the chancel at St Michael and All Angels Church, Badminton, and consists of an effigy of the Duke in Garter robes, reclining on a sarcophagus and a plinth with relief of St George and the Dragon. There are twin Corinthian columns with embossed shafts, acanthus frieze, cornice with flaming urns, and the Duke's arms and supporters. At the top, 25 ft from the ground, is a tasseled cushion supporting a coronet; on the plinth are full-length female figures of Justice and Truth. Above the Duke's effigy, parted curtains show the heavenly host with palms and crowns. The Latin inscription displays the names of his family and the many offices he held.
Gibbons also made the monument for Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell, who was killed in a disastrous shipwreck in 1707. Shovell's large marble monument can be seen in the south choir aisle of Westminster Abbey.
Gibbons' work very often included carvings of peapods. A myth states that he would include a closed pod in his work, only carving it open once he had been paid. If the pea pod was left shut it supposedly showed that he had not been paid for the work.
Legacy
Gibbons' association with Deptford is commemorated locally: Grinling Gibbons Primary School is in Clyde Street, near the site of Sayes Court in Deptford. Parts of New Cross and Deptford were in the "Grinling Gibbons" council ward from 1978 to 1998.
Bibliography
The Carved Cartoon: A Picture of the Past, Austin Clare 1873
The Work of Grinling Gibbons, Geoffrey Beard, John Murray 1989
Grinling Gibbons and the Art of Carving, David Esterly, V&A Publications 2000
Notes
External links
1648 births
1721 deaths
English sculptors
English male sculptors
English woodcarvers
Dutch sculptors
Dutch male sculptors
Artists from Rotterdam
17th-century English artists
18th-century English artists | [
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220103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20law | Private law | Private law is that part of a civil law legal system which is part of the jus commune that involves relationships between individuals, such as the law of contracts and torts (as it is called in the common law), and the law of obligations (as it is called in civil legal systems). It is to be distinguished from public law, which deals with relationships between both natural and artificial persons (i.e., organizations) and the state, including regulatory statutes, penal law and other law that affects the public order. In general terms, private law involves interactions between private individuals, whereas public law involves interrelations between the state and the general population.
Concept
One of the five capital lawyers in Roman law, Domitius Ulpianus, (170–223) – who differentiated ius publicum versus ius privatum – the European, more exactly the continental law, philosophers and thinkers want(ed) to put each branch of law into this dichotomy: Public and Private Law. "huius studdii duæ sunt positiones: publicum et privatum. Publicum ius est, quod statum rei Romanæ spectat, privatum, quod ad singulorum utilitatem; sunt enim quædam publice utila, quædam privatim". (Public law is that, which concerns Roman state, private law is concerned with the interests of citizens.) In the modern era Charles-Louis Montesquieu (1689–1755) amplified supremely this distinction: International (law of nations), Public (politic law) and Private (civil law) Law, in his major work: (On) The Spirit of the Law (1748). "Considered as inhabitants of so great a planet, which necessarily contains a variety of nations, they have laws relating to their mutual intercourse, which is what we call the law of nations. As members of a society that must be properly supported, they have laws relating to the governors and the governed, and this we distinguish by the name of politic law. They have also another sort of law, as they stand in relation to each other; by which is understood the civil law."
Private law in common law jurisdictions
The concept of private law in common law countries is a little more broad, in that it also encompasses private relationships between governments and private individuals or other entities. That is, relationships between governments and individuals based on the law of contract or torts are governed by private law, and are not considered to be within the scope of public law.
Areas of private law
Agricultural law
Business law
Company law
Commercial law
Civil law
Law of obligations
Contract law
Tort law
Law of unjust enrichment and quasi-contracts
Trust law
Law of agency
Property law
Family law - family-related issues and domestic relations including marriage, civil unions, divorce, spousal abuse, child custody and visitation, property, alimony, and child support awards, child abuse issues, and adoption.
Succession - estate planning, testate and intestate succession, probate, and law of wills
Consumer protection
International private law
Labour law
Transport law
See also
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law
International Journal of Private Law
Polycentric law
Private law society
Social law
References
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220104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex%20University | Middlesex University | Middlesex University London (legally Middlesex University and abbreviated MDX) is a public research university in Hendon, northwest London, England. The name of the university is taken from its location within the historic county boundaries of Middlesex.
The university's history can be traced to 1878 when its founding institute, St Katharine's College, was established in Tottenham as a teacher training college for women. Having merged with several other institutes, the university was consolidated in its current form in 1992. It is one of the post-1992 universities (former polytechnics).
Middlesex has a student body of over 19,000 in London and over 37,000 globally. The university has student exchange links with over 100 universities in 22 countries across Europe, the United States, and the world. More than 140 nationalities are represented at Middlesex's Hendon campus alone. Additionally, it has campuses in Malta, Dubai and Mauritius as well as a number of local offices across the globe. Courses are delivered by the Faculty of Science and Technology, Faculty of Professional and Social Sciences, and the Faculty of the Arts and Creative Industries.
In 2017, it was awarded Silver by the Teaching Excellence Framework. The university has been awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize three times and has twice received Queen's Award for Enterprise for its international work.
History
For 140 years, the institutions which eventually formed Middlesex University have been based in North London. The university grew out of mergers between different schools and colleges in the area beginning in 1878 when St. Katherine's College, a female teacher training college, was created in Tottenham. It was joined by Hornsey College of Art, founded in 1882, Ponders End Technical Institute, founded in 1901, and Hendon Technical Institute, opened in 1939.
In 1973, these colleges and further institutions around North London formed Middlesex Polytechnic. In 1992 Middlesex University was established from Middlesex Polytechnic by Royal Assent as part of the Further and Higher Education Act. More institutions joined at this time as Middlesex expanded further.
From the 1990s, the university began to develop its international presence with their first overseas regional office in Kuala Lumpur. In 1995, a network of regional offices opened across Europe. In 2005, Middlesex opened its first overseas campus in Dubai followed by a campuses in Mauritius in 2009 and Malta in 2013. The university also has partnerships with other educational institutions around the world.
The university has now consolidated its many London campuses into one Hendon campus where it now accommodates all its London-based teaching.
Timeline
1878 – St Katherine's College, Tottenham founded
1882 – Hornsey College of Art founded
1893 – Berridge House, Hampstead founded
1901 – Ponders End Technical Institute begins
1939 – Hendon Technical Institute opens
1947 – Trent Park College of Education opens
1962 – New College of Speech and Drama opens
1962 – Ponders End Technical Institute is renamed Enfield College of Technology by the Ministry of Education.
1964 – St Katherine's College unites with Berridge House to form The College of All Saints
1973 – Middlesex Polytechnic formed
1974 – Trent Park College of Education and New College of Speech and Drama join Middlesex Polytechnic
1978 – The College of All Saints closes, with the buildings (and remaining students and staff) transferred to Middlesex Polytechnic
1991 – David Melville becomes the first Vice-Chancellor
1992 – Middlesex University formed; Baroness Platt of Writtle becomes the first Chancellor of the university; First overseas regional office opens in Kuala Lumpur
1994 – The London College of Dance becomes part of the university
1995 – North London College of Health becomes part of the university; Regional offices open in Europe
1996 – Michael Driscoll becomes the Vice-Chancellor; Middlesex receives its first Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education
1998 – Whittington Hospital (Archway Wing) is jointly purchased with University College London (UCL) from National Health Service (NHS); Queen's Anniversary Prize awarded for the second time;
1999 – Middlesex achieves Investors in People status
2000 – Lord Sheppard of Didgemere becomes Chancellor; Museum of Domestic Design and Architecture on the Cat Hill campus opens to the public; Middlesex awarded third Queen's Anniversary Prize; Hendon campus redevelopment begins
2003 – Rebranding initiated in 2001 is completed with the approval of new university logo; Bounds Green campus closes; Queen's Award for Enterprise received
2004 – London Sport Institute established within the School of Health and Social Sciences
2005 – First overseas campus opens in Dubai (UAE); Tottenham campus closes with most programmes transferred to Trent Park campus
2007 – Middlesex Media programmes awarded Skillset Media Academy status by the Government Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills
2008 – Enfield campus closes in summer – programmes, students and staff relocate to Hendon
2009 – Second overseas campus opens in Mauritius
2010 – Philosophy research centre and postgraduate programmes relocate to Kingston University after a decision to close taught programmes and subsequent campaign to save them
2011 – 2nd Queen's Award for Enterprise; to charge £9,000 a year in tuition fees – maximum under government legislation; Cat Hill closed, relocated to Trent Park and Hendon. 200 redundancies to make £10m of savings
2012 – Trent Park campus closed and programmes relocated to flagship campus in Hendon.
2013 – Closure of Archway campus and transfer of programmes to Hendon. All UK teaching at Hendon. Third international campus opens in Malta
2015 – Professor Tim Blackman becomes the Vice-Chancellor
2016 – Inauguration of the new hall of residence "Unite Olympic Way" at London Campus with 700 new rooms for Middlesex University students.
2016 – Inauguration of the new building "Forum North" (London Campus). "Forum North" houses Art & Design, Media & Performing Arts and Science & Technology facilities in an impressive eco-friendly building.
2017 – The £18 million Ritterman building is opened. It is home to the UK's first cyber factory
2018 – Middlesex University's Students’ Union is awarded Students’ Union of the Year ----
Restructuring
In May 2001 the university appointed C Eye, a branding consultancy, to design a new logo. In 2003, the previous "M" logo was replaced with a new red-coloured wavy line intended to express a flexible and responsive approach to the needs of students.
Following the review of the sustainability of its academic programmes, the university implemented a series of cuts over 2005–2006. In late 2005 it decided to stop offering history courses in an attempt to reduce a £10 million deficit. The decision was met with hostility from Middlesex's student union as well as from the National Union of Students. In other moves to save costs, the university made 175 voluntary redundancies, including 33 academic staff, a measure that was intended to save £5 million.
Since 2000, Middlesex has embarked on a strategy to achieve "fewer, better campuses" to reduce costs and improve its long-term sustainability. The strategy translated into the disposal of several small arts campuses in Bedford, Hampstead and Wood Green and the larger, but still uneconomic and unattractive campuses at Bounds Green, Enfield and Tottenham. The university also closed the Corporate Services building at the North London Business Park and consolidated most of the functions carried out on these sites at Hendon, where it aims to accommodate nearly all its London-based teaching.
In 2010, Middlesex announced the closure of its Philosophy department, because it was judged to be not financially sustainable. This was despite the fact that it had been the highest ranking department in the university's latest Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) in 2008, building on its grade of 5 in the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise. An international campaign of support was quickly organised, with figures such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Jean-Luc Nancy, Slavoj Žižek, Étienne Balibar, David Harvey, Isabelle Stengers expressing their strong disapproval. Articles condemning the decision appeared in the national press and students protested on campus and elsewhere for its restitution. In early June 2010 it was announced that the postgraduate component, the CRMEP, was to be transferred to Kingston University, but the undergraduate programme was still to be phased out.
Campuses
The university has consolidated most of its activities onto the Hendon campus in London with all teaching located at Hendon from autumn 2013. All older campuses were closed – Bounds Green (2003), Tottenham (2005), Enfield (2008), Cat Hill (2011), Trent Park (2012), and Archway and Hospitals (2013) – while Hendon received substantial investment in facilities and infrastructure to accommodate new students and programmes.
Since 2004, the university has also been operating an overseas campus in Dubai and opened another one in Mauritius in October 2009. In September 2013, Middlesex opened its third international campus in Malta.
Current campuses
London: Hendon
The Hendon campus is located in North West London, near Hendon Central Underground station. Its main College Building was built in the neo-Georgian style by H.W. Burchett and opened in 1939 as part of Hendon Technical Institute. This was extended in 1955 and in 1969 when a new refectory and engineering block were added, and later expanded using a number of London Borough of Barnet office buildings including the current Town Hall and Library.
Over £200m has been invested to transform the University's Hendon site into one of London's biggest campuses. The main College Building was refurbished in a £40 million project which included the addition of a glass-covered central courtyard forming Ricketts Quadrangle. In 2004, the new Learning Resource Centre, the Sheppard Library, opened to offer 24/7 access to over 1,000 study areas and specialist facilities including a Financial Markets Suite, Law Wing, and Teaching Resources Room.
The Ritterman Building is one of Middlesex University's newest development, and was opened in February 2017. It provides over 3,300 square metres of additional teaching space for both the Faculty of Science and Technology, and the Faculty of Arts and Creative Industries, and is home to the UK's first 'Cyber Factory'. Its design incorporates sustainable technologies including solar panels, a bio-diverse green roof, and living walls irrigated by rainwater harvesting.
Other specialist facilities include bioscience and biomedical science laboratories, nursing and midwifery simulation labs.
The Hendon campus has a number of sports facilities, including a fitness studio, 7-a-side football pitches, floodlit outdoor courts (MACS), a bouldering wall, and one of the few real tennis courts in the UK. In October 2013, the University opened a new sports science facility at Allianz Park (the new stadium of Saracens Rugby Club) in Hendon. The refurbished university gym, Fitness Pod, opened in 2017 to offer gym and leisure facilities to students, staff and the local community.
The University recently opened its new Campuses called Subash Pun Campus aka Subasha Timro.
On the other side it opened its new campus Buddha Gurung Campus.
Dubai
In 2005, the university opened a campus in the Dubai Knowledge Village as part of Dubai's Technology and Media Free Zone. This is a joint venture with Middlesex Associates, a business consortium in Dubai. The campus was the first Middlesex campus outside North London. It provides courses in Accounting and Finance, Business and Management, Computing and IT, Education, Law and Politics, Marketing, Media and Communications, Psychology, Social Science and International Tourism Management.
The campus is licensed by Dubai Knowledge and Human Authority (KHDA), and its programmes are approved by the KHDA. In August 2009, KHDA's University Quality Assurance International Board (UQAIB) commended the quality of university's programmes.
The Dubai campus had enrolled over 3,200 students, and houses a 100 diverse nationalities, as of 2020 and through the years.
In 2017, the university hosted the EU and UAE conference regarding the Rule of Law and Arbitration, where the Head of Delegation of the European Union to the United Arab Emirates, along with the legal director of Clyde & Co and the head of advocacy of Taylor Wessing were present.
In August 2019, the university was chosen to be a partner of the PRCA in the Middle East and North Africa region.
Mauritius
Located in Bonne Terre, a suburb of Vacoas-Phoenix, the 7,800 sq metre campus officially opened in 2010, the first British university to open in the country. It features a Learning Resource Centre, open access and computer suites, and dining and social spaces as well as on-site accommodation. Lecturing academics based at the Mauritius campus work in partnership with the academic programme team based at Middlesex's London campuses to ensure the quality standards of the UK programmes are maintained in curriculum delivery, teaching styles and assessment.
In October 2017, Middlesex opened its new campus at Cascavelle. The new campus has biodiversity and psychology labs and a student house for clubs and societies. Over 1,000 students, from 25 nationalities around the world, study both undergraduate and postgraduate courses at the campus.
Malta
In 2013 Middlesex opened its newest campus in Malta in Pembroke on Malta's northeast coast. The campus is shared with academic partner STC Training and offers a variety of business and science and technology courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including top-up and postgraduate courses in Computing, IT and business.
In February 2019, it was announced that the Malta campus will close by September 2022.
Former campuses
Archway and Hospitals
The campus was closed in 2013, to help provide students with better facilities than those allowed by the old building at the Archway Campus.
Archway and Hospitals campus was primarily the domain of the School of Health and Social Sciences. It operated from four sites (hospitals): Royal Free Hospital, Whittington Hospital (Archway Wing) (jointly owned with UCL), Chase Farm and North Middlesex.
On 24 January 2007 the university inaugurated a new Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL) Mental Health and Social Work based at Archway campus. CETL status was bestowed on the Mental Health and Social Work Academic Group at the university in partnership with the Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health in 2005. Consequently, the Centre was awarded a capital grant of £1.4 million along with an annual revenue of £350,000 for five years, representing one of the largest ever funding initiatives by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). This funding enabled the university to establish new teaching facilities at its Archway campus with the aim of creating an academic community of mental health and social work practitioners, students and faculty in one location.
Subject focus: Nursing, midwifery, complementary health, sport science and social work.
Trent Park
Trent Park campus was closed in 2012 and all departments were moved to the main campus in Hendon. The campus was set within a country park, which was originally a fourteenth-century hunting ground of Henry IV. The focus of the campus was a palatial mansion, designed by Sir William Chambers in the 18th century. After the Second World War, the Ministry of Education used the house as an emergency teacher training centre, which became a residential teacher training college, called Trent Park College of Education in 1951. In 1974 the college was incorporated into Middlesex Polytechnic.
In 2012 around 16% of Middlesex students were based at Trent Park campus. The university's Summer School, which accounts for 0.2% of Middlesex students, also took place here. The university had ambitious plans to redevelop the site, but they were twice rejected by Enfield Council on environmental concerns.
The Trent Park site was purchased by a developer who received the necessary permits in October 2017 to build 262 residential units. The university campus buildings were removed prior to the development.
Subject focus: Dance, drama and performing arts, English language and literature, media, culture and communication, music, theatre arts, languages and translation studies, product design, Teaching and education. It was also home to the Flood Hazard Research Centre, which moved there when Enfield campus closed in July 2008. The Flood Hazard Research Centre is still part of Middlesex University but is now based at North London Business Park in New Southgate.
Tottenham
The campus was closed in summer 2005, its programmes of study having moved to the university's other campuses. What was the Tottenham campus started life as St Katharine's College, one of the first British teacher training colleges in 1878, later to become the College of All Saints, a Church of England college of higher education and a constituent college of the Institute of Education, University of London, for whose degrees it taught. The name change was a result of the 1964 union of St Katharine's with Berridge House, Hampstead, on the Tottenham site. The college expanded in the 1960s, although much of the campus retained its Victorian architecture. The College was highly regarded while part of the University of London, but its reputation suffered almost immediately once it was incorporated into Middlesex.
After the closure of the college and the union with Middlesex Polytechnic, the 'All Saints' campus was home to humanities and cultural studies, business studies, law, sociology and women's studies, all of which have been moved to other campuses. The buildings, previously occupied by the university, were demolished and the site is now the home of the Haringey Sixth Form College. The College of All Saints Foundation, dating from the 1964 union, continues as the All Saints Educational Trust.
Bounds Green
Bounds Green campus, home to the Engineering and Information Technology schools was sold to a residential developer in December 2003. It was used extensively for location shooting for the 1989 film, Wilt.
Enfield
The history of Enfield Campus began with the history of electric light. In 1901, Joseph Wilson Swan bought a house in Ponders End High Street that became the Ediswan Institute. Four years later Ediswan Institute was bought by Middlesex County Council and became the Ponders End Technical Institute. By 1937 The Ponders End Technical Institute was growing so rapidly that it was decided to build a new college across the road in Queensway. Due to the Second World War, it was not completed until 1953, but the unfinished buildings were in use throughout the war. By now it was called Enfield Technical College, but in 1962 it was renamed Enfield College of Technology by the Ministry of Education. In 1973 the college formed part of Middlesex Polytechnic.
There are four major buildings on campus: Broadbent, Roberts building (or Tower Block), McCrae and Pascal. They are named after people who helped to create it.
Broadbent, the main building of Enfield Campus, is named after Henry Winterbottom Broadbent, a mechanical engineer who was appointed first Principal of Enfield Technical College in January 1941.
Roberts tower block was named after a local industrialist George A. Roberts, who was chair of Enfield College's governing body from 1949 to 1968.
McCrae building was the first extension to Enfield Technical College. Built in 1955, it was later named after Roderick McCrae, who was the Principal from 1955 to 1962.
Pascal building is named after Eric Pascal who was Education Officer of the Borough of Enfield from before 1942 until 1945 or later, and clerk to the Governors of Enfield College from 1949 to 1965. The campus was closed in July 2008, and the majority of departments moved to the extended Hendon campus and some to the Archway Campus shared with UCL.
Cat Hill
In March 2011 Cat Hill campus was sold to the L&Q housing association as part of the university's plans to centralise its courses in Hendon. The campus closed in September 2011 and students moved to a new £80 million 'Grove' building on the university's Hendon campus.
Cat Hill Campus was located in Cockfosters. It was originally the Hornsey College of Art, founded in 1880. In the late 1970s the campus was extended to become the Faculty of Art & Design of the then Middlesex Polytechnic.
Organisation and governance
Faculties
The university is divided into three faculties:
Faculty of Arts and Creative Industries
The Faculty of Arts and Creative Industries is home to the Departments of Media, Performing Arts, Design and Visual Arts.
Faculty of Professional and Social Sciences
The Faculty of Professional and Social Sciences groups subjects from the Business School, Institute for Work Based Learning, School of Law, and School of Health and Education.
Faculty of Science and Technology
The Faculty of Science and Technology brings together subjects including biomedical science, computer science, design engineering, telecommunications and computer engineering, mathematics and statistics, information systems and environmental science. The Faculty is home to the Departments of Natural Sciences, Computer Science, Design Engineering and Mathematics, Psychology, and the London Sports Institute.
Governance
Middlesex has both a Board of Governors and an Executive Team, both of which are led by Vice-Chancellor, Tim Blackman.
Chancellors
1992–2000 – Beryl Platt, Baroness Platt of Writtle
2000–2013 – Allen Sheppard, Baron Sheppard of Didgemere
2013–present – Janet Ritterman
Vice-Chancellors
1972–1991 – Raymond Rickett (academic)
1992–1996 – David Melville
1992–2015 – Michael Driscoll
2015–2019 – Tim Blackman
Tim Blackman announced his resignation in May 2019 to take the role of Vice-Chancellor at the Open University.
Research
Middlesex's research covers a wide spectrum of subjects across its three faculties including Art and Design, Education, Human, Social and Economic Geography, Law, Music, Professional Practice, Software Engineering and Algorithms.
Research covers 29 areas. The UK Funding Councils' 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF) rated 58% of research submitted to be world and internationally excellent.
The UK Funding Councils' 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF) rated 90% of Middlesex's research internationally recognised.
In 2011 the university's research project on age diversity was selected for inclusion in the Research Councils' "Big Ideas for the Future" report. The report brings together the leading research projects currently taking place across UK universities.
Student life
The university has a student body of around 19,000, in London and over 37,000 globally. The university has student exchange links with over 100 universities in 22 countries across Europe, the United States, and the world.
Until recently the number of students at the university has been declining fast, hitting a four-year low of 21,350 in the academic year of 2008–2009. The number of PG students fell 20% in four years (from over 6,000 graduates in 2005 to less than 5,000 in 2009), while the number of non-EU students were down by a third over the same period. In the academic year of 2009–2010, however, the number of students across all categories increased sharply. The trend continued the following year with particularly high increase in the number of students from the EU.
In 2010 Middlesex had one of the biggest increases in applications at any university – more than 30% – but the demand for places had still grown by another 11% at the start of 2011.
Students' Union
Middlesex Students' Union (MDXSU) is a non-profit organisation, separate to the university, which acts as the voice of students at Middlesex and supports them throughout their studies. The Students' Union provides social and skill-building opportunities through societies, events, volunteering and the student-run media. The latter, POW! Media, includes a termly magazine, radio station, TV channel and online blog showcasing student content. MDXSU is led by four Student Officers who are elected each spring by students at Middlesex.
In 1981, Union president Nick Harvey joined protests outside Rochester Row police station after six Irish students were detained without charge under the Prevention of Terrorism Act. That year, student John Kennedy stood in the Crosby by-election to highlight the case of seven students suspended from the Polytechnic after a sit-in protest demanding nursery facilities.
Reputation and rankings
In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2018, Middlesex University was the only modern university in London to feature in the top 500 global universities. In the Times Higher Education Young University Rankings 2017, Middlesex was named the top modern university in London. In the Guardian University Guide 2018, the university's Film Production and Photography course was named the top in London. In The Complete University Guide 2018, its Sports Science and Social Work courses were named the best in London. In 2017/18 the overall satisfaction from the National Student Survey was 77%.
Middlesex is ranked within the top 401–500 universities in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2020 and one of the top 100 universities in the world under 50 years old by the Times Higher Education Young University Rankings 2020.
In 2017, Middlesex was recognised for its high-quality teaching in the government's Teaching Excellence Framework. The institute was awarded Silver and commended for valuing and rewarding teaching, as well as enhancing student engagement.
The university has been awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize three times and has twice received Queen's Award for Enterprise (for its international work).
The Social Science Research Network (SSRN) ranks the university Business School the 209th international business schools in the world.
In 2020 Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked Middlesex's psychology degrees in the top 201–250 psychology degrees in the world.
Notable alumni
Middlesex runs an alumni association allowing former students to maintain contact with the university after graduation. It offers discounts and benefits to members and organises reunions and social events.
Although not a graduate, Tommy Flowers, a British engineer who helped create the Colossus computer used to break code during World War II received a basic computing certificate from Hendon College.
See also
Hall-Carpenter Archives
Hornsey College of Art
Lansdown Centre for Electronic Arts
Museum of Domestic Design and Architecture
United Business Institutes
References
External links
Middlesex University home page
Middlesex University Students' Union home page
Educational institutions established in 1973
2009 establishments in Mauritius
Education in the London Borough of Enfield
1973 establishments in England
Hendon
Universities in London
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220108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sellafield | Sellafield | Sellafield is a large multi-function nuclear site close to Seascale on the coast of Cumbria, England. , activities at the site include nuclear fuel reprocessing, nuclear waste storage and nuclear decommissioning, and it is a former nuclear power generating site. The licensed site covers an area of , and comprises more than 200 nuclear facilities and more than 1,000 buildings. It is Europe's largest nuclear site and has the most diverse range of nuclear facilities in the world situated on a single site.
Sellafield site incorporates the UK's first generation nuclear reactors and associated fuel re-processing facilities at Windscale, and the world's first nuclear power station to export electricity on a commercial scale to a public grid at Calder Hall. The UK's National Nuclear Laboratory has its Central Laboratory and headquarters on the site.
Sellafield was the site in 1957 of one of the world's worst nuclear incidents. This was the Windscale fire which occurred when uranium metal fuel ignited inside Windscale Pile no.1. Radioactive contamination was released into the environment, which it is now estimated caused around 240 cancers in the long term, with 100 to 240 of these being fatal. The incident was rated 5 out of a possible 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.
Originally built as a Royal Ordnance Factory in 1942, the site briefly passed into the ownership of Courtaulds for rayon manufacture following WW2, but was re-acquired by the Ministry of Supply in 1947 for the production of plutonium for nuclear weapons, and was given the name "Windscale Works". Subsequent key developments include the building of Calder Hall nuclear power station, the Magnox fuel reprocessing plant, the prototype Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR) and the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP).
Activities at the Sellafield site are primarily decommissioning of historic plants, and reprocessing of spent fuel from UK and international nuclear reactors, which will completely cease when the Magnox fuel reprocessing plant closes in 2021. Decommissioning projects include the Windscale Piles, Calder Hall nuclear power station, and a number of historic reprocessing facilities and waste stores.
The site currently directly employs about 10,000 people, and is owned by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) which is a non-departmental public body of the UK government. Following a period 2008–2016 of management by a private consortium, the site has been returned to direct government control by making the Site Management Company, Sellafield Ltd, a subsidiary of the NDA. The site is due to be fully decommissioned by 2120 at a cost of £121bn.
Site development
Royal Ordnance Factory
The site was established with the creation of Royal Ordnance Factory (ROF) Sellafield by the Ministry of Supply in 1942; built by John Laing & Son at the hamlet of Low Sellafield. The nearby sister factory, ROF Drigg, had been constructed in 1940, 5 km to the south-east near the village of Drigg. Both sites were classed as Explosive ROFs, producing high-explosive at ROF Drigg, and propellant at ROF Sellafield. They were built in this location to be remote from large centres of population because of the hazardous nature of the process, and to reduce the risk of WW2 enemy air attack. There were also existing rail links, and a good supply of high quality water from Wastwater. Production ceased at both factories immediately following the defeat of Japan.
Start of nuclear activity
After the war, the Sellafield site was briefly in the ownership of Courtaulds for development as a rayon factory, but was re-acquired by the Ministry of Supply for the production of plutonium for nuclear weapons. Construction of the nuclear facilities commenced in September 1947 and the site was renamed Windscale Works. The building of the nuclear plant was a huge construction project, requiring a peak effort of 5,000 workers. The two air-cooled and open-circuit, graphite-moderated Windscale reactors (the "Windscale Piles") and the associated first generation reprocessing plant, producing the first British weapons grade plutonium-239 were central to the UK nuclear weapons programme of the 1950s.
Windscale Pile No. 1 became operational in October 1950, just over three years from the start of construction, and Pile No. 2 became operational in June 1951. Later in 1957 Pile 1 suffered a major accident; the Windscale fire, the worst nuclear accident in UK history, ranked in severity at level 5 out of a possible 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.
Calder Hall power station
With the creation of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) in 1954, ownership of Windscale Works passed to the UKAEA. At this time the site was being expanded across the River Calder where four Magnox reactors were being built to create the world's first commercial-scale nuclear power station. This became operational in 1956 and was the world's first nuclear power station to export electricity on a commercial scale to a public grid. The whole site became known as "Windscale and Calder Works".
British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (BNFL)
Following the break-up of the UKAEA into a research division (UKAEA) and a newly created company for nuclear production British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (BNFL) in 1971, a major part of the site was transferred to BNFL ownership and management. In 1981 BNFL's Windscale and Calder Works was renamed Sellafield as part of a major reorganisation of the site and there was a consolidation of management under one head of the entire BNFL Sellafield site. The remainder of the site remained in the hands of the UKAEA and was still called Windscale.
Reprocessing
Since its inception as a nuclear facility, Sellafield has continued to be the centre of UK nuclear reprocessing operations, which separate the uranium and plutonium from minor actinides and fission products also present in the spent nuclear fuel. The uranium can then be used in the manufacture of new nuclear fuel, or in applications where its density is an asset. The plutonium can be used in the manufacture of mixed oxide fuel (MOX) for thermal reactors, or theoretically as fuel for fast breeder reactors, such as the Prototype Fast Reactor at Dounreay, which is in the process of being decommissioned.
The site has also processed overseas spent fuel under contract, and there had been concern that that Sellafield would become a repository for unwanted international nuclear material. However, contracts agreed since 1976 with overseas customers required that all High Level Waste be returned to the country of origin. The UK retained low- and intermediate-level waste resulting from that reprocessing activity, and in substitution shipped out a radiologically equivalent amount of its own HLW. The policy was designed to be environmentally neutral by expediting, and reducing the volume, of shipments.
Decommissioning
Sellafield's priority nuclear decommissioning challenges are mainly the legacy of the early nuclear research and nuclear weapons programmes. One building still houses the aluminium cladding for the uranium fuel rods of Piles 1 and 2, and is modelled on a grain silo, with waste tipped in at the top and argon gas added to prevent fires. However, newer facilities such as the Thorp and Mox plants, and various waste treatment plants, will need to be tackled after these.
The 2018–2021 NDA business plan for Sellafield decommissioning is focused on older legacy high hazard plants and includes the following key activities in the area of Legacy Ponds and Silos;
Pile Fuel Storage Pond (PFSP): Sustain sludge exports and prepare for de-watering
Pile Fuel Cladding Silo (PFCS): Complete commissioning of Box Encapsulation Plant to received silo contents, and begin retrievals.
First Generation Magnox Storage Pond (FGMSP): Continue to retrieve fuel and sludge.
Magnox Swarf Storage Silo (MSSS): Begin retrievals from the silo.
Also:
Continue demolition of Pile No.1 chimney
Continue demolition of the original re-processing plant stack.
Defuelling and removal of most buildings at Calder Hall is expected to take until 2032, followed by a care and maintenance phase from 2033 to 2104. Demolition of reactor buildings and final site clearance is planned for 2105 to 2114.
As of March 2021, the NDA reported that they had:
Removed significant quantities of bulk fuel and over 300 tonnes of solid intermediate level waste (ILW) from the Pile Fuel Storage Pond (PFSP)
Removed more than 100 cubic metres of sludge from the First Generation Magnox Storage Pond (FGMSP)
Installed the first of the 400 tonne silo emptying plants in the Magnox Swarf Storage Silo (MSSS) which is now in the final phases of commissioning
Created new access and equipment installed for waste retrieval from the Pile Fuel Cladding Silo (PFCS)
Recent site management
Following ownership by BNFL, since 1 April 2005 the site has been owned by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), a non-departmental public body of the UK government. As part of government policy to introduce competition into the nuclear industry in 2008 the NDA awarded Nuclear Management Partners (NMP) the position of Parent Body Organisation of Sellafield Ltd under their standard management model for NDA sites; this gave them complete responsibility for operating and managing the NDA-owned assets, the direct workforce and the site. This consortium, composed of US company URS, British company AMEC and French company Areva, was initially awarded a contract for five years, with extension options to 17 years, and in November 2008 NMP took over management of the site. In October 2008 it had been revealed that the British government had agreed to issue the managing body for Sellafield an unlimited indemnity against future accidents; according to The Guardian, "the indemnity even covers accidents and leaks that are the consortium's fault." The indemnity had been rushed through prior to the summer parliamentary recess without notifying parliament. In 2009, Sellafield decommissioning accounted for 40% of the annual budget of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority – over £1.1bn.
In 2013, the UK Government Public Accounts Committee issued a critical report stating that the NMP consortium managing Sellafield had failed to reduce costs and delays. Between 2005 and 2013 the annual costs of operating Sellafield had increased from £900 million to about £1.6 billion. The estimated lifetime undiscounted cost of dealing with the Sellafield site increased to £67.5 billion. NMP management was forced to apologise after projected clean-up costs passed the £70 billion mark in late 2013. In 2014, the final undiscounted decommissioning cost projection for Sellafield was increased to £79.1 billion, and by 2015 to £117.4 billion. The annual operating cost was projected to be £2 billion in 2016.
On 13 January 2015, the NDA announced that NMP would lose the management contract for Sellafield Ltd as the "complexity and technical uncertainties presented significantly greater challenges than other NDA sites", and the site was therefore "less well suited" to the NDA's existing standard management model. The new structure, which came into effect on 1 April 2016, saw Sellafield Ltd. become a subsidiary of the NDA.
Major plants
Windscale Piles
Following the decision taken by the British government in January 1947 to develop nuclear weapons, Sellafield was chosen as the location of the plutonium production plant, consisting of the Windscale Piles and accompanying reprocessing plant to separate plutonium from the spent nuclear fuel. Unlike the early US nuclear reactors at Hanford, which consisted of a graphite core cooled by water, the Windscale Piles consisted of a graphite core cooled by air. Each pile contained almost 2,000tonnes (1,968L/T) of graphite, and measured over high by in diameter. Fuel for the reactor consisted of rods of uranium metal, approximately long by in diameter, and clad in aluminium.
The initial fuel was loaded into the Windscale Piles in July 1950. By July 1952 the separation plant was being used to separate plutonium and uranium from spent fuel.
On 10 October 1957, the Windscale Piles were shut down following a fire in Pile 1 during a scheduled graphite annealing procedure. The fire badly damaged the pile core and released an estimated 750 terabecquerels (20,000 curies) of radioactive material, including 22 TBq of Cs-137 and 740 TBq of I-131 into the shafts. Thanks to innovative filters installed by Nobel laureate Sir John Cockcroft 95% of the material was captured. As a precautionary measure, milk from surrounding farming areas was destroyed. However, no residents from the surrounding area were evacuated or informed of the danger of the radiation leakage. It is now believed that there have been 100 to 240 cancer deaths as a result of the release of radioactive material. Following the fire, Pile 1 was unserviceable, and Pile 2, although undamaged by the fire, was shut down as a precaution.
In the 1990s, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority started to implement plans to decommission, disassemble and clean up both piles. In 2004 Pile 1 still contained about 15tonnes (14.76L/T) of uranium fuel, and final completion of the decommissioning is not expected until at least 2037.
In 2014, radioactive sludge in the Pile Fuel Storage Pond (PFSP), built between 1948 and 1952, started to be repackaged in drums to reduce the "sludge hazard" and to allow the pond to be decommissioned. Decommissioning will require retrieval of sludge and solids, prior to dewatering and deconstruction, with retrievals planned for completion in 2016.
First Generation Reprocessing Plant
The first generation reprocessing plant was built to extract the plutonium from spent fuel to provide fissile material for the UK's atomic weapons programme, and for exchange with the United States through the US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement.
It operated from 1951 until 1964, with an annual capacity of 300tonnes (295L/T) of fuel, or 750tonnes (738L/T) of low burn-up fuel. It was first used to reprocess fuel from the Windscale Piles and was later repurposed to process fuel from UK Magnox reactors. Following the commissioning of the dedicated Magnox Reprocessing Plant, it became a pre-handling plant to allow oxide fuel to be reprocessed in the Magnox reprocessing plant. It was closed in 1973 after a violent reaction within the plant contaminated the entire plant and 34 workers with ruthenium-106.
Magnox Reprocessing Plant
In 1964, the Magnox reprocessing plant came on stream to reprocess spent nuclear fuel from the national Magnox reactor fleet. The plant uses the "plutonium uranium extraction" (Purex) method for reprocessing spent fuel, with tributyl phosphate in odourless kerosene and nitric acid as extraction agents. The Purex process produces uranium, plutonium and fission products as separated chemical output streams.
Over the 30 years from 1971 to 2001, the Magnox Reprocessing Plant had reprocessed over 35,000tonnes of Magnox fuel, with 15,000tonnes of fuel being regenerated. Magnox fuel has to be reprocessed in a timely fashion since the cladding corrodes if stored underwater, and routes for dry storage have not yet been proven.
The First Generation Magnox Storage Pond (FGMSP) was built to support reprocessing of fuel from UK Magnox power stations through the Magnox Reprocessing Plant, and was used for operations between 1960 until 1986. The pond is wide, long and deep.
As of 2014, the FGMSP remains as a priority decommissioning project. As well as nuclear waste, the pond holds about of radioactive sludge of unknown characteristics and of contaminated water. Decommissioning requires retrieval of the radioactive sludge into a newly built Sludge Packaging Plant, as well as fuel and skip retrieval. Completion of this will allow the dewatering and dismantling of the remaining structure.
Future work will immobilise the sludge for long-term storage, and process solids through the Fuel Handling Plant for treatment and storage.
Calder Hall nuclear power station
Calder Hall, was first connected to the grid on 27 August 1956 and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 October 1956, It was the world's first nuclear power station to provide electricity on a commercial scale to a public grid.
The Calder Hall design was codenamed PIPPA (Pressurised Pile Producing Power and Plutonium) by the UKAEA to denote the plant's dual commercial and military role. Construction started in 1953. Calder Hall had four Magnox reactors capable of generating 60 MWe (net) of power each, reduced to 50 MWe in 1973. The reactors also supplied steam to the whole site for process and other purposes. The reactors were supplied by UKAEA, the turbines by C. A. Parsons and Company, and the civil engineering contractor was Taylor Woodrow Construction.
In its early life Calder Hall primarily produced weapons-grade plutonium, with two fuel loads per year; electricity production was a secondary purpose. From 1964 it was mainly used on commercial fuel cycles; in April 1995 the UK Government announced that all production of plutonium for weapons purposes had ceased.
The station was closed on 31 March 2003, the first reactor having been in use for nearly 47 years.
Calder Hall had four cooling towers, each in height, which were highly-visible landmarks. Plans for a museum involving renovating Calder Hall and preserving the towers were formulated, but the costs were too high. The cooling towers were demolished by controlled implosions on 29 September 2007, by Controlled Demolition, Inc. A period of 12 weeks was required to remove asbestos in the towers' rubble.
On 3 September 2019 it was announced that de-fuelling of all the reactors was complete.
Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR)
The WAGR was a prototype for the UK's second generation of reactors, the advanced gas-cooled reactor or AGR, which followed on from the Magnox stations. The station had a rated thermal output of approximately 100MW and 30MWe. The WAGR spherical containment, known colloquially as the "golfball", is one of the iconic buildings on the site. Construction was carried out by Mitchell Construction and completed in 1962. This reactor was shut down in 1981, and is now part of a pilot project to demonstrate techniques for safely decommissioning a nuclear reactor.
Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP)
Between 1977 and 1978 an inquiry, chaired by Mr Justice Parker, was held into an application by BNFL for outline planning permission to build a new plant to reprocess irradiated oxide nuclear fuel from both UK and foreign reactors. The inquiry was used to answer three questions:
"1. Should oxide fuel from United Kingdom reactors be reprocessed in this country at all; whether at Windscale or elsewhere?2. If yes, should such reprocessing be carried on at Windscale?3. If yes, should the reprocessing plant be about double the estimated site required to handle United Kingdom oxide fuels and be used as to the spare capacity, for reprocessing foreign fuels?"The result of the inquiry was that the new plant, the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) was given the go ahead in 1978, although it did not go into operation until 1994.
In 2003, it was announced that the Thorp reprocessing plant would be closed in 2010 (later extended to 2018 to allow completion of agreed contracts). Originally predicted to make profits for BNFL of £500m, by 2003 it had made losses of over £1bn. Thorp was closed for almost two years from 2005 after a leak had been undetected for 9 months. Production eventually restarted at the plant in early 2008; but almost immediately had to be put on hold again, as an underwater lift that takes the fuel for reprocessing needed to be repaired.
On 14 November 2018 it was announced that operations had ended at THORP. The facility will be used to store spent nuclear fuel until the 2070s.
Highly Active Liquor Evaporation and Storage
Highly Active Liquor Evaporation and Storage (HALES) is a department at Sellafield. It conditions nuclear waste streams from the Magnox and Thorp reprocessing plants, prior to transfer to the Waste Vitrification Plant.
Waste Vitrification Plant
In 1990 the Waste Vitrification Plant (WVP), which seals high-level radioactive waste in glass, was opened. In this plant, liquid wastes are mixed with glass and melted in a furnace, which when cooled forms a solid block of glass.
The plant has three process lines and is based on the French AVM procedure. The plant was built with two lines, commissioned during 1989, with a third added in 2002. The principal item is an inductively heated melting furnace, in which the calcined waste is mixed with glass frit (glass beads of 1 to 2 mm in diameter). The melt is placed into waste containers which are welded shut, their outsides decontaminated, and then placed in the air-cooled Vitrified Product Store.
This storage consists of 800 vertical storage tubes each capable of storing ten containers. The total storage capacity is 8000 containers, and 6000 containers had been stored by 2016.
Vitrification should ensure safe storage of waste in the UK for the medium- to long-term, with the objective of eventual placement in a deep geological repository. As of 2007 studies of durability and leach rates were being carried out.
Sellafield MOX Plant
Construction of the Sellafield MOX fuel Plant (SMP) was completed in 1997, and operations began in October 2001.
Designed with a plant capacity of 120tonnes/year, the plant achieved a total output of only 5tonnes during its first five years of operation. In 2008 orders for the plant had to be fulfilled at COGEMA in France, and the plant was reported in the media as "failed" with a total construction and operating cost by 2009 of £1.2 billion.
On 12 May 2010, an agreement was reached with existing Japanese customers on future MOX supplies. In July 2010 Areva was contracted to design and supply a new rod line to improve reliability and production rate.
On 3 August 2011, the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority announced that the MOX Plant would close, due to the loss of the Japanese orders following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. It was stated by the NDA that the plant "had suffered many years of disappointing performance", and it was reported the total cost to date had been £1.4billion. Although Japanese orders for MOX fuel re-commenced on 17 April 2013, they were supplied from France by COGEMA.
Enhanced Actinide Removal Plant (EARP)
Since its early days, Sellafield has discharged low-level radioactive waste into the sea, using a flocculation process to remove radioactivity from liquid effluent before discharge. Metals dissolved in acidic effluents were made to produce a metal hydroxide flocculant precipitate following the addition of ammonium hydroxide. The suspension was then transferred to settling tanks where the precipitate would settle out, and the remaining clarified liquid, or supernate, would be discharged to the Irish Sea. As an improvement to that process, in 1994 the Enhanced Actinide Removal Plant (EARP) became operational. In EARP the effectiveness of the process is enhanced by the addition of reagents to remove the remaining soluble radioactive species. EARP was enhanced further in 2004 to further reduce the quantities of technetium-99 released to the environment.
Radioactive waste stores
Sellafield has a number of radioactive waste stores, mostly working on an interim basis while a deep geological repository plan is developed and implemented.
The stores include:
Legacy Ponds and Silos – Storage of historic waste
Sludge packaging plant – Treatment and interim storage of sludges from legacy ponds
Sellafield product and residue store – Site store for plutonium and plutonium residues – The plutonium stockpile now estimated (November 2013) at 100tonnes.
Engineered drum stores – Site stores for plutonium-contaminated material
Encapsulated product stores – Site stores for grouted wastes
Vitrified product store – Vitrified high level waste
The UK's main Low Level Waste Repository for nuclear waste is south east of Sellafield at Drigg. A paper published in 1989 said that 70% of the waste received at Drigg originated from Sellafield.
Fellside Power Station
Fellside Power Station is a 168MWe CHP gas-fired power station adjacent to the Sellafield site, which it supplies with process and heating steam. It is run as Fellside Heat and Power Ltd, is wholly owned by Sellafield Ltd and is operated & managed by PX Ltd. It was built in 1993, in anticipation of the closure of the Calder Hall generating station, which supplied these services. It was originally equally owned by BNFL and Scottish Hydro Electric (which became Scottish and Southern Energy in December 1998). BNFL bought SSE's 50% share in January 2002.
The station uses three General Electric Frame 6001B gas turbines, with power entering the National Grid via a 132kV transformer. The turbines at Fellside are normally natural gas fired but are also able to run on distillate (diesel) fuel.
National Nuclear Laboratory headquarters
The Central Laboratory at Sellafield is the headquarters of the National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL). It supports newly built reactors, operation of reactors, operations of fuel processing plants and decommissioning and clean-up. The NNL's Central Laboratory can undertake a wide range of radioactive and non-radioactive experimental programmes.
It undertakes a wide range of analytical services, with customers ranging from Government and the NDA to site licence companies, utilities, nuclear specialists and universities. Smaller experiments are undertaken at Sellafield and larger experiments and rigs are assembled off site, in non-radioactive areas prior to active testing in a radioactive setting.
Sellafield and the local community
Employment
Sellafield directly employs around 10,000 people and is one of the two largest non-governmental employers in West Cumbria (along with BAE Systems at Barrow-in-Furness), with approximately 90% of the employees coming from West Cumbria.
Because of the increase in local unemployment following any run down of Sellafield operations, the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (and HMG) is concerned that this needs to be managed.
West Cumbria Sites Stakeholder Group (WCSSG)
The WCSSG is an independent body whose role is to provide public scrutiny of the nuclear industry in West Cumbria.
The WCSSG replaced the Sellafield Local Liaison Committee (SLLC) to cover all the nuclear licensed sites in the area, not just Sellafield Site, and this change is intended to emphasise the importance of engagement with the community; encouraging input in discussions and consultations from all stakeholders. With the change of organisation and ownership of licensed sites, the WCSSG has consequently changed and re-organised its sub-committees, but the objective remains the same. The meetings of the main group and its sub-committees are held in West Cumbria and are open to the public.
Sellafield Visitor Centre
The centre was opened by Prince Philip in 1988, and at its peak it attracted an average of 1,000 people per day. However, despite a large refurbishment in 1995, and the transfer of creative control to the Science Museum in 2002, its popularity deteriorated, prompting the change from a tourist attraction to a conference facility in 2008. This facility completely closed in 2015, was briefly used by the Civil Nuclear Constabulary as a training facility, and as of 2019 the building has been completely demolished. The story of Sellafield is now being told through a permanent exhibition at the Beacon Museum in Whitehaven.
Incidents
Radiological releases
Between 1950 and 2000, there were 21 serious incidents or accidents involving off-site radiological releases that warranted a rating on the International Nuclear Event Scale, one at level 5, five at level 4 and fifteen at level 3. Additionally, during the 1950s and 1960s there were protracted periods of known, deliberate discharges to the atmosphere of plutonium and irradiated uranium oxide particulates.
In the effort to build the independent British nuclear weapon in the 1940s and 1950s, diluted radioactive waste was discharged by pipeline into the Irish Sea. Greenpeace claims that the Irish Sea remains one of the most heavily contaminated seas in the world because of these discharges. Ocean scientist David Assinger has challenged this general suggestion, and cites the Dead Sea as the most radioactive sea in the world. The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) reports an estimated of plutonium has been deposited in the marine sediments of the Irish Sea.
Most of the area's long-lived radioactive technetium comes from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel at the Sellafield facility. Technetium-99 is a radioactive element which is produced by nuclear fuel reprocessing, and also as a by-product of medical facilities (for example Ireland is responsible for the discharge of approximately 11 grams or 6.78 gigabecquerels of technetium-99 each year despite not having a nuclear industry).
Because it is almost uniquely produced by nuclear fuel reprocessing, technetium-99 is an important element as part of the OSPAR Convention since it provides a good tracer for discharges into the sea. In itself, the technetium discharges do not represent a significant radiological hazard, and in 2000 a study noted "...that in the most recently reported dose estimates for the most exposed Sellafield group of seafood consumers (FSA/SEPA 2000), the contributions from technetium-99 and actinide nuclides from Sellafield (<100 µSv) was less than that from 210Po attributable to discharges from the Whitehaven phosphate fertilizer plant and probably less than the dose from naturally occurring background levels of 210Po."
Because of the need to comply with the OSPAR Convention, British Nuclear Group commissioned a new process in which technetium-99 was removed from the waste stream and vitrified in glass blocks in the new Vitrification Plant on site.
Discharges into the sea of radioactive effluents – mainly caesium-137 – from Sellafield amounted to 5200 TBq during the peak year, 1975.
In 1983 radioactive discharges to sea containing ruthenium and rhodium-106, both beta-emitting isotopes, resulted in temporary warnings against swimming in the sea along a stretch of coast between St. Bees and Eskmeals.
BNFL received a fine of £10,000 for this discharge. 1983 was also the year in which Yorkshire Television produced a documentary "Windscale: The Nuclear Laundry", which claimed that the low levels of radioactivity that are associated with waste streams from nuclear plants such as Sellafield did pose a non-negligible risk.
Windscale fire
The worst incident to occur at the Sellafield site was the Windscale fire of October 1957. Rated at level 5 out of a possible 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale (with only three events rated higher), the incident is one of the worst nuclear accidents the world has seen. A fire took place in the Windscale Piles, which were used to produce plutonium, resulting in a large release of radioactive fallout. Surrounding dairy farms were contaminated and large amounts of the iodine-131 isotope, which can cause thyroid cancer, were released.
The UK government played down the events for some time and the original reports on the fire were subject to heavy censorship, as Prime Minister Harold Macmillan feared the incident would harm British-American nuclear relations. It has since come to light that small but significant amounts of the highly dangerous radioactive isotope polonium-210 were also released, though knowledge of this was excluded from government reports until 1983.
The Windscale fire remains Britain's worst nuclear accident, and the worst nuclear accident in the West. The release would have been much worse if it had not been for the filter at the top of the Pile's exhaust chimney.
A 1988 UK government estimate stated that 100 people "probably" died as a result of exposure to the radioactive fallout from the Windscale fire. In 2007, the 50-year anniversary of the fire, new academic research concluded that the amount of radioactive fallout released was twice the existing estimates and it spread further east than thought. The study concluded that 240 people were given cancer in the surrounding areas, and that 100 to 240 of these cancer cases were fatal.
Plutonium Recovery Plant criticality
On 24 August 1970, a criticality incident occurred in the Plutonium Recovery Plant, building B.203.
The plant recovered plutonium from miscellaneous sources and was considered tightly controlled. Plutonium was dissolved and transferred into a solvent extraction column through a transfer vessel and backflow trap. Unexpectedly, s of plutonium had accumulated in the transfer vessel and backflow trap and become just sub-critical. As an organic solvent was added to the aqueous solution in the vessel, the organic and aqueous phases separated out with the organic layer on top. This solvent extracted plutonium from the aqueous solution with sufficient concentration and geometry to create a criticality.
Two plant workers were exposed to radiation.
First Generation Magnox Storage Pond Deterioration
Due to algae forming in the pond and a buildup of radioactive sludge, it was impossible to determine exactly how much radioactive waste was stored in the FGMSP. British authorities had not been able to provide the Euratom inspectors with precise data and the European Commission took action against Great Britain in the European Court of Justice in 2004. According to Greenpeace there was an expected 1300 kg of plutonium, 400 kg of which was in mud sediments.
Radiation around the pool could get so high that a person was not allowed to stay more than 2 minutes, seriously affecting decommissioning. The pool was not watertight; time and weather had created cracks in the concrete, letting contaminated water leak. In 2014 photographs of the storage ponds were leaked to the media, showing they were in poor condition with cracked concrete, vegetation growing amongst machinery and seagulls bathing in the pools.
MOX fuel quality data falsification
The MOX Demonstration Facility was a small-scale plant to produce commercial quality MOX fuel for light water reactors. The plant was commissioned between 1992 and 1994, and until 1999 produced fuel for use in Switzerland, Germany and Japan.
In 1999 it was discovered that the plant's staff had been falsifying quality assurance data since 1996. A Nuclear Installations Inspectorate (NII) investigation concluded four of the five work-shifts were involved in the falsification, though only one worker admitted to falsifying data, and that "the level of control and supervision ... had been virtually non-existent.". The NII stated that the safety performance of the fuel was not affected as there was also a primary automated check on the fuel. Nevertheless, "in a plant with the proper safety culture, the events described in this report could not have happened" and there were systematic failures in management.
BNFL had to pay compensation to the Japanese customer, Kansai Electric, and take back a flawed shipment of MOX fuel from Japan. BNFL's Chief Executive John Taylor resigned, after initially resisting resignation when the NII's damning report was published.
Plutonium records discrepancy
On 17 February 2005, the UK Atomic Energy Authority reported that of plutonium was unaccounted for in auditing records at the Sellafield nuclear fuel reprocessing plant. The operating company, the British Nuclear Group, described this as a discrepancy in paper records and not as indicating any physical loss of material. They pointed out that the error amounted to about 0.5%, whereas International Atomic Energy Agency regulations permit a discrepancy up to 1% as the amount of plutonium recovered from the reprocessing process never precisely matches the pre-process estimates.
The inventories in question were accepted as satisfactory by Euratom, the relevant regulatory agency.
Waste Vitrification Plant sabotage
In 2000, wires on six robotic arms that moved vitrified glass blocks were deliberately cut by staff, putting the vitrification plant out of operation for three days.
2005 THORP plant leak
On 19 April 2005 83,000 litres of radioactive waste was discovered to have leaked in the THORP reprocessing plant from a cracked pipe into a huge stainless steel-lined concrete sump chamber built to contain leaks.
A discrepancy between the amount of material entering and exiting the THORP processing system had first been noted in August 2004. Operations staff did not discover the leak until safeguards staff reported the discrepancies. 19tonnes of uranium and of plutonium dissolved in nitric acid has been pumped from the sump vessel into a holding tank.
No radiation was released to the environment, and no one was injured by the incident, but because of the large escape of radioactivity to the secondary containment the incident was given an International Nuclear Event Scale level 3 categorisation. Sellafield Limited was fined £500,000 for breaching health and safety law. In January 2007 Sellafield was given consent to restart THORP.
Organ removal inquiry
In 2007, an inquiry was launched into the removal of tissue from a total of 65 dead nuclear workers, some of whom worked at Sellafield. It has been alleged that the tissue was removed without seeking permission from the relatives of the late workers. Michael Redfern QC was appointed to lead the investigation. At the same time The Observer revealed that official documents showed that during the 1960s volunteer workers at Sellafield had participated in secret Cold War experiments to assess the biological effect of exposure to radioactive substances, such as from ingesting caesium-134.
The inquiry final report was published in November 2010, reporting that "...body parts had been removed between 1961 and 1992. The deaths of 76 workers – 64 from Sellafield and 12 from other UK nuclear plants – were examined, although the scope of the inquiry was later significantly widened." The person behind this scheme was Dr Geoffrey Schofield, who became BNFL's Company chief medical officer, and who died in 1985. Sellafield staff did not breach any legal obligation, did not consider their actions untoward, and published the scientific information obtained in peer-reviewed scientific journals. It was the hospital pathologists, who were profoundly ignorant of the law, who breached the Human Tissue Act 1961 by giving Sellafield human organs, without any consents, under an informal arrangement.
Health studies in Cumbria and Seascale
In 1983, the Medical Officer of West Cumbria, is said by Paul Foot to have announced that cancer fatality rates were lower around the nuclear plant than elsewhere in Great Britain. In the early 1990s, concern was raised in the UK about apparent clusters of leukaemia near nuclear facilities.
A 1997 Ministry of Health report stated that children living close to Sellafield had twice as much plutonium in their teeth as children living more than away. Health Minister Melanie Johnson said the quantities were minute and "presented no risk to public health". This claim, according to a book written by Stephanie Cooke, was challenged by Professor Eric Wright, an expert on blood disorders at the University of Dundee, who said that even microscopic amounts of the man-made element might cause cancer.
Studies carried out by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (COMARE) in 2003 reported no evidence of raised childhood cancer in general around nuclear power plants, but did report an excess of leukaemia (cancer of the blood or bone) and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL, a blood cancer) near two other nuclear installations including Sellafield, the Atomic Weapons Establishment Burghfield and UKAEA Dounreay.
COMARE's conclusion was that "the excesses around Sellafield and Dounreay are unlikely to be due to chance, although there is not at present a convincing explanation for them". In earlier reports COMARE had suggested that "a mechanism involving infection may be a significant factor." The clusters have disappeared in the early 1990s.
In a study published in the British Journal of Cancer, which also did not find an increase in any other cancers other than Leukemia, the authors of which attempted to quantify the effect population mixing might have on the Seascale leukaemia cluster. In the analysis of childhood leukaemia/NHL in Cumbria, excluding Seascale, they noted that if both parents were born outside the Cumbrian area (incomers), there was a significantly higher rate of leukaemia/NHL in their children. 1181 children were born in the village of Seascale between 1950 and 1989, in children aged 1–14 during this period, the Seascale cluster of 6 observed cases of NHL were noted. Two similarly aged children, born between 1950 and 1989, outside Seascale were also diagnosed with ALL/NHL before the end of 1992. The origin of birth of 11 of the 16 parents of these eight children was known, and found to be; 3 had parents born outside Cumbria and 3 had one parent born outside the UK. The study's authors strongly supported the hypothesis that the risk of ALL/NHL, in particular in the younger age group, increases with increased exposure to population mixing during gestation or early in life. Although they determined that the exact mechanism by which it causes these malignancies, apart from Kinlen's infection aetiology that was mentioned, remained unknown, concluding that the possibility of additional risk factors in Seascale remains.
In an examination of all causes of stillbirth and infant mortality in Cumbria taken as a whole, between 1950 and 1993, 4,325 stillbirths, 3,430 neonatal death and 1,569 lethal congenital anomalies, occurred among 287,993 births. Overall, results did not infer an increased risk of still birth or neonatal death in Cumbria, the rate of these negative outcomes were largely in line with the British baseline rate. However, there was a cautioned connection between a small excess of increased risk of death from lethal congenital anomalies and proximity to municipal waste incinerators and chemical waste crematoriums being noted. With two examples of the latter crematoriums operating in both Barrow-in-Furness and further afield at Carlisle, crematoriums which may have emitted various chemical dioxins during their operation.
Objections to reprocessing
Republic of Ireland
[[File:Potassium iodate tablets.jpg|thumb|right|An unopened box of potassium iodate tablets, distributed to every household in Ireland in the wake of 9/11 in case of a terror attack on reprocessing plants and nuclear power stations in Britain. Upon later expert Irish examination in 2007, this was found not to have been justified.<ref>Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland | Media | Press releases | Radioactivity released from Wylfa nuclear power plant is extremely low and of no health significance</ref> The Irish Department of Health advises that the tablets may now be disposed of with municipal waste.]
Sellafield has been a matter of consternation in Ireland, with the Irish Government and some of the population concerned at the risk that such a facility may pose to the country.
The Irish government has made formal complaints about the facility, and in 2006 came to an agreement with the British Government about the matter, as part of which the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland and the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) are now allowed access to the site.
Isle of Man
The Government of the Isle of Man has also registered protests due to the risk posed by radioactive contamination, due to the proximity of the Isle of Man. The Manx government has called for the site to be shut down.
The Irish and Manx governments have collaborated on this issue, and brought it to the attention of the British-Irish Council.
Norway
Similar objections to those held by the Irish government have been voiced by the Norwegian government since 1997. Monitoring undertaken by the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority has shown that the prevailing sea currents transport radioactive materials leaked into the sea at Sellafield along the entire coast of Norway and water samples have shown up to tenfold increases in such materials as technetium-99. The Norwegian government is also seeking closure of the facility.
Proposal to establish adjacent power station
In February 2009, NuGeneration (NuGen), a consortium of GDF Suez, Iberdrola and Scottish and Southern Energy (SSE), announced plans to build a new nuclear power station of up to 3.6GW capacity adjacent to Sellafield. In October 2009, NuGen purchased an option to acquire land around Sellafield from the NDA for £70m.
On 18 October 2010, the UK government announced that Sellafield was one of the eight possible sites it considered suitable for future nuclear power stations. On 23 June 2011 the government confirmed the suitability of the site, and hoped an electricity generating company would choose to build a power station near Sellafield at Moorside by 2025. In 2018, this project was terminated when Toshiba decided to close Nugen and withdraw from nuclear power plant construction in the UK.
Sellafield in popular culture
Kraftwerk mentions Sellafield in the intro of the 1991 version of the song Radioactivity together with Chernobyl, Harrisburg and Hiroshima. On their 2005 live album Kraftwerk preface a live performance of Radioactivity with a vocoder voice announcing: Sellafield 2 will produce 7.5tons of plutonium every year. 1.5kilogram of plutonium make a nuclear bomb. Sellafield 2 will release the same amount of radioactivity into the environment as Chernobyl every 4.5years. One of these radioactive substances, Krypton 85, will cause death and skin cancer.
The Windscale fire of 1957 at the Sellafield site was the subject of a 1983 documentary by Yorkshire Television, entitled Windscale – the Nuclear Laundry. It alleged that the clusters of leukaemia in children around Windscale were attributable to the radioactive fallout from the fire.
The Windscale fire has also been the subject of three BBC documentaries. The first, shown originally in 1990, was entitled Our Reactor is on Fire, and was part of the Inside Story series. A 30-minute drama-documentary about the incident was then released in 1999 as part of the BBC's Disaster series; the episode was entitled Atomic Inferno – The Windscale Fire and was later released on DVD. During the 50-year anniversary of the incident in 2007, another documentary was released by the BBC entitled Windscale: Britain's Biggest Nuclear Disaster. All three of these documentaries include interviews with key plant workers and Tom Tuohy, the deputy general manager of Windscale at the time of the accident and the man who risked his life to extinguish the flames.
Fallout, a 2006 drama shown on the Irish national TV station RTÉ, based on the false premise that parts of Ireland would need to be evacuated following a serious accident at Sellafield, following the accident there are evacuation riots, societal collapse and widespread health impacts.
A 2015 BBC Four documentary, Britain's Nuclear Secrets: Inside Sellafield, examined the various radiation leaks and incidents that have occurred at Sellafield over the years and the health risks that have arisen as a result.
In 2016, Sellafield featured in an episode of the BBC series Panorama (TV series). The 30-minute documentary documented the many dangerous accidents and incidents that have occurred at the site over the years, and featured interviews with a mysterious whistleblower.
Sellafield was the subject of Marilynne Robinson's 1989 book, Mother Country: Britain, the Welfare State, and Nuclear Pollution, a critique of British nuclear policy.
See also
Cumbrians Opposed to a Radioactive Environment
Energy policy of the United Kingdom
Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom
List of nuclear accidents
List of nuclear reactors
Nuclear fuel cycle
Nuclear power
Nuclear power in the United Kingdom
Tom Tuohy
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Sellafield, Erik Martiniussen, Bellona Foundation, December 2003,
Technetium-99 Behaviour in the Terrestrial Environment – Field Observations and Radiotracer Experiments, Keiko Tagami, Journal of Nuclear and Radiochemical Sciences, Vol. 4, No.1, pp. A1-A8, 2003
The excess of childhood leukaemia near Sellafield: a commentary on the fourth COMARE report, L J Kinlen et al. 1997 J. Radiol. Prot. 17 63–71
External links
Official information
Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
Sellafield Ltd
British Nuclear Fuels Ltd
National Nuclear Laboratory
1957 fire
John Dunster Memorial Lecture at SRP annual conference 2017, by Prof R Wakeford. Includes radiological aspects of Windscale Fire
An article on the Windscale fire, by the Lake District Tourist Board
Nuclear Tourist
BBC retrospective on the accident report
2005 leak
Board of Inquiry Report
Other
"Britain's Pioneer Atomic Power Plants." Popular Mechanics, June 1954, pp. 74–75, cutaway drawing of facilities.
Sellafield awaits nuclear power's rebirth, by Jorn Madslien, BBC News
The sale of Britain's nuclear giant, by Jorn Madslien, BBC News
"Blast from the past" Guardian article
Calder Hall, Nuclear Engineering International wall chart, October 1956
Sellafield Stories at Cumbria County Council oral history project
Buildings and structures in Cumbria
Natural gas-fired power stations in England
Military nuclear reactors
Nuclear weapons infrastructure of the United Kingdom
Nuclear reprocessing sites
Radioactive waste repositories
Power stations in North West England
Former nuclear power stations in England | [
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220109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Lantz | Walter Lantz | Walter Lantz (April 27, 1899 – March 22, 1994) was an American cartoonist, animator, producer and director best known for founding Walter Lantz Productions and creating Woody Woodpecker.
Biography
Early years and start in animation
Lantz was born in New Rochelle, New York, to Italian immigrant parents Francesco Paolo Lantz (formerly Lanza) and Maria Gervasi from Calitri. According to Joe Adamson's biography The Walter Lantz Story, Lantz's father was given his new surname by an immigration official who anglicized it. Walter Lantz was always interested in art, completing a mail-order drawing class at age 12. He was inspired when he saw Winsor McCay's animated short "Gertie the Dinosaur".
While working as an auto mechanic, Lantz got his first break. Wealthy customer Fred Kafka liked his drawings on the garage's bulletin board and financed Lantz's studies at the Art Students League of New York. Kafka also helped him land a job as a copy boy at the New York American, owned by William Randolph Hearst. Lantz worked at the newspaper and attended art school at night.
By the age of 16, Lantz was working in the animation department under director Gregory La Cava. Lantz then worked at the John R. Bray Studios on the Jerry On The Job series. In 1924, Lantz directed, animated and even starred in his first cartoon series "Dinky Doodle", which included the popular fairy tale animated shorts Cinderella (1925) and Little Red Riding Hood (1925). Lantz soon replaced George "Vernon" Stallings as head of production at Bray. (In the 1920s, Bray began to concentrate on competing with Hal Roach, the "king of two-reelers"). At the urging of his friend Robert G. Vignola, Lantz moved to Hollywood, California, after Bray switched to a publicity film studio in 1927, where he attempted to set up his own cartoon studio with Pinto Colvig, but their sound cartoons never got produced. In the meantime, he worked briefly for director Frank Capra and was a gag writer for Mack Sennett comedies. He also resorted to odd jobs, one of them being a chauffeur.
The Oswald era
In 1928, Lantz was hired by Charles B. Mintz as director on the Oswald the Lucky Rabbit cartoon series for Universal Pictures. Earlier that year, Mintz and his brother-in-law George Winkler had succeeded in getting several animators from the Walt Disney Studio to work for their own studio instead. Universal president Carl Laemmle grew dissatisfied with the Mintz-Winkler product and fired them, deciding instead to produce the Oswalds on the Universal lot. While schmoozing with Laemmle, Lantz wagered that if he could beat Laemmle in a game of poker, the character would be his. As fate would have it, Lantz won the bet and Oswald was now his character.
Lantz inherited many of his initial staff, including animator Tom Palmer and musician Bert Fiske from the Winkler studio, but importantly he chose fellow New York animator Bill Nolan to help develop the series. Nolan's previous credentials included inventing the panorama background and developing a new, streamlined "Felix the Cat". Nolan was (and still is) best known for perfecting the "rubber hose" style of animation. In September 1929, Lantz released his first cartoon, "Race Riot".
The character went to Lantz's operation in 1933.
By 1935, he parted company with Nolan. Lantz became an independent producer, supplying cartoons to Universal instead of merely overseeing the animation department. By 1940, he was negotiating ownership for the characters with whom he had been working.
The Woody Woodpecker era
When Oswald had worn out his welcome, Lantz needed a new character. Meany, Miny and Moe (three ne'er-do-well chimps), Baby-Face Mouse, Snuffy Skunk, Doxie (a comic dachshund), and Jock and Jill (monkeys that resembled Warner Brothers' Bosko) were some personalities Lantz and his staff came up with. However, one character, Andy Panda, stood out and soon became Lantz's headline star for the 1939–1940 production season.
The woodpecker himself, Woody Woodpecker, made his first appearance in an Andy Panda short entitled Knock Knock on November 25, 1940. Less than a year later on August 29, 1941, Lantz married actress Grace Stafford in Reno, Nevada (he was previously married to and had a child with Doris Hollister). According to Lantz himself, he came up with the character during his honeymoon at a ranch nearby. He and Stafford kept hearing a woodpecker incessantly pecking on their roof. Grace suggested that Walter used the bird for inspiration as a cartoon character. Taking her advice, though a bit skeptical, Lantz created the brash woodpecker character, similar to the early Daffy Duck. Woody Woodpecker became an instant hit and got his own series during 1941.
Mel Blanc supplied Woody's voice for the first three cartoons. When Blanc accepted a full-time contract with Warner Bros., he was replaced as Woody's voice by Danny Webb, who would only voice the character in one short (Pantry Panic) before Webb himself was replaced by Kent Rogers. After Rogers went into the service due to World War II, Dick Nelson voiced Woody in 1943's Ration Bored before gagman Ben Hardaway, the man who was the main force behind Knock Knock, became the bird's voice. Despite this, Blanc's distinctive laugh was still used throughout the cartoons until 1951.
In 1948, the Lantz studio created a hit Academy Award-nominated song titled "The Woody Woodpecker Song", featuring Blanc's laugh. The song was featured in the film Wet Blanket Policy. Mel Blanc sued Lantz for half a million dollars, claiming that Lantz had used his voice in later cartoons without permission. The judge, however, ruled for Lantz, saying that Blanc had failed to copyright his voice or his contributions. Though Lantz won the case, he paid Blanc in an out-of-court settlement when Blanc filed an appeal, and Lantz went in search for a new voice for Woody Woodpecker.
In 1950, Lantz held anonymous auditions. Grace, Lantz's wife, offered to do Woody's voice; however, Lantz turned her down because Woody was a male character. Not discouraged in the least, Grace made her own anonymous audition tape and submitted it to the studio. Not knowing who was behind the voice he heard, Lantz picked Grace's voice for Woody Woodpecker. Grace supplied Woody's voice until the end of production in 1972 and also performed in non-Woody cartoons. At first, Grace voiced Woody without screen credit, thinking that it would disappoint child viewers to know that Woody Woodpecker was voiced by a woman. However, she soon came to enjoy being known as the voice of Woody Woodpecker, and, starting with 1958's Misguided Missile, allowed her name to be credited on the screen. Her version of Woody was cuter and friendlier than the manic Woody of the 1940s, and Lantz's artists redesigned the character to suit the new personality.
Lantz's harmonious relationship with Universal, the studio releasing his cartoons, was jarred when new ownership transformed the company into Universal-International and did away with many of Universal's company policies. The new management insisted on owning licensing and merchandising rights to Lantz's characters. Lantz refused and withdrew from the parent company by the end of 1947, releasing 12 cartoons independently through United Artists in 1948 into the beginning of 1949. Financial difficulties forced Lantz to shut down his studio in 1949. Universal-International re-released Lantz's UA (and several earlier) cartoons during the shutdown and eventually came to terms with Lantz who resumed production in 1951. From this point forward, Lantz worked faster and cheaper, no longer using the lush, artistic backgrounds and stylings that had distinguished his 1940s work.
Lantz used his TV appearances on The Woody Woodpecker Show (which began in 1957) to demonstrate the animation process. Later, Lantz entertained the troops during the Vietnam War and visited hospitalized veterans. Walter Lantz was a good friend of movie innovator George Pal.
Retirement and death
By the 1960s, other movie studios had discontinued their animation departments, leaving Lantz as one of two producers still making cartoons for theaters (the other studio was DePatie-Freleng Enterprises). Lantz finally closed his studio's doors for good in 1972, because by then, he explained, it was economically impossible to continue producing them and stay in business as rising inflation had strained his profits, and Universal serviced the remaining demand with reissues of his older cartoons.
In retirement, Lantz continued to manage his properties by licensing them to media. He continued to draw and paint, selling his paintings of Woody Woodpecker rapidly. On top of that, he worked with Little League and other youth groups in his area. In 1982, Lantz donated 17 artifacts to the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History, among them a wooden model of Woody Woodpecker from the cartoon character's debut in 1941. The Lantzes also made time to visit hospitals and other institutions where Walter would draw Woody and Grace would do the Woody laugh for patients.
During the 1980s and 1990s, Lantz served on the advisory board of the National Student Film Institute.
In 1990, Woody Woodpecker was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 1993, Lantz established a $10,000 scholarship and prize for animators in his name at California Institute of the Arts in Valencia, Santa Clarita.
Lantz died at St. Joseph Medical Center in Burbank, California from heart failure on March 22, 1994, at age 94.
Characters
Some characters in the Walter Lantz cartoons (both cartoons and comics) are Oswald the Lucky Rabbit (formerly), Andy Panda, The Beary Family, Maggie & Sam, Maw and Paw, Space Mouse, Woody Woodpecker, Inspector Willoughby, Homer Pigeon, Chilly Willy, Lil' Eightball, Charlie Chicken, Cartune, Wally Walrus, and many more.
Awards
In 1959, Lantz was honored by the Los Angeles City Council as "one of America's most outstanding animated film cartoonists".
In 1970, Lantz received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 1973, the international animation society, ASIFA/Hollywood, presented him with its Annie Award.
In 1979, he was given a special Academy Award "for bringing joy and laughter to every part of the world through his unique animated motion pictures", being the second animator to receive this award (the first was Walt Disney, who received it three times, while Chuck Jones was in 1995 the third to receive the merit).
In 1986, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
See also
The Golden Age of American animation
The Fantasy Film Worlds of George Pal (1985) (produced and directed by Arnold Leibovit) – a documentary about George Pal in which Lantz appeared as himself.
Walter Lantz Productions
References
Further reading
The Walter Lantz Story with Woody Woodpecker and Friends by Joe Adamson (1985)
External links
Walter Lantz Productions Collection..1940–1960. UCLA. Performing Arts Special Collections.
The Walter Lantz Cartune Encyclopedia
Walter Lantz at Don Markstein's Toonopedia
The Walter Lantz Studio at Don Markstein's Toonopedia
Walter Lantz biography on Lambiek
1899 births
1994 deaths
Animators from New York (state)
American cartoonists
American animated film directors
American animated film producers
Annie Award winners
American film directors of Italian descent
People from Greater Los Angeles
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Artists from New Rochelle, New York
Academy Honorary Award recipients
Bray Productions people
NBCUniversal people
Walter Lantz Productions people | [
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220114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XDM%20%28display%20manager%29 | XDM (display manager) | XDM (in full, the X Display Manager) is the default display manager for the X Window System. It is a bare-bones X display manager. It was introduced with X11 Release 3 in October 1988, to support the standalone X terminals that were just coming onto the market. It was written by Keith Packard.
Because of XDM's minimalism, most desktop environments tend to use later, more sophisticated display managers.
See also
X display manager
References
External links
Free system software
Software using the MIT license
X display managers | [
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220115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCppell%27s%20vulture | Rüppell's vulture | Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppelli), also called Rüppell's griffon vulture, named after Eduard Rüppell, is a large bird of prey, mainly native to the Sahel region and East Africa. The current population of 22,000 is decreasing due to loss of habitat, incidental poisoning, and other factors. Known also as Rüppell's griffon, Rueppell's griffon, Rüppell's griffin vulture, Rueppell's vulture and other variants, it is not to be confused with a different species, the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Rüppell's vulture is considered to be the highest-flying bird, with confirmed evidence of a flight at an altitude of above sea level.
Distribution
Rüppell's vulture is distributed throughout the Sahel region and East Africa, where it inhabits grasslands, mountains, and woodlands. Once considered common in these habitats, it experiencing steep declines, especially in the western portion of the range.
Description
The Rüppell's vulture is a large vulture, noticeably outsizing the closely related white-backed vulture, with which they often occur in the wild. Adults are long, with a wingspan of , and a weight that ranges from . Both sexes look alike: mottled brown or black overall with a whitish-brown underbelly and thin, dirty-white fluff covering the head and neck. The base of the neck has a white collar, the eye is yellow or amber, the crop patch deep brown. The head does not have feathers. This is an adaptation that occurred because of the Rüppell vulture's tendency to stick its head inside of its prey when eating. Without the adaptation, feeding would become extremely messy. Silent as a rule, they become vocal at their nest and when at a carcass, squealing a great deal. Rüppell's vultures commonly fly at altitudes as high as . The birds have a specialized variant of the hemoglobin alphaD subunit; this protein has a great affinity for oxygen, which allows the species to absorb oxygen efficiently despite the low partial pressure in the upper troposphere. A Rüppell's vulture was confirmed to have been ingested by a jet engine of an airplane flying over Abidjan, Ivory Coast on 29 November 1973 at an altitude of 11,300 m (37,000 ft).
Behavior and ecology
It cruises at a speed of , but flies for 6–7 hours every day and as far as from a nest site to find food.
Feeding
Rüppell's vultures have several adaptations to their diet and are specialized feeders even among the Old World vultures of Africa. They have an especially powerful build and, after the most attractive soft parts of a carcass have been consumed, they will continue with the hide, and even the bones, gorging themselves until they can barely fly. They have backward-pointing spikes on the tongue to help remove meat from bone. Despite their size, power and adaptations, they are not the most dominant vulture in their range, which is considered to be the even larger lappet-faced vulture.
Reproduction
This species of vulture is considered to be monogamous, forming lifelong breeding pairs. After courtship the pair will work together to build a nest using sticks, grass, and leaves that they have gathered or stolen from other nests. Rüppell's vultures build these nests on cliffs, and in key breeding areas they are known to nest in large colonies containing hundreds of breeding pairs. Both parents share in incubation of their egg over a period of 55 days. Once the chick hatches, both parents will feed and tend to it for about 150 days when it fledges. Young remain dependent on their parents after fledging, not reaching independence until the next breeding season. During this time they learn how to find and compete for food.
Conservation
Since first being assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 1988, populations of Rüppell's vulture have decreased. The species has been listed with an IUCN Red List status of "near threatened" since 2007, and populations are estimated to decline. From 2012 to 2014 the Rüppell's vulture was listed as Endangered; however, it was reassessed in 2015 as Critically Endangered.
Rüppell's vulture is currently listed as an Appendix II species under CITES, which regulates the international trade of animals and plants. Under this designation, the Rüppell's vulture is defined as not being immediately at risk of extinction, although the current population could become threatened without a careful regulation of trade.
The total population of Rüppell's vulture has been estimated to be somewhere around 22,000 individuals, with specific populations in the following areas: Tanzania (3,000 pairs); Kenya (2,000 pairs); Ethiopia (2,000 pairs); Sudan (2,000 pairs); and West Africa (2,000 pairs).
Since 1992, Rüppell's vulture has been occurring as a vagrant in Spain and Portugal, with annual records since 1997, mainly in the Cádiz and Strait of Gibraltar area, but also further north.
Threats
Rüppell's vulture populations are experiencing declining populations throughout their entire range. These declines can be attributed to loss of habitat related to human-related land use, poisoning, human use for medicine or meat, loss of nesting sites, and declining availability of food sources. Poisoning is currently thought to be the most serious threat to all vulture populations in Africa, although they are not usually the intended target. In events where predators such as lions or hyenas have killed livestock, carbofuran poisons have been placed into carcasses as retaliation against the predators. Vultures utilize carrion as their main food source, and one carcass has the potential to attract hundreds of birds to feed because this species identifies food by sight. One evaluation of 10 poisoning events found that each event caused the death of 37 to 600 individuals.
Killing of Rüppell's vultures for use in medicine has also greatly contributed to the rapid population decline. In many African cultures, vultures are used for medicine and magic related to superstitions that they are clairvoyant and can be used to increase a child's intelligence. Establishing protected wildlife areas is thought to be an effective route to protect the Rüppell's vulture from extinction. The Rüppell's vulture breed and nests in cliffs in northern and southern Kenya, as well as Tanzania. These breeding and nesting grounds amass huge numbers of Rüppell's vultures which will raise young and forage in the surrounding area. Considering that the detection rate of Rüppell's vultures was found to be lower in protected areas than outside of them, extending protection to these key breeding sites could help support their population.
See also
The white-backed vulture, which is slightly smaller and has a shorter neck.
References
External links
Rüppell's vulture
Rüppell's vulture
Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa
Birds of the Sahel
Birds of East Africa
Critically endangered fauna of Africa
Rüppell's vulture
Taxa named by Alfred Brehm | [
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220116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Invincible | The Invincible | The Invincible () is a hard science fiction novel by Polish writer Stanisław Lem, published in 1964.
The Invincible originally appeared as the title story in Lem's collection Niezwyciężony i inne opowiadania ("The Invincible and Other Stories"). A translation into German was published in 1967; an English translation by Wendayne Ackerman, based on the German one, was published in 1973. A direct translation into English from Polish, by Bill Johnston, was published in 2006.
It was one of the first{{refn|group=nb|Earlier, a concept similar to nanotechnology, called "micromechanical devices", was described in Lem's 1959 novel Eden. See "Nanotechnology in fiction" for still earlier examples. <ref> Doktryna nieingerencji, In: Marek Oramus, Bogowie Lema</ref>}} novels to explore the ideas of microrobots, smartdust, artificial swarm intelligence, and "necroevolution" (a term suggested by Lem for the evolution of non-living matter).
Plot summary
A heavily-armed interstellar spacecraft called Invincible lands on the planet Regis III, which seems uninhabited and bleak, to investigate the loss of her sister ship, Condor. During the investigation, the crew finds evidence of a form of quasi-life, born through evolution of autonomous, self-replicating machines, apparently left behind by an alien civilization ship which landed on Regis III a very long time ago.
The protagonists come to speculate that a kind of evolution must have taken place under the selection pressures of "robot wars", with the only surviving form being swarms of minuscule, insect-like micromachines. Individually, or in small groups, they are quite harmless and capable of only very simple behavior. When threatened, they can assemble into huge clouds, travel at a high speed, and even to climb to the top of the troposphere. These swarms display complex behavior arising from self-organization and can incapacitate any intelligent threat by a powerful surge of electromagnetic interference. Condors crew suffered a complete memory erasure as a consequence of attacks from these "clouds". The swarm, however, is reactive. It lacks intelligence and cannot proactively formulate attack strategies.
Invincible'''s crew mounts an escalating series of attacks on the perceived enemy, but eventually recognizes the futility of their efforts. The robotic "fauna", dubbed "necrosphere", has become part of the planet's ecology, and would require a disruption on a planetary scale to be destroyed.
In the face of defeat and imminent withdrawal of the Invincible, Rohan, the spaceship's first navigator, undertakes a trip into the "enemy area" in search of four crew members who went missing in action – an attempt which he and the Invincibles commander Horpach see as certainly futile, but necessary for moral reasons. Rohan wanders into canyons covered by metallic "shrubs" and "insects", and finds some of the missing crewmen dead. He gathers some evidence and returns to the ship unharmed, thanks partially to a device that cloaks his brain activity and partially to his calm and nonthreatening behavior. Rohan expresses his intention to petition for preservation of the planet's artificial ecosystem, which fascinates him.
Commentary
The novel turns into an analysis of the relationship between different life domains, and their place in the Universe. In particular, it is an imaginary experiment to demonstrate that evolution may not necessarily lead to dominance by intellectually superior life forms. The plot also involves a philosophical dilemma, juxtaposing the values of humanity and the efficiency of mechanical insects.
Theodore Sturgeon praised The Invincible as "sf in the grand tradition", saying "The Science is hard. The descriptions are vivid and powerful."
This idea of an "ultimate weapon system" was finalized by Lem in his fictitious review "Weapon Systems of the Twenty First Century or The Upside-down Evolution".
Adaptations
In late 1960s, Michael Redstone acquired the rights to a film adaptation of the novel, but he failed to find producers. In his usual grumpy manner Lem commented that "it would probably have been awful, but I did earn a lot".
In 2019, Rafał Mikołajczyk published the comic book Niezwyciężony [The Invincible], . Reviewers note the faithful rendering of Lem's original novel by Mikołajczyk in a different media.
In 2020, Polish video game developer Starward Industries announced a forthcoming adaptation of The Invincible. According to the developer, the adaptation will be designed specifically for the PC, PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S consoles. The release is expected in 2022.
Notes
References
External links
About the novel on the official Stanisław Lem website
About the novel on the official Stanisław Lem website (different content)
Military science fiction novels
Novels by Stanisław Lem
1964 science fiction novels
Books with cover art by Richard M. Powers
Hard science fiction
Novels about artificial intelligence
Fiction about memory erasure and alteration
Hive minds in fiction
Self-replicating machines in fiction
Evolution in popular culture
Nanotechnology in fiction | [
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220117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmenkollen | Holmenkollen | Holmenkollen () is a mountain and a neighbourhood in the Vestre Aker borough of Oslo, Norway. It goes up to above sea level and is well-known for its international skiing competitions.
Overview
In addition to being a residential area, the area has been a ski recreation area since the late 19th century, with its famous ski jumping hill, the Holmenkollbakken, hosting competitions since 1892. To the north, the area borders to the woodlands area Marka.
The Holmenkoll Line of the Oslo Metro runs through the neighborhood, serving the stations Besserud and Holmenkollen.
The Holmenkollen Chapel was destroyed by arson in August 1992 by black metal artists Varg Vikernes, Bård “Faust” Eithun and Øystein “Euronymous” Aarseth, but later rebuilt.
The chapel is a neighbour to the Norwegian Royal Lodge, the residence of the Norwegian Royal Family during events like Christmas and Holmenkollen Ski Festival.
Climate
Holmenkollen has a humid continental climate transitional with maritime subarctic influenced by its elevated position above the valley consisting of Oslo's downtown. It has cooler weather than the lower elevations, especially in summer and more precipitation both in terms of rain and snow because of orographic lift. Winter temperatures are slightly colder than in lower areas, although the difference is lower that time of the year. Even so, Holmenkollen usually maintains a sizeable snowpack. In spite of the elevation, summer temperatures are comparable to sea level locations on the North Sea both in Norway and Scotland.
Etymology
The name is a compound of the farm name Holmen and the finite form of kolle m 'hill, rounded mountain top'. The farm name Holmen (Norse Holmin, from originally *Holmvin) is a compound of holmr m 'bedrock' and vin f 'meadow'.
In fiction
Large parts of the plot of Jo Nesbø's mystery novel The Snowman—particularly the book's final climactic scenes—are set in Holmenkollen, both the residential area and the ski jump.
See also
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 in Holmenkollen
Holmenkollbakken
Holmenkollen medal
Holmenkollen ski festival
References
Neighbourhoods of Oslo
Ski areas and resorts in Norway
Mountains of Oslo | [
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220118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad%20car | Railroad car | A railroad car, railcar (American and Canadian English), railway wagon, railway carriage, railway truck, railwagon, railcarriage or railtruck (British English and UIC), also called a train car, train wagon, train carriage or train truck, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system (a railroad/railway). Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, form a train. Alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units.
The term "car" is commonly used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses "bogie" in the same manner, though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, "railcar" is a generic term for a railway vehicle; in other countries "railcar" refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered, railway vehicle.
Although some cars exist for the railroad's own use – for track maintenance purposes, for example – most carry a revenue-earning load of passengers or freight, and may be classified accordingly as passenger cars or coaches on the one hand or freight cars (or wagons) on the other.
Passenger cars
Passenger cars, or coaches, vary in their internal fittings:
In standard-gauge cars, seating is usually configured into ranges from three to five seats across the width of the car, with an aisle in between (resulting in arrangements of 2+1, 2+2 or 3+2 seats) or at the side. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another. Alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front.
If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the same direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other.
In some vehicles intended for commuter services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls, either on one side or more commonly on both, facing each other across the aisle. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, as well as improving loading and unloading speeds.
If the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, and sometimes in first class they contain four.
Passenger cars can take the electricity supply for heating and lighting equipment from either of two main sources: directly from a head end power generator on the locomotive via bus cables, or by an axle-powered generator which continuously charges batteries whenever the train is in motion.
Modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened (sometimes, for safety, not so far that one can hang out), or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided.
Other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is temporarily converted to one of these for an event.
Observation cars were built for the rear of many famous trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. These proved popular, leading to the development of dome cars multiple units of which could be placed mid-train, and featured a glass-enclosed upper level extending above the normal roof to provide passengers with a better view.
Sleeping cars outfitted with (generally) small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, while couchette cars provide more basic sleeping accommodation. Long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers' luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, with access from a side corridor. In the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone.
Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars. An example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner.
A "trainset" (or "set") is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created "ad hoc" out of whatever cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled 'on shed' (in the maintenance depot). Trains are then built of one or more of these 'sets' coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train.
Often, but not always, passenger cars in a train are linked together with enclosed, flexible gangway connections through which passengers and crewmen can walk. Some designs incorporate semi-permanent connections between cars and may have a full-width connection, effectively making them one long, articulated 'car'. In North America, passenger cars also employ tightlock couplings to keep a train together in the event of a derailment or other accident.
Many multiple unit trains consist of cars which are semi-permanently coupled into sets: these sets may be joined together to form larger trains, but generally passengers can only move around between cars within a set. This "closed" arrangement keeps parties of travellers and their luggage together, and hence allows the separate sets to be easily split to go separate ways. Some multiple-unit trainsets are designed so that corridor connections can be easily opened between coupled sets; this generally requires driving cabs either set to the side or (as in the Dutch Koploper or the Japanese 285 series) above the passenger compartment. These cabs or driving trailers are also useful for quickly reversing the train.
Passenger car gallery
Freight cars
Freight cars (US/Canada), goods wagons (UIC), or trucks (UK) exist in a wide variety of types, adapted to carry a host of goods. Originally there were very few types of cars; the flat car or wagon, and the boxcar (US/Canada), covered wagon (UIC) or van (UK), were among the first.
Types of freight cars
Freight cars or goods wagons are generally categorized as follows:
Boxcar (US and Canada), covered wagon (UIC) or van (UK): fully enclosed car with side or end doors. Standard boxcars have about 3.5 times the capacity of a standard Semi-trailer.
Covered wagon (UIC), van (UK) or boxcar (US/Canada): fully enclosed wagon for moisture-susceptible goods.
Hicube boxcars: high-capacity high-clearance boxcar
Refrigerator car or reefer (US/Canada): refrigerated boxcar for fruits and vegetables.
CargoBeamer
Coil car: specialized flat or gondola for heavy sheet metal rolls
Combine car: combined passenger car and boxcar in one wagon
Flatcar (or flat): for larger bulky loads. Specialized flat cars include:
Aircraft Parts Car: with fixtures for large aircraft parts.
Autorack (also called auto carriers): multi-level flat for automobiles.
Centerbeam cars (US): specialized flat for building materials.
Conflat (UK): specialized flat for containers.
CargoSprinter: self-propelled container flat.
Container flatcar
Depressed-center flatcar or Wellcar or Lowmac (UK): for high-clearance loads (e.g. transformers and boilers)
Semi-trailer flatcar
Rolling highway: a train designed to carry trucks and/or semi-trailers
Single container car; Spine car, a center sill and side sill only car with lateral arms to support intermodal containers. See also Well car.
Double container car; Well car or double-stack car. Cars for transporting Intermodal containers with a low deck to allow double stacking, commonly used in articulated form. See also Spine car
Schnabel car: for unusually large and heavy industrial equipment (transformers, boilers, reactors, distillation columns,...)
Gondola (US): car with open top, enclosed sides and ends for bulk goods.
Covered hopper: specialized hopper car with a cover for weather sensitive loads (grain, pellets,...)
Open wagon (UIC): railway wagon with an open top but enclosed sides and ends, for bulk commodities and other goods that might slide off.
Hoppers: similar to gondolas but with bottom dump doors for easy unloading of things like coal, ore, grain, cement, ballast and the like. Short hoppers for carrying iron ore are called ore jennys in the US.
Lorry (US/Canada): An open wagon (UIC) or gondola (US/Canada) with a tipping trough, often found in mines. See also Tippler.
Mine car
Mine cart (e.g., V skip wagon).
Side dump cars: used to transport roadbed materials such as, ballast, riprap, and large stone, and are able to unload anywhere along the track.
Tippler (UK): An open wagon with no doors or roof which are unloaded by being inverted on a Wagon Tippler (UK) or Rotary car dumper (US/Canada). They are, used for minerals, such as coal, limestone and iron ore as well as other bulk cargo. See also Lorry.
Quarry tub: a type of small railway or tramway wagon used in quarries for the transport minerals, such as coal, limestone and iron ore.
Modalohr Road Trailer Carriers.
Presflo and Prestwin (UK), bulk cement wagons
Roll-block: a train designed to carry another railway train
Slate waggon: specialized freight cars used to transport slate
Stock car: ventilated box car for livestock
Tank car (US/Canada), tank wagon (UIC) or tanker: for liquid or gas.
British Milk Tank
Milk car: specialized tank car for milk
Tank cars for bulk loading
"Whale Belly" car: high capacity tank car with a "belly".
Transporter wagon: a wagon designed to carry other railway equipment.
Well car
Common Freight Car Underframe Components (North America)
Freight cars, as share in the above section, vary in appearance by the intended end use. The underframe components or running gear is similar between all car types to boost reliability and lower the railcar cost. The major parts groups follow and are regulated by the Federal Railroad Administration (US) and Transport Canada (Canada).
Centersill or Sidesill
Trucks
Wheels
Brake rigging (Foundation brake gear)
Couplers
Freight car gallery
Aluminium cars
The first two main-line all aluminum passenger cars were exhibited at the 1933-35 Chicago World's Fair by Pullman Company. Aluminum freightcars have a higher net-to-tare ratio of 4.9 than traditional steel based wagons, which have 3.65.
Non-revenue cars
Ballast regulator
Ballast tamper
Barrier vehicle or match wagon, with a different coupler at each end.
Caboose (US) or Brake van (UIC) attach to rear to watch freight trains, assist in reverse moves, and provide rear braking. Replaced by End-Of-Train devices.
Catenary maintenance vehicle or tower car, used to maintain overhead lines
Clearance car, special car to check for obstructions.
Crew car aka Outfit Car or a Camp Car, a bunk, kitchen, or tool car for railroad employees.
Departmental vehicle
Handcars, early MOW car powered by passengers with a handcrank.
Maintenance of way (MOW) cars for maintaining track and equipment.
Office car which contains a mobile office for a train company.
Rail ambulance
Rail car mover similar to HiRail trucks.
Railroad cranes
Railway post office
Road-rail vehicle
Scale test car
Track geometry car
Track tester
Military cars
Military armoured trains use several types of specialized cars:
Anti-air: equipped with anti-air guns
Anti-tank: equipped with anti-tank guns, usually in a tank gun turret
Artillery: fielding mixture of guns and machine guns
Command: similar to infantry wagons, but designed to be a train command center
DODX is the reporting mark for the United States Department of Defense Military Traffic Management Command.
Infantry: fielding machine guns, designed to carry infantry units
Machine gun: dedicated to machine guns
Platform: unarmoured, with purposes ranging from transport of ammunition or vehicles, through track repair or derailing protection of railroad ploughs for railroad destruction.
Troop sleepers
Mobile missile systems
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded a number of trains that served as mobile missile silos. These trains carried the missile and everything necessary to launch, and were kept moving around the railway network to make them difficult to find and destroy in a first-strike attack. A similar rail-borne system was proposed in the United States of America for the LGM-30 Minuteman in the 1960s, and the Peacekeeper Rail Garrison in the 1980s, but neither were deployed.
Radar bomb scoring
The Strategic Air Command's 1st Combat Evaluation RBS "Express" deployed from Barksdale Air Force Base with radar bomb scoring units mounted on military railroad cars with supporting equipment, to score simulated thermonuclear bombing of cities in the continental United States.
See also
Air brake
Great Western Railway wagons
List of railway vehicles
List of rolling stock manufacturers
Rail car tracking device
Railway brakes
Rolling stock
Skytop Lounge
Tamping machine
Tender
Tram
Types of goods wagon
UIC classification of goods wagons
Vacuum brake
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
Further reading
External links
List of railroad car manufacturers by country
History of the Ralston Steel Car Company, Columbus, Ohio
Paquette Railway Solutions, dealing with rolling stock and power
US Air Force Guard Car G-50 Strategic Air Command guard car, rebuilt from Army 1943 troop kitchen car #8750. Photographed in Portola, California at the Western Pacific Railroad Museum.
Peacekeeper Rail Garrison Car.
Rail car manufacturing
Guide to railroad cars
Railroad car | [
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220122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral%20rights | Moral rights | Moral rights are rights of creators of copyrighted works generally recognized in civil law jurisdictions and, to a lesser extent, in some common law jurisdictions.
The moral rights include the right of attribution, the right to have a work published anonymously or pseudonymously, and the right to the integrity of the work. The preserving of the integrity of the work allows the author to object to alteration, distortion, or mutilation of the work that is "prejudicial to the author's honor or reputation". Anything else that may detract from the artist's relationship with the work even after it leaves the artist's possession or ownership may bring these moral rights into play. Moral rights are distinct from any economic rights tied to copyrights. Even if an artist has assigned his or her copyright rights to a work to a third party, he or she still maintains the moral rights to the work.
Moral rights were first recognized in France and Germany, before they were included in the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1928. Canada recognizes moral rights (droits moraux) in its Copyright Act (Loi sur le droit d'auteur). The United States became a signatory to the convention in 1989, and incorporated a version of moral rights under its copyright law under Title 17 of the U.S. Code.
Some jurisdictions allow for the waiver of moral rights. In the United States, the Visual Artists Rights Act of 1990 (VARA) recognizes moral rights, but applies only to a narrow subset of works of visual art. "For the purposes of VARA, visual art includes paintings, drawings, prints, sculptures, and photographs, existing in a single copy or a limited edition of 200 signed and numbered copies or fewer". A photograph must be taken only for exhibition purposes to be recognized under this subcategory. Independent art is not a focus of this waiver, for VARA only works in protecting artwork that can be considered as having "recognized stature"; Some of the items that are voided from VARA's protection include posters, maps, globes, motion pictures, electronic publications, and applied art. The VARA grants artists two specific rights. The first is the right of attribution. This allows an author to avoid the misattribution of their work, and allows their ownership to remain anonymous. The second is the right of integrity does its best to prevent distortion or modification of their work. This right can ease an artist in their worries surrounding negative defamation directly applied to their work affection their reputation.
In the United States, moral rights are not transferable, and end only with the life of the author. Authors may, however, waive their moral rights if this is done in writing.
Some jurisdictions like Austria differentiate between narrow and wide moral rights. Whilst the former is about integrity of the work, the latter limits usages, which may harm the author's integrity. Some copyright timestamp services allow an author to publish allowed and disallowed usage intentions to prevent a violation of such wider moral rights.
Berne Convention
Through the Rome Revision of the Berne Convention in 1928, the Berne Convention accepted two forms of moral rights; paternity and integrity. These rights are included in Article 6bis of the Berne Convention as follows:
Independent of the author's economic rights, and even after the transfer of the said rights, the author shall have the right to claim authorship of the work and to object to any distortion, modification of, or other derogatory action in relation to the said work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honor or reputation.
Worldwide situation
Table
Legend:
∞: infinity (to identify perpetual moral rights, though countries and areas may have different wordings in their laws and regulations)
= economic rights: equal to or same as economic rights
In Europe
In most of Europe, it is not possible for authors to assign or even waive their moral rights. This is following a tradition in European copyright itself, which is regarded as an item of property which cannot be sold, but only licensed. The author can agree to waive them to a limited extent (and such terms are very common in contracts in Europe). There may also be a requirement for the author to 'assert' these moral rights before they can be enforced. In many books, for example, this is done on a page near the beginning, in and amongst the British Library/Library of Congress data.
In Canada
Section 14.1 of Canada's Copyright Act protects the moral rights of authors. The moral rights cannot be assigned, but can be waived contractually. Many publishing contracts in Canada now contain a standard moral right waiver.
Moral rights in Canada were famously exercised in the case of Snow v. The Eaton Centre Ltd. In this case Toronto Eaton Centre, a large shopping mall, had commissioned the artist Michael Snow for a sculpture of Canada Geese. Snow successfully stopped Eaton's from decorating the geese with bows at Christmas.
In China
Article 20 of the Copyright Law of the People's Republic of China (1990) provides unlimited term of protection of the rights of authorship, alteration, and integrity of an author. As Article 55 of the same Law provides retroactive protection of unexpired term on the date of entry into force of this Law, the Chinese perpetual moral rights are retroactive as well. The 2001 version retains this provision and the original Article 55 becomes Article 59.
In Ghana
Art. 18, Copyright Act, 2005 provides perpetual moral rights. The moral rights in Art. 6 are for proper attribution and against any distortion, mutilation or other modification of the work where that act would be or is prejudicial to the reputation of the author or where the work is discredited by the act.
In Hong Kong
Moral Rights is specified under Copyright Ordinance (Chapter 528) Division IV, starting from section 89. Author of computer program does not have Moral Rights (section 91). Moral Rights cannot be transferred unless on the death of moral rights holder (section 105 and 106).
In India
Moral rights are recognised under section 57 of India copyright act. Section 57 of India Copyright act refers to Author's Special rights. It states:
(1) Independently of author's copyright, and even after the assignment either wholly or partially of the said copyright, the author of the work shall have the right to claim authorship of the work as well as the right to restrain, or claim damages in respect of
(a) any distortion, mutilation or other modification of the said work; or
(b) any other action in relation to the said work which would be prejudicial to his honour or reputation.
(2) The right conferred upon an author of a work by sub section (1), other than the right to claim authorship of the work, may be exercised by the legal representatives of the author.
The issue of moral rights was discussed in Amar Nath Sehgal V Union of India & Ors.(Amar Nath Sehgal V Union of India & Ors CS/OS/No.2074/1992 decided on 21st Feb 2005. Court of Mr. Justice Pradeep Nandrajog). The case pertained to a mural that was commissioned in 1957 by Government of India during construction of Vigyan Bhavan at New Delhi. The mural in question was made of bronze had span of 140 feet sweep of 40 feet. The mural remained on display and was much appreciated till pulled down in 1979 and then consigned to storerooms of Union of India. Delhi High Court specifically referred to Berne Convention in delivering judgement. Court also awarded damages Rs. 500000 (half million) and also decreed in favor of the Amar Nath Sehgal that he would have an absolute right to recreate the mural at any place and right to sale the same.
The Court accepted existence of moral rights despite the work being commissioned work and copyright had passed over to union of India and suit being brought 13years after the said act(defense of limitations as pleaded by Government was rejected by the court).
In Macao
Article 41 of the Decree-Law_n.o_43/99/M provides inalienable, unrenounceable and imprescriptible author's personal rights.
In Taiwan
In Taiwan, the Copyright Act has provided authors' perpetual moral rights with regard of attribution and protection against alteration in bad faith, even if the works are in the public domain, as follows:
Article 25 of the Copyright Act 1928
Article 21 of the Copyright Act 1944
Article 21 of the Copyright Act 1948, unchanged from the 1944 Act (The effective jurisdiction of the Republic of China became limited to Taiwan Area in 1949.)
Article 21 of the Copyright Act 1964, unchanged from the 1948 Act
Article 26 of the Copyright Act 1985
Article 26 of the Copyright Act 1990, unchanged from the 1985 Act
Section 3, Articles 15-21 of the Copyright Act 1992, with the Article unchanged in the subsequent versions of the Copyright Act
In the United States
Moral rights traditionally have not been recognized in American law. Some elements of moral rights do exist in the United States, but are usually protected through specific contract provisions between parties, or else through individual states' laws or the derivative work rights in U.S. copyright law. U.S. copyright law emphasizes protection of financial reward over protection of creative attribution. The exclusive rights tradition in the United States is inconsistent with the notion of moral rights as it was constituted in the Civil Code tradition stemming from post-Revolutionary France. When the United States acceded to the Berne Convention, it stipulated that the Convention's "moral rights" provisions were addressed sufficiently by other statutes, such as laws covering slander and libel.
Some individual states have moral rights laws, particularly pertaining to visual art and artists (See, e.g. California Art Preservation Act, Artists Authorship Rights Act (New York)). However, it is unclear if these laws, or portions thereof, are preempted by federal laws, such as the Visual Artists Rights Act.
In Gilliam v. American Broadcasting, the Monty Python comedy troupe made a claim of "mutilation" (akin to a moral rights claim) in 1975 in legal proceedings against American TV network ABC for airing re-edited versions of Monty Python's Flying Circus. However, the case was primarily decided on the basis of whether the BBC was licensed in such a way as to allow ABC to edit the videos (paragraph 20).
Visual Artists Rights Act
The Visual Artists Rights Act of 1990 grants authors of a "work of visual art" - e.g. photographs, paintings, sculptures, etc. - the non-transferable right to
claim authorship
prevent the use of one's name on any work the author did not create
prevent use of one's name on any work that has been distorted, mutilated, or modified in a way that would be prejudicial to the author's honor or reputation
prevent any intentional distortion, mutilation, or modification that would prejudice the author's honor or reputation
prevent the destruction of a work of art if it is of "recognized stature"
These rights are distinct from any rights of copyright and ownership of a copy of the work.
Adaptation right
Copyright holders have the right to control adaptations, or the preparation of "derivative works". This right is given under copyright law. See 17 U.S.C. § 106.
Lanham Act
Section 43 of the Lanham Act governs false and misleading advertising, and can apply in some instances to attribution of protected works. However, it cannot be used to create moral rights for works outside of the Act. See Dastar v. Twentieth Century Fox.
By the start of the twentieth century, U.S. decisions on unfair competition found that representing as the author's work a version of the work that substantially departed from the original was a cause of action.
Section §43(a) of the Lanham Act, which protects brands and trademarks, also provides similar protection to laws based on moral rights.
For any goods or services, it bans false designation of origin or a false description or representation.
In Gilliam v. American Broadcasting the British comedy group called Monty Python took action against the ABC network for broadcasting versions of their programs which had been correctly attributed to them but had been extensively edited, in part to remove content that their audience might consider offensive or obscene.
The judgement of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit was in favor of Monty Python, finding the cuts might be an "actionable mutilation" that violated the Lanham Act.
Courtesy of non-attribution
Authors occasionally wish to distance themselves from work they've been involved with, some to the point of not wishing to be recognized as the work's author. One way they may do this is by signing the work under a pseudonym. Alan Smithee was a traditional, collective pseudonym used between 1968 and 1999 by discontented Hollywood film directors who no longer wanted to be credited. This courtesy was not always extended, however. The director of Highlander II, Russell Mulcahy, wanted his name removed after the completion bond company took over film production, but he was contractually obliged not to impugn the film and he was told that using a pseudonym would impugn it.
If the work was unfinished, sometimes the original author will choose a pseudonym as permission for the copyright holder to do whatever they wish to finish and market the unwanted work, cutting ties from the product.
See also
Personality rights
Protection of Classics
References
General
Further reading
Peter E. Berlowe, Laura J. Berlowe-Heinish, and Peter A. Koziol, "In this Digital Age, Are We Protecting Tomorrow's 'Masterpieces'? Protection of the Moral Rights of the Digital Graphic Artist", 81 Fla. Bar J. 30 (2007)
Laura Gassaway, "Copyright and moral rights" (Copyright Corner) Information Outlook, Vol. 6, No. 12 (December 2002), pp. 40–41.
Patrick Masiyakurima, "The Trouble with Moral Rights", The Modern Law Review (May 2005), 68 (3), pp. 411–434
Cyrill P. Rigamonti, "Deconstructing Moral Rights", 47 Harv. Int'l L.J. 353 (2006) (PDF)
Cyrill P. Rigamonti, "The Conceptual Transformation of Moral Rights", 55 American Journal of Comparative Law 67 (2007)
Mira T. Sundara Rajan, "Moral Rights and Copyright Harmonisation - Prospects for an 'International Moral Right, British and Irish Law Conference, 2002, Free University, Amsterdam
Intellectual property law
Copyright law
Art and culture law | [
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220123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivek%20Paul | Vivek Paul | Vivek Paul (born 1958) is an Indian American businessman who is currently an adjunct professor at Stanford University.. He formerly served as CEO and Vice Chairman of the Board of Directors of Wipro Limited. He is acknowledged to be a leading force in building Wipro Technologies from a $150 million software business to a $1.4 billion entity.
His career included spells as a public company CEO, investor and entrepreneur. Ten of his direct reports have gone on to become public company CEO's. He has served on the Boards of several companies as well as non-profit organizations. He was part of the team of a Special Purpose Acquisition Company (SPAC), that did a successful IPO on the NASDAQ.
Early life, education and career
Paul was born in India and received Bachelor of Engineering degree from Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani and MBA from University of Massachusetts Amherst. He did his schooling from St. Columba's in New Delhi. Paul began his business career at PepsiCo where his outstanding talents were quickly recognized.
GE
In 1990, Paul was part of the founding team of WiproGE Medical Systems, and became its CEO in 1994. The joint venture started as a sales and service arm, went on to manufacturing, and then design and build of medical equipment, becoming India's largest exporter of high value electronics goods. Paul was then asked to lead GE's worldwide CT scanner business. Paul reorganized operations across its China, Japan and US operations, and launched GE as the first major multi-detector CT provider. The work in complex product development became a foundation of "Design For Six Sigma".. In one of the books about Jack Welch, Paul was cited as among the top 5 All Star CEO's from GE.
Wipro
In 1999, Paul was asked to become Vice Chairman of Wipro and CEO of its outsourcing unit. Wipro was a $150-million company when Vivek Paul took over, and it had all the tendencies of a small, traditional company. Paul has been credited with creating a global business and for much of Wipro's growth into a multibillion-dollar company. On October 19, 2000, Wipro was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Paul was recognized as among the top 6 managers in the world by Jack Welch in one of his books, as well as by several business magazines.
TPG Capital
In June 2005, Paul joined private equity firm, TPG Capital, as an investing partner spanning various fund classes, from buyout to Asia to venture capital. He went on to be a Founding Partner of TPG Growth, a fund focussed on growth capital for midsize companies. He resigned from TPG in December 2008.
Kinetic Glue
Founded KineticGlue, a cloud based enterprise social media application in 2008. Sold company to BMC in 2013.
Stanford
Paul co-founded the Microbiome Alliance at Stanford, and was the driving force behind the first Microbiome Symposium at Stanford in 2014. The sixth annual Stanford Microbiome Symposium will be held in September 2021. Paul also co-chaired the Biodesign program of 2014–2015.
Electronic Arts
Paul served on the board of Electronic Arts from 2005 to 2019, and was Chair of its CEO Selection Committee in 2013.
Paul has served on the advisory council of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, on the board of the California Chamber of Commerce, on the board of the U.S.-India Business Council, and on the Senate of BITS, Pilani.
Acknowledgments
Ranked among the best managers in the world by BusinessWeek in 2003.
Among the top global business influentials by Time magazine in 2004.
Among the top 30 most respected global CEOs by Barron's in 2005.
References
Living people
American businesspeople of Indian descent
21st-century American engineers
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani alumni
TPG Capital
Private equity and venture capital investors
Isenberg School of Management alumni
St. Columba's School, Delhi alumni
1959 births
Bain & Company employees | [
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220130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilani | Pilani | Pilani is a small city situated in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan, India. Administratively, it forms a part of Jhunjhunu district.
The place became popular since the establishment of BITS Pilani.The city is also the home to some of the oldest schools of independent India.
Pilani also has an assembling centre for India's prestigious BrahMos missile. Moreover, Pilani is getting recognition at India level due to the rising number of startups which are incorporated by the students of BITS Pilani and Bkbiet Pilani. Pilani is also known in the Shekhawati region due to a large number of tourist destinations such as Panchwati, Saraswati Temple, Birla Museum, and Ram Mandir park.
Demographics
, Pilani has a population of 29,741 of which 51% are males and 49% females. The average literacy rate is 72%. Male literacy is 80% and female 63%. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Geography
Climate
Pilani has a semi-arid climate, typical of North Western India. Summers, which last from late March till the end of June are extremely hot and dry. They are followed by the monsoon months of July, August and early September, where temperatures drop slightly, and the humidity rises sharply. The months from late October to early March see warm days, and cool to chilly nights, with very dry conditions.
Education and Research
Pilani is home to the Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS Pilani).
Apart from BITS, Pilani also has one of the major CSIR labs for advanced research in electronics, the Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute (CEERI), which is located next to the BITS campus. The GD Birla Memorial Polytechnic Institute named Birla Technical Training Institute (BTTI), established in 1988 in Pilani, is one of the top ranked diploma colleges in Rajasthan. Other colleges include the BK Birla Institute of Engineering & Technology (BKBIET), an engineering college formed in 2007, the Indermani Mandelia college for girls and the ShaadiLal Kataria Teacher Training college. In 2009, Shridhar University was established under the State Government Act as a private university. The University provides various higher education programs up to doctoral level. Schools include Birla Shishu Vihar, Birla High School, Birla Public School and Birla Balika Vidyapeeth. Birla School Pilani is providing education from 1901.
Transportation
Pilani is not accessible directly by rail; the nearest stations are Chirawa, , Sadulpur away served by the Northern Western Railway on the Sikar-Loharu Broad Gauge section and Loharu, away in Haryana, which is served by fully broad gauge sections. Pilani is from Jaipur and from Delhi and has a good bus transport system.
References
Cities and towns in Jhunjhunu district
Company towns in India | [
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] |
220131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%20Today | India Today | India Today is a weekly Indian English-language news magazine published by Living Media India Limited. It is the most widely circulated magazine in India, with a readership of close to 8 million. In 2014, India Today launched a new online opinion-orientated site called the DailyO.
History
India Today was established in 1975 by Vidya Vilas Purie (owner of Thompson Press), with his daughter Madhu Trehan as its editor and his son Aroon Purie as its publisher. At present, India Today is also published in Hindi, Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu. The India Today news channel was launched on 22 May 2015.
In October 2017, Aroon Purie passed control of the India Today Group to his daughter, Kallie Purie.
References
External links
India Today website
1975 establishments in Uttar Pradesh
English-language magazines published in India
India Today Group
News magazines published in India
Weekly magazines published in India
Magazines established in 1975
Multilingual magazines
Weekly news magazines | [
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220132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattani%20province | Pattani province | Pattani (, ; Pattani Malay: , , ) is one of the southern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from southeast clockwise) Narathiwat, Yala, and Songkhla. Its capital is the town of Pattani.
Geography
Pattani is on the Malay Peninsula, with the coast of the Gulf of Thailand to the north. The south is dominated by the Sankalakhiri mountain range, which includes Budo-Su-ngai Padi National Park, on the border with Yala and Narathiwat. The total forest area is or 5.6 percent of provincial area.
Etymology
The name Pattani is the Thai adaptation of the Malay name Patani (Jawi: ڤتاني), which can mean "this beach" in Patani Malay language. (In standard Malay, this would be pantai ini.) According to legend, the founder of Patani went hunting and saw an albino mouse-deer the size of a goat, which then disappeared. He enquired where the animal had gone, and his men replied: "Pata ni lah!" ("this beach!") They searched for the mouse-deer but found instead an old man, who said his name was Che' Tani. The raja later ordered a town be built on the site where the mouse-deer had disappeared, and it is therefore believed that the town was named either after the beach or the old man. Another suggestion is that it derives from a Sanskrit word pathini, meaning "virgin nymph"; Pathini was the name of a daughter of Merong Mahawangsa, founder of the preceding Langkasuka Empire.
History
Historically, Pattani province was the centre of the Malay Sultanate of Patani Darul Makrif. For centuries a tributary state of Siam, Patani has been governed by Siam since its conquest in 1786. The provinces of Patani were turned into seven smaller provinces: Patani, Nhongchik, Raman, Ra-ngae, Saiburi, Yala and Yaring, later regrouped in 1906 into 4 larger provinces: Patani, Bangnara, Saiburi and Yala. Siamese rule was officially acknowledged by the Burney Treaty of 1826 negotiated with the British Empire which included also Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu. Unlike these four sultanates, Patani was not included in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 and remained under Siamese rule. Both Yala (Jala) and Narathiwat (Menara) were originally part of Patani, but were made provinces in their own right during the territorial administrative reform and the creation of a united centralized Siam state in the early-20th century.
Demographics
Pattani is one of the four provinces of Thailand where the majority of the population are Muslim, with the other provinces being Yala, Narathiwat, and Satun. In the 2014 census, it is stated that Muslim make up to roughly 88 percent of the population. This is mainly due to the people of Malay ancestry, and large portion of the population being able to speak the Pattani Malay language (though most of them can still speak Thai as well).
Symbols
The seal of the province shows the cannon called Phraya Tani, known as Sri Pattani in Malay, which was cast in Pattani province. It was brought to Bangkok in 1785, and is now on display in front of the Ministry of Defence in Bangkok.
The provincial flower is the Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), and the provincial tree is the Ironwood (Hopea odorata).
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
Pattani is divided into 12 districts (amphoe), which are further divided into 115 subdistricts (tambon) and 629 villages (muban).
The districts of Chana (Malay: Chenok), Thepa (Malay:Tiba) and Saba Yoi (Malay:Sebayu) were detached from Pattani and transferred to Songkhla in 1796 by Siam government.
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Pattani Provincial Administration Organisation () and 17 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Pattani and Taluban have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 15 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 96 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Economy
Six of Pattani's districts lie on the shore of the Gulf of Thailand. The number of fisheries workers in Pattani exceeds 80,000 . Pattani is the only province in Thailand where the agriculture ministry prohibits trawlers and destructive fishing nets within four nautical miles of the shoreline. Local fish stocks have rebounded as a result.
Despite having many interesting places. But Pattani is the least visited province in the country according to data from Ministry of Tourism and Sports in 2018, the number of tourists is only 20,000–30,000 people, mostly Thai people.
Transport
Pattani is served by Pattani Airport, but the airport does not allow public flights due to the Royal Thai Air Force's reliance on it for counter-insurgency operations in the area. Pattani's main railway stop is Pattani Railway Station.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Military rule
, the provisions of Thailand's Internal Security Act remain imposed on Mae Lan District. Internal security restrictions, maintained by Thailand's Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC) can result in curfews, prohibited entry, or prohibited transport of goods. It is considered one step below the imposition of full martial law.
Places of interest
Pattani has named as the land of three religions (Buddhism, Islam, Chinese religion). There are important places of worship for all three religions:
Wat Rat Burana (Thai: ), also known as Wat Chang Hai (Thai: ), an ancient Thai Buddhist temple older than 300 years, a legendary monk Luang Pu Thuat was once the abbot of this place.
Leng Chu Kiang Shrine (Thai: ) Chinese shrine of Lim Ko Niao (younger sister of Lin Daoqian) opposite Krue Se Mosque.
Krue Se Mosque (Thai: ) Regarded as one of the more famous mosques with the oldest history.
See also
2007 South Thailand bombings
Pattani (region)
Pattani kingdom
South Thailand insurgency
References
External links
Pattani province website (Thai)
Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT): Pattani
Pattani Erupts
Thailand Islamic Insurgency
Muslim rebels light fuse in Thailand
Provinces of Thailand
Southern Thailand
Gulf of Thailand | [
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220135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlox | Phlox | Phlox (; Greek φλόξ "flame"; plural "phlox" or "phloxes", Greek φλόγες phlóges) is a genus of 67 species of perennial and annual plants in the family Polemoniaceae. They are found mostly in North America (one in Siberia) in diverse habitats from alpine tundra to open woodland and prairie. Some flower in spring, others in summer and fall. Flowers may be pale blue, violet, pink, bright red, or white. Many are fragrant.
Description
The name is derived from the Greek word phlox meaning flame in reference to the intense flower colors of some varieties. Fertilized flowers typically produce one relatively large seed. The fruit is a longitudinally dehiscent capsule with three or more valves that sometimes separate explosively.
Some species such as P. paniculata (garden phlox) grow upright, while others such as P. subulata (moss phlox, moss pink, mountain phlox) grow short and matlike. Paniculata or tall phlox, is a native American wildflower that is native from New York to Iowa south to Georgia, Mississippi and Arkansas. It blooms from July to September.
Creeping phlox spreads rapidly and makes great ground cover. It can be planted to cover banks, fill spaces under tall trees, and spill and trail over slopes. Creeping phlox blooms in spring and produces long, spreading stems, which become woody with age. It was introduced into cultivation by the late 1700s.
The foliage of Phlox is a food for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including dot moth, Gazoryctra wielgusi, hummingbird hawk-moth and Schinia indiana (which feeds exclusively on P. pilosa). Phlox species are also a popular food source for groundhogs, rabbits and deer.
Species
The species in the genus include:
Phlox aculeata A. Nelson
Phlox acuminata Pursh
Phlox adsurgens Torr. ex A. Gray
Phlox alaskensis Jordal
Phlox albomarginata M.E. Jones
Phlox alyssifolia Greene
Phlox amabilis Brand
Phlox amoena Sims
Phlox amplifolia Britton
Phlox andicola (Britton) E.E. Nelson
Phlox austromontana Coville
Phlox azurea Glad. L. Sm.
Phlox bifida L.C. Beck
Phlox bryoides Nutt.
Phlox buckleyi Wherry
Phlox caespitosa Nutt.
Phlox canescens Torr. & A. Gray
Phlox carolina L.
Phlox caryophylla Wherry
Phlox cluteana A. Nelson
Phlox colubrina Wherry & Constance
Phlox condensata (A. Gray) E.E. Nelson
Phlox covillei E.E. Nelson
Phlox cuspidata Scheele
Phlox diffusa Benth.
Phlox dispersa Sharsm.
Phlox divaricata L.
Phlox dolichantha A. Gray
Phlox douglasii Hook.
Phlox drummondii Hook.
Phlox floridana Benth.
Phlox glaberrima L.
Phlox glabriflora Whiteh.
Phlox gladiformis (M.E. Jones) E.E. Nelson
Phlox glutinosa Buckley
Phlox grahamii Wherry
Phlox grayi Wooton & Standl.
Phlox griseola Wherry
Phlox hendersonii (E.E. Nelson) Cronquist
Phlox hentzii Nutt.
Phlox hirsuta E.E. Nelson
Phlox hoodii Richardson
Phlox idahonis Wherry
Phlox jonesii Wherry
Phlox kelseyi Britton
Phlox lanata Piper
Phlox lighthipei Small
Phlox linearifolia (Hook.) A. Gray
Phlox longifolia Nutt.
Phlox longipilosa Waterf.
Phlox lutescens (S.L. Welsh) S.L. Welsh
Phlox maculata L.
Phlox mesoleuca Greene
Phlox mollis Wherry
Phlox multiflora A. Nelson
Phlox muscoides Nutt.
Phlox nana Nutt.
Phlox nivalis Lodd.
Phlox oklahomensis Wherry
Phlox ovata L.
Phlox paniculata L.
Phlox pattersonii Prather
Phlox peckii Wherry
Phlox pilosa L.
Phlox pulcherrima (Lundell) Lundell
Phlox pulvinata (Wherry) Cronquist
Phlox pungens Dorn
Phlox richardsonii Hook.
Phlox roemeriana Scheele
Phlox sibirica L.
Phlox speciosa Pursh
Phlox stansburyi (Torr.) A. Heller
Phlox stolonifera Sims
Phlox subulata L.
Phlox suksdorfii (Brand) H. St. John
Phlox superba Brand
Phlox tenuifolia E.E. Nelson
Phlox tenuis (A. Gray) E.E. Nelson
Phlox texensis (Lundell) Lundell
Phlox triovulata Thurb. ex Torr.
Phlox tumulosa Wherry
Phlox viridis E.E. Nelson
Phlox viscida E.E. Nelson
Phlox walteri (A. Gray) Chapm.
Phlox woodhousei (A. Gray) E.E. Nelson
Cultivation
Several species and cultivars of phlox are commonly grown in gardens. Most cultivated phlox, with the notable exception of Phlox drummondii, are perennial. Species from alpine habitats (and cultivars derived from them) require full sun and good drainage. Those from woodland habitats (such as Phlox divaricata) require partial shade and soil rich in humus. Those from waterside habitats (such as P. paniculata) require full sun and moisture at the roots. Phlox are valued in the garden for their ability to attract butterflies. Phlox can be propagated from stem cuttings.
References
Further reading
Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, University of Texas, Austin
Natural Resources Conservation Service USDA
External links
Garden plants
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] |
220143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Chileans | List of Chileans | This is a list of Chileans who are famous or notable.
Economists
Ricardo J. Caballero – MIT professor, Department of Economics
Sebastián Edwards – UCLA professor, former World Bank officer (1993–1996), prolific author and media personality
Nicolás Eyzaguirre – former Finance Minister
Alejandro Foxley – Chile's first Finance Minister after the return of democracy in 1990 and an engineer of the country's economic miracle during democracy; former Foreign Affairs minister, and former Chilean Senator for East kakarackoj
Manfred Max Neef – Right Livelihood Award winner, presidential candidate, member of the Club of Rome, former president of the Universidad Austral
José Piñera – implemented the privatization of the Chilean pension system under Pinochet
Andrés Velasco – Sumitomo Professor of International Finance and Development in the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University; Finance Minister during Bachelet's administration
Military
Manuel Baquedano – general of the Chilean forces during the War of the Pacific
Philip Bazaar – recipient of the US Navy Medal of Honour
José Miguel Carrera – first Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army and Independence leader of the Patria Vieja
Luis Carrera – Chilean military officer in the War of Independence
Ignacio Carrera Pinto – captain in charge of the Chilean patrol who died in Battle of La Concepción
Carlos Condell – captain of the Covadonga ship at the Iquique Naval Combat
Manuel Contreras – head of Augusto Pinochet's National Intelligence Directorate (DINA)
Manuel Hipólito Orella – sailor who was one of the first midshipman of the Chilean Navy
Patricio Lynch – governor of Lima during the Chilean occupation of Lima, Perú, during the War of the Pacific
Juan MacKenna – Irish-born organizer of O'Higgins's Army
Bernardo O'Higgins – founder of modern Chile
Arturo Prat – captain of the Esmeralda ship at the Iquique Naval Combat; regarded as a national hero
Luis Pardo - also known as Piloto Pardo, Chilean Navy captain who rescued the survivors of the Shackleton expedition
Sofanor Parra – officer of the cavalry branch of the Chilean Army who fought in almost all the military actions of the War of the Pacific
Manuel Rodríguez – Independence leader and guerrilla leader during the Reconquista
Eleuterio Ramírez – officer, hero of the War of the Pacific
José Ignacio Zenteno – lieutenant Colonel of the Army of the Andes, Minister of War and Marine in the O'Higgins government
Musicians
Los Abandoned – alternative rock band
Américo – cumbia chilena singer
Tom Araya – singer/bassist for thrash metal band Slayer
Claudio Arrau – classical piano player
Germán Casas – 1960s singer
Beto Cuevas – lead singer from rock group La Ley
Luis 'Lucho' Gatica – bolero singer
Eduardo Gatti – a leading composer of modern Chilean music
Jorge González – controversial lead singer and songwriter of historic Chilean rock band Los Prisioneros
Rodrigo González – bassist and singer of the German band die Ärzte
Alberto Guerrero – Chilean–Canadian composer, pianist, and teacher
Myriam Hernández – popular music singer
Alicia Ika - native Rapa Nui actress, musician, songwriter, surf instructor and tourist agent. Star in 180 Degrees South: Conquerors of the Useless (2010).
Pascuala Ilabaca - singer and songwriter
Inti-Illimani – pioneers of the nueva canción chilena movement; known communists and "pro-democracy" activists in exile during Pinochet dictatorship
Víctor Jara – Chilean folk singer and theatrical director; political activist; communist
Alain Johannes - Chilean born musician, songwriter, sound engineer; best known as founding member of Alternative Rock American band Eleven
Rafael Manríquez - nueva canción musician
Camila Gallardo
Paloma Mami
DJ Méndez – urban music producer
La Noche – cumbia chilena band
Chañaral Ortega-Miranda – contemporary composer
Ángel Parra – folk musician (nueva canción); son of Violeta Parra
Isabel Parra – folk musician; daughter of Violeta Parra
Javiera Parra – lead singer from group Javiera y los Imposibles Violeta Parra – Chilean folk singer
Antonio Prieto - singer and actor known in English for "The Bride" or "The Wedding" song
Quilapayún – nueva canción ensemble, supporters of Popular Unity (UP) coalition during presidency of Salvador Allende
Leo Rey – cumbia chilena singer
Alejandro Silva – heavy metal guitar player
Saiko - Pop rock music band.
Clara Solovera (1909-1992) – songwriter, born in Santiago
Esther Soré (1915-1996) – 1940s singer, born in Santiago
Fernando Ubiergo - folk singer and songwriter (Chilean folk), born in Valparaíso
Francisca Valenzuela - singer and songwriter
Ricardo Villalobos – minimal techno artist
Verónica Villarroel – soprano
Ramón Vinay – tenor
Javiera Mena - Indie electropop musician
Mon Laferte - Singer and songwriter
Luis "Checho" González - Folklore composer, born in Iquique
El Monteaguilino - Cueca composer, born in Monte Águila
Artists
Claudio Bravo (1936–2011) – hyper-realist painter
Carlos Catasse – painter
Marta Colvin – sculptor
Alfredo Jaar – installation artist, filmmaker and architect
Olga Lehmann – painter
Roberto Matta – painter, sculptor
Camilo Mori – painter
Carlos Sotomayor – cubist painter
Miguel Venegas – painter, called "El Maestro" (the Master)
Politicians
Juana Rosa Aguirre – former first lady, wife of Pedro Aguirre Cerda
Arturo Alessandri – served twice as president of Chile
Jorge Alessandri – 27th President of Chile; President of Council of State under Pinochet Regime
Salvador Allende – former senator and president of Chile; ousted in a military coup
Clodomiro Almeyda – socialist politician
Soledad Alvear – former Justice minister and Foreign minister; current PDC senator
Celinda Arregui – feminist politician, writer, teacher, suffrage activist
Michelle Bachelet – first woman president of Chile
Achta Saleh Damane (fl. 2010s), journalist and politician
Carlos Dávila – former Secretary General of the Organization of American States
Florencio Durán – former president of the senate
Héctor Faúndez – diplomat
Fernando Flores – businessman and former senator
Gabriel González Videla - 25th President of Chile (1946-1952)
Jaime Guzmán – right wing politician during the Pinochet regime; murdered by Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front on April 1, 1991; former UDI Senator
Tomás Hirsch – former president of the Humanist Party of Chile; 2005 candidate for president
José Miguel Insulza – former Interior minister; current Secretary General of the Organization of American States
José Antonio Kast — president of the Republican Party, former deputy and councilman, presidential candidate in 2017 and in 2021.
Carlos Keller - former Leader of the National Socialist Movement of Chile, responsible for the organization of the Seguro Obrero Massacre
Joaquín Lavín – Independent Democratic Union candidate for presidency in 2005 election; former mayor of Las Condes and Santiago
Orlando Letelier – Foreign Minister during Salvador Allende's government murdered during the Pinochet regime in Washington, D.C.
Gladys Marín – communist leader, feminist activist, lived in exile, opposed conservatism and liberal economy, admirer of Lenin and Marx
Sebastián Piñera – Chilean billionaire, businessman and politician; current President of Chile
Aníbal Pinto - 9th President of Chile (1876-1881)
Augusto Pinochet – Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Chile, President of the Government Junta of Chile, dictator from 1973 until 1990 and President from 1981 onwards.
Diego Portales – Minister, major designer of the Chilean State during the first half of the 19th century
Juan Antonio Ríos (1888–1946), Chilean lawyer, political figure and 24th President of Chile.
Laura Rodríguez – first Humanist Party deputy in the world
Camila Vallejo - Member of Parliament, led 2011 student protests in Chile
Chris Watson – third Prime Minister of Australia
Adolfo Zaldívar – PRI senator, former leader of the PDC
Andrés Zaldívar – former PDC senator
Religious figures
Rodolfo Acevedo, Mormon bishop
Saint Teresa de los Andes – first Chilean saint
Carlos Camus – Chilean bishop
Francisco Javier Errázuriz – fourth Chilean cardinal
Juan Francisco Fresno – third Chilean cardinal
Raúl Silva Henríquez – second Chilean cardinal born in Talca; human rights advocate
Alberto Hurtado - saint
Jorge Medina – fifth Chilean cardinal; conservative figure
Fr. Juan Ignacio Molina – Chilean priest, naturalist, historian, botanist, ornithologist, geographer
José María Caro Rodríguez – first Chilean cardinal
Francisco Javier Quintanilla, theologian
Juan Subercaseaux Errázuriz – Chilean Roman Catholic Archbishop
José María Vélaz – Chilean priest
Blessed Laura Vicuña
Sports
Omar Aguilar – long-distance runner
Marlene Ahrens – javelin thrower; Olympic silver medalist
Fernando Alvarez – jockey
David Arellano – football player; namesake of Colo-Colo's stadium
Luis Ayala – tennis player; twice French Open finalist
Gonzalo Barrios - eSports player
Claudio Bravo - football player, FC Barcelona
Ben Brereton – football player
Nick Carle – football player, Sydney FC
Carlos Caszely – football player
Patricio Cornejo – tennis player, 1976 Davis Cup finalist
Cristian Garín – tennis player, winner of 4 ATP titles
Carlo de Gavardo – KTM rally motorcyclist
Elías Figueroa – football player; three times elected as Best Football Player of America
Jaime Fillol – tennis player, 1976 Davis Cup finalist
Arturo Godoy – boxer, fought Joe Louis twice for the World Heavyweight title
Fernando González – tennis player; only Chilean to win gold, silver and bronze medals at the Summer Olympics
Tomás González – gymnast, Olympic finalist
Kai Horwitz (born 1998) - Olympic alpine skier
Benjamín Kuscevic – football player
Alberto Larraguibel – horse rider, record for puissance (high jump) on horseback
Sergio Sapo Livingstone – Chilean football goalkeeper
Anita Lizana – tennis player; 1937 US Open champion; first Latin American, and first Hispanic person, to be ranked World Number 1 in tennis
Nicolás Massú (born 1979) – tennis player; highest world ranking #9, Olympic 2-time champion (singles and doubles)
Carlos Moreno – track and field sprinter
Iván Morovic – chess International Grandmaster
Isidora Niemeyer – rower
Érika Olivera – marathon runner; gold medal winner in women's marathon at the 1999 Pan American Games
Manuel Pellegrini - former footballer for Universidad de Chile, former manager of Real Madrid
Alejandra Ramos – middle-distance runner
Monica Regonesi – long-distance runner
Sammis Reyes - basketball and American football player; first Chilean to play in the NFL
Fernando Riera - Chile's most successful soccer coach; led the national team to a third-place finish in the 1962 World Cup
Marcelo Ríos – first Latin American man to become world number-one tennis player
Eduardo Robledo – football player, Newcastle United F.C.
Jorge Robledo – player, Newcastle United F.C.
Jose Romero – AFL player, Western Bulldogs
Sebastián Rozental (born 1976) - professional soccer player
Marcelo Salas – football player; holds the record for most goals playing for the national team; won titles with every team he played with
Eliseo Salazar – race car driver, competed in Formula One intermittently from 1980–1982, moved to Champ Car and the Indy Racing League
Alexis Sánchez – football player, Inter Milan
Leonel Sánchez – football player, 1962 World Cup top scorer
José A. Santos – jockey, winner of US Triple Crown
Alejandro Silva – long-distance runner
Pablo Squella – middle-distance runner
José Sulantay - Chile's second most successful soccer coach, led the under 20 national team to a third-place finish at the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada
Emilio Ulloa – long-distance runner
Dion Valle – football player, Marconi Stallions FC
Rodrigo Vargas – football player, Melbourne Victory FC
Arturo Vidal - football player, FC Barcelona
Gert Weil – shot putter
Iván Zamorano – football player
Scientists and engineers
Ricardo Baeza Rodríguez - mathematician
Ricardo Baeza-Yates – computer scientist
Erik Bongcam-Rudloff – bioinformatician
Claudio Bunster – physicist
Marcela Contreras – immunologist
F. J. Duarte – laser physicist
Matias Duarte – software inventor
Julio M. Fernandez – biologist, academic
Eric Goles – mathematician
Mario Hamuy – cosmologist and astronomer
Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia – biochemist
Adriana Hoffmann – botanist, Environment Minister (2000–2001)
Humberto Maturana – biologist, co-author of the theory of autopoiesis
Juan Ignacio Molina – 18th and 19th-century natural scientist
Ernestina Pérez Barahona, physician
María Teresa Ruiz – astronomer
Pablo DT Valenzuela – biotechnologist, co-founder of Chiron Corporation and Fundacion Ciencias Para la Vida
Francisco Varela – biologist, co-author of the theory of autopoiesis
Cesar A. Hidalgo – physicist
Film and television personalities
Alejandro Amenábar - film director, screenwriter and composer
Cecilia Amenábar - actress, TV presenter and model
Cecilia Bolocco – TV presenter, journalist and former Miss Universe
Diana Bolocco – TV presenter and journalist
Santiago Cabrera - actor
Felipe Camiroaga - TV presenter
Charissa Chamorro - actress
Martín Cárcamo - TV presenter
Karen Doggenweiler - TV presenter
Julián Elfenbein - radio and TV presenter
Pablo Francisco - comedian, actor and writer
Cristián de la Fuente - actor and model
Alberto Fuguet - film director, author, journalist and film critic
Jorge Garcia - actor and comedian
Paulina García - actress
Luis Gatica - actor
Claudia di Girolamo - actress
Luis Gnecco - actor
Lisa Guerrero - journalist, TV presenter, actress and model
Patricio Guzmán - film director
Alejandro Jodorowsky - filmmaker
Mario Kreutzberger (Don Francisco) – TV presenter
Pablo Larraín - film director
Sebastián Lelio - film director and screenwriter
Ariel Levy - actor
Carolina Mestrovic - TV presenter and actress
Claudio Miranda - cinematographer
Cristina Montt - actress
Cote de Pablo – actress
Pedro Pascal - actor
Carlos Pinto - TV presenter and journalist
Nicole Polizzi – reality TV Personality
Antonio Prieto - actor and singer
Francisco Puelles - actor and TV personality
Francisco Reyes Morandé - actor
Raúl Ruiz - film director
Katherine Salosny - TV presenter and actress
Horatio Sanz - actor and comedian
Fernando Solis - radio and TV presenter
Tonka Tomicic - TV presenter and model
Catalina Vallejos - actress and model
Leonor Varela - actress and model
Daniela Vega - actress
Benjamín Vicuña - actor
Alexander Witt - filmmaker
Andrés Wood - film director and screenwriter
Writers
Fernando Alegría – writer
Isabel Allende – novelist (The House of Spirits)
Roberto Ampuero – novelist (Cayetano Brulé series)
Roberto Bolaño – novelist (The Savage Detectives, 2666)
Liborio Brieba - writer
Francisco Coloane – (Tierra del fuego)
Angel Cruchaga Santa Maria (1893–1964) – writer, won the Chilean National Prize for Literature in 1948
Eugenio Cruz Vargas (1923–2014) – poet and painter, of Basque descent
Francisco Núñez de Pineda y Bascuñán – writer of Cautiverio feliz y razón individual de las guerras dilatadas del Reino de Chile in 1673
Pablo de Rokha – Chilean National Prize for Literature in 1965
José Donoso – writer (Coronation, The Obscene Bird of Night)
Ariel Dorfman – novelist, playwright (Death and the Maiden), academic, essayist, journalist and human rights activist
Jorge Edwards – 1999 Cervantes Prize winner
Alberto Fuguet – novelist; short story writer, Mala Onda, Las películas de mi vida; filmmaker, Se Arrienda Alberto Blest Gana – novelist (Martín Rivas)
Juan Guzman Cruchaga (1895–1979) – poet and diplomat, won the Chilean National Prize for Literature in 1962; of Basque descent
Óscar Hahn – writer and poet
Vicente Huidobro – father of the "Creationism" movement in Paris
Cristián Huneeus – writer
Enrique Lafourcade – novelist
Hernán Rivera Letelier – novelist (Santa María de las Flores Negras, La Reina Isabel Cantaba Rancheras), poet, writer of short stories
Enrique Lihn – poet, playwright, and novelist
Carmen Marai – novelist El Alba de la Mandrágora (The Dawn of the Mandrake), poet, writer of short stories
Sergio Missana - novelist
Gabriela Mistral – winner of the Nobel prize for literature
Tomás Moulian – political scientist and sociologist
Pablo Neruda – winner of the Nobel prize for literature
Nicanor Parra – self-proclaimed "anti-poet"
Adolfo Quiros - (1853 – 1910), poet
Gonzalo Rojas – 2004 Cervantes Prize winner
Elvira Santa Cruz Ossa – dramatist and novelist
Luis Sepúlveda – novelist
Antonio Skármeta – author of Ardiente Paciencia (Burning Patience), which inspired the movie Il Postino (The Postman), about poet Pablo Neruda
Mercedes Valdivieso – writer
Sergio Vodanovic – playwright
Architects
Alejandro Aravena - 2015 Pritzker Prize winner
Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente
Mathias Klotz – 2001 Borromini Prize of Architecture winner for under-40 architects
Others
Vanessa Ceruti – Miss Universe Chile 2011
Nataly Chilet – Miss World Chile 2008
Claudio Grossman – chairman of the Human Rights Interamerican Court
Hil Hernández – Miss Earth 2006
Carlos Kaiser – former National Director of the National Fund for Disabilities
Themo Lobos – comic artist
Andrónico Luksic – chairman of Quiñenco Holdings, which owns Banco de Chile, Antofagasta Minerals, one of the largest Chilean financial groups
La Quintrala – Catalina de los Ríos y Lisperguer, aristocratic and sadistic landowner and witch during the Colonial Period
Rene Ríos Boettiger (Pepo) – comic artist (Condorito'')
Juana Ross Edwards (1830-1913), philanthropist
Sola Sierra – human rights activist
Juan Somavia – Director-General of the International Labour Organization
Joaquín Toesca – designer of the presidential house "La Moneda", in Santiago
Maria Jose Ubiergo – Chilean DREAMer in the United States, Story Featured in the New York Times; Family member to notable Chilean Folk Singer Fernando Ubiergo Her story has been featured in El Diario, ABC, and News 12 Connecticut, among other media outlets.
Arturo Valenzuela – former Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs
Bernardita Zúñiga – Miss World Chile 2007
See also
Chilean American
Chilean Australian
Chilean British
List of people by nationality
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220144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts%20of%20Sm%C3%A5land | Districts of Småland | This is a list of the historical districts or härader in the province of Småland, Sweden. Each district was also subdivided into congregations.
Provincial Districts in Kronoberg
Allbo
Kinnevald
Konga
Sunnerbo
Norrvidinge
Uppvidinge
Provincial Districts in the County of Kalmar
Aspeland
Hanbörd
Norra Möre
Södra Möre
Sevede
Stranda
Norra Tjust
Södra Tjust
Tuna län
Provincial Districts in the County of Jönköping
Bellö
Edshult
Eksjö
Flisby
Hult
Hässleby
Höreda
Ingatorp
Mellby
Mo
Norra Solberga
Tveta
Vista
Vedbo
Norra Vedbo
Västbo
Östbo
Västra
Östra
See also
Kronoberg County
Kalmar County
Jönköping County
Småland
Districts of Småland | [
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220149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20McNair | Harold McNair | Harold McNair (5 November 1931 – 7 March 1971) was a Jamaican-born saxophonist and flautist.
Early life
McNair was born in Kingston, Jamaica. He attended the Alpha Boys School under the tutelage of Vincent Tulloch, while playing with Joe Harriott (a lifelong friend who considered McNair his de facto younger brother), Wilton "Bogey" Gaynair, and Baba Motta's band. He spent the first decade of his musical career in The Bahamas, where he used the name "Little G" for recordings and live performances. His early Bahamian recordings were mostly in Caribbean musical styles rather than jazz, in which he sang and played both alto and tenor saxophone. He also played a calypso singer in the film Island Women (1958). In 1960, he recorded his first album, a mixture of jazz and calypso numbers entitled Bahama Bash. It was around this time that he began playing the flute, which would eventually become his signature instrument. Initially he had some lessons in New York, but he was largely self-taught. He departed for Europe later in 1960.
In Europe
Like many other Caribbean jazz musicians of the 1950s and 1960s (e.g., Joe Harriott, Dizzy Reece and Harry Beckett), McNair moved to Britain. However, before arriving in London, he toured Europe with Quincy Jones and worked on film and TV scores in Paris. Once in London, he quickly gained a reputation as a formidable player on flute, alto and tenor saxophone, leading to a regular gig at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club.
His playing drew the admiration of bass player Charles Mingus, who was in London to shoot the motion picture All Night Long (1961). McNair was part of a quartet Mingus formed to rehearse with during his stay in Britain. However, the band never performed in front of a paying audience, due to a ban imposed by the Musicians' Union on US musicians in British nightclubs. A recording of the band exists, playing the earliest recorded version of the Mingus composition "Peggy's Blue Skylight". The Musician's Union ban was lifted later in 1961, leading to a residency by US tenor saxophonist Zoot Sims at Ronnie Scott's club. Ironically, McNair's own quartet were also on the bill, resulting in two of his performances with Phil Seamen on drums being issued. Around the same time, he also recorded with the drummer Tony Crombie and the percussionist Jack Costanzo.
Later recordings
McNair cut his first all-jazz album, Up in the Air with Harold McNair on a visit to Miami, before settling back in London permanently. His first UK album as a leader, Affectionate Fink, was made for the fledgling Island Records in 1965. The session saw him team up with Ornette Coleman's then current rhythm section of David Izenzon (bass) and Charles Moffett (drums), for a set of standards played with hard swinging intensity. McNair equally featured his tenor sax and flute on this session, delivering virtuoso performances on both. His next (self-titled) album, cut for RCA in 1968, recorded at Trident Studios featured probably his best known composition, "The Hipster", which was included on Gilles Peterson's recent Impressed Vol. 2 compilation of 1960s British jazz.
His next album was Flute and Nut (RCA, 1970), which featured big band and string arrangements by John Cameron. This was quickly followed up in the same year by The Fence, which moved in the direction of jazz fusion. Another self-titled album was issued posthumously in 1972 by the B&C label, which mixed tracks from the 1968 RCA album with later, unreleased recordings. Recordings as a jazz sideman included sessions with the jazz-rock/big band ensemble Ginger Baker's Air Force and John Cameron's Off Centre. He recorded with visiting Americans Jon Hendricks, pianist/vocalist Blossom Dearie and drummer Philly Joe Jones and performed with saxophonist Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis at the Manchester Sports Guild in 1967.
Other recordings
McNair's unique phrasing on the flute in particular led to great demand for his services among non-jazz musicians, especially during the late 1960s. His flute was featured on the soundtrack for Ken Loach's film Kes (1969), with music written by regular McNair collaborator John Cameron. Another notable soundtrack contribution was his tenor saxophone on the original 1962 soundtrack theme from Dr. No and his solo flute on Johhny Harris, Movements (Warner Bros. 1970) that was originally recorded for the original soundtrack of the film Fragment of Fear.
His best-known sideman role came via his regular participation (with Cameron) on Donovan's mid-to-late 1960s recording sessions, and as a member of Donovan's touring band. McNair arranged the hit single "There Is a Mountain" (1967) and played the flute riff. Donovan's live album Donovan in Concert features McNair's flute and tenor extensively and demonstrates some of his finest recorded work.
Throughout the late 1960s he also played on many other jazz-inflected folk music and progressive rock albums, including John Martyn's The Tumbler and Davy Graham's Large as Life and Twice as Natural.
Death
McNair died of lung cancer in Maida Vale, North London, on Sunday, March 7, 1971, at the age of 39.
Discography
Albums as bandleader:
Bacchanal At Chez Paul Meers (Carib LP, 2004; 1958); two tracks only as bandleader [Peanuts Taylor & Orchestra LP]
as Little G, Bahama Bash (Top Rank, 1960)
Zoot Sims et al., Zoot At Ronnie Scott's (Fontana, 1961 [1962]); two tracks only (with Terry Shannon, Jeff Clyne, Phil Seamen)
Up in the Air with Harold McNair (Bahamian Rhythms, 1964)
Affectionate Fink (Island, 1965); with Alan Branscombe, David Izenzon, Charles Moffett
Harold McNair (RCA, 1968); with Bill Le Sage, Spike Heatley, Tony Carr
Flute and Nut, RCA 1970 (with John Cameron)
The Fence (B&C, 1970); with Keith Tippett, Ric Grech, Terry Cox, Danny Thompson, Tony Carr, Colin Green, Alan Branscombe (reissued on CD in 2007 by Hux Records)
Harold McNair (B&C, 1972)
Alpha Boys' School Music in Education (Trojan 2006) (CD!); one track only ("The Hipster" taken from Harold McNair)
Jazz recordings as sideman:
Quincy Jones Big Band, Swiss Radio Days Jazz Series, Vol. 1: Lausanne 1960 (TCB, 1960)
Tony Crombie, Whole Lotta Tony (Ember, 1961)
Jack Costanzo, Equation in Rhythm (Fontana, 1962), credited as "Little Jesus"
Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis, Oh Gee: Live in Manchester (Jasmine, 1967)
Jimi Hendrix, Axis Bold as Love, on the track If 6 were 9 (Reprise RS 6281)
Philly Joe Jones, Trailways Express (Black Lion, 1968), with Peter King, Kenny Wheeler
John Cameron, Off Centre (Deram, 1969)
Blossom Dearie, That's Just the Way I Want to Be (Fontana, 1970)
Jon Hendricks, Live (Fontana, 1970)
Ginger Baker's Air Force, Ginger Baker's Air Force (Polydor, 1970), with Steve Winwood, Rick Grech, Denny Laine, Chris Wood, Graham Bond
Phil Seamen, The Late Great Phil Seamen (SWP Records SWP 037, 2009), on the track Tangerine, with Terry Shannon, Jeff Clyne, Phil Seamen
Session musician credits
Lionel Bart, Isn't This Where We Came In? (Deram, 1968)
Brian Bennett – Illustrated London Noise (Columbia, 1969)
Marc Brierley, Hello (CBS, June 1969)
John Cameron, Kes: Original Sound Track (Trunk, recorded 1968, released 2001)
CCS, CCS (Rak, 1970)
CCS, CCS II (Rak, 1972)
Peter Collins, Peter Collins First Album (Decca Nova, 1970)
Cressida, Asylum (Vertigo, 1971)
Syd Dale – Flamboyant Themes – Vol. III (KPM, 1968)
Syd Dale – Chorus And Orchestra (KPM, 1969)
Donovan, Fairytale (Pye, 1965)
Donovan, Sunshine Superman (Epic, 1966)
Donovan, Mellow Yellow (Epic, 1967)
Donovan, A Gift from a Flower to a Garden (Pye, 1967)
Donovan, Donovan in Concert (Pye, 1968)
Donovan, Hurdy Gurdy Man (Epic, 1968)
Donovan, Barabajagal (1969)
Nick Drake – Bryter Layter (Island, 1970)(flautist on Bryter Layer was Lyn Dobson)
Davy Graham, Large as Life and Twice as Natural (Decca, 1968)
Kathe Green, Run the Length of Your Wildness (Deram, 1969)
The Picadilly Line, The Huge World of Emily Small (CBS, 1967)\
Johnny Harris, Movements (Warner Bros. 1970)
Rosetta Hightower, Hightower (CBS, 1970)
Tim Hollier, Skysail (Philips, 1971)
Al Jones, Alun Ashworth Jones, (Parlophone 1969)
Alexis Korner, Bootleg Him (1972)
Magna Carta, Magna Carta (Mercury, 1969)
John Martyn, The Tumbler (Island, 1968)
Don Partridge, Don Partridge (Columbia, 1968)
Seven Ages of Man, Seven Ages of Man (Rediffusion, 1972)
Steamhammer, Steamhammer (CBS, 1969)
Caetano Veloso, Caetano Veloso (Philips, 1971)
References
External links
Harold McNair discography by David H. Taylor
Alpha Boys School alumni
Jamaica Observer article on Jamaican jazz musicians, including Harold McNair.
"Died On This Date (March 7, 1971) Harold McNair / Jazz Flute Great", The Music's Over.
Official John Martyn website
1931 births
1971 deaths
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Jazz fusion musicians
Jamaican jazz saxophonists
Male saxophonists
Jamaican jazz flautists
Ginger Baker's Air Force members
Jamaican session musicians
Jamaican male musicians
Deaths from lung cancer
CCS (band) members
20th-century saxophonists
20th-century male musicians
Male jazz musicians | [
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220151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mountain%20ranges | List of mountain ranges | This is a list of mountain ranges on Earth and a few other astronomical bodies. First, the highest and longest mountain ranges on Earth are listed, followed by more comprehensive alphabetical lists organized by continent. Ranges in the oceans and on other celestial bodies are listed afterwards.
Mountain ranges on planet Earth
By size
Note 1: A peak included in the "Eastern Pamirs" more often than in the Kunlun Mountains, as Kongur Tagh and the Kunlun range are separated by the large Yarkand River valley; no valley of such significance separates the Pamirs and Kongur Tagh, just political boundaries.
Note 2: Part of Hindu Kush-Himalayas region
All of the Asian ranges above have been formed in part over the past 35 to 55 million years by the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is still particularly mobile and these mountain ranges continue to rise in elevation every year and this page may need to be updated in a few years; of these the Himalayas are rising most quickly; the Kashmir and Pamirs region to the north of the Indian subcontinent is the point of confluence of these mountains which encircle the Tibetan Plateau.
By prominence
See List of peaks by prominence (ranking the mountain ranges as well).
Mountain ranges by length
Mountain systems, Himalayan ranges and chains by length (over 500 km):
The underwater Mid-ocean ridge –
Ring of Fire –
American Cordillera –
Andes – . Northern and Southern Andes main subdivisions, along both run three vast, almost parallel chain systems of mountain ranges - Cordillera Occidental, Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental.
North American Cordillera –
Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt – more than
Hindu Kush-Himalayas region –
Great Escarpment, Southern Africa –
Drakensberg –
Rocky Mountains – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Great Dividing Range –
Transantarctic Mountains –
Kunlun Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Atlas Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Ural Mountains –
Appalachian Mountains –
Himalayas – c. (main section of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas region)
High Himalayas –
Sivalik Hills –
Lesser Himalayas –
Altai mountain system –
Barisan Mountains – c. (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Carpathian Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Scandinavian Mountains (Scandes) – c.
Verkhoyansk Range-Suntar-Khayata Range – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Verkhoyansk Range –
Suntar-Khayata Range –
Coast Mountains – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Qin Mountains –
Transhimalaya – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Western Ghats –
Chersky Range – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Peninsular mountain ranges – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Serra do Mar –
Taurus Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Zagros Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Sierra Madre Occidental – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Mantiqueira Mountains/Espinhaço Mountains –
Kolyma Mountains – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Alps – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Western Alps – approx.
French Prealps – more than
Eastern Alps – approx.
Central Eastern Alps – approx.
Northern Limestone Alps – approx.
Southern Limestone Alps and Western Limestone Alps – approx.
Apennines – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Caucasus Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Greater Caucasus –
Lesser Caucasus –
Cordillera Occidental (Colombia) – (section of the Northern Andes, American Cordillera)
Cordillera Oriental (Colombia) – (section of the Northern Andes, American Cordillera)
Vindhya Range –
Altai Mountains – 1,200 km (750 mi)
Drakensberg –
Byrranga Mountains –
Cascade Range –
Annamite Range –
Brooks Range – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Verkhoyansk Range – (section of the East Siberian Mountains)
Cordillera Central (Colombia) – (section of the Northern Andes, American Cordillera)
Lena Plateau – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Pontic Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Eastern Sayan Mountains –
Sierra Madre del Sur – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Arakan/Rakhine Mountains -
Hengduan Mountains – as a system of mountain ranges
Ogo Mountains – 900 km (560 mi)
Koryak Mountains – (Siberia)
Cape Fold Belt –
Hindu Kush – (section of the Hindu Kush-Greater Himalayas region)
Precordillera – (considered section of the Southern Andes, American Cordillera)
Dzhugdzhur Mountains –
Stanovoy Highlands – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Aravalli Range –
Alaska Range – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Kopet Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Sette-Daban – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
Dinaric Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Sierra Nevada (U.S.) – (section of the North American Cordillera)
California Coast Ranges – (section of the North American Cordillera)
Balkan Mountains – (section of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt)
Karakoram – (section of the Hindu Kush-Greater Himalayas region)
Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana –
Yudoma-Maya Highlands – (section of the East Siberian System of mountains)
By continental area
Africa
Aberdare ranges, Kenya
Ahaggar Mountains
Ahmar Mountains
Amaro Mountains, Ethiopia
Atlantika Mountains, Cameroon, Nigeria
Atlas Mountains, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Anti-Atlas, Morocco
Aurès Mountains, Algeria, Tunisia
High Atlas, Morocco
Middle Atlas, Morocco
Rif, Morocco
Saharan Atlas, Algeria
Tell Atlas, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Bale Mountains, Ethiopia
Bakossi Mountains, Cameroon
Blue Mountains, Niger
Bvumba Mountains, Mozambique, Zimbabwe
Cal Madow, Somalia
Cederberg, South Africa
Drakensberg, Lesotho, South Africa
Eastern Arc Mountains, Kenya, Tanzania
Eastern Highlands, Mozambique, Zimbabwe
Entoto Mountains, Ethiopia
Erta Ale Range, Ethiopia
Golis Mountains, Somalia
Khufleh Range, Somalia
Kilimanjaro and Meru, Tanzania
Kipengere Range, Tanzania
Lebombo Mountains, Mozambique
Magaliesberg, South Africa
Mahale Mountains, Tanzania
Mandara Mountains, Cameroon, Nigeria
Moka Range, Mauritius
Ogo Mountains, Somalia
Outeniqua, South Africa
Pare Mountains, Tanzania
Piton des Neiges – Piton de la Fournaise, Réunion
Rwenzori, Uganda
Semien, Ethiopia
Swartberg, South Africa
Tadrat Acacus, Libya
Tibesti Mountains
Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania
Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania
Usambara Mountains, Tanzania
Asia
Alagalla Mountain Range, Sri Lanka
Alborz, Iran
Al Hajar Mountains, Oman, United Arab Emirates
Altai Mountains, Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan
Annamite Range, Laos, Viet Nam
Anti-Lebanon, Lebanon, Syria, Israel
Arfak Mountains, Indonesia
Aravalli Range, India
Asir Mountains, Saudi Arabia
Barisan Mountains, Indonesia
Caraballo Mountains, Philippines
Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia
Carmel Mountains, Israel
Caucasus, Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkey
Chersky Range, Siberia
Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh
Cordillera Central, Philippines
Crocker Range, Malaysia
Dieng Volcanic Complex, Indonesia
Dzhugdzhur Mountains, Siberia
Eastern Ghats, India
Fansipan, Vietnam
Haraz Mountains, Yemen
Hijaz Mountains
Himalaya, Nepal, Bhutan, China, India, Pakistan
Mahabharat Range or Lesser Himalaya
Siwalik Range or Churia Hills, Subhimalaya
Hindu Kush, Afghanistan, Pakistan
Japanese Alps, Japan
Akaishi Mountains
Hida Mountains
Kiso Mountains
Jayawijaya Mountains, Indonesia
Judaean Mountains, Palestine, Israel
Kabir Kuh, Iran, Iraq
Karakoram, Pakistan, China, India
Khingan Mountains, China
Greater Khingan
Lesser Khingan
Khibinsky Mountains, Russia
Kirthar Mountains, Pakistan
Knuckles Mountain Range, Sri Lanka
Kolyma Mountains
Koryak Mountains Siberia
Kunlun Mountains, China (Tibet)
Kuray Mountains, Russia
Mount Lebanon Range, Lebanon
Müller Mountains, Central Borneo, Indonesia
Owen Stanley Range, Papua New Guinea
Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, China
Phnom Kulen, Cambodia
Phnom Voar, Cambodia
Safed Koh, Afghanistan, Pakistan
Salt Range, Pakistan
Sayan Mountains, Siberia
Sivalik Hills range of outer Himalayas, India
Sierra Madre, Philippines
Sikhote Alin Mountains, Siberia
Stanovoi Range, Siberia
Sudirman Range, Indonesia
Sulaiman Mountains, Pakistan, Iran
Ta Kream Mountain Range, Cambodia
Taurus Mountains, Turkey
Toba Kakar Range, Afghanistan, Pakistan
Tian Shan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan
Taiwan Mountains, Taiwan
Tengger Mountains, Indonesia
Titiwangsa Mountains, Malaysia
Ural Mountains, Russia
Verkhoyansk Range, Russia
Western Ghats, India
Zagros Mountains, Iran, Iraq
Zambales Mountains, Philippines
Zamboanga Cordilleras, Philippines
Europe
Alps
Eastern Alps, Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Switzerland
Central Eastern Alps, Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Switzerland
Bergamo Alps, Italy
Hohe Tauern, Austria, Italy
Ankogel Group
Defereggen Mountains
Grossglockner
Goldberg Group
Granatspitz Group
Hafner Group
Kreuzeck Group
Rieserferner Group
Schober Group
Venediger Group
Kitzbühel Alps, Austria
Niedere Tauern, Austria
Ötztal Alps, Austria, Italy
Rhaetian Alps, Austria, Italy, Switzerland
Albula Range
Bernina Range
Bregaglia Range
Livigno Range
Oberhalbstein Range
Plessur Range
Samnaun Alps
Sesvenna Range
Silvretta
Rätikon, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland
Stubai Alps, Austria, Italy
Tux Alps, Austria
Verwall Alps, Austria
Zillertal Alps, Austria, Italy
Northern Limestone Alps, Austria, Germany
Allgäu Alps, Austria, Germany
Berchtesgaden Alps, Austria, Germany, France
Dachstein, Austria
Ennstaler Alpen, Austria
Karwendel, Austria, Germany
Lechtal Alps, Austria
Totes Gebirge, Austria
Wetterstein, Austria, Germany
Wilden Kaiser, Austria
Southern Limestone Alps, Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Switzerland
Adamello-Presanella, Italy
Brenta Group, Italy
Carnic Alps, Austria, Italy
Dolomites, Italy
Julian Alps, Italy, Slovenia
Kamnik Alps, Austria, Slovenia
Karawanken, Austria, Slovenia
Ortler Alps, Italy, Switzerland
Western Alps (France, Italy, and Switzerland)
Bernese Alps, Switzerland
Cottian Alps, France, Italy
Glarus Alps, Switzerland
Graian Alps, France, Italy, Switzerland
Mont Blanc Group, France, Italy
Beaufortain Massif, France
Vanoise, France
Gran Paradiso, France, Italy
Lepontine Alps, Italy, Switzerland
Ligurian Alps, France, Italy
North-Eastern Swiss Alps, Switzerland
Pennine Alps, Italy, Switzerland
Dauphiné Alps, France
Maritime Alps, France, Italy
Prealps, France, Italy
Provence Prealps, France
Dentelles de Montmirail, France
Savoy Prealps, France
Savoie Alps, France Switzerland
Urner Alps, Switzerland
Apennines, Italy, San Marino
Balkan Mountains range, mainly Bulgaria, smaller part in Serbia
Central Balkan Mountains
Kaloferska Mountain, Botev Peak, Central Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria
Zlatishko-Tetevenska Mountain, Bulgaria
Western Balkan Mountains
Chiprovska Mountain
Berkovska Mountain, Bulgaria
Vrachanski Balkan, Bulgaria
Black Forest, Germany
Cantabrian Mountains, Spain
Picos de Europa
Basque Mountains
Carpathian Mountains, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine
Western Carpathians
Tatra Mountains, Poland, Slovakia
Western Beskids and Central Beskids
Eastern Carpathians
Bieszczady Mountains
Otryt
Lower Beskids
Eastern Beskids
Moldavian-Muntenian Carpathians
Southern Carpathians
Făgăraș Mountains group
Retezat-Godeanu Mountains group
Poiana Ruscă Mountains
Banat Mountains
Apuseni Mountains
Bihor Mountains
Caucasus Mountains, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia
Dinaric Alps, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia
Prokletije
Skanderbeg Range, Albania
Gennargentu, Italy
Harz, Germany
Ireland mountains
MacGillycuddy's Reeks, Ireland
Wicklow Mountains, Ireland
Mourne Mountains, Ireland
Sperrin Mountains, Ireland
Jura mountains, France, Switzerland
Karelides, Finland
Lake District, England
Măcin Mountains, Romania
Massif Central, France
Olympus Range
Mount Olympus
Owl Mountains
Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), Czech Republic, Germany
Pennines, England
Pindus Mountains, mainly Greece, smaller parts in Albania
Pyrenees, Andorra, France, Spain
Rila-Rhodope mountain massif, mainly Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Greece
Rila, Bulgaria
Pirin, Bulgaria
Slavyanka (mountain)
Osogovo-Belasitsa mountain range
Osogovo
Belasitsa
Vlahina
Malashevska mountain
Plačkovica
Ogražden
Rhodope Mountains, mainly Bulgaria, Greece
Western Rhodopes
Eastern Rhodopes
Rhön Mountains, Germany
Šar range, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia
Šar Mountains
Mount Korab
Mount Bistra
Stogovo
Dešat
Jablanica
Galičica
Scandinavian Mountains, Finland, Norway, Sweden
Setesdalsheiene
Jotunheimen
Rondane
Dovrefjell
Trollheimen
Kjolen mountains
Saltfjellet
Svecofennides
Lyngen Alps
Scottish Highlands
Grampian mountains, Scotland
Ben Nevis
Cairngorms, Scotland
The Cuillins, Isle of Skye
Sierra Morena, Spain
Sistema Bético, Spain
Sistema Central, Portugal, Spain
Sierra de Guadarrama
Sistema Ibérico, Spain
Srednogorie mountain system, Bulgaria
Vitosha, Bulgaria
Sredna Gora, Bulgaria
Strandzha, Bulgaria, Turkey
Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Poland
Sudetes, Czech Republic, Germany, Poland
Ślęża Masiff
Lusatian Mountains
Ještěd ridge
Jizera Mountains
Kaczawskie Mountains
Krkonoše
Rudawy Janowickie
Krkonoše foothills
Wałbrzyskie Mountains
Stone Mountains
Owl Mountains
Bardzkie Mountains
Stołowe Mountains
Orlicke Mountains
Bystrzyckie Mountains
Golden Mountains
Śnieżnik Mountains
Opawskie Mountains
Hrubý Jeseník
Low Jeseník
Šumava, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany
Swabian Alb, Germany
Serra de Tramuntana, Spain
Ural Mountains, Russia
Vogelsberg Mountains, Germany
Vosges mountains, France
Wales mountains
Black Mountains
Brecon Beacons
Snowdonia
West Vardar/Pelagonia mountain range, North Macedonia, Greece
Baba Mountain
Jakupica
Nidže
Kožuf
North America
Greenland
Alángup Qáqai
Alexandrine Range
Amitsorssûp Qulâ
Barth Range
Brages Range
Crown Prince Frederick Range
Daly Range
Didrik Pining Range
Ejnar Mikkelsen Range
Ellemands Range
Fynske Alps
Giesecke Range
Graah Mountains
Gronau Nunataks
Grønne Range
H. H. Benedict Range
Halle Range
Haug Range
Heywood Range
Hjelm Range
Kangerluluk Range
Knud Rasmussen Range
Lacroix Range
Lemon Range
Lilloise Range
Lindbergh Range
Mols Range
Murchison Range
Musk Ox Mountains
Norlund Alps
Pentamerus Range
Pictet Range
Prince of Wales Range
Princess Caroline Mathilde Alps
Princess Elizabeth Alps
Qârusuit Range
Qivssakatdlagfik
Queen Louise Land
Rold Range
Roosevelt Range
Schweizerland
Sioraq Range (Sioraq Fjelde)
Stauning Alps
Svinhufvud Range
Tågefjeldene
Watkins Range
Wiedemann Range
Canada
Adam Range
Adamant Range
Alsek Ranges, British Columbia, Alaska, Yukon
Anvil Range, Yukon
Arctic Cordillera, northeastern Canada
Geodetic Hills
Asulkan Range
Badshot Range
Baffin Mountains
Battle Range
Beaufort Range
Big Bend Ranges, British Columbia
Big Salmon Range, Yukon
Blackwelder Mountains
Blue Mountains
Bonanza Range
Bonnet Plume Range, Yukon
Bonnington Range
Britannia Range
British Empire Range
British Mountains, Yukon
Bruce Mountains
Byam Martin Mountains
Cadwallader Range
Camelsfoot Range
Cameron Range
Canadian Rockies
Cantilever Range
Cariboo Mountains
Cascade Range
Cayoosh Range
Challenger Mountains
Chilcotin Ranges
Clachnacudainn Range
Clendinning Range
Cloister Mountains
Coast Mountains, Alaska, Yukon, British Columbia
Columbia Mountains, Canada and U.S.
Conger Range
Coquitlam Range
Crease Range
Cunningham Mountains
Dawson Range
Dickson Range
Douglas Ranges
Douro Range
Duncan Ranges
Elk River Mountains
Everett Mountains
Fannin Range
Franklin Range
Garfield Range
Garibaldi Ranges
Genevieve Range
Glenyon Range, Yukon
Goat Range
Gowlland Range
Grinnell Range
Grogan Morgan Range
Haddington Range
Haihte Range
Ha-Iltzuk Icefield
Halifax Range
Hankin Range
Hartz Mountains (Nunavut)
Hermit Range
Hess Mountains, Yukon
Homathko Icefield
Ilgachuz Range
Inglefield Mountains
Innuitian Mountains
Insular Mountains, British Columbia
Itcha Range
Jeffries Range
Joy Range
Karmutzen Range
Kaumajet Mountains, Labrador, Canada
Kettle River Range, Washington and British Columbia
Kiglapait Mountains, Labrador
Kitimat Ranges
Kluane Ranges, Yukon
Knorr Range, Yukon
Kokanee Range
Kootenay Ranges, British Columbia
Vermilion Range
Stanford Range
Beaverfoot Range
Krag Mountains
Krieger Mountains
Lardeau Range
Lillooet Icecap
Lillooet Ranges
Long Range Mountains, Newfoundland
MacDonald Range, British Columbia
McKay Range
Monashee Mountains, British Columbia and Washington
Nadaleen Range, Yukon
Nelson Range
Newcastle Range
Niut Range
Norns Range
North Shore Mountains
Ogilvie Mountains
Osborn Range
Pelham Range
Pelly Mountains, Yukon
Pierce Range
Precipitous Mountains
Premier Range
Prince of Wales Mountains
Prince of Wales Range
Princess Margaret Range
Purity Range
Queen Charlotte Mountains, British Columbia
Quesnel Highland
Rainbow Range
Refugium Range
Richardson Mountains, Yukon
Rocky Mountains, western United States and Canada
Rocky Mountain Foothills, British Columbia and Alberta
Ruby Range
Saint Elias Mountains, southern Alaska, Yukon and British Columbia
San Christoval Range
Sawtooth Range (Nunavut)
Scoresby Hills
Selamiut Range
Selkirk Mountains, British Columbia, Idaho and Washington
Selwyn Mountains, Yukon
Seymour Range
Shulaps Range
Shuswap Highland
Sir Donald Range
Sir Sandford Range
Somerset Range
Sophia Range
Spearhead Range
Spectrum Range
St. Cyr Range, Yukon
Stokes Range
Sutton Range
Swiss Range
Tantalus Range
Thorndike Peaks
Tochquonyalla Range
Torngat Mountains, Labrador, Quebec
Treuter Mountains
United States Range
Valhalla Ranges
Valkyr Range
Vancouver Island Ranges, British Columbia
Victoria and Albert Mountains
Waddington Range
Wernecke Mountains, Yukon
Windy Range
Winston Churchill Range, Alberta
United States
Adirondack Mountains, New York
Alaska Range, Alaska
Aleutian Range, Alaska
Chigmit Mountains, Alaska
Neacola Mountains, Alaska
Amargosa Range, California
Appalachian Mountains, Eastern United States
Allegheny Mountains
Appalachian (Allegheny) Plateau
Catskill Mountains
Blue Ridge Mountains
Great Smoky Mountains
Green Mountains, Vermont
Talladega Mountains, Alabama
White Mountains, New Hampshire
Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma
Bears Paw Mountains, Montana
Beaver Lake Mountains, Utah
Big Snowy Mountains, Montana
Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming
Black Mountains, Utah
Blue Mountains, Oregon and Washington
Brooks Range, northern Alaska
Baird Mountains, Alaska
Davidson Mountains, Alaska
De Long Mountains, Alaska
Endicott Mountains, Alaska
Franklin Mountains, Alaska
Phillip Smith Mountains, Alaska
Romanzof Mountains, Alaska
Schwatka Mountains, Alaska
Shubelik Mountains, Alaska
Waring Mountains, Alaska
Bull Mountains, Montana
Capitan Mountains, New Mexico
Cascade Range, Western Canada and US
Castle Mountains, Montana
Cedar Mountains, Utah
Chalk Buttes, Montana
Chinati Mountains, Texas
Chisos Mountains, Texas
Chugach Mountains, Alaska
Granite Range, Alaska
Robinson Mountains, Alaska
Coast Mountains, Alaska, Yukon, British Columbia
Columbia Mountains, Canada and U.S.
Monashee Mountains, British Columbia and Washington
Kettle River Range, Washington and British Columbia
Purcell Mountains, British Columbia and Montana
Selkirk Mountains, British Columbia, Idaho and Washington
Coso Range, California
Cricket Mountains, Utah
Davis Mountains, Texas
Delamar Mountains, Nevada
Delaware Mountains, Texas
Desert Range, Nevada
Driftless Area, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa
Ocooch Mountains, Wisconsin
East Desert Range, Nevada
East Humboldt Range, Nevada
Franklin Mountains, Texas
Gila Mountains, Arizona
Guadalupe Mountains, Texas
Highwood Mountains, Montana
Huron Mountains, Michigan
Judith Mountains, Montana
Klamath Mountains, California and Oregon
Marble Mountains, California
Northern Yolla-Bolly Mountains, California
Salmon Mountains, California
Scott Mountains, California
Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California
Trinity Alps, California
Trinity Mountains, California
Lake Range, Nevada
Little Rocky Range, Montana
Little Snowy Mountains, Montana
Little Wolf Mountains, Montana
Metacomet Ridge, Connecticut and Massachusetts
Traprock Ridge, Connecticut
Mineral Mountains, Arizona
Mineral Mountains, Utah
Nulato Hills, Alaska
North Moccasin Mountains, Montana
Olympic Mountains, Washington
Oquirrh Mountains, Utah
Oregon Coast Range, Oregon
Organ Mountains, New Mexico
Ortiz Mountains, New Mexico
Pahranagat Range, Nevada
Panamint Range, California
Pavant Range, Utah
Peninsular Ranges, California and México
Laguna Mountains, California
San Jacinto Mountains, California
Santa Ana Mountains, California
Elsinore Mountains
Temescal Mountains, California
Pinaleno Mountains, Arizona
Porcupine Mountains, Western Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Pryor Mountains, Montana
Rocky Mountains, western United States and Canada
Absaroka Range, Montana and Wyoming
Beartooth Mountains, Montana and Wyoming
Bighorn Mountains, Montana and Wyoming
Bitterroot Range, Montana and Idaho
Beaverhead Mountains, Montana and Idaho
Bitterroot Mountains, Montana and Idaho
Centennial Mountains, Montana and Idaho
Coeur d'Alène Mountains, Montana and Idaho
Saint Joe Mountains, Idaho
Boise Mountains, Idaho
Boulder Mountains, Idaho
Boulder Mountains, Montana
Bridger Mountains, Wyoming
Bridger Range, Montana
Cabinet Mountains, Montana
Clearwater Mountains, Idaho
Crazy Mountains, Montana
Elk Mountains, Colorado
Elkhorn Mountains, Montana
Flathead Range, Montana
Front Range, Colorado
Gallatin Range, Montana
Garnet Range, Montana
Granite Mountains, Wyoming
Green Mountains, Wyoming
Gros Ventre Range, Wyoming
Henry Mountains, Utah
John Long Mountains, Montana
La Sal Mountains, Utah
Laramie Mountains, Wyoming
Lemhi Range, Idaho
Lewis Range, Montana
Livingston Range, Montana
Madison Range, Montana
Medicine Bow Mountains, Colorado and Wyoming
Snowy Range, Wyoming
Mosquito Range, Colorado
Owl Creek Mountains, Wyoming
Pioneer Mountains, Idaho
Pioneer Mountains, Montana
Red Mountains, Wyoming
Salish Mountains, Montana
Salmon River Mountains, Idaho
Salt River Range, Wyoming
San Juan Mountains, Colorado
Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado and New Mexico
Sawatch Range, Colorado
Sawtooth Range, Idaho
Shoshone Range, Idaho
Smoky Mountains, Idaho
Soldier Mountains, Idaho
Swan Range, Montana
Tenmile Range, Colorado
Teton Range, Wyoming
Tobacco Root Mountains, Montana
Uinta Mountains, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming
Wasatch Range, Utah
Bear River Mountains, Utah and Idaho
Washburn Range, Wyoming
White Cloud Mountains, Idaho
Whitefish Range, Montana and British Columbia
Wind River Range, Wyoming
Wyoming Range, Wyoming
Ruby Mountains, Nevada
Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico
Saint Elias Mountains, southern Alaska, Yukon and British Columbia
Brabazon Range, Alaska
Fairweather Range, Alaska
San Andres Mountains, New Mexico
San Francisco Mountains, Utah
San Francisco Peaks, Arizona
Sandia–Manzano Mountains, New Mexico
Manzano Mountains, New Mexico
Sandia Mountains, New Mexico
Sawtooth Mountains, Minnesota
Schell Creek Range, Nevada
Selenite Range, Nevada
Seward Peninsula ranges, Alaska
Bendeleben Mountains, Alaska
Darby Mountains, Alaska
Kigluaik Mountains, Alaska
York Mountains, Alaska
Sheep Range, Nevada
Shoshone Mountains, Nevada
Shoshone Range, Nevada
Sierra Nevada, California and Nevada
Snake Range, Nevada
South Moccasin Mountains, Montana
Spring Mountains, Nevada
Star Range, Utah
Superstition Mountains, Arizona
Sutter Buttes, California
Texas Hill Country, Texas
Toiyabe Range, Nevada
Transverse Ranges, California
Chalk Hills, California
Little San Bernardino Mountains, California
Pine Mountain Ridge, California
Puente Hills, California
San Bernardino Mountains, California
San Emigdio Mountains, California
San Gabriel Mountains, California
San Jose Hills, California
San Rafael Hills, California
San Rafael Mountains, California
Santa Monica Mountains, California
Santa Susana Mountains, California
Santa Ynez Mountains, California
Shandin Hills, California
Sierra Pelona Ridge, California
Simi Hills, California
Tehachapi Mountains, California
Topatopa Mountains, California
Tushar Mountains, Utah
U.S. Interior Highlands, Arkansas, Missouri, Oklahoma
Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas and Oklahoma
Ozark Plateau, Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma
Boston Mountains, Arkansas
St. Francois Mountains, Missouri
Uwharrie Mountains, North Carolina
Virginia Mountains, Nevada
West Humboldt Range, Nevada
West Mountains, Idaho
White Mountains, Alaska
White Mountains, Arizona
White Mountains, California
Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma
Wolf Mountains, Montana
Mexico
Peninsular Ranges, California and México
Sierra de Juarez, México
Sierra de la Giganta, México
Sierra de la Laguna, México
Sierra de San Borja, México
Sierra de San Francisco, México
Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, México
Sierra Madre de Chiapas, México, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador
Sierra Madre del Sur, México
Sierra Madre Occidental, México
Sierra Huichola, México
Sierra Tarahumara, México
Sierra Madre Oriental, México
Sierra del Burro, México
Sierra del Carmen, México
Sierra Norte de Puebla, México
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Sierra Nevada), México
Tuxtla Mountains, México
Central America
Cerros de Escazú, Costa Rica
Cordillera de Guanacaste, Costa Rica
Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica and Panamá
Cordillera de Tilarán, Costa Rica
Cordillera Isabelia, Nicaragua, Honduras
Cordillera Los Maribios, Nicaragua
Cordillera Central, Costa Rica
Maya Mountains, Belize
Sierra de Chinajá, Guatemala
Sierra de Chuacús, Guatemala
Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala
Sierra del Merendón, Guatemala and Honduras
Sierra Madre de Chiapas, México, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador
Caribbean
Blue Mountains, Jamaica
Central Range, Trinidad and Tobago
Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic
Cordillera Central, Puerto Rico
Dry Harbour Mountains, Jamaica
John Crow Mountains, Jamaica
Massif du Nord, Haïti
Mocho Mountains, Jamaica
Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago
Sierra de Luquillo, Puerto Rico
Sierra del Escambray, Cuba
Sierra Maestra, Cuba
Sierra del Rosario, Cuba
South America
Andes
The longest mountain range in the world (above sea level) is the Andes, consisting of several subranges.
Cordillera de los Andes, in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela:
Cordillera Central, Colombia
Cordillera Occidental, Colombia
Cordillera Oriental, Colombia, Venezuela
Serranía del Perijá, Colombia, Venezuela
Serranía de los Churumbelos, Colombia
Cordillera Real, Ecuador
Cordillera Occidental, Ecuador
Cordillera Occidental, Peru
Cordillera Blanca, Peru
Cordillera Huayhuash, Peru
Cordillera Negra, Peru
Cordillera Central, Peru
Cordillera Oriental, Peru
Cordillera Central, Bolivia
Cordillera Real
Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia
Serranía de Charagua
Serranía del Aguaragüe
Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, Chile
Cordillera de Lípez, Argentina, Bolivia
Cordillera de la Costa, Chile
Sierra Vicuña Mackenna
Cordillera de Talinay
Cordillera de Nahuelbuta
Cordillera de Mahuidanchi
Cordillera Pelada
Cordillera del Sarao
Cordillera del Piuchén
Cordillera de Pirulil
Cordillera Domeyko, Chile
Cordón de Lila, Chile
Sierra de Almeida, Chile
Sierra de Famatina, Argentina
Frontal Cordillera, Argentina
Principal Cordillera, Argentina, Chile
Cordillera de la Ramada, Argentina
Sierra de Velasco, Argentina
Cordillera de Talinay, Chile
Cordillera Negra (Chile), Chile
Cordillera del Paine, Chile
Sierra Baguales, Argentina, Chile
Cordillera Sarmiento, Chile
Cordillera Riesco, Chile
Cordillera Darwin, Chile
Martial Mountains, Argentina
Dientes de Navarino, Chile
Extra-Andean mountain ranges
Other ranges in South America include:
Baudó Mountains, Colombia
Guiana Highlands, Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela
Serranías Chiquitanas, Bolivia
Serranías de Santiago
Serranía de Macuira, Colombia
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia
Serrania de la Macarena, Colombia
Serra dos Aimorés, Brazil
Borborema Plateau, Brazil
Chapada, Brazil
Chapada do Araripe, Brazil
Espinhaço Mountains, Brazil
Chapada dos Guimarães, Brazil
Chapada das Mangabeiras, Brazil
Mantiqueira Mountains, Brazil
Serra do Mar, Brazil
Serra do Cristal, Brazil
Serra Gaúcha, Brazil
Serra dos Órgãos, Brazil
Serra Geral, Brazil
Serra de Ibiapaba, Brazil
Serra do Rio do Rastro, Brazil
Serra do Tiracambu, Brazil
Ybytyruzú Mountains, Paraguay
Sierras de Córdoba, Argentina
Sierra de La Ventana, Argentina
Cordón Baquedano, Chile
Oceania
Great Dividing Range, Australia
Bombay Hills, New Zealand
Hunter Mountains, New Zealand
Kaikoura Ranges, New Zealand
Kaweka Range, New Zealand
MacDonnell Ranges, Australia
Ruahine Range, New Zealand
Southern Alps, New Zealand
Tararua Range, New Zealand
Antarctica
Allardyce Range, South Georgia
Imeon Range, Smith Island
Pensacola Mountains
Salvesen Range, South Georgia
Tangra Mountains, Livingston Island
Transantarctic Mountains
Queen Maud Mountains
Bush Mountains
Commonwealth Range
Dominion Range
Gothic Mountains
Herbert Range
Prince Olav Mountains
Hughes Range
Supporters Range
Theron Mountains
Heimefront Range, Queen Maud Land
Borg Massif, Queen Maud Land
Fimbulheimen, Queen Maud Land
Gburek Peaks
Sverdrup Mountains
Gjelsvik Mountains
Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains
Orvin Mountains
Filchner Mountains
Drygalski Mountains
Kurze Mountains
Gagarin Mountains
Conrad Mountains
Wohlthat Mountains
Humboldt Mountains
Petermann Ranges
Gruber Mountains
Hoel Mountains
Weyprecht Mountains
Payer Mountains
Lomonosov Mountains
Sør Rondane Mountains, Queen Maud Land
Belgica Mountains, Queen Maud Land
Planet Heights
Queen Fabiola Mountains, Queen Maud Land
Aristotle Mountains, Graham Land
Pippin Peaks
Stribog Mountains, Brabant Island
Solvay Mountains, Brabant Island
Brugmann Mountains, Liège Island
Ocean
Emperor Seamounts
Mid-ocean ridge (the longest mountain range on Earth)
Gakkel Ridge
Mid-Atlantic ridge
Southwest Indian Ridge
Central Indian Ridge
Southeast Indian Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
East Pacific Rise
Ninety East Ridge
Extraterrestrial mountain ranges
The Moon
By IAU convention, lunar mountain ranges are given Latin names.
Montes Agricola
Montes Alpes
Montes Recti
Montes Retacule
Montes Riphaeus
Montes Rook
Montes Secchi
Montes Spitzbergen
Montes Taurus
Montes Teneriffe
Iapetus
Equatorial ridge
Mercury
Caloris Montes
Titan
Mithrim Montes
Pluto
Tenzing Montes
See also
Mountain
Mountain range
List of highest mountains
Seven Summits
List of mountains on the Moon
List of tallest mountains in the Solar System
List of mountains on Mars by height
Frontal Cordillera
Principal Cordillera
References
01
01
.01
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220156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20basilicas | List of Catholic basilicas | This is a complete list of basilicas of the Catholic Church. A basilica is a church with certain privileges conferred on it by the Pope.
Not all churches with "basilica" in their title actually have the ecclesiastical status, which can lead to confusion, since it is also an architectural term for a church-building style.
In the 18th century, the term took on a canonical sense, unrelated to this architectural style. Basilicas in this canonical sense are divided into major ("greater") and minor basilicas. Today only four, all in the Diocese of Rome, are classified as major basilicas: the major basilicas of St John Lateran, St Peter's, St Paul outside the Walls, and St Mary Major. The other canonical basilicas are minor basilicas.
By canon law no Catholic church can be honoured with the title of basilica unless by apostolic grant or from immemorial custom. The Basilica di San Nicola da Tolentino was the first minor basilica to be canonically created, in 1783. The 1917 Code of Canon Law officially recognised churches using the title of basilica from immemorial custom as having such a right to the title of minor basilica. Such churches are referred to as immemorial basilicas.
Basilicas in Asia
Basilicas in Africa
Basilicas in North and Central America and the Caribbean
Basilicas in South America
Basilicas in Australia and Oceania
Basilicas in Europe
Statistics
, there were 1,690 basilicas (four of them major; the rest minor) in the world.
Countries with more than 100 basilicas
Italy (573)
France (168)
Spain (123)
Poland (105)
Countries with between 10 and 100 basilicas
United States (87)
Germany (77)
Brazil (53)
Argentina (43)
Colombia (40)
Austria (35)
Belgium (27)
Mexico (27)
Netherlands (27)
Canada (24)
India (23)
Philippines (19)
Venezuela (16)
Czech Republic (14)
Hungary (13)
Peru (12)
Switzerland (12)
Ecuador (12)
Portugal (12)
Slovakia (11)
Cities and municipalities with more than 10 basilicas
Rome (66)
Buenos Aires (15)
Kraków (13)
Bologna (11)
Florence (11)
Cities and municipalities with between five and 10 basilicas
Naples (9)
Barcelona (9)
Milan (9)
Venice (8)
Cologne (6)
Lima (6)
Madrid (6)
Santiago (6)
Cities and municipalities with five basilicas
Jerusalem
Paris
Piacenza
Genoa
Turin
Cities and municipalities with four basilicas
Bogotá
Braga
Gdańsk
Manila
Marseille
Montreal
New York City
Padua
Prague
Ravenna
Rio de Janeiro
Salvador
São Paulo
Seville
Trapani
Warsaw
Cities and municipalities with three basilicas
Acireale
Assisi
Berlin
Bruges
Cagliari
Caltagirone
Caracas
Catania
Chicago
Düsseldorf
La Paz
Lecce
Lourdes
Málaga
Mantua
Monterrey
Nancy
Prato
Quito
Siena
Trier
Valencia
Vercelli
Verona
Vienna
Cities and municipalities with two basilicas
Agrigento
Annecy
Arezzo
Bari
Barletta
Belo Horizonte
Bilbao
Bordeaux
Brescia
Budapest
Cairo
Camerino
Capua
Cesena
Comiso
Como
Córdoba
Cusco
Częstochowa
Fano
Ferrara
Finale Ligure
Foggia
Forio
Forlì
Granada
Grenoble
Istanbul
Jerez de la Frontera
La Plata
León
Levoča
Lisbon
Lucca
Lyon
Maastricht
Manizales
Medellín
Mendoza
Mexico City
Modena
Montefiascone
Montpellier
Nantes
Narbonne
Nice
Nicosia
Ottawa
Palermo
Palma de Mallorca
Pesaro
Pistoia
Quezon City
Rapallo
Regensburg
Reggio Emilia
Reims
Rennes
Rosario
Saint-Brieuc
Saintes
St Louis
Salta
San Lorenzo de El Escorial
San Salvador
Santa Fe
Sées
Savona
Sucre
Tolentino
Toronto
Toulouse
Trento
Valletta
Viareggio
Viterbo
Wrocław
Zaragoza
Other basilicas
The following churches are often referred to as basilicas, but there does not appear to be evidence of their officially holding that status:
See also
List of basilicas in Italy
Basilicas of New Zealand
Footnotes
External links
List of all Minor Basilicas from GCatholic
List of all Basilicas in India from Notes on India
Bunson, Matthew, ed. (2005) Catholic Almanac. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor. . | [
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220157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan | Cosmopolitan | Cosmopolitan may refer to:
Food and drink
Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo"
History
Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953
Hotels and resorts
Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas, a luxury resort casino and hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, which opened in December 2010
Cosmopolitan Hotel in Hong Kong
Internationalism
World citizen, one who eschews traditional geopolitical divisions derived from national citizenship
Cosmopolitanism, the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single moral community
Cosmopolitan localism, a way of linking local communities in global networks that bring production and consumption closer together
Media
Cosmopolitan (magazine), a magazine for women, sometimes referred to as "Cosmo"
Cosmopolitan (film), a 2003 film starring Roshan Seth
Cosmopolitan Television, a satellite/cable television channel
Cosmopolitan Productions, a defunct United States film production company
Science
Cosmopolitan distribution, in biogeography, biological categories which can be found almost anywhere around the world
Cosmopolitan (Vanessa cardui or painted lady, a butterfly
Cosmopolitan (Leucania loreyi or false army worm, a moth
Vehicles
CC-109 Cosmopolitan, an aircraft, the RCAF version of the Canadair CL-66
Cosmopolitan automobile company, a defunct American car maker
Nash Cosmopolitan, a defunct car model from Nash Motors
See also
Cosmo (disambiguation)
Cosmopolite (disambiguation) | [
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220159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Secretary%20of%20the%20Chinese%20Communist%20Party | General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party | The general secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party () is the paramount leader of China. The general secretary is the head of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the highest-ranking official within the People's Republic of China (PRC). The general secretary is a standing member of the Politburo and head of the Secretariat.
According to the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party, the general secretary serves as an ex officio member of the Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body. Since 1989, the holder of the post has been, except for transitional periods, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making the holder the Supreme Military Command of the People's Liberation Army. The position of general secretary is the highest authority leading China's National People's Congress, State Council, Political Consultative Conference, Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate in Xi Jinping's administration.
The general secretary is nominally elected by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. In practice, the de facto method of selecting the general secretary has varied over time. The two most recent general secretaries, Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping, were first elevated to the position of First Secretary of the Secretariat in the same process used to determine the membership and roles of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee. Under this informal process, the first secretary would be chosen during deliberations by incumbent Politburo members and retired Politburo Standing Committee members in the lead up to a Party Congress. The first secretary would later succeed the retiring general secretary as part of a generational leadership transition at the subsequent party congress.
The incumbent general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017. On 11 November 2021, the Central Committee passed a decision that allows Xi to rule the party and the country after 20th National Congress in 2022, removing the de facto two-term limit. The last person to rule the country for more than two terms was Mao Zedong, who served as Chairman of the CCP Central Committee from 1945 until his death in 1976.
Powers and position
Since the abolition of the post of chairman of the CCP by the 12th Central Committee in 1982, the general secretary has been the highest-ranking official of the party and heads the Central Secretariat, Political Bureau and its Standing Committee.
Since its revival in 1982, the post of general secretary has been the highest office in the CCP, though it did not become the most powerful post until Deng Xiaoping's retirement in 1990. As China is a one-party state, the general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government, and is usually considered the "paramount leader" of China. However, most of the people until Xi Jinping who have held the post have held far less power than Mao Zedong. Since the mid-1990s, the general secretary has traditionally also held the post of president of the People's Republic of China. While the presidency is a ceremonial post, it is customary for the General Secretary to assume the presidency to confirm his status as head of state.
Since Xi Jinping's election, two new bodies of the CCP, the National Security Commission and Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission, have been established, ostensibly concentrating political power in the "paramount leader" to a greater degree than anyone since Mao. These bodies were tasked with establishing the general policy direction for national security as well as the agenda for economic reform. Both groups are headed by the General Secretary, thus the power of the General Secretary has become more concentrated.
List of general secretaries
See also
Secretary-general of the Chinese Communist Party
Leadership core
Orders of precedence in the People's Republic of China
Office of the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
Notes
References
Leaders of political parties in China
1921 establishments in China | [
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220160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry%20Henry | Thierry Henry | Thierry Daniel Henry (born 17 August 1977) is a French professional football coach and former player who is an assistant coach for the Belgium national team. He is considered one of the greatest strikers of all time and one of the greatest players in the history of the Premier League. In 2003 and 2004, Henry was the runner-up for the FIFA World Player of the Year, and was runner-up for the Ballon d'Or in the former year. He was named the PFA Players' Player of the Year twice, the FWA Footballer of the Year three times, and was named in the PFA Team of the Year six consecutive times. He was also included in the FIFA FIFPro World XI once and the UEFA Team of the Year five times. He was one of the most commercially marketed footballers during the 2000s. Henry, along with Alan Shearer, was one of the inaugural inductees into the Premier League Hall of Fame in 2021.
Henry made his professional debut with Monaco in 1994 before signing for defending Serie A champions Juventus. However, limited playing time, coupled with disagreements with the club's hierarchy, led to him signing for English Premier League club Arsenal for £11 million in 1999. Under long-time mentor and coach Arsène Wenger, Henry became a prolific striker and Arsenal's all-time leading scorer with 228 goals in all competitions. He won the Premier League Golden Boot a record four times, won two FA Cups and two Premier League titles with the club, including one during an unbeaten season dubbed The Invincibles. He spent his final two seasons with Arsenal as club captain, leading them to the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final. In June 2007, he transferred to Barcelona. In the 2008–09 season, Henry was a key part of the club's historic treble when they won La Liga, the Copa del Rey and the UEFA Champions League. In 2010, he joined New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer (MLS), but returned to Arsenal on loan for two months in 2012, before retiring in 2014.
Henry enjoyed sustained success with France, winning the 1998 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2000 and 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. He was named the French Player of the Year a record five times. He was also named to the UEFA Euro 2000 Team of the Tournament, awarded both the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Ball and Golden Shoe, and was named to the 2006 FIFA World Cup All-Star Team. In October 2007, he became his country's record goalscorer. After amassing 123 appearances and 51 goals, Henry retired from international football after the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
After retiring, Henry transitioned into coaching. He began coaching Arsenal's youth teams in February 2015, in tandem with his work as a pundit for Sky Sports. In 2016, he was appointed as an assistant coach at Belgium, before assuming the role as the head coach at former club Monaco in 2018. He was relieved of his duties at Monaco in January 2019 and returned to MLS less than a year later to manage Montréal Impact. He led Montréal to the playoffs in the 2020 season before stepping down in 2021.
Early years
Henry is of Antillean heritage: his father, Antoine, is from Guadeloupe (La Désirade island), and his mother, Maryse, is from Martinique. He was born and raised in Les Ulis suburb of Paris which, despite sometimes being seen as a tough neighbourhood, provided good footballing facilities. As a seven-year-old, Henry showed great potential, prompting Claude Chezelle to recruit him to the local club CO Les Ulis. His father pressured him to attend training, although the youngster was not particularly drawn to football. He joined US Palaiseau in 1989, but after a year his father fell out with the club, so Henry moved to ES Viry-Châtillon and played there for two years. US Palaiseau coach Jean-Marie Panza, Henry's future mentor, followed him there.
Club career
1992–1999: Beginnings at Monaco and transfer to Juventus
In 1990, Monaco sent scout Arnold Catalano to watch Henry, then at the age of 13 in a match. Henry scored all six goals as his side won 6–0. Catalano asked him to join Monaco without even attending a trial first. Catalano requested that Henry complete a course at the elite INF Clairefontaine academy, and despite the director's reluctance to admit Henry due to his poor school results, he was allowed to complete the course and joined Arsène Wenger's Monaco as a youth player. Subsequently, Henry signed professional forms with Monaco, and made his professional debut on 31 August 1994, in a 2–0 loss against Nice. Although Wenger suspected that Henry should be deployed as a striker, he put Henry on the left wing because he believed that his pace, natural ball control and skill would be more effective against full backs than centre-backs.
After a tentative start to his Monaco career, Henry was named the French Young Footballer of the Year in 1996, and in the 1996–97 season, his solid performances helped the club win the Ligue 1 title. During the 1997–98 season, he was instrumental in leading his club to the UEFA Champions League semi-final, setting a French record by scoring seven goals in the competition. By his third season, he had received his first cap for the national team, and was part of the winning team in the 1998 FIFA World Cup. He continued to impress at his tenure with Monaco, and in his five seasons with the French club, the young winger scored 20 league goals in 105 appearances.
Henry left Monaco in January 1999, one year before his intimate and closest teammate David Trezeguet, and moved to Italian club Juventus for £10.5 million. He played on the wing, as well as at wing back and wide midfield, but he was ineffective as a goal scorer, struggling against the defensive discipline exhibited by teams in Serie A, registering just three goals in 16 appearances. In 2019, on Jamie Carragher’s podcast The Greatest Game, Henry attributed disagreements with Juve director Luciano Moggi as his rationale behind departing the club.
1999–2007: Move to Arsenal, breakthrough, and success
Unsettled in Italy, Henry transferred from Juventus on 3 August 1999 to Arsenal for an estimated fee of £11 million, reuniting with his former manager Arsène Wenger. It was at Arsenal that Henry made his name as a world-class footballer, and although his transfer was not without controversy, Wenger was convinced he was worth the transfer fee. Brought in as a replacement for fellow French forward Nicolas Anelka, Henry was immediately moulded into a striker by Wenger, a move that would pay rich dividends in years to come. However, doubts were raised about his ability to adapt to the quick and physical English game when he failed to score in his first eight games. After several difficult months in England, Henry even conceded that he had to "be re-taught everything about the art of striking." These doubts were dispelled when he ended his first season at Arsenal with an impressive goal tally of 26. Arsenal finished second in the Premier League behind Manchester United, and lost in the UEFA Cup Final against Turkish club Galatasaray.
Coming off the back of a victorious UEFA Euro 2000 campaign with the national team, Henry was ready to make an impact in the 2000–01 season. Despite recording fewer goals and assists than his first season, Henry's second season with Arsenal proved to be a breakthrough, as he became the club's top goalscorer. His goal tally included a spectacular strike against Manchester United where he flicked the ball up (with his back turned to goal), before he swivelled and volleyed in from 30 yards out. The strike also featured a memorable goal celebration where he recreated the Budweiser "Whassup?" advertisement. Armed with one of the league's best attacks, Arsenal finished runner-up to perennial rivals Manchester United in the Premier League. The team also reached the final of the FA Cup, losing 2–1 to Liverpool. Henry remained frustrated, however, by the fact that he had yet to help the club win honours, and frequently expressed his desire to establish Arsenal as a powerhouse.
Success finally arrived during the 2001–02 season. Arsenal finished seven points above Liverpool to win the Premier League title, and defeated Chelsea 2–0 in the FA Cup Final. Henry became the league's top goalscorer and netted 32 goals in all competitions as he led Arsenal to a double and his first silverware with the club. There was much expectation that Henry would replicate his club form for France during the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but the defending champions suffered a shock exit at the group stage.
2002–03 proved to be another productive season for Henry, as he scored 32 goals in all competitions while contributing 23 assists—remarkable returns for a striker. In doing so, he led Arsenal to another FA Cup triumph (where he was man-of-the-match in the Final), although Arsenal failed to retain their Premier League title. Throughout the season, he competed with Manchester United's Ruud van Nistelrooy for the league scoring title, but the Dutchman edged Henry to the Golden Boot by a single goal. Nonetheless, Henry was named both the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year. His rising status as one of the world's best footballers was affirmed when he emerged runner-up for the 2003 FIFA World Player of the Year award. With 24 goals and 20 assists in the league, Henry set a new record for most assists in a single Premier League season, and also became the first player in history to record at least 20 goals and 20 assists in a single season in one of Europe's top–five leagues—this feat has since been matched by Lionel Messi in 2020.
Entering the 2003–04 season, Arsenal were determined to reclaim the Premier League crown. Henry was again instrumental in Arsenal's exceptionally successful campaign; together with the likes of Dennis Bergkamp, Patrick Vieira, Freddie Ljungberg and Robert Pires, Henry ensured that the Gunners became the first team in more than a century to go through the entire domestic league season unbeaten, claiming the league title in the process. Apart from being named for the second year running as the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year, Henry emerged once again as the runner-up for 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year award. With 39 goals scored in all competitions, the Frenchman led the league in goals scored and won the European Golden Boot. However, as was the case in 2002, Henry was unable to lead the national side to honours during UEFA Euro 2004.
This dip in success was compounded when Arsenal failed again to secure back-to-back league titles when they lost out to Chelsea in the 2004–05 season, although Arsenal did win the FA Cup (the Final of which Henry missed through injury). Henry maintained his reputation as one of Europe's most feared strikers as he led the league in scoring, and with 31 goals in all competitions, he was the co-recipient (with Diego Forlán) of the European Golden Boot, becoming the first player to officially win the award twice in a row (Ally McCoist had won two Golden Boots in a row, but both were deemed unofficial). The unexpected departure of Arsenal's captain Patrick Vieira in the 2005 close season led to Henry being awarded club captaincy, a role which many felt was not naturally suited for him; the captaincy is more commonly given to defenders or midfielders, who are better-placed on the pitch to read the game. Along with being chief goalscorer, he was responsible for leading a very young team which had yet to gel fully.
The 2005–06 season proved to be one of remarkable personal achievements for Henry. On 17 October 2005, Henry became the club's top goalscorer of all time; two goals against Sparta Prague in the Champions League meant he broke Ian Wright's record of 185 goals. On 1 February 2006, he scored a goal against West Ham United, bringing his league goal tally up to 151, breaking Arsenal legend Cliff Bastin's league goals record. Henry scored his 100th league goal at Highbury, a feat unparalleled in the history of the club, and a unique achievement in the Premier League. On the final day of the Premier League season, Henry scored a hat-trick against Wigan Athletic in the last match played at Highbury. He completed the season as the league's top goalscorer, was voted the FWA Footballer of the Year for the third time in his career, and was selected in the FIFA World XI.
Nevertheless, Arsenal failed to win the Premier League title again, but hopes of a trophy were revived when Arsenal reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final. The Gunners eventually lost 2–1 to Barcelona, with Henry assisting the team's only goal from a free kick, and Arsenal's inability to win the league title for two consecutive seasons combined with the relative inexperience of the Arsenal squad caused much speculation that Henry would leave for another club. However, he declared his love for the club and accepted a four-year contract, and said he would stay at Arsenal for life. Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein later claimed the club had turned down two bids of £50 million from Spanish clubs for Henry before the signing of the new contract. Had the transfer materialised, it would have surpassed the then-world record £47 million paid for Zinedine Zidane.
Henry's 2006–07 season was marred by injuries. Although he scored 10 goals in 17 domestic appearances for Arsenal, Henry's season was cut short in February. Having missed games due to hamstring, foot, and back problems, he was deemed fit enough to come on as a late substitute against PSV in a Champions League match, but began limping shortly after coming on. Scans the next day revealed that he would need at least three months to heal from new groin and stomach injuries, missing the rest of the 2006–07 season. Wenger attributed Henry's injuries to a protracted 2005–06 campaign, and reiterated that Henry was keen on staying with the Gunners to rebuild for the 2007–08 season.
2007–2010: Barcelona and a historic treble
On 25 June 2007, in an unexpected turn of events, Henry was transferred to Barcelona for €24 million. He signed a four-year deal for a reported €6.8 (£4.6) million per season. It was revealed that the contract included a release clause of €125 (£84.9) million. Henry cited the departure of Dein and continued uncertainty over Wenger's future as reasons for leaving, and maintained that "I always said that if I ever left Arsenal it would be to play for Barcelona." Despite their captain's departure, Arsenal got off to an impressive start for the 2007–08 campaign, and Henry said that his presence in the team might have been more of a hindrance than a help. He stated, "Because of my seniority, the fact that I was captain and my habit of screaming for the ball, they would sometimes give it to me even when I was not in the best position. So in that sense it was good for the team that I moved on." Henry left Arsenal as the club's leading all-time league goalscorer with 174 goals and leading all-time goalscorer in European competitions with 42 goals; in July 2008, Arsenal fans voted him as Arsenal's greatest player ever in Arsenal.com's Gunners' Greatest 50 Players poll.
At Barcelona, Henry was given the number 14 jersey, the same as he had worn at Arsenal. He scored his first goal for his new club on 19 September 2007 in a 3–0 Champions League group stage win over Lyon, and he recorded his first hat-trick for Barça in a Primera División match against Levante ten days later. But with Henry mostly deployed on the wing throughout the season, he was unable to reproduce the goal-scoring form he achieved with Arsenal. He expressed dissatisfaction with the move to Barcelona in the initial year, amidst widespread speculation of a return to the Premier League. In an interview with Garth Crooks on BBC’s Football Focus, Henry described missing life "back home" and even "the English press." However, Henry concluded his debut season as the club's top scorer with 19 goals in addition to nine league assists, second behind Lionel Messi's ten.
Henry went on to surpass this tally in a more integrated 2008–09 campaign, with 26 goals and 10 assists from the left wing. He won the first trophy of his Barcelona career on 13 May 2009 when Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final. Barcelona won the Primera División and UEFA Champions League soon after, completing a treble for the Frenchman, who had combined with Messi and Samuel Eto'o to score 100 goals between them that season. The trio was also the most prolific trio in Spanish league history, scoring 72 goals and surpassing the 66 goals of Real Madrid's Ferenc Puskás, Alfredo Di Stéfano and Luis del Sol of the 1960–61 season (this was later surpassed by Real Madrid trio Cristiano Ronaldo, Karim Benzema and Gonzalo Higuaín who scored 89 goals in 2011–12). Later in 2009, Henry helped Barcelona win an unprecedented sextuple, consisting of the aforementioned treble, the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Super Cup, and the FIFA Club World Cup.
The following season, the emergence of Pedro meant that Henry only started 15 league games. Before the La Liga season ended, and with a year still left on his contract, club president Joan Laporta stated on 5 May 2010 that Henry "may go away in the summer transfer window if that's what he wants." After Henry returned from the 2010 World Cup, Barcelona confirmed that they had agreed to the sale of Henry to an unnamed club, with the player still to agree terms with the new club.
2010–2014: New York Red Bulls and retirement
In July 2010, Henry signed a multi-year contract with Major League Soccer (MLS) club New York Red Bulls for the 2010 season as its second designated player. He made his full MLS debut on 31 July in a 2–2 draw against Houston Dynamo, assisting both goals to Juan Pablo Ángel. His first MLS goal came on 28 August in a 2–0 victory against San Jose Earthquakes. The Red Bulls eventually topped the MLS Eastern Conference by one point over Columbus Crew before losing 3–2 on aggregate against San Jose Earthquakes in the quarter-finals of the 2010 MLS Cup Playoffs. The next season, the Red Bulls were 10th overall in the league, and bowed out in the Conference semi-finals of the 2011 MLS Cup Playoffs.
Return to Arsenal (loan)
After training with Arsenal during the MLS off-season, Henry re-signed for the club on a two-month loan deal on 6 January 2012. This was to provide cover for Gervinho and Marouane Chamakh, who were unavailable due to their participation in the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. Henry was given the number 12 jersey – his old Arsenal number 14 jersey, the same number he wore at Barcelona and New York, was unavailable, with Theo Walcott inheriting it following Henry's departure from the club in 2007. Henry made his second Arsenal debut as a substitute against Leeds United in the FA Cup third round and scored the only goal. In his last league game on loan, he scored the winning goal in stoppage time in a 2–1 win against Sunderland. His final goals for the club meant he finished his Arsenal career with a record 228 goals; 175 of them came in the Premier League.
Return to New York Red Bulls
On 17 February 2012, Henry returned to Red Bulls to prepare for the 2012 season. His base salary of $5 million ($5.6 million guaranteed) made him the highest-paid player in MLS—surpassing David Beckham, who had taken a salary cut for his last year with the Los Angeles Galaxy. In 2013, Henry's base salary dropped to $3.75 million setting him behind Robbie Keane's $4 million base salary. With bonuses, however, Henry remained the highest-paid player with $4.35 million compared to Keane's $4.33 million.
On 31 March 2012, Henry scored his first MLS hat-trick in a 5–2 Red Bulls win over the Montreal Impact. He was named MLS Player of the Month that same month. On 27 October 2013, Henry scored once and provided two assists in the last game of the season against the Chicago Fire at Red Bull Arena to help his team win 5–2 and become champions of the regular season. It was the club's first major trophy in their 17-year history.
On 12 July 2014, Henry provided a goal and three assists in a 4–1 Red Bulls win over the Columbus Crew. With that effort he became the all-time assist leader for the New York Red Bulls with 37, surpassing Amado Guevara and Tab Ramos.
On 1 December 2014, it was announced that Henry had left the Red Bulls after four-and-a-half years at the club. On 16 December, he announced his retirement as a player and stated that he would begin working for Sky Sports as a pundit. After working at Sky for over three years, Henry quit his position in July 2018 to focus on his career as a coach.
International career
Henry enjoyed a successful career with the France national team, winning the first of his 123 caps in June 1997, when his good form for Monaco was rewarded with a call-up to the Under-20 French national team, where he played in the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship alongside future teammates William Gallas and David Trezeguet. Within four months, France head coach Aimé Jacquet called Henry up to the senior team. The 20-year-old made his senior international debut on 11 October 1997 in a 2–1 win against South Africa. Jacquet was so impressed with Henry that he took him to the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Although Henry was a largely unknown quantity at international level, he ended the tournament as France's top scorer with three goals. He was scheduled to appear as a substitute in the final, where France beat Brazil 3–0, but Marcel Desailly's sending off forced a defensive change instead. In 1998, he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour, France's highest decoration.
Henry was a member of France's UEFA Euro 2000 squad, again scoring three goals in the tournament, including the equaliser against Portugal in the semi-final, and finishing as the country's top scorer. France later won the game in extra time following a converted penalty kick by Zinedine Zidane. France went on to defeat Italy in extra-time in the final, earning Henry his second major international medal. During the tournament, Henry was voted man of the match in three games, including the final against Italy.
The 2002 FIFA World Cup featured a stunning early exit for both Henry and France as the defending champions were eliminated in the group stage after failing to score a goal in all three games. France lost against Senegal in their first group match and Henry was red carded for a dangerous sliding challenge in their next match against Uruguay. In that game, France played to a 0–0 draw, but Henry was forced to miss the final group match due to suspension; France lost 2–0 to Denmark.
Henry returned to form for his country at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. Despite playing without team stalwarts Zidane and Patrick Vieira, France won, in large part owing to Henry's outstanding play, for which he was named Man of the Match by FIFA's Technical Study Group in three of France's five matches. In the final, he scored the golden goal in extra time to lift the title for the host country after a 1–0 victory over Cameroon. Henry was awarded both the Adidas Golden Ball as the outstanding player of the competition and the Adidas Golden Shoe as the tournament's top goalscorer with four goals.
In UEFA Euro 2004, Henry played in all of France's matches and scored two goals. France beat England in the group stage but lost to the eventual winners Greece 1–0 in the quarter-finals. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup Henry remained as one of the automatic starters in the squad. He played as a lone striker, but despite an indifferent start to the tournament, became one of the top players of the World Cup. He scored three goals, including the winning goal from Zidane's free kick against defending champions Brazil in the quarter-final. However, France subsequently lost to Italy on penalties (5–3) in the final. Henry did not take part in the penalty shoot-out, having been substituted in extra time after his legs had cramped. Henry was one of ten nominees for the Golden Ball award for Player of the Tournament, an award which was ultimately presented to his teammate, Zidane and was named a starting striker on the 2006 FIFPro World XI team.
On 13 October 2007, Henry scored his 41st goal against the Faroe Islands, joining Michel Platini as the country's top goalscorer of all time. Four days later at the Stade de la Beaujoire, he scored a late double against Lithuania, thereby setting a new record as France's top goalscorer. On 3 June 2008, Henry made his 100th appearance for the national team in a match against Colombia, becoming the sixth French player ever to reach that milestone.
Henry missed the opening game of France's short-lived UEFA Euro 2008 campaign, where they were eliminated in the group stages after being drawn in the same group as Italy, the Netherlands and Romania. He scored France's only goal in the competition in a 4–1 loss to the Netherlands.
The French team struggled during the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers and finished second in their group behind Serbia. During the play-offs against the Republic of Ireland, Henry was involved in a controversy in the second leg of the game at the Stade de France on 18 November 2009. With the aggregate score tied at 1–1 and the game in extra time, he used his hand twice to control the ball before delivering a cross to William Gallas who scored the winner. This sparked a barrage of criticism against the Frenchman, while national team coach Raymond Domenech and Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger defended him. The Football Association of Ireland lodged a formal complaint with FIFA, seeking a replay of the game, which FIFA declined. Henry said that he contemplated retiring from international football after the reactions to the incident, but maintained that he was not a "cheat"; hours after FIFA had ruled out a replay, he stated that "the fairest solution would be to replay the game". FIFA President Sepp Blatter described the incident as "blatant unfair play" and announced an inquiry into how such incidents could be avoided in future, and added that the incident would be investigated by the Disciplinary Committee. Blatter also said Henry told him that his family had been threatened in the aftermath of the incident. In January 2010, FIFA announced that there was no legal basis to sanction Henry.
Henry did not feature in the starting line-up for France at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. France drew in their first game against Uruguay, and lost 2–0 in their second against Mexico. The team was thrown into disarray when Nicolas Anelka was expelled from the team, and captain Patrice Evra led a team protest by refusing to train. In the final group game against host-nation South Africa in which Henry came on as a second-half substitute, France lost 2–1 and were eliminated from the tournament. He then announced his retirement from international football, having won 123 caps and scored 51 goals for Les Bleus, thus finishing his international career as France's all-time top scorer, and second most capped player after Lilian Thuram.
Style of play
Although Henry played up front as a striker during his youth, he spent his time at Monaco and Juventus playing on the wing. When Henry joined Arsenal in 1999, Wenger immediately changed this, switching Henry to his childhood position, often pairing him with Dutch veteran Dennis Bergkamp. During the 2004–05 season, Wenger switched Arsenal's formation to 4–5–1. This change forced Henry to adapt again to fit into the Arsenal team, and he played many games as a lone striker. Still, Henry remained Arsenal's main offensive threat, on many occasions conjuring spectacular goals. Wenger said of his fellow Frenchman: "Thierry Henry could take the ball in the middle of the park and score a goal that no one else in the world could score".
One of the reasons cited for Henry's impressive play up front is his ability to calmly score from one-on-ones. According to his father Antoine, Henry learned precision shooting from watching his idol Marco van Basten. He was also influenced by Romário, Ronaldo and Liberian star George Weah, a new breed of strikers in the 1990s who would also operate outside the penalty area before running with the ball towards goal. At his physical peak from the late 1990s to the mid 2000s, Henry's ability to dribble past opponents with exceptional pace, skill and composure, meant that he could get in behind defenders regularly enough to score. In 2004, former Arsenal striker Alan Smith commented on Henry: "I have to say I haven't seen a player like him. He's an athlete with great technical ability and a tremendous desire to be the best."
When up front, Henry is occasionally known to move out wide to the left wing position, something which enables him to contribute heavily in assists: between 2002–03 and 2004–05, the striker managed almost 50 assists in total and this was attributed to his unselfish play and creativity. Ranking Henry the greatest player in Premier League history, in February 2020 FourFourTwo magazine stated, "No one assisted more in a season. No one has terrorised defenders with such a combination of bewitching grace and phenomenal power."
Coming in from the left, Henry's trademark finish saw him place the ball inside the far right corner of the goal. Henry would also drift offside to fool the defence then run back onside before the ball is played and beat the offside trap, although he never provided Arsenal a distinct aerial threat. Given his versatility in being able to operate as both a winger and a striker, the Frenchman is not a prototypical "out-and-out striker", but he has emerged consistently as one of Europe's most prolific strikers. In set pieces, Henry was the first-choice penalty and free kick taker for Arsenal, scoring regularly from those positions. Henry was also a notable exponent of a no-look pass where he would feint to pass the ball with his right foot, but would make contact with the ball using his standing foot (his left).
Managerial career
Arsenal youth
Henry began coaching Arsenal's youth teams in February 2015, in tandem with his work for Sky Sports. His influence on the team was praised by players such as Alex Iwobi, who dedicated a goal against Bayern Munich in the 2015–16 UEFA Youth League to his advice. Having earned a UEFA A Licence, he was offered the job of under-18 coach by Academy head Andries Jonker, but the decision was overruled by Wenger, who wanted a full-time coach for the team.
Belgium (assistant)
In August 2016, Henry became second assistant coach of the Belgium national team, working alongside head coach Roberto Martínez and fellow assistant Graeme Jones. In an interview with NBC Sports, Belgium striker Romelu Lukaku praised Henry for his work with him, stating, "Henry is the best thing that has happened to me because since I came to England aged 18 I have had the best mentors. Thierry for me is the best. Every day whether it is positive and negative I take it in my stride because I know what is expected from the top level.” At the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Belgium reached the semi-final, but lost to Henry's home nation France 1–0. Henry picked up a Bronze medal after Belgium defeated England 2–0 in the third-place play-off to secure their best ever World Cup finish.
Henry was reportedly offered the position of head coach by Bordeaux in August 2018. However, the offer was not accepted by Henry after disagreements with the club's owners. Days after turning down the Bordeaux job, and following Jones's departure from the Belgium national team, Henry, who had been the forwards coach, was promoted to Belgium assistant coach. However, his tenure in the role was short-lived, after he accepted the role as head coach at former club Monaco in October.
Monaco
On 11 October 2018, Monaco dismissed Leonardo Jardim as club manager. Jardim's position had become untenable after struggling heavily in domestic competition, with the club 18th at the time of his departure, and disputes over the club's transfer policy. Monaco's search for a new coach coincided with the regulatory mid-season international break, allowing the club sufficient time to search for a replacement, however, they quickly decided on Henry, and he was appointed a mere two days later. He signed a three-year deal, and was unveiled as Monaco manager on 18 October. At his first press conference, he told reporters: "This club will always have a big place in my heart, so to be able to come here and start again, it is a dream come true. There is a lot of work to do, as you can imagine – but I am more than happy to be here".
Henry's arrival at Monaco was greeted with mixed reactions by some media outlets, due to his relative inexperience as a top-level coach and the task of overturning Monaco's misfortunes. Despite inheriting a squad of sub-standard quality, Henry expressed a desire of replicating the football he played under Pep Guardiola at Barcelona, as well as instilling the "professionalism" taught to him by Arsène Wenger. Henry also adopted a hands-on approach to training sessions, being regularly involved in devising schemes and instructing drills. His first match was a 2–1 away defeat against Strasbourg on 20 October. He was unable to secure a win for over a month, enduring a period which included two high-profile defeats against Club Brugge and Paris Saint-Germain, prior to defeating Caen on 1–0 on 25 November. He secured two wins in December, defeating Amiens in the league and Lorient in the Coupe de la Ligue, however, this was on the backdrop of three additional Ligue 1 defeats to close 2018 in the relegation zone.
In January 2019, Henry entered the winter transfer window, where he signed left-back Fodé Ballo-Touré, and former Arsenal teammate Cesc Fàbregas from Chelsea. He also sanctioned the loan signing of French defensive midfielder William Vainqueur on 12 January, and experienced defender Naldo. However, these signings would not turn around the club's fate, and on 24 January, Henry was dismissed at Monaco. The club were 19th at the time of his departure, and Henry left with a record of 4 wins, 5 draws, and 11 defeats, from 20 games in charge.
Montreal Impact
On 14 November 2019, Henry signed with Major League Soccer side Montreal Impact, signing a two-year deal until the end of the 2021 season, with an option to extend it by a year until the 2022 season. In his first press conference, Henry stated he had to "confront" the relative disappointment of his short stint as manager of Monaco, before undertaking a new job.
After leading Montreal to their first playoff berth in four seasons, on 25 February 2021, prior to the 2021 season, Henry stepped down as head coach of the renamed CF Montreal to be closer to his children in London. He had not been able to see them in the 2020 season due to travel restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, and with restrictions continuing into the 2021 season, he decided to end the separation.
Return to Belgium (assistant)
In May 2021, Henry rejoined the coaching staff of Belgium prior to the UEFA Euro 2020.
Reception
Henry has received many plaudits and awards in his football career. He was runner-up for the 2003 and 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year awards; in those two seasons, he also won back-to-back PFA Players' Player of the Year titles. Henry is the only player ever to have won the FWA Footballer of the Year three times (2003, 2004, 2006), and the French Player of the Year on a record four occasions. Henry was voted into the Premier League Overseas Team of the Decade in the 10 Seasons Awards poll in 2003, and in 2004 he was named by football legend Pelé on the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players.
In terms of goal-scoring awards, Henry was the European Golden Boot winner in 2004 and 2005 (sharing it with Villarreal's Diego Forlán in 2005). Henry was also the top goalscorer in the Premier League for a record four seasons (2002, 2004, 2005, 2006). In 2006, he became the first player to score more than 20 goals in the league for five consecutive seasons (2002 to 2006). With 175, Henry is currently sixth in the list of all-time Premier League goalscorers, behind Alan Shearer, Wayne Rooney, Andy Cole, Sergio Agüero, and Frank Lampard. He held the record for most goals in the competition for one club, until it was broken by Rooney in 2016, and held the record for most goals by a foreign player in the competition until surpassed by Agüero in 2020. France's all-time record goalscorer was, in his prime in the mid 2000s, regarded by many coaches, footballers and journalists as one of the best players in the world. In November 2007, he was ranked 33rd on the Association of Football Statisticians' compendium for "Greatest Ever Footballers."
Arsenal fans honoured their former player in 2008, declaring Henry the greatest Arsenal player. In two other 2008 surveys, Henry emerged as the favourite Premier League player of all time among 32,000 people surveyed in the Barclays 2008 Global Fan Report. Arsenal fan and The Who lead singer Roger Daltrey mentions Henry in the tribute song "Highbury Highs", which he performed at Arsenal's last game at Highbury on 7 May 2006. On 10 December 2011, Arsenal unveiled a bronze statue of Henry at the Emirates Stadium as part of its 125th anniversary celebrations. In 2017, FourFourTwo magazine ranked him first in their list of the 30 best strikers in Premier League history. Daniel Girard of The Toronto Star described Henry as "one of the best players of his generation" in 2010. Henry's former Arsenal manager, Wenger, described him as "one of the greatest players [he had] ever seen" in 2014. In 2019, The Independent ranked Henry in first place in their list of the "100 greatest Premier League players."
Outside football
Personal and family life
Henry married English model Nicole Merry, real name Claire, on 5 July 2003. The ceremony was held at Highclere Castle, and on 27 May 2005 the couple celebrated the birth of their first child, Téa. Henry dedicated his first goal following Téa's birth to her by holding his fingers in a "T" shape and kissing them after scoring in a match against Newcastle United. When Henry was still at Arsenal, he also purchased a home in Hampstead, North London. However, shortly after his transfer to Barcelona, it was announced that Henry and his wife would divorce; the decree nisi was granted in September 2007. Their separation concluded in December 2008 when Henry paid Merry a divorce settlement close to her requested sum of £10 million.
As a fan of the National Basketball Association (NBA), Henry is often seen with his friend Tony Parker at games when not playing football. Henry stated in an interview that he admires basketball, as it is similar to football in pace and excitement. Having made regular trips to the NBA Finals in the past, he went to watch Parker and the San Antonio Spurs in the 2007 NBA Finals; and in the 2001 NBA Finals, he went to Philadelphia to help with French television coverage of the Finals as well as to watch Allen Iverson, whom he named as one of his favourite players.
Appearance on screen
Henry makes a short cameo appearance in the 2015 film Entourage. Henry's part sees him walking a dog and having exchange with Ari Gold (character played by Jeremy Piven), who is an over-the-top Hollywood agent.
Henry makes a number of cameo appearances playing himself in the Apple TV+ football comedy series Ted Lasso.
Social causes
Henry is a member of the UNICEF-FIFA squad, where together with other professional footballers he appeared in a series of TV spots seen by hundreds of millions of fans around the world during the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups. In these spots, the players promote football as a game that must be played on behalf of children.
Having been subjected to racism in the past, Henry is an active spokesperson against racism in football. The most prominent incident of racism against Henry was during a training session with the Spanish national team in 2004, when a Spanish TV crew caught coach Luis Aragonés referring to Henry as "black shit" to José Antonio Reyes, Henry's teammate at Arsenal. The incident caused an uproar in the British media, and there were calls for Aragonés to be sacked. Henry and Nike started the Stand Up Speak Up campaign against racism in football as a result of the incident. Subsequently, in 2007, Time featured him as one of the "Heroes & Pioneers" on the Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.
Along with 45 other football players, Henry took part in FIFA's "Live for Love United" in 2002. The single was released in tandem with the 2002 FIFA World Cup and its proceeds went towards AIDS research. Henry also supports the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and Cystic Fibrosis Trust.
Henry has also played in charity football games for various causes. In June 2018, he reunited with his France 1998 World Cup winning teammates to play a charity game against an All-Star team which included Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt, with proceeds going to the Mecenet Cardiac Charity and the Children of the World fund. In a 3–2 win for France, Henry played a trademark no-look one-two pass with Zinedine Zidane before scoring with a 20-yard curling strike.
Endorsements
In 2006, Henry was valued as the ninth-most commercially marketable footballer in the world, and throughout his career he has signed many endorsements and appeared in commercials.
Sportswear
At the beginning of his career, Henry signed with sportswear giant Nike. In the buildup to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan, Henry featured in Nike's "Secret Tournament" advertisement, directed by Terry Gilliam, along with 24 superstar football players. In a 2004 advertisement, Henry pits his wits against others footballers in locations such as his bedroom and living room, which was partly inspired by Henry himself, who revealed that he always has a football nearby, even at home. In tandem with the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Henry also featured in Nike's Joga Bonito campaign, Portuguese for "beautiful game."
Henry's deal with Nike ended after the 2006 FIFA World Cup, when he signed a deal with Reebok to appear in their "I Am What I Am" campaign. As part of Reebok Entertainment's "Framed" series, Henry was the star of a half-hour episode that detailed the making of a commercial about himself directed by Spanish actress Paz Vega. In 2011, Henry switched to Puma boots.
Other endorsements
Henry featured in the Renault Clio advertisements in which he popularised the term va-va-voom, meaning "life" or "passion." His romantic interest in the commercial was his then-girlfriend, later his wife (now divorced), Claire Merry. "Va-va-voom" was subsequently added to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary.
In February 2007, Henry was named as one of the three global ambassadors of Gillette's "Champions Program," which purported to feature three of the "best-known, most widely respected and successful athletes competing today" and also showcased Roger Federer and Tiger Woods in a series of television commercials. In reaction to the handball controversy following the France vs Ireland 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier, Gillette faced a boycott and accusations of doctoring French versions of their Champions poster, but subsequently released a statement backing Henry.
Henry was part of Pepsi's "Dare For More" campaign in 2005, alongside the likes of David Beckham and Ronaldinho. He starred in a 2014 advert for Beats headphones with other global football stars including Neymar and Luis Suárez, with the theme of "The Game Before the Game" and the players pre-game ritual of listening to music.
Henry featured on the front cover of the editions of EA Sports' FIFA video game series from FIFA 2001 to FIFA 2005. He was included as an icon to the Ultimate Team in FIFA 18. He was also a cover star for the Konami Pro Evolution Soccer video game series, and was featured on the covers of Pro Evolution Soccer 4 to Pro Evolution Soccer 6.
Career statistics
Club
International
Note
Includes one appearance from the match against FIFA XI on 16 August 2000 which FIFA and the French Football Federation count as an official friendly match.
Coaching record
Honours
Club
Monaco
Division 1: 1996–97
Arsenal
Premier League: 2001–02, 2003–04
FA Cup: 2001–02, 2002–03
FA Community Shield: 2002, 2004
UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2005–06
UEFA Cup runner-up: 1999–2000
Barcelona
La Liga: 2008–09, 2009–10
Copa del Rey: 2008–09
Supercopa de España: 2009
UEFA Champions League: 2008–09
UEFA Super Cup: 2009
FIFA Club World Cup: 2009
New York Red Bulls
Supporters' Shield: 2013
International
France
FIFA World Cup: 1998; runner-up: 2006
UEFA European Championship: 2000
FIFA Confederations Cup: 2003
Individual
Ballon d'Or runner-up: 2003; third-place: 2006
FIFA World Player of the Year – Silver Award: 2003, 2004
European Golden Shoe: 2003–04, 2004–05
Onze d'Or: 2003, 2006
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: Germany 2006
FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Ball: France 2003
FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Shoe: France 2003
UNFP Division 1 Young Player of the Year: 1996–97
PFA Players' Player of the Year: 2002–03, 2003–04
PFA Team of the Year: 2000–01 Premier League, 2001–02 Premier League, 2002–03 Premier League, 2003–04 Premier League, 2004–05 Premier League, 2005–06 Premier League
PFA Team of the Century (1907–2007):
Team of the Century 1997–2007
Overall Team of the Century
FWA Footballer of the Year: 2002–03, 2003–04, 2005–06
Premier League Player of the Season: 2003–04, 2005–06
Premier League Golden Boot: 2001–02, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06
Premier League top assist provider: 2002–03
Golden Boot Landmark Award 10: 2004–05
Golden Boot Landmark Award 20: 2004–05
Premier League Player of the Month: April 2000, September 2002, January 2004, April 2004
BBC Goal of the Season: 2002–03
UEFA Team of the Year: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006
MLS Best XI: 2011, 2012, 2014
MLS Player of the Month: March 2012
Best MLS Player ESPY Award: 2013
MLS All-Star: 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
French Player of the Year: 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006
IFFHS World's Top Goal Scorer of the Year: 2003
FIFA FIFPro World XI: 2006
UEFA European Football Championship Team of the Tournament: 2000
FIFA 100: 2004
Time 100 Heroes & Pioneers no.16 : 2007
English Football Hall of Fame : 2008
Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992–93 – 2001–02)
Overseas Team of the Decade
Premier League 20 Seasons Awards
Fantasy Team (Panel choice)
Fantasy Team (Public choice)
UEFA Ultimate Team of the Year (published 2015)
UEFA Euro All-time XI (published 2016)
Ballon d'Or Dream Team (Bronze): 2020
Premier League Hall of Fame: 2021
Orders
Knight of the Legion of Honour: 1998
Records
Arsenal
All-time top scorer: 228 goals
Most league goals: 175 goals
Most European goals: 42
Most Champions League goals: 35
Most Premier League goals in a season: 30 (2003–04) (shared with Robin van Persie)
Most Premier League hat-tricks: 8
Most European appearances: 86
Most Champions League appearances: 78
Continental
Most European Golden Shoe wins while playing in England: 2 (2003–04 & 2004–05)
One of four players to win back-to-back European Golden Shoes (shared with Ally McCoist, Lionel Messi & Cristiano Ronaldo)
England
Most FWA Footballer of the Year wins: 3 (2002–03, 2003–04 & 2005–06)
Most consecutive FWA Footballer of the Year wins: 2 (2002–03 & 2003–04) (shared with Cristiano Ronaldo)
Most consecutive PFA Players' Player of the Year wins: 2 (2002–03 & 2003–04) (shared with Cristiano Ronaldo)
Most PFA Players' Player of the Year wins: 2 (2002–03 & 2003–04) (shared with Gareth Bale, Alan Shearer, Mark Hughes & Cristiano Ronaldo)
France
Only French player to win the European Golden Shoe
Most goals for France national team: 51
Most French Player of the Year wins: 5 (2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006)
Most consecutive French Player of the Year wins: 4 (2003–2006)
Most goals by a Frenchman playing at a foreign club: 228 goals for Arsenal
Most world cup matches for France: 17 (shared with Fabien Barthez)
Most appearances at World Cup final tournaments for France: 4 (1998, 2002, 2006 & 2010)
Premier League
Most assists in a season: 20 (2002–03)
Most goals with right foot in a 38-game season: 24 (2005–06) (shared with Alan Shearer)
Most Player of the Season awards: 2 (2003–04 & 2005–06) (shared with Cristiano Ronaldo & Nemanja Vidić)
Most goals in London derbies: 43
Most Golden Boot wins: 4
Most goals on a Friday: 10
Most consecutive 20+ goal seasons: 5 (2001–02 to 2004–05) (shared with Sergio Aguero)
Most goals scored under one manager: 175 goals under Arsène Wenger
Most goals at a single ground: 114 goals at Highbury
Most direct free-kicks goals by a foreign player: 12 (shared with Gianfranco Zola)
Most Golden Boot's won in consecutive years: 3 (shared with Alan Sherear)
The only player to both score and assist 20+ goals in a season (2002–03)
See also
List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances
List of top international men's football goalscorers by country
List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps
List of men's footballers with 50 or more international goals
Notes and references
External links
Thierry Henry at FC Barcelona
Thierry Henry at JockBio.com
1977 births
Living people
French people of Guadeloupean descent
French people of Martiniquais descent
People from Les Ulis
Black French sportspeople
Sportspeople from Essonne
French footballers
Association football forwards
ES Viry-Châtillon players
INF Clairefontaine players
AS Monaco FC players
Juventus F.C. players
Arsenal F.C. players
FC Barcelona players
New York Red Bulls players
Ligue 1 players
Serie A players
Premier League players
La Liga players
Major League Soccer players
Designated Players (MLS)
Major League Soccer All-Stars
First Division/Premier League top scorers
UEFA Champions League winning players
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
France youth international footballers
France under-21 international footballers
France international footballers
1998 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2000 players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2003 FIFA Confederations Cup players
UEFA Euro 2004 players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2008 players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
FIFA World Cup-winning players
UEFA European Championship-winning players
FIFA Confederations Cup-winning players
FIFA Century Club
FIFA 100
French expatriate footballers
French expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
French expatriate sportspeople in Italy
French expatriate sportspeople in England
French expatriate sportspeople in Spain
French expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate footballers in Monaco
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Spain
Expatriate soccer players in the United States
French football managers
Arsenal F.C. non-playing staff
AS Monaco FC managers
CF Montréal coaches
Ligue 1 managers
Major League Soccer coaches
French expatriate football managers
French expatriate sportspeople in Belgium
French expatriate sportspeople in Canada
Expatriate football managers in Monaco
Expatriate soccer managers in Canada
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
French anti-racism activists
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
FA Cup Final players | [
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220162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bouncing%20Souls | The Bouncing Souls | The Bouncing Souls are an American punk band from New Brunswick, New Jersey, formed in 1989. By the time of their acknowledgment by the national punk rock scene, they had reignited a "pogo" element to New Jersey punk rock by playing fast light-hearted songs, a model followed by various other local bands.
History
The four original members grew up in Basking Ridge, New Jersey and played in smaller bands while attending Ridge High School. Although they decided to forgo college, they made the decision to move to a college town; New Brunswick, NJ, which is the home of Rutgers University. New Brunswick had a reputation for supporting underground music, and over the years had seen not only musical acts but actors enjoy professional success. The Bouncing Souls not only became a staple in the New Brunswick music scene, but also helped other bands gain an audience by opening up for them in the clubs around town, as well as parties and shows they put on themselves. The band's name is a derivative of Doc Martens shoes, specifically their advertising slogan "with Bouncing Soles". Doctor Martens air-cushioned soles are a staple of punk dress.
Their first full-length album, The Good, The Bad & The Argyle was released in 1994 on Chunksaah Records, their own label. The album was a compilation of several EPs the band had released previously. Two tracks of this record, "Candy" (popularized by The Strangeloves and covered by many other groups) and "What Boys Like" (originally by the Waitresses) served as homage to 1980s new wave while simultaneously striking a humorous jab at homophobia. Their next album, Maniacal Laughter was released in 1996. Half the album was written in a week. It led to a high-profile tour with Youth Brigade that got the attention of Epitaph Records.
The Bouncing Souls signed with Epitaph in 1997 and released The Bouncing Souls later that year. While it contains some Bouncing Souls classics like "Cracked", "Kate is Great", and "East Coast Fuck You!", certain tracks on the record are anticlimactic in comparison to their lo-fi earlier recordings. Greg himself stated on Do You Remember? 15 Years of the Bouncing Souls that "It's a CD of unfinished songs". Hopeless Romantic followed in 1999. Hopeless Romantic has been heralded for admixing poignant lyrics with their melodic rapidly paced punk style. Soon after the album's release, personal problems arose between the band and long-time drummer Shal Khichi which resulted in his departure from the band. He was replaced by former Skinnerbox, Mephiskapheles, and Murphy's Law drummer, Michael McDermott.
How I Spent My Summer Vacation was the first album released with the new line-up. By now, the band had become viewed as seminal to the modern punk sound, with a new generation of fans discovering their earlier releases[] as they toured with newer bands as well as larger punk acts such as Hot Water Music. 2002 brought a b-sides album, The Bad, the Worse, and the Out of Print and an acclaimed split with Anti-Flag as part of the BYO Split Series. In 2003, the band released their sixth album Anchors Aweigh, as well as their first DVD, Do You Remember? 15 Years of the Bouncing Souls. In 2005, they had two live releases, a double CD album, simply titled Live, as well as a DVD, titled Live at the Glasshouse, which was the 19th entry in Kung Fu Films' The Show Must Go Off! series. The band released their seventh album, titled The Gold Record on June 6, 2006, or 6/6/06 which the band has called "The release of the beast", in reference to 666, which is known as "The number of the beast". Also, due to their first full-length record being a collection of previous releases, many fans also consider this to in fact be their sixth studio album, and thus 666 is also partly in reference to this. They then headed out on the 2006 Warped Tour in support of the record, and again three years later, in 2009.
In 2008, while at the Vans Warped Tour stop in their home state of New Jersey, the band helped Music Saves Lives raise the blood supply by signing a guitar for the non-profit to auction off.
In 2009, the band released a series of sixteen digital songs and four 7" EPs as part of the 20th Anniversary Series. Twelve of these songs were being released into an album titled Ghosts on the Boardwalk which was released on January 12, 2010. In 2011, the band was the first to be featured on SideOneDummy's The Complete Control Sessions series of live recordings. The band's contribution to the series features six songs, one of which is a Misfits cover.
The Bouncing Souls released their ninth studio album, Comet on June 12, 2012 via Rise Records, their first album for that label. The artwork and track listing was released on March 12, 2012, along with the album's third track, "Static," which is available to be streamed online.
On 25 June 2013, The Bouncing Souls confirmed that drummer Michael McDermott would be leaving the band in order to 'pursue other musical interests'. The band later added they don't know what's next for them, whilst suggesting the remaining members will continue performing in the band. McDermott would later join Joan Jett & the Blackhearts.
On September 26, 2013, George Rebelo of Hot Water Music and Against Me! officially joined the band as the new drummer during a secret show at Asbury Lanes.
The band released their tenth studio album, Simplicity on July 29, 2016. On March 15, 2019 the band released the 6 song Crucial Moments EP along with a new book to celebrate the band's 30th anniversary.
On October 23, 2020, the Bouncing Souls released their eleventh studio album, Volume 2. The album contains songs from their previous records re-recorded in new styles, along with a new song, "World on Fire."
Discography
Studio albums
The Good, the Bad, and the Argyle (1994)
Maniacal Laughter (1996)
The Bouncing Souls (1997)
Hopeless Romantic (1999)
How I Spent My Summer Vacation (2001)
Anchors Aweigh (2003)
The Gold Record (2006)
Ghosts on the Boardwalk (2010)
Comet (2012)
Simplicity (2016)
Volume 2 (2020)
Members
Current
Greg Attonito – vocals (1989–present)
Pete Steinkopf – guitar (1989–present)
Bryan Kienlen – bass (1989–present)
George Rebelo – drums (2013–present)
Former
Shal Khichi – drums (1989–2000)
Michael McDermott – drums (2000–2013, has occasionally joined the band to play a few songs at shows since his departure)
Timeline
References
External links
Official website
Punk rock groups from New Jersey
Pop punk groups from New Jersey
Epitaph Records artists
Pure Noise Records artists
Rise Records artists
Musicians from New Brunswick, New Jersey
Ridge High School alumni
Musical groups established in 1989 | [
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220165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Lycabettus | Mount Lycabettus | Mount Lycabettus (), also known as Lycabettos, Lykabettos or Lykavittos (, ), is a Cretaceous limestone hill in the Greek capital Athens. At 277 meters (908 feet) above sea level, its summit is the highest point in Central Athens and pine trees cover its base. The name also refers to the residential neighbourhood immediately below the east of the hill.
The hill is a tourist destination and can be ascended by the Lycabettus Funicular, a funicular railway which climbs the hill from a lower terminus at Kolonaki (The railway station can be found at Aristippou street). At its two peaks are the 19th century Chapel of St. George, a theatre, and a restaurant.
Mythical and legendary stories
Lycabettus appears in various legends. Popular stories suggest it was once the refuge of wolves, (lycos in Greek), which is possibly the origin of its name (means "the one [the hill] that is walked by wolves"). Another etymology suggests a Pelasgian, pre-Mycenean, origin (Lucabetu=mastoid hill).
Mythologically, Lycabettus is credited to Athena, who created it when she dropped a limestone mountain she had been carrying from the Pallene peninsula for the construction of the Acropolis after the box holding Erichthonius was opened.
Theatre
The hill has a large open-air amphitheatre at the top, which has housed many Greek and international concerts. Among the artists who have performed at the Lycabettus theatre included Ray Charles, Joan Baez, B.B. King, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis, Leonard Cohen, James Brown, Bob Dylan, Paco De Lucia, Al Di Meola, John Mc Laughlin, Gary Moore, Peter Gabriel, Black Sabbath, Nick Cave, Bjork, Dead Can Dance, Pet Shop Boys, Deep Purple, UB40, Placebo, Morrissey, Radiohead, Moby, Massive Attack, Faith No More, Faithless, Whitesnake, Tracy Chapman, Nightwish, Slipknot, Patti Smith, Vanessa Mae, Bryan Ferry, Tito Puente, Buena Vista Social Club, Orishas, The Prodigy, Iron Maiden, Nazareth, Blackmore's Night and Scorpions.
Gallery
See also
List of contemporary amphitheatres
References
Boguslawski, Alexander (2000). "Lykavittos Hill." Retrieved August 30, 2005.
External links
Lycabettus Hill Website
High-resolution 360° Panorama of Mount Lycabettus | Art Atlas
Lycabettus
Outdoor theatres
Tourist attractions in Athens
Neighbourhoods in Athens
Pelasgian words | [
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220166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey%20Beardsley | Aubrey Beardsley | Aubrey Vincent Beardsley (21 August 187216 March 1898) was an English illustrator and author. His black ink drawings were influenced by Japanese woodcuts, and depicted the grotesque, the decadent, and the erotic. He was a leading figure in the aesthetic movement which also included Oscar Wilde and James McNeill Whistler. Beardsley's contribution to the development of the Art Nouveau and poster styles was significant despite his early death from tuberculosis. He is one of the important Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style) figures.
Early life, education, and early career
Beardsley was born in Brighton, Sussex, England on 21 August 1872 and christened on 24 October 1872. His father, Vincent Paul Beardsley (1839–1909), was the son of a Clerkenwell jeweler; Vincent had no trade himself (partly owing to inherited tuberculosis, from which his own father had died aged only 40), and relied on a private income from an inheritance that he received from his maternal grandfather, a property developer, when he was 21. Vincent's wife, Ellen Agnus Pitt (1846–1932), was the daughter of Surgeon-Major William Pitt of the Indian Army. The Pitts were a well-established and respected family in Brighton, and Beardsley's mother married a man of lesser social status than might have been expected. Soon after their wedding, Vincent was obliged to sell some of his property in order to settle a claim for his breach of promise of marriage from another woman, the widow of a clergyman, who claimed that he had promised to marry her. At the time of his birth, Beardsley's family, which included his sister Mabel who was one year older, were living in Ellen's familial home at 12 Buckingham Road. The number of the house in Buckingham Road was 12, but the numbers were changed, and it is now 31.
With the loss of Vincent Beardsley's fortune soon after his son's birth, the family settled in London in 1883, where Vincent would work first for the West India & Panama Telegraph Company, then irregularly as a clerk at breweries; they would spend the next 20 years in rented accommodation, battling poverty. Ellen took to presenting herself as the "victim of a mésalliance". In 1884, Aubrey appeared in public as an "infant musical phenomenon", playing at several concerts with his sister. In January 1885, he began to attend Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School, where he spent the next four years. His first poems, drawings, and cartoons appeared in print in Past and Present, the school's magazine. In 1888, he obtained a post in an architect's office and afterward one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company. In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892, he attended the classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under Professor Fred Brown.
Work
Beardsley traveled to Paris in 1892, where he discovered the poster art of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and the Parisian fashion for Japanese prints. His first commission was Le Morte d'Arthur by Thomas Malory (1893), illustrated for the publishing house J.M. Dent and Company. In 1894, a new translation of Lucian’s True History, with illustrations by Beardsley, William Strang, and J. B. Clark, was privately printed in an edition of 251 copies.
Beardsley had six years of creative output, which can be divided into several periods, identified by the form of his signature. In the early period, his work is mostly unsigned. During 1891 and 1892, he progressed to using his initials A.V.B. In mid-1892, the period of Le Morte d'Arthur and The Bon Mots, he used a Japanese-influenced mark that became progressively more graceful, sometimes accompanied by A.B. in block capitals.
He co-founded The Yellow Book with American writer Henry Harland, and for the first four editions, he served as art editor and produced the cover designs and many illustrations for the magazine. He was aligned with Aestheticism, the British counterpart of Decadence and Symbolism. Most of his images are done in ink and feature large dark areas contrasted with large blank ones as well as areas of fine detail contrasted with areas with none at all.
Beardsley was the most controversial artist of the Art Nouveau era, renowned for his dark and perverse images and grotesque erotica, which were the main themes of his later work. His illustrations were in black and white against a white background. Some of his drawings, inspired by Japanese shunga artwork, featured enormous genitalia. His most famous erotic illustrations concerned themes of history and mythology; these include his illustrations for a privately printed edition of Aristophanes' Lysistrata and his drawings for Oscar Wilde's play Salome, which eventually premiered in Paris in 1896. Other major illustration projects included an 1896 edition of The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope.
He also produced extensive illustrations for books and magazines (e.g., for a deluxe edition of Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur) and worked for magazines such as The Studio and The Savoy, of which he was a co-founder. As a co-founder of The Savoy, Beardsley was able to pursue his writing as well as illustration, and a number of his writings, including Under the Hill (a story based on the Tannhäuser legend) and "The Ballad of a Barber" appeared in the magazine.
Beardsley was a caricaturist and did some political cartoons, mirroring Wilde's irreverent wit in art. Beardsley's work reflected the decadence of his era and his influence was enormous, clearly visible in the work of the French Symbolists, the Poster Art Movement of the 1890s and the work of many later-period Art Nouveau artists such as Papé and Clarke. Some alleged works of Beardsley's were published in a book titled Fifty Drawings by Aubrey Beardsley, Selected from the Collection of Mr. H.S. Nicols. These later were discovered to be forgeries, distinguishable by their almost pornographic erotic elements rather than Beardsley's subtler use of sexuality.
Beardsley's work continued to cause controversy in Britain long after his death. During an exhibition of Beardsley's prints held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London in 1966, a private gallery in London was raided by the police for exhibiting copies of the same prints on display at the museum, and the owner charged under obscenity laws.
Private life
Beardsley was a public as well as private eccentric. He said "I have one aim—the grotesque. If I am not grotesque, I am nothing." Wilde said Beardsley had "a face like a silver hatchet, and grass green hair." Beardsley was meticulous about his attire: dove-grey suits, hats, ties, yellow gloves. He appeared at his publisher's in a morning coat and court shoes.
Although Beardsley was associated with the homosexual clique that included Oscar Wilde and other aesthetes, the details of his sexuality remain in question. Speculation about his sexuality includes rumours of an incestuous relationship with his elder sister, Mabel, who may have become pregnant by her brother and miscarried.
During his entire career, Beardsley had recurrent attacks of tuberculosis. He suffered frequent lung haemorrhage and often was unable to work or leave his home.
Beardsley converted to Catholicism in March 1897. The next year, the last letter before his death was to his publisher Leonard Smithers and close friend Herbert Charles Pollitt: Postmark: March 7 1898 | Jesus is our Lord and Judge | Dear Friend, I implore you to destroy all copies of Lysistrata and bad drawings … By all that is holy, all obscene drawings. | Aubrey Beardsley | In my death agony.Both men ignored Beardsley's wishes, and Smithers actually continued to sell reproductions as well as forgeries of Beardsley's work.
Death
In December 1896, Beardsley suffered a violent haemorrhage, leaving him in precarious health. By April 1897, a month after his conversion to Catholicism, his deteriorating health prompted a move to the French Riviera. There he died a year later, on 16 March 1898, of tuberculosis at the Cosmopolitan Hotel in Menton, Alpes-Maritimes, France, attended by his mother and sister. He was 25 years old. Following a requiem mass in Menton Cathedral the following day, his remains were interred in the Cimetière du Trabuquet.
Media portrayals
In the 1982 Playhouse drama Aubrey, written by John Selwyn Gilbert, Beardsley was portrayed by actor John Dicks. The drama concerned Beardsley's life from the time of Oscar Wilde's arrest in April 1895, which caused Beardsley to lose his position at The Yellow Book, to his death from tuberculosis in 1898. The BBC documentary Beardsley and His Work was made in 1982. Beardsley is featured on the cover of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
In March 2020, BBC Four broadcast the hour-long documentary, Scandal & Beauty: Mark Gatiss on Aubrey Beardsley, presented by Mark Gatiss. The programme coincided with the Beardsley exhibition at Tate Britain.
Other
In 2019 the National Leather Association International established an award named after Beardsley for creators of abstract erotic art.
Gallery
Works
Beardsley, Aubrey, Simon Wilson, and Linda Gertner Zatlin. 1998. Aubrey Beardsley: a centenary tribute. Tokyo: Art Life Ltd.
See also
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau posters and graphic arts
Harry Clarke
Citations
General sources
Beardsley, Aubrey, Simon Wilson, and Linda Gertner Zatlin. 1998. Aubrey Beardsley: a centenary tribute. Tokyo: Art Life Ltd.
Beerbohm, Max. 1928. 'Aubrey Beardsley' in A Variety of Things. New York, Knopf.
Benkovitz, Miriam J. 1980. Aubrey Beardsley, an Account of his Life. New York, N.Y.: Putnam. .
Calloway, Stephen. 1998. Aubrey Beardsley. New York, N.Y.: Harry N. Abrams. .
Dovzhyk, Sasha. 2020. "Aubrey Beardsley in the Russian 'World of Art'". British Art Studies Issue 18. https://doi.org/10.17658/issn.2058-5462/issue-18/sdovzhyk
Dowson, Ernest. 1897. The Pierrot of the Minute. Restored edition with Aubrey Beardsley's illustrations, CreateSpace, 2012. Bilingual illustrated edition with French translation by Philippe Baudry, CreateSpace, 2012
Fletcher, Ian. 1987. Aubrey Beardsley. Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers. .
Reade, Brian. 1967. Aubrey Beardsley. New York: Bonanza Books.
Ross, Robert 1909. Aubrey Beardsley. London: John Lane.
Snodgrass, Chris. 1995. Aubrey Beardsley: Dandy of the Grotesque. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. .
Symons, Arthur. 1898. Aubrey Beardsley. London: At the Sign of the Unicorn.
Weintraub, Stanley. 1967. Beardsley: a biography. New York, N.Y.: Braziller.
Zatlin, Linda G. 1997. Beardsley, Japonisme, and the Perversion of the Victorian Ideal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
Zatlin, Linda G. 1990. Aubrey Beardsley and Victorian Sexual Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Zatlin, Linda G. 2007. "Aubrey Beardsley and the Shaping of Art Nouveau." Bound for the 1890s: Essays on Writing and Publishing in Honor of James G. Nelson. Ed. Jonathan Allison. Buckinghamshire: Rivendale Press.
Zatlin, Linda G. "Wilde, Beardsley, and the Making of Salome." Scholars Library, 2007; originally published in The Journal of Victorian Culture 5.2 (November 2000): 341–57.
Zatlin, Linda G. 2006. "Aubrey Beardsley." Encyclopedia of Europe 1789–1914. Chicago: Gale Research.
External links
The Aubrey Beardsley Society
The Aubrey Beardsley Library with digitised sources on the artist
BBC Radio 4 Great Lives programme on Aubrey Beardsley: listen online
The Aubrey Beardsley Blog with scholarly and creative contributions
Works displayed at Art Renewal Center website
Aubrey Beardsley Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
Aubrey Beardsley Letter from the Mount Holyoke College Archives and Special Collections
1872 births
1898 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
19th-century illustrators of fairy tales
Alumni of the Westminster School of Art
Artists from Brighton
Art Nouveau illustrators
British erotic artists
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
English expatriates in France
English illustrators
English Roman Catholics
Obscenity controversies in art
People educated at Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School
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220167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconcagua | Aconcagua | Aconcagua () is a mountain in the Principal Cordillera of the Andes mountain range, in Mendoza Province, Argentina. It is the highest mountain in the Americas, the highest outside Asia, and the highest in both the Southern and the Western Hemispheres with a summit elevation of . It lies northwest of the provincial capital, the city of Mendoza, about from San Juan Province, and from Argentina's border with neighbouring Chile. The mountain is one of the so-called Seven Summits of the seven continents.
Aconcagua is bounded by the Valle de las Vacas to the north and east and the Valle de los Horcones Inferior to the west and south. The mountain and its surroundings are part of the Aconcagua Provincial Park. The mountain has a number of glaciers. The largest glacier is the Ventisquero Horcones Inferior at about long, which descends from the south face to about in altitude near the Confluencia camp.
Two other large glacier systems are the Ventisquero de las Vacas Sur and Glaciar Este/Ventisquero Relinchos system at about long. The most well known is the north-eastern or Polish Glacier, as it is a common route of ascent.
Etymology
The origin of the name is uncertain. It may be from the Mapudungun Aconca-Hue, which refers to the Aconcagua River and means "comes from the other side;" the Quechua Ackon Cahuak, meaning "'Sentinel of Stone;" the Quechua Anco Cahuac, meaning "White Sentinel;" or the Aymara Janq'u Q'awa, meaning "White Ravine".
Geologic history
The mountain was created by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. Aconcagua used to be an active stratovolcano (from the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleocene through the Miocene) and consisted of several volcanic complexes on the edge of a basin with a shallow sea. However, sometime in the Miocene, about 8 to 10 million years ago, the subduction angle started to decrease, resulting in a stop of the melting and more horizontal stresses between the oceanic plate and the continent, causing the thrust faults that lifted Aconcagua up off its volcanic root. The rocks found on Aconcagua's flanks are all volcanic and consist of lavas, breccias and pyroclastics. The shallow marine basin had already formed earlier (Triassic), even before Aconcagua arose as a volcano. However, volcanism has been present in this region for as long as this basin was around and volcanic deposits interfinger with marine deposits throughout the sequence. The colorful greenish, blueish and grey deposits that can be seen in the Horcones Valley and south of Puente Del Inca, are carbonates, limestones, turbidites and evaporates that filled this basin. The red colored rocks are intrusions, cinder deposits and conglomerates of volcanic origin.
Climbing
In mountaineering terms, Aconcagua is technically an easy mountain if approached from the north, via the normal route. Aconcagua is arguably the highest non-technical mountain in the world since the northern route does not absolutely require ropes, axes, and pins. Although the effects of altitude are severe (atmospheric pressure is 40% of sea level at the summit), the use of supplemental oxygen is not common. Altitude sickness will affect most climbers to some extent, depending on the degree of acclimatization. Although the normal climb is technically easy, multiple casualties occur every year on this mountain (in January 2009 alone, five climbers died). This is due to the large numbers of climbers who make the attempt and because many climbers underestimate the objective risks of the elevation and of cold weather, which is the real challenge on this mountain. Given the weather conditions close to the summit, cold weather injuries are very common.
The routes to the peak from the south and south-west ridges are more demanding and the south face climb is considered quite difficult.
The Polish Glacier Traverse route, also known as the "Falso de los Polacos" route, crosses through the Vacas valley, ascends to the base of the Polish Glacier, then traverses across to the normal route for the final ascent to the summit. The third most popular route is by the Polish Glacier itself.
Provincial Park rangers do not maintain records of successful summits but estimates suggest a summit rate of 30–40%. About 75% of climbers are foreigners and 25% are Argentinean. Among foreigners, the United States leads in the number of climbers, followed by Germany and the UK. About 54% of climbers ascend the Normal Route, 43% up the Polish Glacier Traverse Route, and the remaining 3% on other routes.
Camps
The camp sites on the normal route are listed below (altitudes are approximate).
Puente del Inca, : A small village on the main road, with facilities including a lodge.
Confluencia, : A camp site a few hours into the national park.
Plaza de Mulas, : Base camp, claimed to be the second largest in the world (after Everest). There are several meal tents, showers and internet access. There is a lodge approximately from the main campsite across the glacier. At this camp, climbers are screened by a medical team to check if they are fit enough to continue the climb.
Camp Canadá, : A large ledge overlooking Plaza de Mulas.
Camp Alaska, : Called 'change of slope' in Spanish, a small site as the slope from Plaza de Mulas to Nido de Cóndores lessens. Not commonly used.
Nido de Cóndores, : A large plateau with beautiful views. There is usually a park ranger camped here.
Camp Berlín, : The classic high camp, offering reasonable wind protection.
Camp Colera, : A larger, while slightly more exposed, camp situated directly at the north ridge near Camp Berlín, with growing popularity. In January 2011, a shelter was opened in Camp Colera for exclusive use in cases of emergency. The shelter is named Elena after Italian climber Elena Senin, who died in January 2009 shortly after reaching the summit, and whose family donated the shelter.
Several sites possible for camping or bivouac, including Piedras Blancas (~6100 m) and Independencia (~6350 m), are located above Colera; however, they are seldom used and offer little protection.
Summit attempts are usually made from a high camp at either Berlín or Colera, or from the lower camp at Nido de Cóndores.
History
The first attempt to summit Aconcagua by Europeans was made in 1883 by a party led by the German geologist and explorer Paul Güssfeldt. Bribing porters with the story of treasure on the mountain, he approached the mountain via the Rio Volcan, making two attempts on the peak by the north-west ridge and reaching an altitude of . The route that he prospected is now the standard route up the mountain.
The first recorded ascent was in 1897 by a European expedition led by the British mountaineer Edward FitzGerald. FitzGerald failed to reach the summit himself over eight attempts between December 1896 and February 1897, but the (Swiss) guide of the expedition, Matthias Zurbriggen reached the summit on 14 January. On the final attempt a month later, two other expedition members, Stuart Vines and Nicola Lanti, reached the summit on 13 February.
The east side of Aconcagua was first scaled by a Polish expedition, with Konstanty Narkiewicz-Jodko, Stefan Daszyński, Wiktor Ostrowski and Stefan Osiecki summiting on 9 March 1934, over what is now known as the Polish Glacier. A route over the Southwest Ridge was pioneered over seven days in January 1953 by the Swiss-Argentine team of Frederico and Dorly Marmillod, Francisco Ibanez and Fernando Grajales. The famously difficult South Face was conquered by a French team led by . Pierre Lesueur, Adrien Dagory, Robert Paragot, Edmond Denis, Lucien Berardini and Guy Poulet reached the summit after a month of effort on 25 February 1954.
the youngest person to reach the summit of Aconcagua is Tyler Armstrong of California. He was nine years old when he reached the summit on 24 December 2013. Kaamya Karthikeyan of India at an age of 12 became the youngest girl to reach the summit on 1 February 2020. The oldest person to climb it was Scott Lewis, who reached the summit on 26 November 2007, when he was 87 years old.
In the base camp Plaza de Mulas (at above sea level) there is the highest contemporary art gallery tent called "Nautilus" of the Argentine painter Miguel Doura.
In 2014 Kilian Jornet set a record for climbing and descending Aconcagua from Horcones in 12 hours and 49 minutes. The record was broken less than two months later by Ecuadorian-Swiss Karl Egloff, in a time of 11 hours 52 minutes, nearly an hour faster than Kilian Jornet. The women's record is held by Ecuadorean Daniela Sandoval at 20 hours, 17 minutes.
On 25 September 2019, an Airbus Helicopters H145 landed on the very peak of Mount Aconcagua. This is the first time in history a twin-engine helicopter has landed at this altitude. It took a total of 45 minutes for the entire trip, 30 minutes from Mendoza and another 15 from the base camp up to the peak. Temperatures were reported as low as −22 °C, with wind gusts up to 30 knots. This is not the highest a helicopter has landed before, as a single-engine Airbus Helicopters H125 landed on Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world.
In popular culture
The mountain has a cameo in a 1942 Disney cartoon called Pedro, which features a small, anthropomorphic airplane named Pedro who has a near-disastrous encounter with Aconcagua while carrying mail over the Andes.
Dangers
At nearly , Aconcagua is the highest peak outside of Asia. It is believed to have the highest death rate of any mountain in South America – around three a year – which has earned it the nickname "Mountain of Death". More than 100 people have died on Aconcagua since records began.
Due to the improper disposal of human waste in the mountain environment there are significant health hazards that pose a threat to both animals and human beings. Only boiled or chemically treated water is accepted for drinking. Additionally, ecofriendly toilets are available only to members of an organised expedition, meaning climbers have to "be contracted to a toilet service" at the base camp and similar camps along the route. Currently, from two base camps (Plaza de Mulas and Plaza Argentina), over 120 barrels of waste (approx. ) are flown out by helicopter each season. In addition, individual mountaineers must make a payment before using these toilets. Some large organisers will give a price up to US$100, some smaller US$5/day or US$10 for the entire stay. Thus, many independent mountaineers defecate on the mountainside.
Mythological meaning
For the Incas, Aconcagua was a sacred mountain. As on other mountains (e.g. Ampato), places of worship were built here and sacrifices, including human sacrifices, were made. The sites discovered in 1985 at an altitude of 5167 m are among the highest in the world and are the most difficult of all Inca sites to reach. Here, the remains of a child bedded on grass, cloth and feathers were found inside stone walls (Aconcagua mummy). The clothing indicates that the child was a member of the highest social class. Other offerings found included figures and coca leaves.
See also
Aconcagua mummy
Ojos del Salado
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Aconcagua in Andeshandbook
Centro de Investigación en Medicina de Altura (CIMA) de Aconcagua, a consortium of researchers and mountaineers working to improve the understanding of high altitude illness.
Blog with information from a successful Aconcagua ascent
Live webcam from Aconcagua base camp (December to March) | [
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220172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girly%20girl | Girly girl | Girly girl is a term for a girl or woman who chooses to dress and behave in a traditionally feminine style. It can include wearing pink, using make-up, using perfume, dressing in skirts, dresses and blouses, and talking about relationships and other activities which are associated with the traditional gender role of a girl.
Though the term is often used as a term of disdain, it can also be used in a more positive way, particularly when exploring one of a range of gender positions. Being a "girly girl" can then be seen as a fluid and partially embodied position – a form of discourse taken up, discarded or modified for tactical or strategic purposes.
Social determinants
The female opposite of a girly girl is a tomboy. The male counterpart of a girly girl is a "man's man". The increasing prevalence of girly girls in the early 21st century has been linked to a supposed "post-feminist, post–new man construction of masculinity and femininity in mutually exclusive terms", as opposed to the more blurred gender representations of previous decades.
See also
References
Femininity
LGBT slang
Slang terms for women
Youth rights
Stereotypes of women | [
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220178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty%20Day | Loyalty Day | Loyalty Day is observed on May 1 in the United States. It is a day set aside "for the reaffirmation of loyalty to the United States and for the recognition of the heritage of American freedom". The date, May 1, was set in order to counter International Worker's Day, and was conceived in the height of the Second Red Scare.
History
The holiday was first observed in 1921, during the First Red Scare. It was originally called "Americanization Day," and it was intended to replace the May 1 ("May Day") celebration of the International Workers' Day, which commemorates the 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago.
During the Second Red Scare, it was recognized by the U.S. Congress on April 27, 1955, and made an official reoccurring holiday on July 18, 1958 (Public Law 85-529). President Dwight D. Eisenhower proclaimed May 1, 1955, the first observance of Loyalty Day. In 1958, Eisenhower urged Congress to move Child Health Day to the First Monday in October, to avoid conflicting with Loyalty Day. Loyalty Day has been recognized with an official proclamation every year by every president since its inception as a legal holiday in 1958.
Loyalty Day events, mostly parades, are still held in:
Golden Shores, Arizona
Calhan, Colorado
New Lenox, Illinois
Murray, Kentucky (not annually)
Standish, Michigan
Norfolk, Nebraska
Brandon, South Dakota
El Paso, Texas
Rutland, Vermont
Long Beach, Washington
Freedom, Wisconsin
Statutory definition
Loyalty Day is defined as follows in :
(a) Designation.— May 1 is Loyalty Day.
(b) Purpose.— Loyalty Day is a special day for the reaffirmation of loyalty to the United States and for the recognition of the heritage of American freedom.
(c) Proclamation.— The President is requested to issue a proclamation—
(1) calling on United States Government officials to display the flag of the United States on all Government buildings on Loyalty Day; and
(2) inviting the people of the United States to observe Loyalty Day with appropriate ceremonies in schools and other suitable places.
See also
Holidays of the United States
Labour Day
Law Day (United States)
References
External links
Image of "Steps to Better Manhood" truck in the Loyalty Day parade, Los Angeles, 1926, Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
Observances in the United States by presidential proclamation
May observances
American culture
Anti-communism in the United States
Recurring events established in 1921 | [
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220183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennisbank%20Filosofie%20Nederland | Kennisbank Filosofie Nederland | The Kennisbank Filosofie in Nederland (KFN) is a database in which information can be found about philosophy, especially from the Netherlands. The bibliography consists of about 35.000 records of publications on philosophy in the Netherlands and Flanders. This database was based in the first place on Prof. Poortman's 4-vol. work.
Philosophical literature
Bibliographic databases and indexes
Databases in the Netherlands
Dutch culture
Philosophical databases | [
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220186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich%20MiG-23 | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 | The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 (; NATO reporting name: Flogger) is a variable-geometry fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union. It is a third-generation jet fighter, alongside similar Soviet aircraft such as the Su-17 "Fitter". It was the first Soviet fighter to field a look-down/shoot-down radar, the RP-23 Sapfir, and one of the first to be armed with beyond-visual-range missiles. Production started in 1969 and reached large numbers with over 5,000 aircraft built, making it the most produced variable-sweep wing aircraft in history. Today the MiG-23 remains in limited service with some export customers.
The basic design was also used as the basis for the Mikoyan MiG-27, a dedicated ground-attack variant. Among many minor changes, the MiG-27 replaced the MiG-23's nose-mounted radar system with an optical panel holding a laser designator and a TV camera.
Development
The MiG-23's predecessor, the MiG-21, was fast and agile, but limited in its operational capabilities by its primitive radar, short range, and limited weapons load (restricted in some aircraft to a pair of short-range R-3/K-13 (AA-2 "Atoll") air-to-air missiles). Work began on a replacement for the MiG-21 in the early 1960s. The new aircraft was required to have better performance and range than the MiG-21, while carrying more capable avionics and weapons including beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles. A major design consideration was take-off and landing performance. The VVS demanded the new aircraft have a much shorter take-off run. Low-level speed and handling was also to be improved over the MiG-21. Manoeuvrability was not an urgent requirement. This led Mikoyan to consider two options: lift jets, to provide an additional lift component, and variable-geometry wings, which had been developed by TsAGI for both "clean-sheet" aircraft designs and adaptations of existing designs.
The first option, for an aircraft fitted with lift jets, resulted in the "23-01", also known as the MiG-23PD ( – lift jet), was a tailed delta of similar layout to the smaller MiG-21 but with two lift jets in the fuselage. This first flew on 3 April 1967, but it soon became apparent that this configuration was unsatisfactory, as the lift jets became useless dead weight once airborne. Work on the second strand of development was carried out in parallel by a team led by A.A Andreyev, with MiG directed to build a variable-geometry prototype, the "23-11" in 1965.
The 23-11 featured variable-geometry wings which could be set to angles of 16, 45 and 72 degrees, and it was clearly more promising. The maiden flight of 23–11 took place on 10 June 1967, flown by the famous MiG test pilot Aleksandr Vasilyevich Fedotov (who set the absolute altitude record in 1977 in a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25). Six more flight prototypes and two static-test prototypes were prepared for further flight and system testing. All featured the Tumansky R-27-300 turbojet engine with a thrust of 77 kN (17,300 lbf). The order to start series production of the MiG-23 was given in December 1967. The first production "MiG-23S" (NATO reporting name 'Flogger-A') took to the air on 21 May 1969, with Fedotov at the controls.
The General Dynamics F-111 and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II were the main Western influences on the MiG-23. The Soviets, however, wanted a much lighter, single-engined fighter to maximize agility. Both the F-111 and the MiG-23 were designed as fighters, but the heavy weight and inherent stability of the F-111 turned it into a long-range interdictor and kept it out of the fighter role. The MiG-23's designers kept the MiG-23 light and agile enough to dogfight with enemy fighters.
Design
Armament
The armament carried by the Flogger changed as new models underwent development. The initial production variant, the MiG-23S, was fitted with the S-21 fire control system borrowed from the MiG-21S/SM. Based on the RP-22SM Sapfire-21 radar with an ASP-PFD-21 lead computing gunsight, it could carry only four R-3/K-13 (AA-2 "Atoll") air-to-air missiles (typically two SARH R-3Rs and two IR R-3Ss) in addition to a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23L autocannon. In the ground-attack role, the MiG-23S could carry two Kh-23 (AS-7 "Kerry") radio guidance air-to-surface missiles, two to four UB-16 rocket pods with S-5 rockets, S-24 rocket packs or up to of various bomb types. The MiG-23 Edition 1971, equipped with the Sapfir-23L radar and TP-23 infrared search and track (IRST), could fire the new BVR R-23 (AA-7 "Apex") missile, although only the R-23R SARH variant. However the Sapfir-23L was considered unreliable and lacked look-down/shoot-down capability.
The MiG-23M, the definitive first-generation variant of the fighter, was equipped with the improved Sapfir-23D look-down/shoot-down radar and could carry a pair of R-23 missiles (either the R-23R SARH or R-23T IR variants) and a pair of R-60 (AA-8 "Aphid") missiles. Starting with aircraft number 3201, the APU-60-2 double-rail launcher was introduced, allowing the MiG-23M to carry four R-60 missiles. The MiG-23 could carry up to in bombs and rockets, and from aircraft number 3701 onward it could fire the KH-23 or KH-23M air-to-surface missile. Lastly, all VVS MiG-23Ms had the ability to mount a single nuclear bomb via special adapter under the fuselage, either the 10-kiloton RN-24 or 30-kiloton RN-40.
In the second-generation MiG-23ML, a new SUV-2ML weapons system allowed the Flogger to carry both types of R-23 missiles simultaneously. Typical loadout was an R-23R on the starboard wing pylon and an R-23T on the port wing pylon. Besides other ordnance (including a single nuclear bomb) the MiG-23ML could also carry two UPK-23-250 23mm gun pods on the underwing pylons. Starting in 1981, the MiG-23MLA could carry the improved Vympel R-24R/T missiles. The final fighter variant, the MiG-23MLD, could also carry the improved R-24R/T missiles in addition to a pair of B8M1 20-round rocket pods firing S-8 rockets, the Kh-23/KH-23M air-to-surface missile, or a single RN-24 or RN-40 nuclear bomb. The MiG-23MLD's maximum bomb load was , with a standard loadout comprising four FAB-500 500 kg general-purpose bombs (GP) or ZAB-500 napalm bombs. Other configurations included sixteen FAB-100 100 kg GP bombs carried on four ejector racks, four FAB-250 250 kg GP bombs, or two RBK-500 cluster bombs.
Cockpit
The MiG-23 cockpit was considered an improvement over previous Soviet fighters as it was more ergonomic in its layout. However the pilot still had a high workload, having to manipulate switches and monitor gauges, compared to more modern aircraft with HOTAS controls. The instrument panel did feature a white stripe to serve as a visual aid for centering the control column during an out-of-control situation. To prevent the pilot from exceeding a 17° angle of attack, the control column incorporated a "knuckle rapper" which would strike the pilot's knuckles as the limit was approached.
Cockpit visibility was also somewhat poor in the MiG-23, although the view straight ahead was superior compared to the MiG-21. In particular, visibility was poor looking to the rear, partially due to the fighter's ejection seat which wrapped around the pilot's head, requiring the pilot to lean forward to look to the side or behind them. To assist with looking directly behind the pilot, the cockpit was fitted with a mirror or 'periscope' embedded in the middle rail of the canopy similar to on the MiG-17. With an infinity focus, the periscope provided a clear view of behind the plane, but did not have a wide field of view.
The MiG-23's ejection seat, the KM-1, was built with extreme altitude and speed in mind: leg stirrups, shoulder harness, pelvic D-ring, and a 3-parachute system. Engaging the ejection seat could take a long time, as the pilot had to place their feet in the stirrups, let go of the control column, grab the two trigger handles, squeeze and lift them. The first parachute, the size of a large handkerchief, was deployed out of a telescoping rod which would pop out of the top back of the seat as it started to clear the windscreen windbreak area. It was supposed to help rotate the seat into the windblast and stabilize into a flight path that would take it above and behind the vertical stabilizer. As the first chute and rod separated from the seat, a larger drogue parachute deployed to slow down the seat, allowing the deployment of the main parachute. If engaged at low altitudes, the seat included a barometric element that allowed the drogue chute to separate more quickly. One problem with the KM-1 was that it was not a zero-zero ejection seat, and would only work at a minimum speed of 90 knots.
Starting with the MiG-23 Edition 1971, the MiG-23 replaced the head-down radar scope with a ASP-23D gunsight/head-up display onto which data from the radar was displayed. This was updated in the MiG-23MLA with the ASP-17ML gunsight/HUD. Because information from the radar had to fit on the combining glass of the HUD, the amount of space that could be scanned was limited to a relatively thin slice. This required that the fighter be flown very close to the target's altitude and well ahead of it to be picked up, necessitating good ground-controlled interception (GCI) instructions. Israeli pilots who flew captured versions of the MiG-23 found it relatively easy to use.
Control surfaces
The MiG-23 was among the first Soviet aircraft to feature variable-geometry wings. These were hydraulically controlled by means of a small lever set beneath the throttle in the cockpit. There were three main sweep angles that were set by the pilot for different levels of flying. The first, with the wings fully spread at 16°, was used when cruising at below Mach .7 or when taking off and landing. Putting the wings at mid-spread of 45° was used for basic fighter maneuvering, as well as cruising at high speeds or making low-altitude intercepts. Moving the wings to fully swept at 72° was reserved for making high-altitude intercepts or high-speed dashes at low altitudes.
The wings were not fitted with ailerons but used spoilers to control rolling when the wings were at 16° and 45° angles. In addition to the spoilers, the wings were fitted with trailing edge flaps and leading edge slats to try to give the fighter a short take-off and landing performance. Although there was a gauge in the cockpit showing the position of the wings, when they were in motion, and the Mach limit for each position, there was none to indicate what was the optimum wing position for the prevailing flight condition.
Two tailerons controlled pitch and roll, in the latter case working in conjunction with wing control surfaces when the wings were not fully swept back. In addition to a large vertical stabilizer (which also stored the brake parachute for landings), the MiG-23 had a ventral fin to improve directional stability at high speeds. During take-off and landing, the fin hinged sideways when the landing gear was extended to prevent it striking the ground.
Starting with the Edition 1971 model, the MiG-23's wings (known as Edition 2) had their surface area increased by 20%, necessitating the positions be changed to 18°, 47° 40', and 74° 40' (though for convenience the cockpit indicators and manuals retained the original labeling). A dogtooth extension was added but the leading-edge slats were removed to simplify manufacture. However this proved to exacerbate the Flogger's stability issues at high AoA and made take-off and landings more difficult. The definitive Edition 3 wing design, introduced with the MiG-23M, retained the dimensions of the Edition 2 but added back in the leading-edge slats.
A strengthening of the wing pivot in the MiG-23MLD allowed the addition of a fourth wing sweep position of 33°, which was intended to reduce turn radius and allow for rapid deceleration during dogfights. However, with the wings at the 33° position, the MiG-23MLD was much more difficult to handle and suffered from poor acceleration. Moving the wings to this position was primarily reserved for experienced MiG-23 pilots, while combat manuals continued to emphasize the 45° position.
Engine
The MiG-23 original engine was a thrust Tumansky R-29-300 with thrust to spare at the aircraft top speed of Mach 2.4. It also had a fast acceleration time taking 3–4 seconds to go from idle to full power, and took less than a second to ignite the afterburner. The aircraft placarded top speed was set by cockpit canopy structural strength. The engine intake had louvers which supplied the environmental control system with air to keep the avionics and pilot cool.
Similar to early examples of the F-4 Phantom J-79 engine, the R-29 would generate smoke when operating without the afterburner. The engine outer cases ran very hot, which sometimes triggered false fire alarms. Moreover, the engine was only good for a couple of hundred sorties at most before requiring replacement. This was partly because Russian engines were designed to last about 150 hours before being replaced. It was also a way to generate income from export customers by selling them new engines in exchange for hard currency. Changing an engine was difficult because the aircraft had to be separated in the middle.
The engine was also a weak point on early models of the MiG-23 as it was not stressed for high yaw manoeuvre loads. If the fighter entered a spin, the engine shaft could bend. Compressor blades would rub sending debris into the turbine causing turbine blades to break off, destroying the engine. Introduction of the R-29B-300 addressed this design deficiency.
Fuel
The prototype version of the MiG-23 carried three fuel tanks in the fuselage, with capacities of 1,920, 820 and 710 liters respectively. Additionally, each wing carried three integral fuel tanks of 62.5, 137.5 and 200 liters. The No. 2 fuel tank in the fuselage also functioned as the aircraft's carry-through wingbox and was welded together with thick plates of VNS-2 steel alloy. The MiG-23 Edition 1971 redesign allowed for a fourth tank carrying 470 liters to be fitted in the rear of the fuselage. This fuel capacity gave the MiG-23 better endurance than a "clean" F-4 (carrying no drop tanks); if traveling at the MiG-23's endurance speed of 230 knots an individual sortie could be stretched out to an hour, though if afterburner was involved that could fall down to around 45 minutes or less. Introduced with the MiG-23M were plumbed pylons under the moveable wing panels which could be fitted with 800-liter drop tanks, though these could only be carried with the wings at full spread and had to be jettisoned otherwise, and a third 800-liter drop tank could be carried under the fuselage on the MiG-23ML.
Early models of the MiG-23 ran into problems with the plane's No. 2 fuel tank suffering structural failures, which were especially problematic as the tanks were integral to the structure rather than contained within a fuel bladder. This meant that as the structure developed hairline fractures fuel would seep out. This eventually forced severe g-force limits until a solution could be found. Prior to quality being improved in later models, one fix was to weld a plate on the inside surface and a stiffener on the outer skin.
Performance tests
Most potential enemies of the USSR and its client states have had opportunities to evaluate the MiG-23's performance. In the summer of 1977, after a political realignment by the Egyptian government, Egypt provided a number of MiG-23MSs and MiG-23BNs to the United States; these were evaluated under a pair of exploitation programs codenamed HAVE PAD and HAVE BOXER respectively. These and other MiGs, including additional MiG-23s acquired through other sources, were used as part of a secret training program known as project Constant Peg to familiarize American pilots with Soviet aircraft. Additionally, a Cuban pilot flew a MiG-23BN to the U.S. in 1991, and a Libyan MiG-23 pilot also defected to Greece in 1981. In both cases, the aircraft were later repatriated.
Initially, American intelligence on the MiG-23 assumed that the fighter could turn well and had reasonable acceleration capability, but testing during HAVE PAD proved this assumption to be incorrect. While its turning capability was comparable to an original F-4E Phantom, newer American fighters like the F-15 Eagle or F-4E upgraded with slats could easily out-turn the MiG-23 in a dogfight. In fact, whenever the MiG-23 approached high angle of attack it became very unstable and liable to depart controlled flight. Conversely, the MiG-23's acceleration capability was tremendous, particularly at low altitudes (below ) and crossing the sound barrier, where it could out-accelerate any American fighter. The fighter's small profile gave it the advantage of being hard to spot visually as well. Overall, HAVE PAD testing determined that the MiG-23 - while a poor dogfighter - made for a good interceptor capable of performing hit-and-run attacks. Despite its limitations, in the hands of a very capable pilot the MiG-23 represented a serious threat in air combat.
Test pilots who flew the MiG-23 as part of Constant Peg came to similar conclusions about the MiG-23 being an effective interceptor rather than a dogfighter, but were more critical of the planes they flew. Among their complaints was that the MiG-23's airframe was too easily overstressed; that it was unstable in yaw as it passed the sound barrier and again when approaching Mach 2; that its narrow landing gear, although designed to be used on unprepared surfaces, tended to slip and slide in adverse weather conditions; and because it sat low to the ground, it could more easily suck debris into its engine intakes. In general the MiG-23 was unpopular with the American pilots because it was so dangerous to fly.
Among the nicknames the Constant Peg pilots had for the MiG-23 was the "Looping Hog" because it flew like a pig and one of the few basic fighter maneuvers (BFM) it could pull off in a dogfight was a massive loop. If going fast enough, a MiG-23 could easily perform a loop high that other planes would struggle to follow, at the bottom of which it would cut back inside them and proceed to fly off until outside their visual range so it could come back in again. The only other BFM the MiG-23 could perform, according to Col (ret.) John "Sax" Saxman, was the "no circle fight": as the two aircraft approached and passed close by each other the MiG-23, instead of trying to turn one way or the other with the enemy aircraft (as in a one-circle or two-circle fight), would speed on ahead until it could come back into the fight from a different angle.
The MiG-23's deficits and qualities were also recognized by allied air forces who received the fighter from the Soviet Union, including the East German Air Force:
The pilots of Constant Peg sought to teach these and other aspects of the MiG-23 to the frontline Tactical Air Command squadrons (nicknamed Blue Air) against whom they trained:
The MiG-23's speed in particular was used as a teaching aid for a couple of situations during a potential war with the Soviet Union. The first was at low altitudes to demonstrate its ability to run down any NATO or American strike aircraft (barring the late-model F-111F Aardvark), which would be attempting to go low and fast to penetrate Soviet territory. The second was to simulate the MiG-25 Foxbat, a high, fast flyer (HHF) which would be going after high-value targets such as aerial refueling or airborne early warning and control aircraft like the E-3 Sentry.
The early MiG-23M series was also used to test the American Northrop F-5s captured by the North Vietnamese and sent to the former USSR for evaluation. The Russians acknowledged the F-5 was a very agile aircraft, and at some speeds and altitudes better than the MiG-23M, one of the main reasons the MiG-23MLD and MiG-29 developments were started. These tests allowed the Russians to make modifications to several of their fourth-generation aircraft. The MiG-23, however, was not designed to combat F-5s, a weakness reflected by early MiG-23 variants.
Dutch pilot Leon van Maurer, who had more than 1,200 hours flying F-16s, flew against MiG-23MLs from air bases in Germany and the U.S. as part of NATO's aerial mock combat training with Soviet equipment. He concluded the MiG-23ML was superior in the vertical to early F-16 variants, just slightly inferior to the F-16A in the horizontal, and had superior BVR capability. The Soviet combat manual for MiG-23M pilots claims the MiG-23M to have a slight superiority over the F-4 and Kfir, and describes combat history involving Syrian MiG-23MFs versus Israeli F-15 and F-16s, which it labels "successful". This manual also recommends tactics to be used against these fighters.
Operational history
Western and Russian aviation historians usually differ in respect to combat record for their military vehicles and doctrines part due to the bias in favor of their respective national industries and academies. They also usually accept claims going along with their respective political views since usually many conflicting and contradictory reports are written and accepted by their respective historians. Before recent years, with widespread use of hand portable cameras, little pictorial evidence could be published about specific losses and victories of the different combat systems, with a limited number of losses and victories confirmed by both parties.
Soviet and Warsaw Pact
The MiG-23 was first officially commissioned into the Soviet Air Forces (VVS) on 4 January 1974, but even before its mass introduction there had been many teething problems with the brand-new fighter. Stability issues and limited maneuverability resulted in numerous flight restrictions placed on the fighter as efforts to rectify these concerns began in the mid-1970s. Despite numerous updates, these restrictions would only be partially lifted with the introduction of the MiG-23MLD. Still, the large number of MiG-23s deployed in Central Europe represented a sufficiently potent threat in a possible war with the West.
Although many MiG-23 pilots were disappointed to discover their fighter would lose in a turning engagement with the MiG-21, the Flogger gave the VVS capabilities which the MiG-21 simply lacked, particularly as a high-energy fighter with BVR missiles. However, throughout the 1970s and early 1980s Soviet pilots continued to train and operate the MiG-23 in the same inflexible manner as the MiG-21: a high-speed point defense interceptor closely guided by GCI. It was not until the widespread introduction of the MiG-23MLD that Soviet pilots began to utilize the Flogger as a true air-superiority fighter.
By the 1980s, the MiG-23's accident rate in the VVS averaged 12.5 losses per 100,000 flying hours. This was often worse in the air forces of the Warsaw Pact allies: 24.3 major mishaps per 100,000 flying hours in the Hungarian Air Force; 20.4 losses per 100,000 flying hours in the East German Air Force; 18 losses per 100,000 flying hours in the Bulgarian Air Force; and 11.3 losses per 100,000 flying hours in the Polish Air Force.
By 1990, over 1,500 MiG-23s of different models were in service with the VVS and the V-PVO. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the new Russian Air Force began to cut back its fighter force, and it was decided that the single-engine MiG-23s and MiG-27s were to be retired to operational storage. The last model to serve was the MiG-23P air defense variant and it was retired on 1 May 1998.
When East and West Germany unified, no MiG-23s were transferred to the German Air Force, but twelve former East German MiG-23s were supplied to the US. When Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the Czechs received all the MiG-23s, which were retired in 1998. Hungary retired their MiG-23s in 1996, Poland in 1999, Romania in 2000, and Bulgaria in 2004.
The MiG-23 was the Soviet Air Force's "Top Gun"-equivalent aggressor aircraft from the late 1970s to the late 1980s. It proved a difficult opponent for early MiG-29 variants flown by inexperienced pilots. Exercises showed when well-flown, a MiG-23MLD could achieve favorable kill ratios against the MiG-29 in mock combat by using hit-and-run tactics and not engaging the MiG-29s in dogfights. Usually the aggressor MiG-23MLDs had a shark mouth painted on the nose just aft of the radome, and many were piloted by Soviet–Afghan War veterans. In the late 1980s, these aggressor MiG-23s were replaced by MiG-29s, also featuring shark mouths.
Soviet–Afghan War
Soviet MiG-23s were used over Afghanistan, often being used to escort missions close to the borders of Pakistan and Iran, as the MiG-21 lacked the necessary range to do so. Some of them were claimed to have been shot down.
The earliest use of the MiG-23 in Afghanistan occurred in April 1982, when aircraft of the 152nd IAP escorted a large air raid against Rabat-e-Jali in Nimruz province. This developed into a disaster when the MiG-23s failed to provide adequate air cover and the strike force accidentally crossed into Iran, losing several helicopters to Iranian F-4 Phantoms.
Soviet and Afghan MiG-23s and Pakistani F-16s clashed a few times during the Soviet–Afghan War from 1987. Two MiG-23 were claimed shot down in air to air fight by Pakistani F-16s when crossing the border (they both were not confirmed) while one F-16 was shot down on 29 April 1987. Western sources consider it a friendly fire incident but the Soviet-backed Afghan government of the time and Pakistan claimed that Soviet aircraft downed the Pakistani F-16 – a claim that The New York Times and the Washington Post also reported. According to a Russian version of the event, the F-16 was shot down when Pakistani F-16s encountered Soviet MiG-23MLDs. Soviet MiG-23MLD pilots, while on a bombing raid along the Pakistani-Afghan border, reported being attacked by F-16s and then seeing one F-16 explode. It could have been downed by gunfire from a MiG whose pilot did not report the kill, because Soviet pilots were not allowed to attack Pakistani aircraft without permission.
In 1988, Soviet MiG-23MLDs using R-23s (NATO: AA-7 "Apex") downed two Iranian AH-1J Cobras that had intruded into Afghan airspace. In a similar incident a decade earlier, on 21 June 1978, a PVO MiG-23M flown by Pilot Captain V. Shkinder shot down two Iranian Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopters that had trespassed into Soviet airspace, one helicopter being dispatched by two R-60 missiles and the other by cannon fire.
Air-to-air encounters, however, were not particularly frequent, with close air support accounting for most missions flown in Afghanistan while combat air patrol and air-to-air escort missions comprised 15% of the total. Sorties with dumb bombs and cluster munitions were flown against a wide range of targets, while more sophisticated weaponry was not often employed because of the difficult terrain and threat of MANPADs and AA. Attacks were made in pairs, with both MiGs diving at a 45 degree angle before releasing their bombs. After heavy losses in 1984–5, tactics were re-evaluated and a minimum altitude of 3,500 m (11,480 ft) was introduced. This was later increased to 4,500 m (14,760 ft). The accuracy of attacks was lowered and it became impossible to use unguided rockets at all. However, this was effective at reducing losses; there were none during 1986.
The two-seater MiG-23UB also saw service in Afghanistan, used for strike, reconnaissance and target designation. It was also used to familiarise MiG-27 pilots with flying in the hot and high conditions of Afghanistan when they were deployed there in 1988. Additionally, MiG-23UBs sometimes acted as a makeshift 'AWACS' aircraft, with an officer in the back seat observing and issuing commands to a strike group below him
Naval aviation
MiG-23s of the Soviet Air Force were transferred to the Soviet Navy on two occasions. In 1984 a full regiment of MiG-23s was deployed to Vietnam to escort naval patrols by Tupolev Tu-95 aircraft. This later became the 169th Guards Composite Air Regiment. They flew over 400 sorties from Cam Ranh airbase, staying there until 1989, when the aircraft were withdrawn and returned to the air force.
The second instance of MiG-23s serving with the Soviet Navy occurred from 1990 to 1994, when nine MiG-23UB trainers were attached to the 88th Separate Fighter Bomber Regiment of the Northern Fleet's aviation component to train pilots for their MiG-27s.
Syria
Combat against Israel (since 1973)
The first MiG-23s were supplied to Syria on 14 October 1973, when two MiG-23MSs and two MiG-23UBs were shipped in crates, aboard An-12B transports. By the time these planes could be assembled, flight-tested and their crews made combat ready, the war with Israel was over. During 1974 several Syrian MiG-23s were lost in accidents. The process of making the MiG-23 operational was complex and difficult, and only eight were operational by 1974. The first MiG-23s to see combat were export variants with many limitations. Compared to the MiG-21, the aircraft was mechanically complex and expensive and also less agile. Early export variants also lacked many "war reserve modes" in their radars, making them vulnerable against electronic countermeasures (ECM), at which the Israelis were especially proficient.
On 13 April 1974, after almost 100 days of artillery exchanges and skirmishes along the Golan Heights, Syrian helicopters delivered commandos to attack the Israeli observation post at Jebel Sheikh. This provoked heavy clashes in the air and on the ground for almost a week. On 19 April 1974, Captain al-Masry, flying a MiG-23MS on a weapons test mission, spotted a group of IAF F-4Es and shot two of them down after firing three missiles. He was about to attack another F-4 with cannon fire, but was shot down by friendly fire from a SAM battery. Due to this success, an additional 24 MiG-23MS interceptors, as well as a similar number of MiG-23BN strike variants, were delivered to Syria during the following year. In 1978 deliveries of MiG-23MFs started and two squadrons were equipped with them.
The MiG-23MF, MiG-23MS and MiG-23BN were used in combat by Syria over Lebanon between 1981 and 1985. On 26 April 1981, Syria claimed that two Israeli A-4 Skyhawks attacking a camp in Sidon were shot down by two MiG-23MSs. However, Israel does not report any loss of aircraft from this incident and no loss of aircraft was reported on that date. Russian historian Vladimir Ilyin writes that the Syrians lost six MiG-23MFs, four MiG-23MSs and a few MiG-23BNs in June 1982. One more MiG-23 fighter was lost in July. The Israelis also claimed that they shot down two MiG-23s in 1985, which the Syrians deny. Overall, 11–13 Syrian MiG-23 fighter variants were lost in air combat from 1982 to 1985. Israel confirms only the loss of BQM-34 Firebee which was downed by Syrian MiG-23MF on 6 June 1982.
At the end of April 2002 Syrian MiG-23ML shot down an Israeli UAV with an air-to-air missile near As-Suwayda.
Syrian Civil War
A former Syrian Air Force MiG-23MS became iconic of the Siege of Abu al-Duhur Airbase: on 7 March 2012, Syrian rebels used a 9K115-2 Metis-M anti-tank guided missile to hit the derelict MiG. Later, in March 2013 they entered in the base, showing the worn out and damaged MiG. Finally, in May 2013, the Syrian Air Force bombed it to completely destroy the wreck.
Syrian MiG-23BNs bombed the city of Aleppo on 24 July 2012, becoming the first use of fixed-wing aircraft for bombing in the Syrian civil war.
On 13 August 2012, a Syrian MiG-23BN was reportedly shot down by the rebels of the Free Syrian Army near Deir ez-Zor, although the government claimed that it went down due to technical difficulties.
Since then, Syrian Air Force MiG-23s together with different Syrian Air Force fighter jets have regularly been spotted performing attack runs on Syrian insurgents, who have claimed different MiGs being shot down or destroyed on the ground on different occasions.
On 23 March 2014, one Syrian MiG-23 was shot down after being hit by an AIM-9 Sidewinder fired by a Turkish F-16 in the vicinity of the Syrian town of Kessab. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by friendly forces. Turkish sources said the fighter violated Turkish airspace and it was downed after several radio warnings while approaching the border. Another Syrian MiG-23 returned to Syria after trespassing into Turkish airspace.
On 15 June 2017, one Jordanian Selex ES Falco UAV was shot down by a Syrian MiG-23MLD in the vicinity of the Syrian town of Derra. On 16 June, another Selex ES Falco was shot down by MiG-23ML both using R-24R missiles.
On 9 September 2020, a Syrian MiG-23 crashed in Deir ez-Zor Governorate without information on the fate of its pilot.
Iraq
Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988)
The MiG-23 took part in the Iran–Iraq War and was used in both air-to-air and air-to-ground roles. The reports about performance in air combat are mixed – some authors claim that Iraqi MiG-23s had some victories and several losses against Iranian F-14s, F-5s and F-4s.
Iranian Air Force Colonel, Mohammed-Hashem All-e-Agha was shot down by an Iraqi MiG-23ML while flying his F-14A on 11 August 1984.
Iranian Air Force Colonel Abdolbaghi Darvish was shot down by an Iraqi MiG-23ML while flying his Fokker F27-600 on 20 February 1986. All 49 crew members and passengers were killed. The aircraft was carrying a delegation of military and government officials on a mission.
Iranian Air Force Captain Ahmad Moradi Talebi was shot down by an Iraqi MiG-23ML while flying his F-14A on 2 September 1986.
Iranian Air Force Captain Bahram Ghanei was shot down by a MiG-23ML while flying his F-14A on 17 January 1987.
Known Iraqi MiG-23 fighter pilot was Captain Omar Goben. He shot down at least one F-5E and one F-4E with a MiG-23, and two F-5Es and one F-4E with a MiG-21.
According to researcher Tom Cooper, Iranian F-14s caused exceptionally heavy losses to the MiG-23s (most of them bombers, model MiG-23BN) early in the war, much to the disappointment of the Iraqi Air Force, which thought that the Soviet fighter would be a match for the Tomcat. During the Iran-Iraq War at least 58 MiG-23s were claimed to be shot down by F-14s (15 of these are confirmed according to Cooper), and 20 MiG-23s were claimed by F-4s (16 confirmed according to Cooper). According to official Iraqi data only 29 MiG-23s were lost during the entire war (between 20 and 28 of them were shot down by AAA, enemy fighters or friendly fire).
Iraqi MiG-23MS/MFs (fighters) were used in the first half of the war scoring no less than 8 kills while suffering 2 MiG-23MS and 4 MiG-23MF losses.
MiG-23MLs (fighters) were used in the second half of the war. They possibly scored 7 kills (including 3 F-14) while possibly suffering 3 losses.
MiG-23BNs (ground-attack variant) were successfully used against ground targets. On 22 September 1980, BNs were used in first combat sorties against Iran. Two F-4 Phantoms were destroyed at Mehrabad Air Base in BNs attack. However up to 22 BNs were downed by Iranian interceptors during the war. According to other sources, 16 BNs were lost during war, 13 of them in combat.
According to Iranian sources, four MiG-23BNs were shot down by F-14s on 29 October 1980, but the victory was not confirmed.
Kuwait Invasion and Gulf War (1990–1991)
On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi Air Force supported the invasion of Kuwait with MiG-23BN and Su-22 aircraft as the main strike assets. A number of Iraqi aircraft and helicopters were shot down by Kuwaiti air defense MIM-23 Hawk SAM sites, among them a MiG-23BN.
Iraqi MiG-23s damaged two EF-111A Raven by R-23 (missile) during the Gulf War.
Iraqi documents captured after the invasion of Iraq revealed that they possessed 127 MiG-23s, including 38 MiG-23BNs and 21 MiG-23 trainers, at the start of Operation Desert Storm. During the Gulf War, the United States Air Force reported downing eight Iraqi MiG-23s with F-15s. Iraqi documents confirm the total destruction of 43 MiG-23s from all causes, with another 10 damaged and 12 others fleeing to Iran. This left Iraq with just 63 MiG-23s after the war, including 18 MiG-23BNs and 12 trainers.
The United States stated that the losses of the F-16Cs were caused by 2K12 Kub and S-125 Neva/Pechora surface-to-air missiles rather than enemy aircraft. Also, no Tornado loss is attributed to enemy aircraft as per the Royal Air Force and the Italian Air Force.
No Fly Zone and invasion of Iraq (1991–2003)
On 17 January 1993, a USAF F-16C destroyed an Iraqi MiG-23 with an AMRAAM missile. On 9 September 1999, a lone MiG-23 crossed the no-fly zone heading towards a flight of F-14s. One F-14 fired an AIM-54 Phoenix at the MiG but missed and the MiG headed back north. However, the aircraft then crashed while its pilot was attempting to land.
In 2003, during Operation Iraqi Freedom, the entire Iraqi Air Force remained grounded with several airframes found by US and allied forces around the Iraqi air bases in derelict condition after the invasion.
The invasion marked the end of Iraqi service for the MiG-23.
Cuba
Cuba in Angola
Cuban MiG-23MLs and South African Mirage F1 pilots had several encounters during the Cuban intervention in Angola, one of which resulted in severe damage to a Mirage F1.
On 27 September 1987, during Operation Moduler, two MiG-23 pilots surprised a pair of Mirages and fired missiles: Alberto Ley Rivas engaged a Mirage flown by Captain Arthur Douglas Piercy with a pair of R-23Rs (some sources say a R-60), while the other Cuban pilot fired a single R-60 at a Mirage flown by Captain Carlo Gagiano. Although the missiles homed on the Mirages, only one R-23R exploded close enough to cause damage to the landing hydraulics of Captain Piercy's Mirage (and, according to some accounts, the aircraft's drag chute). The damage likely contributed to the Mirage veering off the runway on landing, after which the nose gear collapsed. The nose hit the ground so hard that Piercy's ejection seat fired. As a result of this ground level ejection, Piercy was paralyzed. The aircraft was written off, but a large portion of the airframe and components were used to repair another accident-damaged Mirage F1 and return it to service. In total, the Cubans claimed 6 air victories with the MiG-23 (1 destroyed, 1 damaged and 4 were unconfirmed).
Angolan MiG-23s outclassed SAAF Mirage F1CZ and F1AZ fighters in terms of power/acceleration, radar/avionics capabilities, and air-to-air weapons. The MiG-23's R-23 and R-60 missiles gave FAPA/DAA pilots the ability to engage SAAF aircraft from most aspects. The SAAF, hobbled by an international arms embargo, was forced to carry an obsolescent version of the French Matra R.550 Magic missile or early-generation V-3 Kukri missiles, which had limited range and performance relative to the R-60 and R-23. Despite these limitations, SAAF pilots were able to vector within the firing envelope and fire air-to-air missiles at MiG-23s (gun camera shots evidence this). The missiles either missed or exploded ineffectually behind in the tail plume rather than homing on the hot airframe.
UNITA rebels, opposing Cuban/MPLA forces, shot down a number of MiG-23s with American-supplied FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS missiles. South African ground forces shot down a MiG-23, which was prosecuting a raid on the Calueque Dam, by using the Ystervark (porcupine) 20 mm AA gun.
Libya
Libya received a total of 54 MiG-23MS and 15 MiG-23UBs between 1975 and 1978, as well as 35 to 38 MiG-23BNs. These aircraft entered service with the 1040th, 1050th, 1060th and 1070th Squadrons. The 1040th and 1050th Squadrons were staffed by Syrian Air Force personnel.
One Libyan MiG-23MS was shot down by an Egyptian MiG-21 fighter during and immediately after the Libyan–Egyptian War in 1977 while supporting a strike on the airfield at Mersa Matruh, forcing the remaining MiG to abort the mission. In one skirmish in 1979, two LARAF MiG-23MS engaged two EAF MiG-21MF which had been upgraded to carry Western air-to-air missiles such as the AIM-9P3 Sidewinder. The Libyan pilots made the mistake of trying to outmaneuver the more nimble Egyptian MiG-21s, and one MiG-23MS was shot down by Maj. Sal Mohammad with an AIM-9P3 Sidewinder missile, while the other used its superior speed to escape.
On 18 July 1980, the wreckage of an LARAF MiG-23MS was found on the northern side of the Sila massif, in the middle of the Italian region of Calabria. The deceased pilot, Captain Ezzedin Fadhel Khalil, was found still strapped to his ejection seat.
In August 1981, Libyan MiG-23MS fighters were involved in the standoff with the US Navy which led to the first Gulf of Sidra incident, although they were not involved in any actual combats on this occasion.
In the mid-1980s, newer versions of the MiG-23 entered service with the Libyan Air Force. Around 20 MiG-23MFs were received in 1984 to re-equip the 1060th Squadron. 48 MiG-23MLDs were also ordered in the same period. Two Squadrons, the 1023rd and 1024th, were created to operate these aircraft.
Libyan MiG-23s were employed during the Chadian–Libyan conflict performing different roles, starting in 1981. During the first years of their involvement, both the MiG-23MS and MiG-23BN variants were used, almost exclusively for ground attack. Later in the war, some combat air patrols were flown too, with the more advanced MiG-23MF and MiG-23MLD variants being used as well. On 5 January 1987, a Libyan MiG-23 was shot down and few months later, on 5 September 1987, Chadian forces performed a land raid against Maaten al-Sarra Air Base in Libya, destroying several Libyan aircraft on the ground, among them, three MiG-23s. On 8 October 1987, a MiG-23BN was shot down by ground fire, with its pilot being recovered by a helicopter.
MiG-23 interceptors were also used by Libya during the action in the Gulf of Sidra in 1986. Although they were flown aggressively, with their pilots sometimes trying to get into a firing position behind the American fighters (with little success), neither the MiG-23s nor their opponents opened fire against each other.
Two Libyan MiG-23MF fighters were shot down by U.S. Navy F-14As in the Second Gulf of Sidra incident in 1989.
Libyan Civil War
In the 2011 Libyan civil war, Libyan Air Force MiG-23s were used to bomb rebel positions. On 15 March 2011, a rebel website reported that opposition forces started using a captured MiG-23 and a helicopter to sink 2 loyalist ships and bomb some tank positions.
On 19 March 2011, a MiG-23BN of the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi by its own air defenses, which mistook it for a loyalist aircraft. The pilot was killed after he ejected too late.
On 26 March 2011, five MiG-23s together with two Mi-35 helicopters were destroyed by the French Air Force while parked at Misrata airport, early reports misidentified the fixed wing aircraft as G-2 Galebs.
On 9 April, a rebel MiG-23 was intercepted over Benghazi by NATO aircraft and escorted back to its base for violating the UN no-fly zone.
A limited number of MiG-23's which survived the 2011 Libyan civil war and NATO bombings were involved in air strikes between the opposing Libyan House of Representatives and the rival General National Congress during the Second Libyan Civil War with both parties controlling a limited number of aircraft.
On 23 March 2015, a New General National Congress operated MiG-23UB was shot down while bombing Al Watiya airbase, controlled by the Libyan House of Representative probably with an Igla-S MANPADS. Both pilots were killed.
At the beginning of 2016, Libyan House of Representatives forces controlled three airworthy MiG-23s among other aircraft, two MiG-23MLA and one MiG-23UB.
They were all lost in three separate occasions with a first MiG-23MLA, serial 6472, lost near Benina airbase on 4 January, after an airstrike, the second MiG-23MLA, serial 6132, lost on 8 February while conducting air strikes against Islamic State near Derna and the MiG-23UB, serial 7834, lost on 12 February 2016 while operating west of Benghazi, claimed shot down by the Islamic State with the official government attributing the loss to anti aircraft artillery. In all the occasions the aircrews ejected while the cause of the first two crashes remained debated between hostile fire and mechanical causes.
On 28 February 2016, a MiG-23MLA serial 6453 was restored to flying status after several years, becoming the only MiG-23 in service with the Libyan Air Force as of March 2016, performing missions against enemy positions and vehicles since March 2016.
In the following weeks, both the Libyan National Army Air Force and the opposing Libyan Dawn Air Force, restored a number of MiG-23BN, MiG-23ML and MiG-23UB to flying status and they were recorded while flying over Libyan skies and striking enemy positions.
On 6 December 2019, a Libyan National Army (LNA) MiG-23MLD was shot down by forces loyal to the Government of National Accord (GNA). In the ongoing Libyan Civil War both parties are pushing back to service stored airframes after repairs with foreign assistance. The jet, serial 26144, was restored using the wings of two different airframes and became flyable again in August 2019, after around 20 years of storage. The jet was hit over the Yarmouk frontline in southern Tripoli and crashed in Al Zawiya city and the pilot, Amer Jagem was detained after ejecting. A video emerged showing the aircraft diving for attack with soldiers on the ground firing a Strela-2M MANPADS in response. The LNA reported they lost a MiG-23 due to technical fault, denying it crashed due to enemy fire.
Egypt
Egypt became one of the first export customers when it bought in 1974 eight MiG-23MS interceptors, eight MiG-23BN strikers and four MIG-23UB trainers, concentrating them into a single squadron based at Mersa Matruh. By 1975 all Egyptian MiG-23s had been withdrawn from active duty and placed in storage due to the Egyptian foreign policy shifting towards the West and thus losing USSR support.
Starting in 1978 China purchased from Egypt two MiG-23MS interceptors, two MiG-23BNs, two MiG-23UBs, ten MiG-21MFs, and ten KSR-2 (AS-5 Kelt) air-to-surface missiles in exchange for Shenyang J-6 jets, spare parts and technical support for the Egyptian fleet of Soviet-supplied MiG-17 and MiG-21s. The Chinese used the aircraft as the basis for their J-9 project, which never ventured beyond the research phase.
Some time later the remaining six MiG-23MS examples and six MiG-23BNs, as well as 16 MiG-21MFs, two Sukhoi Su-20 Fitters, two MiG-21Us, two Mil Mi-8 Hips and ten KSR-2s were purchased for the Foreign Technology Division, a special department of the USAF, responsible for evaluating adversary technologies. These were exchanged for weapons and spares support, including AIM-9J/P Sidewinder missiles, which were installed on remaining Egyptian MiG-21s.
Ethiopia
MiG-23s supplied by the Soviet Union to Mengistu Haile Mariam's Derg were heavily used by the Ethiopian Air Force against the array of rebel guerillas fighting the government during the Ethiopian Civil War. According to a 1990 Human Rights Watch report, the attacks, often using napalm or phosphorus and cluster munitions, were not only aimed at the rebels, but against civilian populations (in both Eritrea and Ethiopia) and humanitarian convoys in a deliberate fashion.
Ethiopian MiG-23s were used in ground attack and strike missions during the border war with Eritrea from May 1998 to June 2000, even striking targets at the airport in the Eritrean capital city, Asmara on several occasions. Three Ethiopian MiG-23BNs were claimed shot down by Eritrean MiG-29s.
On 29 November 2020, an Ethiopian Air Force MiG-23 reportedly crashed during the Tigray conflict near Abiy Addi, 50 kilometers west of Mekelle. Unreliable images of the pilot were circulating after being captured by the Tigray People's Liberation Front who claimed they shot it down, showing the pilot with his Zsh-7 flying helmet (originally intended for Su-27 and MiG-29), a flight suit, a MiG-23 English manual and the crash site with charred metal parts.
India
Kargil War (1999)
On 26 May, the Indian forces started air strikes during the Kargil War. Flying from the Indian airfields of Srinagar, Avantipur and Adampur, MiG-23BN, joined the other Indian strike aircraft, MiG-21s, MiG-27s, Jaguars and Mirage 2000 in striking the enemy positions.
Sudan
Sudan received extensive military aid, including 12 MiG-23MS and one MiG-23UB from former enemy Libya starting in 1987. They quickly entered service fighting against the South Sudan People's Defence Forces (SPLA) in 1988 during the Second Sudanese Civil War. A number of these jets were lost either to ground fire or crashed. By 1990 Libya withdrew its military advisors from Sudan and the remaining four MiG-23 jets were placed in storage. Starting from 2010, Sudan started to refurbish its MiG-23 jets locally with the help of Russia, Byelorussian and Ethiopian technicians with pictures of freshly painted and refurbished jets circling online. One crash-landed and caught fire during flight testing in 2016.
Variants
First-generation
Ye-231("Flogger-A") was the designation given to the prototype MiG-23 built for testing purposes. Although the experimental model featured the same basic design as later MiG-23/-27 models, it lacked the sawtooth leading edge common on later variants. It also shares design elements with the Sukhoi Su-24, although the Su-24 would go on to experience greater modification.
MiG-23 ("Flogger-A") was a pre-production model which lacked weapon hardpoints but was armed with guns and featured the sawtooth leading edge of later MiG-23s. It also marked the divergence point of the MiG-23/-27 and Su-24 designs.
MiG-23S ("Flogger-A") was the initial production variant. An interim variant, it was externally similar to the prototype but as the Sapfir-23 had been delayed it was equipped with the RP-22SM Sapfir radar and lacked an IRST. The first MiG-23Ss were powered by an R-27F-300 turbojet with a dry thrust of and on afterburner; later version used the uprated R-27F2M-300 with a dry thrust of and on afterburner.
The first MiG-23S took flight on 21 May 1969, and from July 1969 to mid-1973 a total of 11 MiG-23Ss were involved in protracted testing by the Ministry of Aircraft Industry and the VVS. It was during this testing phase where a number of faults with the MiG-23 were discovered - including dangerous behavior at high AoA, propensity to spin in certain circumstances, and development of cracks in the joints between the center fuselage and wings - and several accidents occurred with the loss of life. Around 60 production-standard MiG-23Ss were built between 1969 and the early 1970s. However these only saw brief front-line service with the 4th TsBPiPLS and 979th IAP before the numerous unreliability issues forced their retirement.
MiG-23 ("Flogger-A") was another interim variant which replaced the MiG-23S starting in late 1970; while known simply as the MiG-23, it was also called the MiG-23 Edition 1971. It was the first to feature the Sapfir-23 radar (albeit the unreliable Sapfir-23L model which lacked look-down/shoot-down) allowing it to fire the R-23R SARH missile, along with a TP-23 IRST and ASP-23D gunsight/HUD. A redesigned fuselage moved the tail surfaces back , added ribbed air brakes, and inserted another fuel tank with capacity. The new wing design, known as Edition 2 wings, increased surface area by 20 percent to improved wing loading but resulted in a change in sweep settings; it also added a pronounced leading-edge dogtooth but removed the leading-edge slats, making them easier to manufacture but increasing the already dangerous control and stability issues. The MiG-23 Edition 1971 was powered by a R-27F2-300 turbojet rated at dry and with afterburners.
Around 80 MiG-23 Edition 1971s were manufactured in 1971. These briefly saw service with frontline VVS fighter regiments until eventually being assigned to a training role in 1978.
MiG-23M ("Flogger-B") The most produced variant of the first-generation 'Floggers,' the MiG-23M first flew in June 1972 and became the VVS' chief air superiority fighter, giving it a true look-down/shoot-down capability. While the first fighters were equipped with the Sapfir-23L, it was quickly succeeded by the improved Sapfir-23D (and in 1975 the Sapfir-23D-III), allowing the MiG-23M to carry a pair of R-23 missiles and R-60 missiles. Other updates to the electronics included the SAU-23A three-axis automatic flight control system/autopilot and Polyot-11-23 navigation system. An updated wing design, the definitive Edition 3 wing, retained the Edition 2's design but added leading-edge slats back to improve handling characteristics. The variant was powered by an uprated R-27 turbojet, the Tumansky R-29-300 (izdeliye 55a), which had a dry thrust of and with afterburners. Plumbed pylons were also introduced to allow the MiG-23M to carry 800-litre drop tanks when the wings were at full spread.
Production began at the Znamya Truda factory in 1972, and by 1974 it reached an impressive thirty-plus airframes a month, with peaks of up to forty a month. The first MiG-23Ms entered service with the 4th TsBPiPLS in 1973, soon followed by frontline VVS regiments stationed in East Germany; by the mid-1970s a small number of PVO regiments had also converted to the MiG-23M. However, problems with the airframe's structural elements and wing sweep mechanism failures resulted in a self-imposed 5-G restriction until 1977, when quality controls and strengthening measures addressed the problem and allowed for MiG-23M squadrons to conduct basic fighter maneuvers. Around 1,300 MiG-23Ms were produced for the VVS and PVO from 1972 to 1978.
MiG-23MF ("Flogger-B") This was an export derivative of the MiG-23M produced from 1978 to 1983 at Znamya Truda. One version (izdeliye 2A or 23-11A), intended for sale to the Warsaw Pact, was practically the same as the MiG-23M with small differences in communication and IFF equipment. The other (izdeliya 2B or 23-11B) was designed for sale for certain Third World client states. Like the 23-11A it featured the Sapfir-23D-III radar (redesignated Sapfir-23E), but lacked electronic counter-countermeasure (ECCM) features and had lower overall performance. Their communication equipment was also less powerful, with the Lasour-SMA datalink removed from some aircraft. Until 1981, these were delivered to customers with the R-13M missile instead of the R-60.
MiG-23MS ("Flogger-E") Another export variant, the MiG-23MS was a downgrade version of the MiG-23M designed for Third World customers who couldn't be trusted with the advanced technology of the MiG-23MF. While utilizing the same airframe and engine as the MiG-23M, the MiG-23MS was equipped with the same weapons and equipment as the MiG-21S/SM. A downgraded export version of the RP-22SM radar gave the MiG-23MS its distinctively short nose radome, while the undernose IRST was removed. The only missiles it was capable of firing were up to four R-3S and R-3R air-to-air missiles, though the improved R-13M was added later. This variant was produced at Znamya Truda between 1973 and 1978, with fifty-four sent to Syria, eighteen to Iraq, eight to Egypt, and fifty-four to Libya. Egypt handed over several of their MiG-23MSs to China and the United States for technical evaluation.
MiG-23MP ("Flogger-E") Virtually identical to the MiG-23MS, the only difference was that the MiG-23MP added a dielectric head above the pylon, a feature associated with ground-attack versions. A possible developmental prototype, very few were produced and none were exported.
MiG-23U ("Flogger-C") The MiG-23U was a twin-seat training variant based on the MiG-23S, first appearing six months after the single-seater's introduction. Its only major design difference was the addition of a second cockpit where the equipment bay was located, necessitating its movement into the redesigned nose. It retained the MiG-23S' GSh-23L gun with 200 rounds and could carry up to of bombs. Equipped with the S-21 weapon control system centered on the Sapfir-21M radar, the MiG-23U could fire the R-3S and R-13M missiles. Also like the MiG-23 Edition 1971 and MiG-23M, a fourth fuel tank was added with a capacity of 470 litres. Production of the MiG-23U began at Irkutsk in 1971 and eventually converted to the MiG-23UB.
MiG-23UB ("Flogger-C") Another two-seat trainer, the MiG-23UB made its maiden flight on 10 April 1970, with production starting later that year at the Irkutsk Aviation Plant. It was equipped with the SAU-23UB flight control system and Polyot-11-23 navigation system, consisting of a RSBN-6S tactical aid to navigation, a SKV-2N2 reference gyro and a DV-30 and DV-10 air data system. While early production aircraft did feature the Sapfir-21M radar, it was soon replaced with ballast blocks under a conical metal fairing. Additionally, starting in 1971 production MiG-23UBs received the Edition 3 wing, and from 1979 onward those delivered to MiG-23M/ML regiments received the SOUA limiter to constrain AoA to within 28 degrees. Production of the MiG-23UB for the VVS and PVO continued until 1978, and until 1985 for export customers. More than 1,000 MiG-23UBs were produced, with 760 of these for the VVS and PVO.
Second-generation
MiG-23P ("Flogger-G") This was a specialized air-defense interceptor variant developed for the PVO Strany as an interim low-cost stopgap, replacing the Su-9/Su-11 and MiG-19P/PM still in service. The MiG-23P (P - Perekhvatchik or interceptor) had the same airframe and powerplant as the MiG-23ML, but its avionics suite was improved to meet PVO requirements and mission profiles. Its radar was the improved Sapfir-23P (N006), which could be used in conjunction with the ASP-23P gunsight/HUD (later replaced with the improved ASP-23ML-P) for better look-down/shoot-down capabilities to counter increasing low-level threats like F-111s. The IRST however was removed. The SAU-23P autopilot included a new digital computer which, operating in conjunction with the Lasur-M datalink, enabled ground-controlled interception (GCI) ground stations to steer the aircraft towards the target; in such an intercept, all the pilot had to do was control the engine and use the weapons. The MiG-23P was the most numerous PVO interceptor in the 1980s - around 500 manufactured between 1978 and 1981 - but was never exported. It also endured after the break-up of the Soviet Union, with the last MiG-23P units operating until 1998. Interestingly, in mock BVR air combat the MiG-23P when flown by experienced pilots proved to be equal or even better than the Su-27.
MiG-23bis ("Flogger-G") Similar to the MiG-23P except the IRST was restored and the cumbersome radar scope replaced with a new head-up display (HUD).
MiG-23ML ("Flogger-G") The early "Flogger" variants had a number of design shortcomings, including airframe strength and reliability, engine performance, maneuverability and radar performance. A considerable redesign of the airframe was conducted, resulting in the MiG-23ML (L - Lyogkiy or lightweight), which was given the NATO designation "Flogger-G". Empty weight was reduced by removing the No. 4 fuselage fuel tank. Aerodynamics were refined for less drag, with the dorsal fin extension removed. The lighter weight of the airframe and a redesign of the main undercarriage units resulted in a different sit on the ground, with the aircraft's nose at a lower attitude compared to the nose-high appearance of earlier variants. Structural weaknesses, in particular the wing pivot mechanism, were strengthened so that the airframe was now rated for a G-limit of 8.5 at speeds below Mach 0.85 and 7.5-G at faster speeds. This also allowed the angle of attack (AoA) limiter to be set to 20-22° with the wings fully swept back, and 28-30° otherwise.
A new engine model, the R-35F-300, now provided a maximum dry thrust of , and with afterburner. This led to a considerably improved thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.83 (versus 0.77 for the MiG-23M), though in real-world conditions the ratio would be lower due to engine 'detuning', and a lower specific fuel consumption of 1.96 kg/kgf.h at maximum afterburn (versus 2.09 in the earlier R-27F2M-300). After initial issues of reliability, the time between overhauls was also extended to 450 hours, though like earlier engines it was limited to only ten hours at full military power or afterburner.
The avionics set was considerably improved as well. The S-23ML standard included Sapfir-23ML radar and TP-23ML IRST. The Polyot-21-23 navigation suite, Lasour-23SML datalink, SAU-23AM flight control system, and RV-5R Reper-M radar altimeter were all improvements on previous systems. Thanks to the new SUV-2ML weapons system, the MiG-23ML could carry both types of R-23 BVR missiles, and the underwing pylons could accommodate UPK-23-250 23mm gun pods.
Overall the MiG-23ML's combat effectiveness was about 20 per cent better than the MiG-23M according to Mikoyan OKB. Instantaneous turn rate was 16.7° per second at a corner speed of and 27° AoA; average rate of turn was 14.1° per second. Completing a 360° turn at an altitude of took 27 seconds at an average of 6.5-G, with an entry speed of and final speed of . At the same altitude, accelerating from to at full afterburn took 12 seconds, while the rate of climb was , though this fell off as altitude increased. In total, the time it took a MiG-23ML to take off and reach while accelerating to Mach 2.1 on full afterburner was 4.3 minutes.
The MiG-23ML prototype first took flight on 21 January 1975 and quickly entered mass production later that same year, though export customers continued to receive the MiG-23MF for another seven years. More than 1,100 MiG-23MLs (and its derivatives including the MiG-23MLA) were built for Soviet and export users between 1978 and 1983.
MiG-23MLA ("Flogger-G") The later production variant of the "ML" was designated the "MiG-23MLA". The fighter first flew in 1977, with mass production beginning in 1978 and sales to foreign customers starting in 1981. Externally, the "MLA" was identical to "ML". Internally, the 'MLA' had an improved Sapfir-23MLA (N003) radar with better range, reliability and ECM resistance, and a frequency spacing feature which made co-operative group search operations possible as the radars would now not jam each other. It also had a new ASP-17ML HUD/gunsight, and starting in 1981 the capability to fire improved Vympel R-24R/T missiles. A new 26ShI IRST was included, which had a maximum detection range of for a high-altitude fighter-sized target operating at full power, or for a bomber-sized target. However its field of scanning was restricted compared to the radar: only 60° in azimuth and 15° in elevation. As with the MiG-23MF, there were two different MiG-23ML sub-variants for export: the first version was sold to Warsaw Pact countries and was very similar to Soviet aircraft. The second variant had downgraded radar and it was sold to Third World allies.
MiG-23MLD ("Flogger-K") The MiG-23MLD was the ultimate fighter variant of the MiG-23. The main focus of the upgrade was to improve maneuverability, especially during high AoA, which was identified as the MiG-23M/ML's chief shortcoming. The pitot boom was equipped with vortex generators, and the wing's notched leading edge roots were 'saw-toothed' to act as vortex generators as well. The flight-control system incorporated the SOS-3-4 synthetic stick-stop device/signals limiter being used on the MiG-29 to improve handling and safety in high-AoA maneuvers. A strengthening of the wing pivot allowed the addition of a fourth wing sweep position of 33°, which was intended to reduce turn radius and allow for rapid deceleration during dogfights. However, with the wings at the 33° position, the MiG-23MLD was much more difficult to handle and suffered from poor acceleration. Moving the wings to this position was primarily reserved for experienced MiG-23 pilots, while combat manuals continued to emphasize the 45° position.
Significant improvements were made in avionics, with the incorporation of the Sapfir-23MLA-II (N008) radar which featured greater range, reliability, ECM resistance and improved modes for look-down/shoot-down over rough terrain. The radar also featured a close-in fighting mode with vertical-scan capability covering a narrow sector in front of the fighter. Against a bomber-sized target operating at medium to high altitudes, the Sapfire-23MLA-II had a maximum detection range of . Other improvements included the SPO-15L Beryoza radar warning receiver, A-321 Klystron digital tactical radio navigation/automatic landing system, SAU-23-18 automatic flight control system, and SARP-12-24 crash-resistant flight recorder. Survivability was improved with a pair of six-round downward-firing chaff/flare dispensers mounted in the underfuselage centerline pylon, complemented by the thirty-round upward-firing BVP-50-60 chaff/flare dispenser.
No new-build "MLD" aircraft were delivered to the VVS, as the more advanced MiG-29 was about to enter production. Instead, all Soviet "MLD"s were former "ML/MLA" aircraft modified to "MLD" standard, with 560 examples being converted at three VVS maintenance facilities in Kubinka, Chuhuiv and Lviv from May 1982 to May 1985. As with earlier MiG-23 versions, two distinct export variants were offered. Unlike Soviet examples, these were new-build aircraft, though they lacked the aerodynamic refinements of Soviet "MLD"s; 16 examples were delivered to Bulgaria, and 50 to Syria between 1982 and 1984. These were the last single-seat MiG-23 fighters made.
Ground-attack variants
MiG-23B ("Flogger-F") Created to meet the need for a new fighter-bomber, the MiG-23B was similar to the MiG-23S but with a redesigned forward fuselage and a dielectric head just above the pylon. In the flat-bottomed, tapered-down nose was a PrNK Sokol-23 ground attack sight system in place of the radar. The system included an analogue computer, a laser rangefinder and a PBK-3 bomb sight. The navigation suite and autopilot were updated to provide more accurate bombing, while the pylons were strengthened to increase the maximum bomb payload to 3,000 kg. To improve the fighter's survivability, the Flogger-F was fitted with an electronic warfare (EW) suite, and an inert gas system was placed in the fuel tanks to prevent fires. The pilot's survivability and visibility was also enhanced by raising their seat and armoring the cockpit windscreen. Instead of the R-29 engine, the MiG-23B was fitted with the Lyulka AL-21 turbojet.
The first prototype of the MiG-23B, "32-34", flew on 20 August 1970. While it was fitted with same wing design as the MiG-23S, all subsequent models had the improved Edition 2 design. However, because the AL-21 was needed for the Sukhoi Su-17 and Su-24, only three prototypes and 24 production aircraft of the MiG-23B were produced between 1971 to 1972. Restrictions on the AL-21 also prevented the MiG-23B from being exported to foreign customers.
MiG-23BK ("Flogger-H") An export variant reserved for Warsaw Pact countries. In addition to the PrNK-23 system, additional radar warning receivers were mounted on the intakes.
MiG-23BN ("Flogger-H") An upgraded version of the MiG-23B, the MiG-23BN differed in that it was fitted with the Edition 3 wings and R-29 engine of contemporary fighter variants, along with minor updates in electronics and equipment. The other major difference was the removal of the dielectric head found on the MiG-23B. Produced from 1973 to 1985, a total of 624 MiG-23BNs were built, although only a small number served in VVS units with the rest exported. A downgraded version intended for Third World customers proved to be fairly popular and effective. The last MiG-23BN in Indian service flew on 6 March 2009, flown by Wing Commander Tapas Ranjan Sahu of the 221 Squadron (Variants).
MiG-23BM ("Flogger-D") An upgrade of the MiG-23BK, the MiG-23BM replaced the original PrNK-23 with the PrNK-23M and the analog computer with a digital computer. Introduced into service as the MiG-27.
MiG-23BM experimental aircraft ("Flogger-D") The predecessor to the MiG-27, this experimental variant differed from the standard MiG-23BM in that its dielectric heads were moved from the pylons to directly on the wing roots.
MiG-27 (NATO: "Flogger-D") Introduced in 1975, simplified ground-attack version with simple pitot air intakes, no radar and a simplified engine with two position afterburner nozzle.
Proposed variants and upgrades
MiG-23R A proposed reconnaissance variant which was never finished.
MiG-23MLGD A subvariant of the MiG-23MLD, featuring new radar, electronic warfare equipment, and helmet-mounted display, partly the same as the MiG-29.
MiG-23K A carrier-borne fighter variant based on the MiG-23ML, it was cancelled after the cancellation and subsequent redesign of the Soviet aircraft carrier project.
MiG-23A A multi-role variant based on the MiG-23K, it was planned for three sub-variants: the MiG-23AI (fighter), MiG-23AB (ground-attack), and MiG-23AR (reconnaissance). The variant was cancelled for the same reason as the MiG-23K.
MiG-23MLK A proposed variant which would be fitted with either two new R-33 engines or one R-100 engine.
MiG-23MD A modification of the MiG-23M which would have been equipped with a Saphir-23MLA-2 radar.
MiG-23ML-1 A variant which would've been armed with the new R-146 missile and one of several engine configurations: a single R-100, an R-69F, or twin R-33 engines.
MiG-23-98 A proposed series of upgrades to the MiG-23 offered by Mikoyan in the late 1990s. At a cost of around US$1 million, it included new radar, self-defense suite and avionics, along with improved cockpit ergonomics, helmet-mounted display, and the ability to fire Vympel R-27 (NATO: AA-10 "Alamo") and Vympel R-77 (NATO: AA-12 "Adder") missiles. For a lesser price, the existing Sapfir-23 would be improved along with newer missiles and other avionics. Airframe life extension was offered as well.
MiG-23-98-2 An export upgrade offered to Angolan MiG-23MLss, improving the radar so they could fire new types of air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons.
MiG-23LL (flying laboratory) These MiG-23s were constructed to test a new in-cockpit warning system which used a female voice to warn pilots about various flight parameters. A female voice was chosen specifically to provide a distinction from ground communication, which in Soviet service was virtually always male.
Operators
Current operators
National Air Force of Angola; 22 MiG-23ML/UB/MLD in service.
Cuban Air Force; 20 MiG-23ML/MF/BN/UB in service. One crashed in February 2019.
DR Congo Air Force; 2 MiG-23s, One single-seat, and one twin-seat.
Ethiopian Air Force; 7 MiG-23BN/UB in service for the ground attack role. The interceptor variant, MiG-23ML, was withdrawn from service. From 10 aircraft two fighters were shot down a while ago, and the third was shot down on 23 June 2021 by Tigray militia force, and only 7 fighters of the same model remain
Military of Kazakhstan. 2 units of training MiG-23UB, as of 2018.
Libyan Air Force; initially at least 3 MiG-23ML/UB in service, split among different factions. Four lost. Only one in service with the New General National Congress, while others (e.g. serial 453) may have been made airworthy by both factions.
North Korean Air Force; 56 MiG-23ML/UBS in service
Sudanese Air Force; 3 MiG-23MS/UBS in service. Four were refurbished locally in 2016, after nearly 20 years in storage. One lost during testing.
Syrian Air Force; 90 MiG-23MS/MF/ML/MLD/BN/UB airframes before the Syrian Civil War.
Air Force of Zimbabwe; 3 given by Libya.
Former operators
Afghan Air Force. MiG-23BN/UBs may have served with the Afghan Air Force from 1984. It is unclear whether these were merely Soviet aircraft wearing Afghan colors.
Algerian Air Force. 40 MiG-23BN ordered in 1975, with deliveries starting in 1976. 16 MiG-23MF delivered in 1982.
Belarus Air Force.
Bulgarian Air Force. A total of 90 MiG-23s served the Bulgarian Air Force from 1976 to their withdrawal from service in 2004. The exact count is: 33 MiG-23BN, 12 MiG-23MF, 1 MiG-23ML, 8 MiG-23MLA, 21 MiG-23MLD and 15 MiG-23UB.
Cote d'Ivoire Air Force
Czech Air Force. The MiGs were retired in 1994 (BN, MF version) and 1998 (ML, UB variant).
Czechoslovakian Air Force. MiG-23s were transferred to the Czech Republic.
East German Air Force; transferred to (West) German Air Force. The German Air Force gave two MiG-23s to the United States Air Force and one to a museum in Florida, the others were given away to others states or scrapped.
Egyptian Air Force. Used until Egypt turned towards Western Governments. Six MiG-23BN/MS/UBs were sent to China in exchange for military hardware; China used them to reverse engineer the MiG-23 as the Q-6 but since the Chinese could not reverse engineer the R-29 and build a reliable turbofan, the only MiG-23 elements that were used ended in the J-8II. At least eight were transferred to USA for evaluation.
German Air Force; In 1990 the West German Air Force inherited 18 MiG-23BNs, 9 MiG-23MFs, 28 MiG-23MLs, 8 MiG-23UBs from East Germany.
Hungarian Air Force; 16 MiG-23s served and were withdrawn in 1997; the exact count is: 12 MiG-23MFs and four MiG-23UBs (one of them was purchased in 1990 from the Soviet Air Force).
Indian Air Force. The MiG-23BN ground attack aircraft was phased out on 6 March 2009 and the MiG-23MF air defence interceptor phased out in 2007. 14 MiG 23UB trainers in service according to "World Air Forces 2020"
12 MiG-23s flown over from Iraq in 1991 in storage.
Iraqi Air Force. Used until the fall of Saddam Hussein
Libyan Air Force; had 130 MiG-23MS/ML/BN/UBs in service (most in storage) prior to the 2011 Libyan civil war. What remains has been passed on to the successor government.
Polish Air Force. A total of 36 MiG-23MF single-seaters and six MiG-23UB trainers were delivered to the Polish Air Force between 1979 and 1982. The last of them were withdrawn in September 1999. During the period four planes were lost in accidents.
Namibian Air Force; had two MiG-23 aircraft in service.
Romanian Air Force. A total of 46 MiG-23 served from 1979 until 2001 and were withdrawn in 2003; the exact count is: 36 MiG-23MF and 10 MiG-23UB.
Russian Air Force. Approximately 500, all in reserve.
Military of Turkmenistan.
Passed on to successor states.
Soviet Air Force
Soviet Anti-Air Defence
Soviet Naval Aviation
Sri Lanka Air Force; one MiG-23UB trainer used only for training purposes for their MiG-27M fleet
Uganda People's Defence Force
Ukrainian Air Force
Military of Uzbekistan
Military of Zambia.
Evaluation only users
MiG-23s were obtained from Egypt, and an attempt to incorporate its variable wing design into their Nanchang Q-6. The program did not go ahead and the Q-6 was not built, but some features from the MiG-23 features were incorporated into the J-8II. China currently displays the MiG-23 in several air museums.
One ex-Syrian MiG-23 flown by a defecting pilot to Israel.
Samples obtained from Egypt and were mostly stationed in Nellis Air Force Base. The U.S. Air Force operated a small number of MiG-23s, officially designated YF-113, as both test and evaluation aircraft and in an aggressor role for fighter pilot training, from 1977 through 1988 in a program codenamed "Constant Peg".
Yugoslavia
Some ex-Iraqi MiG-23s have been used by Flight Test Center (VOC) in the early 1990s.
Civilian operators
According to the FAA there are 11 privately owned MiG-23s in the U.S.
Two ex-Czech aircraft, N51734 and N5106E, are registered for civilian use in the United States and are based at New Castle Airport in Wilmington, Delaware.
An ex-Bulgarian VVS aircraft, N923UB, is operational and on display at the Cold War Air Museum near Dallas, Texas.
Accidents and incidents
Aircraft on display
Specifications (MiG-23MLD)
See also
1989 Belgian MiG-23 crash
References
Sources
Bibliography
External links
MiG-23 on FAS.org
MiG-23 FLOGGER at Global Security.org
MiG-23 Flogger at Global Aircraft
Angola awards life-extension contract for MiG-23ML fleet-05/04...
МиГ-23 против F-15 и F-16
МиГ-23 на Ближнем Востоке
Из истории советских "Агрессоров
ИСПЫТАНИЯ НА ВОЛЖСКИХ БЕРЕГАХ
Афганистан. Война в возду
Chronological Listing of Iranian Air Force Grumman F-14 Tomcat Losses & Ejections
MiG-023
1960s Soviet fighter aircraft
Variable-sweep-wing aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
High-wing aircraft
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220187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoko%20Shimomura | Yoko Shimomura | is a Japanese composer and pianist primarily known for her work in video games. Shimomura has worked in the video game industry ever since graduating from the Osaka College of Music in 1988. From then until 1993, she worked for Capcom, where she composed wholly or in part the scores for 16 games, including Final Fight and Street Fighter II: The World Warrior.
From 1993 until 2002, Shimomura worked for Square, where she composed for a further eight games. While working for Square, she was best known for her work on the soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts, which was her last game for the company before leaving. Starting with Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga in 2003, she began working as an active freelancer, starting up a music production company known as Midiplex. Despite going freelance, she has continued to work on projects for Square Enix, including all of the games in the Kingdom Hearts series, as well as for others such as The 3rd Birthday and Final Fantasy XV.
Other well known games for which she provided the music include Super Mario RPG, Parasite Eve, Legend of Mana, Xenoblade Chronicles. Her works have gained a great deal of popularity, and have been performed in multiple video game music concerts, including one, Sinfonia Drammatica, that was focused half on her "greatest hits" album, Drammatica: The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura, and half on the music of a previous concert. Music from several of her games have been published as arranged albums and as piano scores.
Early life
Shimomura was born on October 19, 1967, in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. She developed an interest for music at a young age, and started taking piano lessons "at the age of four or five". She began composing her own music by playing the piano randomly and pretending to compose, eventually coming up with her own pieces, the first of which she says she still remembers how to play. Shimomura attended Osaka College of Music, and graduated as a piano major in 1988.
Upon graduation, Shimomura intended to become a piano instructor and was extended a job offer to become a piano teacher at a music store, but as she had been an avid gamer for many years she decided to send some samples of her work to various video game companies that were recruiting at the university. Capcom invited her in for an audition and interview, and she was offered a job there. Her family and instructors were dismayed with her change in focus, as video game music was not well respected, and "they had paid [her] tuition for an expensive music school and couldn't understand why [she] would accept such a job", but Shimomura accepted the job at Capcom anyway.
Career
While working for Capcom, Shimomura contributed to the soundtracks of over 16 games, including the successful Street Fighter II: The World Warrior, which she composed all but three pieces for. The first soundtrack she worked on at the company was for Samurai Sword in 1988. Final Fight, in 1989, was her first work to receive a separate soundtrack album release, on an album of music from several Capcom games. The first soundtrack album to exclusively feature her work came a year later for the soundtrack to Street Fighter II. While she began her tenure at Capcom working on games for video game consoles, by 1990 she had moved to the arcade game division. She was a member of the company's in-house band Alph Lyla, which played various Capcom game music, including pieces written by Shimomura. She performed live with the group on a few occasions, including playing piano during Alph Lyla's appearance at the 1992 Game Music Festival.
In 1993, Shimomura left Capcom to join another game company, Square. She stated that the move was done because she was interested in writing "classical-style" music for fantasy role-playing games. While working for Capcom, she was in the arcade department and was unable to transfer to the console department to work on their role-playing video game series Breath of Fire, although she did contribute one track to the first game in the series. Her first project at Square was the score for the role-playing video game Live A Live in 1994. While she was working on the score to Super Mario RPG the following year, she was asked to join Noriko Matsueda on the music to the futuristic role-playing game Front Mission. Although she was overworked doing both scores and it was not the genre that she was interested in, she found herself unable to refuse after her first attempt to do so unexpectedly happened in the presence of the president of Square, Tetsuo Mizuno. These games were followed by Tobal No. 1, the last score she worked on with another composer for a decade.
Over the next few years, she composed the soundtrack to several games, including Parasite Eve and Legend of Mana. Of all her compositions, Shimomura considers the soundtrack to Legend of Mana the one that best expresses herself and the soundtrack remains Shimomura's personal favourite. Parasite Eve on the PlayStation had the first soundtrack by Shimomura that included a vocal song, as it was the first game she had written for running on a console system that had the sound capability for one. In 2002 she wrote the score for Kingdom Hearts, which she has said is the most "special" soundtrack to her, as well as a turning point in her career; she named the soundtracks to Street Fighter II and Super Mario RPG as the other two significant points in her life as a composer.
Kingdom Hearts was wildly successful, shipping more than four million copies worldwide; Shimomura's music was frequently cited as one of the highlights of the game, and the title track has been ranked as the fourth-best role-playing game title track of all time. The soundtrack has led to two albums of piano arrangements. Kingdom Hearts was the last soundtrack that she worked on at Square. After the release of Kingdom Hearts in 2002, Shimomura left Square for maternity leave, and began work as a freelancer in 2003. She has built on the work she did while at Square; since leaving she has composed or is composing music for eleven Kingdom Hearts games and Nintendo's Mario & Luigi series. She has also worked on many other projects, such as Heroes of Mana and various arranged albums. In February 2014, Shimomura played piano at a retrospective 25th anniversary concert at Tokyo FM Hall. She performed songs from games such as Kingdom Hearts, Live a Live, and Street Fighter II. During the Beware the Forest's Mushrooms performance from Super Mario RPG, Shimomura was joined onstage by fellow game composer Yasunori Mitsuda, who played the Irish bouzouki. She most recently composed and produced the majority of the score for Final Fantasy XV, which she began writing for in 2006, a decade before the game was released. She is also a member of music label, Brave Wave Productions.
Legacy
After composing soundtracks to over 45 different games, Shimomura has become one of the biggest names in video game music industry, and has been described as "one of the most famous video game music composers in the world". Shimomura's best works compilation album, titled Drammatica: The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura, was released in March 2008. The album contains compositions from Kingdom Hearts and many other games she worked on in full orchestration, with Shimomura stating that she chose music that was popular among fans and well-suited for orchestration, but had never been performed by an orchestra before. In a 2008 interview with Music4Games regarding the project, Shimomura commented that with the sheet music generated for the project, she would be interested in pursuing a live performance of Drammatica for fans if the opportunity arose. In March 2009, that wish was realized when it was announced that Arnie Roth would conduct the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra at the concert Sinfonia Drammatica in the Stockholm Concert Hall, which would combine music from the album with performances of Chris Hülsbeck's Symphonic Shades concert. The concert took place in August 2009. In March 2007, Shimomura released her first non-video game album, Murmur, an album of vocal songs sung by Chata.
Shimomura's music for Kingdom Hearts made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009, which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth. Legend of Manas title theme was also performed by the Australian Eminence Symphony Orchestra for its classical gaming music concert A Night in Fantasia 2007.
Music from the original soundtrack of Legend of Mana was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing. Two compilation books of music from the series have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions, with the second including Shimomura's tracks from Legend of Mana. All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos, though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible. Additionally, piano sheet music from Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II has been published as music books by Yamaha Music Media.
Shimomura's first dedicated concert performance outside Japan was held at the Salle Cortot in Paris in November 2015. Later that same month, she performed at the El Plaza Condesa in Mexico City. In September 2016, some of her music for Final Fantasy XV was performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios in London, as well as in Boston, with Shimomura herself performing on piano.
Musical style and influences
Shimomura lists Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, and Maurice Ravel as some of her influences on her personal website. She has also stated that she has enjoyed "lounge-style jazz" for a long time. Despite these influences and her classical training, the diverse musical styles that she has used throughout her career and sometimes in the same soundtrack include "rock, electronica, oriental, ambient, industrial, pop, symphonic, operatic, chiptune, and more". She draws inspiration for her songs from things in her life that move her emotionally, which she describes as "a beautiful picture, scenery, tasting something delicious, scents that bring back memories, happy and sad things... Anything that moves my emotion gives me inspiration". Shimomura has also stated that she comes up with most of her songs when she is doing something that is "not part of [her] daily routine, like traveling." Although her influences are mostly classical, she has said that in her opinion her "style has changed dramatically over the years, though the passion for music stays the same." Shimomura has said that she believes that an important part of "the creative process behind music" is to "convey a subtle message, something that comes from your imagination and sticks with the listener, without being overly specific about what it means", rather than only writing simple themes with obvious messages. She stated her favorite composition was "Dearly Beloved" from Kingdom Hearts.
Works
Video games
Composition
Arrangements
Anime
Other
References
External links
1967 births
Alph Lyla members
Anime composers
Capcom people
Freelance musicians
Japanese film score composers
Japanese music arrangers
Japanese pianists
Japanese women composers
Japanese women musicians
Japanese women pianists
Living people
Musicians from Hyōgo Prefecture
Square Enix people
Video game composers
Women film score composers | [
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220194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bud%20Shank | Bud Shank | Clifford Everett "Bud" Shank Jr. (May 27, 1926 – April 2, 2009) was an American alto saxophonist and flautist. He rose to prominence in the early 1950s playing lead alto and flute in Stan Kenton's Innovations in Modern Music Orchestra and throughout the decade worked in various small jazz combos. He spent the 1960s as a first-call studio musician in Hollywood. In the 1970s and 1980s, he performed regularly with the L. A. Four. Shank ultimately abandoned the flute to focus exclusively on playing jazz on the alto saxophone. He also recorded on tenor and baritone sax. His most famous recording is probably the version of Harlem Nocturne used as the theme song in Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer. He is also well known for the alto flute solo on the song "California Dreamin'" recorded by The Mamas & the Papas in 1965.
Biography
Bud Shank was born in Dayton, Ohio, United States. He began with clarinet in Vandalia, Ohio, but had switched to saxophone before attending the University of North Carolina. While at UNC, Shank was initiated into the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. In 1946, he worked with Charlie Barnet before moving on to Kenton and the West coast jazz scene. He also had a strong interest in what might now be termed world music, playing Brazilian-influenced jazz with Laurindo Almeida in 1953 and 1954. In 1958, he is the first American jazz musician to record in Italy, with an Italian jazz orchestra conducted by Ezio Leoni (aka Len Mercer), paving the way for Chet Baker and others who would follow Shank's tracks recording in Milan with Maestro Leoni. His world music collaborations continued in 1962, fusing jazz with Indian traditions in collaboration with Indian composer and sitar player Ravi Shankar.
In 1974, Shank joined with Ray Brown, Shelly Manne (replaced by Jeff Hamilton after 1977), and Laurindo Almeida to form the group the L.A. Four, who recorded and toured extensively through 1982. Shank helped to popularize both Latin-flavored and chamber jazz music, and as a musician's musician also performed with orchestras as diverse as the Royal Philharmonic, the New American Orchestra, the Gerald Wilson Big Band, Stan Kenton's Neophonic Orchestra, and Duke Ellington.
In 2005, he formed the Bud Shank Big Band in Los Angeles to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Stan Kenton's Neophonic Orchestra.
A documentary film about Bud Shank, Bud Shank "Against the Tide" Portrait of a Jazz Legend, was produced and directed by Graham Carter of Jazzed Media and released by Jazzed Media as a DVD (with a companion CD) in 2008. The film has been awarded four indie film awards including an Aurora Awards Gold.
Shank died on April 2, 2009, of a pulmonary embolism at his home in Tucson, Arizona, one day after returning from San Diego, California, where he was recording a new album.
Discography
References
External links
Interview at All About Jazz
Bud Shank, encyclopedia entry at Jazz.com
1926 births
2009 deaths
American jazz alto saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz flautists
Big band saxophonists
Cool jazz flautists
Cool jazz saxophonists
Jazz alto saxophonists
Mainstream jazz saxophonists
West Coast jazz saxophonists
Deaths from pulmonary embolism
Musicians from Dayton, Ohio
Concord Records artists
20th-century American musicians
20th-century saxophonists
Jazz musicians from Ohio
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
The L.A. Four (band) members | [
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220195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusef%20Lateef | Yusef Lateef | Yusef Abdul Lateef (born William Emanuel Huddleston; October 9, 1920 – December 23, 2013) was an American jazz multi-instrumentalist, composer, and prominent figure among the Ahmadiyya Community in America.
Although Lateef's main instruments were the tenor saxophone and flute, he also played oboe and bassoon, both rare in jazz, and non-western instruments such as the bamboo flute, shanai, shofar, xun, arghul and koto. He is known for having been an innovator in the blending of jazz with "Eastern" music. Peter Keepnews, in his New York Times obituary of Lateef, wrote that the musician "played world music before world music had a name".
Lateef's books included two novellas entitled A Night in the Garden of Love and Another Avenue, the short story collections Spheres and Rain Shapes, also his autobiography, The Gentle Giant, written in collaboration with Herb Boyd. Along with his record label YAL Records, Lateef owned Fana Music, a music publishing company. Lateef published his own work through Fana, which includes Yusef Lateef's Flute Book of the Blues and many of his own orchestral compositions.
Biography
Early life and career
Lateef was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee as William Emanuel Huddleston. His family moved, in 1923, to Lorain, Ohio, and again in 1925, to Detroit, Michigan, where his father changed the family's name to "Evans".
Throughout his early life, Lateef came into contact with many Detroit-based jazz musicians who gained prominence, including vibraphonist Milt Jackson, bassist Paul Chambers, drummer Elvin Jones and guitarist Kenny Burrell. Lateef was a proficient saxophonist by the time of his graduation from high school at the age of 18, when he launched his professional career and began touring with a number of swing bands. The first instrument he bought was an alto saxophone but after a year he switched to the tenor saxophone, influenced by the playing of Lester Young.
In 1949, he was invited by Dizzy Gillespie to tour with his orchestra. In 1950, Lateef returned to Detroit and began his studies in composition and flute at Wayne State University.
It was during this period that he converted to Islam as a member of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and changed his name. He twice made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Prominence
Lateef began recording as a leader in 1957 for Savoy Records, a non-exclusive association which continued until 1959; the earliest of Lateef's album's for the Prestige subsidiary New Jazz overlap with them. Musicians such as Wilbur Harden (trumpet, flugelhorn), bassist Herman Wright, drummer Frank Gant, and pianist Hugh Lawson were among his collaborators during this period. In 1960, they played an extended gig at the Minor Key, a non-alcoholic club at Dexter and Burlingame in Detroit.<ref>The Concert Database, the concert database", 1959. Retrieved January 31, 2022.</ref>
By 1961, with the recording of Into Something and Eastern Sounds, Lateef's dominant presence within a group context had emerged. His "Eastern" influences are clearly audible in all of these recordings, with spots for instruments like the rahab, shanai, arghul, koto and a collection of Chinese wooden flutes and bells along with his tenor and flute. Even his use of the western oboe sounds exotic in this context; it is not a standard jazz instrument. Indeed, the tunes themselves are a mixture of jazz standards, blues and film music usually performed with a piano/bass/drums rhythm section in support. Lateef made numerous contributions to other people's albums, including during his period as a member of saxophonist Cannonball Adderley's Quintet during 1962–64.
In the late 1960s, he began to incorporate contemporary soul and gospel phrasing into his music (albeit with a strong blues underlay) on albums such as Detroit and Hush 'N' Thunder, presaging the emergence of jazz fusion. Lateef expressed a dislike of the terms "jazz" and "jazz musician" as musical generalizations. As is so often the case with such generalizations, the use of these terms do understate the breadth of his sound. In the 1980s, Lateef experimented with new-age and spiritual elements.
In 1960, Lateef returned to school, studying flute at the Manhattan School of Music in New York City. He received a bachelor's degree in music in 1969 and a master's degree in music education in 1970. Starting in 1971, he taught courses in "autophysiopsychic music" at the Manhattan School of Music, and he became an associate professor at the Borough of Manhattan Community College in 1972.
In 1975, Lateef received an Ed.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst; his dissertation was a comparative study of Western and Islamic education. Thereafter, Lateef served as a senior research fellow at the Center for Nigerian Cultural Studies at Ahmadu Bello University throughout the early 1980s. Returning to the United States in 1986, he took a joint faculty appointment at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Hampshire College.
Later career
His 1987 album Yusef Lateef's Little Symphony won the Grammy Award for Best New Age Album. His core influences, however, were clearly rooted in jazz, and in his own words: "My music is jazz."
In 1992, Lateef founded YAL Records. In 1993, Lateef was commissioned by the WDR Radio Orchestra Cologne to compose The African American Epic Suite, a four-part work for orchestra and quartet based on themes of slavery and disfranchisement in the United States. The piece has since been performed by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.
In 2005, Nicolas Humbert & Werner Penzel, directors of Step Across The Border'', filmed Brother Yusef, in his wooden house in the middle of a forest in Massachusetts. In 2010 he received the lifetime Jazz Master Fellowship Award from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), an independent federal agency. Established in 1982, the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters award is the highest honor given in jazz.
The Manhattan School of Music, where Lateef had earned a bachelor's and a master's degree, awarded Lateef its Distinguished Alumni Award in 2012.
Lateef's last albums were recorded for Adam Rudolph's Meta Records. To the end of his life, he continued to teach at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, Smith College, and Hampshire College in western Massachusetts. Lateef died of prostate cancer on the morning of December 23, 2013, at the age of 93, survived by his son, Yusef Lateef and his wife, Ayesha Lateef.
Following his death, Lateef's family auctioned off many of his instruments, in the hopes that they would continue to be played. Woodwind player Jeff Coffin purchased Lateef's main tenor saxophone as well as his bass flute.
In October 2020, the UMass Fine Arts Center celebrated the centenary of Lateef's birth by producing "Yusef Lateef: A Centenary Celebration," a major online exhibit of his work curated by Glenn Siegel and others. The centenary includes "100 Responses to Yusef Lateef," a series of video tributes by many prominent artists and former Lateef collaborators and students.
Discography
Personal life
Lateef said what he remembered most about his childhood was "My passion for nature."
In 1980, Lateef declared that he would no longer perform any place where alcohol was served. In 1999 he said: "Too much blood, sweat and tears have been spilled creating this music to play it where people are smoking, drinking and talking."
Lateef's first wife, Tahira, died before him, as did a son and a daughter. He was survived by his wife, Ayesha; a son, Yusef; a granddaughter; and several great-grandchildren.
References
External links
– official site
Yusef Lateef radio interview
NEA Jazz Masters: Interview with Yusef Lateef, interviewed by A. B. Spellman on behalf of the National Endowment for the Arts, October 21, 2009
1920 births
2013 deaths
African-American saxophonists
African-American Muslims
American Ahmadis
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American jazz flautists
American jazz oboists
Male oboists
American jazz tenor saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American multi-instrumentalists
Avant-garde jazz musicians
Converts to Islam
American Muslims
Grammy Award winners
Hampshire College faculty
Hard bop oboists
Hard bop flautists
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Musicians from Detroit
University of Massachusetts Amherst College of Education alumni
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
Wayne State University alumni
Riverside Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Atlantic Records artists
Impulse! Records artists
Prestige Records artists
Jazz musicians from Michigan
Cannonball Adderley Quintet members
ACT Music artists
CTI Records artists
RogueArt artists
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people | [
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220198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mons%20pubis | Mons pubis | In human anatomy, and in mammals in general, the mons pubis or pubic mound (also known simply as the mons, and known specifically in females as the mons Venus or mons veneris) is a rounded mass of fatty tissue found over the pubic symphysis of the pubic bones.
Anatomy
For females, the mons pubis forms the anterior portion of the vulva. It divides into the labia majora (literally "larger lips"), on either side of the furrow known as the pudendal cleft, that surrounds the labia minora, clitoris, urethra, vaginal opening, and other structures of the vulval vestibule.
Although present in both men and women, the mons pubis tends to be larger in women. Its fatty tissue is sensitive to estrogen, causing a distinct mound to form with the onset of female puberty. This pushes the forward portion of the labia majora out and away from the pubic bone. The mound also becomes covered with pubic hair. It often becomes less prominent with the decrease in bodily estrogen experienced during menopause.
Etymology
The term mons pubis is derived from Latin for "pubic mound". The more specifically female mons Venus or mons veneris is derived from Latin for "mound of Venus".
Society and culture
Although not part of external genitalia itself, the pubic mound can be regarded as an erogenous zone and is highly eroticized in many cultures. Throughout history, the complete or partial removal of pubic hair has been common in many societies, and more recently it has become widespread in the Western world. The full removal of pubic hair by use of wax, sugar or shaving, known as ″Brazilian wax″, has become common practice in recent years.
In some circumstances, the mons veneris is subjected to aesthetic ideals beyond hair removal. Correspondingly, plastic surgery is offered which alters the shape of the mons to a desired ideal. Desired ideals may be influenced by personal preferences, current cultural norms, or societal pressures.
Permanent forms of decoration to enhance the aesthetic appeal of this area are hanabira, the application of cosmetic scars, or piercings such as the Christina piercing or the Nefertiti piercing. Vajazzling refers to the non-permanent decoration of the mons pubis with crystal ornaments.
References
Bibliography
Sloane, Ethel. Biology of Women. Cengage Learning 2002, , p. 31
Gray, Henry: Anatomy of the Human Body. Lea & Febiger, 1918
"Mons pubis" in Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010.
External links
Pelvis
Sexual anatomy | [
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220200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oystercatcher | Oystercatcher | The oystercatchers are a group of waders forming the family Haematopodidae, which has a single genus, Haematopus. They are found on coasts worldwide apart from the polar regions and some tropical regions of Africa and South East Asia. The exceptions to this are the Eurasian oystercatcher, the South Island oystercatcher, and the Magellanic oystercatcher, which also breed inland, far inland in some cases. In the past there has been a great deal of confusion as to the species limits, with discrete populations of all black oystercatchers being afforded specific status but pied oystercatchers being considered one single species.
Taxonomy
The genus Haematopus was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae to accommodate a single species, the Eurasian oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus. The genus name Haematopus comes from the Ancient Greek words haima αἳμα meaning blood, and pous πούς meaning foot, referring to the red legs of the Eurasian oystercatcher; it had been in use since Pierre Belon in 1555. The family Haematopodidae was introduced (as the subfamily Haematopodinae) by the French naturalist Charles Bonaparte in 1838.
The common name oystercatcher was coined by Mark Catesby in 1731 for the North American species H. palliatus, which he described as eating oysters. Yarrell in 1843 established this as the preferred term, replacing the older name sea pie
Description
The different species of oystercatcher show little variation in shape or appearance. They range from in length and in wingspan. The Eurasian oystercatcher is the lightest on average, at , while the sooty oystercatcher is the heaviest, at . The plumage of all species is either all-black, or black (or dark brown) on top and white underneath. The variable oystercatcher is slightly exceptional in being either all-black or pied. They are large, obvious, and noisy plover-like birds, with massive long orange or red bills used for smashing or prying open molluscs. The bill shape varies between species, according to the diet. Those birds with blade-like bill tips pry open or smash mollusc shells, and those with pointed bill tips tend to probe for annelid worms. They show sexual dimorphism, with females being longer-billed and heavier than males.
Feeding
The diet of oystercatchers varies with location. Species occurring inland feed upon earthworms and insect larvae. The diet of coastal oystercatchers is more varied, although dependent upon coast type; on estuaries, bivalves, gastropods and polychaete worms are the most important part of the diet, whereas rocky shore oystercatchers prey upon limpets, mussels, gastropods, and chitons. Other prey items include echinoderms, fish, and crabs.
Breeding
Nearly all species of oystercatcher are monogamous, although there are reports of polygamy in the Eurasian oystercatcher. They are territorial during the breeding season (with a few species defending territories year round). There is strong mate and site fidelity in the species that have been studied, with one record of a pair defending the same site for 20 years. A single nesting attempt is made per breeding season, which is timed over the summer months. The nests of oystercatchers are simple affairs, scrapes in the ground which may be lined, and placed in a spot with good visibility. The eggs of oystercatchers are spotted and cryptic. Between one and four eggs are laid, with three being typical in the Northern Hemisphere and two in the south. Incubation is shared but not proportionally, females tend to take more incubation and males engage in more territory defence. Incubation varies by species, lasting between 24–39 days. Oystercatchers are also known to practice "egg dumping." Like the cuckoo, they sometimes lay their eggs in the nests of other species such as seagulls, abandoning them to be raised by those birds.
Conservation
The Canary Islands oystercatcher became extinct during the 20th century. The Chatham oystercatcher is endemic to the Chatham Islands of New Zealand but is listed as endangered by the IUCN, while both the African and Eurasian oystercatchers are considered near threatened. There has been conflict with commercial shellfish farmers, but studies have found that the impact of oystercatchers is much smaller than that of shore crabs.
Species
The genus contains twelve species.
Several fossil species are known, including Haematopus sulcatus (Brodkorb, 1955) from the Barstovian of Florida and Zanclean of North Carolina, and which is evidently considered a synonym of the extant species Haematopus palliatus.
References
External links
ARKive – images and movies of the oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)
Oystercatcher videos on the Internet Bird Collection
LIVE webcam at the seashore in Namsos, Norway 2013
.
Shorebirds
Haematopodidae
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
no:Tjeldfamilien
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220201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock | Jock | Jock may refer to:
Common meanings
Jock (stereotype), a North American term for a stereotypical male athlete
Jock, a derogatory term for Scottish people mostly used by the English
Short for jockstrap, an item of male protective undergarment
Jocks, male briefs, AKA "jockey shorts" and (in Australia) most other styles
Places
Jock River, Canada
Jocks Lagoon, Tasmania
People
Jock (given name), a list of people with the first name or nickname
Jock (cartoonist) (born 1972), British comic book artist Mark Simpson
Charles Jock (born 1989), American middle-distance runner
Duach Jock (born 1986), South Sudanese soccer player
Fictional characters
Jock, pilot in game Deus Ex
Jock, a Scottish Terrier in Lady and the Tramp and Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure
Wee Jock, a Highland Terrier in Hamish Macbeth
Jock Ewing, in Dallas on television
Jock Lindsey, a pilot from Raiders of the Lost Ark
Other uses
Jocks (film), a 1987 film
The Jocks, the British Army 9th (Scottish) Division
Jock, a dog, subject of the book Jock of the Bushveld by Sir Percy Fitzpatrick
See also
Disc jockey
Jock itch, an infection of the groin region
The Jocks and the Geordies, a comic strip
Jocky
Shock jock | [
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220204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taffy | Taffy | Taffy may refer to:
People
English term for a Welsh person (as used in the rhyme Taffy was a Welshman)
Taffy (nickname), various people
Taffy (singer) (born 1963), British singer
Taffy Thomas, British storyteller, appointed the UK's first Laureate for Storytelling in 2010
Arts and entertainment
"Taffy" (song), by Lisa Loeb, 1995
Taffy (TV series)
Taffy, a character in the ClayFighter series of video games
"Taffy!", an episode of Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series
Other uses
Taffy (candy), a type of chewy, often colored, candy
Taffy, a nickname for Navy Task Units in World War II
Taffy Entertainment
See also
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] |
220205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy | Paddy | Paddy may refer to:
People
Paddy (given name), a list of people with the given name or nickname
An ethnic slur for an Irishman
Birds
Paddy (pigeon), a Second World War carrier pigeon
Snowy sheathbill or paddy, a bird species
Black-faced sheathbill, also known as the paddy bird
Entertainment
Paddy (film), a 1970 Irish comedy
Paddy Kirk, a fictional character in the British soap opera Emmerdale
Other uses
Paddy field, a type of cultivated land
Paddy (unmilled rice)
Paddy mail, a train for construction workers
Paddy Whiskey, a liquor
See also
Patty (disambiguation)
Paddi (disambiguation)
Padi (disambiguation) | [
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220206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick | Mick | Mick is a masculine given name, usually a short form (hypocorism) of Michael. Because of its popularity in Ireland, it is often used in England as a derogatory term for an Irish person or a person of Irish descent. In Australia the meaning broadened to include any Roman Catholic.
People
Mick Abrahams (born 1943), English guitarist and band leader, original guitarist for Jethro Tull
Mick Aston (1946-2013), English archaeologist
Mick Batyske, aka Mick (DJ), American DJ
Mick Brown, half of the British vocal duo Pat and Mick
Mick Coady (born 1958), English footballer
Michael Collins (Irish leader) (1890–1922), Irish revolutionary leader, soldier, and politician
Mick Cronin (basketball) (born 1971), American basketball coach
Mick Fanning (born 1981), Australian professional surfer
Mick Foley (born 1965), American professional wrestler, actor and author
Mick Fleetwood (born 1947), British drummer and founding member of Fleetwood Mac
Mick Gadsby (born 1947), English footballer
Michael Hannah (born 1983), Australian downhill mountain biker
Mick Harvey (born 1958), Australian musician, singer-songwriter, composer, arranger and record producer
Mick Herron, British mystery and thriller novelist
Mick Hucknall (born 1960), English singer and songwriter
Mick Jagger (born 1943), lead singer and songwriter for the Rolling Stones
Mick Jenkins (rugby league) (born 1972), Welsh rugby footballer
Mick Jenkins (rapper) (born 1991), American rapper
Mick Jones (disambiguation)
Mick McGinley (born 1940/1), Irish Gaelic footballer and father of professional golfer Paul
Mick Mannock (1887–1918), British First World War fighter ace
Mickey Mantle (1931-1995), American Major League Baseball Hall-of-Fame player nicknamed "the Mick"
Mick Mars (born 1951 or 1955), guitarist for Mötley Crüe born Robert Alan Deal
Mick Mercer (born 1958), British journalist
Mick Molloy (born 1966), Australian comedian, writer, producer and actor
Mick Molloy (born 1944), Irish former rugby union player
Mick Mulvaney (born 1967), American politician
Mick Peck (born 1981), New Zealand magician
Michael Potter (born 1963), Australian rugby league coach and former player
Mick Ralphs (born 1944), English guitarist and songwriter, founding member of rock bands Mott the Hoople and Bad Company
Mick Ronson (1946-1993), English guitarist for David Bowie's The Spiders from Mars
Mick Schumacher (born 1999), German racing driver and son of former F1 champion Michael Schumacher
Mick Taylor (born 1949), English guitarist for the Rolling Stones
Mick Thomson (born 1973), American guitarist for Slipknot
Mick Tongraya (born 1992), Thai actor and model
Fictional characters
Mick Belker, on the TV series Hill Street Blues
Mick Carter, on the British soap opera EastEnders
Michael "Crocodile" Dundee, in the Crocodile Dundee film series
Mick Garvey, on the TV series Benidorm
Mick Kanic, on the Power Rangers Ninja Steel
Mick Kelly, in the 1940 novel The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter and the 1968 film adaptation
See also
The Mick (disambiguation)
Mickey (disambiguation)
MIC (disambiguation)
Micky
Micki
Taking the mick
Masculine given names
Hypocorisms
Pejorative terms for European people | [
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