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220546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4in%C3%B6%20Tanner | Väinö Tanner | Väinö Alfred Tanner (; 12 March 1881 – 19 April 1966; surname until 1895 Thomasson) was a leading figure in the Social Democratic Party of Finland, and a pioneer and leader of the cooperative movement in Finland. He was Prime Minister of Finland in 1926–1927.
Tanner was born in Helsinki as the son of a railway brakesman of modest means. After matriculating in 1900, he studied at the business college Suomen Liikemiesten Kauppaopisto (one of two predecessors of the present-day Business College Helsinki). He also studied law, graduating as a jurist in 1911.
Tanner started work as a trainee at the Großeinkaufs-Gesellschaft Deutscher Consumvereine (GEG) in Hamburg, Germany, while still a student, and in 1903, after returning to Finland, became manager of Turun Vähäväkisten Osuusliike, then the largest cooperative retail society in Finland. He was later appointed to the supervisory board of the Helsinki-based cooperative Elanto in 1907, and also became chairman of Suomen Osuuskauppojen Keskuskunta (SOK) in 1909 and CEO of Elanto in 1915. He also served as president of the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) from 1927 until 1945.
He did not participate in the Finnish Civil War, maintaining a neutral attitude. When the war ended he became Finland's leading Social Democratic Party (SDP) politician, and a strong proponent of the parliamentary system. His main achievement was the rehabilitation of the SDP after the Civil War. Väinö Tanner served as Prime Minister (1926–1927), Minister of Finance (1937–1939), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939–1940), and after the Winter War Minister of Trade and Industry (1941–1942) and Minister of Finance (1942–1944).
Väinö Tanner's legacy is in his directing the Finnish working class from their extremist ideology towards pragmatic progress through the democratic process. Under his leadership the Social Democrats were trusted to form a minority government already less than 10 years after the bloody civil war. Tanner's minority socialist government passed a series of important social reforms during its time in office, which included a liberal amnesty law, reduced duties on imported foods, and pension and health insurance laws.
During President Relander's brief illness Tanner, who held the post of prime minister, was even the acting president and Commander-In-Chief. In this role he even received the parade of the White guards on the 10th anniversary of the White victory. This was perceived as a remarkable development at the time. During the 1930s and 1940s, the Social Democrats formed several coalition governments with the Agrarian party. In the Winter War Väinö Tanner was the foreign minister.
Väinö Tanner's leadership was very important in forming the grounds and creating the Spirit of the Winter War which united the nation.
After the end of the Continuation War, Tanner was tried for responsibility for the war in February 1946, and sentenced to five years and six months in prison.
After the Continuation War, and while still in prison, Tanner became the virtual leader of a faction of the SDP which had strong support from the USA. This faction eventually came out on top after a great deal of internal party strife lasting for much of the 1940s.
Tanner criticised Finland's post-war doctrine known as Paasikivi-Kekkonen doctrine, in which Finnish foreign affairs were kept strictly neutral and friendly with the USSR. Tanner managed to return to the Finnish parliament as a representative in the 1951 parliamentary elections. The acting foreign minister at the time, Åke Gartz insisted that the head of the Finnish Social Democratic Party Emil Skog should try to keep Tanner away from the party. Tanner would go on to win the 1957 SDP chairman election. Tanner won the race by 1 vote. The party was internally divided due to Tanner's controversial past and eventually some representatives seceded and formed a new party called the Social Democratic Union of Workers and Smallholders aka TPSL. TPSL eventually reunited with SDP in December 1972.
Cabinets
Tanner Cabinet
References
The Winter War: Finland against Russia 1939–1940 by Väinö Tanner (1957, Stanford University Press, California; also London)
External links
Väinö Tanner at Britannica Online
1881 births
1966 deaths
Politicians from Helsinki
People from Uusimaa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Leaders of the Social Democratic Party of Finland
Finnish senators
Prime Ministers of Finland
Ministers of Finance of Finland
Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Finland
Ministers of Trade and Industry of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1907–08)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1908–09)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1909–10)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1910–11)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1913–16)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1919–22)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1922–24)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1924–27)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1930–33)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1933–36)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1936–39)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1939–45)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1951–54)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1958–62)
Finnish people of World War II
Cooperative organizers
Prisoners and detainees of Finland
Recipients of Finnish presidential pardons
Cooperative advocates | [
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220547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri%20Ingman | Lauri Ingman | Lars (Lauri) Johannes Ingman (30 June 1868, in Teuva – 25 October 1934, in Turku) was a Finnish theologian, bishop and politician. In 1906 he began to serve as the editor of Vartija, a Christian magazine. From 1916 to 1930 he was the professor of practical theology in the University of Helsinki. He was also a member of the conservative National Coalition Party, where he acted as the speaker of the parliament and a minister in several cabinets, and served as the Prime Minister of Finland twice, in 1918–1919 and 1924–1925. In 1930 he was elected Archbishop of Turku, head of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.
Cabinets
Ingman I Cabinet
Ingman II Cabinet
References
1868 births
1934 deaths
People from Teuva
People from Vaasa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Lutheran archbishops and bishops of Turku
Finnish Party politicians
National Coalition Party politicians
Prime Ministers of Finland
Ministers of Education of Finland
Members of the Diet of Finland
Speakers of the Parliament of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1907–08)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1908–09)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1909–10)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1910–11)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1911–13)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1913–16)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1916–17)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1917–19)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1922–24)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1924–27)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1927–29)
20th-century Lutheran archbishops
People of the Finnish Civil War (White side)
University of Helsinki alumni
Academics of the University of Helsinki
Monarchists | [
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220548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Helsinki | University of Helsinki | The University of Helsinki (, , abbreviated UH) is a public research university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but founded in the city of Turku (in Swedish Åbo) in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo, at that time part of the Swedish Empire. It is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available. In 2020, around 31,600 students were enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes.
As of 1 August 2005, the university complies with the harmonized structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers bachelor, master, licenciate, and doctoral degrees. Admission to degree programmes is usually determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelor's degrees, and by prior degree results, in the case of master and postgraduate degrees. Entrance is particularly selective (circa 15% of the yearly applicants are admitted). It has been ranked a top 100 university in the world according to the 2016 ARWU, QS and THE rankings.
The university is bilingual, with teaching by law provided both in Finnish and Swedish. Since Swedish, albeit an official language of Finland, is a minority language, Finnish is by far the dominating language at the university. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at master, licentiate, and doctoral levels, making it a de facto third language of instruction.
Remaining true to its traditionally strong Humboldtian ethos, the University of Helsinki places heavy emphasis on high-quality teaching and research of a top international standard. It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA, the Utrecht Network, and is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities. The university has also received international financial support for global welfare; for example, in September 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense provided the university with more than four million euros in funding for the treatment of MYC genes and breast cancer.
History
Royal Academy of Åbo 1640–1828
The first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. As the university was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689) in Turku (Sw. Åbo), as the Åbo Kungliga Akademi (), the senior part of the school formed the core of the new university, while the junior year courses formed a grammar school. It was the third university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University and the Academia Gustaviana in Dorpat (predecessor to the University of Tartu in Estonia).
Imperial Alexander University in Finland 1828–1919
The second period of the university's history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, from 1809 to 1917. As Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Emperor Alexander I expanded the university and allocated substantial funds to it. Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, higher education within the country was moved to Helsinki, the new administrative heart of the Grand Duchy, in 1828, and renamed the Imperial Alexander University in Finland in honour of the late benefactor of the university. In the capital the primary task of the university was to educate the Grand Duchy’s civil servants.
The university became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The new statutes of the university enacted in 1828 defined the task of the university as promoting the development of "the Sciences and Humanities within Finland and, furthermore, educating the youth for the service of the Emperor and the Fatherland".
The Alexander University was a centre of national life that promoted the birth of an independent Finnish State and the development of Finnish identity. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius, were all involved in the activities of the university. The university became a major center of Finnish cultural, political, and legal life in 19th century Finland, and became a remarkable primum mobile of the nationalist and liberal cultural movements, political parties, and student organisations.
In the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines. As the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government.
University of Helsinki 1919–present
The third period of the university's history began with the creation of the independent Republic of Finland in 1917, and with the renaming of the university as the University of Helsinki. Once Finland gained her independence in 1917 the university was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the academic community promoted the international relations of the new state and the development of its economic life. Furthermore, they were actively involved in national politics and the struggle for equality.
In the interwar period the university was the scene of a conflict between those who wanted to advance the usage of Finnish language in the university, to the detriment of Swedish and those who opposed such move. Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish language usage. Swedish People's Party of Finland initiated a campaign collecting 153 914 signatures in defense of the Swedish language that were handed to the parliament and government in October 1934. On an international front academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representations of Finland in their respective countries warning about a weakening of the Nordic unity that would result from diminishing the role of Swedish in the University of Helsinki.
In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. This was manifested, among other things, by international recognitions granted to its professors, such as the Fields Medal received by the mathematician Lars Ahlfors (1936), the Nobel Prize in Chemistry granted to Professor A.I. Virtanen (1945) and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit (1967). In the Continuation War the University was heavily damaged by bombs during a soviet air raid on 27 February 1944.
After World War II, University research focused on improving Finnish living conditions and supporting major changes in the structure of society and business. The university also contributed to the breakthrough of modern technology.
The progress of scientific development created many new disciplines and faculties at the University of Helsinki. At present the university comprises 11 faculties, 500 professors and almost 40,000 students. The university has established as its goal to further its position as one of Europe’s top multidisciplinary research universities.
In March 2014, two people were arrested and in June 2014 sentenced to prison for three years for plotting a mass murder at the university.
Organization
Faculties
The university is divided into eleven faculties. They are listed below in the official order used by the university, reflecting both the history of the university and the hierarchy of disciplines at the time when the university was established:
Faculty of Theology (established 1640)
Faculty of Law (established 1640)
Faculty of Medicine (established 1640)
Faculty of Arts (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Arts section 1863, independent faculty 1992)
Faculty of Science (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Science section 1863, independent faculty 1992)
Faculty of Pharmacy (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004)
Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004)
Faculty of Educational Sciences (independent section 1974, independent faculty 1992, reorganized and renamed 2004, reorganized and renamed 2017)
Faculty of Social Sciences (established 1945)
Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry (established 1898, independent faculty 1924)
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (established as an independent college in 1945, incorporated into the University of Helsinki in 1995)
The university also has several independent institutes, such as research centres and libraries, the most notable of which are perhaps the National Library of Finland and Helsinki University Library. Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies is another independent institute within the University of Helsinki, an Institute for Advanced Study, which is modeled upon the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Previous directors include Raimo Väyrynen (2002–2004) and Juha Sihvola (2004–2009).
Academics
University rankings
University of Helsinki is ranked at 82nd in the world by the 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2021, the University of Helsinki is ranked at 98th overall in the world. In 2014 THE–QS World University Rankings list, the University of Helsinki was ranked 67th.
International Master’s Degree Programmes
The University of Helsinki offers a wide range of master’s degree programmes, taught entirely in English. The scope of the programmes is 120 ECTS credits, completed with two years of full-time study. Some programmes are organised by the University of Helsinki along with other Finnish and foreign universities. All programmes comply with the national legislation governing university education and are, therefore, recognised globally.
Research
Research institutes within the university include the following:
Aleksanteri Institute – A national centre of research, study and expertise pertaining to Russia and East Europe
Christina Institute for Gender Studies
Environmental Change Research Unit
Erik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights
Helsinki Center of Economic Research (HECER) – A joint initiative of the University of Helsinki, the Helsinki School of Economics and the Hanken School of Economics
Helsinki Institute for Information Technology (HIIT) – A joint research institute of the University of Helsinki and the Aalto University
Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE) - supports and coordinates life science research across the university. HiLIFE oversees three operative units:
Institute of Biotechnology (BI)
Finnish Institute for Molecular Medicine (FIMM)
Neuroscience Center (NC)
Helsinki Institute of Physics
Rolf Nevanlinna Institute – Research institute of mathematics, computer science, and statistics
Campuses
The university is located on four main campuses. Originally, the entire university was located in the very centre of Helsinki, but due to the rapid growth of the university since the 1930s, premises have been built and acquired in other areas.
City Centre Campus
The historical City Centre Campus has been the hub of activity ever since the university moved from Turku to Helsinki in the early 19th century. The campus has a central location and reflects the architectural style of this part of the city. The university buildings in the city center house the Faculties of Theology, Law, Arts, Behavioural Sciences and Social Sciences plus administrative functions. Most of the buildings on the campus have a major architectural significance ranging from the dominating Neo-Classical, through the Jugendstil, to 20th century Modernism.
The City Centre Campus, extending around the historical centre of Helsinki, Senate Square, and Kruununhaka city district, is the administrative heart of the University of Helsinki and has the largest concentration of faculties in Helsinki.
After the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, Emperor Nicholas I ordered the Royal Academy of Turku be moved to the new capital city of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Helsinki, where the Imperial Alexander University in Finland began to operate the next year. Helsinki was to become Finland's window to the world; a European city to which the university belonged as an integral part. Carl Ludvig Engel, architect, was given the assignment of designing an Empire-style main building next to Senate Square, facing the Imperial Senate. The main building was completed in 1832. Thanks to the lessons learnt from the fire of Turku, the library was built separate from other premises. The library and several faculty buildings in the campus were also designed by Engel.
The main building as well as other buildings of the campus were badly damaged during the Soviet bombings in World War II but rebuilt after the war.
The plan concerning the concentration of university facilities dating back to the 1980s, aimed to achieve a closer unity between facilities. The City Centre Campus does not stand out from the rest of the urban environment but is a part of the city, in line with the old university tradition. The university facilities still form a functional and coherent whole, consisting not only of historically valuable buildings, but also of facilities for 20,000 students and 3,000 teachers and other staff.
Kumpula Campus
The Kumpula Campus, housing the Faculty of Science, is located four kilometers north from the centre of Helsinki near tram lines 6 and 8. The campus houses the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Statistics, Computer Science, and Geosciences and Geography.
The university departments were located in Kumpula for the first time in 1978 when the City of Helsinki leased the area for the university. A planning competition for the city plan for the area was held a year earlier. In the 1980s, the Accelerator Laboratory of the Department of Physics was quarried into Kumpula rock and the construction of Kumpula Botanical Garden began in 1987. It was not, however, until the 1990s when the construction work proper began, transforming the area into a significant campus.
The Chemicum, the building housing the Department of Chemistry and VERIFIN (Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention), and the Physicum, which provides facilities for physics, geology and geography are located on Kumpula campus surrounding a square named after the Finnish Nobel prize winner, A. I. Virtanen. Kumpula Campus Library is also located in the Physicum. The Kumpula Sports Centre is planned for the recreational use of both university staff and students and citizens of Helsinki alike. Completed in 2004, the Exactum provides facilities for seismology, computer science and mathematical subjects, as well as administrative services.
The campus comprises two main parts: the Botanical Garden, surrounding the old building stock of Kumpula manor and the modern new building stock located a couple of hundred metres north of the manor. The greenness of the area makes the dynamic campus stand out as a unique, distinctive complex. The campus offers study and research facilities for 6,000 students and 1,000 teachers. The Finnish Meteorological Institute moved to the area in 2005. That building is known as Dynamicum.
Meilahti Campus
The Meilahti Campus, with the Faculty of Medicine, is a part of the Meilahti Hospital District on the edge of the city centre. Just a few kilometres from the City Centre Campus, the Meilahti area has been transformed into a cradle of top research on medicine, 'Medilahti'. Established in the 1930s, the Women's Clinic was accompanied by Finland's leading hospital, Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH) in 1966. The same year saw the completion of facilities for theoretical subject departments on Haartmaninkatu street. The building is now being renovated and extended.
The latest completed facilities in the campus include the National Library of Health Sciences (Terkko) and the research and teaching centre Biomedicum that houses several research institutes including the Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), Neuroscience Center (NC), and Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research.
The Ruskeasuo premises, including the Department of Dentistry, Institute for Oral Health, Department of Public Health and Department of Forensic Medicine, also belong to the Meilahti campus. The Meilahti and Ruskeasuo areas form a close-knit complex providing a meeting place for medical education, international top-level research and nursing. The campus is a workplace for 2,000 students and 1,500 teachers.
Thanks to the years-long project to combine the teaching facilities of the Faculty of Medicine, Meilahti is now a functional unity of medicine and health care. The atmosphere in the campus inspires people in their studies, research and international co-operation.
Although the Meilahti campus is intertwined with the rest of Meilahti district, it succeeds in forming a clear-cut campus area with its hospital-type building stock.
Viikki Campus
The Viikki Campus is located in the semi-suburban greenspace of the Viikki area, some 8 kilometres north-east of the city centre. It houses the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosciences, Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy. It is an important concentration in the field of biosciences, even by European standards. Indeed, it is often called the bioscience campus or the "green campus".
In addition to biosciences, the campus is home to a wide range of other life science researchers and students in such fields as environmental science, veterinary medicine, food research and economics. Numerous international research groups also work on the Viikki Campus. The Viikki Campus is the location of four faculties, three independent research institutes (Institute of Biotechnology (BI), Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE) and Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)) and the Viikki Science Library.
It also attracts an increasing number of businesses to the Helsinki Business and Science Park. The Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the Finnish Food Safety Authority, Evira, have also moved to Viikki and negotiations are under way to relocate MTT Agrifood Research Finland to Viikki to complement the Department of Economics and Management.
The Viikki Campus unites a multidisciplinary science community of more than 6,500 students and 1,600 teachers, a residential area emphasising ecological values and the natural surroundings, including recreational areas and nature reserves, and forms a unique whole. The campus also has the Viikinlahti conservation area, which is particularly popular among bird watchers.
Libraries and museums
The National Library of Finland
The National Library of Finland is the foremost research library in Finland and the main branch of the University of Helsinki's library system. The National Library of Finland is the oldest and largest scholarly library in Finland as well as one of the largest independent institutes at the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the collection, description, preservation and accessibility of Finland’s printed national heritage and the unique collections under its care. The National Library also serves as a national service and development centre for the library sector and promotes national and international cooperation in the field.
The Helsinki University Main Library
The Main Library of the university is used by students for research and studying. Located a few blocks down the street from the university's main building in the city center, the new Main Library was opened in 2012 in the Kaisa House. The new library merged the undergraduate library and four dispersed faculty libraries of the city center campus to a collection of approximately 1.5 million books. The architecture of the new building, designed by Anttinen Oiva Architects, has been praised and received several awards.
The Helsinki University Museum
The Helsinki University Museum is the museum of the University of Helsinki and was located until June 2014 on Snellmanninkatu off the north-east corner of Senate Square. Museums main exhibition moved to the University Main Building in 2015.
Helsinki University Museum was established in 2003 by merging the former University Museum specialising in the history of the University of Helsinki, the Museum of Medical History, the Museum of the History of Veterinary Medicine, the Museum of the History of Dentistry and the Collections of Craft Science. To complement the new conglomeration of museums, the Mineral Cabinet, which today belongs to the Finnish Museum of Natural History, returned to its original location in the Arppeanum building. Each year the museum also holds one or two temporary exhibitions in a specially designed area. Museums exhibition in Arppeanum Building was closed in June 2014. New main exhibition was opened in the Main Building in March 2015.
The University Museum is in charge of the preservation and conservation of the university’s valuable museum collections and property: old tuition and research equipment, furniture and works of art. The museum maintains an index register of all valuables that are kept in the facilities of the university. The museum also provides library, archive and photographic services pertaining to the history of the university and the history of medical science.
Finnish Museum of Natural History
The Finnish Museum of Natural History is a research institution under the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the national botanical, zoological, geological and paleontological collections consisting of samples from around the world. The collections serve scientific, public informational and educational purposes.
Student life
Student Union
The Student Union of the University of Helsinki (Helsingin yliopiston ylioppilaskunta, HYY) was founded in 1868. It currently has 32,000 members and is one of the world's wealthiest student organizations, with assets of several hundred million euros. Among other things, it owns a good deal of property in the city centre of Helsinki. The union has been at the centre of student politics from the 19th Century nationalist movements, through the actions of the New Left in the 1960s, up to the present. Its governing assembly consists of parties which are connected to faculty organisations, the Student Nations, and the mainstream political parties.
Student nations
The student nations are student organisations that provide extra-curricular activities to students. Along with the faculty-based organisations, the nations provide one of the main nodes of student social life. The nations at University of Helsinki have a special legal status in the Universities Act. There are 15 nations at the university, each one representing a historic region or province of Finland, with four of these representing Swedish-speaking regions. Membership is optional.
Notable alumni, faculty, and staff
Chancellors
The Chancellor is the highest representative of the University of Helsinki. He is elected by the College, the highest body of staff representation at the University. According to the University Act, the Chancellor's task is to promote the sciences and monitor the interests of the University. The Chancellor has the right to attend meetings of the Government of Finland on matters concerning the University of Helsinki.
Rectors
See also
History of Finland
Helsinki Senate Square
List of universities in Finland
Education in Finland
Helsinki University of Technology
Europaeum
Bologna Process
References
External links
University of Helsinki – Official site
Presentation of premises – Images of almost all university buildings and their lecture rooms
Helsinki, University of
Helsinki
Neoclassical architecture in Finland
Universities and colleges in Finland
1640 establishments in Sweden | [
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220549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85bo%20Akademi%20University | Åbo Akademi University | Åbo Akademi University ( , ) is the only exclusively Swedish language multi-faculty university in Finland (or anywhere outside Sweden). It is located mainly in Turku (Åbo is the Swedish name of the city) but has also activities in Vaasa. Åbo Akademi should not be confused with the Royal Academy of Åbo, which was founded in 1640, but moved to Helsinki after the Turku fire of 1827 and is today known as the University of Helsinki.
Åbo Akademi was founded by private donations in 1918 as the third university in Finland, both to let Turku again become a university town and because it was felt that the Swedish language was threatened at the University of Helsinki. The Finnish University of Turku was founded in 1920, also by private donations and for similar reasons. Åbo Akademi was a private institution until 1981, when it was turned into a public institution.
As the only uni-lingually Swedish multi-faculty university in the world outside Sweden and consequently the only one in Finland, Åbo Akademi University is responsible for higher education for a large proportion of the Swedish-speaking population. This role has many implications for education and research as well as for the social environment. As there are few students in most subjects, cooperation between faculties and with other universities is very important.
A minority of students are Finnish speakers who have passed a university entrance Swedish language test. While Turku itself is a bilingual city, the university provides a strong Swedish environment. Most of the students, regardless of their original language, will be functionally bilingual when finishing their studies.
Organisation
The university consists of four faculties:
Faculty of Arts, Psychology and Theology (located in Turku)
Faculty of Education and Welfare Studies (located in Vaasa)
Faculty of Science and Engineering (located in Turku, with some activity also in Vaasa)
Faculty of Social Sciences, Business and Economics (located in Turku, with some activity also in Vaasa)
In addition, there are several other units and joint programs, such as:
Language Centre
Centre for Lifelong Learning
Donner Institute for Research in Religious and Cultural History
Institute of Human Rights
Turku PET Centre (jointly run by Turku University, Åbo Akademi and the Turku University Hospital)
Turku Centre for Computer Science (TUCS) (in co-operation with Turku University, among others)
Turku Centre for Biotechnology (in co-operation with Turku University, among others)
Vasa övningsskola, located in Vaasa, is the normal school of the teacher training programme.
When the university was turned into a public institution the foundation Stiftelsen för Åbo Akademi remained. Besides maintaining many of the university buildings, it is also a significant donor. Because of new legislation regarding higher education, it is planned to turn universities in Finland into semi-private institutions.
Rectors
The following people have served as rectors of Åbo Akademi:
1918–1921: Edvard Westermarck
1921–1929:
1929–1936: Otto Andersson
1936–1942:
1942–1950:
1950–1957: Lars Erik Taxell
1957–1962:
1962–1966:
1966–1969:
1969–1975:
1975–1978:
1978–1982:
1982–1988:
1988–1997:
1997–2005:
2006–2014:
2015–2019:
2019–November 1st 2021: Moira von Wright
2022-
See also
Education in Finland
ESN vid Åbo Akademi r.f.
List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)
References
External links
Åbo Akademi University
Universities and colleges in Finland
Educational institutions established in 1918
Education in Turku
Forestry education
Finland Swedish
1918 establishments in Finland | [
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220550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aimo%20Cajander | Aimo Cajander | Aimo Kaarlo Cajander (4 April 1879 – 21 January 1943) was the Prime Minister of Finland up to the Winter War.
Cajander was born in Uusikaupunki, and became a botanist, a professor of forestry 1911–34; director-general for Finland's Forest and Park Service 1934–1943; Prime Minister in 1922, 1924, and 1937–1939; chairman of the National Progressive Party 1933–1943; and Member of Parliament.
Cajander came into politics in 1922 when President Ståhlberg asked him to take office of prime minister. He had not earlier participated actively in politics. Ståhlberg invited him as prime minister second time in January 1924. Cajander's short-lived cabinets were merely caretakers before parliamentary elections.
Cajander joined in 1927 National Progressive Party and in 1928 he was chosen as Minister of Defence. Cajander was elected to the Parliament in 1929. When Kyösti Kallio was elected President in 1937, Cajander was asked as the chairman of the National Progressive Party to form majority government. Cajander formed a coalition government of the two largest parties in the parliament - Social Democrats and Agrarian League. Cajander was idealist who did not believe yet in August 1939 that Soviet Union would attack Finland. Partly for this reason the Finnish Army was forced to the fight inadequately equipped. He died in Helsinki, aged 63.
Cajander's name is remembered for "Model Cajander", the fashion of many Finnish soldiers in Winter War: the army was poorly equipped, so mobilized reserves were given a utility belt, an emblem to be attached to the hat — to comply with the Hague Conventions; and a rifle. Otherwise, they had to use their own clothes and equipment.
Cabinets
Cajander I Cabinet
Cajander II Cabinet
Cajander III Cabinet
Awards
Order of the Three Stars, 1st Class (April 10, 1937)
Honorary doctorate of the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (1924)
References
|-
|-
1879 births
1943 deaths
People from Uusikaupunki
People from Turku and Pori Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
National Progressive Party (Finland) politicians
Prime Ministers of Finland
Ministers of Defence of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1929–30)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1930–33)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1936–39)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1939–45)
Finnish people of World War II
Finnish botanists
Forestry academics
Finnish foresters
20th-century botanists
University of Helsinki alumni
Academics of the University of Helsinki | [
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220553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20von%20Wieser | Friedrich von Wieser | Friedrich Freiherr von Wieser (; 10 July 1851 – 22 July 1926) was an early (so-called "first generation") economist of the Austrian School of economics. Born in Vienna, the son of Privy Councillor Leopold von Wieser, a high official in the war ministry, he first trained in sociology and law. In 1872, the year he took his degree, he encountered Austrian-school founder Carl Menger's Grundsätze and switched his interest to economic theory. Wieser held posts at the universities of Vienna and Prague until succeeding Menger in Vienna in 1903, where along with his brother-in-law Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk he shaped the next generation of Austrian economists including Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek and Joseph Schumpeter in the late 1890s and early 20th century. He was the Austrian Minister of Commerce from August 30, 1917, to November 11, 1918.
Wieser is renowned for two main works, Natural Value, which carefully details the alternative-cost doctrine and the theory of imputation; and his Social Economics (1914), an ambitious attempt to apply it to the real world. His explanation of marginal utility theory was decisive, at least terminologically. It was his term (building on von Thünen's Grenzkosten) that developed into the standard term "marginal utility", not William Stanley Jevons's "final degree of utility" or Menger's "value". His use of the modifier "natural" indicates that he regarded value as a "natural category" that would pertain to any society, no matter what institutions of property had been established.
The economic calculation debate started with his notion of the paramount importance of accurate calculation to economic efficiency. Above all, to him prices represented information about market conditions and are thus necessary for any sort of economic activity. Therefore, a socialist economy would require a price system in order to operate. He also stressed the importance of the entrepreneur to economic change, which he saw as being brought about by "the heroic intervention of individual men who appear as leaders toward new economic shores". This idea of leadership was later taken up by Joseph Schumpeter in his treatment of economic innovation.
Unlike most other Austrian School economists, Wieser rejected classical liberalism, writing that "freedom has to be superseded by a system of order". This vision and his general solution to the role of the individual in history is best expressed in his final book The Law of Power, a sociological examination of political order published in his last year of life.
Biography
Born in Vienna on 10 July 1851, Wieser spent his childhood and adolescence in the same city. He was interested since youth in law, history and sociology. He studied law at the University of Vienna beginning in 1868. His lifelong passion for political economy was first ignited when he read Herbert Spencer's (Introduction to the Study of Sociology).
After ten years of public service as a government employee, Wieser was awarded in 1875 a scholarship to the Heidelberg University in order to study political economy with Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, a friend from his youth who later became his brother-in-law. Both men were disciples of Carl Menger, Wieser's senior by 11 years. Although neither Wieser nor Böhm-Bawerk studied under Menger directly, they were greatly influenced by reading
Menger's (Principles of Economics) (1871), which was the work that had initially inspired the two men to study political economy. The three are considered the first generation of the Austrian School of economics.
After a successful postdoctoral habilitation in 1884, (On the Origin and the Main Laws of the Value of the Factors), a prelude to his value theory, Wieser was named that same year as an associate professor at Charles University in Prague, where he stayed until 1903 when he succeeded Menger at the University of Vienna.
In 1889, Wieser was named ordentlicher Professor (ordinary professor) at the Charles University. That same year, he also published his (Natural Value), with which he initiated the debate on the value of factors of production and from which are derived two of his major contributions: his value theory and the related imputation theory.
Motivated by introducing the innovations of the Austrian School, he published (The Austrian School and the Theory of Value) in 1891 and (The Value Theory) in 1892. Later, he collaborated in other notable works, such as (Resumption of payments species in Austria-Hungary) in 1893 and (Theory of urban land rents) in 1909. He also served as editor for two articles in the Palgrave Dictionary of Economics: "Die österreichische Schule der Wirtschaft" ("The Austrian School of Economics") and "Böhm-Bawerk", both in 1884.
In 1903, Wieser was awarded a chair as a full professor at his alma mater, the University of Vienna, where he taught a new generation of economists, including Ludwig von Mises, Joseph Schumpeter and his most faithful disciple Friedrich Hayek. He developed a monetary theory inspired by the research of Carl Menger and he applied himself during the following years to the problems of the quantity theory of money. In his last 25 years, he dedicated himself to sociology, which he believed must go hand-in-hand with economics for the fullest understanding of human society. By combining these disciplines, he was able to forge a new vision of economic policy.
In 1911, he published (The Nature and Content of Theoretical Economics Major National) which preceded yet another major contribution, alternative cost (or opportunity cost) theory, which was drawn from his study (Theory of Social Economy), published in 1914. It was here that he first coined the term "opportunity cost".
Also attributed to him is the creation of the term "marginal utility" () due largely to the influence of Léon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto, both of the Lausanne School. This has led some scholars to not consider his later works as belonging to the Austrian School. Even his disciple Ludwig von Mises said in his autobiography Memoirs (1978) that Wieser had misunderstood the gist of the subjectivism of the Austrian School and was actually a member of the Lausanne School. However, in both he also presents a clear methodological individualism and a rejection of historicism of the German School, so at first blush it is difficult to justify his exclusion from the Austrian School.
In 1914, Eugen Böhm von Bawerk died, thus marking the end of a lifelong friendship and striking a hard blow to Wieser.
In 1917, Wieser was named a member of the Austrian House of Lords and granted the title of Baron. He was also appointed Minister of Commerce in the Austrian Cabinet, which post he held until the end of World War I in 1918. However, his activity was hindered by Richard Riedl, Energy Minister and clear proponent of economic interventionism, leaving only matters of secondary importance to Wieser's jurisdiction.
His last works were (The History of State Power) in 1923 and a sociological study titled (The Law of Power) in 1926.
Wieser died on 22 July 1926 in Salzburg, where he is buried. Two of his hitherto unpublished works were published posthumously, namely (Money) in 1927, which summarizes his monetary theory; and (Collected Papers) in 1929. This latter book included a tribute resulting from the collaboration of renowned economists like Knut Wicksell, but it was censored during World War II.
Achievements
Wieser's most famous contributions are the imputation theory drawn from his 1889 work (Natural Value) and the Alternative Cost (or Opportunity Cost) Theory drawn from his 1914 work (Social Economics) in which he coined the term "opportunity cost". He is credited with the economic distinction between public goods and private goods subsequently used by Friedrich August von Hayek and eight of his disciples, and with developing the concept of marginal utility ().
Wieser also stressed the importance of the entrepreneur to economic change, which he saw as being caused by "the heroic intervention of individual men who appear as leaders at new economic frontiers". This idea of management was later expounded upon by Joseph Alois Schumpeter in his treatment of economic innovation. Value theory was revolutionary because it opened the debate on the question of economic value, introducing an objective calculation to a subjective theory. It was one of the first mathematical solutions to the problem of determining prices for factors of production. His imputation theory amended possible errors in the theory of his teacher Carl Menger and is still used today in microeconomics in consumer research to calculate the systematic replacement of factors of production.
Another of Wieser's fundamental contributions to economics is the alternative cost theory (now called the opportunity cost theory), which had been ignored by Alfred Marshall and British economists. Based on the work of Vilfredo Pareto, Wieser created the concepts of marginal utility and opportunity cost, which led economists to the study and analysis of scarcity and the allocation of scarce resources.
Wieser thus perfected the theory of Carl Menger by introducing a definition of cost, the opportunity cost, compatible with the theory of marginal utility. He also used Carl Menger's monetary theory from which he devised his own monetary theory presenting a study of possible influences on monetary value that can change the relationships between natural and monetary economics.
Wieser's most important contributions is that thanks to his familiarity with sociology he combined the Austrian theory of utility with an evolutionary theory of institutions offering solutions to the paradox between private property and the maximization of utility. Wieser said that idealized classical and neoclassical models neglect basic concepts such as the possibility of monopolies and the existence of economies of scale. Wieser claimed that idealized refined and self-contained models may not be useful tools for economic policy, resulting therefore in a suboptimal solution. In his treatise (Theory of Social Economy), he posited the concept of social economy () using the performance of intervention in certain cases as a benchmark to assess policy effectiveness.
Economic theories
From his book (Natural Value), published in Vienna in 1889, are extracted two of Wieser's three relevant theories, his value theory and the imputation theory, although both had had their geneses in previous studies. Adding to his contribution was also the theory originally known as the alternative cost theory (now called the opportunity cost theory), which was published in 1914 in (Theory of Social Economy). Finally, also worth mentioning is his monetary theory.
Value theory
Wieser's value theory attempts to establish a method for calculating economic value and states that the factors of production have a value due to the utility they have conferred on the final product, i.e. marginal utility, as opposed to the theory held by his teacher Carl Menger which states that the value factor is the value of the input when contributed to the final product. Wieser's value theory was presented along with his imputation theory in his work (Natural Value), published in Vienna in 1889, although his examination of the subject begins in his 1884 postdoctoral study (On the Origin and the Principal Laws of the Value of Factors).
Wieser asserts that natural value () is a neutral phenomenon, independent of the economic system. His idea of natural value tends to highlight how the value of property is continuously dependent on the distribution of income between different social classes, so that in the presence of a situation greatly lacking in equidistribution, goods or services provided with little social utility can be of great value and vice versa.
The economy deals with a social process and therefore must be based on a concept of social economics (), which implies certain institutional actions. In the first part of his treatise (Theory of Social Economics), Wieser carefully explains his view of general economic equilibrium. Aware of the idealized assumptions of this economy, he seeks to define with pinpoint accuracy the conditions under which resources would be allocated to ensure the highest possible utility. Social economics should therefore serve as the benchmark for evaluating the efficacy of administrative intervention in the market economy:
This assertion is based on the fact that for Wieser natural value would exist in a perfect communist state due to the absence of inequalities of wealth and error. In this case, value would result only from the available quantity and from profits. However, he states that in the real world natural value is only one element in the formation of price. Other factors that influence prices are the distribution of purchasing power, errors, fraud and coercion.
His idea of natural value highlights how the economic value of property changes depending on the distribution of income between different social classes so that when income distribution is far from equal, goods or services provided with little social utility can be of great value and vice versa. Therefore, Wieser explicitly states his assumptions considering the cases in which the exchange value (price) differs from the real value (marginal utility):
Antinomy of value. If monopolies arise then the individual entrepreneur will be able to increase his own utility at the expense of social utility, thus creating a state of antinomy. Friedrich argues that competition can correct this because it reduces the entrepreneurs economic power and forces prices to fall.
Disparity in the purchasing power of consumers leads to over-produced goods to meet the needs of persons with high ability to pay, and too few goods to meet the needs of poor people.
Some economists of the Austrian School maintained that the value of the factors of production is not the individual contribution of each factor in the final product, but rather the value of the most valuable use that can be made of the last good (the marginal utility before reaching the Pareto optimal point). The opposing view held by the classical economists such as Adam Smith is the labor theory of value.
Practical application
Coined the term "marginal utility" and gave shape to the concept.
Was revolutionary because it provided a new insight into the debate on the issue of economic value.
Established assumptions concerning intervention, explicitly considering cases where the exchange value (price) differs from the actual value (marginal utility).
Tried to provide a solution to the paradox of private property and maximizing utility.
Still relevant today, especially in the field of study of consumer microeconomics.
Imputation theory
Wieser based his theory of imputation on the assumption that factors of production are combined in fixed proportions in each industry, but at different rates in different industries. It was one of the first mathematical solutions to the problem of determining the prices of factors of production.
Previously, some economists such as Carl Menger and others of the Austrian School maintained that the value of factors of production is the individual contribution of each in the final product, but its value is the value of the last contributed to the final product (the marginal utility before reaching the point Pareto optimal). Thus, Wieser identified a flaw in the theory of imputation as expounded by his teacher Carl Menger as overvaluation may occur if one is confronted with economies where profits jump (maximums and minimums in his utility function, where its second derivative equals 0). Wieser suggested as an alternative the simultaneous solution of a system of industrial equations.
Industry 1: X + Y = 300
Industry 2: 6X + Z = 900
Industry 3: 4Y + 3Z = 1700 ⇒ X = 100, Y = 200, Z = 300.
Given that a factor is used in the production of a range of first-order goods, its value is determined by the good that is worth the least among all the goods in the range. This value is determined at the margin, the marginal utility of the last unit of the least valuable good produced by the factor. In connection with his opportunity cost, the value so derived represents an opportunity cost across all industries, and the values of the factors of production and goods are determined in the whole system. Thus, supply and demand do not develop into the determinants of value; the determinant of value is the marginal utility.
Practical application
The following can be considered applications of Wieser's theory of imputation:
Linear programming, which deals with the case of discontinuous replacement of the factors. This approach is essentially the application of Wieser's theory of imputation to a single company. The business problem is to maximize total output by a set of linear constraints.
Albert Aftalion used the theory as an argument against socialism in his 1923 work Les fondements du Socialisme: Étude critique (The Foundations of Socialism: Critical Study). This work states that prices provide key information on the conditions of the market and are necessary for any economic activity. A socialist system that purported to be effective would have to use a price system to operate.
Alternative cost theory
The alternative cost theory (or opportunity cost theory) is a theory of enormous importance that comes from his (Theory of Social Economy), published in 1914, although his arguments were foreshadowed in his work (The Nature and Main Content of Theoretical State Economics), published in 1911. Wieser coined the term "opportunity cost" and performed a detailed study of the subject.
Opportunity cost is associated with a famous controversy from the early 20th century, where disciples of English economist Alfred Marshall were opposed to the continental economists of the Austrian School, the head of which was Friedrich von Wieser, with his theory of alternative or opportunity cost. The debate focused on the following points:
For the English, cost was a technical concept, the spending needed to produce something.
For the Austrians, cost was a result of demand, as this would determine the level of production, depending on the willingness of buyers to pay that cost. Since demand is dependent upon the action of buyers, utility would determine a thing's cost rather than technology. In this context, the Austrian concept of opportunity cost claimed to ruin the British parametric concept of cost. The opportunity cost would be that which the purchaser would willingly forgo in agreeing to pay the cost of the option chosen.
The most notable feature of the concept is that opportunity cost would only make sense if the opportunity were fixed or reasonably limited. That is, if there is a conflict in performing multiple investments or actions, simultaneously or consecutively, it would not be feasible to have to choose among all the alternatives.
Thus, if a person has several options, you can calculate the opportunity cost of choosing one, but can we calculate a universal opportunity cost, which would include all the options? The prevailing opinion was that the opportunity cost could not be applied outside of cases of limited resources. This led some economists to limit the object of economics to "exceptional" resource situations (an idea still present in all economics textbooks). Still unknown are the consequences that might follow from an economic science that has no fixed limits outside of the economic system in terms of availability of goods.
Practical application
Wieser coined the term "opportunity cost".
Wieser gave shape to the theory that marked the beginning of the distinction between accounting cost ("the cost of production") and economic cost ("the cost of production" + the opportunity cost of not being able to obtain alternative).
Monetary theory
Wieser also developed a monetary theory. It was inspired by the research of Carl Menger, in particular by his study of currency, which discussed both the historical evolution of money and the theory of its value. Wieser used the theory of marginal utility as a basis for his monetary theory. It was initially rejected; in fact, some authors tried to prove that marginalism necessarily failed when used as a basis for building such theories. However, his disciple Ludwig von Mises studied Wieser's theory and fleshed it out, creating the complex upon which he built the German concept of (money).
Wieser conducted a further study on the effects of change in a currency's value on the relationship between the natural economy and the monetary economy.
Practical application
It was later applied to the problem of the quantity theory of money.
It provided a new monetary theory within the Austrian School and conducted a useful study on one specific type of possible influence on monetary value.
Provided a basis for a further and still relevant study of monetary theory by his pupil Ludwig von Mises.
Social economics
In his later years, Wieser ventured into the study of Sociology, and this resulted in his 1914 publication, (Theory of Social Economy), from which is derived his theory of alternative cost or opportunity. Das Gesetz der Macht (The Law of Power), published in 1926, was his latest publication, a great sociological study from which we draw the following conclusions.
Wieser tried to explain the relationships and social forces through the study of history, and he concluded that economic forces held a prominent role in social evolution. Despite his interest in collective goals, such as economic well-being, Wieser adopted an individual approach, explicitly rejecting collectivism, approaching a more liberal stance and establishing the essential difference between social economics in general and socialist economics.
Social economy (in the original German, ) treats humanity as a whole as an ideal economic subject and contrasts it with nature, so that considerations of conflicting interests or economic justice become as irrelevant as they would to the economy of Robinson Crusoe:
For Wieser, the individual is the root of all decisions. Decisions are made in the face of certain restrictions. Institutions are what define the restrictions on individual decisions. The reflection of these findings in political economy is apparent in actions such as:
The regulation of imperfectly competitive firms whenever there are benefits of capital that are being lost.
Progressive taxation based on decreasing marginal utility. The state should not try to offset all the inequalities of income and property by means of progressive taxation, but rather progressive taxation should be developed within the doctrine of diminishing marginal utility, i.e. every new tax adds a certain diminishing amount of utility. Thus, an unconscionable progressive tax, for example on the wealthy, would violate the spirit of privacy of Wieser's social economics.
The duty of the state as producer of public goods. Wieser created the distinction between public goods and private goods that in the future would be seized upon by his disciple Friedrich Hayek.
Intervening in the balance of social power between companies and unions for the benefit of workers, who could otherwise only hope to earn their marginal productivity.
These conditions, under which resources would be allocated to ensure the greatest value, describe his model of an ideal economy, which he calls social economics in the first part of his treatise entitled (Theory of Social Economics). He made idealized assumptions using his model as the benchmark standard for evaluating the effectiveness of administritative intervention in the market economy.
Thus Wieser's Social Economics is, in effect, a socialist economy in which, to achieve greater productivity, scarce resources are assigned by an omnipresent, benevolent planner with direct and accurate insight sufficient to know the intensities of satisfactions and needs experienced by individual members of society, which all have exactly the same tastes and the same scales of utility and receive the same incomes. Moreover, their directions are followed without question by a completely docile workforce.
Wieser and the new liberalism
When labeling Wieser a "neoliberal", particular emphasis is placed on the definition of Ludwig von Mises. The English edition of his 1927 book, Liberalismus, uses the term "neoliberalism" to translate what Mises called in German (new liberalism). In this book, Mises uses the term to designate socialists posing as liberals (a term he later replaced with "pseudoliberals"), leaving in Mises's view Wieser under this definition for being a Fabian socialist. Also in his later book Socialism, he applies the neoliberal label to liberal supporters of the then new subjective theory of value, including Carl Menger and Wieser.
When Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Wieser began their careers in science, they were not focused on economic policy issues, much less in the rejection of intervention promoted by classical liberalism. Their common vocation was to develop an economic theory on a firm basis. To do this, following the course initiated by Carl Menger, Wieser, along with his friend and brother-in-law Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, disapproved of the policies of interventionism that the Austrian government, as all governments of the time, had adopted, arguing that only the free market could allow more efficient economic and social development.
Wieser believed that he could contribute to a return to liberal policies, both by explaining his economic vision in his books and articles as well as by teaching it in his role as university professor at the University of Prague and University of Vienna. In addition, his positions within the Austrian ministries allowed him to adopt more or less liberal economic policies. However, it was his liberal vision that separated him from the British economists of his era, discarding classical and neoclassical idealized models that did not contemplate the possibility of monopolies or the existence of economies of scale:
Wieser did not acknowledge essentialism or any teleological version of causality. As opposed to the historical method of the German historicist school, he developed a logical method, with both its deductive slope as well as its inductive slope (see interpolation and extrapolation). Economics has, like Mathematics and Logic, an a priori character rather than the empirical character of science. Thus, empirical phenomena are considered continuously variable, meaning that social developments have no parameters or constants, only variables, which makes it very difficult, if not impossible, to extract historical laws or make predictions. This point is the epicenter of the methodological discussion between the Austrian School and the German School.
In what little Wieser wrote about methodology, he stated that economics is a kind of applied psychology for which the procedure is introspection, claiming similarity between Economics and sociology in that both attempt to achieve a more successful social reality of man, promoting the idea of utility that reports on each good and each individual. Aside from abandoning essentialism, both Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Wieser advocated objectively considering subjective factors, setting aside ideas that believe in the existence of an objective superhuman (essentialism) and theories of subjective elements that are incapable of objective measures (teleology of causality).
Legacy
Joseph Schumpeter stressed Wieser's originality, saying: "There is hardly another author who owes as little to other authors as Wieser, fundamentally to none except Menger and to him only a suggestion – with the result that for a long time many fellow economists did not know what to do with Wieser's work. Of his edifice, everything is his intellectual property, even where what he says has already been said before him".
Works
English Translation: Natural Value, 1893, translated by Christian A. Malloch, edited with an introduction by William Smart.
, 1914
English translation: Social Economics, 1927, translated by A. Ford Hinrichs, with a preface by Wesley Clair Mitchell. Full Text
, 1926;
English translation: The Law of Power, 1983, translated by W.E. Kuhn, edited with an introduction by Warren J. Samuels Full text
(The Austrian School and the Value Theory), 1891.
"The Austrian School and the Theory of Value", in The Economic Journal, Volume 1, 1891 (in Wikisource).
(The Value Theory), 1892.
(The Theory of Urban Ground Rent), 1909.
(The essence and the main content of theoretical economics), 1911.
(The History of State Power), 1923.
(The National tax services and the state budget in the kingdom of Bohemia: Response to the considerations), 1923.
See also
List of Austrian scientists
Notes
External links
Article on Wieser's political career
Biography in the History of Economic Thought
An Introduction to the Value Theory on the Lines of Menger, Wieser, and Böhm-Bawerk, William Smart (1891, 1910).
1851 births
1926 deaths
19th-century Austrian male writers
19th-century economists
20th-century Austrian male writers
20th-century economists
Austrian economists
Austrian School economists
Barons of Austria
Government ministers of Austria
Politicians from Vienna | [
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220556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadao%20Ando | Tadao Ando | is a Japanese self-taught architect whose approach to architecture and landscape was categorized by architectural historian Francesco Dal Co as "critical regionalism". He is the winner of the 1995 Pritzker Prize.
Early life
Ando was born a few years before his little brother in 1941 in Osaka, Japan. At the age of two, his family chose to separate them, and have Tadao live with his great grandmother. He worked as a boxer and fighter before settling on the profession of architect, despite never having formal training in the field. Struck by the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Imperial Hotel on a trip to Tokyo as a second-year high school student, he eventually decided to end his boxing career less than two years after graduating from high school to pursue architecture. He attended night classes to learn drawing and took correspondence courses on interior design. He visited buildings designed by renowned architects like Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Louis Kahn before returning to Osaka in 1968 to establish his own design studio, Tadao Ando Architects and Associates.
Career
Style
Ando was raised in Japan where the religion and style of life strongly influenced his architecture and design. Ando's architectural style is said to create a "haiku" effect, emphasizing nothingness and empty space to represent the beauty of simplicity. He favors designing complex spatial circulation while maintaining the appearance of simplicity. A self-taught architect, he keeps his Japanese culture and language in mind while he travels around Europe for research. As an architect, he believes that architecture can change society, that "to change the dwelling is to change the city and to reform society". "Reform society" could be a promotion of a place or a change of the identity of that place. Werner Blaser has said, "Good buildings by Tadao Ando create memorable identity and therefore publicity, which in turn attracts the public and promotes market penetration".
The simplicity of his architecture emphasizes the concept of sensation and physical experiences, mainly influenced by Japanese culture. The religious term Zen, focuses on the concept of simplicity and concentrates on inner feeling rather than outward appearance. Zen influences vividly show in Ando's work and became its distinguishing mark. In order to practice the idea of simplicity, Ando's architecture is mostly constructed with concrete, providing a sense of cleanliness and weightlessness (even though concrete is a heavy material) at the same time. Due to the simplicity of the exterior, construction, and organization of the space are relatively potential in order to represent the aesthetic of sensation.
Besides Japanese religious architecture, Ando has also designed Christian churches, such as the Church of the Light (1989) and the Church in Tarumi (1993). Although Japanese and Christian churches display distinct characteristics, Ando treats them in a similar way. He believes there should be no difference in designing religious architecture and houses. As he explains,
We do not need to differentiate one from the other. Dwelling in a house is not only a functional issue, but also a spiritual one. The house is the locus of heart (kokoro), and the heart is the locus of god. Dwelling in a house is a search for the heart (kokoro) as the locus of god, just as one goes to church to search for god. An important role of the church is to enhance this sense of the spiritual. In a spiritual place, people find peace in their heart (kokoro), as in their homeland.
Besides speaking of the spirit of architecture, Ando also emphasises the association between nature and architecture. He intends for people to easily experience the spirit and beauty of nature through architecture. He believes architecture is responsible for performing the attitude of the site and makes it visible. This not only represents his theory of the role of architecture in society but also shows why he spends so much time studying architecture from physical experience.
In 1995, Ando won the Pritzker Prize for architecture, considered the highest distinction in the field. He donated the $100,000 prize money to the orphans of the 1995 Kobe earthquake.
Buildings and works
Tadao Ando's body of work is known for the creative use of natural light and for structures that follow natural forms of the landscape, rather than disturbing the landscape by making it conform to the constructed space of a building. Ando's buildings are often characterized by complex three-dimensional circulation paths. These paths weave in between interior and exterior spaces formed both inside large-scale geometric shapes and in the spaces between them.
His "Row House in Sumiyoshi" (Azuma House, 住吉の長屋), a small two-story, cast-in-place concrete house completed in 1976, is an early work which began to show elements of his characteristic style. It consists of three equal rectangular volumes: two enclosed volumes of interior spaces separated by an open courtyard. The courtyard's position between the two interior volumes becomes an integral part of the house's circulation system. The house is famous for the contrast between appearance and spatial organization which allow people to experience the richness of the space within the geometry.
Ando's housing complex at Rokko, just outside Kobe, is a complex warren of terraces and balconies, atriums and shafts. The designs for Rokko Housing One (1983) and for Rokko Housing Two (1993) illustrate a range of issues in traditional architectural vocabulary—the interplay of solid and void, the alternatives of open and closed, the contrasts of light and darkness. More significantly, Ando's noteworthy engineering achievement in these clustered buildings is site specific—the structures survived undamaged after the Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995. New York Times architectural critic Paul Goldberger argues that:
Ando is right in the Japanese tradition: spareness has always been a part of Japanese architecture, at least since the 16th century; [and] it is not without reason that Frank Lloyd Wright more freely admitted to the influences of Japanese architecture than of anything American."
Like Wright's Imperial Hotel in Tokyo Second Imperial Hotel 1923-1968, which did survive the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, site specific decision-making, anticipates seismic activity in several of Ando's Hyōgo-Awaji buildings.
Projects
Awards
References
Literature
Francesco Dal Co. Tadao Ando: Complete Works. Phaidon Press, 1997.
Kenneth Frampton. Tadao Ando: Buildings, Projects, Writings. Rizzoli International Publications, 1984.
Randall J. Van Vynckt. International Dictionary of Architects and Architecture. St. James Press, 1993.
Masao Furuyama. “Tadao Ando”. Taschen, 2006.
Werner Blaser, “Tadao Ando, Architecktur der Stille, Architecture of silence” Birkhäuser, 2001.
Jin Baek, “Nothingness: Tadao Ando’s Christian Sacred Space”. Routledge, 2009.
External links
Tadao Ando official website
Architect Tadao Ando projects
Tadao Ando page at greatbuildingsonline.com
Architectural Record Magazine | Interviews | Tadao Ando
1941 births
Living people
People from Osaka
20th-century Japanese architects
21st-century Japanese architects
Kyoto laureates in Arts and Philosophy
Pritzker Architecture Prize winners
Osaka University of Arts alumni
University of Tokyo faculty
Columbia University faculty
Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
Recipients of the Order of Culture
Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale
Members of the Académie d'architecture
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Japanese male boxers
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal | [
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220559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Mackenzie | Henry Mackenzie | Henry Mackenzie FRSE (August 1745 – 14 January 1831, born and died in Edinburgh) was a Scottish lawyer, novelist and writer sometimes seen as the Addison of the North. While remembered mostly as an author, his main income came from legal roles, which led in 1804–1831 to a lucrative post as Comptroller of Taxes for Scotland, whose possession allowing him to follow his interest in writing.
Biography
Mackenzie was born at Liberton Wynd in Edinburgh on 26 July 1745. His father, Dr Joshua Mackenzie, was a distinguished Edinburgh physician and his mother, Margaret Rose, belonged to an old Nairnshire family. Mackenzie's own family descended from the ancient Barons of Kintail through the Mackenzies of Inverlael.
Mackenzie was educated at the High School and studied law at University of Edinburgh. He was then articled to George Inglis of Redhall (grandfather of John Alexander Inglis of Redhall), who was attorney for the crown in the management of exchequer business. Inglis had his Edinburgh office on Niddry Wynd, off the Royal Mile, a short distance from Mackenzie's family home.
In 1765 he was sent to London for his legal studies, and on his return to Edinburgh he set up his own legal office at Cowgatehead off the Grassmarket, apparently as a partner with Inglis (but appearing in directories more as a rival), while he concurrently acted as attorney for the Crown.
Mackenzie had tried for several years to interest publishers in what would become his first and most famous work, The Man of Feeling, but they rejected it. Finally, Mackenzie published it anonymously in 1771, but to instant success. The "Man of Feeling" is a weak creature, dominated by futile benevolence, who goes up to London and falls into the hands of those who exploit his innocence. The sentimental key in the book shows the author's acquaintance with Sterne and Richardson, but in Sir Walter Scott's summary assessment, his work lacked the story construction, humour and character of those writers.
A clergyman from Bath named Eccles claimed authorship of the book, supporting his pretensions with a manuscript full of changes and erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially announced, but Eccles appears to have convinced some people. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, The Man of the World, whose hero was as consistently bad as the Man of Feeling had been "constantly obedient to every emotion of his moral sense", as Sir Walter Scott put it. Julia de Roubigné (1777) is an epistolary novel.
The first of his dramatic works, The Prince of Tunis, was staged in Edinburgh in 1773 with some success, but others failed. Mackenzie belonged to an Edinburgh literary club in Edinburgh, where papers in the manner of The Spectator were read. This led to the establishment of the weekly Mirror (23 January 1779 – 27 May 1780), of which Mackenzie was editor and chief contributor. It was followed in 1785 by a similar paper, the Lounger, which ran for nearly two years and included one of the earliest tributes to Robert Burns.
In 1783, Mackenzie was a joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He became its Literary President in 1812–1828 and Vice President in 1828–1831. At this stage he was listed as an "attorney at the exchequer" living at Browns Square off the Grassmarket.
Mackenzie was an ardent Tory. He wrote many tracts intended to counteract doctrines of the French Revolution, contributing to the Edinburgh Herald under the pseudonym "Brutus". Most remained anonymous, but he acknowledged his Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784, a defence of the policy of William Pitt written at the desire of Henry Dundas. He was rewarded in 1804 with the office of comptroller of the taxes for Scotland.
In 1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovich Grant of Grant. They had eleven children. He was in later years a notable figure in Edinburgh society, nicknamed the Man of Feeling, but in fact a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly heart. Some of his literary reminiscences appeared in his Account of the Life and Writings of John Home, Esq. (1822). He also wrote a Life of Doctor Blacklock, prefixed to the 1793 edition of the poet's works.
In 1805 Mackenzie was living in a townhouse at 55 George Square. In 1806 he moved to the newly completed house at 6 Heriot Row, where he lived as its first occupant until his death. All Heriot Row houses are relatively large but No. 6 has four bays, not three, making it a third larger than its neighbours.
In 1807 The Works of Henry Mackenzie were published surreptitiously, and he then himself superintended the publication of his Works (8 vols., 1808). There is admiring but discriminating criticism of his work in a Prefatory Memoir affixed by Sir Walter Scott to an edition of Mackenzie's novels in Ballantyne's Novelist's Library (vol. v., 1823).
Family
Mackenzie's 1776 marriage to Penuel Grant made him an uncle by marriage to Lewis Grant-Ogilvy, 5th Earl of Seafield. daughter of Sir Ludovic Grant, His eldest son, Joshua Henry Mackenzie (1777–1851) was a senator of the College of Justice known as Lord MacKenzie, buried with his father in Greyfriars Kirkyard. Two other sons, Robert and William, worked for the East India Company. His son Holt Mackenzie was an EIC administrator and privy councillor.
He had two daughters, Margaret and Hope. His nephew, Joshua Henry Davidson (1785–1847) was First Physician in Scotland to Queen Victoria.
Death
Henry Mackenzie died on 14 January 1831 at his Georgian townhouse at 6 Heriot Row. He is buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard, in a grave facing north in the centre of the north retaining wall.
Freemasonry
MacKenzie was a Scottish Freemason initiated into Lodge Canongate Kilwinning, No. 2, (Edinburgh, Scotland), on 2 December 1784.
Trivia
A small cottage in Colinton is known as "Henry MacKenzie's Cottage". The building was listed based on a "historical connection", but appears absurd, as it never featured among Mackenzie's official addresses. It may therefore have been home to a namesake and so listed under false pretences.
Works
Novels
The Man of Feeling (1771)
The Man of the World (1773)
Julia de Roubigné (1777)
Plays
The Prince of Tunis (a tragedy, 1773)
The Spanish Father (a tragedy, 1775)
The White Hypocrite (a comedy, 1789)
Non-fiction
Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784
Some Account of the Life and Writings of Dr Blacklock (1793)
Account of the Life of Lord Abercromby (1796)
An Account of the Life and Writings of William Tytler (1796)
Account of the Life of Mr John Home Esq. (1812)
Periodicals
Editor: The Mirror (1779–1780)
Editor: The Lounger (1785–1787)
Mackenzie's contributions to these two periodicals appear in The Works of Henry Mackenzie, Esq. (1808), Volumes IV–VII.
References
Gale Group – Eighteenth-Century Collections Online
British Authors Before 1800: A Biographical Dictionary, edited by Stanley J. Kunitz and Howard Haycraft, New York, the H. W. Wilson Company, 1952.
External links
The Grand Lodge of Scotland
1745 births
1831 deaths
Writers from Edinburgh
Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish Freemasons
Scottish novelists
Scottish political writers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Lawyers from Edinburgh
18th-century Scottish lawyers
18th-century Scottish writers
18th-century Scottish novelists
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh | [
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220561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20North%20%28composer%29 | Christopher North (composer) | Christopher North Renquist (born February 6, 1969), known professionally as Christopher North, is an American composer, songwriter, and multi-instrumentalist musician. Working most notably as a film composer, he has also composed and written for orchestra, theater, dance, and children's television. North has played in Broadway theater as a bassist and guitarist.
Biography
Born Christopher North Renquist in Austin, Texas on February 6, 1969, Christopher North is a multi-instrumental composer and singer-songwriter based in New York City. As a composer his works have been performed at venues in Europe (London, Berlin and Edinburgh) and the US (Texas, California, Illinois, Ohio, Hawaii and New York) including collaborations with filmmakers (Tribeca, Big Apple and SXSW Film Festivals), theater companies (including Workshop Theater, NY and Edinburgh Fringe), choreographers (Wave Hill, Joyce SOHO) and concerts including the 92nd Street Y. His children's songs can be heard on the Disney Channel and Noggin, where he wrote songs for Oobi.
As a genre-crossing musician, North has performed and recorded with an eclectic array of artists and ensembles. He has played bass with Quincy Jones, the Dixie Chicks, Rosanne Cash, various symphony orchestras as well on Broadway in The Lion King and Spring Awakening. He has sung with the New York Philharmonic (including the 3 Grammy Award-winning John Adams' "On the Transmigration of Souls") and for Stephen Sondheim ("Frogs" with Nathan Lane). He has performed at venues including Lincoln Center, Carnegie Hall, CBGB's and Madison Square Garden. He has performed on national TV (including Live with Regis and Kelly and Live at Lincoln Center), and been heard on the radio (NPR, WNYC) and commercials (including Visa and Tide). He has recorded and performed extensively as a multi-instrumentalist (guitar, keyboards, harmonica, etc.) As a multi-instrumentalist, he plays traditional instruments as well as newly created boutique instruments, including the Marcodi Harpejji, the Guitarviol, the Slaperoo, the Suzuki Andes 25, bass Ukulele, Cello Banjo, a ROLI Rise, and a Veillette Gryphon. He has produced and released two albums, Opus Zero, a classical album featuring chamber music and art songs, and De La Sur, an eclectic rock/soul album. He has done sound design and music for The Forever Waltz by Glyn Maxwel, the score for Angelica Torn's Lucky Days and various projects with writer and director Matthew Miele, finishing the feature-length film Everything's Jake in 2006 and Eavesdrop in September 2007. His scores and albums feature world-class NYC musicians (Eroica Trio, Ethel (string quartet), Andy Middleton, Carol Emanuel).
Works/Recordings/Performances
Film Scores
Cracked Up: The Darrell Hammond Story – A film by Michelle Esrick, starring Darrell Hammond as himself in which Christopher North provided guitarviol bookend cues
Lp - A crime short by Alexander Etseyatse
Capturing the Flag – A film by Anne de Mare documenting vote registration
Otis - A TV Series by Alexander Etseyatse in which North composed music for the episode Six Months Earlier
Stopwatch - A short drama film by Alexander Etseyatse
Cut Shoot Kill – A horror film by Michael Walker in which North composed much of his scores using the waterphone
Addict – A short film by Steve Curley with an ambient score
The Bell - A thriller short by Jeremy Merrifield
Two Trains Runnin''' – A Grammy nominated film (Best Original Music) directed by Samuel D. Pollard and written by Benjamin Hedin. North attended the Newport Folk Festival where he performed themes from the filmDark Passenger: Volume 1 - A horror film involving six stories that center around characters dealing with their personal demonsThe Flip - A drama short by Chung LamThe Break In - A horror short by Marcus SlabineA New High – A documentary film about homelessness and drug addiction directed by Samuel Miron and Stephen Scott ScapullaMissing People - A crime documentary by David ShapiroAll in Time – A drama film by Christopher Fetchko and Marina DonahueKarl Manhair, Postal Inspector - A TV series in which North composed music for 6 episodes; Man Is a Bad Animal, The Dark Arts, Family Business, Sisyphus, Some Sort of Sex Thing, Be the LionThink Ink – A short film directed by Wally Chung and story by Emily Hu which was awarded the Spirit of Slamdance at the Slamdance FestivalThe Bear - A drama short by Rachael SonnenbergF(l)ag Football – A film by Seth Greenleaf starring Wade Davis, Jared Garduno, Brenton Metzler, Cyd ZeiglerInseparable - A drama short by Eran EvronSky of the Damned – A TV series by Tasmin L. Silver in which North composed music for 5 episodes; Wake, Jillian, The FAE, Welcome to My City, Back to the StartBird Song - A drama short by Rachael Sonnenberg and Max SternL'Absinthe - A drama/thriller by Olivier BertinPowerless - A documentary short by Adam Lawrence and Shayok MukhopadhyayBible Quiz – A film by Nicole Teeny which opened at the 2013 Slamdance Film Festival. North's score features marimba, harpsichord, organ, guitar, percussion, glockenspiel, whistling, and various glass soundsFour One Nine - A drama short by Alexander EtseyatseMove – A documentary by Theodore CollatosGoodbye Brooklyn - A drama short by Jon-Carlos EvansHouston & 6th - A thriller short by Nyle Cavazos GarciaOpen Call - A comedy short by Geoff LererThe 5Boroughs - A comedy/drama short by Nyle Cavazos GarciaThe Man with the Red Right Hand - A comedy/thriller short by Nyle Cavazos GarciaPut It in Your Box - A comedy short by Matthew D'AbateS&M - A short thriller film by Matthew D'AbateWerewolf - A horror short by Matthew D'AbateBemvindo – A short film by Alexander RojoCase Closed - A comedy/drama short by Kevin StocklinGiant Place Detail – A documentary by Diana Quinones RiveraMary's Journal: Episode 1 – Connected - A short horror/mystery film by Nyle Cavazos GarciaAbidjan - A short film by Alexander Etseyatse, premiering at 24 film festivalsEavesdrop: A Conversation with Writer/Director Matthew Miele - A video documentary short about the filming of Eavesdrop (2008)Cut - A short horror film by Matthew D'AbateHeart – A short drama film by Hugh PlantinBrother's Reaction - A short drama film by Eddie GriffithNutmeg - A comedy short by Amy BenaroyaEavesdrop – A film by Matthew Miele starring Chris Parnell, Tovah Feldshuh, Terennce MannThe Dark - A short horror film and another collaboration with filmmaker Nyle Cavazos GarciaLucky Days – A film by Angelica Torn starring actor/writer/director Angelica Torn, Luke Zarzecki, co-director Tony Torn, Rip Torn, Federico CastelluccioEverything's Jake – A film by Matthew Miele starring Ernie Hudson, score performed by composer (with string quartet and saxophone) distributed by Warner BrothersSkips – A short film by Steve Curley, guitar and percussion score (2003) official entry in 2003 Tribeca Film FestivalHumidity – A short thriller film by Nyle Cavazos GarciaThe Tip (1997) – Multi-tracked double bass and piano score for short film produced and directed by Kahvan Mashayekh premiered at the Independent Film Festival, Houston, Texas, official entry in the 1998 SXSW Film Festival in Austin, TX and in the 1998 Houston International Film Festival
Music for DanceFerrum (2015) a Site-Specific Project at Pioneer Works (also played at Roulette) that draws on the historical, industrial components of the Pioneer space. The project was commissioned by Carte Blanche Shandoah, Brooklyn NYVictorian Hypnosis at The Salon Mexicana (2015) immersive performance in collaboration with Atlas Obscura commissioned by Carte Blanche Shandoah in ACME Studios, Brooklyn NYNEIL (2014) site-specific performance at New York Transit Museum's Inaugural Platform series commissioned by Carte Blance Shandoah, New York NYSuddenly Green (1998) for recorder, guitar, and percussion (one musician / dancer performed by the composer) commissioned by the Field and choreographer Sherry Greenspan for the Dancing in the Streets Festival at Wave Hill, Bronx NY
Seuss Suites (1998) multi-instrumental score/sound design for dance commissioned by Valerie Alpert and Company, Columbus OH
I Take Nights in the Middle of my Walk (1997–1998) for double bass, guitar and percussion (one musician / dancer performed by the composer) commissioned by choreographer Sherry Greenspan, presented at Joyce Theater Soho, NYC
What Are You Afraid Of? (1997) multi-instrumental score/sound design commissioned by Valerie Alpert and Company, Columbus OH
Seed (1995) for violin, multi-media collaboration with choreographer Michelle Lee Adams for performance by New Arts Collective, Dallas TX
Classical/Orchestral composition
Opus Zero (2002) by Christopher North, 13-track self-produced CD (including art song, chamber music, solo pieces)
Renquist (2007) by Christopher North, 15-track self-produced compilation of 1988–1998 works (including art song, chamber music, solo works, electronic soundscapes for dance)
Many new chamber works and Art songs for a Distinguished Artist recitals at the 92nd St Y in February 2001 and February 2008.
Jazz Composition
15 original jazz tunes composed for Eavesdrop score. Seven premiered live at February 2008 92nd Street Y recital.
Music/Sound Design for Theater
The Forever Waltz (2005) Original music and sound design for the Glyn Maxwell Play (including "the feather lake song" with words by the poet) produced by Verse Theater Manhattan / Workshop Theater in NYC and produced by Restricted View in London and Presented at Edinburgh Fringe 2005, directed by Elysa Marden
The Three Musketeers (1998) score/sound design for the play commissioned (with Meet the Composer) by The American Globe Theater, NYC
The Husbands (world premiere in August 1998 at the New York International Fringe Festival) live score/sound design (one musician) for the Christopher Logue play, directed by Elysa Marden, produced by Richard Ryan / Verse Productions
Songwriter
Songs for Sesame Street International, Disney Channel and Noggin Network for Josh Selig / Little Airplane Productions.
Christopher North, de la sur (2002), 17-track self-produced CD
Blue Skye, Yesterday's Yesteryear Blues (1994) 10-track self-produced CD
Bassist – Broadway/Theater
The Lion King on Broadway, New York NY (August 2001 – 2011) substitute player for Tom Barney
Spring Awakening on Broadway, New York NY (January 2007 – January 2009) substitute player for George Farmer
Rent on Broadway, New York NY (January 2004 – January 2005) substitute player for Steve Mack
Guitarist – Broadway/Theater
The Lion King on Broadway, New York NY (December 2004 – 2011) substitute player for Kevin Kuehn, the chair requires guitar (electric and classical), ukulele and kalimba
Vocal Recordings – Solo/Ensemble
Various demo and jingle recordings, New York, NY (1997–present) inc. Disney International and Sesame Street
John Adams' "On the Transmigration of Souls", for Nonesuch Records with the New York Philharmonic / New York Choral Artists, winner of 3 Grammy Awards (2005)
Stephen Sondheim's "The Frogs / Evening Primrose" (2000) for Nonesuch Records, featured Nathan Lane at the Hit Factory
Alice Parker "My Love and I", (2000) Men's choral works from the Robert Shaw / Alice Parker catalog for Melodius Accord at Riverside Church
"Kurt Masur at the New York Philharmonic," 10-CD box set features New York choral artists
As Multi-Instrumentalist
Christopher North's De la Sur' (2002), vocals, acoustic and electric basses, acoustic and electric guitars, drums / percussion, keyboards, sitar, recorder, harmonica.
Enid Levine and the Boys, Take This Show on the Road (2000), Acoustic /electric /fretless bass, nylon, steel and 12 string guitar, harmonica, vocals
Blue Skye, Yesterday's Yesteryear Blues (1995) Singer-songwriter, bass, keys, guitar & mixing
Numerous soundtracks: Cut Shoot Kill, Two Trains Runnin', L'Absinthe
Producer – Children's Songs
Educator – Bass/Guitar, Private/Studio/School Instruction
Private Studio, Denton and Dallas TX, New York and Brooklyn NY (1990 to present)
92nd Street Y, New York NY (1997–present)
Education
Bachelor of Music in Music Composition – Southern Methodist University (1992–1994)
University of North Texas (1987–1991)
References
External links
Christopher North's official website
Eavesdrop film official website
Everything's Jake official website
Christopher North's Youtube channel
1969 births
American film score composers
Living people
Musicians from Austin, Texas
American male film score composers | [
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220564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everything%27s%20Eventual | Everything's Eventual | Everything's Eventual is a collection of 11 short stories and 3 novellas by American writer Stephen King, published in 2002.
Stories
"The Little Sisters of Eluria" is part of The Dark Tower series.
Story order
In the introduction to the book, King describes the unusual method he used to sort the stories:
Audio versions
The unabridged digital audiobook edition includes all fourteen stories, but the physical book-on-cd versions of the stories are spread out over several products. "L.T.'s Theory of Pets" is the only story not included in any of the book-on-cd collections, but rather as a standalone product.
Everything's Eventual: Five Dark Tales contains these stories:
"Everything's Eventual" – read by Justin Long
"Autopsy Room Four" – read by Oliver Platt
"The Little Sisters of Eluria" – read by Boyd Gaines
"Luckey Quarter" – read by Judith Ivey
"The Road Virus Heads North" – read by Jay O. Sanders
The Man in the Black Suit: 4 Dark Tales contains these stories:
"The Man in the Black Suit"
"All That You Love Will Be Carried Away"
"The Death of Jack Hamilton"
"That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French"
Everything's Eventual: Volume 2 is a retitled edition of The Man in the Black Suit: 4 Dark Tales, along with the addition of "Riding the Bullet". It contains these stories:
"The Man in the Black Suit"
"All That You Love Will Be Carried Away"
"The Death of Jack Hamilton"
"That Feeling, You Can Only Say What It Is in French"
"Riding the Bullet"
Blood and Smoke contains these stories:
"1408"
"In the Deathroom"
"Lunch at the Gotham Cafe"
"L. T.'s Theory of Pets" and "Riding the Bullet" are available as individual single-story productions.
Film adaptations
Of the stories King wrote for this collection, two became films and another is in the works. The novella Riding the Bullet became a
direct-to-video film by the same name, released in 2004 and directed by Mick Garris, who made many films and TV miniseries of King's works, and the film 1408 (2007) appeared in theaters, starring John Cusack. "The Death of Jack Hamilton" was adapted for the screen for the first time as part of King's "Dollar Baby" deal, and an official teaser trailer for the film was released on September 1, 2012, with an expected release date in 2013.
See also
Stephen King short fiction bibliography
References
2002 short story collections
American short story collections
Charles Scribner's Sons books
Short story collections by Stephen King | [
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220565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Dundas%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Melville | Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville | Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, PC, FRSE (28 April 1742 – 28 May 1811), styled as Lord Melville from 1802, was a Scottish advocate and independent Whig politician. He was the trusted lieutenant of British prime minister William Pitt, and the most powerful politician in Scotland in the latter decades of the 18th century.
Henry Dundas was instrumental in the encouragement of the Scottish Enlightenment, in the prosecution of the war against France, and in the expansion of British influence in India. Prime Minister Pitt appointed him lord of trade from 1784 to 1786, Home Secretary (1791–1794), President of the Board of Control for Indian Affairs (1793–1801), Secretary at War (1794–1801), and First Lord of the Admiralty (1804–1805). His deft and almost total control of Scottish politics during a long period when no monarch visited the country, led to him being nicknamed King Harry the Ninth, the "Grand Manager of Scotland" (a play on the masonic office of Grand Master of Scotland), the "Great Tyrant" and "The Uncrowned King of Scotland".
He is commemorated by one of the most prominent memorials in Edinburgh, the 150-foot high, Category A listed Melville Monument at St Andrew Square, in the heart of the New Town he helped to establish. The monument was paid for mostly by friends and Naval personnel. Memorials to Dundas have become the focus of controversy over accusations that he delayed the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade.
Background and education
Dundas was born in Edinburgh on 28 April 1742 in the house known as 'Bishop's Land' (a former lodging of the Archbishop of St Andrews) on the Royal Mile. He was the fourth son of Robert Dundas of Arniston, Lord President of the Court of Session, by his second wife, Anne Gordon, daughter of Sir William Gordon of Invergordon. He first attended Dalkeith Grammar School before an attack of smallpox interrupted his studies, after which he moved to the Royal High School, Edinburgh, before enrolling at the University of Edinburgh to study law.
While a student he was a member of the Edinburgh University Belles Lettres Society, participating in its meetings and gaining his first experience of public speaking at the society's debates.
Legal career
Becoming a member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1763, he soon acquired a leading position in the Scottish legal system. He became Solicitor General for Scotland in 1766; but after his appointment as Lord Advocate in 1775, he gradually relinquished his legal practice to devote his attention more exclusively to public affairs.
In 1776, Dundas acted as counsel to Joseph Knight, who had been purchased as a slave in Jamaica and was later taken to Scotland. As a young man Knight tried to escape from his owner, and when that failed he launched a legal battle for his freedom. The case went to Scotland's highest civil court, where Dundas led Knight's legal team, in the case of Knight v. Wedderburn. Dundas was assisted by prominent members of the Scottish Enlightenment, and also Samuel Johnson, whose biographer James Boswell later wrote: "I cannot too highly praise the speech which Mr. Henry Dundas generously contributed to the cause of the sooty stranger." Arguing that "as Christianity gained ground in different nations, slavery was abolished", and appealing to the earlier ruling in Somerset v Stewart in England, Dundas said "he hoped for the honour of Scotland, that the supreme Court of this country would not be the only court that would give its sanction to so barbarous a claim." Dundas concluded his remarks by stating: "Human nature, my Lords, spurns at the thought of slavery among any part of our species." His pleading in Scotland's highest court was successful, and the Court ruled: "the dominion assumed over this Negro, under the law of Jamaica, being unjust, could not be supported in this country to any extent". In winning the case for Knight's emancipation, Dundas achieved a landmark decision in which the Court declared that no person could be a slave on Scottish soil. Any slaves then domiciled in Scotland could thus claim their freedom. Michael Fry said that Dundas's success in Knight v Wedderburn was "instrumental in prohibiting not only negro slavery but also native serfdom in Scotland."
Until 1785, he served also as Dean of the Faculty of Advocates.
He was created a Legum Doctor by the University of Edinburgh on 11 November 1789, was Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow from 1781 to 1783, and on 2 February 1788 was appointed Chancellor of the University of St Andrews. He was also a trustee for the University of Edinburgh and South Bridge.
Political career
Election to Parliament - the early years
In 1774 Dundas was returned to Parliament for Midlothian, and joined the party of Frederick North, Lord North; he was a proud Scots speaker and he soon distinguished himself by his clear and argumentative speeches. He was appointed Lord Advocate in 1775. His name appears in the 1776 minute book of the Poker Club. In 1778, Dundas made an attempt at proposing a Bill to relieve Scottish Catholics of their legal disabilities, but in response to severe riots in Edinburgh and Glasgow abandoned the project. After holding subordinate offices under William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne and Pitt, he entered the cabinet in 1791 as Secretary of State for the Home Department.
Cessation of Slave trade
On 2 April 1792, abolitionist William Wilberforce sponsored a motion in the House of Commons "that the trade carried on by British subjects, for the purpose of obtaining slaves on the coast of Africa, ought to be abolished." He had introduced a similar motion in 1791, which was soundly defeated by MPs, with a vote of 163 opposed, 88 in favour. Dundas was not present for that vote, but when it was again before MPs in 1792, Dundas tabled a petition from Edinburgh residents who supported abolition. He then went on to affirm his agreement in principle with Wilberforce's motion: "My opinion has been always against the Slave Trade." He argued, however, that a vote for immediate abolition would be ineffective, as it would drive the slave trade underground. He anticipated, in particular, that merchants from other countries would step in to fill the gap left by the British. He stated: "this trade must be ultimately abolished, but by moderate measures". He suggested that eventually slavery and the slave trade should be abolished but that this should not apply to the current generation of enslaved people who, he claimed would not benefit from immediate emancipation. He then introduced an amendment that would add the word "gradual" to the Wilberforce motion. The amendment was adopted, 192 in favour, 125 opposed. The motion as amended then passed 230 in favour, 85 opposed. For the first time, the House of Commons voted to end the slave trade.
Three weeks after the vote, Dundas tabled resolutions setting out a plan to implement gradual abolition by the end of 1799. At that time he told the House that proceeding too quickly would cause West Indian merchants and landowners to continue the trade "in a different mode and other channels." He argued that "if the committee would give the time proposed, they might abolish the trade; but, on the contrary, if this opinion was not followed, their children yet unborn would not see the end of the traffic." MPs voted in favour of ending the trade in slaves by the end of 1796, after defeating proposals to end the trade in slaves in 1795 or 1794. The House then amended the supporting resolutions tabled by Dundas, to reflect the new target date of 1796. The motion and resolutions later failed to win the necessary support of the House of Lords, which deferred consideration until after it heard evidence and then dropped the issue altogether. It was not until 1807 that the House of Lords voted in favour of abolishing the trade in slaves. Historian Stephen Farrell has noted that by that time, the political climate had changed, and the economic advantages of abolition had become apparent. The Slave Trade Act was enacted in 1807, and prohibited the trade in slaves in the British Empire. Ownership of slaves, however, remained legal in most of the British Empire until passage of the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833.
Between 1792 and 1807, when the slave trade was eventually abolished, another half a million Africans were transported into slavery in the British colonies. These historians point out that slavery did not end gradually, but it took another vote in 1807 to finally bring the trade to an end. In 1795, the poet and anti-slavery campaigner Samuel Taylor Coleridge observed that the Bill "passed the House of Commons mangled and mutilated by the amendments of Mr Dundas, and it has been dying ever since of a slow decline in the House of Lords." Dundas insisted that any abolition of the slave trade could not succeed without the support of West Indian colonial legislatures. Abolitionists argued that West Indian assemblies would never support such measures, and that by making the abolition of the slave trade dependent on colonial reforms, Dundas was in effect indefinitely delaying it.
A few years after passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807, Wilberforce and Dundas encountered each other. Wilberforce recorded the event as follows: "'We did not meet for a long time and all his connexions most violently abused me. About a year before he died ... we saw one another, and at first I thought he was passing on, but he stopped and called out, ‘Ah Wilberforce, how do you do? And gave me a hearty shake by the hand. I would have given a thousand pounds for that shake. I never saw him afterwards."
Historians of the slave trade and the abolitionist movement, including David Brion Davis, Roger Anstey, Robin Blackburn, and Stephen Tomkins argue that Dundas's actions were a tactic designed to delay rather than facilitate abolition. They maintain that when Dundas inserted the word "gradual" into the debate he subverted the British abolitionist movement. According to Davis, 'By making the abolition of the slave trade dependent on colonial reforms, Dundas suggested possibilities for indefinite delay.' Alternative measures were proposed later in the 1790s. Dundas spoke against specific proposals tabled in 1796, while reiterating his support for abolition in principle and then abstaining from the vote. The loss of momentum was connected to the renewal of war with revolutionary France, which between 1794 and 1801 was committed to complete abolition.
Some historians have publicly disagreed. In late 2020, Professor Sir Tom Devine, whose publications include editing Recovering Scotland's Slavery Past: The Caribbean Connection (Edinburgh University Press, 2015) said that blaming Dundas for delay in the abolition of the slave trade is "bad history", and instead emphasised wider political and economic factors, including no majority in favour of abolition. Professor Brian Young, a historian at the University of Oxford, notes that in 1792, the motion for immediate cessation of the slave trade was heading for certain defeat. By inserting the word "gradual" into the motion, Young says Dundas ensured a successful vote for the ultimate abolition of the trade in slaves.
The most recent study of the issue, by Dr Stephen Mullin of Glasgow University, concludes that Dundas was "'a great delayer' of the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade."
Key positions in government
From June 1793, Dundas was appointed President of the Board of Control, generally responsible for overseeing the conduct of the East India Company and British affairs in India, a post he would hold until 1801. As the effective Minister for War as part of his Home Department responsibilities at the outbreak of the Wars of the French Revolution, he was Pitt's closest advisor and planner for Britain's military participation in the First Coalition. Although Dundas was replaced as Home Secretary by the Duke of Portland in July 1794, Pitt nonetheless wished to maintain direction of the war effort in Dundas' trusted hands, and so created for him the new office of Secretary of State for War. In this role, Dundas was responsible for organising several British expeditions to the Caribbean to seize vulnerable French and Spanish possessions, the largest being that led by Sir Ralph Abercromy in 1795–6. Dundas spearheaded a vain attempt by the British to capture Saint-Domingue from the French during the Haitian Revolution. After they lost territory to the armies of Toussaint L'Ouverture, and became bogged down in their retreat to the western towns of Mole St Nicholas and Jeremie in Haiti, the British accepted they could not defeat the armies of black ex-slaves, and negotiated to withdraw from the island, resulting in thousands of British deaths for no gain.
Dundas also presided over a crisis in Britain's most important possession, the Colony of Jamaica. General George Walpole (British Army officer) secured the surrender of the Jamaican Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), on condition they won't be transported off the island. The governor of Jamaica, Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres, used a contrived breach of treaty as a pretext to deport most of the Trelawny Town Maroons to Nova Scotia. Walpole was disgusted with the governor's actions, pointing out that he had given the Maroons his word that they would not be transported off the island. Walpole resigned his commission, and went back to England, where he became an MP and protested in vain in the House of Commons how Balcarres had behaved in a duplicitous and dishonest way with the Maroons. Dundas sided with Balcarres in the dispute, and turned down Walpole's requests to get the Maroons returned to Jamaica.
Dundas was a vigorous advocate of a strong British presence in the Mediterranean. He promptly met the challenge of Napoleon's attack on Egypt with actions which were vigorous and pivotal. While he did not prevent the French landing he did play a key role in defeating it, thus enhancing British security in India.
From about 1798 on he pleaded frequently to be allowed to resign from his offices on health grounds, but Pitt, who relied on him greatly, refused even to consider it. Pitt's ministry left office in 1801. In 1802, Dundas was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as Viscount Melville and Baron Dunira, of Dunira in Perthshire. When Pitt returned to power in 1804, Dundas again entered office as First Lord of the Admiralty. Suspicion had arisen, however, as to the financial management of the Admiralty, of which Dundas had been treasurer between 1782 and 1800.
Commission of Inquiry
In 1802 the Commissioners of Naval Inquiry commenced inquiries into misappropriation of public funds while Dundas was treasurer of the Navy. Its report was presented in 1805. The Navy's paymaster, Alexander Trotter, admitted to the Commissioners that he had transferred public money from the Bank of England to his own credit in a private account at Coutts Bank, investing and loaning the funds at interest, from which he benefited. Although his transactions caused no loss of public money, but rather the loss of interest on that money, impeachment proceedings were taken against Dundas in 1806, given that the misappropriation had occurred during his term as Treasurer of the Navy. The trial, in the House of Lords, attracted considerable notice because of "dislike of patronage and the Pittite ‘system’, anti‐Scottish bias, and advocacy of financial and parliamentary reform." The process ended in an acquittal.
Dundas had already left the Privy Council, in 1805, but he remained in the House of Lords. He was readmitted to the Privy Council in 1807. He declined an offer of an earldom in 1809.
Family
Lord Melville's first marriage was to Elizabeth Rannie, daughter of David Rannie, of Melville Castle, in 1765. She is believed to have been about 16 at the time of the marriage, although the date of her birth is not certain. She committed adultery (then known as "criminal conversation") with a Captain Everard Faukener in 1778, after 13 years of marriage, and abandoned Dundas and their four children, fleeing to an undisclosed location. Within days she confessed in a letter to Dundas, saying she was "undeserving of being your wife or the mother to your unhappy children." Approximately a month later they were divorced. She went on to marry Faukener and never saw her children again. Henry Dundas became the owner of the family patrimony she brought to the marriage, in accordance with the law of the time, and he and their four children remained at Melville Castle after the marriage ended. Dundas paid Elizabeth a monthly annuity until his death, which was not required by law. Their eldest son Robert inherited the estate in 1811. Robert, the 2nd Viscount Melville, continued the annuity until Elizabeth's death at the age of 98.
Between 1785 and 1806 he leased a large country house called Warren House on the edge of Wimbledon Common where he entertained George III and Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. After his divorce Dundas was married again, to Lady Jane Hope, daughter of John Hope, 2nd Earl of Hopetoun, in 1793. He died in May 1811, in Edinburgh, aged 69, and was succeeded in his titles by his son from his first marriage, Robert. The Viscountess Melville later married Thomas Wallace, 1st Baron Wallace and died in June 1829.
Dundas is buried in a vault in Old Lasswade Kirkyard, with most of his descendants.
Legacy and memory
Late in life Dundas's health suffered and he was financially distressed. He attended debates in the House of Lords and maintained his position as a member of Privy Council, but kept a lower public profile. However at his death the immediate reaction was one of widespread praise from most quarters (apart from the Whigs in Scotland). By 1900, however, historians were harsh, denouncing him as the epitome of corruption and oppression who had sold out Scotland to the English. By the late 20th century his reputation had been restored. He was praised for his military policies, for giving Scotland a cohesive government, and for making it a major player in imperial affairs.
Dundas was a friend of John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, who named the town of Dundas in southern Ontario after him. Owing to the town's short-lived prominence in Upper Canada, streets and historical highways leading to Dundas were named Dundas Street; these include portions of Highway 5, Highway 2 and Highway 8. In 1792 Dundas County was named in his honour. In the city of Toronto, Yonge–Dundas Square is a prominent landmark and commercial centre, while Dundas Street is a main thoroughfare of the city.
Dundas Island was named by Captain George Vancouver in Dundas's honour. Vancouver originally believed it to be one island, Dundas's Island, but it was later determined that it was in fact a small archipelago. The group became known as the Dundas Islands, while constituent islands were given the names Melville Island, Baron Island, and Dunira Island, in respect of Dundas's titles.
The District of Dundas in New South Wales was named after the Colonial Secretary, Henry Dundas. The District of Dundas was abolished in 1889 although the name still survives in the Sydney suburb of Dundas.
In 1848, John Septimus Roe, the government surveyor (in the then colony of Western Australia), was searching for pastoral land and discovered the area around Norseman which he named Dundas Hills, after the colonial secretary. Gold was discovered there in 1893, the Dundas Field was proclaimed, and the town of Dundas established (ca. 40 km south of Norseman, later abandoned), which eventually led to the present Shire of Dundas.
A monument to Dundas, modeled loosely on Trajan's Column in Rome, stands in the centre of St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. The cost of the Melville Monument was "met by contributions from officers and men of the Royal Navy." It was designed in 1821 by William Burn, who was advised by Robert Stevenson after residents of the square expressed concern about the adequacy of the foundations to support a column of such height. It cost £8,000. The garden surrounding the Melville Monument was opened to the public in 2008. A statue of Dundas, sculpted by Robert Forrest from a model by Francis Chantrey, was added to the top in 1828. The long-time headquarters of the Royal Bank of Scotland, directly to the east, is Dundas House; construction was completed in 1774 for Sir Lawrence Dundas, a relative.
A statue (1818), by Sir Francis Chantrey, of Dundas stands against the north wall inside Parliament Hall in Edinburgh. Furthermore, the Melville Monument, an obelisk erected in 1812 on Dunmore hill, overlooking the scenic village of Comrie in Perthshire, commemorates his life.
Dundas Street, Hong Kong, was also named for him.
Dundas Marsh Crown Game Preserve was created in 1927 in Cootes Paradise within what is now in Royal Botanical Gardens (Ontario).
Controversy over legacy
Given accusations that he contributed to delay in the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade during the 1790s, activists have argued against the memorialisation of Dundas.
Over 14,000 people signed an online petition in June 2020 to rename Dundas Street, a major street in downtown Toronto. In July 2021, Toronto City Council voted to rename the street and other civic assets, with a new name to be chosen by April 2022. Mayor John Tory supported the renaming, stating that the man "never stepped foot in Canada".
In Edinburgh, demonstrators graffitied the Melville Monument in June 2020. In March 2021, the City of Edinburgh Council approved a permanent plaque dedicated to the memory of enslaved Africans. Professor Sir Tom Devine and descendants of Dundas criticised the content of the plaque as historically inaccurate.
Fictional references
Lord Melville, as First Lord of the Admiralty, is present or a background character in several of Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin novels. As a major official favourably disposed to Jack Aubrey, Lord Melville's political interest is often helpful to the captain. O'Brian casts Melville's impeachment for malversation of public monies as a political attack using naval intelligence spending, the details of which cannot be disclosed for security and the safety of intelligence agents—such as Stephen Maturin. Additionally, Heneage 'Hen' Dundas, a real-life naval officer son of Thomas Dundas, appears as a younger son of Lord Melville. As a former crewmate and close friend of one of the eponymous main characters, Jack Aubrey, Heneage Dundas is one of the recurring characters of the series.
He is also a supporting character in the legal drama Garrow's Law. As a leading figure of the establishment, he is a bitter enemy of the radical hero, William Garrow. He is played by Stephen Boxer. Also, fictional references were made to Sir Henry Dundas in Chapter 24 of L.A. Meyer's third book in the Jacky Faber series, which was titled "Under the Jolly Roger" as well as the former Lord Dundas in Meyer's sixth book, which was titled, "My Bonny Light Horseman". He was portrayed as 'bookish', although a sweet and sincere man otherwise. A reference was made to Henry Dundas and his role in the abolition of the Slave Trade in the motion picture Amazing Grace (2006) where he was played by Bill Paterson.
Dundas is also featured in Joseph Knight, by James Robertson (Fourth Estate, 2003) - a fictional account of the true story of the former slave for whom Dundas successfully appealed to two levels of Scottish courts, ultimately winning a declaration of Knight's emancipation, and the emancipation of all purported slaves on Scottish soil.
Arms
References
Further reading
Brown, David. "The Government of Scotland under Henry Dundas and William Pitt." History 83.270 (1998): 265–279.
Dwyer, John, and Alexander Murdoch. "Paradigms and Politics: Manners, Morals and the Rise of Henry Dundas, 1770-1784," in John Dwyer, Roger A. Mason, and Alexander Murdoch (eds.), New Perspectives on the Politics and Culture of Early modern Scotland (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1982), pp. 210–248.
Ehrman, John. The Younger Pitt: The Years of Acclaim (1969); The Reluctant Transition (1983); The Consuming Struggle (1996). Monumental scholarly study with extensive coverage of Dundas.
Fry, Michael. "Dundas, Henry, first Viscount Melville (1742–1811)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004)
Fry, Michael. The Dundas despotism (1992) on Scotland
Furber, Holden. Henry Dundas: First Viscount Melville, 1741–1811, Political Manager of Scotland, Statesman, Administrator of British India (Oxford UP, 1931). Long scholarly biography online
Hutchison, Gary D. "‘The Manager in Distress’: Reaction to the Impeachment of Henry Dundas, 1805–7." Parliamentary History 36.2 (2017): 198-217. PDF
Ingram, Edward. Two Views of British India: Private Correspondence of Mr. Dundas and Lord Wellesley, 1798-1801 (Adams & Dart, 1970)
Lovat-Fraser, J.A. Henry Dundas, viscount Melville (1916) online
McCarthy, Angela. "Bad History: The Controversy over Henry Dundas and the Historiography of the Abolition of the Slave Trade." Scottish Affairs (2022): 1-26.
Matheson, Cyril. The Life of Henry Dundas, First Viscount Melville, 1742–1811 (1933).
Mullen, Stephen. "Henry Dundas: a ‘great delayer’of the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade." Scottish Historical Review (2021). online
Murdoch, Alexander. "Henry Dundas, Scotland and the Union with Ireland, 1792–1801." in Scotland in the Age of the French Revolution (2005) pp: 125–39.
Taylor, Michael. The Interest: How the British Establishment Resisted the Abolition of Slavery (Penguin, 2020)
Wright, Esmond. "Henry Dudas--Harry the Ninth." History Today (March 1958) 8#3 pp 155–163
External links
Finding aid to the Henry Dundas papers at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries
Letters and memoranda (1792-1812) of Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville and Robert Dundas, Viscount Melville (1771-1851) are held by SOAS Archives.
1742 births
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People from Dalkeith
Dundas, Henry
Dundas, Henry
Dundas, Henry
British MPs 1774–1780
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] |
220570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20fantail | Grey fantail | The grey fantail (Rhipidura albiscapa) is a small insectivorous bird. It is a common fantail found in Australia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia. The species is considered by many to be conspecific with the New Zealand fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa); however, differences in its calls lead some authorities to treat it as a separate species.
Description
This fantail is mid-to-dark grey or grey-brown above, lighter (often yellowish/orange) below, with a white throat, white markings over the eye, and (depending on the race) either white-edged or entirely white outer tail feathers. It grows to in length, of which half is the tail, which, as the name implies, is often displayed fanned out. This reveals that the outer tail feathers are light and the centre ones are dark. Some races, such as keasti, have a darker plumage.
During waking hours the bird is almost never still. It flits from perch to perch, sometimes on the ground but mostly on the twigs of a tree or any other convenient object, looking out for flying insects. The birds are not shy, and will often flit within a few metres of people, especially in forested areas and suburban gardens. In doing so, it is able to catch any small flying insects that may have been disturbed by human activities such as walking or digging.
The bird's call is an almost metallic cheek, either as a single sound or (more often) repeated as a chattering.
Life cycle
The grey fantail is territorial and it is a seasonal breeder. The birds form compact, cup-shaped nests, usually in the forks of trees, made from moss, bark and fibre, and often completed with spider's web. They raise several broods per season, usually each of three or four cream eggs spotted grey and brown. The incubation period is around two weeks and incubation and feeding duties are shared by both adults.
Gallery
References
External links
Videos, photos and sounds - Internet Bird Collection
grey fantail
Birds of Australia
Birds of Melanesia
grey fantail | [
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220572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holyrood | Holyrood | Holyrood may refer to:
Religion
Holyrood (cross), a Christian relic alleged to be part of the True Cross on which Jesus died
Feast of the Cross, or Holy Rood day, in the Christian liturgical calendar
Places
United Kingdom
Holyrood, Edinburgh, an area of Edinburgh, Scotland
Holyrood, a metonym for the Scottish Parliament or the Scottish Parliament Building
Holyrood Abbey, a ruined Augustinian abbey in Edinburgh
Holyrood Palace, formally the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh
Holyrood Park, a royal park in central Edinburgh
Holyrood Academy, Chard, Somerset, England
Holyrood estate, Southampton, England
Holyrood Secondary School, a school in Glasgow, Scotland
Canada
Holyrood, Newfoundland and Labrador
Holyrood Thermal Generating Station, Conception Bay, Newfoundland
Holyrood, Edmonton, Alberta
Holyrood Elementary School
Holyrood stop, a tram stop
Holyrood, Huron-Kinloss, Ontario
United States
Holyrood, Kansas
Holy Rood Cemetery, Washington, D.C.
Cemetery of the Holy Rood, Westbury, New York
Other uses
"Holyrood", the march of the RAF Regiment
Holyrood (magazine), a Scottish current affairs and politics magazine
See also
Holy Rood Church (disambiguation)
Hollywood (disambiguation)
Rood (Scots), a land measurement of Anglo-Saxon origin | [
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220577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Alfred%20Stothard | Charles Alfred Stothard | Charles Alfred Stothard (5 July 1786 – 28 May 1821) was an English antiquarian draughtsman, with a special interest in monumental effigies.
Life
Stothard was born in London, the son of the painter, Thomas Stothard. He was educated at a school run by a Mr Dearne, and then became a private pupil of the Rev Robert Burnside. He studied at the Royal Academy from 1807, and began his first historical picture, the Death of Richard II in Pomfret Castle three years later. His depiction of the king was based closely on the effigy on his tomb in Westminster Abbey.
He soon abandoned the historical painting for a project which he hoped would be more remunerative, The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain. He published the first part in 1811; an accompanying advertisement explained that its purpose was to supply historical painters with accurate details of costume up to the reign of Henry VIII, to illustrate history and biography, and to provide accurate information on dress for productions of the plays of Shakespeare. During 1815 he travelled Britain making drawings for Daniel Lysons' Magna Britannica. In that year he was appointed historical draughtsman to the Society of Antiquaries, who sent him to Bayeux to make coloured drawings of the tapestry for publication in the series Vetusta Monumenta. He made three visits to Northern France in 1816–19 for this project. On the first of these he also discovered the location of the monuments of the Plantagenets, which had been moved when the chapel at the abbey of Fontevraud in which they were housed was demolished during the French Revolution, and made accurate drawings of them. He was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1819.
He made copies of the medieval paintings discovered in the chamber of the House of Lords, and prepared a paper discussing their date. He visited the Netherlands in September 1820, and early the next year prepared the eleventh part of the Monumental Effigies, finished a large plate of the effigies from Fontevraud and began a work on seals.
In February 1818, he married Anna Eliza Kempe, who accompanied him when they travelled to France that year. She retained many of his drawings after his death and left them to the British Museum after her own death, in 1883. They had one child, a daughter, who only survived her father by a year.
Death and burial
In May 1821 he went to Devon to make drawings for Daniel and Samuel Lysons' history of Devon, Magna Britannia, vol. 6, Devonshire, published in 1822. He died on the 28 May, falling from a ladder while tracing a portrait from one of the windows in St Andrew's Church, Bere Ferrers. His grave is at Bere Ferrers. A later antiquarian, W. H. Hamilton Rogers, who also made studies of the Ferrers family in the same church, wrote 70 years later:
The "founder of these courts below" was Sir William Ferrers, founder of Bere Ferrers church, whose image appears in the stained glass window Stothard was drawing at the time of his death.
Publications
Stothard's principal publication was The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain; selected from our cathedrals and churches for the purpose of bringing together, and preserving correct representations of the best historical illustrations extant, from the Norman Conquest to the reign of Henry the Eighth, a folio volume containing many etched plates. He began to issue it in parts in 1811, but it remained unfinished at his death. His widow, Anna Eliza, brought it to completion, with the assistance of four different etchers (who produced the remaining plates from Stothard's original drawings), and her brother, Alfred John Kempe (who provided additional text, based in part on Stothard's own notes). The complete volume finally appeared in 1832, although it contains two title pages, one dated 1817 and the other 1832, which has sometimes caused bibliographical confusion. The focus of the published work is firmly on effigies, but Phillip Lindley has shown that this was a consequence of Stothard's premature death, and that his intention was to record more of their monumental and architectural contexts.
A second edition of Monumental Effigies, in two folio volumes and with further additional text by John Hewitt, was published in 1876. A facsimile edition of the first edition, at a slightly reduced size, was issued by Ken Trotman Publishing in 2011.
Engravings from Stothard's drawings of the Bayeux Tapestry were made by James Basire, and published in 1823. They show the complete tapestry, and were described by the art historian Eric Maclagan as "exquisite plates [which] still provide what is in many ways the most adequate representation of the original".
Anna Eliza also published her Memoirs of Stothard, incorporating many journal entries, letters, and other original documents, in 1823. The book did much to mould and enhance his posthumous reputation.
References
Further reading
External links
Charles Alfred Stothard collection in the National Portrait Gallery website
1786 births
1821 deaths
19th-century antiquarians
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in England
Bere Ferrers
English antiquarians
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London | [
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220581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Stothard | Thomas Stothard | Thomas Stothard (17 August 1755 – 27 April 1834) was an English painter, illustrator and engraver.
His son, Robert T. Stothard was a painter (fl.1810): he painted the proclamation outside York Minster of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne in June 1837.
Early life
Stothard was born in London, the son of a well-to-do innkeeper in Long Acre. A delicate child, he was sent at the age of five to a relative in Yorkshire, and attended school at Acomb, and afterwards at Tadcaster and at Ilford, Essex. Showing talent for drawing, he was apprenticed to a draughtsman of patterns for brocaded silks in Spitalfields. In his spare time, he attempted illustrations for the works of his favourite poets. Some of these drawings were praised by James Harrison, the editor of the Novelist's Magazine. Stothard's master having died, he resolved to devote himself to art.
Career
In 1778 Stothard became a student of the Royal Academy, of which he was elected associate in 1792 and full academician in 1794. In 1812 he was appointed librarian to the Academy after serving as assistant for two years. Among his earliest book illustrations are plates engraved for Ossian and for Bell's Poets. In 1780, he became a regular contributor to the Novelist's Magazine, for which he produced 148 designs, including his eleven illustrations to The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (by Tobias Smollett) and his graceful subjects from Clarissa and The History of Sir Charles Grandison (both by Samuel Richardson).
From 1786, Thomas Fielding, a friend of Stothard's and engraver, produced engravings using designs by Stothard, Angelika Kauffmann, and of his own. Arcadian scenes were especially esteemed. Fielding realised these in colour, using copper engraving, and achieved excellent quality. Stothard's designs had an exceptional aesthetic appeal.
He designed plates for pocket-books, tickets for concerts, illustrations to almanacs, and portraits of popular actors. These are popular with collectors for their grace and distinction. His more important works include illustrations for:
Two sets for Robinson Crusoe, one for the New Magazine and one for Stockdale's edition
The Pilgrim's Progress (1788)
Harding's edition of Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1792)
The Rape of the Lock (1798)
The works of Solomon Gessner (1802)
William Cowper's Poems (1825)
The Decameron
His figure-subjects in Samuel Rogers's Italy (1830) and Poems (1834) demonstrate that even in old age, his imagination remained fertile and his hand firm.
Art historian Ralph Nicholson Wornum estimated that Stothard's designs number five thousand and, of these, about three thousand were engraved. His oil pictures are usually small. His colouring is often rich and glowing in the style of Rubens, who Stothard admired. The Vintage, perhaps his most important oil painting, is in the National Gallery. He contributed to John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, but his best-known painting is the Procession of the Canterbury Pilgrims, in Tate Britain, the engraving from which, begun by Luigi and continued by Niccolo Schiavonetti and finished by James Heath, was immensely popular. The commission for this picture was given to Stothard by Robert Hartley Cromek, and was the cause of a quarrel with his friend William Blake. It was followed by a companion work, the Flitch of Bacon, which was drawn in sepia for the engraver but was never carried out in colour.
In addition to his easel pictures, Stothard decorated the grand staircase of Burghley House, near Stamford in Lincolnshire, with subjects of War, Intemperance, and the Descent of Orpheus in Hell (1799–1803); the library of Colonel Johnes' mansion of Hafod, in North Wales, with a series of scenes from Froissart and Monstrelet painted in imitation of relief (1810); and the cupola of the upper hall of the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh (later occupied by the Signet Library), with Apollo and the Muses, and figures of poets, orators, etc. (1822). He prepared designs for a frieze and other sculptural decorations for Buckingham Palace, which were not executed, owing to the death of George IV. He also designed a shield presented to the Duke of Wellington by the merchants of London, and executed a series of eight etchings from the various subjects that adorned it.
Personal life
Stothard married Rebecca Watkins in 1783. They had eleven children, of whom six – five sons and one daughter – survived infancy. They lived in Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, until 1794, when they moved to a house at 28 Newman Street, Fitzrovia of which Stothard had bought the freehold. His wife died in 1825. His sons included Thomas, accidentally shot dead in about 1801; the antiquarian illustrator Charles Alfred Stothard, who also predeceased his father; and Alfred Joseph Stothard, medallist to George IV.
Stothard died on 27 April 1834, and was buried in Bunhill Fields burial ground in north London.
In literature
Stothard's painting of Erato (one of the Muses) is given a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in her "Poetical Catalogue of Pictures", in the Literary Gazette (1823). Another of his paintings, The Fairy Queen Sleeping, is poetically examined in a similar fashion in her "Poetical Sketches of Modern Pictures" in The Troubadour (1826).
Notes
References
– Contains a short biographical chapter, and an accurately dated summary of the various books and periodicals illustrated by Stothard.
Attribution
Further reading
Bray, Anna Elizabeth. Life of Thomas Stothard, R. A., with personal reminiscences: Volume 1, Volume 2 (London, J. Murray, 1851).
Dobson, Austin. Eighteenth Century Vignettes, volume 1 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1892).
External links
Thomas Stothard online
Works by Stothard (Government Art Collection)
Paintings by Thomas Stothard (Bridgeman Art Library)
An engraving by Charles Heath of a painting by Stothard made for Friendship's Offering, 1825 with illustrative verse by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.
An engraving by Robert Brandard of a painting by Stothard made for The Bijou annual for 1828 with illustrative verse by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.
1755 births
1834 deaths
Painters from London
18th-century English painters
English male painters
19th-century English painters
English engravers
English illustrators
Royal Academicians
Burials at Bunhill Fields | [
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220582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification%20tag | Identification tag | Identification tag may refer to:
Dog tag, an identification tag used by the military
Microchip implant (animal) or radio identification tag, a scanner-readable microchip implanted into livestock and pets for identification
Pet tag, a small flat tag worn on pets' collars or harnesses
Toe tag, identification tag used on the big toe of a dead person in a morgue
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220583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20United%20States%20%281776%E2%80%931789%29 | History of the United States (1776–1789) | Between 1776 and 1789 thirteen British colonies emerged as a newly independent nation, the United States of America. Fighting in the American Revolutionary War started between colonial militias and the British Army in 1775. The Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Under the leadership of General George Washington, the Continental Army and Navy defeated the British military securing the independence of the thirteen colonies. In 1789, the 13 states replaced the Articles of Confederation of 1777 with the Constitution of the United States of America. With its amendments, it remains the fundamental governing law of the United States.
Background
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, British colonies in America had been largely left to their own devices by the crown in the form of salutary neglect. The colonies were thus largely self-governing; half the white men in America could vote, compared to one percent in Britain. They developed their own political identities and systems which were in many ways separate from those in Britain. This new ideology was a decidedly republican political viewpoint, which rejected royalty, aristocracy, and in the name of corruption, called for sovereignty of the people and emphasized civic duty. In 1763 with British victory in the French and Indian War, this period of isolation came to an end with the Stamp Act of 1765. The British government began to impose taxes in a way that deliberately provoked the Americans, who complained that they were alien to the unwritten English Constitution because Americans were not represented in parliament. Parliament said the Americans were "virtually" represented and had no grounds for complaint.
From the Stamp Act of 1765 onward, disputes with London escalated. By 1772 the colonists began the transfer of political legitimacy to their own hands and started to form shadow governments built on committees of correspondence that coordinated protest and resistance. They called the First Continental Congress in 1774 to inaugurate a trade boycott against Britain. Twelve colonies were represented at the Congress. Georgia was under tight British control and did not attend.
When resistance in Boston culminated in the Boston Tea Party in 1773 with the dumping of taxed tea shipments into the harbor, London imposed the Intolerable Acts on the colony of Massachusetts, ended self-government, and sent in the Army to take control. The Patriots in Massachusetts and the other colonies readied their militias and prepared to fight.
American Revolution
George Washington's roles
General Washington assumed five main roles during the war.
First, he designed the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress. The goal was always independence. When France entered the war, he worked closely with the soldiers it sent—they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in 1781. Their help led to America winning the war overall.
Second, he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces in 1775–1777 and again in 1781. He lost many of his battles, but he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war's end. Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In 1778, he formed the Culper Ring to spy on the British movements in New York City. In 1780 it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor.
Third, he was charged with selecting and guiding the generals. In June 1776, Congress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance", succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee that eventually included members of the military. The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington's input) with state-appointments filling the lower ranks. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command, such as John Sullivan. Eventually, he found capable officers such as Nathanael Greene, Daniel Morgan, Henry Knox (chief of artillery), and Alexander Hamilton (chief of staff). The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops.
Fourth he took charge of training the army and providing supplies, from food to gunpowder to tents. He recruited regulars and assigned Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train them. He transformed Washington's army into a disciplined and effective force. The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress, but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials. There was never nearly enough.
Washington's fifth and most important role in the war effort was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown, serving as the representative man of the Revolution. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch. He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias.
Military hostilities begin
On April 19, 1775, the royal military governor sent a detachment of troops to seize gunpowder and arrest local leaders in Concord. At Lexington, Massachusetts, shots broke out with the Lexington militia, leaving eight colonists dead. The British failed to find their targets in Concord, and as they retreated back to Boston, the British came under continuous assault by upwards of 3,800 militia who had prepared an ambush. The Battle of Lexington and Concord ignited the American Revolutionary War. As news spread, local shadow governments (called "committees of correspondence") in each of the 13 colonies drove out royal officials and sent militiamen to Boston to besiege the British there.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the aftermath of armed clashes in April. With all thirteen colonies represented, it immediately began to organize itself as a central government with control over the diplomacy and instructed the colonies to write constitutions for themselves as states. On June 1775, George Washington, a charismatic Virginia political leader with combat experience was unanimously appointed commander of a newly organized Continental Army. He took command in Boston and sent for artillery to barrage the British. In every state, a minority professed loyalty to the King, but nowhere did they have power. These Loyalists were kept under close watch by standing Committees of Safety created by the Provincial Congresses. The unwritten rule was such people could remain silent, but vocal or financial or military support for the King would not be tolerated. The estates of outspoken Loyalists were seized; they fled to British-controlled territory, especially New York City.
Invasion of Canada
During the winter of 1775–76, an attempt by the Patriots to capture Quebec failed, and the buildup of British forces at Halifax, Nova Scotia, precluded that colony from joining the 13 colonies. The Americans were able to capture a British fort at Ticonderoga, New York, and to drag its cannon over the snow to the outskirts of Boston. The appearance of troops and a cannon on Dorchester Heights outside Boston led the British Army to evacuate the city on March 17, 1776.
Debating the Declaration of Independence
During the debate over the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson wanted to include a provision that would have condemned King George III for "waging cruel war against human nature itself, violating...rights of life and liberty...captivating...them into slavery or to incur miserable death..." In other words, he denounced the slave trade as an "execrable Commerce" and slavery itself as a "cruel war against human nature."
Southern states demanded that this provision would be removed in return for joining the revolutionary cause. Having no choice, Jefferson removed it.
Declaration of Independence
On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia, voted unanimously to declare independence as the "United States of America". Two days later, on July 4, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The drafting of the Declaration was the responsibility of a Committee of Five, which included John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, and Benjamin Franklin; it was drafted by Jefferson and revised by the others and the Congress as a whole. It contended that "all men are created equal" with "certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", and that "to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed", as well as listing the main colonial grievances against the crown. July 4 ever since has been celebrated as the birthday of the United States.
The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of Patriot leadership. According to a study of the biographies of the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence:
The Signers came for the most part from an educated elite, were residents of older settlements, and belonged with a few exceptions to a moderately well-to-do class representing only a fraction of the population. Native or born overseas, they were of British stock and of the Protestant faith.
Campaigns of 1776 and 1777
The British returned in force in August 1776, landing in New York and defeating the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island in one of the largest engagements of the war. They quickly seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington and his army. The British made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until late 1783. Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network.
The British soon seized New Jersey, and American fortunes looked dim; Thomas Paine proclaimed "these are the times that try men's souls". But Washington struck back in a surprise attack, crossing the icy Delaware River into New Jersey and defeated British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic images of the war.
In early 1777, a grand British strategic plan, the Saratoga Campaign, was drafted in London. The plan called for two British armies to converge on Albany, New York from the north and south, dividing the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. Failed communications and poor planning resulted in the army descending from Canada, commanded by General John Burgoyne, bogging down in dense forest north of Albany. Meanwhile, the British Army that was supposed to advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne went instead to Philadelphia, in a vain attempt to end the war by capturing the American capital city. Burgoyne's army was overwhelmed at Saratoga by a swarming of local militia, spearheaded by a cadre of American regulars. The battle showed the British, who had until then considered the colonials a ragtag mob that could easily be dispersed, that the Americans had the strength and determination to fight on. Said one British officer:
The American victory at Saratoga led the French into an open military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of Alliance (1778). France was soon joined by Spain and the Netherlands, both major naval powers with an interest in undermining British strength. Britain now faced a major European war, and the involvement of the French navy neutralized their previous dominance of the war on the sea. Britain was without allies and faced the prospect of invasion across the English Channel.
The British move South, 1778–1783
With the British in control of most northern coastal cities and Patriot forces in control of the hinterlands, the British attempted to force a result by a campaign to seize the southern states. With limited regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders realized that success depended on a large-scale mobilization of Loyalists.
In late December 1778, the British had captured Savannah. In 1780 they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that the invaders soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to move out. They fought their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory they left dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, as the bands of Loyalists, one by one, were overwhelmed by the patriots.
The British army under Lord Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however, they were trapped and were surrounded by a much stronger force of Americans and French under Washington's command. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.
News of the defeat effectively ended the fighting in America, although the naval war continued. Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the rebels, but now it reached a new low. King George III personally wanted to fight on, but he lost control of Parliament and had to agree to peace negotiations.
The First States to Abolish Slavery
While the fighting was coming to a close, the northern colonies, despite the south's disapproval, were making plans to tear down one of Britain's cruelest wars against human nature. By 1780, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts had already abolished slavery.
Pennsylvania passed "An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery", making it the first time in human history that slavery was abolished by a democracy. Massachusetts, although having legally abolished it, did not start enforcing its laws against slavery until 1783. The ruling by the Massachusetts Supreme Court in the Commonwealth v. Jennison case, more commonly known as "the Quock Walker case", applied the principle of judicial review to make it effective.
Peace and memory
Long negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1783), which provided highly favorable boundaries for the United States; it included nearly all land east of the Mississippi River and south of Canada, except British West Florida, which was awarded to Spain. Encompassing a vast region nearly as large as Western Europe, the western territories contained a few thousand American pioneers and tens of thousands of Indians, most of whom had been allied to the British but were now abandoned by London.
Every nation constructs and honors the memory of its founding, and following generations use it to establish its identity and define patriotism.
The memory of the Founding and the Revolution has long been used as a political weapon. For example, the right-wing "Tea Party movement" of the 21st century explicitly memorialized the Boston Tea Party as a protest against intrusive government.
The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial, and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed the king replaced the pope as the demon patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war while 80% remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices."
Historians have portrayed the Revolution as the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion" that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation's birth ever since. Key events and people were viewed as icons of fundamental virtues. Thus the Revolution produced a Moses-like leader (George Washington), prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold). There are sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred days (Independence Day), and sacred scriptures whose every sentence is carefully studied (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights).
Confederation Period: 1783–1789
During the 1780s, the nation was a loose confederation of 13 states and was beset with a wide array of foreign and domestic problems. The states engaged in small scale trade wars against each other, and they had difficulty suppressing insurrections such as Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. The treasury was empty and there was no way to pay the war debts. There was no national executive authority. The world was at peace and the economy flourished. Some historians depict a bleak challenging time for the new nation. Merrill Jensen and others say the term “Critical Period” is exaggerated, and that it was also a time of economic growth and political maturation.
Despite the hardships as a result of the war, there were still great accomplishments made by the newly created states. In 1784, Connecticut and Rhode Island abolished slavery, making them the 3rd and 4th states in the union to have moved another step away from British law.
In 1787, the Northwest Ordinance was signed into law, then on August 7, 1789, President George Washington signed the Northwest Ordinance of 1789 into law after the newly created U.S. Congress reaffirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications under the Constitution. It forbade slavery and established a government for the Northwest Territory, outlined the process for admitting a new state to the Union, and guaranteed that newly created states would be equal to the original 13 states. These states that were created out of territories that are to the North-West of the River Ohio were Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa.
Articles of Confederation
The Treaty of Paris left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Second Continental Congress had drawn up Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, to regularize its own status. These described a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no judiciary.
Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give Congress credit for resolving the conflict between the states over ownership of the western territories. The states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states, the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilist policies of the European powers. Before the war, the Americans had shipped food and other products to the British colonies in the Caribbean ( British West Indies ), but now these ports were closed since only British ships could trade there. France and Spain had similar policies for their empires. The formerly imposed restrictions on imports of New England fish and Chesapeake tobacco. New Orleans was closed by the Spanish, hampering settlement of the West, although it didn't stop frontiersmen from pouring west in great numbers. Simultaneously, American manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. The inability of the Congress to redeem the currency or the public debts incurred during the war, or to facilitate trade and financial links among the states aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of farmers in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government and the Congress was powerless to help.
The Continental Congress did have the power to print paper money; it printed so much that its value plunged until the expression "not worth a continental" was used for some worthless item. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the states, which did not respond generously. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the states had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. In 1785, Alexander Hamilton issued a curt statement that the Treasury had received absolutely no taxes from New York for the year.
States handled their debts with varying levels of success. The South for the most part refused to pay its debts off, which was damaging to local banks, but Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia fared well due to their production of cash crops such as cotton and tobacco. South Carolina would have done the same except for a series of crop failures. Maryland suffered from financial chaos and political infighting. New York and Pennsylvania fared well, although the latter also suffered from political quarrels. New Jersey, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Connecticut struggled. Massachusetts was in a state of virtual civil war (see above) and suffered from high taxes and the decline of its economy. Rhode Island alone among the New England states prospered and mostly because of its notorious harboring of pirates and smugglers.
When Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the states to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the states themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each state acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.
Constitutional Convention
Congress, meeting in New York, called on each state to send delegates to a Constitutional Convention, meeting in Philadelphia. While the stated purpose of the convention was to amend the Articles of Confederation, many delegates, including James Madison and George Washington, wanted to use it to craft a new constitution for the United States. The Convention convened in May 1787 and the delegates immediately selected Washington to preside over them. Madison soon proved the driving force behind the Convention, engineering the compromises necessary to create a government that was both strong and acceptable to all of the states. The Constitution, proposed by the Convention, called for a federal government—limited in scope but independent of and superior to the states—within its assigned role able to tax and equipped with both Executive and Judicial branches as well as a two-house legislature. The national legislature—or Congress—envisioned by the Convention embodied the key compromise of the Convention between the small states which wanted to retain the power they had under the one-state/one-vote Congress of the Articles of Confederation and the large states which wanted the weight of their larger populations and wealth to have a proportionate share of power. The upper House—the Senate—would represent the states equally, while the House of Representatives would be elected from districts of approximately equal population.
The Constitution itself called for ratification by state conventions specially elected for the purpose, and the Confederation Congress recommended the Constitution to the states, asking that ratification conventions be called.
Several of the smaller states, led by Delaware, embraced the Constitution with little reservation. But in the most populous two states, New York and Virginia, the matter became one of controversy. Virginia had been the first successful British colony in North America, had a large population, and its political leadership had played prominent roles in the Revolution. New York was likewise large and populous; with the best situated and sited port on the coast, the state was essential for the success of the United States. Local New York politics were tightly controlled by a parochial elite led by Governor George Clinton, and local political leaders did not want to share their power with the national politicians. The New York ratification convention became the focus for a struggle over the wisdom of adopting the Constitution.
Those opposed to the new Constitution became known as the Anti-Federalists. They generally were local rather than cosmopolitan in perspective, oriented to plantations and farms rather than commerce or finance, and wanted strong state governments and a weak national government. According to political scientist James Q. Wilson the Anti-Federalists:
Campaign for ratification
Those who advocated the Constitution took the name Federalists and quickly gained supporters throughout the nation. The most influential Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, the anonymous authors of The Federalist Papers, a series of 85 essays published in New York newspapers, under the pen name "Publius". The papers became seminal documents for the new United States and have often been cited by jurists. These were written to sway the closely divided New York legislature.
Opponents of the plan for a stronger government, the Anti-Federalists, feared that a government with the power to tax would soon become as despotic and corrupt as Great Britain had been only decades earlier. The most notable Anti-federalist writers included Patrick Henry and George Mason, who demanded a Bill of Rights in the Constitution.
The Federalists gained a great deal of prestige and advantage from the approval of George Washington, who had chaired the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson, serving as Minister to France at the time, had reservations about the proposed Constitution. He resolved to remain neutral in the debate and to accept either outcome.
Promises of a Bill of Rights from Madison secured ratification in Virginia, while in New York, the Clintons, who controlled New York politics, found themselves outmaneuvered as Hamilton secured ratification by a 30–27 vote. North Carolina and Rhode Island eventually signed on to make it unanimous among the 13 states.
The old Confederation Congress now set elections to the new Congress as well as the first presidential election. The electoral college unanimously chose Washington as first President; John Adams became the first Vice President. New York was designated as the national capital; they were inaugurated in April 1789 at Federal Hall.
Under the leadership of Madison, the first Congress set up all the necessary government agencies and made good on the Federalist pledge of a Bill of Rights. The new government at first had no political parties. Alexander Hamilton in 1790–92 created a national network of friends of the government that became the Federalist party; it controlled the national government until 1801.
However, there continued to be a strong sentiment in favor of states' rights and a limited federal government. This became the platform of a new party, the Republican or Democratic-Republican Party, which assumed the role of opposition to the Federalists. Jefferson and Madison were its founders and leaders. The Democratic-Republicans strongly opposed Hamilton's First Bank of the United States. American foreign policy was dominated by the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars between the United Kingdom and France. The Republicans supported France, encouraging the French Revolution as a force for democracy, while the Washington administration favored continued peace and commerce with Britain, signed the Jay Treaty much to the disgust of Democratic-Republicans, who accused Hamilton and the Federalists of supporting aristocracy and tyranny. John Adams succeeded Washington as President in 1797 and continued the policies of his administration. The Jeffersonian Republicans took control of the Federal government in 1801 and the Federalists never returned to power.
Westward expansion
Only a few thousand Americans had settled west of the Appalachian Mountains prior to 1775. Settlement continued, and by 1782 25,000 Americans had settled in Transappalachia. After the war, American settlement in the region continued. Though life in these new lands proved hard for many, the western settlement offered the prize of property, an unrealistic aspiration for some in the East. Westward expansion stirred enthusiasm even in those who did not move west, and many leading Americans, including Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, purchased lands in the west. Land speculators founded groups like the Ohio Company, which acquired title to vast tracts of land in the west and often came into conflict with settlers. Washington and others co-founded the Potomac Company to build a canal linking the Potomac River with Ohio River. Washington hoped that this canal would provide a cultural and economic link between the east and west, thus ensuring that the West would not ultimately secede.
In 1784, Virginia formally ceded its claims north of the Ohio River, and Congress created a government for the region now known as the Old Northwest with the Land Ordinance of 1784 and the Land Ordinance of 1785. These laws established the principle that Old Northwest would be governed by a territorial government, under the aegis of Congress, until it reached a certain level of political and economic development. At that point, the former territories would enter the union as states, with rights equal to that of any other state. The federal territory stretched across most of the area west of Pennsylvania and north of the Ohio River, though Connecticut retained a small part of its claim in the West in the form of the Connecticut Western Reserve, a strip of land south of Lake Erie. In 1787, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which granted Congress greater control of the region by establishing the Northwest Territory. Under the new arrangement, many of the former elected officials of the territory were instead appointed by Congress. In order to attract Northern settlers, Congress outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory, though it also passed a fugitive slave law to appease the Southern states.
While the Old Northwest fell under the control of the federal government, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia retained control of the Old Southwest; each state claimed to extend west to the Mississippi River. In 1784, settlers in western North Carolina sought statehood as the State of Franklin, but their efforts were denied by Congress, which did not want to set a precedent regarding the secession of states. By the 1790 Census, the populations of Tennessee and Kentucky had grown dramatically to 73,000 and 35,000, respectively. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Vermont would all gain statehood between 1791 and 1795.
With the aid of Britain and Spain, Native Americans resisted western settlement. Spain's 1784 closure of the Mississippi River denied access to the sea for the exports of Western farmers, greatly impeding efforts to settle the West. The British had restricted settlement of the trans-Appalachian lands prior to 1776, and they continued to supply arms to Native Americans after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Between 1783 and 1787, hundreds of settlers died in low-level conflicts with Native Americans, and these conflicts discouraged further settlement. As Congress provided little military support against the Native Americans, most of the fighting was done by the settlers. By the end of the decade, the frontier was engulfed in the Northwest Indian War against a confederation of Native American tribes. These Native Americans sought the creation of an independent Indian barrier state with the support and under protection of the British, posing a major foreign policy challenge to the United States.
See also
American Revolution
American Revolutionary War
Timeline of the American Revolution (1765–1791)
References
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
1770s in the United States
1780s in the United States | [
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220587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIFI%20%28AM%29 | WIFI (AM) | WIFI (1460 AM) is a radio station broadcasting a Spanish AC format. Currently the radio station is located in Florence, New Jersey serving the Delaware Valley area.
History
The station received its construction permit as WRLB on June 7, 1984. On February 1, 1992, the station changed its call sign to the current WIFI; it launched later that year. The WIFI call letters had previously been used in the market for some 20 years on the station now known as WXTU. The station previously ran a brokered format under the "MyWifi 1460" brand.
The 1460 frequency had previously been used in Burlington County by WJJZ, a daytime-only station licensed to Mount Holly, New Jersey with a transmitter site on Burlington Island. Two incarnations of WJJZ operated, both losing licenses over corporate indiscretions, between 1963 and 1983.
In 2008, Florence Broadcasting Partners led by John Forsythe took over operations of the station under a time brokerage agreement with Real Life Broadcasting. On November 1, 2013, the operating contract between Real Life Broadcasting and Florence Broadcasting expired and was not renewed. The station was then operated by Omega Broadcasting, LLC, which programmed gospel music.
In 2013, the station became one of the first broadcast stations to use 100% solar power for its daytime transmissions.
In November 2020, Ritmo Broadcasting began managing WIFI, replacing Christian programming ("Life Radio") with a contemporary hit radio format, branded "WIFI 92.9". Ritmo acquired WIFI and translator W225DJ effective March 1, 2021, at a purchase price of $275,000.
On April 16, 2021, the station rebranded as Ritmo 92.9, and began playing Tropical music.
On October 20, 2021 WIFI changed their format from tropical to Spanish adult contemporary, branded as "Amor 92.9".
Translators
References
External links
1992 establishments in New Jersey
Companies based in Burlington County, New Jersey
Florence Township, New Jersey
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220589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory%20of%20imputation | Theory of imputation | The theory of imputation is based on the so-called theory of factors of production proposed by the French economist Jean-Baptiste Say and elaborated by the American economist John Bates Clark in his work The Distribution of Wealth (1899; Russian translation, 1934). The proponents of the theory of imputation see its main task as elucidating which parts of wealth may be attributed (imputed) to labor and capital respectively.
Principles
In economics, the theory of imputation, first expounded by Carl Menger, maintains that factor prices are determined by output prices (i.e. the value of factors of production is the individual contribution of each in the final product, but its value is the value of the last contributed to the final product (the marginal utility before reaching the point Pareto optimal). Thus, Friedrich von Wieser identified a flaw in the theory of imputation as expounded by his teacher, Carl Menger: overvaluation may occur if one is confronted with economies where profits jump (maximums and minimums in his utility function, where its first derivative equals 0). Wieser thus suggested as an alternative the simultaneous solution of a system of industrial equations:
Industry 1: X + Y = 300
Industry 2: 6X + Z = 900
Industry 3: 4Y + 3Z = 1700 ⇒ X = 100, Y = 200, Z = 300.
Given that a factor is used in the production of a range of first-order goods, its value is determined by the good that is worth the least among all the goods in the range. This value is determined at the margin, the marginal utility of the last unit of the least valuable good produced by the factor. In connection with his opportunity cost, the value so derived represents an opportunity cost across all industries, and the values of the factors of production and goods are determined in the whole system. Thus, supply and demand do not develop into the determinants of value; the determinant of value is the marginal utility.
That is the opposite of the labor theory of value, maintained by classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo.
See also
Implicit cost
Imputed income
Imputed rent
References
Costs
Economics and time
Theory of value (economics)
Austrian School | [
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220591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bell | Robert Bell | Robert or Rob Bell may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Robert Charles Bell (engraver) (1806–1872), Scottish engraver
Robert Anning Bell (1863–1933), English artist and designer
Robert Bell (artist and curator) (1946–2018), Australian artist and curator
Robert "Kool" Bell (born 1950), American singer, songwriter, and bassist with Kool & the Gang
Robert Bell, musician and bassist with The Blue Nile
Rob Bell (TV presenter) (born 1979), British TV presenter
Authors and editors
Robert Bell (writer) (1800–1867), Irish journalist & editor
Robert Charles Bell (1917–2002), author of several books on board games
Rob Bell (Robert Holmes Bell Jr., born 1970), American author, Christian speaker and pastor
Law
Robert C. Bell (1880–1964), U.S. federal judge
Robert M. Bell (born 1943), Chief Judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals
Robert Holmes Bell (born 1944), U.S. federal judge
Robert D. Bell (born 1967), justice of the Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals
Politics
Robert Bell (Speaker) (died 1577), British statesman
Robert Bell (died 1639) (1589–1639), English landowner and politician
Robert Bell (Lanark County politician) (1808–1894), Canadian legislator
Robert Bell (Ottawa politician) (1821–1873), Canadian legislator
Robert Bell (Toronto politician) (1827–1883), Orangeman and legislator in Ontario, Canada
Robert Duncan Bell (1878–1953), acting governor of Bombay during the British Raj, 1937
Robert Bell (Minnesota politician) (1926–2014), Minnesota politician
Robert Bell (Australian politician) (1950–2001), Australian politician
Robert Christopher Bell or Chris Bell (born 1959), U.S. Representative from Texas
Rob Bell (Virginia politician) (born 1967), member of the Virginia House of Delegates
Science
Robert Bell (geologist) (1841–1917), Canadian geologist
Robert Bell (Irish geologist) (1864–1934), Northern Irish amateur geologist
Robert E. Bell (1914–2006), American archaeologist
Robert Edward Bell (1918–1992), Canadian nuclear physicist and principal of McGill University
Robert James Bell (born 1975), known as Dr Rob, scientist, and host of Australian children's television programme Scope
Sports
Robert William Bell (1875–1950), England international rugby player
Bunny Bell (Robert Bell, 1911–1988), English footballer who played for Tranmere Rovers and Everton
Bobby Bell (Scottish footballer) (Robert McDicken Bell, 1934–2007), association football player for various English and Scottish clubs
Robert Lee Bell Jr. (Bobby Bell, born 1940), American football player
Rob Bell (baseball) (Robert Allen Bell, born 1977), US Major League/Minor League baseball player
Robert Bell (racing driver) (born 1979), British racing driver
Others
Robert Bell (publisher) (1732–1784), American printer and publisher
Robert Bell (priest) (1808–1883), Archdeacon of Cashel
Robert Bell (physician) (1845–1926), British physician and medical writer
Robert J. T. Bell (1876–1963), Scottish mathematician
Robert Huntley Bell (born 1946), American academic
See also
Bob Bell (disambiguation) | [
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] |
220594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRDA | IRDA | IRDA may refer to:
Infrared Data Association, an interest group for developing infrared data communication protocols
Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority, a government agency in India
Intermittent rhythmic delta activity, a type of abnormal brain wave
Iskandar Regional Development Authority, Malaysia
International Reborn Doll Artists, a group promoting the making of reborn dolls
Irda (Dragonlance), a fictional species in the Dragonlance series
The Irda, a Dragonlance novel by Linda P. Baker | [
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220595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius%20Lardner | Dionysius Lardner | Professor Dionysius Lardner FRS FRSE (3 April 179329 April 1859) was an Irish scientific writer who popularised science and technology, and edited the 133-volume Cabinet Cyclopædia.
Early life in Dublin
He was born in Dublin on 3 April 1793 the son of William Lardner, a solicitor in Dublin, who wished his son to follow the same calling. After some years of uncongenial desk work, Lardner entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1812, and obtained a B.A. in 1817 and an M.A. in 1819, winning many prizes. He married Cecilia Flood on 19 December 1815, but they separated in 1820 and were divorced in 1835. About the time of the separation, he began a relationship with a married woman, Anne Maria Darley Boursiquot, the wife of a Dublin wine merchant. It is believed that he fathered her son, Dion Boucicault, the actor and dramatist. Lardner provided him with financial support until 1840. Whilst in Dublin, Lardner began to write and lecture on scientific and mathematical matters, and to contribute articles for publication by the Irish Academy.
Career in London
In 1828 Lardner was elected professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London, a position he held until he resigned his professorship in 1831.
Lardner showed himself to be a successful populariser of science, giving talks on contemporary topics such as Babbage's Difference Engine (1834). He was the author of numerous mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects as algebraic geometry (1823), the differential and integral calculus (1825), and the steam engine (1828). He also wrote hand-books on various departments of natural philosophy (1854–1856); but it is as the editor of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia (1830–1844) that he is best remembered.
The Cabinet Cyclopædia eventually comprised 133 volumes, and many of the ablest savants of the day contributed to it. Sir Walter Scott contributed a history of Scotland and Thomas Moore contributed a history of Ireland. Connop Thirlwall provided a history of Ancient Greece, whilst Robert Southey provided a section on naval history. Many eminent scientists contributed as well. Lardner himself was the author of the treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics, mechanics (in conjunction with Henry Kater) and electricity (in conjunction with C.V. Walker).
The Cabinet Library (12 vols., 1830–1832) and the Museum of Science and Art (12 vols., 1854–1856) were his other chief undertakings. A few original papers appear in the Royal Irish Academy's Transactions (1824), in the Royal Society's Proceedings (1831–1836) and in the Astronomical Society's Monthly Notices (1852–1853); and two Reports to the British Association on railway constants (1838, 1841) are from his pen.
Involvement in scandal
In 1840 Lardner's career received a major setback as a result of his involvement with Mary Spicer Heaviside, the wife of Captain Richard Heaviside, of the Dragoon Guards. He had previously been married to Cecilia Flood in 1815, but had separated in 1820. Lardner ran off to Paris with Mrs Heaviside, pursued by her husband. When he caught up with them, Heaviside subjected Lardner to a flogging; he was unable to persuade his wife to return with him. Later that year he successfully sued Lardner for "criminal conversation" (adultery) and received a judgment of £8,000. The Heavisides were divorced in 1845, and in 1846 Lardner was able to marry Mary Heaviside. The scandal caused by his affair with a married woman effectively ended his career in England, so Lardner and his wife remained in Paris until shortly before his death in 1859. He was able to maintain his career by lecturing in the United States between 1841 and 1844, which proved financially rewarding, realising £40,000.
He died in Naples, Italy, and is buried in the Cimitero degli Inglesi there.
Disagreements with Brunel
Lardner became involved in a number of ill-advised public disagreements with Isambard Kingdom Brunel regarding technical matters, in which he came off the worse.
During the 1833 Parliamentary hearings discussing the proposal of the Great Western Railway, Lardner criticised Brunel's design of the Box Tunnel. The tunnel had a 1-in-100 gradient from the east end to the west end. Lardner asserted that if a train's brakes were to fail in the tunnel, it would accelerate to over , at which speed the train would break up and kill the passengers. Brunel pointed out that Lardner's calculations totally disregarded air-resistance and friction, a basic error.
In 1836, when Brunel was proposing to build SS Great Western for the transatlantic passage to New York, at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Lardner stated that: As the project of making the voyage directly from New York to Liverpool, it was perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making the voyage from New York to the moon... is the longest run that a steamer could encounter – at the end of that distance she would require a relay of coals.
Again, Brunel was able to show that Lardner's calculations were too simplistic. The principle that Brunel understood, which Lardner did not, was that the carrying capacity of a ship increases as the cube of its dimensions, whilst the water-resistance only increases as the square of its dimensions. This meant that large ships were more fuel efficient, and could carry sufficient coal for the long voyage across the Atlantic. Brunel was proved right when the Great Western steamed into New York harbour with of coal to spare.
In 1838 while Brunel was building the broad-gauge Great Western Railway, Lardner carried out some experiments with the company's flagship locomotive, North Star. He asserted that, whilst the engine was capable of hauling at , it was only capable of hauling at . He also recorded excessive fuel consumption at higher speeds. Lardner attributed this to the greater wind resistance of broad-gauge engines. Brunel and his assistant Daniel Gooch carried out their own experiments on the same locomotive and found that the only problem was that the blast pipe was too small. This was easily rectified and the North Star's performance immediately improved. At the next meeting of the company's directors, Brunel triumphantly dismissed Lardner's evidence.
Contemporary influence
Lardner is mentioned in Karl Marx's Das Kapital and was well respected as an economist. He mixed with the rich and famous. He was involved in the founding of the University of London and the first person to hold the post of Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy there. He was influential in publicising Charles Babbage's Difference Engine.
Whilst lecturing in America Lardner was paid by Norris Brothers, the largest firm of locomotive builders, to investigate a fatal accident in Reading, near Philadelphia, where a boiler had exploded on a newly made train. Lardner pronounced that the accident had been caused by lightning, which meant that Norris brothers were not personally liable for the accident. A committee of the Franklin Institute pointed out that there was no lightning present at that time and that the pumps had been faulty, the water indicator was ill-designed and the bridge-bands made of cast iron rather than wrought iron. The Coroner's inquest jury were persuaded by Lardner that the accident was an 'act of God' but the company were careful to design their later locomotives with wrought-iron bands.
Selected publications
(1828) Popular Lectures on the Steam Engine with James Renwick
(1830) Mechanics with Captain Henry Kater
(1830) The Western World Vol. 1 United States
(1831) Poland
(1831) Treatise on Algebraic Geometry
(1831) A Treatise on Mechanics Vol. 1 with Captain Henry Kater
(1831) A Treatise on... Silk Manufacture
(1832) Treatise on Hydrostatics and Pneumatics with Benjamin Franklin Joslin
(1832) History of Switzerland with Roy Gerald Fitzgerald
(1832) Lectures on the Steam-engine
(1834) An Historical View of the Progress of the Physical and Mathematical Sciences by Baden Powell
(1836) The Steam Engine Familiarly Explained and Illustrated with James Renwick
(1838) The History of Maritime and Inland Discovery Vol. 3
(1840) The Steam Engine Explained and Illustrated
(1842) Courses of Lectures: Delivered by Dionysius Lardner
(1843) Lardner's Outlines of Universal History
(1844) Investigation of the Causes of the Explosion of the Locomotive Engine, "Richmond"
(1845) Popular Lectures on Astronomy with François Arago
(1847) Encyclopaedia of Pure Mathematics with Peter Barlow, George Peacock
(1848) The First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid
(1849) Popular Lectures on Science and Art Vol. 1
(1850) Railway Economy
(1854) Hand-books of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy First Course
(1855) Common Things Explained
(1856) Steam and Its Uses
(1857) A Rudimentary Treatise on the Steam Engine
(1857) Natural Philosophy for Schools
(1858) A Hand-book of Optics
(1858) Hand-books of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy Vol. 1
Bibliography
A L Martin, Villain of Steam : A Life of Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859) (Carlow, Tyndall Scientific, 2015). References include:
Kieran Byrne, 'Mechanics's Institutes in Ireland before 1855' (thesis, University College Cork, 1976)
Richard Fawkes 'Dion Boucicault'
Norman McMillan 'Prometheus's Fire'
Mark Blaug (ed.) 'William Whewell (1794–1866), Dionysius Lardner (1793–1859), Charles Babbage (1792–1871)'; J.N. Hays article 'Dionysius Lardner' in the Dictionary of National Biography
Nora Crook's introduction to 'Mary Shelley's Literary Lives and other writings'
R. John Brockmann "Twisted Rails, sunken ships, the rhetoric of nineteenth century Steamboat and Railroad Accident Investigation Reports, 1833–1879" (2005).
Archives include Letters to Babbage, Letters in the Wellcome Library, including a 9-page autobiography in French, etc.
Peckham, Morse. "Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia". The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 45 (1951): 37–58.
Andrew Odlyzko "Collective hallucinations and inefficient markets: The British Railway Mania of the 1840s" (2010)
References
External links
1793 births
1859 deaths
19th-century Irish people
Fellows of the Royal Society
Irish science writers
Irish astronomers
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Writers from Dublin (city)
Encyclopedists
Academics of University College London | [
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220598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marken | Marken | Marken (; Marken's dialect: Mereke) is a village in the municipality of Waterland in the province of North Holland, Netherlands. It had a population of 1,770 as of 2019 and occupies a peninsula in the Markermeer. It was formerly an island in the Zuiderzee. The characteristic wooden houses of Marken are a tourist attraction.
History
Early years
Marken was an island in the Zuiderzee.
For some time during the later 19th and early 20th centuries, Marken and its inhabitants were the focus of considerable attention by folklorists, ethnographers and physical anthropologists, who regarded the small fishing town as a relic of the traditional native culture that was destined to disappear as modernization of the Netherlands gained pace. Among them were Johann Friedrich Blumenbach who examined a human skull from the island which he called Batavus genuinus; and was the Belgian painter Xavier Mellery who stayed in Marken at the request of Charles De Coster. Mellery was asked to create illustrative work and delivered several intimist works.
Cornelis Lely's designs incorporated the island into a proposed Markerwaard. A partial dike, built in 1941 in the north, is the first phase of that project which was stopped by World War II.
Recent times
In 1983, the Marker Museum about the history of the island was opened. Marken was a separate municipality until 1991, when it was merged into Waterland.
Geography
Marken is in the municipality of Waterland in the east of the province of North Holland in the west of the Netherlands. Marken is a peninsula in the Markermeer, of which is it is the namesake, and is connected to the mainland of North Holland by a causeway.
Demography
In 2012, Marken had a population of 1,810 and a population density of .
References
External links
Marken at the website of the municipality of Waterland
Map of the former municipality, around 1868.
Tourist Information about Marken
Former islands of the Netherlands
Former municipalities of North Holland
Islands of North Holland
Populated places in North Holland
Waterland | [
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220600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Kater | Henry Kater | Henry Kater FRS, FRAS (16 April 1777 – 26 April 1835) was a British physicist of German descent.
Early life
He was born at Bristol. At first he intended to study law; but he gave up the idea on his father's death in 1794. He entered the army, obtaining a commission in the 12th Regiment of Foot, then stationed in India, where he assisted William Lambton in the Great Trigonometric Survey. Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808, then a lieutenant, he entered on a student career at the Senior Division of the new Royal Military College at High Wycombe. Shortly afterwards he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the remainder of his life to scientific research.
Scientist
His first major contribution to science was the comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian telescopes; Kater determined the latter to be an inferior design.
His most substantial work was the invention of Kater's pendulum, enabling the strength of gravity to be determined, first at London and subsequently at various stations throughout the country. As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater rendered a service to practical astronomy. He also published memoirs on British standards of length and mass; and in 1832 he published an account of his work on verifying the Russian standards of length. For these services to Russia he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. Anne; and the same year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1826, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Kater was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. In 1833 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
He won the Copley Medal in 1817 and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831.
He is considered as the inventor of the prismatic compass, patented a year later by Charles Schmalcalder.
He also studied compass needles, his Bakerian lecture containing the results of many experiments. The treatise on "Mechanics" in Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely astronomical questions was shown by two papers in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society for 1831–1833 — one on an observation of Saturn's outer ring, the other on a method of determining longitude by means of lunar eclipses.
Works
References
Notes
External links
Awarding of RAS gold medal
Biographical information
Obituaries
MNRAS 3 (1836) 155
1777 births
1835 deaths
19th-century British astronomers
English physicists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Bristol
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
18th-century English people
19th-century English people
Suffolk Regiment officers
Military personnel from Bristol | [
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220602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%20Kirzner | Israel Kirzner | Israel Meir Kirzner (also Yisroel Mayer Kirzner ; born February 13, 1930) is a British-born American economist closely identified with the Austrian School. He is currently the most senior Austrian economist alive.
Early life and education
The son of a well-known rabbi and Talmudist, Kirzner was born in London and reached the United States by way of South Africa.
After studying at the University of Cape Town, South Africa in 1947–48, and with the University of London External Programme in 1950–51, Kirzner received his B.A. summa cum laude from Brooklyn College in 1954, and an MBA in 1955 and Ph.D. in 1957 from New York University, where he studied under Ludwig von Mises.
Kirzner is also an ordained Rabbi; see below.
Economics
Kirzner is emeritus professor of economics at New York University and a leading authority on Ludwig von Mises's thinking and methodology in economics. Kirzner's research on entrepreneurship economics is also widely recognized. His book, Competition and Entrepreneurship criticizes neoclassical theory for its preoccupation with the model of perfect competition, which neglects the important role of the entrepreneur in economic life. Kirzner's work integrating entrepreneurial action into neoclassical economics has been more widely accepted than nearly any other Austrian idea of the late twentieth century.
In 2006, Kirzner received the Global Award for Entrepreneurship Research "for developing the economic theory emphasizing the importance of the entrepreneur for economic growth and the functioning of the capitalist process." While Kirzner's ideas have greatly impacted the field of entrepreneurship studies, he has mainly been associated with the opportunity discovery view. However, a careful reading of Kirzner's work would suggest that his work on entrepreneurship can be split into two camps, one focusing on discovery and the other on creation.
Like Joseph Schumpeter, Kirzner's work can arguably be divided into Kirzner Mark I and Kirzner Mark II. Kirzner's major work is in the economics of knowledge and entrepreneurship and the ethics of markets. Kirzner has said that he agrees with Roger Garrison's statement that Kirzner's work takes the middle ground, as opposed to the recent, more extreme position of some Austrian School economists who deny the relevance of market equilibrium.
Universidad Francisco Marroquín granted him an Honorary Doctorate Degree for his contributions to economic theory. Honorary Doctoral Degrees at Universidad Francisco Marroquín UFM also named its Kirzner Entrepreneurship Center in his honor.
Publications
Liberty Fund is currently publishing Israel Kizner's Collected Works in ten volumes under the supervision of Peter Boettke and Frederic Sautet. The first volume, The Economic Point of View, came out in December 2009, the second volume, Market Theory and the Price System, in May 2011 and the third volume, Essays on Capital, in June 2012. The fourth volume, Competition and Entrepreneurship, is scheduled to come out in 2013, which will also be the year of the 40th anniversary of the publication of the book.
Some of his works on economics include:
Books
Market Theory and the Price System. Van Nostrand, 1963.
An Essay on Capital. A.M. Kelley, 1966.
Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago, 1973. .
Perception, Opportunity and Profit: Studies in the Theory of Entrepreneurship. Chicago, 1973.
The Economic Point of View: An Essay in the History of Economic Thought. Kansas City: Sheed and Ward, 1976.
Discovery and the Capitalist Process. University of Chicago Press, 1985. .
Discovery, Capitalism and Distributive Justice. Basil Blackwell, 1989.
The Meaning of Market Process. Routledge, 1992. / .
The Driving Force of the Market. Routledge, 2000. .
Articles
"Fifty Years of FEE—Fifty Years of Progress in Austrian Economics". The Freeman, Vol. 46, No. 5, May 1996. Archivedfrom the original. Full issue available.
"Reflections on the Misesian Legacy in Economics". The Review of Austrian Economics, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1996, pp. 143–154. . . .
"Entrepreneurial Discovery and The Competitive Market Process: An Austrian Approach". Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 35, No. 1, March 1997, pp. 60–85. .
"Human Action, 1949: A Dramatic Episode in Intellectual History". The Freeman, Vol. 59, No. 7, September 2009, pp. 8–11. Archivedfrom the original. Full issue available.
Judaic scholar
Kirzner is also an ordained rabbi and Talmudic scholar, and serves as the rabbi of the congregation once headed by his father in Brooklyn, New York. He is one of the most famous disciples of Rabbi Isaac Hutner, the late dean of the Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin, where he studied for many years during the same years he obtained his academic training. Kirzner is an authority on Hutner's writings and is one of the few official editors of all sources that Hutner quotes.
See also
Austrian School
Friedrich Hayek
Ludwig von Mises
Milton Friedman
References
Ebeling, Richard M., "Happy 90th Birthday, Professor Israel Kirzner," American Institute for Economic Research, February 18, 2020
External links
Israel Kirzner's Faculty Page
First volume of Israel M. Kirzner's Collected Works edited by Peter Boettke and Frederic Sautet published in 2009 by Liberty Fund
Causa Liberal's Collection of Kirzner essay links
An Interview with Israel M. Kirzner: Between Mises and Keynes
Article "Azione e funzione imprenditoriale: Kirzner e i suoi critici", by Adriano Gianturco Gulisano, Nuova civilità delle macchine. Liberalismo e anarcocapitalismo, n° 1–2, 2011, pp. 371–96. (in Italian)
1930 births
Living people
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Alumni of the University of London
American libertarians
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British classical liberals
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English emigrants to the United States
English Jews
Historians of economic thought
Jewish American writers
New York University alumni
New York University faculty
University of Cape Town alumni
20th-century American rabbis
21st-century American Jews | [
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220603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuri%20al-Said | Nuri al-Said | Nuri Pasha al-Said CH (December 1888 – 15 July 1958) () was an Iraqi politician during the British mandate in Iraq and the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq. He held various key cabinet positions and served fourteen terms as the prime minister of Iraq.
From his first appointment as prime minister under the British mandate in 1930, Nuri was a major political figure in Iraq under the monarchy. During his many terms in office, he was involved in some of the key policy decisions that shaped the modern Iraqi state. In 1930, during his first term, he signed the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, which, as a step toward greater independence, granted Britain the unlimited right to station its armed forces in and transit military units through Iraq and also gave legitimacy to British control of the country's oil industry.
The treaty nominally reduced British involvement in Iraq's internal affairs but only to the extent that Iraq did not conflict with British economic or military interests. The agreement led the way to nominal independence, as the Mandate ended in 1932. Throughout most of his career, Nuri was a supporter of a continued and extensive British role within Iraq, which was against the popular mood.
Nuri was a controversial figure with many enemies and had to flee Iraq twice after coups. At the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958, he was very unpopular. His policies, regarded as pro-British, were believed to have failed in adapting to the country's changed social circumstances. Poverty and social injustice were widespread, and Nuri had become a symbol of a regime that failed to address the issues, choosing a course of repression instead, to protect the interests of the well off.
On 15 July 1958, the day after the revolution, he attempted to flee the country disguised as a woman but was captured and killed.
Biography
Early career
He was born in Baghdad to middle class Sunni Muslim family of North Caucasian origin. His father was a minor government accountant. Nuri graduated from a military college in Istanbul in 1906, trained at the staff college there in 1911 as an officer in the military of the Ottoman Empire and was among the officers dispatched to Ottoman Tripolitania in 1912 to resist the Italian occupation of that province. He was an elusive guerrilla leader, with Jaafar Al-Askari, against the British in Libya in 1915.
After being captured and held prisoner by the British in Egypt, he and Jaafar were converted to the Arab nationalist cause and fought in the Arab Revolt under Emir Faisal ibn Hussain of the Hejaz, who would later reign briefly as King of Arab Syria before he was installed as King of Iraq. On one operation Nuri rode with T. E. Lawrence and his British Army driver as crew of a Rolls-Royce Armoured Car.
Like other Iraqi officers who had served under Faisal, he went on to emerge as part of a new political elite.
Initial positions under Iraqi monarchy
Nuri headed the Arab troops who took Damascus for Faisal in the wake of the retreating Turkish forces in 1918. When Faisal was deposed by the French in 1920, Nuri followed the exiled monarch to Iraq, and in 1922 became first director general of the Iraqi police force. He used the position to fill the force with his placemen, a tactic that he would repeat in subsequent positions; that was a basis of his considerable political clout in later years.
He was a trusted ally of Faisal who, in 1924, appointed him deputy commander in chief of the army so as to ensure the loyalty of the troops to the regime. Once again, Nuri used the position to build up his own power base. During the 1920s, he supported the king's policy to build up the nascent state's armed forces, based on the loyalty of Sharifian officers, the former Ottoman soldiers who formed the backbone of the regime.
Prime Minister for first time
Faisal first proposed Nuri as prime minister in 1929, but it was only in 1930 that the British were persuaded to forgo their objections. As in previous appointments, Nuri was quick to appoint supporters to key government positions, but that only weakened the king's own base among the civil service, and the formerly close relationship between the two men soured. Among Nuri's first acts as prime minister was the signing of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930, an unpopular move since it essentially confirmed Britain's mandatory powers and gave them permanent military prerogatives in the country even after full independence was achieved. In 1932, he presented the Iraqi case for greater independence to the League of Nations.
In October 1932, Faisal dismissed Nuri as Prime Minister and replaced him with Naji Shawkat, which curbed Nuri's influence somewhat; after the death of Faisal the following year and the accession of Ghazi, his access to the palace decreased. Further impeding his influence was the rise of Yasin al-Hashimi, who would become prime minister for the first time in 1935. Nevertheless, Nuri continued to hold sway among the military establishment, and his position as a trusted ally of the British meant that he was never far from power. In 1933, the British persuaded Ghazi to appoint him foreign minister, a post he held until the Bakr Sidqi coup in 1936. However, his close ties to the British, which helped him remain in important positions of state, also destroyed any remaining popularity.
Intriguing with army
The Bakr Sidqi coup showed the extent to which Nuri had tied his fate to that of the British in Iraq: he was the only politician of the toppled government to seek refuge in the British Embassy, and his hosts sent him into exile in Egypt. He returned to Baghdad in August 1937 and began plotting his return to power in collaboration with Colonel Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh. That so perturbed Prime Minister Jamil al-Midfai that he persuaded the British that Nuri was a disruptive influence who would be better off abroad. They obliged by convincing Nuri to take up residence in London as the Iraqi ambassador. Despairing perhaps of his relationship with Ghazi, he now began to secretly suggest co-operation with the House of Saud.
Back in Baghdad in October 1938, Nuri re-established contact with al-Sabbagh, and persuaded him to overthrow the Midfai government. Al-Sabbagh and his cohorts launched their coup on 24 December 1938, and Nuri was reinstated as prime minister. He sought to sideline the king by promoting the position and possible succession of the latter's half-brother Prince Zaid. Meanwhile, Ghazi was also annoying the British with increasingly nationalistic broadcasts on his private radio station. In January 1939, the king further aggrieved Nuri by appointing Rashid Ali al-Gaylani head of the Royal Divan. Nuri's campaign against his rivals continued in March that year, when he claimed to have unmasked a plot to murder Ghazi and used it as an excuse to carry out a purge of the army's officer corps.
When Ghazi died in a car crash on 4 April 1939, Nuri was widely suspected of being implicated in his death. At the royal funeral crowds chanted, "You will answer for the blood of Ghazi, Nuri". He supported the accession of 'Abd al-Ilah as regent for Ghazi's successor, Faisal II, who was still a minor. The new regent was initially susceptible to Nuri's influence.
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Soon, Germany and Britain were at war. In accordance with Article 4 of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, Iraq was committed to declaring war on Germany. Instead, in an effort to maintain a neutral position, Nuri announced that Iraqi armed forces would not be employed outside of Iraq. While German officials were deported, Iraq would not declare war.
By then, affairs in Europe had begun to affect Iraq; the Battle of France in June 1940 encouraged some Arab nationalist elements to seek, in the style of the United States and Turkey, to move toward neutrality toward Germany and Italy rather than being part of the British war effort. While Nuri generally was more pro-British, al-Sabbagh moved into the camp more positively oriented toward Germany. The loss of his main military ally meant that Nuri "quickly lost his ability to affect events".
Co-existence with regent in the 1940s
In April 1941, the pro-neutrality elements seized power, installing Rashid Ali al-Kaylani as prime minister. Nuri fled to British-controlled Transjordan; his protectors then sent him to Cairo, but after occupying Baghdad they brought him back, installing him as prime minister under the British occupation. He would retain the post for over two and half years, but from 1943 onward, the regent obtained a greater say in the selection of his ministers and began to assert greater independence. Iraq remained under British military occupation until late 1947. He served as the President of the Senate of Iraq from July 1945 to November 1946, and from 1948 to January 1949.
The regent's brief flirtation with more liberal policies in 1947 did little to stave off the problems that the established order was facing. The social and economic structures of the country had changed considerably since the establishment of the monarchy, with an increased urban population, a rapidly growing middle class, and increasing political consciousness among the peasants and the working class, in which the Iraqi Communist Party was playing a growing role. However, the political elite, with its strong ties and shared interests with the dominant classes, was unable to take the radical steps that might have preserved the monarchy. The attempt by the elite to retain power during the last ten years of the monarchy, Nuri rather than the regent would increasingly play the dominant role, thanks largely to his superior political skills.
Regime resists growing political unrest
In November 1946, an oil workers' strike culminated in a massacre of the strikers by the police, and Nuri was brought back as premier. He briefly brought the Liberals and National Democrats into the cabinet, but soon reverted to the more repressive approach he generally favoured, ordering the arrest of numerous communists in January 1947. Those captured included party secretary Fahd. Meanwhile, Britain attempted to legalise a permanent military presence in Iraq even beyond the terms of the 1930 treaty although it no longer had World War II to justify its continued presence there. Both Nuri and the regent increasingly saw their unpopular links with Great Britain as the best guarantee of their own position, and accordingly set about co-operating in the creation of a new Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. In early January 1948 Nuri himself joined the negotiating delegation in England, and on 15 January the treaty was signed.
The response on the streets of Baghdad was immediate and furious. After six years of British occupation, no single act could have been less popular than giving the British an even larger legal role in Iraq's affairs. Demonstrations broke out the following day, with students playing a prominent part and the Communist Party guiding much of the anti-government activity. The protests intensified over the following days, until the police fired on a mass demonstration (20 January), leaving many casualties. On the following days, 'Abd al-Ilah disavowed the new treaty. Nuri returned to Baghdad on 26 January and immediately implemented a harsh policy of repression against the protesters. At mass demonstration the next day, police fired again at the protesters, leaving many more dead. In his struggle to implement the treaty, Nuri had destroyed any credibility that he had left. He retained considerable power throughout the country, but he was generally hated.
He was determined to drive the Jews out of his country as quickly as possible, and on 21 August 1950, he threatened to revoke the license of the company transporting the Jewish exodus if it did not fulfill its daily quota of 500 Jews. On 18 September 1950, Nuri summoned a representative of the Jewish community, claimed Israel was behind the emigration delay and threatened to "take them to the borders" and expel the Jews
The next major political demarche with which Nuri's name would be associated was the Baghdad Pact, a series of agreements concluded between 1954 and 1955, which tied Iraq politically and militarily with the Western powers and their regional allies, notably Turkey. The pact was especially important to Nuri, as it was favoured by the British and Americans. On the other hand, it was also contrary to the political aspirations of most of the country. Taking advantage of the situation, Nuri stepped up his policies of political repression and censorship. Now, however, the reaction was less fierce than it had been in 1948. According to historian Hanna Batatu, that can be attributed to slightly more favourable economic circumstances and the weakness of the Communist Party, damaged by police repression and internal division.
The political situation deteriorated in 1956, when Israel, France and Britain colluded in an invasion of Egypt, in response to the nationalisation of the Suez Canal by President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Nuri was overjoyed with the tripartite move and instructed the radio station to play The Postmen Complained about the Abundance of My Letters as a way to mock Nasser, whose father was a postal clerk. However, Nuri then publicly condemned the invasion, as the national sentiment was strongly for Egypt. The invasion exacerbated popular mistrust of the Baghdad Pact, and Nuri responded by refusing to sit with British representatives during a meeting of the Pact and cut off diplomatic relations with France. According to historian Adeeb Dawish, "Nuri's circumspect response hardly placated the seething populace."
Mass protests and disturbances occurred throughout the country, in Baghdad, Basrah, Mosul, Kufa, Najaf and al-Hillah. In response Nuri decreed martial law and sent in troops to some southern cities to suppress the riots, while in Baghdad, nearly 400 protesters were detained. Nuri's political position was weakened, so much that he became more "discouraged and depressed" than ever before (according to the British ambassador) and was genuinely fearful that he would be unable to restore stability. Meanwhile, the opposition began to co-ordinate its activities: in February 1957, a Front of National Union was established, bringing together the National Democrats, the Independents, the Communists, and the Ba'th Party. A similar process within the military officer corps followed, with the formation of the Supreme Committee of Free Officers. However, Nuri's attempts to preserve the loyalty of the military by generous benefits failed.
The Iraqi monarchy and its Hashemite ally in Jordan reacted to the union between Egypt and Syria (February 1958) by forming the Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan. (He tried to convince Kuwait to join too, but the British were opposed.) Nuri was the first prime minister of the new federation, which was soon ended with the coup that toppled the Iraqi monarchy.
Fall of monarchy and death
As the 1958 Lebanon crisis escalated, Jordan requested the help of Iraqi troops, who feigned to be en route there on 14 July. Instead they moved on Baghdad, and on that day, Colonels Abd al-Karim Qasim and Abdul Salam Arif seized control of the country and ordered the Royal Family to evacuate the Rihab Palace in Baghdad. They congregated in the courtyard—King Faisal II; Prince 'Abd al-Ilah and his wife Princess Hiyam; Princess Nafeesa, Abdul Ilah's mother; Princess Abadiya, the king's aunt; and several servants. The group was ordered to turn facing the wall and were shot down by Captain Abdus Sattar As Sab', a member of the coup. After almost four decades, the monarchy had been toppled.
Nuri went into hiding, but he was captured the next day as he sought to make his escape disguised as a woman. He was shot dead and buried that same day, but an angry mob disinterred his corpse and dragged it through the streets of Baghdad, where it was hung up, burned and mutilated, ultimately being run over repeatedly by municipal buses, until his corpse was unrecognizable.
Personal life and family
Nuri and his wife had one son, Sabah As-Said, who married an Egyptian heiress, Esmat Ali Pasha Fahmi in 1936. They had two sons: Falah (born 1937) and Issam (born 1938). Sabah As-Said is supposed to have taken an Iraqi-Jewish woman as a second wife and had a child with her when Jews accounted for 25-40% of Baghdad's population. After being ousted from Iraq, both his second wife and child fled to Israel.
Falah, who worked as King Hussein's personal pilot, was first married to Nahla El-Askari and had one son, Sabah. He later married Dina Fawaz Maher in 1974, the daughter of a Jordanian army general, Fawaz Pasha Maher, and had two daughters: Sima and Zaina.
Falah died in a car accident in Jordan in 1983. Issam was an artist and architect based in London who died in 1988 from a heart attack.
See also
Kinahan Cornwallis – British Ambassador to Iraq
Fritz Grobba – German Ambassador to Iraq
Notes
Sources
Batatu, Hanna: The Old Social Classes and New Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, al-Saqi Books, London, 2000,
Gallman, Waldemar J.: Iraq under General Nuri: My Recollection of Nuri Al-Said, 1954–1958, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1964,
Lukutz, Liora: Iraq: The Search for National Identity, pp. 256-, Routledge Publishing, 1995,
O'Sullivan, Christopher D. FDR and the End of Empire: The Origins of American Power in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012,
Simons, Geoff: Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 (3rd edition),
Tripp, Charles: A History of Iraq, Cambridge University Press, 2002,
External links
1888 births
1958 deaths
People from Baghdad
Ottoman Military Academy alumni
Ottoman Military College alumni
Ottoman Army officers
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Ottoman prisoners of war
World War I prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom
Presidents of the Senate of Iraq
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Leaders ousted by a coup
Iraqi Arab nationalists
Honorary Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
20th-century executions by Iraq
Arab independence activists
Executed prime ministers
Lynching deaths | [
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220604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamsin%20Dunwoody | Tamsin Dunwoody | Moyra Tamsin Dunwoody (born 3 September 1958), sometimes known as Tamsin Dunwoody-Kneafsey, is a British Labour politician who served as the Member of the National Assembly for Wales for Preseli Pembrokeshire from 2003 to 2007. She served in the Welsh Government from 2005 to 2007 as the Deputy Minister for Environment, Planning and Countryside and Deputy Minister for Economic Development and Transport.
Dunwoody unsuccessfully stood to succeed her mother, Gwyneth Dunwoody, as the Labour candidate in the 2008 Crewe and Nantwich by-election.
Early life
Dunwoody was born in Totnes, Devon, the daughter of the late Labour MPs Gwyneth Dunwoody, and Dr John Dunwoody. Both of her parents lost their parliamentary seats at the 1970 general election, although her mother went on to represent Crewe and its successor, Crewe and Nantwich for 34 years until she died. Through her mother she is the granddaughter of former Labour Party General Secretary Morgan Phillips and Norah Phillips. She was educated at the Grey Coat Hospital Church of England girls' school in Westminster and the University of Kent. She has five children.
Professional career
Dunwoody trained in the National Health Service, and worked in London hospitals for nearly 15 years. She has also been an adviser to small businesses in west Wales and lived in Haverfordwest.
Political career
Dunwoody was elected (under the name Tamsin Dunwoody-Kneafsey) as Assembly Member for Preseli Pembrokeshire from 2003 to 2007. In October 2005 she was appointed Deputy Minister for Environment, Planning and Countryside and Deputy Minister for Economic Development and Transport in the Welsh Assembly Government. She was defeated in the 2007 election by Conservative Party candidate Paul Davies.
She was selected as the Labour candidate at the Crewe and Nantwich by-election, held on 22 May 2008, which was triggered by the death of her mother. She lost to Conservative candidate Edward Timpson, by 7,860 votes marking the first Conservative Party parliamentary by-election victory in a Labour-held constituency since 1978. The last parliamentary by-election in which the Conservatives had gained a seat previously held by another party was in 1982, in Mitcham and Morden.
She uncessfully sought the Labour nomination for Islwyn ahead of the 2010 general election.
References
Offices held
1958 births
Living people
Wales AMs 2003–2007
Welsh Labour members of the Senedd
Female members of the Senedd
Members of the Welsh Assembly Government
Alumni of the University of Kent
People from Totnes
People educated at Grey Coat Hospital
Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates
Women members of the Welsh Assembly Government | [
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220606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20Lachmann | Ludwig Lachmann | Ludwig Maurits Lachmann (; ; 1 February 1906 – 17 December 1990) was a German economist who became a member of and important contributor to the Austrian School of economics. He is one of the three main catalysts who ushered in the Austrian 'revival', beginning in 1974. He wrote on economic theory, history, and methodology, as well as exploring a hermeneutical approach to economic analysis.
Life
Early life
Ludwig Lachmann was born in Berlin, Germany on 1 February 1906 into a Jewish middle-class family. His father was a metal manufacturer, and his mother came from an intellectual background and had a strong influence on young Ludwig. His mother's brother, a bank official, also had a strong influence upon his nephew's early intellectual development. Ludwig was an only child, and initially was educated by his mother, but was later enrolled in . His childhood years are generally described as happy, which would contrast with his later life in Germany, surrounded by constant political and economic instability and crisis.
Education and 'pre-revival' career
Lachmann enrolled at the University of Berlin in 1924, studying under, among others, Werner Sombart, who introduced Lachmann to the works of Weber, that had a lifelong influence on Lachmann's work. He took a semester at the University of Zurich in 1926, and around the same time, he was introduced into the works of Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek. He graduated in 1930, and spent a few years to teach at the University. When Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933, Lachmann moved to England with his girlfriend Margot. The couple struggled financially, and Lachmann, unable to find a post in an academic position, enrolled at the London School of Economics. At the London School of Economics he was a student and later colleague of Friedrich Hayek. One of Lachmann's fellow students was George Shackle, who's ideas would influence Lachmann's later work. He deepened his interest in the Austrian School, and was one of the few who chose Hayek's side, though not uncritically, following the so-called 'Keynesian revolution'. In 1938, Lachmann was awarded the Leon Fellowship from the University of London to study 'secondary depressions'. In this research project, he traveled to the United States, where he met Alfred Schütz and Frank Knight, and attended the seminars of the latter. Following the outbreak of war in Europe, Lachmann, a German national, was interned by British authorities from July to December of 1940. In 1941, following his release, he was appointed as an economic lecturer at the University of London. In 1943, he was appointed to the Head of the Department of Economics at the University of Hull, a position he held until he departed from England in 1948.
In 1948, Lachmann moved to Johannesburg, South Africa, where he accepted a professorship at the University of the Witwatersrand. During this time, he published his seminal work, Capital and Its Structure in 1956. He served as president of the Economic Society of South Africa from 1962 to 1963. He remained teaching at Witwatersrand until retiring in 1972.
Austrian 'revival', 1974-1987 and death
In 1974, a conference on Austrian economics was organized in South Royalton, Vermont, in which Lachmann was a key speaker, along with Israel Kirzner and Murray Rothbard. This conference led to the publication of the 1976 book, The Foundations of Modern Austrian Economics, to which Lachmann contributed. Following the conference, Lachmann began annual trips to New York City, where he worked with Kirzner at NYU, advancing research and lecturing to students. Lachmann also was engaged in an economic debate with Kirzner regarding notions of equilibrium. Lachmann continued this work from 1975 to 1987, when he re-retired to Johanesberg. Lachmann passed away on 17 December 1990. To commemorate Lachmann, his widow established a trust to fund the Ludwig M. Lachmann Research Fellowship at the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method of the London School of Economics.
Personal life
Lachmann met his future wife, Margot Wulff, in the late 20's at an Italian language class. They ran into each other again in Sankt Moritz, and began a relationship. When their financial situation became secure, the couple got married in England, in 1939. Their marriage was described as, "a successful match," by Ludwig's former colleague, Karl Mittermaier.
Lachmann himself has been described as "a very unusual man" and a "old world European gentleman" and one with a personality that left a lasting impression on those who knew him. He was described as "unfailingly gracious and considerate". He was also described as both intentionally and unintentionally humorous.
On economics
Lachmann grew to believe that the Austrian School had deviated from Carl Menger's original vision of an entirely subjective economics. To Lachmann, Austrian Theory was an evolutionary, or "genetic-causal" approach, as opposed to the equilibrium and perfect-knowledge models used in mainstream neoclassical economics.
He was a strong advocate of using hermeneutic methods in the study of economic phenomena.
Lachmann's "fundamentalist Austrianism" was rare as few living Austrian economists departed from the mainstream. He underscored what he viewed as distinctive from that mainstream: economic subjectivism, imperfect knowledge, the heterogeneity of capital, the business cycle, methodological individualism, alternative cost and "market process". His brand of Austrianism now forms the basis for the "radical subjectivist" strand of Austrian Economics.
His work influenced later, American developments of the Austrian School. Fellow Austrian Economist Israel Kirzner was a close friend of Lachmann's whom he aligned with intellectually (though they disagreed on some finer details).
Contemporary social science research
Lachmann's ideas continue to influence contemporary social science research. Many social scientific disciplines explicitly or implicitly build on the subjective theory of value, developed by Carl Menger and the Austrian School of Economics.
Selected bibliography
Capital and Its Structure, 1956
The Market as an Economic Process, 1986
The Legacy of Max Weber , 1971
Macroeconomic Thinking and the Market Economy , 1973
From Mises to Shackle: an essay on Austrian economics and the Kaleidic society, 1976
The Role of Expectations in Economics as a Social Science, 1943
Complementarity and Substitution in the Theory of Capital, 1947
Mrs. Robinson on the Accumulation of Capital, 1958
Sir John Hicks as a Neo-Austrian, 1973
Carl Menger and the Incomplete Revolution of Subjectivism, 1978
John Maynard Keynes: A View from an Austrian Window, 1983
Austrian Economics: a hermeneutic approach, 1990
G.L.S. Shackle's place in the history of subjectivist thought, 1990
See also
Kaleidics
Austrian School
Post-Keynesian School
References
Further reading
(Biographical aspects)
(on Lachmann's view of government)
External links
Critique on The History of Economic Thought Website, cepa.newschool.edu
"The Kaleidic World of Ludwig Lachmann," Review of The Market as an Economic Process by Roger Garrison, Critical Review vol. 1, no. 3 (Summer), 1987, pp. 77–89.auburn.edu
"The Lachmann Legacy: An Agenda for Macroeconomics," Roger Garrison
1906 births
1990 deaths
German economists
Jewish scientists
German emigrants to South Africa
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
South African Jews
South African people of German-Jewish descent
Austrian School economists
Alumni of the London School of Economics
German libertarians
Libertarian theorists
20th-century economists | [
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] |
220607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade%20item | Trade item | A trade item is an item that is the subject of trade. It is a term used primarily by people in supply chain management and logistic engineering. An often used term in Journals of Lewis and Clark.
See also
Goods
References
Supply chain management | [
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220609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%20Schiavonetti | Luigi Schiavonetti | Luigi Schiavonetti (1 April 1765 – 7 June 1810), Italian reproductive engraver and etcher, was born at Bassano in Venetia.
After having studied art for several years he was employed by Testolini, an engraver of very indifferent abilities, to execute imitations of Bartolozzi's works, which he passed off as his own. In 1790, Testolini was invited by Bartolozzi to join him in England, and, it having been discovered that Schiavonetti, who accompanied him, had executed the plates in question, he was employed by Bartolozzi and became an eminent engraver in both the line and the stipple manner. Among his early works are four plates of subjects from the French Revolution, after Peter Paul Benazech.
Schiavonetti engraved a drawing of Maria Cosway that her husband, the artist Richard Cosway, had drawn. He also engraved a portrait that Maria Cosway had commissioned that was the first portrait of Napoleon seen in Britain.
He also produced a "Mater Dolorosa" after Van Dyck, and Michelangelo's cartoon of the Battle of Cascina depicting the "Surprise of the Soldiers on the Banks of the Arno." From 1805 to 1808, he was engaged in etching William Blake's designs to Blair's Grave, which, with a portrait of the artist engraved by Schiavonetti after Thomas Phillips RA, were published in 1808. The etching of Stothard's "Canterbury Pilgrims" was one of his latest works, and on his death the plate was taken up by his brother Niccolo, and finally completed by James Heath.
References
1765 births
1810 deaths
Italian engravers | [
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220611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Bartolozzi | Francesco Bartolozzi |
Francesco Bartolozzi (21 September 1727, in Florence – 7 March 1815, in Lisbon) was an Italian engraver, whose most productive period was spent in London. He is noted for popularizing the "crayon" method of engraving.
Early life
Bartolozzi was born in Florence in 1727. He was originally destined to follow the profession of his father, a gold- and silver-smith, but he manifested so much skill and taste in designing that he was placed under the supervision of two Florentine artists, including Ignazio Hugford and Giovanni Domenico Ferretti who instructed him in painting. After devoting three years to that art, he went to Venice and studied engraving. He spent six years there working for Joseph Wagner, an engraver and printseller, before setting up his own workshop.
Early career
His first productions in Venice were plates in the style of Marco Ricci, Zuccarelli. He then moved for a short time in 1762 to Rome, where he completed a set of engravings representing frescoes at Grottaferrata by Domenichino depicting the life of St Nilus. Those and his etchings of Old Master's works, began to draw attention throughout Europe. In 1763 he met Richard Dalton, the English Royal Librarian who was traveling in Italy looking for acquisitions for the King's collections. Dalton offered him an appointment as Engraver to the King; Bartolozzi accepted and left for London in 1764.
Career in London
He lived in London for nearly forty years. He produced an enormous number of engravings, including Clytie after Annibale Carracci, and of the Virgin and Child, after Carlo Dolci. A large proportion of them are from the works of Cipriani and Angelica Kauffman. Bartolozzi also contributed a number of plates to Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. He also drew sketches of his own in red chalk. Soon after arriving in London, he was appointed 'Engraver to the King' (George III) with an annual salary of £300. He was elected a founding member of the Royal Academy. The new Academy's bylaws specifically excluded engravers but Bartolozzi was so well esteemed that he was brought in as an Academician in the category of Painter. In 1802 he became the founding President of the short-lived Society of Engravers.
While Bartolozzi was not the original inventor of the crayon manner of engraving, he became a leading exponent that "stipple" method and it became associated with him. With that technique images are created by delicate dots rather than lines as in traditional etchings or engravings. Bartolozzi added distinction to his work by using red (sanguine), orange and brown inks rather than common black ink.
As his prominence grew, he took on students including Michele Benedetti, Ignatius Joseph van den Berghe, Thomas Cheesman, Lambertus Antonius Claessens, Daniel Gardner, Christiaan Josi, Johan Fredrik Martin, Conrad Martin Metz, Luigi Schiavonetti, John Keyse Sherwin, Heinrich Sintzenich, Peltro William Tomkins, Domenico Bernardo Zilotti, and Gavriil Skorodumov.
His son Gaetano Stefano Bartolozzi, born in 1757, also became an engraver and later fathered Madame Vestris a celebrated English actress, opera singer, and theater manager.
Career in Lisbon
In 1802, Bartolozzi accepted the post of director of the National Academy of Lisbon and moved there with the intention of reforming the royal press and producing an edition of the Portuguese epic poem The Lusiads (Os Lusíadas). By then he was in his seventies and delegated much of the work to one of his students.
Despite his fame and prolific output, debts forced him to sell off most of his prints and possessions. Bartolozzi died in his studio in 1815 and was buried in the common grave of a Lisbon church.
Works
Ticozzi and Bryan both published lists of his output, including:
Original etchings
Abraham and the Angels.
The Miracle of the Manna.
Job abandoned by his Friends.
Charity, an oval; inscribed Ipse feci .
The Origin of Painting (1787).
The Virgin and Infant; (circular).
Etchings after masterworks
St. Francis of Sales triumphs over Heresy; after Ottavio Amiconi.
St. Luke paints the Portrait of the Virgin; after Cantarini.
The Adulteress before Christ; after Agostino Carracci.
Roland and Olympia, Clytie, and other drawings in the Royal Collection after Annibale Carracci.
A set of eight subjects; after Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.
Etchings after Cipriani
The Parting of Achilles and Briseis.
Hector takes leave of Andromache.
Chryseis restored to her Father.
The Death of Dido.
Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida.
Venus presenting the Cestus to Juno.
Venus attired by the Graces .
Tancred and Herminia and Tancred and Clorinda.
Shakespeare crowned by Immortality.
Morning for the Death of lord Rufsell.
Engravings after Angelica Kauffman
Socrates in Prison.
Penelope lamenting Ulysses.
Telemachus and Mentor in the Isle of Calypso.
Paulus Emilias educating his Children.
Coriolanus appeased by his Family
The Beautiful Rhodope in love with Aesope (1780s, inscription: From an original painting of the same size by Signora Angelica Kauffman. In the possession of Charles Boddam sun Esqv.)
Others
A set of thirteen plates from the frescoes of Domenichino at Grottaferrata.
A set of 33 drawings by Guercino in the Royal Collection.
A set of Portraits after Hans Holbein the Younger, including two portraits of Henry and Charles Brandon, sons of Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, Thomas More, Lady Meutas and Lord Mansfield.
Portraits of Cignani and Pietro da Cortona; after Carlo Maratta.
Bust of Michelangelo.
A Collection of Gems, designed by various artists, engraved by Bartolozzi.
Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi; after Benjamin West.
The Death of Lord Chatham; after John Singleton Copley.
The Fair Moralist and her Pupil; after Richard Cosway.
The Hours; after Maria Cosway, ('Vide Gray's Ode to Spring').
The Interview of Edgar and Elfrida after her Marriage with Athelwold.
King John ratifying Magna Charta; after John Hamilton Mortimer.
Mary, Queen of Scots, and her Son; after Federico Zuccaro.
Prometheus’ liver devoured by Vulture; after Michelangelo.
Rachel Hiding the Idols of Laban and Laocoon attacked by Serpents; after Pietro da Cortona.
Queen Charlotte; after William Beechey.The Virgin and Infant; after Carlo Dolci.
Notes
References
External links
Guide to the Francesco Bartolozzi Collection 1781-1799 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
1727 births
1815 deaths
Artists from Florence
People from Fulham
Italian engravers
Italian etchers
Royal Academicians
Bartolozzi family
18th-century engravers
18th-century Italian artists
19th-century engravers
19th-century Italian artists
19th-century male artists
Italian expatriates in England
Italian expatriates in Portugal | [
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220613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Boydell | John Boydell | John Boydell (; 19 January 1720 (New Style) – 12 December 1804) was a British publisher noted for his reproductions of engravings. He helped alter the trade imbalance between Britain and France in engravings and initiated a British tradition in the art form. A former engraver himself, Boydell promoted the interests of artists as well as patrons and as a result his business prospered.
The son of a land surveyor, Boydell apprenticed himself to William Henry Toms, an artist he admired, and learned engraving. He established his own business in 1746 and published his first book of engravings around the same time. Boydell did not think much of his own artistic efforts and eventually started buying the works of others, becoming a print dealer as well as an artist. He became a successful importer of French prints during the 1750s but was frustrated by their refusal to trade prints in kind. To spark reciprocal trade, he commissioned William Wollett's spectacular engraving of Richard Wilson's The Destruction of the Children of Niobe, which revolutionised the print trade. Ten years later, largely as a result of Boydell's initiative, the trade imbalance had shifted, and he was named a fellow of the Royal Society for his efforts.
In the 1790s, Boydell began a large Shakespeare venture that included the establishment of a Shakespeare Gallery, the publication of an illustrated edition of Shakespeare's plays, and the release of a folio of prints depicting scenes from Shakespeare's works. Some of the most illustrious painters of the day contributed, such as Benjamin West and Henry Fuseli.
Throughout his life, Boydell dedicated time to civic projects: he donated art to government institutions and ran for public office. In 1790 he became Lord Mayor of London. The French Revolutionary Wars led to a cessation in Continental trade at the end of the 1790s. Without this business, Boydell's firm declined and he was almost bankrupt at his death in 1804.
Early years
Boydell was born, according to his monument in St Olave Old Jewry, London, (later removed to St Margaret Lothbury after St Olave's demolition) at Dorrington, in the parish of Woore, Shropshire, to Josiah and Mary Boydell (née Milnes) and was educated at least partially at Merchant Taylors' School. His father was a land surveyor and young Boydell, the oldest of seven children, was expected to follow in his footsteps. In 1731, when Boydell was eleven, the family moved to Hawarden, Flintshire. In 1739 he became house steward to MP John Lawton and accompanied him to London. A year later, like many other enterprising young men of the time, Boydell resolved to sail to the East Indies in hopes of making his fortune, but he abandoned the scheme in favour of returning to Flintshire and Elizabeth Lloyd, the woman he was courting. Whether or not he intended to pursue land surveying at this time is unclear.
In either 1740 or 1741, Boydell saw a print of Hawarden Castle by William Henry Toms and was so delighted with it that he immediately set out again for London to learn printmaking and Lloyd promised to wait for him. Boydell apprenticed himself to Toms and enrolled in St Martin's Lane Academy to learn drawing. Each day he worked about fourteen hours for Toms and then attended drawing classes at night. After six years, Boydell's diligence allowed him to buy out the last year of his apprenticeship, and in 1746 he set up an independent shop on the Strand that specialised in topographical prints that cost six pence for a cheap print or one shilling for an expensive print.
Boydell's willingness to assume responsibility for his own business so early in his career indicates that he had ambition and an enterprising spirit. Independent shops were risky in the 1740s because no strict copyright laws, other than the Engraving Copyright Act of 1734 (known as "Hogarth's Act"), had yet been instituted. The pirating of published books and prints became a profession in its own right and greatly decreased the profits of publishers such as Boydell.
Around 1747, Boydell published his first major work, The Bridge Book, for which he drew and cut each print himself. It cost one shilling and contained six landscapes in each of which, not surprisingly, a bridge featured prominently. A year later, in 1748, Boydell, apparently financially secure, married Elizabeth Lloyd. The couple did not have any children and Elizabeth died in 1781.
Boydell realised early in his career that his engravings had little artistic merit, saying later that they were collected by others "more to show the improvement of art in this country [Britain], since the period of their publication, than from any idea of their own merits". This may explain why in 1751, when he became a member of the Stationers' Company, he started buying other artists' plates and publishing them in addition to his own. Ordinarily an engraver, such as William Hogarth, had his own shop or took his finished engravings to a publisher. In adopting the dual role of artist and print dealer, Boydell altered the traditional organisation of print shops. He was not subject to the whims of public taste: if his engraves did not sell well, he could supplement his earnings by trading in the prints of other artists. He also understood the concerns of both the engraver and the publisher. In fact, as a publisher, he did much to help raise the level of respect for engravers in addition to furnishing them with better paying commissions.
Success
In 1751, with his large volume of prints, Boydell moved to larger premises at 90 Cheapside. By 1755, he had published A Collection of One Hundred and Two Views, &C. in England and Wales. This cheap but successful book gave him capital to invest. He became increasingly immersed in the commercial side of the print business and like most print dealers began importing prints to sell. These included print reproductions of landscapes by artists such as Claude Lorrain and Salvator Rosa. The bulk of the imports came from the undisputed masters of engraving during the 18th century: the French. Boydell made a small fortune in the 1750s from these imported prints. His early success was acknowledged in 1760 when he was named a member of the Royal Society. Winifred Friedman, who has written extensively on Boydell, explains that despite this success, "[w]hat rankled Boydell was that the French would not extend credit, or exchange prints; he was required to produce hard cash. Boydell took action, and this was the turning point."
In 1761, Boydell decided that he would attempt to trade with the French in kind—something they had refused in the past because of the poor quality of British engravings. To inaugurate this change, he had to have a truly spectacular print. To this end, he hired William Woollett, the foremost engraver in England, to engrave Richard Wilson's Destruction of the Children of Niobe. Woollett had already successfully engraved Claude Lorrain's 1663 painting The Father of Psyche Sacrificing at the Temple of Apollo for Boydell in 1760. Boydell paid him approximately £100 for the Niobe engraving, a staggering amount compared to the usual rates. This single act of patronage raised engravers' fees throughout London. The print was wildly successful, but more importantly, the French accepted it as payment in kind. In fact, it was the first British print actively desired on the Continent. By 1770, the British were exporting far more prints than they were importing, largely due to Boydell.
Boydell's business flourished and he soon hired his nephew, Josiah Boydell, to assist him. Boydell's biographer, Sven Bruntjen, hypothesizes that one of the reasons for Boydell's early and phenomenal success was his specialisation. Unlike "his competitors [who sold manuals, atlases and other assorted books] ... his [business had an] almost exclusive concentration on the sale of reproductive prints". Bruntjen argues that "despite the extensive sales of varied types of reproductive prints, it was the contemporary history print which accounted for the major part of Boydell's success as a print dealer". Most notable among these was the Death of General Wolfe a 1770 painting by Benjamin West, engraved by Woollett for Boydell in 1776. As early as 1767, Boydell had stopped engraving prints himself and began exclusively relying on commissions and trades and it was from these that he profited.
Boydell had opened up a new market with Niobe and he quickly followed up this success. With a prospering business and capital in reserve, he embarked on several ambitious projects, often simultaneously. In 1769, he began A Collection of Prints, Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in England. Its last, and ninth volume, was finished in 1792 to great critical and financial success. In 1773, he began A Set of Prints Engraved after the Most Capital Paintings in the Collection of Her Imperial Majesty the Empress of Russia, Lately in the Possession of the Earl of Orford at Houghton in Norfolk, which was finished in 1788.
In addition to these projects and in the middle of his Shakespeare undertaking Boydell experimented with aquatint in An History of the River Thames, published in 1796. Bruntjen writes, "although not the first colored aquatint book, [it] was the first major one, and it was to set an example for the type of illustration that was to enjoy widespread popularity in England for some forty years". Boydell also published The Original Work of William Hogarth in 1790 and The Poetical Works of John Milton and The Life of the Poet (i.e., Milton) in 1794.
The productivity and profitability of Boydell's firm spurred the British print industry in general. By 1785, annual exports of British prints reached £200,000 while imports fell to £100. Boydell was acknowledged and praised throughout England as the agent of this stunning economic reversal. In 1773 he was awarded the Royal Academy Gold Medal for his services in advancing the print trade. In 1789, at the Royal Academy dinner, the Prince of Wales toasted "an English tradesman who patronizes art better than the Grand Monarque, Alderman Boydell, the Commercial Maecenas".
Shakespeare venture
Boydell's crowning achievement was his Shakespeare project, which was to occupy much of the last two decades of his life. The project contained three parts: an illustrated edition of Shakespeare's plays, a public gallery of paintings depicting scenes from the plays, and a folio of prints based on the paintings.
The idea of a grand Shakespeare edition was conceived at a dinner at Josiah Boydell's home in November 1786. The guest list itself is evidence of Boydell's extensive connections in the artistic world: Benjamin West, painter to King George III; George Romney, a renowned painter; George Nicol, bookseller to the king and painter; William Hayley, a poet; John Hoole, a scholar and translator of Tasso and Aristotle; and Daniel Braithwaite, an engineer. Most sources also list the painter Paul Sandby. Although the initial idea for the edition was probably not Boydell's, he was the one to seize and pursue it. He wanted to use the edition to facilitate the development of a British school of history painting.
The "magnificent and accurate" Shakespeare edition which Boydell began in 1786 was the focus of the enterprise. The print folio and the gallery were simply offshoots of the main project. In an advertisement prefacing the first volume of the edition, Nicol wrote that "splendor and magnificence, united with correctness of text were the great objects of this Edition". Boydell was responsible for the "splendor", and George Steevens, a renowned Shakespearean editor, was responsible for the "correctness of text". The volumes themselves were handsome, with gilded pages. Even the quality of the paper was extraordinarily high. The illustrations were printed independently and could be inserted and removed as the customer desired. The first volumes of the Dramatick Works were published in 1791 and the last in 1805. The edition was financed through a subscription campaign in which the buyers would offer partial payment up front and then pay the remaining sum on delivery. This practice was necessitated by the fact that over £350,000—an enormous sum at the time—was eventually spent on the enterprise.
When it opened on 4 May 1789 at 52 Pall Mall, the Shakespeare Gallery contained 34 paintings and by the end of its run it had between 167 and 170. The Gallery itself was a hit with the public and became a fashionable attraction. It took over the public's imagination and became an end in and of itself.
To illustrate the edition and to provide images for the folio, Boydell obtained the assistance of the most eminent painters and engravers of the day. Artists included Richard Westall, Thomas Stothard, George Romney, Henry Fuseli, Benjamin West, Angelica Kauffman, Robert Smirke, John Opie, and Boydell's nephew and business partner, Josiah Boydell. Among the engravers were Francesco Bartolozzi and Thomas Kirk. Boydell's relationships with his artists, particularly his illustrators, was generally congenial. James Northcote praised Boydell's liberal payments. He wrote in an 1821 letter that Boydell "did more for the advancement of the arts in England than the whole mass of the nobility put together! He paid me more nobly than any other person has done; and his memory I shall every hold in reverence".
At the beginning of the enterprise, reactions were generally positive. Two reviews from the most influential newspapers in London at the time solidified and validated the public's interest in the project and the artists' efforts. However, there was also some criticism. In particular the satirical engraver James Gillray appears to have been peeved at not being commissioned to engrave any of the Shakespeare scenes and, in revenge, published Shakespeare Sacrificed: Or the Offering to Avarice just six weeks after the gallery opened. Gillray followed up with further cartoons such as Boydell sacrificing the Works of Shakespeare to the Devil of Money-Bags. As the project dragged on, the criticism increased. Yet, Boydell's project still inspired imitators. Thomas Macklin attempted to found a Poet's Gallery similar to the Shakespeare Gallery and several histories of England on the scale of the Shakespeare edition were also started. However, like Boydell's venture, they ultimately ended in financial disaster.
The folio, which collected together the engravings from the paintings, has been the most lasting legacy of the Boydell enterprise: it was reissued throughout the 19th century and scholars have described it as a precursor to the modern coffee table book.
Civic service
Amidst all of the work generated by these publishing enterprises, Boydell still found time to be alderman of Cheap ward in 1782, master of the Stationers' Company in 1783, sheriff of London in 1785, and Lord Mayor of London in 1790. With both a dedicated civic spirit and an eye towards business promotion, Boydell took advantage of his public positions to advocate public and private patronage of the arts. He frequently donated paintings from his own collections to the Corporation of London to be hung in the Guildhall. He hoped that his donation might spur others to similar generosity. However, he remained a solitary contributor. A catalogue was published in 1794 listing all of the works Boydell had donated to the Guildhall. In the preface, he explained why he had made such large gifts:
It may be a matter of wonder to some, what enducements I could have to present the City of London with so many expensive Pictures; the principal reasons that influence me were these: First: to show my respect for the Corporation, and my Fellow Citizens, Secondly: to give pleasure to the Public, and Foreigners in general, Thirdly: to be of service to the Artists, by shewing their works to the greatest advantage: and, Fourthly: for the mere purpose of pleasing myself.
In 1794 Boydell commissioned and donated Industry and Prudence by Robert Smirke. Most of the other works Boydell donated were similarly didactic. He was appealing to his fellow tradespeople and craftspeople with these gifts, a middle class which would have been only too pleased to see their values promoted by such a prominent figure.
In a speech before the Council to advocate the renovation of a building for the purpose of displaying public art, Boydell made the striking claim that if the rich could be persuaded to patronise art, they would forgo their wicked ways:
one might be found amongst the many spendthrifts of the present age, instead of ruining themselves by gaming, or laying snares to debauch young Females, by their false promises and many other bad vices; would be rejoiced at such an opportunity, of reclaiming themselves by withdrawing from the snares laid for them by bad and designing Men and Women, who constantly lay wait to lead astray the young and unwary that are possessed of large property, such might here have the pleasure and satisfaction to make a real Paradise on earth, by illuminating a place that would for ever shine and display their generosity.
Boydell's middle-class consumers would have approved of his connection between morality and art.
Business decline, death, and legacy
In 1789, the French revolution broke out and four years later war erupted between Britain and France. Throughout the next tumultuous decade, trade with Europe became increasingly difficult. As Boydell's business relied heavily on foreign trade, especially French, his livelihood was threatened. When this market was cut off due to war in 1793, Boydell's business declined substantially. He was forced to sell the Shakespeare Gallery, via a lottery, in order for his business to remain solvent. He died in December 1804 before the lottery was drawn, but after all of its 22,000 tickets had been sold.
According to Josiah, John Boydell caught a cold by going to the Old Bailey on a damp, foggy day to do his duty as an alderman. He died on 12 December 1804 almost bankrupt, but not without great public acclaim. He was buried on 19 December 1804 at the Church of St. Olave Old Jewry, his funeral attended by the Lord Mayor, aldermen, and several artists.
Boydell had, almost single-handedly, made British prints a viable economic commodity and had demolished the French domination of the trade. In a letter to Sir John Anderson, asking Parliament for the private Lottery Act to sell off the Shakespeare Gallery, Boydell stated that it was "sufficient to say, that the whole course of that commerce [print trade] is changed". The Times wrote on 7 May 1789: "Historical painting and engraving are almost exclusively indebted to Mr. Boydell for their present advancement." Boydell also played a part in changing the nature of art patronage in Britain. Until he advocated public patronage in his various civic posts, the government had little to do with British art. According to Bruntjen, "it was due to the enthusiasm of Boydell and others that the English government eventually provided funds for the establishment of the National Gallery in 1824". Boydell helped to make artists independent of aristocratic patronage by providing commercial opportunities for them. He "attempted to free artists from the traditional forms of state and aristocratic patronage by creating a public taste for reproductive prints of historical subjects". Boydell's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography ends with the assessment that "no print publisher before or since has ever exerted as much influence on the course of British art".
Boydell's nephew and business partner, Josiah Boydell, continued his uncle's business for some time at 90 Cheapside, but by 1818, the business was wound up by Jane Boydell, and the assets purchased by Hurst, Robinson, and Co.
Notes
References
Boydell's Shakespeare Prints: 90 Engravings of Famous Scenes from the Plays. Dover Publications, 2004. .
Collection of Prints, From Pictures Painted for the Purpose of Illustrating the Dramatic Works of Shakspeare, by the Artists of Great-Britain. London: John and Josiah Boydell, 1805.
Balston, Thomas. "John Boydell, Publisher: 'The Commercial Maecenas'". Signature 8 (New Series 1949): 3–22.
Bruntjen, Sven Hermann Arnold. John Boydell (1719–1804): A Study of Art Patronage and Publishing in Georgian London. New York: Garland Publishing, 1985. .
Clayton, Timothy. "John Boydell (1720–1804)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (subscription required). Oxford University Press. 2004. Retrieved on 19 November 2007. .
Friedman, Winifred H. Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1976. .
Hartmann, Sadakichi. Shakespeare in Art. Art Lovers' Ser. Boston: L. C. Page & Co., 1901.
(1908 edition 2:1012–1013.)
Martineau, Jane and Desmond Shawe-Taylor, eds. Shakespeare in Art. London; New York: Merrell, 2003. .
Merchant, W. Moelwyn. Shakespeare and the Artist. London: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Painting, Vivienne. John Boydell. Guildhall Art Gallery, 2005. .
Salaman, Malcolm C. Shakespeare in Pictorial Art. Ed. Charles Holme. 1916. New York: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1971.
Santaniello, A. E. "Introduction". The Boydell Shakespeare Prints. New York: Benjamin Bloom, 1968.
Sheppard, F. H. W., ed. "Pall Mall, North Side, Past Buildings". Survey of London. Vols. 29 and 30: St James Westminster, Part 1. London, 1960. 325–338. Retrieved on 21 November 2007.
Taylor, Gary. Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History, from the Restoration to the Present. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989. .
Thompson, Lawrence. "The Boydell Shakespeare: An English Monument to Graphic Arts." Princeton University Library Chronicle 1.2 (1940): 17–24.
Thornbury, Walter. "Cheapside: The central area". Old and New London. Vol. 1. London: Centre for Metropolitan History, 1878. 332–346. Retrieved on 19 November 2007.
Waddell, Roberta. "James Gillray Checklist Part 7". New York Public Library. 2004. Retrieved on 26 November 2007.
West, Shearer. "John Boydell. Grove Dictionary of Art (subscription required). Ed. Jane Turner. London; New York: Grove/Macmillan, 1996. . Retrieved on 26 November 2007.
External links
Shakespeare illustration exhibition at the Special Collections of Lupton Library
Shakespeare Illustrated by Harry Rusche at Emory University
1720 births
1804 deaths
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
People from Shropshire
Sheriffs of the City of London
18th-century lord mayors of London
18th-century British politicians
18th-century English politicians
Publishers (people) from London | [
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220615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucia%20Elizabeth%20Vestris | Lucia Elizabeth Vestris | Lucia Elizabeth Vestris (née Elizabetta Lucia Bartolozzi; 3 March 1797 – 8 August 1856) was an English actress and a contralto opera singer, appearing in works by, among others, Mozart and Rossini. While popular in her time, she was more notable as a theatre producer and manager. After accumulating a fortune from her performances, she leased the Olympic Theatre in London and produced a series of burlesques and extravaganzas, especially popular works by James Planché, for which the house became famous. She also produced his work at other theatres she managed.
Early life and education
She was born in London in 1797, the first of two daughters of German pianist Theresa Jansen Bartolozzi and art dealer Gaetano Stefano Bartolozzi. He was a musician and son of the immigrant Francesco Bartolozzi, a noted artist and engraver, appointed as Royal Engraver to the king. Gaetano Bartolozzi was a successful art dealer, and the family moved to Europe in 1798 when he sold off his business. They spent time in Paris and Vienna before reaching Venice, where they found that their estate had been looted during the French invasion. They returned to London to start over and Gaetano taught drawing. The couple separated in London and Therese gave piano lessons to support her daughters.
Lucia studied music and was noted for her voice and dancing ability. She was married at age 16 to the French ballet dancer, Auguste Armand Vestris, a scion of the great family of dancers of Florentine origin, but her husband deserted her for another woman and left for Naples four years later. Nevertheless, since she had started singing and acting professionally as "Madame Vestris", she retained the stage name throughout her career.
Career
In 1815, at age 18, her contralto voice and attractive appearance gained Madame Vestris her first leading role in Italian opera in the title-role of Peter Winter's II ratto di Proserpina at the King's Theatre. She also sang in 1816 in Martín y Soler's Una cosa rara and performed the roles of Dorabella and Susanna in Mozart's operas Così fan tutte, and The Marriage of Figaro. She had immediate success in both London and Paris. In the French capital city she occasionally appeared at the Théâtre-Italien and various other theatres. A legend that she performed as a tragic actress at the Théâtre-Français playing Camille opposite François-Joseph Talma in Corneille's Horace has however turned out to be untrue. The mistake was the result of a misreading of Talma's Mémoires wherein the actor narrates an episode in 1790 in which a 'Madame Vestris', not Eliza Lucia Vestris who was born several years later, but Françoise-Marie-Rosette Gourgaud, the wife of Angiolo Vestris, and thus a great-aunt-in-law of Eliza Lucia's husband, was once scandalized by Talma's showing up bare-legged on stage in an unusually realistic ancient-Roman costume. The legend was first stated in 1847, when Madame Vestris was still alive, by Thomas Marshall in his book on British actors and actresses, and, after being almost held up to ridicule by John Westland Marston in 1888, it was on the contrary taken as true by Joseph Knight in his article on Madame Vestris in the Dictionary of National Biography, and has since been regularly revived by the main following encyclopaedical sources. Finally, the legend has been refuted by modern biographers of Madame Vestris.
Her first hits in English were in 1820 at age 23 at the Drury Lane in Stephen Storace's Siege of Belgrade, and in Moncrieff's burlesque Giovanni in London, where she performed the male title-role of no less than Don Giovanni: the succès de scandale of this breeches performance in which she showed off her fabulously perfect legs, launched her career as a scandalous beauty. From then on she remained an extraordinary favourite in opera, musical farces, and comedies until her retirement in 1854. At the King's Theatre she sang in the English premieres of many Rossini operas, sometimes conducted by the composer himself: La gazza ladra (as Pippo, 1821), La donna del lago (as Malcolm Groeme, 1823), Ricciardo e Zoraide (as Zomira, 1823), Matilde di Shabran (as Edoardo, 1823), Zelmira (as Emma, 1824), and Semiramide (as Arsace, 1824). She excelled in "breeches parts," and she also performed in Mozart operas, such as Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Blonde) in 1827, and later, in 1842, The Marriage of Figaro (Cherubino), in a complete specially crafted English version by James Planché. She was credited with popularizing such new songs as "Cherry Ripe", "Meet Me by Moonlight Alone" (written by Joseph Augustine Wade), "I've been roaming," etc. She also took part in world premieres, creating the role of Felix in Isaac Nathan's comic opera The Alcaid or The Secrets of Office, (London, Little Theatre in the Haymarket, 1824), and, above all, that of Fatima in Oberon or The Elf King's Oath, "the Grand Romantic and Fairy Opera" by Carl Maria von Weber, which was staged at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden on 12 April 1826.
Despite her celebrity status and popularity, Madame Vestries was not met with total social acceptance for her breeches roles. Her revolutionary action as an actress spurred vicious attacks on her character by her more conservative contemporaries. Vestries' risqué activities onstage were taken to be representative of her own lack of morality and social purity. Disregarding public backlash, Madame Vestries found great financial achievement with her breeches roles and gained the ability to take a position of power within the theatre industry.
Women did not have as much influence over theatrical production as men, including the roles of management, ownership and administration. Though women had the experience and qualifications from past family ventures they were often not able to secure funding enough to finance their ventures in the capital-intensive industry. When Covent Garden management sought to reduce the acting payroll in 1830, however Vestris had accumulated a fortune from performing and was able to lease the Olympic Theatre from John Scott. There she began presenting a series of burlesques and extravaganzas—for which she made this house famous. She produced numerous works by the contemporary playwright James Planché, with whom she had a successful partnership, which included him contributing ideas for staging and costumes.
Second marriage and subsequent career
She married in 1838 for the second time, to the British actor and former associate Charles James Mathews, just before leaving on tour with him for America. They cooperated in their subsequent managerial ventures, including the management of the Lyceum Theatre and the theatre in Covent Garden.
Mme Vestris and Mathews inaugurated their management of Covent Garden with the first-known production of Love's Labour's Lost since 1605; Vestris played Rosaline. In 1840 she staged one of the first relatively uncut productions of A Midsummer Night's Dream, in which she played Oberon. This began a tradition of female Oberons that lasted in the British theatre for seventy years.
In 1841 Vestris produced the highly successful Victorian farce London Assurance by Dion Boucicault, with possibly the first use of a "box set". The play has been popular ever since, receiving its most recent revival at the National Theatre in 2010.
She also introduced the soprano Adelaide Kemble to the theatre in English versions of Bellini's Norma and Mercadante's Elena da Feltre (renamed Elena Uberti). A daughter of John Kemble, actor-manager, and one of the theatre's owners, and niece of Sarah Siddons, Adelaide had a sensational but short career before retiring into marriage.
About her time in charge at Covent Garden, a note by the actor James Robertson Anderson reported in C.J. Mathews's autobiography, says:
Madame was an admirable manager, and Charles an amiable assistant. The arrangements behind the scenes were perfect, the dressing rooms good, the attendants well-chosen, the wings kept clear of all intruders, no strangers or crutch and toothpick loafers allowed behind to flirt with the ballet-girls, only a very few private friends were allowed the privilege of visiting the green-room, which was as handsomely furnished as any nobleman's drawing-room, and those friends appeared always in evening dress....There was great propriety and decorum observed in every part of the establishment, great harmony, general content prevailed in every department of the theatre, and universal regret was felt when the admirable managers were compelled to resign their government.
Another contemporary actor George Vandenhoff in Dramatic Reminiscences also bears testimony to the fact that: ‘To Vestris's honour, she was not only scrupulously careful not to offend propriety by word or action, but she knew very well how to repress any attempt at double-entendre, or doubtful insinuation, in others. The green-room in Covent Garden was a most agreeable lounging place, from which was banished every word or allusion that would not be tolerated in a drawing-room.’
In the late 1840s Vestris began to appear less and less on the stage because of the debts she and her husband owed and also because she began to raise her late sister's children. Her last performance (1854) was for Mathews' benefit, in an adaptation of Madame de Girardin's La Joie fait peur, called Sunshine through Clouds. She died on 8 August 1856 at her home in Fulham, Grove Lodge
Her musical accomplishments and education were not sufficient to distinguish her in grand opera, and in high comedy she was only moderately successful. But in plays like Loan of a Lover, Paul Pry, Naval Engagements, etc., she was "delightfully arch and bewitching." However, many an observer (and Chorley among them) "never quite forgave her for not becoming the greatest English operatic contralto of her age:"
In an age where women were denied autonomy, and brought up to believe they could not manage their own lives and their own money, let alone run a business employing hundreds of people including both men and women, Vestris was a business-woman par excellence. She managed theatres; took plays on tour with a motley crew of actors, actresses and all the support staff; and only remarried, after her disastrous early experience with Vestris, when forced to by American authorities in order to allow her to bring her tour across their borders. Lucia Elizabeth Vestris was a prominent figure in the history of British theatre and customs in the nineteenth century.
She is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery.
References
Notes
Bibliography
William H. Appleton, Madame Vestris and the London Stage, New York: Columbia University Press, 1974
Jacky Bratton, Vestris [née Bartolozzi; other married name Mathews], Lucia Elizabeth (1797–1856) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 (accessed online in Oxford DNB on 21 December 2013)
F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion 1564–1964, Baltimore, Penguin, 1964.
Thomas Marshall Lives of the most celebrated actors and actresses, London, Appleyard, s.d., but 1847 (accessible for free online at Internet Archive)
John Westland Marston, Our recent actors: being recollections critical, and, in many cases, personal, of late distinguished performers of both sexes. With some incidental notices of living actors, London, Samson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1888, II, pp. 148–149 (accessible for free online at Hathy Trust Digital Library)
Charles James Mathews, The life of Charles James Mathews: chiefly autobiographical, with selections from his correspondence and speeches, edited by Charles Dickens Jr., London: Macmillan & Co., 1879 (accessible for free online at Internet Archive: Volume I e Volume II)
Charles E. Pearce, Madame Vestris and her times, New York, Brentano's, s.d. (accessible for free online at Internet Archive)
Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Grove (Oxford University Press), New York, 1997 (article: "Vestris [née Bartolozzi], Lucia Elizabeth [Eliza Lucy]", IV, pp. 979–980)
Clifford John Williams, Madame Vestris: A Theatrical Biography, London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1973
Further reading
The Daughters of Thespis: or, a Peep Behind the Curtain. 1841. Memphis: General Books, 2012. Print.
Kathy Fletcher, "Planche, Vestris, and the Transvestite Role: Sexuality and Gender in Victorian Popular Theatre", in Nineteenth-Century Theatre, Vol 15, no. 1, 1987: pp. 9–33
Charles Molloy W.M.E. (ed.), Memoirs of the life, public and private adventures, of Madame Vestris: of the Theatres Royal Drury Lane, Covent Garden, Olympic and Haymarket, with interesting and amusing anecdotes of celebrated characters in the fashionable world, detailing an interesting variety of singularly curious and amusing scenes, as perferformed before and behind the curtain (etc.), London, Printed for the bookseller, 1839 (accessible for free online at Internet Archive)
J. Norwood, "Picturing Nineteenth-Century Female Theatre Managers: the Iconology of Eliza Vestries and Sara Lane." New Theatre Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 1, 2017, pp. 3–21.
J. Norwood, Lives of Shakespearean Actors, Part IV: Helen Faucit, Lucia Elizabeth Vestris and Fanny Kemble by their Contemporaries., Pickering & Chatto, 2011.
Elliott Vanskike, "Consistent Inconsistencies: The Transvestite Actress Madame Vestris and Charlotte Brontë's Shirley.", in Nineteenth-Century Literature, Vol 50, no. 4, 1996: pp. 464–488
English people of Italian descent
19th-century English actresses
19th-century British women opera singers
Operatic contraltos
English contraltos
English theatre managers and producers
Women theatre managers and producers
Actor-managers
British burlesque performers
1797 births
1856 deaths
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
19th-century theatre managers
Vestris family
Bartolozzi family
19th-century English businesswomen
19th-century English businesspeople
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220616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristinestad | Kristinestad | Kristinestad (, Sweden ; ; ) is a town and a municipality in Finland. It is located in the western part of Finland on the shore of the Bothnian Sea. The population of Kristinestad is () and the municipality covers an area of (excluding sea areas) of which is inland water (). The population density is . The population is bilingual with a majority speaking Swedish () and the minority Finnish (). The town was chartered in 1649 by Per Brahe the Younger at Koppö island and is named for Queen Christina of Sweden. Kristinestad is known for its old town with low wooden houses and narrow alleys.
In April, 2011, Kristinestad became Finland's first Cittaslow community.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Kristinestad is twinned with:
Sala, Sweden
Novello, Italy
Gallery
Geography
Climate
Kristinestad has a continental subarctic climate (Dfc).
source = http://www.yr.no/place/Finland/Western_Finland/Kristinestad~650770/statistics.html
See also
Jakobstad
References
External links
Official website
Kristinestad 1649–1999. One of the best preserved wooden towns in Fenno-Scandinavia
Cities and towns in Finland
Populated coastal places in Finland
Municipalities of Ostrobothnia (region)
Grand Duchy of Finland
Populated places established in 1649
1649 establishments in Sweden | [
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220619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C3%A9tan%20Vestris | Gaétan Vestris | Gaetano Apolline Baldassarre Vestris (18 April 1729 – 1808), French ballet dancer, was born in Florence and made his debut at the opera in 1749.
Life
Born of an Italian theatrical family, he studied dance with Louis Dupré at the Royal Academy in Paris, later joining the Paris Opéra where he served as dancing master to Louis XVI. Vestris was the first dancer to discard the mask and to use his face in mime.
By 1751 his success and his vanity had grown to such a point that he is reported to have said, "There are but three great men in Europe—the king of Prussia, Voltaire and I." He was an excellent mimic as well as dancer. From 1770 to 1776 he was a master and composer of ballets, retiring, in favour of Jean Georges Noverre, with a pension.
Vestris married a dancer, Anna Heinel (1753–1808), of German origin, who had a wonderful success at the opera. He reappeared at the age of seventy-one on the occasion of his grandson's debut.
Family
Gaetano had several children who also became dancers. He was the lover of French ballerina Marie Allard and their son Auguste Vestris (1760–1842) was also considered the greatest male dancer of his time.
Auguste made his debut at 12 with the Paris Opéra and was the company's leading dancer for 36 years. Auguste's son, Auguste Armand Vestris (1788–1825), husband of Lucia Elizabeth Vestris, took to the same profession and made his debut at the opera in 1800, but left Paris for England, Italy and Vienna never reappearing in France. Gaetano's brother, Angiolo Vestris (1730–1809), formerly a dancer and later an actor at the Comédie-Italienne, married Marie Rose Gourgaud, the sister of the actor Dugazon. Gaetano and Angiolo's sister, Thérèse (1726-1808), was also a dancer.
References
Attribution
1729 births
1808 deaths
People from Florence
Italian emigrants to France
French male ballet dancers
French ballet masters
18th-century French ballet dancers
Paris Opera Ballet étoiles
Paris Opera Ballet artistic directors
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery
Vestris family | [
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220625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox%20Church%20of%20Finland | Orthodox Church of Finland | The Orthodox Church of Finland (; ; ) is an autonomous Eastern Orthodox archdiocese of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The church has a legal position as a national church in the country, along with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.
With its roots in the medieval Novgorodian missionary work in Karelia, the Orthodox Church of Finland was a part of the Russian Orthodox Church until 1923. Today the church has three dioceses and 54,895 members in Finland, accounting for almost one percent of the native population of Finland. The parish of Helsinki has the most adherents. There are also 2,700 members living abroad.
Structure and organization
Along with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Orthodox Church of Finland has a special position in Finnish law. The church is considered to be a Finnish entity of public nature. The external form of the church is regulated by an Act of Parliament, while the spiritual and doctrinal matters of the church are legislated by the central synod of the church. The church has the right to tax its members and corporations owned by its members. Previously under the Russian Orthodox Church, it has been an autonomous Orthodox archdiocese of the Patriarchate of Constantinople since 1923.
The Orthodox Church of Finland is divided into three dioceses (hiippakunta), each with a subdivision of parishes (seurakunta). There are 21 parishes with 140 priests and 57,613 members in total, of whom 54,895 in Finland. The number of church members has been steadily growing for several years. A convent and a monastery also operate within the church.
The central legislative organ of the church is the central synod which is formed of
bishops and coadjutor bishops,
eleven priests
three cantors
eighteen laymen and -women
The priests and cantors elect their representatives on diocesan basis, using plurality election method. The laymen representatives are elected indirectly. The nominations for representatives are made by the parish councils which also elect the electors who then elect the lay representatives to the central synod. The central synod elects the bishops and is responsible for the economy and the general doctrine of the church.
The two executive bodies of the church central administration are the synod of bishops, responsible for the doctrinal and foreign affairs of the church, and the church administrative council (kirkollishallitus), responsible for day-to-day management of the church.
The parishes are governed by the rector and the parish council, which is elected in a secret election. All full-age members of the parish are eligible to vote and to be elected to the parish council. The members of the parish have the right to refrain from being elected to a position of trust of the parish only if they are over 60 years of age, or have served at least eight years in a position of trust. The parish council elects the parish board, which is responsible for the day-to-day affairs of the parish.
Financially, the church is independent of the state budget. The parishes are financed by the taxes paid by their members. The central administration is financed through the contributions of the parishes. The central synod decides yearly the amount of contributions the parishes are required to make.
The special status of the Orthodox church is most visible in the administrative processes. The church is required to conform with the general administrative law and the decisions of its bodies may be appealed against in the regional administrative courts. However, the court is limited to reviewing the formal legality of the decision. It may not overturn an ecclesiastical decision on the basis of its unreasonableness. The decisions of the synod of bishops and the central synod are not subject to the oversight of the administrative courts. In contrast, similar legal oversight of private religious communities is pursued by the district courts.
Finnish law protects the absolute priest–penitent privilege. A bishop, priest or deacon of the church may not divulge information he has heard during confession or spiritual care. The identity of the sinner may not be revealed for any purpose. However, if the priest hears about a crime that is about to be committed, he is responsible for informing the authorities in such manner that privilege is not endangered.
Dioceses and bishops
Diocese of Helsinki
The Diocese of Helsinki has the most members, over 28,000. The Diocese of Helsinki is the seat of the archbishop. The diocese is divided into three parishes, with 50 priests. The main church of the diocese is Uspenski Cathedral in Helsinki. Characteristic to the diocese is the large number of members who have recently immigrated to Finland, especially in the Helsinki parish where several churches also officiate at the service in foreign languages, including Russian, English, Greek and Romanian.
The current bishop is Archbishop Leo (Makkonen). He was appointed in 2018.
Diocese of Kuopio and Karelia
The seat of the Bishop of Kuopio and Karelia is in Kuopio. The current bishop is Metropolitan Arseni (Heikkinen).
The Diocese of Karelia has 19,000 church members in 5 parishes. The number of priests in the diocese is about 45, and churches and chapels total over 80. The diocese also includes the only Orthodox monasteries in Finland.
The Orthodox Church Museum of Finland also operates in Kuopio.
Diocese of Oulu
The small Diocese of Oulu has four parishes, the largest of which is Oulu. The head of the diocese since 2015 is Metropolitan Elia (Wallgrén).
The diocese was established in 1980 and it has 6,000 members. The cathedral of the diocese is the Holy Trinity Cathedral of Oulu. Traditionally, the Skolts, now a small minority of only 300 speakers, have been the earliest Orthodox Christians in the Finnish Lapland. Today, they live predominantly in the Inari parish.
The Diocese of Oulu was founded as part of Archbishop Paul's (Olmari) plan to make the Finnish Orthodox Church autocephalous. However, the autocephaly plan has now been abandoned.
Monasteries
The only Orthodox Christian monastery in Finland, New Valamo (Valamon luostari), is situated in Heinävesi. The only Orthodox Christian convent Lintula Holy Trinity Convent (Lintulan Pyhän Kolminaisuuden luostari) is in Palokki, some 10 kilometers away from the monastery. Both were established during World War II when residents of the Karelian and Petsamo monasteries were evacuated from areas ceded to the Soviet Union. With friendly support from the Finnish Orthodox Church, a private Orthodox Brotherhood of Protection of the Mother of God (Pokrovan veljestö ry) has operated in Kirkkonummi since 2000, with two permanent members.
Additional organizations
The following organizations operate within or on behalf of the Orthodox Church in Finland:
Fellowship of St. Sergius and St. Herman (Pyhien Sergein ja Hermanin Veljeskunta)
Orthodox Youth Association (Ortodoksisten nuorten liitto)
Orthodox Student Association (Ortodoksinen opiskelijaliitto)
Finnish Association of Orthodox Teachers (Suomen ortodoksisten opettajien liitto ry)
Orthodox Priests' Association (Ortodoksisten pappien liitto)
Orthodox Cantors' Association (Ortodoksisten kanttorien liitto)
Finnish Society of Icon Painters (Suomen ikonimaalarit ry)
Filantropia ry– Orthodox Church Aid and Foreign Mission society
Orthodox missions
The Finnish Orthodox Church established its own missionary organization in 1977 known as the Ortodoksinen Lähetys ry (Orthodox Missions). It has mainly been active in eastern Africa. It later merged with OrtAid and formed Filantropia.
Feasts
The Finnish Orthodox Church is the only Orthodox church that, to comply with national legislation, celebrates Easter according to the Gregorian calendar. (Formerly, also the autonomous Estonian church followed this calendar.) Easter is the greatest feast of church year as it is with other Orthodox churches. Also the Twelve Great Feasts are observed. Other highly observed feasts are:
Circumcision of Christ and St. Basil the Great, 1 January
Holy Martyr and Confessor John of Sonkajanranta, 8 March
St. John of Valaam, 5 June
Sts. Sergius and Herman of Valaam, 28 June
Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, 29 June
Intercession of the Theotokos, 1 October
Holy Enlighteners of Karelia, Saturday between 31 October – 6 November
St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, 6 December, which is celebrated as same day as Independence Day of Finland
Church architecture
Many Orthodox churches in Finland are small. The few more impressive shrines were built in the 19th century, when Finland was an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire, with the Orthodox Christian Emperor as the Grand Duke of Finland. Notable churches in Helsinki from that era are the Uspenski Cathedral (1864) and the Holy Trinity church (1826). The oldest Orthodox church in Finland is the church of Protection of the Theotokos in Lappeenranta from 1782 to 1785.
The Orthodox Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Hamina was completed in 1837. Built in the architectural style of Neoclassicism with some Byzantine-style elements, the exterior was designed in the form of a round-domed temple, while the interior is cruciform. The belfry was built in 1862 in the Neo-Byzantine style. The Orthodox church of Tampere was built in Russian romantic style, with onion style cupolas, and was ready in 1896. The architect of the Russian army, T.U. Jasikov, drew the floor plan. The church was consecrated in 1899 to Saint Alexander Nevsky, a Novgorodian who in 1240 fought against the Catholic Swedes and two years later the Catholic Teutonic Knights with equal success. Emperor Nicholas II donated the bells to this church. The church suffered heavily during the Finnish civil war in 1918; its reconstruction took many years. After Finland declared its independence, it was re-consecrated to St. Nicholas.
After Second World War
After the Second World War, Finland had to cede land to the Soviet Union under Paris Peace Treaties. Almost all Orthodox churches and chapels remained on the Soviet side in Karelia and Petsamo. The Finnish state enacted a special reconstruction law, in which it financed the construction of 14 churches and 44 chapels for the Orthodox church. The churches and chapels were modern in architecture, lacking domes and other features typical to the Orthodox church architecture. This was mandated by the Finnish state which strictly selected the architects. Most reconstruction era churches and chapels are designed by Ilmari Ahonen and Toivo Paatela.
From the 1970s to the 1990s, Karelian-type log churches and chapels were built were built in Finland with some modern exceptions.
From the 1990s, some contemporary churches have been built in large cities and towns.
History
Christianity started to spread to Finland from the east in the Orthodox form and from the west in the Catholic form at the latest in the beginning of the 12th century. Some of the earliest excavated crosses in Finland, dating from the 12th century onward, are similar to a type found in Novgorod and Kyiv. Orthodox parishes are believed to have existed as far to the west as Tavastia, the area inhabited by Tavastians in Central Finland.
Some core concepts of the Christian vocabulary in the Finnish language are supposed to be loans from early Russian, which in turn has borrowed them from Mediaeval Greek. These include the words for priest (pappi), cross (risti) and Bible (raamattu). This hypothesis is, however, not unchallenged.
Clash between Catholicism and E. Orthodoxy
In the middle of the 13th century the inevitable clash between the two expanding countries, Sweden and Novgorod, and the two forms of Christianity they represented, took place. The final border between western and eastern rulership was drawn in the Peace Treaty of Nöteborg, in 1323. Karelia was definitely ceded to Novgorod and E. Orthodoxy.
Karelian monasteries
The main missionary work fell to the monasteries that cropped up in the wilderness of Karelia. Two monasteries were founded on islands in Lake Ladoga, which became famous some centuries later: the monasteries of Valaam () and Konevsky ().
Karelian and Finnish forests were also populated by spiritually advanced hermits. Often around the hermit's hut or skete, there settled other fighters of the good fight of faith, and so a new monastery was founded. One of the most important examples of this process was St. Alexander of Svir () 1449–1533. He was a Karelian who fought the fight of faith for 13 years in Valaam monastery, but finally left it, and in the end founded a monastery at the river of Svir.
Swedish oppression
The 17th century was a period of religious fanaticism and many religious wars as the newly emerged Protestant countries fought against countries that remained Catholic or Orthodox. At this time Sweden became a great force, expanding both southward and eastward. In Karelia the Swedish forces destroyed and burnt to the ground the monasteries of Valaam and Konevsky. Monks that did not flee, were killed. Many peasants met the same fate.
Karelians mostly identified themselves with the Russians, and not with the Finns. Karelians rather called the Finns "ruotsalaiset," which is the Finnish word for Swedes.
The Lutheran state church of Sweden tried to convert the Orthodox population. They were not allowed to obtain priests from Russia, which meant, in the long run, that they did not have priests at all. As Lutheranism was the only legal religion in Sweden, to be an Orthodox was a handicap in many ways. About two-thirds of the Orthodox population fled to Central Russia from under the oppression. They formed the population of Tver Karelia. The Swedish state encouraged Lutheran Finns to occupy the deserted farms in Karelia. This massive flight of Orthodox Finns away from Finland meant that Eastern Orthodoxy was never again the main religion of any part of Finland. However, in the remoter areas of Eastern Finland and Karelia, like Ilomantsi, the Eastern Orthodox Christianity survived.
Reunion with the Russian Orthodox Church
The period of the grandiose expansion of Sweden met its limits in two wars: the Great Northern War which ended in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721 and the Hat's War (1741–43) with the Treaty of Turku in 1743. Sweden lost all its provinces in the Baltic region, and a portion of eastern Finland to Russia.
The Valaam Monastery was re-established in Lake Ladoga, and a new main church was consecrated in 1719. Monks returned to Konevsky Monastery before 1716. The Russian government favoured the activities of the religion they had professed for many centuries. The Emperors and Empresses paid for the reconstruction of burnt or otherwise demolished churches. The Orthodox population of Eastern Finland again had access to making pilgrimages to the monasteries of Solovetsk and Alexander-Svirsky.
The Old Believers, a schismatic group of Russians who did not accept the religious reforms of patriarch Nikon in 1666–67, were excommunicated from the Orthodox Church and fled to the outskirts of Russia. They also moved into the remote areas of Finland building three small monasteries there. However, the activity of these monasteries stopped during the following century.
Autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland
When all of Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire in 1809, it already had an established Lutheran Church. Eastern Orthodox Christianity also gained a recognized status in Finland. The old Swedish constitution which Finns generally regarded as the constitution of the Grand Duchy, specifically required that the sovereign was Protestant, but this was overlooked regarding the Orthodox Emperors.
In areas where Orthodox faith was not indigenous as in the towns of Helsinki, Tampere and Viipuri and the Karelian Isthmus, Orthodoxy was especially associated with the Russians, most of whom were Russian troops permanently stationed in Finland. The birth of Helsinki's Orthodox Church is generally associated with the construction of the Holy Trinity Church, Helsinki in 1827. Generally most ecclesiastical activity outside Karelia centered on the garrison churches. There were also a growing number of Russian emigrants, most of whom were merchants or craftsmen. These started to identify themselves with the Swedish-speaking bourgeoisie, and so a Swedish-speaking branch of the Finnish Orthodox Church was born.
The 19th century was also a period of active building of new churches, the Uspenski Cathedral being the most important of them. The garrisons needed Orthodox churches and so did the new emigrants to the towns. A good examples are the Orthodox church of Tampere and Turku.
In the rural countryside of Karelia, the local form of Orthodox faith remained somewhat primitive, incorporating many features of older religious praxis. Literacy among the Orthodox population was low. In 1900 it was estimated that of all persons over the age of 15 in East Finland, 32 percent were illiterate. The Orthodox population knew very little of their faith except the outer forms. The priests were generally Russians who seldom knew Finnish. As Karelia and its arable land was poor, it did not attract first class priests. The language of the services was Church Slavonic, a form of old Bulgarian. A Russian could understand some parts of the services, a Finnish-speaking person nothing.
A separate Finnish episcopate with a leading archbishop was established in 1892 under the Russian Orthodox Church. It was stationed in Vyborg, with the Russian Antoniy as its first bishop.
When Russia at the end of the 19th century tried to retract the autonomy of Finland, the Lutheran Finns started to associate the Orthodox Church with the imperial Russian rule, labeled as the ryssän kirkko. The cultural gap between the two churches remained significant.
Independent Republic of Finland
Shortly after Finland declared independence from Russia in 1917, the Orthodox Church of Finland declared its autonomy from the Russian Church. Finland's first constitution (1919) granted the Orthodox Church an equal status with the (Lutheran) Church of Finland.
In 1923, the Orthodox Church of Finland completely separated from the Russian Church, becoming an autonomous church affiliated with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. At the same time the Gregorian Calendar was adopted. Other reforms introduced after independence include changing the language of the liturgy from Church Slavonic to Finnish and the transfer of the Archiepiscopal seat from Viipuri to Sortavala.
Until World War II, the majority of Orthodox Christians in Finland were located in Karelia. As a consequence of the war, residents of the areas ceded to the Soviet Union were evacuated to other parts of the country. The monastery of Valamo was evacuated in 1940 and the monastery of New Valamo was founded in 1941 at Heinävesi, on the Finnish side of the new border. Later, the monks from Konevsky and Petsamo monasteries also joined the New Valamo monastery. The nunnery of Lintula (now Ogonki) near Kivennapa (Karelian Isthmus) was also evacuated, and re-established at Heinävesi in 1946.
A new parish network was established, and many new churches were built in the 1950s. After the cities of Sortavala and Viipuri were lost to the Soviet Union (Viipuri is now Vyborg, Russia), the archiepiscopal seat was moved to Kuopio and the diocesan seat of Viipuri was moved to Helsinki. A third diocese was established in Oulu in 1979.
After the Second World War the membership of the Orthodox Church in Finland decreased slowly, as the Karelian evacuees were settled far from their roots among the Lutheran majority of Finland. Mixed marriages became common and the children were often baptized into the religion of the majority. But quite unexpectedly a "romantic" movement arose in Finland beginning in the 1970s onward glorifying Orthodoxy, its "mystical" and visually beautiful services and icons (religious paintings) and its deeper view of Christianity than that of the Lutheran Church. For these reasons, similar to Catholicism in England, conversion to the Orthodox Church became almost a fad, and its membership started to grow.
At the same time Archbishop Paavali of Karelia and All Finland (1960–1987) made liturgical changes to the services, that gave the laity a more active role in the church services, and made the services more open (earlier the clergy stayed behind a curtain for part of the services) and intelligible. Archbishop Paavali also stressed the importance of partaking in the Eucharist as often as possible.
In the 2010s, church membership has begun to decrease due to membership resignations and the declining number of baptisms. Compared to the membership trends of the Finnish Lutheran Church, members who resign from the Orthodox Church are on average slightly older and more likely to be female than those resigning from the Lutheran Church.
Russian Orthodox Church in Finland
About 3,000 Orthodox Christians in Finland belong to the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate). They are organized into two parishes. There have also been plans to establish a separate Russian diocese in Finland. Parishes maintain five churches and chapels.
St. Nicholas Orthodox Parish (Finnish: Ortodoksinen Pyhän Nikolauksen Seurakunta; Russian: Свято-Никольский приход в Хельсинки, Svjato-Nikol'skij prihod v Hel'sinki) in Helsinki is the largest with 2,600 members. The parish was established in 1927, and a large part of its members are Finnish citizens. Recently, the parish has been growing fast due to a new wave of repatriates and immigrants from Russia.
Rooted in the 1920s' Private Orthodox Society in Viipuri (Finnish: Yksityinen kreikkalais-katolinen yhdyskunta Viipurissa), the Intercession Orthodox Parish (Finnish: Ortodoksinen Pokrovan seurakunta; Russian: приход Покрова Пресвятой Богородицы в Хельсинки, prihod Pokrova Presvjatoj Bogorodicy v Hel'sinki) was officially formed in 2004, also in Helsinki, and has some 350 members today. Both have registered themselves as separate religious organizations.
Unlike the Orthodox Church of Finland, the Russian Orthodox Church in Finland follows the Julian calendar.
List of archbishops
Under Patriarchate of Moscow:
Antoniy (1892–1898)
Nikolay (1899–1905)
Sergiy (1905–1917)
Serafim (1918–1923), Bishop of Finland from 1918 and archbishop from 1921
Under Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople:
Herman (1923–1960)
Paavali ("Paul") (1960–1987)
Johannes ("John") (1987–2001)
Leo (2001–present)
References
Further reading
External links
New Valamo Monastery in Finland
OrtoWeb (Learning Environment for R.E)
Ortodoksi.net
Article on Finnish Orthodox Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA website
Eastern Orthodoxy in Finland
Eastern Orthodox Church bodies in Europe
Finland
Byzantine Revival architecture in Finland
Members of the World Council of Churches
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
Finland
Finland
1921 establishments in Finland | [
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220627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Henri%20Gourgaud | Jean-Henri Gourgaud | Jean-Henri Gourgaud (15 November 1746 – 19 October 1809) was a French actor under the stage name Dugazon, the son of Pierre-Antoine Gourgaud, the director of military hospitals there and also an actor.
He began his career in the provinces, making his debut in 1770 at the Comédie Française, where he aspired to leading comedy roles. He pleased the public at once and was made sociétaire in 1772. Dugazon was an ardent revolutionist, helped the schism which divided the company, and went with Talma and the others to what became the Théâtre de la République. After the closing of this theatre and the dissolution of the Comédie Française, he took refuge at the Théâtre Feydeau until he returned to the restored Comédie in 1799. He retired in 1805, and died insane at Sandillon.
Dugazon wrote three mediocre comedies of a political character, performed at the Théâtre de la République. He married, in 1776, Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre, but was soon divorced and then married again. Together they had a child, composer Gustave Dugazon.
Dugazon's sister, Marie Rose Gourgaud (1743–1804), was an actress who first played at Stuttgart, where she married Angelo Vestris, brother of Gaétano Vestris, the dancer. Under the protection of the dukes of Choiseul and Duras, she was commanded to make her debut at the Comédie Française in 1768, where she created important parts in a number of tragedies.
See also
Troupe of the Comédie-Française in 1790
This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.
Male actors from Marseille
1746 births
1809 deaths
French male stage actors
Sociétaires of the Comédie-Française
18th-century French male actors | [
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220632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time%20compilation | Just-in-time compilation | In computing, just-in-time (JIT) compilation (also dynamic translation or run-time compilations) is a way of executing computer code that involves compilation during execution of a program (at run time) rather than before execution. This may consist of source code translation but is more commonly bytecode translation to machine code, which is then executed directly. A system implementing a JIT compiler typically continuously analyses the code being executed and identifies parts of the code where the speedup gained from compilation or recompilation would outweigh the overhead of compiling that code.
JIT compilation is a combination of the two traditional approaches to translation to machine code—ahead-of-time compilation (AOT), and interpretation—and combines some advantages and drawbacks of both. Roughly, JIT compilation combines the speed of compiled code with the flexibility of interpretation, with the overhead of an interpreter and the additional overhead of compiling and linking (not just interpreting). JIT compilation is a form of dynamic compilation, and allows adaptive optimization such as dynamic recompilation and microarchitecture-specific speedups. Interpretation and JIT compilation are particularly suited for dynamic programming languages, as the runtime system can handle late-bound data types and enforce security guarantees.
History
The earliest published JIT compiler is generally attributed to work on LISP by John McCarthy in 1960. In his seminal paper Recursive functions of symbolic expressions and their computation by machine, Part I, he mentions functions that are translated during runtime, thereby sparing the need to save the compiler output to punch cards (although this would be more accurately known as a "Compile and go system"). Another early example was by Ken Thompson, who in 1968 gave one of the first applications of regular expressions, here for pattern matching in the text editor QED. For speed, Thompson implemented regular expression matching by JITing to IBM 7094 code on the Compatible Time-Sharing System. An influential technique for deriving compiled code from interpretation was pioneered by James G. Mitchell in 1970, which he implemented for the experimental language LC².
Smalltalk (c. 1983) pioneered new aspects of JIT compilations. For example, translation to machine code was done on demand, and the result was cached for later use. When memory became scarce, the system would delete some of this code and regenerate it when it was needed again. Sun's Self language improved these techniques extensively and was at one point the fastest Smalltalk system in the world; achieving up to half the speed of optimized C but with a fully object-oriented language.
Self was abandoned by Sun, but the research went into the Java language. The term "Just-in-time compilation" was borrowed from the manufacturing term "Just in time" and popularized by Java, with James Gosling using the term from 1993. Currently JITing is used by most implementations of the Java Virtual Machine, as HotSpot builds on, and extensively uses, this research base.
The HP project Dynamo was an experimental JIT compiler where the 'bytecode' format and the machine code format were the same; the system turned PA-6000 machine code into PA-8000 machine code. Counterintuitively, this resulted in speed ups, in some cases of 30% since doing this permitted optimizations at the machine code level, for example, inlining code for better cache usage and optimizations of calls to dynamic libraries and many other run-time optimizations which conventional compilers are not able to attempt.
In November 2020, PHP 8.0 introduced a JIT compiler.
Design
In a bytecode-compiled system, source code is translated to an intermediate representation known as bytecode. Bytecode is not the machine code for any particular computer, and may be portable among computer architectures. The bytecode may then be interpreted by, or run on a virtual machine. The JIT compiler reads the bytecodes in many sections (or in full, rarely) and compiles them dynamically into machine code so the program can run faster. This can be done per-file, per-function or even on any arbitrary code fragment; the code can be compiled when it is about to be executed (hence the name "just-in-time"), and then cached and reused later without needing to be recompiled.
In contrast, a traditional interpreted virtual machine will simply interpret the bytecode, generally with much lower performance. Some interpreters even interpret source code, without the step of first compiling to bytecode, with even worse performance. Statically-compiled code or native code is compiled prior to deployment. A dynamic compilation environment is one in which the compiler can be used during execution. A common goal of using JIT techniques is to reach or surpass the performance of static compilation, while maintaining the advantages of bytecode interpretation: Much of the "heavy lifting" of parsing the original source code and performing basic optimization is often handled at compile time, prior to deployment: compilation from bytecode to machine code is much faster than compiling from source. The deployed bytecode is portable, unlike native code. Since the runtime has control over the compilation, like interpreted bytecode, it can run in a secure sandbox. Compilers from bytecode to machine code are easier to write, because the portable bytecode compiler has already done much of the work.
JIT code generally offers far better performance than interpreters. In addition, it can in some cases offer better performance than static compilation, as many optimizations are only feasible at run-time:
The compilation can be optimized to the targeted CPU and the operating system model where the application runs. For example, JIT can choose SSE2 vector CPU instructions when it detects that the CPU supports them. To obtain this level of optimization specificity with a static compiler, one must either compile a binary for each intended platform/architecture, or else include multiple versions of portions of the code within a single binary.
The system is able to collect statistics about how the program is actually running in the environment it is in, and it can rearrange and recompile for optimum performance. However, some static compilers can also take profile information as input.
The system can do global code optimizations (e.g. inlining of library functions) without losing the advantages of dynamic linking and without the overheads inherent to static compilers and linkers. Specifically, when doing global inline substitutions, a static compilation process may need run-time checks and ensure that a virtual call would occur if the actual class of the object overrides the inlined method, and boundary condition checks on array accesses may need to be processed within loops. With just-in-time compilation in many cases this processing can be moved out of loops, often giving large increases of speed.
Although this is possible with statically compiled garbage collected languages, a bytecode system can more easily rearrange executed code for better cache utilization.
Because a JIT must render and execute a native binary image at runtime, true machine-code JITs necessitate platforms that allow for data to be executed at runtime, making using such JITs on a Harvard architecture-based machine impossible; the same can be said for certain operating systems and virtual machines as well. However, a special type of "JIT" may potentially not target the physical machine's CPU architecture, but rather an optimized VM bytecode where limitations on raw machine code prevail, especially where that bytecode's VM eventually leverages a JIT to native code.
Performance
JIT causes a slight to noticeable delay in the initial execution of an application, due to the time taken to load and compile the bytecode. Sometimes this delay is called "startup time delay" or "warm-up time". In general, the more optimization JIT performs, the better the code it will generate, but the initial delay will also increase. A JIT compiler therefore has to make a trade-off between the compilation time and the quality of the code it hopes to generate. Startup time can include increased IO-bound operations in addition to JIT compilation: for example, the rt.jar class data file for the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is 40 MB and the JVM must seek a lot of data in this contextually huge file.
One possible optimization, used by Sun's HotSpot Java Virtual Machine, is to combine interpretation and JIT compilation. The application code is initially interpreted, but the JVM monitors which sequences of bytecode are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware. For bytecode which is executed only a few times, this saves the compilation time and reduces the initial latency; for frequently executed bytecode, JIT compilation is used to run at high speed, after an initial phase of slow interpretation. Additionally, since a program spends most time executing a minority of its code, the reduced compilation time is significant. Finally, during the initial code interpretation, execution statistics can be collected before compilation, which helps to perform better optimization.
The correct tradeoff can vary due to circumstances. For example, Sun's Java Virtual Machine has two major modes—client and server. In client mode, minimal compilation and optimization is performed, to reduce startup time. In server mode, extensive compilation and optimization is performed, to maximize performance once the application is running by sacrificing startup time. Other Java just-in-time compilers have used a runtime measurement of the number of times a method has executed combined with the bytecode size of a method as a heuristic to decide when to compile. Still another uses the number of times executed combined with the detection of loops. In general, it is much harder to accurately predict which methods to optimize in short-running applications than in long-running ones.
Native Image Generator (Ngen) by Microsoft is another approach at reducing the initial delay. Ngen pre-compiles (or "pre-JITs") bytecode in a Common Intermediate Language image into machine native code. As a result, no runtime compilation is needed. .NET Framework 2.0 shipped with Visual Studio 2005 runs Ngen on all of the Microsoft library DLLs right after the installation. Pre-jitting provides a way to improve the startup time. However, the quality of code it generates might not be as good as the one that is JITed, for the same reasons why code compiled statically, without profile-guided optimization, cannot be as good as JIT compiled code in the extreme case: the lack of profiling data to drive, for instance, inline caching.
There also exist Java implementations that combine an AOT (ahead-of-time) compiler with either a JIT compiler (Excelsior JET) or interpreter (GNU Compiler for Java).
Security
JIT compilation fundamentally uses executable data, and thus poses security challenges and possible exploits.
Implementation of JIT compilation consists of compiling source code or byte code to machine code and executing it. This is generally done directly in memory: the JIT compiler outputs the machine code directly into memory and immediately executes it, rather than outputting it to disk and then invoking the code as a separate program, as in usual ahead of time compilation. In modern architectures this runs into a problem due to executable space protection: arbitrary memory cannot be executed, as otherwise there is a potential security hole. Thus memory must be marked as executable; for security reasons this should be done after the code has been written to memory, and marked read-only, as writable/executable memory is a security hole (see W^X). For instance Firefox's JIT compiler for Javascript introduced this protection in a release version with Firefox 46.
JIT spraying is a class of computer security exploits that use JIT compilation for heap spraying: the resulting memory is then executable, which allows an exploit if execution can be moved into the heap.
Uses
JIT compilation can be applied to some programs, or can be used for certain capacities, particularly dynamic capacities such as regular expressions. For example, a text editor may compile a regular expression provided at runtime to machine code to allow faster matching: this cannot be done ahead of time, as the pattern is only provided at runtime. Several modern runtime environments rely on JIT compilation for high-speed code execution, including most implementations of Java, together with Microsoft's .NET. Similarly, many regular-expression libraries feature JIT compilation of regular expressions, either to bytecode or to machine code. JIT compilation is also used in some emulators, in order to translate machine code from one CPU architecture to another.
A common implementation of JIT compilation is to first have AOT compilation to bytecode (virtual machine code), known as bytecode compilation, and then have JIT compilation to machine code (dynamic compilation), rather than interpretation of the bytecode. This improves the runtime performance compared to interpretation, at the cost of lag due to compilation. JIT compilers translate continuously, as with interpreters, but caching of compiled code minimizes lag on future execution of the same code during a given run. Since only part of the program is compiled, there is significantly less lag than if the entire program were compiled prior to execution.
See also
Binary translation
Common Language Runtime
Dynamic compilation
GNU lightning
LLVM
OVPsim
Self-modifying code
Tracing just-in-time compilation
Transmeta Crusoe
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Free Online Dictionary of Computing entry
Mozilla Nanojit : A small, cross-platform C++ library that emits machine code. It is used as the JIT for the Mozilla Tamarin and SpiderMonkey Javascript engines.
Profiling Runtime Generated and Interpreted Code using the VTune Performance Analyzer
Compiler construction
Emulation software
Virtualization software | [
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220633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20of%20sale | Point of sale | The point of sale (POS) or point of purchase (POP) is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. At the point of sale, the merchant calculates the amount owed by the customer, indicates that amount, may prepare an invoice for the customer (which may be a cash register printout), and indicates the options for the customer to make payment. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed but can also be dispensed with or sent electronically.
To calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use various devices such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers (or the more advanced "POS cash registers", which are sometimes also called "POS systems"). To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, and other hardware and software options are available.
The point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. POS terminal software may also include features for additional functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials, or warehousing.
Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems, and one of the most obvious and compelling reasons is that a POS system does away with the need for price tags. Selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a price change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include the ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, and more efficient stock control, and these features are typical of almost all modern ePOS systems.
Terminology
Retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase (POP) when they are discussing it from the retailer's perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as when considering a marketing strategy and offers.
Some point of sale vendors refer to their POS system as "retail management system" which is actually a more appropriate term given that this software is no longer just about processing sales but comes with many other capabilities such as inventory management, membership system, supplier record, bookkeeping, issuing of purchase orders, quotations and stock transfers, hide barcode label creation, sale reporting and in some cases remote outlets networking or linkage, to name some major ones.
Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors.
The basic, fundamental definition of a POS System, is a system which allows the processing and recording of transactions between a company and their consumers, at the time in which goods and/or services are purchased.
History
Software before the 1990s
Early electronic cash registers (ECR) were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. In August 1973, IBM released the IBM 3650 and 3660 store systems that were, in essence, a mainframe computer used as a store controller that could control up to 128 IBM 3653/3663 point of sale registers. This system was the first commercial use of client-server technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network (LAN) simultaneous backup, and remote initialization. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey and Dillard's department stores.
One of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonald's Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, a very early microprocessor (and forerunner to the Intel 8088 processor used in the original IBM Personal Computer). Each station in the restaurant had its own device which displayed the entire order for a customer — for example, [2] Vanilla Shake, [1] Large Fries, [3] BigMac — using numeric keys and a button for every menu item. By pressing the [Grill] button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress. When the customer was ready to pay, the [Total] button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonald's and very convenient for the servers and provided the restaurant owner with a check on the amount that should be in the cash drawers. Up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the error-correcting memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store.
In 1986, Eugene "Gene" Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming. The ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex, 1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth. This was the first commercially available POS system with a widget-driven color graphic touch screen interface and was installed in several restaurants in the US and Canada.
In 1986, IBM introduced its 468x series of POS equipment based on Digital Research's Concurrent DOS 286 and FlexOS 1.xx, a modular real-time multi-tasking multi-user operating system.
Modern software (post-1990s)
A wide range of POS applications have been developed on platforms such as Windows and Unix. The availability of local processing power, local data storage, networking, and graphical user interface made it possible to develop flexible and highly functional POS systems. Cost of such systems has also declined, as all the components can now be purchased off-the-shelf.
In 1993, IBM adopted FlexOS 2.32 as the basis of their IBM 4690 OS in their 469x series of POS terminals. This was developed up to 2014 when it was sold to Toshiba, who continued to support it up to at least 2017.
As far as computers are concerned, off-the-shelf versions are usually newer and hence more powerful than proprietary POS terminals. Custom modifications are added as needed. Other products, like touchscreen tablets and laptops, are readily available in the market, and they are more portable than traditional POS terminals. The only advantage of the latter is that they are typically built to withstand rough handling and spillages; a benefit for food & beverage businesses.
The key requirements that must be met by modern POS systems include high and consistent operating speed, reliability, ease of use, remote supportability, low cost, and rich functionality. Retailers can reasonably expect to acquire such systems (including hardware) for about $4000 US (as of 2009) per checkout lane.
Reliability depends not wholly on the developer but at times on the compatibility between a database and an OS version. For example, the widely used Microsoft Access database system had a compatibility issue when Windows XP machines were updated to a newer version of Windows. Microsoft offered no immediate solution. Some businesses were severely disrupted in the process, and many downgraded back to Windows XP for a quick resolution. Other companies utilized community support, for a registry tweak solution has been found for this.
POS systems are one of the most complex software systems available because of the features that are required by different end-users. Many POS systems are software suites that include sale, inventory, stock counting, vendor ordering, customer loyalty and reporting modules. Sometimes purchase ordering, stock transferring, quotation issuing, barcode creating, bookkeeping or even accounting capabilities are included. Furthermore, each of these modules is interlinked if they are to serve their practical purpose and maximize their usability.
For instance, the sale window is immediately updated on a new member entry through the membership window because of this interlinking. Similarly, when a sale transaction is made, any purchase by a member is on record for the membership window to report providing information like payment type, goods purchased, date of purchase and points accumulated. Comprehensive analysis performed by a POS machine may need to process several qualities about a single product, like selling price, balance, average cost, quantity sold, description and department. Highly complex programming is involved (and possibly considerable computer resources) to generate such extensive analyses.
POS systems are designed not only to serve the retail, wholesale and hospitality industries as historically is the case. Nowadays POS systems are also used in goods and property leasing businesses, equipment repair shops, healthcare management, ticketing offices such as cinemas and sports facilities and many other operations where capabilities such as the following are required: processing monetary transactions, allocation and scheduling of facilities, keeping record and scheduling services rendered to customers, tracking of goods and processes (repair or manufacture), invoicing and tracking of debts and outstanding payments.
Different customers have different expectations within each trade. The reporting functionality alone is subject to so many demands, especially from those in the retail/wholesale industry. To cite special requirements, some business's goods may include perishables and hence the inventory system must be capable of prompting the admin and cashier on expiring or expired products. Some retail businesses require the system to store credit for their customers, credit which can be used subsequently to pay for goods. A few companies even expect the POS system to behave like a full-fledged inventory management system, including the ability to provide even FIFO (First In First Out) and LIFO (Last In First Out), reports of their goods for accounting and tax purposes.
In the hospitality industry, POS system capabilities can also diverge significantly. For instance, while a restaurant is typically concerned about how the sale window functions, whether it has functionality such as for creating item buttons, for various discounts, for adding a service charge, for holding of receipts, for queuing, for table service as well as for takeaways, merging and splitting of a receipt, these capabilities may yet be insufficient for a spa or slimming center which would require in addition a scheduling window with historical records of customers' attendance and their special requirements.
A POS system can be made to serve different purposes to different end-users depending on their business processes. Quite often an off-the-shelf POS system is inadequate for customers; some customization is required, and this is why a POS system can become very complex. The complexity of a mature POS system even extends to remote networking or interlinking between remote outlets and the HQ such that updating both ways is possible. Some POS systems offer the linking of web-based orders to their sale window. Even when local networking is only required (as in the case of a high-traffic supermarket), there is the ever-present challenge for the developer to keep most if not all of their POS stations running. This puts high demand not just on software coding but also designing the whole system covering how individual stations and the network work together, and special consideration for the performance capability and usage of databases. Due to such complexity, bugs and errors encountered in POS systems are frequent.
With regards to databases, POS systems are very demanding on their performance because of numerous submissions and retrievals of data - required for correct sequencing the receipt number, checking up on various discounts, membership, calculating subtotal, so forth - just to process a single sale transaction. The immediacy required of the system on the sale window such as may be observed at a checkout counter in a supermarket also cannot be compromised. This places much stress on individual enterprise databases if there are just several tens of thousands of sale records in the database. Enterprise database Microsoft SQL Server, for example, has been known to freeze up (including the OS) entirely for many minutes under such conditions showing a "Timeout Expired" error message. Even a lighter database like Microsoft Access will slow to a crawl over time if the problem of database bloating is not foreseen and managed by the system automatically. Therefore, the need to do extensive testing, debugging and improvisation of solutions to preempt failure of a database before commercialization further complicates the development.
POS system accuracy is demanding, given that monetary transactions are involved continuously not only via the sale window but also at the back-end through the receiving and inputting of goods into the inventory. Calculations required are not always straightforward. There may be many discounts and deals that are unique to specific products, and the POS machine must quickly process the differences and the effect on pricing. There is much complexity in the programming of such operations, especially when no error in calculation can be allowed.
Other requirements include that the system must have functionality for membership discount and points accumulation/usage, quantity and promotional discounts, mix and match offers, cash rounding up, invoice/delivery-order issuance with outstanding amount. It should enable a user to adjust the inventory of each product based on physical count, track expiry of perishable goods, change pricing, provide audit trail when modification of inventory records is performed, be capable of multiple outlet functionality, control of stocks from HQ, doubling as an invoicing system, just to name some.
It is clear that POS system is a term that implies a wide range of capabilities depending on the end-user requirements. POS system review websites cannot be expected to cover most let alone all the features; in fact, unless one is a developer himself, it is unrealistic to expect the reviewer to know all the nuts and bolts of a POS system. For instance, a POS system might work smoothly on a test database during the review but not when the database grows significantly in size over months of usage. And this is only one among many hidden critical functionality issues of a POS system.
Hardware interface standardization (post-1980s)
Vendors and retailers are working to standardize development of computerized POS systems and simplify interconnecting POS devices. Two such initiatives were OPOS and JavaPOS, both of which conform to the UnifiedPOS standard led by The National Retail Foundation.
OPOS (OLE for POS) was the first commonly adopted standard and was created by Microsoft, NCR Corporation, Epson and Fujitsu-ICL. OPOS is a COM-based interface compatible with all COM-enabled programming languages for Microsoft Windows. OPOS was first released in 1996. JavaPOS was developed by Sun Microsystems, IBM, and NCR Corporation in 1997 and first released in 1999. JavaPOS is for Java what OPOS is for Windows, and thus largely platform independent.
There are several communication ways POS systems use to control peripherals such as:
Logic Controls \ BemaTech
Epson Esc/POS
UTC Standard
UTC Enhanced
AEDEX
ICD 2002
Ultimate
CD 5220
DSP-800
ADM 787/788
HP
There are also nearly as many proprietary protocols as there are companies making POS peripherals. Most POS peripherals, such as displays and printers, support several of these command protocols in order to work with many different brands of POS terminals and computers.
User interface design
The design of the sale window is the most important one for the user. This user interface is highly critical when compared to those in other software packages such as word editors or spreadsheet programs where the speed of navigation is not so crucial for business performance.
For businesses at prime locations where real estate comes at a premium, it can be common to see a queue of customers. The faster a sale is completed the shorter the queue time which improves customer satisfaction, and the less space it takes, which benefits shoppers and staff. High-traffic operations such as grocery outlets and cafes need to process sales quickly at the sales counter so the UI flow is often designed with as few popups or other interruptions to ensure the operator isn't distracted and the transaction can be processed as quickly as possible.
Although improving the ergonomics is possible, a clean, fast-paced look may come at the expense of sacrificing functions that are often wanted by end-users such as discounts, access to commission earned screens, membership and loyalty schemes can involve looking at a different function of the POS to ensure the point of sale screen contains only what a cashier needs at their disposal to serve customers.
Cloud-based (post-2000s)
The advent of cloud computing has given birth to the possibility of electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems to be deployed as software as a service, which can be accessed directly from the Internet using any internet browser. Using the previous advances in the communication protocols for POS's control of hardware, cloud-based POS systems are independent from platform and operating system limitations. EPOS systems based in the cloud (most small-business POS today) are generally subscription-based, which includes ongoing customer support.
Compared to regular cash registers (which tend to be significantly cheaper but only process sales and prints receipts), POS systems include automatic updating of the inventory library stock levels when you sell products, real-time reports accessible from a remote computer, staff timesheets and a customer library with loyalty features.
Cloud-based POS systems are also created to be compatible with a wide range of POS hardware and sometimes tablets such as Apple's iPad. Thus cloud-based POS also helped expand POS systems to mobile devices, such as tablet computers or smartphones.
These devices can also act as barcode readers using a built-in camera and as payment terminals using built-in NFC technology or an external payment card reader. A number of POS companies built their software specifically to be cloud-based. Other businesses who launched pre-2000s have since adapted their software to evolving technology.
Cloud-based POS systems are different from traditional POS largely because user data, including sales and inventory, are not stored locally, but in a remote server. The POS system is also not run locally, so there is no installation required.
Depending on the POS vendor and the terms of contract, compared to traditional on-premises POS installation, the software is more likely to be continually updated by the developer with more useful features and better performance in terms of computer resources at the remote server and in terms of lesser bugs and errors.
Other advantages of a cloud-based POS are instant centralization of data (important especially to chain stores), ability to access data from anywhere there is internet connection, and lower start-up costs.
Cloud based POS requires an internet connection. For this reason it important to use a device with 3G connectivity in case the device's primary internet goes down. In addition to being significantly less expensive than traditional legacy point of sale systems, the real strength of a cloud based point of sale system is that there are developers all over the world creating software applications for cloud based POS. Cloud based POS systems are often described as future proof as new applications are constantly being conceived and built.
A number of noted emerging cloud-based POS systems came on the scene less than a decade or even half a decade back. These systems are usually designed for restaurants, small and medium-sized retail operations with fairly simple sale processes as can be culled from POS system review sites. It appears from such software reviews that enterprise-level cloud-based POS systems are currently lacking in the market. "Enterprise-level" here means that the inventory should be capable of handling a large number of records, such as required by grocery stores and supermarkets. It can also mean that the system—software and cloud server—must be capable of generating reports such as analytics of sale against inventory for both a single and multiple outlets that are interlinked for administration by the headquarters of the business operation.
POS vendors of such cloud based systems should also have a strong contingency plan for the breakdown of their remote server such as represented by fail-over server support. However, sometimes even a major data center can fail completely, such as in a fire. On-premises installations are therefore sometimes seen alongside cloud-based implementation to preempt such incidents, especially for businesses with very high traffic. However the on-premises installations may not have the most up-to-date inventory and membership information.
For such contingency, a more innovative though highly complex approach for the developer is to have a trimmed down version of the POS system installed on the cashier computer at the outlet. On a daily basis the latest inventory and membership information from the remote server is automatically updated into the local database. Thus should the remote server fail, the cashier can switch over to the local sale window without disrupting sales. When the remote server is restored and the cashier switches over to the cloud system, the locally processed sale records are then automatically submitted to the remote system, thus maintaining the integrity of the remote database.
Although cloud-based POS systems save the end-user startup cost and technical challenges in maintaining an otherwise on-premises installation, there is a risk that should the cloud-based vendor close down it may result in more immediate termination of services for the end-user compared to the case of a traditional full on-premises POS system where it can still run without the vendor.
Another consideration is that a cloud-based POS system actually exposes business data to service providers - the hosting service company and the POS vendor which have access to both the application and database. The importance of securing critical business information such as supplier names, top selling items, customer relationship processes cannot be underestimated given that sometimes the few key success factors or trade secrets of a business are actually accessible through the POS system. This security and privacy concern is an ongoing issue in cloud computing.
Retail industry
The retail industry is one of the predominant users of POS terminals. A retail point of sale system typically includes a cash register (which in recent times comprises a computer, monitor, cash drawer, receipt printer, customer display and a barcode scanner) and the majority of retail POS systems also include a debit/credit card reader. It can also include a conveyor belt, checkout divider, weight scale, integrated credit card processing system, a signature capture device and a customer pin pad device. While the system may include a keyboard and mouse, more and more POS monitors use touch-screen technology for ease of use, and a computer is built into the monitor chassis for what is referred to as an all-in-one unit. All-in-one POS units liberate counter space for the retailer. The POS system software can typically handle a myriad of customer based functions such as sales, returns, exchanges, layaways, gift cards, gift registries, customer loyalty programs, promotions, discounts and much more. POS software can also allow for functions such as pre-planned promotional sales, manufacturer coupon validation, foreign currency handling and multiple payment types.
The POS unit handles the sales to the consumer but it is only one part of the entire POS system used in a retail business. "Back-office" computers typically handle other functions of the POS system such as inventory control, purchasing, receiving and transferring of products to and from other locations. Other typical functions of a POS system are: store sales information for enabling customer returns, reporting purposes, sales trends and cost/price/profit analysis. Customer information may be stored for receivables management, marketing purposes and specific buying analysis. Many retail POS systems include an accounting interface that "feeds" sales and cost of goods information to independent accounting applications.
A multiple point of sale system used by big retailers like supermarkets and department stores has a far more demanding database and software architecture than that of a single station seen in small retail outlets. A supermarket with high traffic cannot afford a systemic failure, hence each point of sale station should not only be very robust both in terms of software, database and hardware specifications but also designed in such a way as to prevent causing a systemic failure - such as may happen through the use of a single central database for operations.
At the same time updating between multiple stations and the back end administrative computer should be capable of being efficiently performed, so that on one hand either at the start of the day or at any time each station will have the latest inventory to process all items for sale, while on the other hand at the end of the day the back end administrative computer can be updated in terms of all sale records.
This gets even more complicated when there is a membership system requiring real-time two-way updating of membership points between sale stations and the back end administrative computer.
Retail operations such as hardware stores (lumber yards), electronic stores and so-called multifaceted superstores need specialized additional features compared to other stores. POS software in these cases handles special orders, purchase orders, repair orders, service and rental programs as well as typical point of sale functions. Rugged hardware is required for point of sale systems used in outdoor environments. Wireless devices, battery powered devices, all-in-one units, and Internet-ready machines are typical in this industry.
Recently new applications have been introduced, enabling POS transactions to be conducted using mobile phones and tablets. According to a recent study, mobile POS (mPOS) terminals are expected to replace the contemporary payment techniques because of various features including mobility, upfront low cost investment and better user experience.
In the mid-2000s, the blind community in the United States engaged in structured negotiations to ensure that retail point of sale devices had tactile keypads. Without keys that can be felt, a blind person cannot independently enter her or his PIN. In the mid-2000s retailers began using "flat screen" or "signature capture" devices that eliminated tactile keypads. Blind people were forced to share their confidential PIN with store clerks in order to use their debit and other PIN-based cards. The blind community reached agreement with Walmart, Target, CVS and eight other retailers that required real keys so blind people could use the devices.
Physical configuration
Early stores typically kept merchandise behind a counter. Staff would fetch items for customers to prevent the opportunity for theft and sales would be made at the same counter. Self-service grocery stores such as Piggly Wiggly, beginning in 1916, allowed customers to fetch their own items and pass the point of sale on the way to the exit.
Many stores have a number of checkout stations. Some stations may have an automated cashier (self-checkout). Express lanes might limit the type of payment, or number or type of goods, to expedite service. If each checkout station has a separate queue, customers have to guess which line will move the fastest, to minimize their wait times; they are often frustrated to be wrong or be stuck behind another customer who encounters a problem or who takes a long time to check out. Some stores use a single, much longer but faster-moving line, that is served by multiple registers, which produces the same average wait time, but reduces the frustration and variance in wait time from person to person. Regardless of the configuration, checkout lines usually pass by impulse buy items to grab the attention of otherwise idle customers.
Hospitality industry
Hospitality point of sale systems are computerized systems incorporating registers, computers and peripheral equipment, usually on a computer network to be used in restaurants, hair salons or hotels. Like other point of sale systems, these systems keep track of sales, labor and payroll, and can generate records used in accounting and bookkeeping. They may be accessed remotely by restaurant corporate offices, troubleshooters and other authorized parties.
Point of sale systems have revolutionized the restaurant industry, particularly in the fast food sector. In the most recent technologies, registers are computers, sometimes with touch screens. The registers connect to a server, often referred to as a "store controller" or a "central control unit". Printers and monitors are also found on the network. Additionally, remote servers can connect to store networks and monitor sales and other store data.
Typical restaurant POS software is able to create and print guest checks, print orders to kitchens and bars for preparation, process credit cards and other payment cards, and run reports. In addition, some systems implement wireless pagers and electronic signature-capture devices.
In the fast food industry, displays may be at the front counter, or configured for drive-through or walk-through cashiering and order taking. Front counter registers allow taking and serving orders at the same terminal, while drive-through registers allow orders to be taken at one or more drive-through windows, to be cashiered and served at another. In addition to registers, drive-through and kitchen displays are used to view orders. Once orders appear they may be deleted or recalled by the touch interface or by bump bars. Drive-through systems are often enhanced by the use of drive-through wireless (or headset) intercoms. The efficiency of such systems has decreased service times and increased efficiency of orders.
Another innovation in technology for the restaurant industry is wireless POS. Many restaurants with high volume use wireless handheld POS to collect orders which are sent to a server. The server sends required information to the kitchen in real time. Wireless systems consist of drive-through microphones and speakers (often one speaker will serve both purposes), which are wired to a "base station" or "center module." This, in turn, will broadcast to headsets. Headsets may be an all-in-one headset or one connected to a belt pack.
In hotels, POS software allows for transfer of meal charges from dining room to guest room with a button or two. It may also need to be integrated with property management software.
Newer, more sophisticated systems are getting away from the central database "file server" type system and going to what is called a "cluster database". This eliminates any crashing or system downtime that can be associated with the back office file server. This technology allows 100% of the information to not only be stored, but also pulled from the local terminal, thus eliminating the need to rely on a separate server for the system to operate.
Tablet POS systems popular for retail solutions are now available for the restaurant industry. Initially these systems were not sophisticated and many of the early systems did not support a remote printer in the kitchen. Tablet systems today are being used in all types of restaurants including table service operations. Most tablet systems upload all information to the Internet so managers and owners can view reports from anywhere with a password and Internet connection. Smartphone Internet access has made alerts and reports from the POS very accessible. Tablets have helped create the Mobile POS system, and Mobile POS applications also include payments, loyalty, online ordering, table side ordering by staff and table top ordering by customers. Regarding the payments, mobile POS can accept all kinds of payment methods from contactless cards, EMV chip-enabled cards, and mobile NFC enabled cards. Mobile POS (AKA mPOS) is growing quickly with new developers entering the market almost on a daily basis.
With the proliferation of low-priced touchscreen tablet computers, more and more restaurants have implemented self-ordering through tablet POS placed permanently on every table. Customers can browse through the menu on the tablet and place their orders which are then sent to the kitchen. Most restaurants that have iPad self-order menus include photos of the dishes so guests can easily choose what they want to order. This apparently improves service and saves manpower on the part of the restaurant. However this depends on how intelligently the system has been programmed to be.
As a case in point, some self-ordering systems not requiring staff assistance may not properly recognize a subsequent order from the same customer at a table. As a result, the customer is left waiting and wondering why his second order of food and drink is not being served.
Another example of how intelligent the system can be, is whether an order that has been placed but not yet been processed by the kitchen can be modified by the customer through the tablet POS. For such an unprocessed order the customer should be given the option to easily retrieve his order and modify it on the tablet POS. But when his order is being processed this function should then be automatically disabled.
Self-ordering systems are not always free completely from intervention by the staff and for some good reasons. For example, some restaurants require that items selected by the customers be attended to and can only be placed by the waiter who has the password required to do so. This prevents fake orders - such as may be entered by playful kids - and subsequent dispute on the items ordered. If alcoholic drinks are ordered, it also becomes necessary for the waiter to first verify the age of the customer before sending the order.
The technical specifications for implementing such self-ordering system are more demanding than a single cashier-controlled POS station. On the software and hardware side each tablet on a customer table has to be networked to the cashier POS station and the kitchen computer so that both are continually updated on orders placed. The common database that serves this network must also be capable of serving many concurrent users - cashier, customers, kitchen and perhaps even a drink bar.
It is therefore to be noted by developers that some databases like popularly used Microsoft Access may have the specifications that it is capable of usage by multiple concurrent users. However under the stress of a POS system, they can fail miserably resulting in constant errors and corruption of data.
POS systems are often designed for a variety of clients, and can be programmed by the end users to suit their needs. Some large clients write their own specifications for vendors to implement. In some cases, POS systems are sold and supported by third-party distributors, while in other cases they are sold and supported directly by the vendor.
The selection of a restaurant POS system is critical to the restaurant's daily operation and is a major investment that the restaurant's management and staff must live with for many years. The restaurant POS system interfaces with all phases of the restaurant operation and with everyone that is involved with the restaurant including guests, suppliers, employees, managers and owners. The selection of a restaurant POS system is a complex process that should be undertaken by the restaurant owner and not delegated to an employee. The purchase process can be summarized into three steps: Design, Compare and Negotiate. The Design step requires research to determine which restaurant POS features are needed for the restaurant operation. With this information the restaurant owner or manager can Compare various restaurant POS solutions to determine which POS systems meet their requirements. The final step is to Negotiate the price, payment terms, included training, initial warranty and ongoing support costs.
Accounting forensics
POS systems record sales for business and tax purposes. Illegal software dubbed "zappers" can be used on POS devices to falsify these records with a view to evading the payment of taxes.
In some countries, legislation is being introduced to make cash register systems more secure. For example, the French treasury is estimated to be failing to collect approximately €14 billion of VAT revenue each year. The Finance Bill of 2016 is intended to address some of this loss by making it compulsory for taxpayers to operate on “secure systems”. Therefore, from 1 January 2018, all retail businesses in France are required to record customer payments using certified secure accounting software or cash register systems.
A certified cash register system must provide for the (i) incommutable, (ii) security and (iii) storage and archiving of data. All businesses required to comply must obtain a certificate from the cash register system provider which certifies that the system meets these requirements. This is because VAT taxpayers may need to provide a certificate to the tax authorities showing that their cash management system fulfills the new requirements.
If the business cannot provide this certificate to the tax authorities, they may be fined. And, if the tax authorities can demonstrate fraudulent use of the system, both the business and the software provider can face tax penalties, fines, and criminal sanctions. Certification can be obtained either from: a body accredited by the French Accreditation Committee (Comité français d’accréditation or COFRAC) or the software provider of the cash register system.
Security
Despite the more advanced technology of a POS system as compared to a simple cash register, the POS system is still as vulnerable to employee theft through the sale window. A dishonest cashier at a retail outlet can collude with a friend who pretends to be just another customer. During checkout, the cashier can bypass scanning certain items or enter a lower quantity for some items thus profiting thereby from the "free" goods.
The ability of a POS system to void a closed sale receipt for refund purpose without needing a password from an authorized superior also represents a security loophole. Even a function to issue a receipt with a negative amount which can be useful under certain circumstances, can be exploited by a cashier to easily lift money from the cash drawer.
In order to prevent such employee theft, it is crucial for a POS system to provide an admin window for the boss or administrator to generate and inspect a daily list of sale receipts, especially pertaining to the frequency of cancelled receipts before completion, refunded receipts and negative receipts. This is one effective way to alert the company to any suspicious activity - such as a high number of cancelled sales by a certain cashier - that may be going on and to take monitoring action.
To further deter employee theft, the sale counter should also be equipped with a closed-circuit television camera pointed at the POS system to monitor and record all the activities.
At the back end, price and other changes like discounts to inventory items through the administration module should also be secured with passwords provided only to trusted administrators. Any changes made should also be logged and capable of being subsequently retrieved for inspection.
The sale records and inventory are highly important to the business because they provide very useful information to the company in terms of customer preferences, customer membership particulars, what are the top selling products, who are the vendors and what margins the company is getting from them, the company monthly total revenue and cost, just to name some.
It is therefore important that reports on these matters generated at the administrative back end be restricted only to trusted personnel. The database from which these reports are generated should also be secured via passwords or via encryption of data stored in the database so as to prevent them from being copied or tampered with.
Despite all such precautions and more, the POS system can never be entirely watertight in security from internal misuse if a clever but dishonest employee knows how to exploit many of its otherwise useful capabilities.
News reports on POS system hacking show that hackers are more interested in stealing credit card information than anything else. The ease and advantage offered by the ability of a POS system to integrate credit card processing thus have a downside. In 2011, hackers were able to steal credit card data from 80,000 customers because Subway's security and POS configuration standards for PCI compliance - which governs credit card and debit card payment systems security - were "directly and blatantly disregarded" by Subway franchisees.
In June 2016, several hundred of Wendy's fast food restaurants had their POS systems hacked by an illegally installed malware. The report goes on to say that "the number of franchise restaurants impacted by these cyber security attacks is now expected to be considerably higher than the 300 restaurants already implicated" and that the "hackers made hundreds of thousands of fraudulent purchases on credit and debit cards issued by various financial institutions after breaching Wendy's computer systems late last year".
Again, these exploits by hackers could only be made possible because payment cards were processed through the POS system allowing the malware to either intercept card data during processing or steal and transmit unencrypted card data that is stored in the system database.
In April 2017, security researchers identified critical vulnerabilities in point of sale systems developed by SAP and Oracle and commented, “POS systems are plagued by vulnerabilities, and incidents occurred because their security drawbacks came under the spotlight.” If successfully exploited, these vulnerabilities provide a perpetrator with access to every legitimate function of the system, such as changing prices, and remotely starting and stopping terminals. To illustrate the attack vector, the researchers used the example of hacking POS to change the price of a MacBook to $1. The security issues were reported to the vendor, and a patch was released soon after the notification. Oracle confirmed security bug affects over 300,000 Oracle POS Systems
In some countries, credit and debit cards are only processed via payment terminals. Thus one may see quite a number of such terminals for different cards cluttering up a sale counter. This inconvenience is however offset by the fact that credit and debit card data is far less vulnerable to hackers, unlike when payment cards are processed through the POS system where security is contingent upon the actions taken by end-users and developers.
With the launch of mobile payment particularly Android Pay and Apple Pay both in 2015, it is expected that because of its greater convenience coupled with good security features, this would eventually eclipse other types of payment services - including the use of payment terminals. However，for mobile payment to go fully mainstream, mobile devices like smartphones that are NFC-enabled must first become universal. This would be a matter of several years from the time of this writing (2017) as more and more models of new smartphones are expected to become NFC-enabled for such a purpose. For instance, iPhone 6 is fully NFC-enabled for mobile payment while iPhone 5 and older models are not. The aforesaid disastrous security risks connected with processing payment card usage through a POS system would then be greatly diminished.
See also
EFTPOS
ISO 8583
JavaPOS
Point of sale companies category
Comparison of shopping cart software: may or may not work together with EPOS software
Point of sale display
Point of Sale Malware
Payment terminal
POSXML
Self checkout
Standard Interchange Language
UnifiedPOS
Back-office Software
Windows Embedded Industry (formerly Windows Embedded POSReady), an operating system largely used on POS machines
References
External links
Retail store elements
Payment systems
Retail point of sale systems
American inventions
20th-century inventions | [
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220635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadaharu%20Oh | Sadaharu Oh | Sadaharu Oh (Japanese: , Ō Sadaharu; born May 20, 1940), also known as Wang Chen-chih (), is a Japanese-born former baseball player and manager in Japan. Oh holds the world lifetime home run record, having hit 868 home runs during his professional career. He established many NPB batting records, including runs batted in (RBIs) (2,170), slugging percentage (.634), bases on balls (2,390), and on-base plus slugging percentage (OPS) (1.080). In 1977, Oh became the first recipient of the People's Honour Award. He was inducted into the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame in 1994.
Oh batted and threw left-handed and primarily played first base. Originally signed with the powerhouse Yomiuri Giants in 1959 as a pitcher, Oh was soon converted to a full-time hitter. Under the tutelage of coach Hiroshi Arakawa, Oh developed his distinctive "flamingo" leg kick. It took Oh three years to blossom, but he went on to dominate the baseball league in Japan. He was a 15-time home run champion and was named to the All-Star team 18 times. More than just a power hitter, Oh was a five-time batting champion and won the Japanese Central League's batting triple crown twice. With Oh at first base, the Yomiuri Giants won 11 Japan Series championships. Oh was named the Central League's Most Valuable Player nine times. In addition to the world career home run record, he held Japan's single-season home run record with 55, until Wladimir Balentien broke the record in 2013.
Oh played his entire professional career with the Giants and was their manager from 1984 to 1988. He also managed the Fukuoka Daiei/Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks from 1995 to 2008. He was the manager of the Japanese national team in the inaugural World Baseball Classic. The Japanese team defeated the Cuban national team for the championship. He is currently the chairman of the Hawks.
Early life
Oh was born in Sumida, Tokyo, the son of a Japanese mother Tomi Oh (née Tozumi) and a Chinese father (王仕福 Wáng Shìfú) from Tsingtien County (Qingtian County), Chekiang (Zhejiang). Although born in Japan, Oh holds the citizenship of the Republic of China (ROC), as his father had left for Japan when the ROC still governed Mainland China and chose to retain his ROC citizenship.
Playing career
Prep career
Oh managed to make the High School Team. In 1957, made it to the Spring Koshien Tournament with the second-year Oh as its ace pitcher. Before the tournament started, Oh suffered serious blisters on two fingers of his pitching hand. Oh pitched the entire first game at Koshien and won. The next day, Oh pitched another complete game and earned the victory, but the blisters worsened. Oh faced the prospect of pitching two more games—on back-to-back days—for the championship with injuries. Oh pitched and won another complete game, enduring the pain.
Oh was able to just make it through his fourth complete game in four days, squeaking out a one-run victory. Oh won the championship, though was not allowed to play in the Kokutai due to home being Chinese.
Professional career
In 1959, he signed his first professional contract as a pitcher for the Yomiuri Giants. However, Oh was not a strong enough pitcher to succeed professionally and soon switched to first base, working diligently with coach Hiroshi Arakawa to improve his hitting skills. This led to the development of Oh's distinctive "flamingo" leg kick. His batting average jumped from .161 in his rookie season to .270 in 1960, and his home runs more than doubled. His performance dipped slightly in both statistical categories in 1961, but Oh truly blossomed in 1962, when he hit 38 home runs.
In 1964, Oh hit 55 home runs, a single-season record he owned for 38 years until it was tied by Alex Cabrera in 2002. Oh surpassed 50 home runs in a season two other times, in 1973 and 1977.
Oh became friends with Hank Aaron, his contemporary in Major League Baseball. The two squared off in a home run derby before an exhibition game at Korakuen Stadium on 2 November 1974, after Aaron eclipsed Babe Ruth's home run record. By that time, Oh was running away with the Japanese home run record, having become the first Japanese baseball player to hit 600 career home runs that year. Aaron won, 10-9.
His hitting exploits benefited from the fact that for most of his career he batted third in the Giants' lineup, with another very dangerous hitter, Shigeo Nagashima, batting fourth; the two players forming the feared "O-N Cannon". In his autobiography, Sadaharu Oh: A Zen Way Of Baseball (), Oh said he and Nagashima were not close, rarely spending time together off the field.
Sadaharu Oh retired in 1980 at age 40, having amassed 2,786 hits (third after Isao Harimoto (Jang Hoon) and Katsuya Nomura), 2,170 RBIs, a lifetime batting average of .301, and 868 home runs.
Managing career
Sadaharu Oh was the assistant manager of the Yomiuri Giants between 1981 and 1983. He became the manager of the Yomiuri Giants between 1984 and 1988. He led the Giants to one Central League pennant in 1987. He was asked to retire as Giants manager after the 1988 season.
In 1995, he returned to baseball as the manager of the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks (later the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks). Oh led the Hawks to three Pacific League pennants in 1999, 2000 and 2003, and two Japan Series titles in 1999 and 2003.
In 2006, Oh managed the Japan national baseball team, winning the championship in the inaugural 2006 World Baseball Classic over Cuba.
On July 5, Oh announced that he was taking an indefinite leave of absence from the Hawks to combat a stomach tumor. On July 17, 2006, Oh underwent laparoscopic surgery to remove his stomach and its surrounding lymph nodes. The surgery was considered to be a success. Although the tumor was confirmed to be cancerous, it was caught in early stages. He returned to coaching the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, although he announced he would retire at the end of the 2008 season as manager (but remain as Hawks' GM). He retired as a manager in 2008.
Home run record controversy
On three occasions, foreign-born players challenged Oh's single-season home run record of 55 and faced Oh-managed teams late in the season. On each occasion, Oh's pitchers refused to throw strikes to them.
In 1985, American Randy Bass, playing for the Hanshin Tigers, came into the last game of the season against the Oh-managed Giants with 54 home runs. Bass was intentionally walked four times on four straight pitches each time. Bass reached over the plate on the fifth occasion and batted the ball into the outfield for a single. After the game, Oh denied ordering his pitchers to walk Bass, but Keith Comstock, an American pitcher for the Giants, later stated that an unnamed Giants coach had threatened a fine of $1,000 for every strike that any Giants pitcher threw to Bass. The magazine Takarajima investigated the incident and reported that the Giants front office had likely ordered the team not to allow Bass an opportunity to tie or break Oh's record. For the most part, the Japanese media remained silent on the incident, as did league commissioner Takeso Shimoda.
In 2001, American Karl "Tuffy" Rhodes, playing for the Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes, hit 55 home runs with several games left. The Buffaloes played the Oh-managed Fukuoka Daiei Hawks on a late weekend series in Fukuoka. Rhodes was intentionally walked during each at-bat. Hawks catcher Kenji Johjima could be seen grinning as he caught the intentional balls. Again, Oh denied any involvement and Hawks pitching coach Yoshiharu Wakana stated that the pitchers acted on his orders, saying, "I just didn't want a foreign player to break Oh's record." Rhodes completed the season with 55 home runs. Hawks pitcher Keisaburo Tanoue went on record saying that he wanted to throw strikes to Rhodes and felt bad about the situation.
In 2002, Venezuelan Alex Cabrera hit 55 home runs with five games left in the season and his team played Oh's Hawks. Oh told his pitchers to throw strikes to Cabrera, but most of them ignored his order and threw balls well away from the plate. After the game, Oh stated, "If you're going to break the record, you should do it by more than one. Do it by a lot." In the wake of the most recent incident involving Cabrera, ESPN listed Oh's single-season home run record on its list of "The Phoniest Records in Sports".
Wladimir Balentien, a Curaçaoan born player, broke Oh's home run record on September 15, 2013, by hitting his 56th and 57th home runs of the season in a game against the Hanshin Tigers. Balentien ended that season with 60 home runs.
Personal life
Oh was married to , and had three daughters with her. Kyoko died of stomach cancer in December 2001 at age 57, the same illness he had in 2006. Their second daughter, Rie (born in 1970), is a sportscaster and presenter on the J-Wave radio network.
In popular culture
Oh is mentioned in the Beastie Boys song "Hey Ladies": "I got more hits than Sadaharu Oh."
Oh is Mentioned in A Different World season 2 episode 20, "No means No".
A character in the manga series Kinnikuman is named after Sadaharu Oh.
Oh is mentioned in the manga series Hajime no Ippo.
Miscellaneous
In 1988, Oh and Hank Aaron created the World Children's Baseball Fair (WCBF), to increase the popularity of baseball by working with youngsters.
On December 4, 2007, Oh said in Chiyoda, Tokyo that it is just a matter of time before his career record of 868 home runs will be broken: "I think the 868 record will be broken. There's nobody near that mark in Japan, but I think Alex Rodriguez can do it", he added. "He has the ability to hit 1,000." (Rodriguez retired seven years later, at the age of 41, with 696 home runs.)
In 2002 and 2005, he was named by President Chen Shui-bian of Taiwan as Ambassador-at-Large of the Republic of China.
President Ma Ying-Jeou honored Sadaharu Oh with the "Order of Brilliant Star" on February 5, 2009, in Taipei. Oh called receiving the award, "The highest honor of his life."
During the 2009 World Baseball Classic, Oh attended many of the games played by Japan.
During the 2020 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo (which took place in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), he was a part of a group that carried the torch in the stadium.
Statistics
References
External links
Oh for Cooperstown? Part I by Jim Albright
Oh for Cooperstown? Part II by Jim Albright
1940 births
Living people
Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks managers
Nippon Professional Baseball first basemen
Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
People's Honour Award winners
Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Tokyo
World Baseball Classic managers
Yomiuri Giants managers
Yomiuri Giants players
Japanese people of Chinese descent | [
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220636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal%20suffrage | Universal suffrage | Universal suffrage (also called universal franchise, general suffrage, and common suffrage of the common man) gives the right to vote to all adult citizens, regardless of wealth, income, gender, social status, race, ethnicity, political stance, or any other restriction, subject only to relatively minor exceptions. In its original 19th-century usage by reformers in Britain, universal suffrage was understood to mean only universal manhood suffrage; the vote was extended to women later, during the women's suffrage movement that began in New Zealand in the 19th century.
There are variations among countries in terms of specifics of the right to vote; the minimum age is usually between 18 and 25 years (see voting age) and "the insane, certain classes of convicted criminals, and those punished for certain electoral offenses" sometimes lack the right to vote.
In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the male population. In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time. The 19th century saw many movements advocating "universal [male] suffrage", most notably in Europe, Great Britain and North America. Female suffrage was largely ignored until the latter half of the century, when movements began to thrive; the first of these was in New Zealand, in which all adult women of all ethnicities gained the right to vote in 1893. From there, the movement for true universal suffrage spread across British colonies and beyond, although often voting rights were limited to those of the dominant ethnicity (in the western world these were white people).
In the United States, after the principle of "one man, one vote" was established in the early 1960s by U.S. Supreme Court under Earl Warren, the U.S. Congress together with the Warren Court continued to protect and expand the voting rights of all Americans, especially African Americans, through the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965 and several Supreme Court rulings. In addition, the term "suffrage" is also associated specifically with women's suffrage in the United States; a movement to extend the franchise to women began in the mid-19th century and culminated in 1920, when the United States ratified the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing the right of women to vote.
Expanding suffrage
France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, though it was never formally used in practice (the constitution was immediately suspended before being implemented, and the subsequent election occurred in 1795 after the fall of the Jacobin government in 1794 discredited most ideas associated with them, including that constitution). Elsewhere in the Francophone world, the Republic of Haiti legislated for universal male suffrage in 1816. The Second French Republic instituted adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848.
Following the French revolutions, movements in the Western world toward universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In 1867 Germany (the North German Confederation) enacted suffrage for all adult males. In the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males (although several states established restrictions largely, though not completely, diminishing these rights). In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement came to include the extension of the right to vote to women, as happened from the post-Civil War era in several Western states and during the 1890s in a number of British colonies.
On 19 September 1893 the British Governor of New Zealand, Lord Glasgow, gave assent to a new electoral act, which meant that New Zealand became the first British-controlled colony in which women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections. This was followed shortly after by the colony of South Australia in 1894, which was the second to allow women to vote, but the first colony to permit women to stand for election as well. Twelve years later, the autonomous Russian territory known as Grand Duchy of Finland (which became the Republic of Finland in 1917) became the first territory in the world to implement unrestricted universal suffrage, as women could stand as candidates, unlike in New Zealand, and without indigenous ethnic exclusion, like in Australia. It also lead to the election of the world's first female members of parliament the following year. Federal states and colonial or autonomous territories prior to World War I have multiple examples of early introduction of universal suffrage. However, these legal changes were effected with the permission of the British, Russian or other government bodies, which were considered the sovereign nation at the time. For this reason, Australia (1901), New Zealand (1908) and Finland (1917) all have different dates of achieving independent nationhood.
The First French Republic adopted universal male suffrage briefly in 1792; it was one of the first national systems that abolished all property requirements as a prerequisite for allowing men to register and vote. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1844. Spain recognized it in the Constitution of 1869 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution (for resident male citizens). Upon independence in the 19th century, several Latin-American countries and Liberia in Africa initially extended suffrage to all adult males, but subsequently restricted it based on property requirements. The German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871.
In the United States, the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870 during the Reconstruction era, provided that "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment aimed to guarantee the right to vote to African Americans, many of whom had been enslaved in the South prior to the end (1865) of the American Civil War and the 1864–1865 abolition of slavery. Despite the amendment, however, blacks were disfranchised in the former Confederate states after 1877; Southern officials ignored the amendment and blocked black citizens from voting through a variety of devices, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses; violence and terrorism were used to intimidate some would-be voters. Southern blacks did not effectively receive the right to vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
In 1893 the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote. It did not grant universal full suffrage (the right to both vote and be a candidate, or both active and passive suffrage) until 1919.
In 1902 the Commonwealth of Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, i.e. the rights both to vote and to run for office. However, Australia did not implement universal suffrage at this time – Aboriginal Australians did not get the right to vote until 1962.
Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal process, or their status as independent nations, interrupted during and after the First World War of 1914–1918.
Many societies in the past have denied or abridged political representation on the basis of race or ethnicity, related to discriminatory ideas about citizenship. For example, in apartheid-era South Africa, non-white people could generally not vote in national elections until the first multi-party elections in 1994 (except under the Cape Qualified Franchise, which was replaced by a number of separate MPs in 1936 (Blacks) and 1958 (Coloureds), later by the Tricameral Parliament). Rhodesia enacted a similar statute in its proclaimed independence of 1965, which however allowed a smaller number of representatives for the considerably larger Black majority (under its 1961 constitution, the voting classes had been based on socio-economic standards, which marginalized most Black and a few White voters to a separate set of constituencies, under the principle of weighted voting; this was replaced in 1969 by an openly racial franchise, with delegated all Blacks to the 'B' voters roll).
Dates by country
States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times. This list can be organised in three ways:
Universal There are no distinctions between voters over a certain age in any part of its territories due to gender, literacy, wealth, social status, religion, race, or ethnicity.
Male is for all males over a certain age in the majority ethnic or sectarian group irrespective of literacy, wealth, or social status.
Female is for when all women over a certain age can vote on the same terms as men
Ethnicity is for when all eligible voters over a certain age can vote on the same terms as the majority or politically dominant group irrespective of religion, race, or ethnicity.
Since historically one group or another might have lost suffrage rights only to regain them later on, this table lists the last uninterrupted time from the present a group was granted the right to vote if that group's suffrage has been fully restored.
Women's suffrage
In Sweden–Finland, women's suffrage was granted during the Age of Liberty from 1718 until 1772.
In Corsica, women's suffrage was granted in 1755 and lasted until 1769.
Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men" in the 1776 Constitution) and rescinded in 1807.
The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the later half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.
The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand in 1893. The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893. Māori men had been granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879. The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.
South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.
The autonomous Grand Principality of Finland, a decade before becoming the republic of Finland, was the first country in the world to implement full universal suffrage, by giving women full political rights, i.e. both the right to vote and to run for office, and was the second in the world and the first in Europe to give women the right to vote. The world's first female members of parliament were elected in Finland the following year, 1907.
In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected.
During a discussion on extending women's right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church, they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.
Youth suffrage, children's suffrage, and suffrage in school
The movement to lower the voting age is one aspect of the youth rights movement. Organizations such as the National Youth Rights Association are active in the United States to advocate for a lower voting age, with some success, among other issues related to youth rights.
Democratic schools practice and support universal suffrage in school, which allows a vote to every member of the school, including students and staff. Such schools hold that this feature is essential for students to be ready to move into society at large.
See also
Democracy Index
Equality before the law
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
One man, one vote
Suffragette
Timeline of women's suffrage
Umbrella Movement
2014 Hong Kong protests
Notes
References
Further reading
Duong, Kevin (2020). "What Was Universal Suffrage?". Theory & Event. 23 (1): 29–65.
External links
Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832 reforms
Finnish centennial celebration
"Have you heard the news?", a pamphlet published by an anonymous English freeman in 1835
An address to the middle and working classes engaged in trade and manufactures throughout the empire on the necessity of union at the present crisis (1842) by Richard Gardner
Suffrage
Equality rights
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220637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Battista%20Cipriani | Giovanni Battista Cipriani | Giovanni Battista Cipriani (1727 – 14 December 1785) was an Italian painter and engraver, who lived in England from 1755. He is also called Giuseppe Cipriani by some authors. Much of his work consisted of designs for prints, many of which were engraved by his friend Francesco Bartolozzi.
Life
Cipriani was born in Florence. His family were originally from Pistoia. He first studied with Ignatius Hugford, a Florentine artist of English descent, and then under Anton Domenico Gabbiani. He spent the years 1750–53 in Rome, where he became acquainted with the architect, Sir William Chambers, and the sculptor, Joseph Wilton whom he accompanied to England in August 1755.
He had already painted two pictures, a St Tesauro and St Peter Igneo for the abbey of San Michele in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him a favorable reputation. He also painted one of the canvases of the organ of the church of Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi in Florence and the main altarpiece of the church of the Oratory of Gesù Pellegrino outside of the Porta San Gallo.
On his arrival to England he was patronized by Lord Tilney, the Duke of Richmond and other noblemen. When William Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland, Cipriani painted a ceiling. He also painted part of a ceiling in Buckingham House, and a room with poetical subjects at Standlynch in Wiltshire.
At Somerset House, also built by his friend Chambers, he prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, including the rooms into which the Royal Academy moved in 1750, which now houses the Courtauld Gallery The central panel of the Royal Academy's ante-room was painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds but the four compartments in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History, were Cipriani's. In the same building he also painted the monochrome decorations in the joint ante-room of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies.
According to Joseph Baretti in his Guide through the Royal Academy (1780), "the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of Somerset Place — excepting Bacon's bronze figures — were carved from finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors leading into the wings of the north block, all believed to have been carved by Joseph Nollekens. The grotesque groups flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle and the central doorway on the terrace also appear to have been designed by Cipriani.
Cipriani was a founder member (1768) of the Royal Academy, and designed its diploma, which was engraved by Francesco Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the members presented him with a silver cup with a commemorative inscription in 1769. He was much employed by publishers, for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Cipriani made some engravings, including "The Death of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the Holy Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Thomas Hollis's memoirs, 1780. He painted allegorical designs for the Gold State Coach and the Lord Mayor's Gold Coach, built in 1762 and 1757 respectively in 1782, and repaired Verrio's paintings at Windsor and Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting House at Whitehall.
He also decorated furniture. He designed many groups, of nymphs and amorini and medallion subjects to form the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture which was growing popular in his later days and by the end of the 18th century became a rage. These designs were sometimes inlaid in marquetry, but more usually painted onto the wood by other hands. Some of the furniture designed by the Adams was probably painted by Cipriani himself. He also occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors.
Cipriani died in Hammersmith in west London, and was buried at Dovehouse Green, Chelsea, where Bartolozzi erected a monument to his memory. He had married an Englishwoman, by whom he had two sons.
Among his pupils were John Alexander Gresse (1741–1794); Charles Grignion the Younger (1754–1804); and Mauritius Lowe (1746–1793).
References
Attribution
External links
1727 births
1785 deaths
Italian emigrants to the Kingdom of Great Britain
Italian engravers
18th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Florence
Rococo painters
Royal Academicians | [
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220639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Phillips | Thomas Phillips | Thomas Phillips RA (18 October 177020 April 1845) was a leading English portrait and subject painter. He painted many of the great men of the day including scientists, artists, writers, poets and explorers.
Life and work
Phillips was born at Dudley, then in Worcestershire. Having learnt glass-painting in Birmingham under Francis Eginton, he visited London in 1790 with an introduction to Benjamin West, who found him employment on the painted-glass windows of St George's Chapel at Windsor. In 1791 he became a student at the Royal Academy, where, in 1792 he exhibited a view of Windsor Castle, followed in the next two years by the "Death of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, at the Battle of Castillon", "Ruth and Naomi", "Elijah restoring the Widow's Son", "Cupid disarmed by Euphrosyne", and other pictures.
After 1796, he concentrated on portrait-painting. However, the field was very crowded with the likes of John Hoppner, William Owen, Thomas Lawrence and Martin Archer Shee competing for business; consequently, from 1796 to 1800, his exhibited works were chiefly portraits of gentlemen and ladies, often nameless in the catalogue and of no great importance, historically speaking.
In 1804 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, together with his rival, William Owen. About the same time he moved to 8 George Street, Hanover Square, London, formerly the residence of Henry Tresham, R.A., where he lived for the rest of his life. He became a royal academician in 1808, and presented as his diploma work "Venus and Adonis" (exhibited the same year), perhaps the best of his creative subjects, apart from "Expulsion from Paradise". Meanwhile, he rose steadily in public favour, and in 1806, painted the Prince of Wales, the Marchioness of Stafford, the "Marquess of Stafford's Family", and Lord Thurlow. In 1807 he sent to the Royal Academy the well-known portrait of William Blake, now in the National Portrait Gallery, London, which was engraved in line by Luigi Schiavonetti, and later etched by William Bell Scott.
His contributions to the academy exhibition of 1809 included a portrait of Sir Joseph Banks (engraved by Niccolo Schiavonetti), and to that of 1814, two portraits of Lord Byron (engraved by Robert Graves, A.R.A). In 1818 he exhibited a portrait of Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A., and, in 1819, one of the poet George Crabbe. His 1822 portrait of
Sir Charles Asgill was exhibited at the Royal Academy that same year. In 1825 he was elected professor of painting at the Royal Academy, succeeding Henry Fuseli, and, in order to qualify himself for his duties, visited Italy and Rome in company with William Hilton, R. A., and also Sir David Wilkie, whom they met in Florence. He resigned the professorship in 1832, and in 1833 published his "Lectures on the History and Principles of Painting".
Phillips also painted portraits of Walter Scott, Robert Southey, George Anthony Legh Keck (1830), Thomas Campbell (poet), Joseph Henry Green, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Henry Hallam, Mary Somerville, Sir Edward Parry, Sir John Franklin, Dixon Denham, the African traveller, and Hugh Clapperton. Besides these he painted two portraits of Sir David Wilkie, the Duke of York (for the town-hall, Liverpool), Dean William Buckland, Sir Humphry Davy, Samuel Rogers, Michael Faraday (engraved in mezzotint by Henry Cousins), John Dalton, and a head of Napoleon I, painted in Paris in 1802, not from actual sittings, but with Empress Josephine's consent, who afforded him opportunities of observing the First Consul while at dinner. Years later in Paris, he was to portray his younger colleague Ary Scheffer (c. 1835, Musée de la Vie romantique, Paris).
A self-portrait, exhibited in 1844, was one of his last works.
Phillips wrote many occasional essays on the fine arts, especially for Rees's "Cyclopaedia", and also a memoir of William Hogarth for John Nichols's edition of that artist's "Works", 1808–17. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. He was also, with Chantrey, Turner, Robertson, and others, one of the founders of the Artists' General Benevolent Institution.
Phillips died at 8 George Street, Hanover Square, London, on 20 April 1845, and was interred in the burial-ground of St. John's Wood chapel. He married Elizabeth Fraser of Fairfield, near Inverness. They had two daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, Joseph Scott Phillips, became a major in the Bengal artillery, and died at Wimbledon, Surrey, on 18 December 1884, aged 72. His younger son, Henry Wyndham Phillips (1820–1868) was a portrait painter, secretary of the "Artists General Benevolent Institution", and captain in the Artists' volunteer corps.
Artist and illustrator, John William Wright (1802–1848), was his pupil.
Gallery
References
External links
Thomas Phillips online (ArtCyclopedia)
Biography of Thomas Philips (The Walter Scott Digital Archive, Edinburgh University Library)
. Works by Thomas Phillips in public British collections.
1770 births
1845 deaths
19th-century English painters
18th-century English painters
English male painters
English portrait painters
Fellows of the Royal Society
Orientalist painters
People from Dudley
Royal Academicians | [
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220642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrization%20conjecture | Geometrization conjecture | In mathematics, Thurston's geometrization conjecture states that each of certain three-dimensional topological spaces has a unique geometric structure that can be associated with it. It is an analogue of the uniformization theorem for two-dimensional surfaces, which states that every simply connected Riemann surface can be given one of three geometries (Euclidean, spherical, or hyperbolic).
In three dimensions, it is not always possible to assign a single geometry to a whole topological space. Instead, the geometrization conjecture states that every closed 3-manifold can be decomposed in a canonical way into pieces that each have one of eight types of geometric structure. The conjecture was proposed by , and implies several other conjectures, such as the Poincaré conjecture and Thurston's elliptization conjecture.
Thurston's hyperbolization theorem implies that Haken manifolds satisfy the geometrization conjecture. Thurston announced a proof in the 1980s and since then several complete proofs have appeared in print.
Grigori Perelman sketched a proof of the full geometrization conjecture in 2003 using Ricci flow with surgery.
There are now several different manuscripts (see below) with details of the proof. The Poincaré conjecture and the spherical space form conjecture are corollaries of the geometrization conjecture, although there are shorter proofs of the former that do not lead to the geometrization conjecture.
The conjecture
A 3-manifold is called closed if it is compact and has no boundary.
Every closed 3-manifold has a prime decomposition: this means it is the connected sum of prime 3-manifolds (this decomposition is essentially unique except for a small problem in the case of non-orientable manifolds). This reduces much of the study of 3-manifolds to the case of prime 3-manifolds: those that cannot be written as a non-trivial connected sum.
Here is a statement of Thurston's conjecture:
Every oriented prime closed 3-manifold can be cut along tori, so that the interior of each of the resulting manifolds has a geometric structure with finite volume.
There are 8 possible geometric structures in 3 dimensions, described in the next section. There is a unique minimal way of cutting an irreducible oriented 3-manifold along tori into pieces that are Seifert manifolds or atoroidal called the JSJ decomposition, which is not quite the same as the decomposition in the geometrization conjecture, because some of the pieces in the JSJ decomposition might not have finite volume geometric structures. (For example, the mapping torus of an Anosov map of a torus has a finite volume solv structure, but its JSJ decomposition cuts it open along one torus to produce a product of a torus and a unit interval, and the interior of this has no finite volume geometric structure.)
For non-oriented manifolds the easiest way to state a geometrization conjecture is to first take the oriented double cover. It is also possible to work directly with non-orientable manifolds, but this gives some extra complications: it may be necessary to cut along projective planes and Klein bottles as well as spheres and tori, and manifolds with a projective plane boundary component usually have no geometric structure.
In 2 dimensions the analogous statement says that every surface (without boundary) has a geometric structure consisting of a metric with constant curvature; it is not necessary to cut the manifold up first.
The eight Thurston geometries
A model geometry is a simply connected smooth manifold X together with a transitive action of a Lie group G on X with compact stabilizers.
A model geometry is called maximal if G is maximal among groups acting smoothly and transitively on X with compact stabilizers. Sometimes this condition is included in the definition of a model geometry.
A geometric structure on a manifold M is a diffeomorphism from M to X/Γ for some model geometry X, where Γ is a discrete subgroup of G acting freely on X ; this is a special case of a complete (G,X)-structure. If a given manifold admits a geometric structure, then it admits one whose model is maximal.
A 3-dimensional model geometry X is relevant to the geometrization conjecture if it is maximal and if there is at least one compact manifold with a geometric structure modelled on X. Thurston classified the 8 model geometries satisfying these conditions; they are listed below and are sometimes called Thurston geometries. (There are also uncountably many model geometries without compact quotients.)
There is some connection with the Bianchi groups: the 3-dimensional Lie groups. Most Thurston geometries can be realized as a left invariant metric on a Bianchi group. However S2 × R cannot be, Euclidean space corresponds to two different Bianchi groups, and there are an uncountable number of solvable non-unimodular Bianchi groups, most of which give model geometries with no compact representatives.
Spherical geometry S3
The point stabilizer is O(3, R), and the group G is the 6-dimensional Lie group O(4, R), with 2 components. The corresponding manifolds are exactly the closed 3-manifolds with finite fundamental group. Examples include the 3-sphere, the Poincaré homology sphere, Lens spaces. This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi group of type IX. Manifolds with this geometry are all compact, orientable, and have the structure of a Seifert fiber space (often in several ways). The complete list of such manifolds is given in the article on spherical 3-manifolds. Under Ricci flow, manifolds with this geometry collapse to a point in finite time.
Euclidean geometry E3
The point stabilizer is O(3, R), and the group G is the 6-dimensional Lie group R3 × O(3, R), with 2 components. Examples are the 3-torus, and more generally the mapping torus of a finite-order automorphism of the 2-torus; see torus bundle. There are exactly 10 finite closed 3-manifolds with this geometry, 6 orientable and 4 non-orientable. This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi groups of type I or VII0. Finite volume manifolds with this geometry are all compact, and have the structure of a Seifert fiber space (sometimes in two ways). The complete list of such manifolds is given in the article on Seifert fiber spaces. Under Ricci flow, manifolds with Euclidean geometry remain invariant.
Hyperbolic geometry H3
The point stabilizer is O(3, R), and the group G is the 6-dimensional Lie group O+(1, 3, R), with 2 components. There are enormous numbers of examples of these, and their classification is not completely understood. The example with smallest volume is the Weeks manifold. Other examples are given by the Seifert–Weber space, or "sufficiently complicated" Dehn surgeries on links, or most Haken manifolds. The geometrization conjecture implies that a closed 3-manifold is hyperbolic if and only if it is irreducible, atoroidal, and has infinite fundamental group. This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi group of type V. Under Ricci flow, manifolds with hyperbolic geometry expand.
The geometry of S2 × R
The point stabilizer is O(2, R) × Z/2Z, and the group G is O(3, R) × R × Z/2Z, with 4 components. The four finite volume manifolds with this geometry are: S2 × S1, the mapping torus of the antipode map of S2, the connected sum of two copies of 3-dimensional projective space, and the product of S1 with two-dimensional projective space. The first two are mapping tori of the identity map and antipode map of the 2-sphere, and are the only examples of 3-manifolds that are prime but not irreducible. The third is the only example of a non-trivial connected sum with a geometric structure. This is the only model geometry that cannot be realized as a left invariant metric on a 3-dimensional Lie group. Finite volume manifolds with this geometry are all compact and have the structure of a Seifert fiber space (often in several ways). Under normalized Ricci flow manifolds with this geometry converge to a 1-dimensional manifold.
The geometry of H2 × R
The point stabilizer is O(2, R) × Z/2Z, and the group G is O+(1, 2, R) × R × Z/2Z, with 4 components. Examples include the product of a hyperbolic surface with a circle, or more generally the mapping torus of an isometry of a hyperbolic surface. Finite volume manifolds with this geometry have the structure of a Seifert fiber space if they are orientable. (If they are not orientable the natural fibration by circles is not necessarily a Seifert fibration: the problem is that some fibers may "reverse orientation"; in other words their neighborhoods look like fibered solid Klein bottles rather than solid tori.) The classification of such (oriented) manifolds is given in the article on Seifert fiber spaces. This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi group of type III. Under normalized Ricci flow manifolds with this geometry converge to a 2-dimensional manifold.
The geometry of the universal cover of SL(2, "R")
The universal cover of SL(2, R) is denoted . It fibers over H2. The group G has 2 components. Its identity component has the structure . The point stabilizer is O(2,R).
Examples of these manifolds include: the manifold of unit vectors of the tangent bundle of a hyperbolic surface, and more generally the Brieskorn homology spheres (excepting the 3-sphere and the Poincare dodecahedral space). This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi group of type VIII. Finite volume manifolds with this geometry are orientable and have the structure of a Seifert fiber space. The classification of such manifolds is given in the article on Seifert fiber spaces. Under normalized Ricci flow manifolds with this geometry converge to a 2-dimensional manifold.
Nil geometry
This fibers over E2, and is the geometry of the Heisenberg group. The point stabilizer is O(2, R). The group G has 2 components, and is a semidirect product of the 3-dimensional Heisenberg group by the group O(2, R) of isometries of a circle. Compact manifolds with this geometry include the mapping torus of a Dehn twist of a 2-torus, or the quotient of the Heisenberg group by the "integral Heisenberg group". This geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on the Bianchi group of type II. Finite volume manifolds with this geometry are compact and orientable and have the structure of a Seifert fiber space. The classification of such manifolds is given in the article on Seifert fiber spaces. Under normalized Ricci flow, compact manifolds with this geometry converge to R2 with the flat metric.
Sol geometry
This geometry (also called Solv geometry) fibers over the line with fiber the plane, and is the geometry of the identity component of the group G. The point stabilizer is the dihedral group of order 8. The group G has 8 components, and is the group of maps from 2-dimensional Minkowski space to itself that are either isometries or multiply the metric by −1. The identity component has a normal subgroup R2 with quotient R, where R acts on R2 with 2 (real) eigenspaces, with distinct real eigenvalues of product 1. This is the Bianchi group of type VI0 and the geometry can be modeled as a left invariant metric on this group. All finite volume manifolds with solv geometry are compact. The compact manifolds with solv geometry are either the mapping torus of an Anosov map of the 2-torus (such a map is an automorphism of the 2-torus given by an invertible 2 by 2 matrix whose eigenvalues are real and distinct, such as ), or quotients of these by groups of order at most 8. The eigenvalues of the automorphism of the torus generate an order of a real quadratic field, and the solv manifolds could in principle be classified in terms of the units and ideal classes of this order, though the details do not seem to be written down anywhere.
Under normalized Ricci flow compact manifolds with this geometry converge (rather slowly) to R1.
Uniqueness
A closed 3-manifold has a geometric structure of at most one of the 8 types above, but finite volume non-compact 3-manifolds can occasionally have more than one type of geometric structure. (Nevertheless, a manifold can have many different geometric structures of the same type; for example, a surface of genus at least 2 has a continuum of different hyperbolic metrics.) More precisely, if M is a manifold with a finite volume geometric structure, then the type of geometric structure is almost determined as follows, in terms of the fundamental group π1(M):
If π1(M) is finite then the geometric structure on M is spherical, and M is compact.
If π1(M) is virtually cyclic but not finite then the geometric structure on M is S2×R, and M is compact.
If π1(M) is virtually abelian but not virtually cyclic then the geometric structure on M is Euclidean, and M is compact.
If π1(M) is virtually nilpotent but not virtually abelian then the geometric structure on M is nil geometry, and M is compact.
If π1(M) is virtually solvable but not virtually nilpotent then the geometric structure on M is solv geometry, and M is compact.
If π1(M) has an infinite normal cyclic subgroup but is not virtually solvable then the geometric structure on M is either H2×R or the universal cover of SL(2, R). The manifold M may be either compact or non-compact. If it is compact, then the 2 geometries can be distinguished by whether or not π1(M) has a finite index subgroup that splits as a semidirect product of the normal cyclic subgroup and something else. If the manifold is non-compact, then the fundamental group cannot distinguish the two geometries, and there are examples (such as the complement of a trefoil knot) where a manifold may have a finite volume geometric structure of either type.
If π1(M) has no infinite normal cyclic subgroup and is not virtually solvable then the geometric structure on M is hyperbolic, and M may be either compact or non-compact.
Infinite volume manifolds can have many different types of geometric structure: for example, R3 can have 6 of the different geometric structures listed above, as 6 of the 8 model geometries are homeomorphic to it. Moreover if the volume does not have to be finite there are an infinite number of new geometric structures with no compact models; for example, the geometry of almost any non-unimodular 3-dimensional Lie group.
There can be more than one way to decompose a closed 3-manifold into pieces with geometric structures. For example:
Taking connected sums with several copies of S3 does not change a manifold.
The connected sum of two projective 3-spaces has a S2×R geometry, and is also the connected sum of two pieces with S3 geometry.
The product of a surface of negative curvature and a circle has a geometric structure, but can also be cut along tori to produce smaller pieces that also have geometric structures. There are many similar examples for Seifert fiber spaces.
It is possible to choose a "canonical" decomposition into pieces with geometric structure, for example by first cutting the manifold into prime pieces in a minimal way, then cutting these up using the smallest possible number of tori. However this minimal decomposition is not necessarily the one produced by Ricci flow; in fact, the Ricci flow can cut up a manifold into geometric pieces in many inequivalent ways, depending on the choice of initial metric.
History
The Fields Medal was awarded to Thurston in 1982 partially for his proof of the geometrization conjecture for Haken manifolds.
The case of 3-manifolds that should be spherical has been slower, but provided the spark needed for Richard S. Hamilton to develop his Ricci flow. In 1982, Hamilton showed that given a closed 3-manifold with a metric of positive Ricci curvature, the Ricci flow would collapse the manifold to a point in finite time, which proves the geometrization conjecture for this case as the metric becomes "almost round" just before the collapse. He later developed a program to prove the geometrization conjecture by Ricci flow with surgery. The idea is that the Ricci flow will in general produce singularities, but one may be able to continue the Ricci flow past the singularity by using surgery to change the topology of the manifold. Roughly speaking, the Ricci flow contracts positive curvature regions and expands negative curvature regions, so it should kill off the pieces of the manifold with the "positive curvature" geometries S3 and S2 × R, while what is left at large times should have a thick–thin decomposition into a "thick" piece with hyperbolic geometry and a "thin" graph manifold.
In 2003, Grigori Perelman sketched a proof of the geometrization conjecture by showing that the Ricci flow can indeed be continued past the singularities, and has the behavior described above. The main difficulty in verifying Perelman's proof of the geometrization conjecture was a critical use of his Theorem 7.4 in the preprint 'Ricci Flow with surgery on three-manifolds'. This theorem was stated by Perelman without proof. There are now several different proofs of Perelman's Theorem 7.4, or variants of it which are sufficient to prove geometrization. There is the paper of Shioya and Yamaguchi that uses Perelman's stability theorem and a fibration theorem for Alexandrov spaces. This method, with full details leading to the proof of geometrization, can be found in the exposition by Bruce Kleiner and John Lott.
A second route to the last part of Perelman's proof of geometrization is the method of Bessières et al., which uses Thurston's hyperbolization theorem for Haken manifolds and Gromov's norm for 3-manifolds. A book by the same authors with complete details of their version of the proof has been published by the European Mathematical Society.
Also containing proofs of Perelman's Theorem 7.4, there is a paper of Morgan and Tian, another paper of Kleiner and Lott, and a paper by Jianguo Cao and Jian Ge.
Notes
References
L. Bessieres, G. Besson, M. Boileau, S. Maillot, J. Porti, 'Geometrisation of 3-manifolds', EMS Tracts in Mathematics, volume 13. European Mathematical Society, Zurich, 2010.
M. Boileau Geometrization of 3-manifolds with symmetries
F. Bonahon Geometric structures on 3-manifolds Handbook of Geometric Topology (2002) Elsevier.
Allen Hatcher: Notes on Basic 3-Manifold Topology 2000
J. Isenberg, M. Jackson, Ricci flow of locally homogeneous geometries on a Riemannian manifold, J. Diff. Geom. 35 (1992) no. 3 723–741.
G. Perelman, The entropy formula for the Ricci flow and its geometric applications, 2002
G. Perelman, Ricci flow with surgery on three-manifolds, 2003
G. Perelman, Finite extinction time for the solutions to the Ricci flow on certain three-manifolds, 2003
Bruce Kleiner and John Lott, Notes on Perelman's Papers (May 2006) (fills in the details of Perelman's proof of the geometrization conjecture).
Revised version (December 2006): Hamilton-Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture
John W. Morgan. Recent progress on the Poincaré conjecture and the classification of 3-manifolds. Bulletin Amer. Math. Soc. 42 (2005) no. 1, 57–78 (expository article explains the eight geometries and geometrization conjecture briefly, and gives an outline of Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture)
Scott, Peter The geometries of 3-manifolds. (errata) Bull. London Math. Soc. 15 (1983), no. 5, 401–487.
This gives the original statement of the conjecture.
William Thurston. Three-dimensional geometry and topology. Vol. 1. Edited by Silvio Levy. Princeton Mathematical Series, 35. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1997. x+311 pp. (in depth explanation of the eight geometries and the proof that there are only eight)
William Thurston. The Geometry and Topology of Three-Manifolds, 1980 Princeton lecture notes on geometric structures on 3-manifolds.
External links
A public lecture on the Poincaré and geometrization conjectures, given by C. McMullen at Harvard in 2006.
Geometric topology
Riemannian geometry
3-manifolds
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220650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Mar%C3%ADa%20Solare | Juan María Solare | Juan María Solare (born August 11, 1966) is an Argentine composer and pianist.
Education
Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Solare studied and received his diploma in piano (María Teresa Criscuolo), composition (Fermina Casanova, Juan Carlos Zorzi) and conducting (Mario Benzecry) at the Conservatorio Nacional de Música Carlos López Buchardo. He also studied privately with Francisco Kröpfl.
Between 1993 and 1996 he undertook postgraduate studies on Composition at the Musikhochschule in Cologne (Germany) under the guidance of Johannes Fritsch, Clarence Barlow, and Mauricio Kagel, in the frame of a scholarship of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). Between October 1997 and February 1999, he did postgraduate studies with Helmut Lachenmann in Stuttgart. (Between July 1998 and June 1999 he held a scholarship from the Heinrich-Strobel Foundation (Baden-Baden).) Between 1999 and 2001 studied electronic music with in Cologne, with diploma. From June 2001 until May 2002 he was composer in residence at the , Germany.
In April 2005 he obtained the title "Licenciado en Composición" (Master's degree) from the Instituto Universitario Nacional del Arte (IUNA) in Buenos Aires. Since 1993 he has regularly attended and participated in seminars given by Karlheinz Stockhausen. He passed the Konzertexamen (master) in electroacoustic composition at the Musikhochschule in Cologne on 5 December 2007. Currently he is working on a PhD in music education at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
Teaching positions
From 1986 until 1993 he taught harmony, morphology, and chamber music at the Conservatory of Tandil (Argentina). Since January 2002 he has given piano lessons at the Musikschule Bremen (Germany). Since October 2002 he has conducted the Orquesta No Típica, a chamber music group devoted to tango at the University of Bremen. Since October 2004 he has taught piano at the Hochschule für Künste Bremen. From December 2007 to April 2008 he was Assistant Professor at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Since 2008 he has taught New Music Theatre at the University of Bremen, where he conducts the Ensemble Kagel.
He has given courses and lectures on contemporary music at the Institut für neue Musik und Musikerziehung (Darmstadt), the Salzburg Experimental Academy of Dance (SEAD), the Ateneo de Madrid, the Université permanente (Nantes, France), and the Texas A&M University (College Station, Texas).
In addition, he teaches piano and composition privately, and has presented public seminars on tango music.
Compositions
Solare has composed around 300 works, over half of them already performed. His pieces are broadcast regularly (Radio Nacional de España, Deutsche Welle, Radio Bremen, Radiofabrik Salzburg, Radio Universitaria São Paulo, Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR), Radio Berlin Brandenburg, Bayerischer Rundfunk).
In 2002 he received a commission from the CDMC (Centro para la Difusión de la Música Contemporánea, Madrid), in 2003 from the Kunststiftung NRW (Düsseldorf); in 2004 again from CDMC (Spain) and from the Landesmusikrat Bremen (Bremen Music Council), in 2011 from Eva Espoleta (Geneva). On 30 June 2004 his Concertango was premiered by the Orchestra of the Universität Bremen (cond.: Susanne Gläß).
Film music
He also composed the music for six short films:
Desde la ventana ("From the window"), autobiographical documentary film of the Colombian Santiago Herrera Gómez, Cologne, February 1996.
Mesa para dos (Table for two) by Medardo Amor and Angel Almazán, Madrid, August 2003.
Electroacoustic music for the experimental short film 'Bipolar' by the German director Axel Largo, Bonn, June 2006.
Music for the old (1951) scientific silent short film 'Verformung von Metallkristallen' (The Deformation of Metal Crystals, catalogue number C 611 of the IWF, Institut für Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, Abteilung Hochschule und Forschung, Göttingen) by Günter Wassermann (Clausthal). Premiere: cinema Metrópolis, Hamburg, 10 June 2007.
Corazón en sombras (Heart in shadows) by Medardo Amor and Angel Almazán, Madrid, December 2007.
Zima by Katarina Stankovich, Cologne, June 2011.
Solare has also written music for internet animations, mainly for movies of the Catalan artist Nuria Juncosa.
Pianist
As a pianist, his repertoire has four centers: classical music from the late Romanticism (such as Franz Liszt or Alexander Scriabin), contemporary classical (John Cage, Arnold Schoenberg), Argentine composers (including tango; Ástor Piazzolla), and his own compositions – both as soloist and in different chamber music groups, notably:
Duo Tangente (violin -Gert Gondosch- and piano)
Tango Nomade (saxophone -Eduardo Kohan- and piano)
Solare has performed in cities of Argentina, Germany, the rest of Europe and USA:
Buenos Aires & its suburban areas, Bariloche, Zárate, Córdoba, Tandil, Mendoza, Tucumán, San Martín de los Andes, Mar del Plata
Göttingen, Cologne, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Worpswede, Ottersberg, Verden, Munich, Gersfeld, Misselwarden, Berlin, Hamburg, Bonn, Hannover, Heidelberg, Leipzig
Amsterdam, London, Madrid, Sevilla, Geneva, Svendborg, Graz, Granada, Oviedo, Seinäjoki (Finland).
College Station (Texas), Waco (Texas)
His first professional recording as a pianist was in July 2006 in Geneva: together with the Saxophonist Eduardo Kohan he recorded the CD Tango Nómade.
His first solo cd appeared in January 2010: Tango Monologues. Recording ("digital only" versions, as EP) of his pieces "Acuarelas junto al río inmóvil" (2014), "Aphorismen" (2014), and "Sechs kleine Klavierstücke" von Arnold Schönberg (2014).
Juan María Solare also participated with Fifteen-Minutes-of-Fame, a concert performance series with Vox Novus
Conductor
2002–present: Conductor of the Orquesta No Típica at the Universität Bremen
2012–2014: Conductor of the Jacobs Chamber Orchestra at the Jacobs University Bremen
2013–present: Conductor of the symphonic orchestra of the Bremer OrchesterGemeinschaft
Awards
His compositions have been awarded prizes and awards in
Argentina Promociones Musicales 1990, Fondo Nacional de las Artes 1996, Tribuna Argentina de Compositores 1999, Tribuna Argentina de Música Electroacústica 2002, Federación Argentina de Música Electroacústica 2005,
United Kingdom (British & International Bass Forum 1999, Rarescale/Royal College of Music 2004),
Austria (Yage und Aspekte Salzburg 2000),
Germany (Walter Witte Viola-Stiftung 2001, Bremer Komponistenwettbewerb 2004) and
Spain (Radio Clásica-CDMC 2004).
As a pianist, Solare received awards at the following competitions:
Competition for Young Pianists "Cincuentenario de la Fundación Educacional Jrimián" (50th Anniversary of the Khrimian Educational Foundation) awarded by the Asociación Cultural Armenia, in Lanús (Buenos Aires) in November 1980.
As a member of the improvisation ensemble Die Kugel, 2nd prize at the "6. Internationaler Wettberwerb für junge Kultur 2000" (6th international competition for young culture) at the Saal Heinersdorff Pianohaus (Steinway-Haus) Düsseldorf, within the frame of the Festival "Düsseldorfer Altstadt Herbst" (SEP 2000).
Jury member
In January 2002 he served on the piano jury in the competition Jugend musiziert.
In March 2004 jury in the National competition for young pianists "piccole mani" (Perugia, Italy) with a piece of him in each category as "obligatory piece".
In September 2004 he was on the jury (composition) in the competition "Xicöatl" (Salzburg).
2006 member of the jury of composition contest at the World Music Days (Stuttgart)
In 2007, Jury of the clarinet competition Maratón Musical Clariperú with his piece Convalecencia as obligatory piece.
Recordings
Thirteen CDs from different performers include at least one of his pieces:
"Panorama de la música argentina (compositores nacidos entre 1965–1969)". Fondo Nacional de las Artes. IRCO 318 (with three of his Siete Monedas for flute, viola and cello).
"Pifferari – Werke für Flöte und Klarinette", Juli 2001. Regine Kuhn (flute) and Heidi Voss (clarinet); Edition Voss (Wiesbaden, Germany) [includes the "Suite Modal"]
"60x60: 2003" (various composers). Capstone Records CPS-8744 (released 2004). Includes Nice Noise (track 54).
Natalia González, pianist: Concierto Tango. 2005, Pretal PRCD 127 (includes Mozartango)
Duo Eduardo Kohan – Juan Solare (saxophone & piano), Tango Nómade. 2006 (includes Tengo un tango, Sale con fritas, Tango en ciernes, Octango & Nómade)
Trío Thelema. 2006 (Includes Hypnosis)
Mariana Levitin (cello) & Guillermo Carro (piano), in the CD Los compositores académicos argentinos y el tango II (1879–2007) / Argentine classical composers and the tango II (1879–2007). 2007. Pretal PRCD 138 (includes "Nómade" 2nd movement from Sonatango in version for cello and piano).
"Parajes", Label IRCO 1263 (SKU: 7147) (2009), with Vacío Blanco performed by Silvia Dabul (piano) & Víctor Torres (bariton).
Tango Monologues, 2010. Juan María Solare (piano). (Features 12 pieces by Solare: Pasaje Seaver, Valsarín, Tengo un tango, Para Lisa, Milonga fría, Atonalgotán, Fragmentango, Akemilonga, Liebergmilonga, Talismán, Furor and Reencuentro.)
Argentine Cello, 2011. Zoe Knighton (cello) & Amir Farid (piano). Move Records (Australia), MD 3347. (includes Tengo un tango, Nómade -from Sonatango- and Talismán).
Tango Music Award 2011, 2011. Cafe Tango Orchestra (cond.: Judy Ruks). Cafe Tango Productions, Stuttgart 2011. Includes Barro sublevado (Track 15).
Ideas y emociones, 2012. Label Fonocal, Productor: Saúl Cosentino. Includes Reencuentro, recorded by Leonardo Suárez Paz (violin) + Juan María Solare (piano). (Track 15).
Pasión argentina (tango & chamber music), 2013. Label Ultramar Music Argentina. Ultramar ensemble: Paula Gasparini (flute), Tamara Moser (piano) and Pablo Pizarro (cello). Includes Tengo un tango (track 2) in version for flute, cello and piano.
Gardel al piano. Label Janus Music & Sound, 2014 (JMS-003). Juan María Solare, piano, EP with six tracks composed by Carlos Gardel.
Himmelsrichtungen (Cardinal Points). Label Janus Music & Sound, 2016 (JMS-008). Juan María Solare, piano, EP with six tracks composed by himself.
Interviews
Your Story: Juan María Solare blog Pianodao, November 2017.
Interview with Juan María Solare, by Anna Sutyagina from the blog Moving Classics TV (September 2018)
Mit Musik durch’s Leben, Blog ProntoPro (in German), May 2020.
An Interview with Juan María Solare, blog Secret Eclectic, June 2020.
Works dedicated to him
Solare has been dedicated pieces by several colleagues:
"Para la mano derecha" (For the right hand) by Pedro Sáenz, 1992.
"Rosales olorosos a Solare", electro-humour-acoustic music by Gabriel Pareyon (after a poem by G. Ropenay), DEC/2002
"Un marzo triste", piano piece by Saúl Cosentino, 2003.
"Lo que se fue", chamber tango by Jorge Pítari, 2005.
"Tres minitangos" for piano by Jorge Pítari, 2006.
"Solare-Tango", chamber tango by Luis Mihovilcevic (second of the "Serie de tangos de nobles afinidades"), 2007.
"El canto nocturnal de los caracoles" for piano, by Luis Mihovilcevic, 2005.
"Meditativo" for piano, by Juliane Dehning, 2008.
"Amanecer en la terrible Buenos Aires", milonga for piano, by Claudio Maldonado, 2009.
"Contemplación", piano piece by Saúl Cosentino, 2009.
"Wintergesang" (Winter song) for cello & piano, by Juliane Dehning, 2009.
"Milonga meets Malambo", piece for cello and piano by Juan Manuel Abras, 2011.
Daydreams of Gardel on the Orbits of Saturn for piano solo, by Rodrigo Baggio, 2012.
Tango-lá for piano solo, by Micky Landau, 2012.
Y se alejó por el camino de los cipreses for piano solo, by Luis Menacho, 2012.
Pussycat Tango for piano solo, by Kelly M. Curran, 2012.
Algo neto for piano solo, by Valentín Pelisch, 2012.
Tango Triste for piano solo, by Leonard Mark Lewis, 2012.
Tango del Minuto for piano solo, by José Hernán Civils, 2012.
Expulsado de la Milonga for piano solo, by Douglas DaSilva, 2012.
Sin-Con Ciencia for piano solo, by Moxi Beidenegl, 2012.
tango sostenido for piano solo, by Jon Aveyard, 2012.
Napoleon's Tango for piano solo, by Daniel Arnold, 2012.
Today and Tomorrow for piano solo, by Bob Siebert, 2012.
Picture Beständigkeit des Nebels (Solidity of Mist), by walkala (Luis Alfredo Duarte Herrera), Salzburg, July 2007. 100 cm x 150 cm, acrylic on canvas.
Publications
Some of his works have been published by Dohr Verlag (Cologne), Ricordi München (Munich), and peermusic (Hamburg).
Beside his compositional and pianistic activities he also has written for diverse publications, such as the New Grove (Solare 2001), La Sibila Sevilla, Doce Notas and ABC Madrid, Pauta and L'Orfeo (Mexico), Tempo (UK), as well as for the radio stations Deutsche Welle and Südwestfunk (SWF).
About 30 of his 200 published articles (mostly in Solare's mother tongue, Spanish) can be found online.
References
Cabello, Natalia. 2006. "Sobre 'Pasaje Seaver' de Juan María Solare". Conservatorio Municipal Manuel de Falla, Buenos Aires.
Choong Cheong, Yew. 2009. "An introduction to the solo piano works of three Latin American composers: Miguel del Aguila, Tania León and Juan María Solare", West Virginia University (College of Creative Arts), USA. Tutor: Dr. David Taddie.
Heward, Maria. 2008. "Argentine Piano music since 2000". BYU (Brigham Young University), USA.
Liberatori, Ligia. 1999. "Solare, Juan María". Emilio Casares Rodicio (editor), "Diccionario de Música Española e Hispanoamericana", Vol. 9 (Madrid, 2002), pages 1112–1113.
Peltzer Meschini, Carolina María & Zucherino, Leticia. 2008. "Reflexiones Sobre la Notación Musical en la Música Contemporánea Argentina". Universidad nacional de La Plata (UNLP), Argentina.
Piehl, Cecilia Irene. 2007. "Argentinean Music for Flute Alone: an Annotated Bibliography". University Alabama, USA.
Piñero Gil, Carmen Cecilia. "caballero de la triste figura (jinete de quimérica montura), El". Article in the Gran Enciclopedia Cervantina, page 1601. Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, Editorial Casalia.
Piñero Gil, Carmen Cecilia. 2009. El caballero de la triste figura (jinete de quimérica montura): monólogo quijotesco de Juan María Solare. II CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL CERVANTES Y EL QUIJOTE EN LA MÚSICA DEL SIGLO XX. TRADICIÓN Y VANGUARDIA. MÚSICAS CERVANTINAS EN AMÉRICA. Lecture on 4 November 2009, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain).
Ruiz, Nora. 2008. "La relación entre la astronomía y la música académica argentina a partir del siglo XX". Departamento de Artes Sonoras y Musicales "Carlos López Buchardo", IUNA (Instituto Universitario Nacional del Arte), Buenos Aires.
Saftich, Amelia María. 2015. "La presencia del tango en la obra para clarinete del compositor Juan María Solare". Dissertation, 2015, Departamento de Artes Sonoras y Musicales of the UNA (Universidad Nacional de las Artes), Buenos Aires. Tutor: Lic. Cristina Vázquez.
Sauer, Theresa. 2007. "Notations 21" (includes his piece 'Palinsesto Senso'). American Musicological Association, USA.
Solare, Juan María. 2001. "Sáenz (Amadeo), Pedro (Alejo)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Solare, Juan María. 2009. "Die Neugierde ist grenzenlos (ein posthumes Interview mit Mauricio Kagel)". KunstMusik no. 12 (Summer): 10–39. ISSN 1612-6173
Stashik, Katharina. 2005. "Die Verwendung des Saxophons in der zeitgenössischen Musik nach 1970. Eine Analyse". Hochschule für Musik Köln (Germany).
External links
biography, works catalogue and list of published articles (German and Spanish)
Biography, works catalogue, list of published articles (some with text) and some scores (English and Spanish)
Comments about his electroacoustic music by Ingvar Loco Nordin
Comments about his instrumental music by Ingvar Loco Nordin
Interview by Ben Tibbetts with Juan Maria Solare in Feb 2011
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Argentine classical pianists
Argentine classical composers
1966 births
Living people
People from Buenos Aires
Experimental composers
Electroacoustic music composers
Postmodern composers
Fluxus
Contemporary classical music performers
Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln alumni
Pupils of Darius Milhaud
20th-century classical pianists
21st-century classical pianists | [
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220654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Marek | John Marek | John Marek (born 24 December 1940) is a British politician who served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Wrexham from 1983 to 2001, and the Member of the Welsh Assembly (AM) for Wrexham from 1999 to 2007. A member of the Labour Party until 2003, he successfully stood for re-election to the Welsh Assembly as a John Marek Independent Party candidate. Marek founded and led Forward Wales from 2003 until 2010, when the party was disbanded and he joined the Conservatives.
Background
Born in London, England and of Czech descent, Marek would be the only Czech-speaking MP during his tenure. He was educated at Chatham House Grammar School and at King's College London where he earned a BSc in Mathematics in 1962, and a PhD in Mathematics in 1965. He became a lecturer in applied mathematics at Aberystwyth University.
Political career
Marek was elected a member of Ceredigion District Council in 1979 and served until 1983; he was chair of its finance sub-committee in the year 1982–83.
Having previously unsuccessfully contested Ludlow in October 1974, Marek was elected as Labour Party Member of Parliament for the Wrexham Westminster constituency in 1983 and served as a party spokesman on Treasury matters, although he was not offered a government post in 1997.
As a supporter of devolution, he chose to move to the National Assembly for Wales in 1999, and stood down from the UK Parliament in 2001. In the Assembly he became increasingly known as a maverick. In 2000, he was elected as Deputy Presiding Officer against the candidate preferred by the Labour leadership. This move, and his frequent criticisms of the Labour-led Wrexham County Borough led to his deselection as the Labour Party's candidate for the National Assembly elections of 1 May 2003.
Marek then stood as a candidate for the John Marek Independent Party and defeated the official Labour Party candidate, Lesley Griffiths, a former secretary of his, by 973 votes. Later that year he formed a new political party called Forward Wales (). He ran for re-election in the 2007 Welsh Assembly election, but was defeated by Labour's Lesley Griffiths by 1,250 votes, thanks to a swing to the Conservatives, Liberal Democrats, and UKIP.
On 29 March 2010, Marek joined the Conservative Party, and he was later confirmed as the party's candidate for the 2011 Welsh Assembly election where he again came second to Griffiths, by 3,335 votes in the Wrexham constituency.
Marek is one of three Welsh MPs or AMs to win a constituency as both a party candidate and an independent, following S. O. Davies who was MP for Merthyr Tydfil from 1934 until his death in 1972, who was deselected by the local Labour Party on grounds of age prior to the 1970 general election but ran against the official candidate as an independent and won; and Peter Law who was barred from contesting his seat for Labour due to an all-woman shortlist being imposed
Wrexham AFC
In 2006, Marek was appointed as Vice President of Wrexham A.F.C. by then owners Nev Dickens and Geoff Moss. He remained in the position until the club passed into the ownership of the Wrexham Supporters Trust.
Footnotes
External links
1940 births
Living people
Welsh Labour Party MPs
Politics of Wrexham
Independent politicians in Wales
Wales AMs 1999–2003
Wales AMs 2003–2007
Leaders of political parties in Wales
National Union of Railwaymen-sponsored MPs
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
Academics of Aberystwyth University
People educated at Chatham House Grammar School
Alumni of King's College London
Conservative Party (UK) politicians
English people of Czech descent | [
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220657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadbeater%27s%20possum | Leadbeater's possum | Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) is a critically endangered possum largely restricted to small pockets of alpine ash, mountain ash, and snow gum forests in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia, north-east of Melbourne. It is primitive, relict, and non-gliding, and, as the only species in the petaurid genus Gymnobelideus, represents an ancestral form. Formerly, Leadbeater's possums were moderately common within the very small areas they inhabited; their requirement for year-round food supplies and tree-holes to take refuge in during the day restricts them to mixed-age wet sclerophyll forest with a dense mid-story of Acacia. The species was named in 1867 after John Leadbeater, the then taxidermist at the Museum Victoria. They also go by the common name of fairy possum. On 2 March 1971, the State of Victoria made the Leadbeater's possum its faunal emblem.
History
Leadbeater's possum is thought to have evolved about 20 million years ago. It was not discovered until 1867 and was originally known only through five specimens, the last one collected in 1909. From that time on, the fear that it might be extinct gradually grew into near-certainty after the swamps and wetlands in Australia around Bass River in south-west Gippsland were drained for farming in the early 1900s.
By the time of the 1939 Black Friday fires, the species was thought to have been extinct. Then, on 3 April 1961, a member of the species was rediscovered by naturalist Eric Wilkinson in the forests near Cambarville, and the first specimen in more than 50 years was captured later in the month.
In 1961, a colony was discovered near Marysville. Extensive searches since then have found the existing population in the highlands. However, the availability of suitable habitat is critical: forest must be neither too old nor too young, with conservation efforts for Leadbeater's possum involving protection of remaining old-growth stands, and maintenance of younger stands that are allowed to attain hollow-bearing age.
The combination of 40-year-old regrowth (for food) and large dead trees left still standing after the fires (for shelter and nesting) allowed the Leadbeater's possum population to expand to an estimated peak of about 7500 in the early 1980s. From its peak in the 1980s, the Leadbeater's possum population was expected to further decline rapidly, by as much as 90%, due to a habitat bottleneck. The population has dropped sharply since 1996. Particularly, the February 2009 Black Saturday bushfires destroyed 43% of Leadbeater's possums' habitat in the Central Highlands, halving the wild population to 1,500. A study in 2014 concluded there is a 92% chance the Leadbeater's ecosystem in the Victoria central highlands will collapse within 50 years.
Habits
Leadbeater's possums are rarely seen as they are nocturnal, fast-moving, and occupy the upper storey of some of the tallest forest trees in the world. They have an average body length of 33 cm (13 inches) with the tail included. They live in small family colonies of up to 12 individuals, including one monogamous breeding pair. Mating occurs only once a year, with a maximum of two joeys being born to each pair. All members sleep together in a nest made out of shredded bark in a tree hollow, anywhere from 6 to 30 metres above ground level and roughly in the centre of a territory of 3 hectares, which they defend actively. The society of Leadbeater's possums is matriarchal: each group is dominated by only one female Leadbeater's possum that is active in expelling outsiders. Other juvenile females are weaned off before they reach sexual maturity. In addition, female Leadbeater's possums are more aggressive in nature, often engaging in frequent fights with other females, including their own daughters. Due to the constant attacks, young females are forced to leave much earlier than their male brothers, which results in the extremely high male to female ratio of 3:1.
Solitary Leadbeater's possums have difficulty surviving: when young males disperse at about 15 months of age, they tend either to join another colony as a supernumerary member, or to gather together into bachelor groups while they wait to find a mate.
At dusk, Leadbeater's possums emerge from the nest and spread out to forage in the sub-canopy, often making substantial leaps from tree to tree (they require continuous understory to travel). Their diet is omnivorous: feeding on a range of wattle saps and exudates, lerps, and a high proportion of arthropods which they find under the loose bark of eucalypts, including spiders, crickets, termites and beetles. Plant exudates make up 80% of their energy intake, but the protein provided by the arthropods is essential for successful breeding.
Births are usually timed for the beginning of winter (May and June) or late spring (October and November). Most litters are of one or two young, which stay in the pouch for 80 to 90 days, and first emerge from the nest following this. Young, newly independent Leadbeater's possums are very vulnerable to owls.
Leadbeater's possums are found in three habitat types: lowland swamp gum, of Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve; montane ash forest, wet sclerophyll forest dominated by mountain ash, shining gum and alpine ash with a dense mid-story of acacia species; sub-alpine woodlands of Mount Baw Baw, Lake Mountain and Mount Bullfight.
Threats
Leadbeater's possums and their forest habitat have been the subject of the largest longitudinal study of any species in the world—conducted by David Lindenmayer, a professor at the Australian National University, and his research assistants since 1983. Hundreds of peer reviewed scientific papers, journal articles and books have resulted from the years of data collection by the ANU team. Their findings show that the availability of suitable habitat is critical: forest must be neither too old nor too young, with conservation efforts for Leadbeater's possums involving protection of remaining old-growth stands, and maintenance of younger stands that are allowed to attain hollow-bearing age. Clearfell logging and salvage logging (after bushfires) have been proven by the researchers to have been the greatest threat to the possums' conservation in the wild over the last three decades of the 20th century.
Habitat loss
The entire Central Highlands population distribution is confined to a 70 by 80 kilometre area. With 43% of its known Central Highlands habitat destroyed in the bushfires of February 2009 – large areas of forest around Toolangi, Marysville, Narbethong, Cambarville and Healesville – the species' status is currently in doubt. Consequently, in December 2012, David Lindenmayer and Zoos Victoria's threatened species biologist, Dan Harley, submitted an application to the federal government for a revision of the species status, providing evidence that it should be relisted as critically endangered. The then minister for the environment, Tony Burke, agreed with the nomination and forwarded the application to the scientific committee of the EPBC Act requesting urgent consideration. On 22 April 2015, it was decided to relist the species as critically endangered.
The only remaining population outside the Central Highlands is located at Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve. Harley has estimated this population to be fewer than 50.
Logging
As the species is endangered and occupies a restricted range, logging continues to pose a critical threat to the Leadbeater's possum. The logging in 1993 of "much of the possum's habitat, known as zone one" a five hectare reserve east of Powelltown, followed a "mapping error". Author Peter Preuss stated that the possum's population faltered in 1997 with current habitat (limited to a 50-square-kilometre area) under threat from logging. He emphasised the need to relaunch a breeding program.
Despite a joint federal and state government plan to save it, since the 1980s, the Leadbeater's possum population halved to around 2000 even before the Black Saturday fires. Many more were killed early in 2007 when the government-backed enterprise company, VicForests, bulldozed large firebreaks through Leadbeater's monitoring stations following the Christmas fires – firebreaks and clear-felling also prevent breeding with nearby colonies.
David Lindenmayer (Australian National University) has argued that the need for nest boxes indicates that logging practices are not ecologically sustainable for conserving hollow-dependent species like the Leadbeater's possum. Studies have shown that clear-felling operations, such as the logging run in state forest between the Yarra Ranges National Park and Mount Bullfight Conservation Reserve in February 2006, led to the deaths of most possums in the area—"Adult animals have a strong affinity with their home range and are reluctant to move".
Salvage logging since the fires has posed a further risk to this extremely diminished population with clear-felling also approved by VicForests in the few remaining unburnt areas, such as the Kalatha Creek area of Toolangi State Forest in 2010, a move opposed by the Yarra Ranges Shire Council.
In 2012 MyEnvironment challenged VicForests' operations in three planned coupes in the Toolangi forest in the supreme court. The basis of their claim being that "VicForests did not undertake adequate pre-logging surveys prior to logging in an area that we claim meets Leadbeater’s habitat and therefore should not have been logged." The proposed logging is to supply (taxpayer subsidised) pulp to manufacture 'Reflex' copy paper—a product of Australian Paper owned by the Japanese company, Nippon Paper Group. During the case, film was recorded of a Leadbeater's possum in the contested coupe area. The case was lost by MyEnvironment due to inconsistencies in the wording of the Leadbeater's Possum Action Statement (10 years out of date) and the forestry prescriptions adhered to by VicForests. The group immediately appealed the decision by the presiding judge Justice Osborne, and the supreme court accepted there was a sound basis for an appeal to the original determination. A supreme court appeal was heard on 24 June 2013 before three judges and MyEnvironment was represented in court by Julian Burnside QC. The appeal was lost.
Feral cats
Previously feral cats had only been considered a peripheral threat to Leadbeater's possums, but recent research has found video evidence of cats preying on possums leaving nesting boxes, and of possum remains in stomach contents of trapped feral cats. It is now considered that cats may be a more significant threat to possum populations, particularly in areas already disturbed by logging or bushfires.
Legislation
On 27 June 2013 the Napthine led State government passed legislative changes to allow VicForests access to Victoria's forests for the next 25 years and to be self monitoring (this follows the success of other recent cases preventing logging of remaining possum habitat). According to The Wilderness Society, "the Victorian government ... [is] virtually signing the death warrant of the remaining 500 or so Leadbeater's possums." These changes to the Sustainable Forests (Timber) Act 2004 will have implications not only for the Leadbeater's possum but to the biodiversity, carbon storage and water catchments of the forests.
Conservation
On 22 April 2015, Greg Hunt, the Minister for the Environment, announced that the Leadbeater's possum would be listed as a "critically endangered" species under the EPBC Act.
The forestry industry and Barnaby Joyce advocate for the Leadbeater's possum to be taken off the critically endangered list. Following uproar from the logging industry & the National Party it was soon placed under re-assessment. On the eve of an ABC 4 Corner episode on "Extinction" (24 June 2019) the then Environment Minister, Sussan Ley announced that it would be re-listed as "critically endangered".
Of its ash forest habitat, about 30% is protected, while the rest is allocated to logging.
In addition there is a small isolated, genetically distinct, population protected within the Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve. This lowland habitat consist primarily of Sedge-rich Eucalyptus camphora Swamp.
In 2013 it was proposed to create the "Great Forest National Park" to protect the mountain ash forest habitat. The park would protect the area between Kinglake, Baw Baw and Eildon national parks, which is also important for Melbourne's drinking water and as a carbon sink.
Since 2004, the Friends of Leadbeater's Possum community group has been active in raising the animal's profile and lobbying for its conservation.
Through a joint community/government program, "Project Possum" has installed approximately 200 plastic nest boxes in the wild. Many of these nest boxes were paid for by a community fundraising campaign. The nest boxes are primarily used to assist with ongoing population monitoring and supplement the declining forest habitat. Project Possum has targeted two forest types: montane ash forest (i.e. Mt Ritchie, Dowey Spur, Ben Cairn) and sub-alpine woodland (i.e. Mount Baw Baw, Lake Mountain, and Mount Bullfight). The nest boxes are routinely checked for habitation every one or two years. Nest boxes located in the sub-alpine woodland tend to have a high uptake, while those located in montane ash forest have very limited uptake. An additional 50 nest boxes are due for installation in 2015–16.
Captive breeding
Des Hackett is credited as the first person to successfully breed the Leadbeater's possum in captivity. In May 2006, the last Australian specimen at the time, held at Healesville Sanctuary, died. In January 2010, Kasia, at the time the last captive Leadbeater's possum worldwide, died at Toronto Zoo. of the few Lake Mountain Leadbeater's possums remaining after the 2009 bushfire led to three remaining individuals being taken into captivity for their own protection. One animal has since died. There are no plans to release the remaining two animals despite a further two colonies of Leadbeater's possums having recently been located at Lake Mountain in remnant gully vegetation. These two Lake Mountain animals are now on public display in the Nocturnal House as ambassadors for the species. Healesville Sanctuary's captive breeding program for Leadbeater's possums recommenced in May 2012 and now comprises 6 individuals from the genetically distinct Yellingbo population. they are housed as pairs in large enclosures off display, but are yet to breed.
The Photo Ark
On 14 September 2017, National Geographic reported that the Leadbeater's possum was the 7,000th animal photographed for The Photo Ark by Joel Sartore. The project's goal is to photographing all species living in zoos and wildlife sanctuaries around the globe in order to inspire action to save wildlife.
See also
Close relatives of Leadbeater's possum are the sugar glider, squirrel glider, yellow-bellied glider, mahogany glider and striped possum.
Goblin flea, an insect which only lives on Leadbeater's possum.
References
External links
ARKive – images and movies of the Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri)
Friends of Leadbeater's Possum
MyEnvironment
Leadbeater's Possum EDGE page
Conservation of Leadbeater's Possum
Lost and Found: the Rediscovery of Leadbeater's Possum, video from Museum Victoria.
EDGE species
Endangered fauna of Australia
Mammals of Victoria (Australia)
Possums
Mammals described in 1867 | [
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220660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donnersbergkreis | Donnersbergkreis | The Donnersbergkreis is a district (Kreis) in the middle of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are Bad Kreuznach, Alzey-Worms, Bad Dürkheim, Kaiserslautern, Kusel.
History
The district was created in 1969 by merging the districts Kirchheimbolanden and Rockenhausen.
Geography
The district is located around the highest mountain of the Palatinate, the Donnersberg with 687 m above sea level.
Coat of arms
Both of the districts merged into the Donnersbergkreis had a wheel in their coat of arms, which are now also shown in the coat of arms of the new district. On the left is the red wheel of the Lords of Bolanden, taken from the Kirchheim coat of arms. The blue wheel on the right is the wheel of the Lords of Falkenstein, taken from the Rockenhausen coat of arms. The green field on the bottom with the peak symbolizes the Donnersberg, the highest elevation in the district, and the sun the importance of the sunny plains for viticulture.
Towns and municipalities
{|
! colspan=5|Verbandsgemeinden
|- valign=top
||
1. Eisenberg
Eisenberg1, 2
Kerzenheim
Ramsen
2. Göllheim
Albisheim
Biedesheim
Bubenheim
Dreisen
Einselthum
Göllheim1
Immesheim
Lautersheim
Ottersheim
Rüssingen
Standenbühl
Weitersweiler
Zellertal
||
3. Kirchheimbolanden
Bennhausen
Bischheim
Bolanden
Dannenfels
Gauersheim
Ilbesheim
Jakobsweiler
Kirchheimbolanden1, 2
Kriegsfeld
Marnheim
Mörsfeld
Morschheim
Oberwiesen
Orbis
Rittersheim
Stetten
||
4. Nordpfälzer Land
Alsenz
Bayerfeld-Steckweiler
Bisterschied
Dielkirchen
Dörrmoschel
Finkenbach-Gersweiler
Gaugrehweiler
Gehrweiler
Gerbach
Gundersweiler
Imsweiler
Kalkofen
Katzenbach
Mannweiler-Cölln
Münsterappel
Niederhausen an der Appel
Niedermoschel
Oberhausen an der Appel
||
Obermoschel2
Oberndorf
Ransweiler
Rathskirchen
Reichsthal
Rockenhausen1, 2
Ruppertsecken
Sankt Alban
Schiersfeld
Schönborn
Seelen
Sitters
Stahlberg
Teschenmoschel
Unkenbach
Waldgrehweiler
Winterborn
Würzweiler
||
5. Winnweiler
Börrstadt
Breunigweiler
Falkenstein
Gonbach
Höringen
Imsbach
Lohnsfeld
Münchweiler an der Alsenz
Schweisweiler
Sippersfeld
Steinbach am Donnersberg
Wartenberg-Rohrbach
Winnweiler1
|-
|colspan=5 align=center|1seat of the Verbandsgemeinde; 2town
|}
References
External links
Official website (German)
Touristic website (German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
North Palatinate | [
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220672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comm | Comm | The command in the Unix family of computer operating systems is a utility that is used to compare two files for common and distinct lines. is specified in the POSIX standard. It has been widely available on Unix-like operating systems since the mid to late 1980s.
History
Written by Lee E. McMahon, first appeared in Version 4 Unix.
The version of bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Richard Stallman and David MacKenzie.
Usage
reads two files as input, regarded as lines of text. outputs one file, which contains three columns. The first two columns contain lines unique to the first and second file, respectively. The last column contains lines common to both. This functionally is similar to .
Columns are typically distinguished with the character. If the input files contain lines beginning with the separator character, the output columns can become ambiguous.
For efficiency, standard implementations of expect both input files to be sequenced in the same line collation order, sorted lexically. The sort (Unix) command can be used for this purpose.
The algorithm makes use of the collating sequence of the current locale. If the lines in the files are not both collated in accordance with the current locale, the result is undefined.
Return code
Unlike , the return code from has no logical significance concerning the relationship of the two files. A return code of 0 indicates success, a return code >0 indicates an error occurred during processing.
Example
$ cat foo
apple
banana
eggplant
$ cat bar
apple
banana
banana
zucchini
$ comm foo bar
apple
banana
banana
eggplant
zucchini
This shows that both files have one banana, but only bar has a second banana.
In more detail, the output file has the appearance that follows. Note that the column is interpreted by the number of leading tab characters. \t represents a tab character and \n represents a newline (Escape character#Programming and data formats).
Comparison to diff
In general terms, is a more powerful utility than . The simpler is best suited for use in scripts.
The primary distinction between and is that discards information about the order of the lines prior to sorting.
A minor difference between and is that will not try to indicate that a line has "changed" between the two files; lines are either shown in the "from file #1", "from file #2", or "in both" columns. This can be useful if one wishes two lines to be considered different even if they only have subtle differences.
Other options
has command-line options to suppress any of the three columns. This is useful for scripting.
There is also an option to read one file (but not both) from standard input.
Limits
Up to a full line must be buffered from each input file during line comparison, before the next output line is written.
Some implementations read lines with the function which does not impose any line length limits if system memory suffices.
Other implementations read lines with the function . This function requires a fixed buffer. For these implementations, the buffer is often sized according to the POSIX macro .
See also
Comparison of file comparison tools
List of Unix commands
cmp (Unix) – character oriented file comparison
cut (Unix) – splitting column-oriented files
References
External links
Free file comparison tools
Comm
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands | [
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] |
220674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Ernesto%20S%C3%A1nchez | Mario Ernesto Sánchez | Mario Ernesto Sánchez is a Cuban actor who founded Teatro Avante, a Hispanic theatre, in 1979 in Florida. He played various bit parts on Miami Vice and in Hollywood movies, including Invasion U.S.A. (1985) and The Specialist (1994).
Sánchez was born in Cuba. He went to the United States as a child during the Operation Pedro Pan. He appeared in the second episode of Miami Twice of classic British sitcom Only Fools and Horses as a Colombian drug baron.
External links
Miami Herald Latin spotlight July 6, 2007
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Cuban emigrants to the United States
American male television actors
Male actors from Florida
American entertainers of Cuban descent | [
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220675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diurnal | Diurnal | Diurnal ("daily") may refer to:
General
Diurnal cycle, any pattern that recurs daily
Diurnality, the behavior of animals and plants that are active in the daytime
Diurnal phase shift, a phase shift of electromagnetic signals
Diurnal temperature variation, a cycle of daily temperature change
Astronomy
Diurnal arc, the time (expressed in right ascension) that it takes a planet etc. to move from its rising to its setting point
Diurnal motion, the apparent motion of stars around the Earth
Astrology
Diurnal chart, a chart for a given date, based on the natal chart
Diurnal planet, a planet in a sect for which the Sun is above the horizon
Diurnal sign, a sign in the zodiac
See also
Diurnality
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220681 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20sulfur%20bacteria | Green sulfur bacteria | The green sulfur bacteria are a phylum of obligately anaerobic photoautotrophic bacteria.
Green sulfur bacteria are nonmotile (except Chloroherpeton thalassium, which may glide) and capable of anoxygenic photosynthesis. In contrast to plants, green sulfur bacteria mainly use sulfide ions as electron donors. They are autotrophs that utilize the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle to perform carbon fixation. Green sulfur bacteria have been found in depths of up to 145m in the Black Sea, with low light availability.
Characteristics
Major photosynthetic pigment: Bacteriochlorophylls a plus c, d, or e
Location of photosynthetic pigment: Chlorosomes and plasma membranes
Photosynthetic electron donor: H2, H2S, S
Sulfur deposition: Outside of the cell
Metabolic type: Photolithoautotrophs
Habitat
The Black Sea, an extremely anoxic environment, was found to house a large population of green sulfur bacteria at about 100 m depth. Due to the lack of light available in this region of the sea, most bacteria were photosynthetically inactive. The photosynthetic activity detected in the sulfide chemocline suggests that the bacteria need very little energy for cellular maintenance.
A species of green sulfur bacteria has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of 2,500 m in the Pacific Ocean. At this depth, the bacterium, designated GSB1, lives off the dim glow of the thermal vent since no sunlight can penetrate to that depth.
Green sulfur bacteria has also been found living on coral reef colonies in Taiwan, they make up the majority of a "green layer" on these colonies. They likely play a role in the coral system.
Phylogeny
The currently accepted phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 123 by The All-Species Living Tree Project.
Metabolism
Photosynthesis in the green sulfur bacteria
The green sulfur bacteria use a Type I reaction center for photosynthesis. Type I reaction centers are the bacterial homologue of photosystem I (PSI) in plants and cyanobacteria. The GSB reaction centers contain bacteriochlorophyll a and are known as P840 reaction centers due to the excitation wavelength of 840 nm that powers the flow of electrons. In green sulfur bacteria the reaction center is associated with a large antena complex called the chlorosome that captures and funnels light energy to the reaction center. The chlorosomes have a peak absorption in the far red region of the spectrum between 720-750 nm because they contain bacteriocholorophyll c, d and e. A protein complex called the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex (FMO) is physically located between the chlorosomes and the P840 RC. The FMO complex helps efficiently transfer the energy absorbed by the antena to the reaction center.
PSI and Type I reaction centers are able to reduce ferredoxin (Fd), a strong reductant that can be used to fix and reduce NADPH. Once the reaction center (RC) has given an electron to Fd it becomes an oxidizing agent (P840+) with a reduction potential of around +300 mV. While this is not positive enough to strip electrons from water to synthesize ( = +820 mV), it can accept electrons from other sources like , thiosulphate or ions. This transport of electrons from donors like to the acceptor Fd is called linear electron flow or linear electron transport. The oxidation of sulfide ions leads to the production of sulfur as a waste product that accumulates as globules on the extracellular side of the membrane. These globules of sulfur give green sulfur bacteria their name. When sulfide is depleted, the sulfur globules are consumed and further oxidized to sulfate. However, the pathway of sulfur oxidation is not well-understood.
Instead of passing the electrons onto Fd, the Fe-S clusters in the P840 reaction center can transfer the electrons to menaquinone (MQ:) which returns the electrons to the P840+ via an electron transport chain (ETC). On the way back to the RC the electrons from MQH2 pass through a cytochrome bc1 complex (similar to the complex III of mitochondria) that pumps ions across the membrane. The electrochemical potential of the protons across the membrane is used to synthesize ATP by the FoF1 ATP synthase. This cyclic electron transport is responsible for converting light energy into cellular energy in the form of ATP.
Carbon fixation of green sulfur bacteria
Green sulfur bacteria are photoautotrophs: they not only get energy from light, they can grow using carbon dioxide as their sole source of carbon. They fix carbon dioxide using the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle (rTCA) cycle where energy is consumed to reduce carbon dioxide in order to synthesize pyruvate and acetate. These molecules are used as the raw materials to synthesize all the building blocks a cell needs to generate macromolecules. The rTCA cycle is highly energy efficient enabling the bacteria to grow under low light conditions. However it has several oxygen sensitive enzymes that limits it's efficiency in aerobic conditions.
The reactions of reversal of the oxidative tricarboxylic acid cycle are catalyzed by four enzymes:
pyruvate:ferredoxin (Fd) oxidoreductase:
acetyl-CoA + CO2 + 2Fdred + 2H+ ⇌ pyruvate + CoA + 2Fdox
ATP citrate lyase:
ACL, acetyl-CoA + oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi ⇌ citrate + CoA + ATP
α-keto-glutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase:
succinyl-CoA + CO2 + 2Fdred + 2H+ ⇌ α-ketoglutarate + CoA + 2Fdox
fumarare reductase
succinate + acceptor ⇌ fumarate + reduced acceptor
Mixotrophy in green sulfur bacteria
Green sulfur bacteria are obligate photoautotrophs: they cannot grow in the absence of light even if they are provided with organic matter. However they exhibit a form of mixotrophy where they can consume simple organic compounds in the presence of light and CO2.
Nitrogen fixation
The majority of green sulfur bacteria are diazotrophs: they can reduce nitrogen to ammonia which is then used to synthesize amino acids.
References
See Also
Anoxic event
Purple sulfur bacteria
Green non-sulfur bacteria
External links
Phototrophic bacteria
Bacteria classes
Monotypic classes | [
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] |
220684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Internet-related%20articles | Index of Internet-related articles | This page provides an index of articles thought to be Internet or Web related topics.
A
AARNet -
Abilene Network -
Access control list -
Ad hoc network -
Address resolution protocol -
ADSL -
AirPort -
All your base are belong to us -
AOL -
APNIC -
AppleTalk -
Application Configuration Access Protocol -
Archimedes Plutonium -
Archie search engine -
ARIN -
ASN.1 -
Asynchronous Transfer Mode -
Auction -
Authentication -
Automatic teller machine -
Autonomous system -
Awards
B
Yahoo! Babel Fish -
Backbone cabal -
Base -
Bet exchange -
Biefeld-Brown effect -
Blank media tax -
Bogon filtering -
Bomb-making instructions on the internet -
Book -
Bookmark -
Border gateway protocol -
Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network -
Broadband Internet -
Bulletin board system
C
Cable modem -
Carrier sense multiple access -
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection -
Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance -
CDDB -
Content-control software -
Chain letter -
Channel access method -
Charles Stark Draper Prize -
Cisco Systems, Inc. -
Classless Inter-Domain Routing -
Code Red worm -
Common Gateway Interface -
Communications protocol -
Component object model -
Computer -
Computer addiction -
Computer-assisted language learning -
computer network -
Computer worm -
Computing technology -
Concurrent Versions System -
Consumer privacy -
Content-control software -
Content delivery -
Coordinated Universal Time -
Core router -
CSMA/CARP -
Customer privacy -
Cyber law -
Cyberpunk -
Cybersex -
Cyberspace
D
Darknet -
DDP -
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency -
del.icio.us -
Delivermail -
Demilitarized zone (computing) -
Denial of service -
DHCP -
Dial-up -
Dial-up access -
DiffServ -
Digital divide -
Digital literacy -
Digital Equipment Corporation -
Digital subscriber line -
DirecTV -
DISH Network -
Disk image -
Distance-vector routing protocol -
DNS -
Domain forwarding -
Domain name registry -
DVB -
Dynamic DNS
E
E-card -
E-democracy -
E-mail -
E-Services -
EBay -
Eldred v. Ashcroft -
Electronic mailing list -
Electronic money -
Embrace, extend and extinguish -
End-to-end connectivity -
Enterprise content management -
Entropy -
Epoch -
Ethernet -
European Installation Bus -
EverQuest -
Everything2 -
Extended ASCII -
Extranet -
F
Fan fiction -
FAQ -
Federal Standard 1037C -
Fiber optic -
Fidonet -
File sharing -
File transfer protocol -
Finger protocol -
Firefox -
Firewall -
Flaming -
Floppy disk -
Focus group -
Form -
FORscene -
Frame relay -
FTP
G
Gecko -
Geocaching -
G.hn -
GIMPS -
Global Internet usage -
Glossary of Internet-related terminology -
GNU -
Gnutella -
Google -
Gopher protocol
H
Hacker ethic -
Hate sites -
HDLC -
Head end -
Hierarchical routing -
High speed internet -
Hilary Rosen -
History of radio -
History of the Internet -
Homepage -
HomePNA -
Hop (telecommunications) -
HTML -
HTTP -
HTTPS -
Human–computer interaction
I
ICANN -
ICQ -
Identity theft -
IEEE 802.11 -
IMAP -
IMAPS -
Indigenous Dialogues -
Infocom -
Information Age -
Information Awareness Office -
Instant messaging -
Integrated Services Digital Network -
Internet -
Internet access in the United States -
Internet Archive -
Internet as a source of prior art -
Internet backbone -
Internet Capitalization Conventions -
Internet censorship -
Internet censorship circumvention -
Internet Chess Club -
Internet child pornography -
Internet Control Message Protocol -
Internet democracy -
Internet Engineering Task Force -
Internet friendship -
Internet Group Management Protocol -
Internet minute -
Internet organizations -
Internet phone -
Internet pornography -
Internet Protocol -
Internet protocol suite -
Internet radio -
Internet-related terminology -
Internet Relay Chat -
Internet romance -
Internet service provider -
Internet slang -
Internet Society -
Internet standard -
Internet Storm Center -
Internet time -
Internet troll -
Internet2 -
Internetworking -
InterNIC -
Interpedia -
Interplanetary Internet -
InterWiki -
Intranet -
iOS -
IP address -
IP protocol -
IPv4 -
IPv6 -
IPX -
IRC -
ISCSI -
ISDN -
ISO 8601 -
ISO 8859-1
J
JAIN -
James H. Clark -
Java applet -
Java platform -
JavaScript -
Jon Postel -
JPEG -
JSTOR
K
KA9Q -
Knowledge Aided Retrieval in Activity Context -
Ken McVay -
Kerberos -
KNX
L
LACNIC -
Large Technical System -
Larry Page -
Legal aspects of computing -
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol -
Link-state routing protocol -
Linux Network Administrators' Guide -
List of the oldest currently registered Internet domain names -
LiveJournal -
Load balancing -
Local area network -
Loopback -
Lycos
M
Mailbomb -
Make money fast -
Matt Drudge -
Media player (application software) -
Medium -
Melissa worm -
MenuetOS -
Metcalfe's law -
Metropolitan area network -
Microsoft .NET -
Microsoft SQL Server -
Miller test -
Mirror -
Modem -
Modulation -
Morris worm -
Mozilla Firefox -
Mozilla Thunderbird -
MPEG-1 Audio Layer II -
Multichannel video programming distributor -
Multicast -
MUMPS
MYSPACE -
N
Napster -
National Broadband Network -
NetBIOS -
Netiquette -
Netscape Communicator -
Netwar -
Network address translation -
Network Control Program -
Network File System -
Network Information Centre -
Network mapping -
Network News Transfer Protocol -
Network time protocol -
News agency -
News aggregator -
News client (newsreader) -
News server -
Non-repudiation -
Novell -
NSD -
NSFNet -
NTLM -
Nude celebrities on the Internet
O
Online -
online banking -
Online Books Page -
Open mail relay -
Open shortest path first -
Open Site -
Opera (web browser) -
Organizations -
OS/390 -
OSI model -
OSPF -
Out-of-band data
P
Packet radio -
Packet switching -
Parasitic computing -
Parental controls -
Paul Mockapetris -
Paul Vixie -
PayPal -
Peer-to-peer -
Peering -
Pen pal -
Perl -
Personal area network -
Ping -
PKZIP -
Plug-and-play -
Point-to-Point Protocol -
Political media -
POP -
POP3 -
Port forwarding -
Port scan -
Pretty Good Privacy -
Primary mirror -
Private IP address -
Project Gutenberg -
Protocol -
Protocol stack -
Pseudonymous remailer -
PSOS (real-time operating system) -
Psychological effects of Internet use -
Public switched telephone network -
Publishing
Q
QNX -
QOTD -
Quality of service -
QuickTime
R
Red Hat -
Regex -
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 -
RPC -
Resource Reservation Protocol -
Request for Comments -
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol -
RIPE -
RISC OS -
Root nameserver -
Route analytics -
Router (computing) -
Routing -
Rooster Teeth -
Routing information protocol -
RSA -
RTP -
RTSP
S
SCADA -
Scientology vs. the Internet -
scp -
Script kiddie -
Secret identity -
Secure copy -
Secure file transfer program -
Secure shell -
Sequenced packet exchange -
Sergey Brin -
Serial line IP -
Serial Line Internet Protocol -
Serial (podcast) -
SMB -
SFTP -
Signalling System 7 -
Simple network management protocol -
Slashdot effect -
Smiley -
Simple File Transfer Protocol -
SMTP -
Social engineering (security) -
Social impact of YouTube -
Social media -
Software development kit -
Sohonet -
Spam -
SPX -
Spyware -
SQL slammer worm -
SSH -
SSH File Transfer Protocol -
Stateful firewall -
Stateless firewall -
Steganography -
Stub network
T
TCP -
TCP and UDP port numbers -
Ted Nelson -
Telecommunication -
Telecommunications network -
Telecommunications traffic engineering -
Teledesic -
Telegraphy -
Teleprinter -
Telnet -
The Cathedral and the Bazaar -
Think tank -
Thunderbird -
Time to live -
Timeline of communication technology -
Timeline of computing 1950-1979 -
Timeline of computing 1980-1989 -
Tiscali -
Token Ring -
Top-level domain -
Traceroute -
Transmission Control Protocol -
Transmission system -
Transport Layer Security -
Trusted computing -
TTL
U
UDDI -
Ubiquitous Knowledge Processing Lab -
Ultrix -
Ungermann-Bass -
Uniform Resource Identifier -
Uniform Resource Locator -
Universal Plug and Play -
University of California, Berkeley -
Usenet -
Usenet cabal -
USENET Cookbook -
User datagram protocol -
UTF-16 -
UUCP
V
vCard -
Victorian Internet -
Vint Cerf -
Virtual community -
Voice over IP
W
WAP -
WAI -
War driving -
Warez -
Warhol worm -
WAV -
Web 2.0 -
Web annotation -
Web application -
Web browser -
Webcomic -
Web commerce -
Web design -
Web directory -
Web hosting -
Web index -
Web portal -
Web search engine -
Web server -
Web service -
Web traffic -
Web television -
Webcam -
WebDAV -
Webmail -
Webpage -
WebQuest -
Website -
Whois -
Wi-Fi -
Wide area information server -
Wide area network -
Wiki software -
Wikipedia -
WikiWikiWeb -
Windows 3.x -
Winsock -
Wireless access point -
Wireless Application Protocol -
Wireless broadband -
Wireless community network -
World Wide Web -
WorldForge
X
X.25 -
XDR -
Xerox Network Systems -
XML -
XS4ALL
Y
YTMND -
Yahoo! -
Yahoo! Internet Life
Z
Zephyr
See also
:Category:Computing terminology
List of computing topics
Index
Index
Internet | [
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220685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20house | Chicago house | Chicago house refers to house music produced during the mid to late 1980s within Chicago. The term is generally used to refer to the first ever house music productions, which were by Chicago-based artists in the 1980s.
History and origins
Disco edits
Following Chicago's Disco Demolition Night in mid-1979, disco music's mainstream popularity fell into decline. In the early 1980s, fewer and fewer disco records were being released, but the genre remained popular in some Chicago nightclubs and on at least one radio station, WBMX-FM.
In this era, Chicago radio jocks The Hot Mix 5, and club DJs Ron Hardy and Frankie Knuckles played various styles of dance music, including older disco records, newer Italo disco, electro, EBM tracks, B-boy hip hop music by Man Parrish, Jellybean Benitez, Arthur Baker and John Robie as well as electronic pop music by Kraftwerk, Telex and Yellow Magic Orchestra.
Some of these DJs also made and played their own edits of their favorite songs on reel-to-reel tape, focusing on the portions of songs which worked well on the dancefloor. Some even mixed in effects, drum machines, and other rhythmic electronic instrumentation in an effort to give songs more appeal. These edits and remixes were rarely released to the public, and even then were available only on privately pressed vinyl records or on mixtapes.
European connection
The early house music sound was a "dialogue" between Hispanic, and Black American post-disco and European post-punk electronic music and their traditions with Italo-disco picked or, emulated the most, as the template for house music. Precursors include electro songs "Planet Rock," "Let the Music Play," Italo-disco (e.g. Klein + M.B.O.), on one hand; EBM (Liaisons Dangereuses; Deutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft on acid house) on another.
Original productions
On the history, Farley "Jackmaster" Funk says "Jesse Saunders was first[.] He put out records before anyone conceived of doing it, got all the girls, and all the fame. Jesse wanted to be the next Motown." Screamin' Rachael, co-founder of Trax Records, describes the music the following way "[w]hat Trax did was really a combination of punk and industrial with a really great 4x4 dance beat. Today they want to call it EDM, but Chicago house is the mother of them all. A lot of people don’t want to recognize—I think people in the UK do, but others don’t. Part of it is that Chicago was never an industry town, and New York always likes to claim they did it first." In 1984, Saunders' label released, on 12-inch single, a song called "On and On". Saunders composed the track with Vince Lawrence to replace a record that had been stolen from Saunders' collection, the "On & On" bootleg disco megamix by Mach. That megamix, a pastiche of loops from several electronic disco records, particularly the bassline from Player One's "Space Invaders" (1979), had been Saunders' "signature" tune as a DJ; it was one that other DJs in the city did not play. Saunders and Lawrence added hypnotic lyrics and electronic instruments, utilizing a Roland TR-808 drum machine as electronic percussion as well as a Korg Poly-61 synthesizer and a Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer. In a 2010 interview, Saunders claimed the song sought to capture the essence of the style of disco that other local DJs were playing at the time, a style he says was already known locally as "house".
Saunders' success with the relatively unpolished "On & On" inspired other Chicago DJs to try their hand at producing and releasing original songs in a similar style, using electronic instrumentation. Early such recordings included Jamie Principle's and Frankie Knuckles' "Your Love" (1986); and Chip E.'s "Jack Trax" record (1985), featuring the songs "It's House" and "Time to Jack", each of which used complex rhythms, simple bassline, sampling technology, and sparse vocals. These producers were aided in their efforts by the availability of affordable, mass-produced electronic music instruments, especially those from the Japanese Roland Corporation, including the TR-909, TR-808 and TR-707 drum machines, TR-727 Latin percussion machine, Juno synthesizers, TB-303 bass module, and compact sequencers.
Although there are conflicting accounts of the term's etymology, by 1985, "house music" was synonymous with these homegrown dance music productions.
Increasing popularity and divergent styles
As with other dance music, DJs and local club-goers were the primary audience for this relatively noncommercial music, which was more conceptual and longer than the music usually played on commercial radio. Mainstream record stores often did not carry it, as the records were not available through the major record distributors. In Chicago, only record stores such as Importes Etc., State Street Records, JR's Music shop and Gramaphone Records were the primary suppliers of this music. Despite the music's limited commercial availability, house records sold in the tens of thousands, and the music was further popularized via radio station 102.7 WBMX-FM, where Program Director Lee Michaels gave airtime to the station's resident DJ team, the Hot Mix 5 (Ralphi Rosario, Mickey "Mixin" Oliver, Scott "Smokin" Silz, Kenny "Jammin" Jason, and Farley "Jackmaster" Funk). The Hot Mix 5 shows started with the station's launch in 1981, and was widely listened to by DJs and dance music fans in Chicago as well as visiting DJs and producers from Detroit.
Many of the songs that defined the Chicago house music sound were released primarily on vinyl by the labels DJ International Records and Trax Records, both of which had distribution outside of Chicago, leading to house's popularity in other cities, including New York and London.
Trends in house music soon became subgenres, such as the lush, slower-tempo deep house, and the stark, especially hypnotic acid house. Deep house's origins can be traced to Chicago producer Mr Fingers's jazzy, soulful recordings "Mystery of Love" (1985) and "Can You Feel It?" (1986), which, according to author Richie Unterberger, moved house music away from its "posthuman tendencies back towards the lush" soulful sound of early disco music.
Acid house arose from Chicago artists' experiments with the squelchy Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer, and the style's earliest release on vinyl is generally cited as Phuture's "Acid Tracks" (1987). Phuture, a group founded by Nathan "DJ Pierre" Jones, Earl "Spanky" Smith Jr., and Herbert "Herb J" Jackson, is credited with having been the first to use the TB-303 in the house music context. The group's 12-minute "Acid Tracks" was recorded to tape and was played by DJ Ron Hardy at the Music Box, where Hardy was resident DJ. Hardy once played it four times over the course of an evening until the crowd responded favorably. The track also utilized a Roland TR-707 drum machine.
Chicago house music was being licensed to UK Labels by DJ International, Trax, KMS and the Transmat record labels, and with that the music began to expand throughout Europe. Especially the "Jack Trax" compilations, starting in 1987, helped to make rare house records from the U.S. available cheaply in Europe.
Several house tracks became #1 hits on the UK Singles Chart, starting with Chicago musician Steve "Silk" Hurley's "Jack Your Body" (1987). The first house record considered to be a major hit overseas is "Love Can't Turn Around" by Farley "Jackmaster" Funk and Jesse Saunders featuring Darryl Pandy, which peaked at #10 in the UK Singles Chart in 1986.
Relationship to Garage and Techno
At the same time as house was becoming big in Chicago, other related genres were forming in other major U.S cities. Simon Reynolds' A Tale of Three Cities (the first chapter of his book Generation Ectasy) looked at the emergence of techno in Detroit, house in Chicago, and garage in New York City and the reasons why the cultures took off like they did. Detroit was a unique urban area where industrial jobs had placed blacks and whites in the same economic situations, and this led to the Europhilia of these black youths and popularity of techno music. It was an attempt "to distance themselves from the kids that were coming up in the projects, in the ghetto." (Reynolds, p. 5)
Subculture
Chicago house aesthetic shared its look with other outsider hip hop and punk subcultures; however, the "indisputable sign of house-ness" came to be a "Ralph Lauren preppie meets English country gentleman style, with cardigans, woolen jodhpurs and riding boots."
The club scene
When these house clubs and parties started to appeal to a wider audience, it was similar to the past disco culture in New York City. Both genres originated catering to very specific subcultures and when the popularity grew it changed the whole scene. The posting of 'no jits' signs was "to make them feel unwanted. And that was when the scene started to self-destruct." However, even though there are definitely parallels between house and disco clubs, this seemed more like a reversal of roles. The more elitist house listeners did not want to dilute their clubs and culture.
Pages 230-248 of Brewster & Broughton's Last Night a DJ Saved My Life also looked at the rise of the house scene in Chicago. Through showing Frankie Knuckles club, it gave a look at the club scene that was taking place and the energetic, sweaty, drug-fueled parties that house embodied. "House was a feeling, a rebellious musical taste, a way of declaring yourself in the know," (Broughton 242).
Dance styles
At least three styles of dancing are associated with house music: Jacking, Footwork, and Lofting. These styles include a variety of techniques and sub-styles, including skating, stomping, and shuffle steps (also see Melbourne Shuffle). House music dancing styles can include movements from many other forms of dance, such as and slamdancing, waacking, voguing, African, Latin, Brazilian (including Capoeira), jazz dance, Lindy Hop, tap dance, modern dance. House dancing is concerned with the sensuality of the body and setting oneself free in ecstasy — without the worry of outside barriers.
One of the primary elements in house dancing is "the jack" or "jacking" — a style created in the early days of Chicago house that left its trace in numerous record titles such as "Time to Jack" by Chip E. from the "Jack Trax" EP (1985), "Jack’n the House" (1985) by Farley "Jackmaster" Funk (1985) or "Jack Your Body" by Steve "Silk" Hurley (1986). It involves moving the torso forward and backward in a rippling motion matching to the beat of the music, as if a wave were passing through it. All footwork in house dancing is said to initiate from the way the jack moves the center of gravity through space.
Influence and diaspora
House, perhaps more than any other form of black music, has birthed many offshoots and spread its sound far and wide. The prevalence of four on the floor beats in dance music is largely derived from house. It has influenced, in some capacity, Garage house, Jungle music, Eurodance, Electropop, Dubstep, and even certain elements of Alternative rock and Hip hop. More direct offshoots of house (e.g. Acid house) are also notable for their own offshoots that extend the Chicago variant's family tree.
House also partakes in aspects of the musical traditions of other sounds. Most notable is the influence it takes from disco—genre progenitor Frankie Knuckles was himself a relocated New York Disco DJ. In many senses, house was a low-budget re-creation of disco, using synthesizers, sequencers, and samplers in the stead of orchestras and live performers. Disco also participated, to a less notable extent, in the soundsystem culture of typically Caribbean forms of dance music.
See also
Warehouse, Chicago
Acid house
Trax Records
Club Zanzibar (black electronic-music venue in 1980s-era Newark, New Jersey)
General:
Chicago record labels
References
External links
Stuart Cosgrove: History of Chicago House Music (1988)
Tim Lawrence: Acid – Can You Jack? – On the early history of Chicago house (2005)
5 Magazine - Chicago House Music magazine
20th-century music genres
House music genres
Music of Chicago
Music scenes | [
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220686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enguerrand%20de%20Monstrelet | Enguerrand de Monstrelet | Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 140020 July 1453) was a French chronicler. He was born in Picardy, most likely into a family of the minor nobility.
Life
In 1436 and later he held the office of lieutenant of the gavenier (i.e. receiver of the gave, a kind of church rate) at Cambrai, and he seems to have made this city his usual place of residence. He was for some time bailiff of the cathedral chapter and then provost of Cambrai. He was married and left some children when he died.
Little else is known about Monstrelet except that he was present, not at the capture of Joan of Arc, but at her subsequent interrogation with Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Continuing the work of Froissart, Monstrelet wrote a Chronique, which extends to two books and covers the period between 1400 and 1444, when, according to another chronicler, Mathieu d'Escouchy, he ceased to write. In these can be found his commentary on the Battle of Tannenburg (1410) between the Teutonic Order and the Polish-Lithuanian and allied armies, where he stated that the King of Poland "had just recently pretended to become a Christian in order to win the Polish Crown". But following a custom which was by no means uncommon in the Middle Ages, a clumsy sequel, extending to 1516, was formed out of various chronicles and tacked onto his work.
Monstrelet's own writings, dealing with the latter part of the Hundred Years' War, are valuable because they contain a large number of authentic documents and reported speeches. The author, however, shows little power of narration; his work, although clear, is dull. His somewhat ostentatious assertions of impartiality do not cloak a marked preference for the Burgundians in their struggle with France.
Among many editions of the Chronique may be mentioned those of J.-A. Buchon (1826) and the one edited for the Société de I'histoire de France by M Douet d'Arcq (Paris, 1857–1862). See Auguste Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, vols. IV and V (Paris, 1904).
Works
Tome 1 1857
Tome 2 1858
Tome 3 1859
Tome 4 1860
Tome 5 1861
Tome 6 1862
References
Sources
External links
The Chronicles of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, translated by Thomas Johnes, vol. 1 (1840), vol. 2 (1849) on Google Books.
1400 births
1453 deaths
People from Picardy
15th-century historians
15th-century French writers | [
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220688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer%20%28disambiguation%29 | Consumer (disambiguation) | A consumer is person or group that uses products.
Consumer or Consumers may also refer to:
Consumer (food chain), an organism that lives off other organisms
Consumers Distributing, a retail store chain
The Consumers, a punk rock band active from 1977 to 1978 | [
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220689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailiff | Bailiff | A bailiff (from Middle English baillif, Old French baillis, bail "custody, charge, office"; cf. bail, based on the adjectival form, baiulivus, of Latin bajulus, carrier, manager) is a manager, overseer or custodian; a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offices and duties vary greatly.
Another official sometimes referred to as a bailiff was the Vogt. In the Holy Roman Empire a similar function was performed by the Amtmann.
British Isles
Historic bailiffs
Bailiff was the term used by the Normans for what the Saxons had called a reeve: the officer responsible for executing the decisions of a court. The duty of the bailiff would thus include serving summonses and orders, and executing all warrants issued out of the corresponding court. The district within which the bailiff operated was called his bailiwick, even to the present day. Bailiffs were outsiders and free men, that is, they were not usually from the bailiwick for which they were responsible.
Throughout Norman England, the Saxon and Norman populations gradually mixed, and reeve came to be limited to shire-level courts (hence sheriff as a contraction of "shire-reeve"), while bailiff was used in relation to the lower courts. Primarily then, bailiff referred to the officer executing the decisions of manorial courts, and the hundred courts. Likewise, in Scotland a bailie was the chief officer of a barony (baron bailie), and in the Channel Islands they were the principal civil officers. With the introduction of justices of the peace (magistrates), magistrates' courts acquired their own bailiffs.
Historically, courts were not only concerned with legal matters, and often decided administrative matters for the area within their jurisdiction. A bailiff of a manor, therefore, would often oversee the manor's lands and buildings, collect its rents, manage its accounts, and run its farms (see Walter of Henley).
In the 19th century, the administrative functions of courts were mostly replaced by the creation of elected local authorities (councils). Nevertheless, the term bailiff is retained as a title by the chief officers of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster and the Bailiff of Dover Castle. In Scotland, bailie now refers to a municipal officer corresponding to an English alderman.
In the 20th century, the court system in England was drastically re-organised, with the assize courts taking some of the powers of the shire courts, and becoming the High Court of Justice; in turn, the remaining elements of the shire court took over the powers of the hundred courts, to form county courts. The High Court acquired the sheriffs, the county courts the bailiffs. Bailiffs were now appointed by a county court judge and were removable by the Lord Chancellor.
Delegation
A bailiff could, for practical reasons, delegate his responsibilities, in regard to some particular court instruction, to other individuals. As the population expanded, the need for the services of a bailiff mainly arose from financial disputes; consequently, these assistants came to be closely associated with debt-collection, in the public's minds. By Shakespeare's time, they had acquired the nickname bum-bailiffs, perhaps because they followed debtors very closely behind them; in France, the term pousse-cul (literally push-arse) was similarly used for their equivalent officers.
To avoid confusion with their underlings, the County Courts Act 1888 renamed bailifs as high bailiffs. This act also formally acknowledged right of the high bailiffs to appoint (and dismiss) under-bailiffs as they wished, and establishing that the high bailiffs retain ultimate responsibility for their actions. The High Bailiff gradually became a purely ceremonial role, the court's clerk liaising with under-bailiffs directly.
The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act as an under-bailiff to levy any distress for rent unless he is authorized by a county court judge to act as an under-bailiff. The County Courts Act 1888 restricted the hours an under-bailiff could execute a possession warrant, to only be between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. (§ 142). It also limited the ability to bring a legal complaint against a bailiff; six days' notice now had to be given (§52).
Modern-day usage
Channel Islands
In the Channel Islands the bailiff is the first civil officer in each of the two bailiwicks. He is appointed by the Crown, and holds office until retirement. He presides as a judge in the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the jurats; he also presides over the States Assembly (Jersey) or States of Guernsey, and represents the Crown on civic occasions. The bailiff in each island must, in order to fulfill his judicial role, be a qualified lawyer.
England and Wales
In England and Wales, there are a number of offices either formally titled, or commonly referred to, as "bailiffs". Some of these bailiffs are concerned with executing the orders of the courts, generally around the collection of debts, and some exercise semi-official supervisory powers over certain activities. Those concerned with the execution of court orders are commonly referred to as bailiffs, although reforms to the law in 2014 have renamed all these positions to alternative titles.
With the 19th-century renaming of bailiffs to "high bailiffs", their under-bailiffs generally came to be referred to as bailiffs themselves. The powers and responsibilities of these bailiffs depend on which type of court they take orders from. In emulation of these responsibilities, a number of roles established by 19th century statute laws have also been named "bailiffs", despite not having a connection to a court.
Magistrates' bailiffs
Civilian enforcement officers are employees of Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service, and can seize and sell goods to recover money owed under a fine and community penalty notice, and also execute warrants of arrest, committal, detention and control (formally called distress or distraint). These functions can also be carried out by employees of private companies authorised by the Ministry of Justice. In July 2013 HM Court Service announced it is to fully contract out the whole of the compliance and enforcement process to a private company; this would involve the transfer of over 500 of its employees. This decision led to official strike action by some employees on 30 July 2013.
Certificated enforcement agents
Certificated enforcement agents are used by local authorities, Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service and landlords for a variety of reasons such as collection of taxes, road traffic debts and commercial rent arrears.
County Court bailiffs
County Court bailiffs remain directly employed by HM Courts Service, carrying out enforcement for the County Court. The current frequency of different types of case means that they are mainly involved in recovering payment of unpaid County Court judgments; like magistrates' bailiffs, they can seize and sell goods to recover a debt. They can also affect and supervise the possession of the property and the return of goods under hire purchase agreements, and serve court documents. They also execute arrest warrants and search warrants.
High Court enforcement officers
A High Court enforcement officer has similar functions to a County Court bailiff, in that they execute writs and warrants for unpaid court judgements, and evict people from land where possession has been granted. The majority of the work of High Court enforcement officers is carried out by certificated enforcement agents acting under the authority of a senior High Court enforcement officer, often a director of an enforcement firm for whom the enforcement agent works.
Another officer of the High Court, the tipstaff, is an employee of HM Courts and Tribunals Service, and is concerned with enforcing certain judgements of the High Court, typically involving the enforcement of court orders relating to the custody of children in family law cases.
Water bailiff
Water bailiffs also exist in England and Wales to police bodies of water and prevent illegal fishing. They are generally employees of the Environment Agency and when executing their duties, have the powers and privileges of a police constable for the purpose of the enforcement of the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1975.
Farm bailiff
Farm bailiffs exist on landed estates. The farm bailiff is employed by the proprietor and his managerial duties can include collecting rent, taxes and supervising both farm operations and labourers. Historically, the estate would typically include a hall or manor house, a home farm managed by the bailiff, several smaller farms occupied by tenants and possibly a tiny village (a collection of small cottages) in which the farm labourers lived.
Epping Forest bailiffs
The Epping Forest Act 1878 allows the conservators of the forest to appoint forest keepers, reeves and also bailiffs. These individuals may also be attested as a constable, although currently only forest keepers are sworn in. The forest currently has volunteer fishing bailiffs, who support forest keepers. As the Epping Forest Act does include this title of appointment, these individuals are statutory bailiffs and the title is not merely just historic.
Jury bailiffs
Jury bailiffs are court ushers who monitor juries during their deliberations and during overnight stays.
Colloquial uses of the word
As most people's contact with bailiffs is when a bailiff comes to take property to enforce debt, public perception does not usually distinguish between bailiffs and debt collectors. Indeed, many mere debt collectors often publicly refer to themselves as bailiffs. However, it is illegal for a debt collector to call themselves a bailiff, if they are not – that is, if they are not a certified officer acting on a court order, they may not call themselves a bailiff. Mere debt collectors do not have the powers or authority of a bailiff.
The officer appointed by a sheriff was also sometimes described as the sheriff's bailiff, on account of the similarity of the role. However, they are not the same, and High Court enforcement officers have greater powers.
Due to the negative association with debt collection, in former times, in the Fens of eastern England, the term Bailiff of Bedford was often used as slang for destructive floods of the River Great Ouse.
Isle of Man
The High Bailiff is the head stipendiary magistrate in the Isle of Man.
Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, a bailiff () is an official appointed by the Revenue Commissioners who is involved with the enforcement of judgments, including evictions and repossessions, and the collection of unpaid tax. A bailiff is subordinate to a sheriff.
Scotland
The Scottish form of this post is the bailie. Bailies served as burgh magistrates in the system of local government in Scotland before 1975 when the system of burghs and counties was replaced by a two-tier system of regional councils and district councils. The two-tier system was later replaced by a system of unitary authorities.
Under the new arrangements the bailies were abolished and replaced by justices of the peace serving in the District Courts of Scotland, these posts no longer holding any authority within the local authority as an administrative body. However, the term bailie is still used as an honorary title by Glasgow City Council for a number of senior councilors who can deputise for the Lord Provost.
The Scottish equivalent of a sheriff's bailiff or high bailiff is the sheriff officer (for the sheriff court) or the messenger-at-arms (for the court of session). These positions were to be abolished by §60 of the Bankruptcy and Diligence etc. (Scotland) Act 2007, and replaced with the office of judicial officer under §57(1) of that enactment. This enactment was never brought into effect and was repealed under schedule 4 of the Public Services Reform (Scotland) Act 2010
In Scotland, the office of water bailiff does exist, with power to enforce legislation relating to the illegal collection of salmon and trout.
Australia
In Australia, bailiffs service various legal documents (e.g. subpoenas), issued from any Australian jurisdiction. Bailiffs also have the duty of executing warrants.
Canada
In parts of Canada, bailiffs are responsible for the service of legal process. In some jurisdictions, duties of the bailiff include the service of legal documents, repossession and evictions in accordance with court judgments, application of wheel clamps and the execution of arrest warrants. Some jurisdictions also require that applicants receive special training and have a degree in paralegal technology to become a bailiff.
Ontario
In Ontario, provincial bailiffs provide primary transportation of prisoners between correctional facilities such as jails and prisons. Under the Ministry of Correctional Services Act (Ontario), while transporting prisoners, bailiffs have the powers of police constables. When necessary, Provincial correctional officers will act as bailiffs for short and long term assignments and full-time bailiffs are typically recruited from the correctional officer ranks. Provincial bailiffs are armed with expandable batons and pepper spray and operate under the jurisdiction of the provincial Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services. Duties normally associated with bailiffs in other jurisdictions, such as residential evictions, seizures, and other processes order by the court, are performed by sheriffs under the office of the Attorney General of Ontario or "private" bailiffs if initiated without a court order.
Private bailiffs are licensed by the Province of Ontario's Ministry of Consumer Services under the Bailiffs Act. Assistant bailiffs are similarly licensed, but must be supervised by a bailiff. Bailiffs in this capacity assist others who have a right to exercise self-help to repossess or seize something, or to evict under a commercial tenancy. Bailiffs are agents of the person contracting their services, not government employees or peace officers, and are prohibited from using force to seize goods or evict tenants.
United States
Many in the United States use the word bailiff colloquially to refer to a peace officer providing court security. More often, these court officers are sheriff's deputies, state troopers, marshals, corrections officers or constables. The terminology varies among (and sometimes within) the several states.
In rural areas, this responsibility is often carried out by the junior lawyer in training under the judge's supervision called a law clerk who also has the title of bailiff.
Whatever the name used, the agency providing court security is often charged with serving legal process and seizing and selling property (e.g., replevin or foreclosure). In some cases, the duties are separated between agencies in a given jurisdiction. For instance, a court officer may provide courtroom security in a jurisdiction where a sheriff or constable handles service of process and seizures.
Hawaii
Within the State of Hawaii there are two types of bailiff, district court and circuit court. Both types of bailiff are employees of the State of Hawaii: district court bailiffs provide support services to the court staff and judge, call the cases and maintain order in the court. Circuit court bailiffs have similar duties to their district court counterparts, but also deal with the calling, selection and control of jury trials. They also provide security for the judge and courtroom. Circuit court bailiffs currently have limited law enforcement authority while on duty, but are unarmed. Currently there is only one Circuit court bailiff within the Hawaii Judiciary, he is located in the 5th Circuit (Kaua’i), all the other Circuit courts have replaced their bailiffs with Law clerks, who call calendars etc., but have none of the police powers or security responsibilities.
Indiana
In the State of Indiana, bailiffs are administrative assistants that are employed by judges who reside in a county judicial circuit. For example, a county court judge, superior court judge, and circuit court judge may have at least one bailiff who is in charge of calling a jury, seating a jury, as well as attending to a juror's needs. They are sworn officers of the court.
Kentucky
In the state of Kentucky, They are two types of bailiffs Fully certified which have the same authority has a deputy sheriff or a city police officer. Then they are Certified Court Security Officers (CCSO) Certified Court Security Officers go through a 2 week academy at the DOCJT In Richmond KY. These officers have full police powers and are Armed on courthouse property. Can serve Warrants on courthouse property and can transport prisoners. These officers can not go out of the courthouse property to make arrest or to serve warrants.
Maryland
Within the State of Maryland there are two types of bailiffs, circuit court and district court. Circuit court bailiffs are employees of the prospective county of which they work and possess no law enforcement authority. They are unarmed and provide services to the courtroom judge, escort and maintain the jurors/jury pool, and maintain courtroom decorum. district court bailiffs provide similar services as their circuit court counterparts but differ in that they are employees of the state of Maryland, are armed, and have limited law enforcement authority while on duty.
Massachusetts
In the State of Massachusetts Trial Court, court officers, are responsible for providing security and enforcing the law in and around court houses as well as for the people who work in or visit them, and the custodies under their supervision. Court officers and those authorized to act as court officers may perform police duties and have police powers in or about the areas of the court to which they have been assigned.
New York
In the New York State Unified Court System, court officers, are responsible for providing security and enforcing the law in and around court houses. Under New York State penal code, they are classified as "peace officers." New York State Court Officers are able to carry firearms both on and off duty, and have the power to make warrantless arrests both on and off duty anywhere in the State of New York. They also have the authority to make traffic stops.
Vermont
In the State of Vermont a high bailiff is an elected county officer who performs certain duties when the sheriff is unable to do so.
France
In pre-revolutionary France, bailiff (, ) was the king's administrative representative during the ancien régime in northern France, where the bailiff was responsible for the application of justice and control of the administration and local finances in his bailiwick ().
Bailli (12th-century French bailif, "administrative official, deputy") was derived from a Vulgar Latin term *bajulivus meaning "official in charge of a castle", i.e. a royal castellan.
History
In the late 12th and early 13th century, King Philip II, an able and ingenious administrator who founded the central institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, prepared the expansion of the royal demesne through his appointment of bailiffs in the king's northern lands (the domaine royal), based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions (the "") which had been used by earlier sovereign princes such as the Duke of Normandy. In Flanders, the count appointed similar bailiffs (). The equivalent agent in the king's southern lands acquired after the inheritance of the County of Toulouse was the seneschal.
Unlike the local administration of Norman England through sheriffs drawn from the great local families, the French bailiff was a paid government official, who had no power network in the area to which he had been assigned, and, in the way of a true bureaucrat, owed his income and social status wholly to the central administration that he represented. "He was therefore fanatically loyal to the king," Norman Cantor observes, "and was concerned only with the full exercise of royal power." The cathedral schools and the University of Paris provided the clerks and lawyers who served as the king's bailiff.
Magistrates
Under the Ancien Régime in France, the bailli (earlier baillis), or bailie, was the king's chief officer in a bailiwick or bailiery (bailliage), serving as chief magistrate for boroughs and baronies, administrator, military organizer, and financial agent. In southern France the term generally used was sénéchal who held office in a sénéchaussée. The bailie convened a bailie court (cour baillivale) which was an itinerant court of first instance.
The administrative network of bailiwicks was established in the 13th century over the Crown lands (the domaine royal) by Philip Augustus who commissioned the first bailiff under the name bailli. They were based on pre-existing tax collection districts (baillie) which had been in use in formerly sovereign territories, e.g., the Duchy of Normandy. Bailie courts, as royal courts, were made superior over existent local courts; these lower courts were called:
provost courts (prévôtés royales), sat by a provost (prévôt) appointed and paid by the bailie;
Norman vicomtés, sat by a viscount (vicomte) (position could be held by non-nobles);
elsewhere in northern France, châtellenies, sat by a castel (position could be held by non-nobles);
or, in the south, vigueries or baylies, sat by a viguier or bayle.
The bailie court was presided over by a lieutenant-bailie (lieutenant général du bailli). Bailie courts had appellate jurisdiction over lower courts (manorial courts, provost courts) but was the court of first instance for suits involving the nobility. Appeal of bailie court judgments lay in turn with the provincial Parlements. In an effort to reduce the Parlements' caseload, several bailie courts were granted extended powers by Henry II of France and were thereafter called presidial courts (baillages présidiaux). Bailie and presidial courts were also the courts of first instance for certain crimes (previously the jurisdiction of manorial courts): sacrilege, treason, kidnapping, rape, heresy, money defacement, sedition, insurrection, and illegal bearing of weapons.
By the late 16th century, the bailie's role had become mostly symbolic, and the lieutenant-bailie was the only one to hear cases. The administrative and financial role of the bailie courts declined in the early modern period (superseded by the king's royal tax collectors and provincial governors, and later by intendants), and by the end of the 18th century, the bailiwicks, which numbered in the hundreds, had become purely judicial.
Ushers, beadles and tipstaffs
In medieval France court bailiffs did not exist as such, but their functions were carried out by several court officers. The ussier (modern huissier), or usher, originally the doorkeeper, kept order in the court. The somoneor (mod. semonneur), or court crier, adjourned and called the court to order and announced its orders or directions. The bedel (mod. bedeau), or beadle, was the court's messenger and served process, especially summonses (sumunse, somonse, mod. semonce). And finally the sergens (mod. sergent), or tipstaff, enforced judgments of the court, seized property, and made arrests. The tipstaff's badge of authority was his verge, or staff, made of ebony, about 30 cm long, decorated with copper or ivory, and mandatory after 1560.
The Parlement courts consolidated most of these functions in its tipstaff (varlet), and the rest of the court system followed suit as the tipstaff was given the broadest powers. During the Renaissance, the four officers were reduced to two—the huissier and sergent—who took on all these functions, with the distinction being that the huissier served in higher courts and sergent in bailie courts (sergent royal) and manorial courts (sergent de justice). In 1705 the two professions were fused by royal edict under the name huissier.
Low Countries and German-speaking lands
The office of bailiff was historically used in Flanders, Zealand, the Netherlands, Hainault, and in northern France. The bailiff was a civil servant who represented the ruler in town and country. In Flanders the count usually appointed the bailiff.
In the Low Countries and German-speaking Europe this position was known as baljuw (from bailli), but other words were used such as schout "reeve, (medieval) bailiff" (Holland, Antwerp, Mechelen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Turnhout), meier "majordomo" (Asse, Leuven), drossāte "steward, seneschal" (other parts of Brabant), amman (Brussels), and Amtmann and Ammann (Germany, Switzerland, Austria). The Amtmann was the senior official appointed by a territorial lord to oversee the administration and jurisdiction of a manorial estate or equivalent.
Belgium
Most of the functions associated with the older Dutch-language terms translated as bailiff in English, are no longer found in one officer. The modern Belgian terms huissier de justice (in French) or gerechtsdeurwaarder (in Dutch), however, are often, and inaccurately, translated into English as bailiff, though the latter under an Anglo Saxon law system is by no means identical to the former who is typical for many countries influenced by the Napoleonic Code. He or she is a sworn officer who may legally deliver exploits (process serving), see to the execution of court orders such as the confiscation of goods, or make formal record of events, acts and circumstances. In Belgium, the bailiff can be appointed by a confiscating court to exercise the judicial mandate of schuldbemiddelaar (in Dutch) or médiateur de dettes (in French), a debt negotiator, in a procedure called collectieve schuldenregeling (CSR) or médiation collective de dettes, a collectively negotiated settlement of debts, which is comparable with the regulations by the Wet Schuldsanering Natuurlijke Personen (WSNP) in the Netherlands.
In auction catalogs published in Brussels at the beginning of the 20th century, the term "huissier" is associated with auction sales, i.e., vente aux enchères publiques par le ministère de Me Grégoire, huissier, 26, rue Josaphat, à Bruxelles.[Galerie Georges Giroux, November 27, 1937.]
Netherlands
In Netherlands during the Middle Ages, the term bailiff translates to Baljuw, which had various meanings and sometimes carried the same privileges and duties as the title Drost or Drossaard, depending on the jurisdiction. Pieter Cornelisz Hooft for example, carried both the titles "Drost van Muiden" and "Baljuw van Goeilandt", that were more or less honorary titles by that time. The two neighboring areas had needed the office to oversee the appointment of local council staff (mostly referred to as "schout & schepenen"), whose most important interests were the passage of travelers and goods by water (Muiden) and overland (Gooiland). The Netherlands was governed by waterschappen as well as by regional city councils, and both institutions once had honorary titles of Baljuw or Drost.
These days, the term "Bailiff" is not used in the Netherlands, except
for the position of president and some honorary Bailiffs of the Dutch branch of the Knights Hospitaller.
A person who amongst others sees to the execution of court orders such as the confiscation of goods is called a deurwaarder.
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta the term bailiff is used for an honour given to certain senior knights. The dignity of bailiff may be conferred upon:
a Knight Grand Cross of Justice (i.e. a professed knight)
a Knight Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion in Obedience
a Knight Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion
a Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church
The heads of several royal or princely houses who are Knights Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion usually receive the dignity of bailiff. These currently include King Albert II of Belgium; Franz, Duke of Bavaria; Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou; Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein; Carl, Duke of Württemberg.
Non-Catholics who are heads or senior members of royal or princely houses may be granted the insignia of a Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion. These currently include King Simeon II of Bulgaria and George Mikhailovich Romanov. They are permitted to wear the collar, star, and sash of a bailiff, but, not being Catholic, do not receive any of the spiritual benefits of membership in the Order.
Poland
In Poland, a court bailiff (komornik sądowy) is a public official (but not a civil servant) who is assigned to undertake enforcement action within the area of the jurisdiction of a single regional court (in Poland "a regional court is established for one or more communes, and, in justified cases, more than one regional court may be established for a single commune"*). With the 2008 amendment of the Court Bailiffs and Enforcement Act of 20 August 1997 a bailiff is allowed to act in the whole territory of the Republic of Poland if and only if the creditors remark in the enforcement application that they exercise a right of selecting a bailiff. Then the bailiff acts beyond its area of action, which might result in a prolonged and ineffective enforcement. However, such practices are inadmissible when the creditors apply for the enforcement to be carried out in respect of real property and other property rights where the regulations on the execution on real property shall apply. The execution proceedings on real property must be conducted only by the court bailiff who acts within the area of the jurisdiction of the regional court which keeps land and mortgage register for that real property.
A court bailiff is an individual who is appointed to act as such by the minister of justice on application of the person concerned, filed via the intermediary of the president of the court of appeal, within whose area the candidate intends to perform acts in enforcement proceedings. Before appointing, the minister of justice shall request the council of the chamber of the court bailiffs to give the opinion of the candidate. The bailiffs are not employed by the regional courts (they act at the regional courts) but they are self-employed, which means that they have their own registered offices (named Bailiff's Office in...) and are remunerated by percentage on money recovered and the other fees specified in The Court Bailiffs and Enforcement Act of 20 August 1997. The bailiff also incurs expenses including costs of correspondence, operating costs per kilometer when visiting debtors residing out of the place of bailiff's office; and the other expenses specified in above mentioned act. All those expenses incurred in the course of proceedings are to be covered by the debtor or by the creditor if the enforcement proceedings are ineffective. The regional courts supervise only the work of the bailiffs, especially with reference to the fastness, proficiency and accuracy of their activities; the correctness of office management and accounting. When enforcing the bailiffs are subordinate to the judicial decisions and president of the regional court. The bailiff acts on behalf of a creditor who is legally owed money. The creditor files an application for commencing enforcement proceedings and an original writ of execution with an enforcement clause inserted herein.
The court bailiffs are responsible for:
enforcing judicial decisions concerning pecuniary and non-pecuniary claims,
securing the aforesaid claims,
enforcing other writs of execution issued pursuant to separate provisions and writs of execution requiring to be enforced pursuant to separate provisions by way of court enforcement without providing them with the enforcement clause,
drawing up the report regarding the actual state of affairs before commencing legal proceedings and issuing decisions—if ordered by the court or prosecutor,
serving court notices, announcements, objections, complaints and other documents against a receipt and date-annotation,
exercising official supervision of the voluntary public auctions with adjudication to the lowest and highest bidder—upon a motion from the auction organizer.
(Sources: *www.ms.gov.pl/en/the-judiciary-in-poland/ Ustawa o komornikach sądowych i egzekucji z dnia 29.08.1997; Kodeks postępowania Cywilnego)
Sweden
The Swedish Enforcement Authority, Kronofogdemyndigheten, literally: The Crown Bailiff Authority is a government agency in charge of debt collection, distraint and evictions in Sweden.
Medieval Italy
Byzantine Empire
See also
Bailiff (order)
Catchpole
Marshal
Vidame
References
External links
Bailiff Powers in The UK
Private Bailiffs UK
Using a Bailiff
Judiciary of Poland
Law enforcement occupations in the United Kingdom
Law enforcement occupations
Law of the United Kingdom
Legal history of the Ancien Régime
Political history of the Ancien Régime
Scots law general titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
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220695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste%20Molinier | Auguste Molinier | Auguste Molinier (30 September 185119 May 1904) was a 19th-century French historian.
Biography
Born in Toulouse, Auguste Molinier was a student at the École Nationale des Chartes, which he left in 1873, and also at the École pratique des hautes études; and he obtained appointments in the public libraries at the Mazarine (1878), at Fontainebleau (1884), and at Sainte-Geneviève, of which he was nominated librarian in 1885.
He was a good palaeographer and had a thorough knowledge of archives and manuscripts; and he soon won a first place among scholars of the history of medieval France. His thesis on leaving the École des Chartes was his (inserted in vol. xxxiv of the ), an important contribution to the history of the Albigenses. This marked him out as a capable editor for the new edition of by Dom Vaissète: he superintended the reprinting of the text, adding notes on the feudal administration of this province from 900 to 1250, on the government of Alphonse of Toulouse, brother of St Louis (1220–1271), and on the historical geography of the province of Languedoc in the Middle Ages.
He also wrote a , which was awarded a prize by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, but remained in manuscript. He also published several documents for the Société de l'Orient Latin (, in collaboration with Carolus Kohler, 1885); for the Société de l'Histoire de France (, assisted by his brother Émile, 1883); for the (, by Suger, 1887); for the (, 1894–1900); for the Recueil des historiens de la France ( 1904, 1906), etc., and several volumes in the .
Applying to the French classics the rigorous method used with regard to the texts of the Middle Ages, he published the Pensées of Pascal, revised with the original manuscript (1887–1889), and the Provinciales (1891), edited with notes. In 1893 he was nominated professor at the , and gave a successful series of lectures which he published (, 1902–1906). He also taught at the . He died after a short illness, leaving in manuscript a criticism on the sources of the of Vincent de Beauvais.
His elder brother, Charles (born 1843), is also of some importance as an historian, particularly on the history of art and on the heresies of the Middle Ages. He was appointed professor of history at the university of Toulouse in 1886.
A younger brother, Émile (1857–1906), was keeper at the Musée du Louvre and a well-known connoisseur of art.
Works
"Catalogue des actes de Simon et d'Amaury de Montfort" in Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes, vol. 34
Étude sur l'administration féodale dans le Languedoc (900-1250), 1878
Les Pensées de Blaise Pascal. Texte revu sur le manuscrit autographe, avec une préface et des notes, 1877–1879
Itinera hierosolymitana et descriptiones terrae sanctae bellis sacris anteriora (ed. with Titus Tobler), 1879
Inventaire sommaire de la collection Joly de Fleury, 1881
Chronique normande du XIVe siècle, 1882, (ed. with Émile Molinier) Available on Gallica
Vie de Louis le Gros de Suger, suivie de l'Histoire du roi Louis VII, 1887
Géographie historique de la province de Languedoc au Moyen Âge, 1889
Les Obituaires français au moyen âge, 1890
Les Provinciales de Blaise Pascal, avec une préface et des notes (2 vol.), 1891
Les manuscrits et les miniatures, 1892 Available on Gallica
Correspondence administrative d'Alfonse de Poitiers, 1894-1900 Available on Gallica: tome 1 tome 2
Les sources de l'histoire de France (des origines aux guerres d'Italie, 1494), 1901–1906
Collaboration on the catalogues of manuscripts of the libraries of Beaune, Toulouse, Dijon, Chartres, Cambrai, etc.
References
External links
1851 births
People from Toulouse
1904 deaths
French archivists
19th-century French historians
French librarians
French medievalists
École Nationale des Chartes alumni
École Nationale des Chartes faculty | [
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220697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B6na%20Lund | Gröna Lund | Gröna Lund (; "Green Grove"), or colloquially Grönan (), is an amusement park in Stockholm, Sweden. Located on the seaward side of Djurgården Island, it is relatively small compared to other amusement parks, mainly because of its central location, which limits expansion. The amusement park has over 30 attractions and is a popular venue for concerts in the summer. It was founded in 1883 by James Schultheiss.
History
Gröna Lund's roots are in the 1880s, making it Sweden's oldest amusement park. However the area has been used for similar purposes since the early 18th century. In 1883, a German by the name of Jacob Schultheiss rented the area to erect "carousels and other amusements". Until 2001, descendants of Schultheiss ran Gröna Lund. Before the amusement park came into being, Gröna Lund was the name of a small park.
The park's location is unique in the sense that most of the buildings are old residential and commercial structures from the 19th century. The buildings were not built for the park; instead, the park was built around the buildings. The park has three different entertainment venues: Dansbanan (Lilla Scenen), Gröna Lundsteatern and Stora Scenen.
Gröna Lund features most attractions common to amusement parks, such as a tunnel of love, a funhouse and seven roller coasters. Gröna Lund is also known for its rock and pop music concerts; the capacity record is held by Bob Marley, who attracted 32,000 people in 1980; it was his third performance at the venue, after stints in 1977 and 1978. The record is unbeatable since new regulations prevent such large audiences at Gröna Lund. American rapper Nas performed with almost 22,000 people in 2010.
The park is easily accessible by tram #7, bus #67 and by ferry from the city centre. Its central location allows visitors to view large parts of Stockholm from the taller attractions.
Since 2006, the park is owned by Parks & Resorts Scandinavia AB, which is wholly owned by the Tidstrand family, which also owns Kolmården Zoo and Skara Sommarland.
Rides
Roller coasters
Other rides
Eclipse - 121.9 m tall swing ride, opened in 2013, height limit 1.2 m. Funtime.
Blue Train - dark ride that opened in 1935, refurbished in 1982 and again in 2011. Magnus Sörman, Gosetto (2011 refurbishments).
Chain Flyer - wave swinger, opened in 1997, height limit 1.1 m. Zierer.
Extreme - top scan, opened in 1999, moved in 2013, height limit 1.4 m. Mondial.
Flying Carpet - carpet ride, opened in 1983; height limit 1.2 m. Zierer.
Fritt Fall Tilt - 80 m tall tilting drop tower, opened in 1998, the "tilt " function introduced in 2004, height limit 1.4 m. Intamin.
House of Nightmares - spooky haunted house, opened in 2015. Sally Corporation.
Katapulten - 55 m tall launch tower; height limit 1,4m. S&S Worldwide.
Kärlekstunneln - Old Mill (ride)
Lantern - spinning tower ride, opened in 2008, height limit 1.1 m. Zierer.
Octopus - octopus spinner, opened in 2000, height limit 1.1 m. Anton Schwarzkopf.
Pop Expressen - breakdance spinner, opened in 1996; height limit 1.4 m. Huss.
Radiobilen - bumper cars, opened in 1968, height limit 1.2 m. Reverchon.
Rock Jet - rotator, opened in 1976, height limit none /1.1 m alone. Reverchon
Snake - Chaos Pendel, opened in 2019, height limit 1.4 m. Funtime
Ikaros - 95 m tall tilting tower opened in 2017, Known as a "Sky Jump" similar to Falcon's Fury at Busch Gardens Tampa. Intamin.
Kiddie rides
Circus Carousel - merry go round, opened in 1883.
Flying Elephants - fly the elephants ride, opened in 1983. Zamperla.
Fun House - indoor obstacle house, opened in 1883. Gröna Lund, rebuilt in 1986 by Zierer
Kuling - rocking tug, opened in 2005. Zamperla.
Little Paris Wheel - mini Ferris wheel, opened in 1993. Zamperla.
Mini Bumper Cars - kiddie bumper cars, opened in 2003. Bertazzon.
Mirror House - classic mirror maze, opened in 1935.
Pettson and Findus World - walkthrough and play area, opened in 2003. Gröna Lund.
Tea Cups - spinning tea cups, opened in 2008. Mack Rides.
Tunnel of Love - classic dark ride for kids, opened in 1917 and refurbished in 1986. Gröna Lund
Veteran Cars - on track cars.
Arcade Games - arcade games and test-your-skill games.
Special events
The park hosts various special events throughout the season, particularly music concerts. Famous musicians that have performed at Grona Lund include: Bob Marley and the Wailers in '78 and '80, ABBA in '73, Europe in '84, The Cardigans in '97, Robyn in '99, Caesars in '02, Dr. Alban in '03, A*Teens in '03, Icona Pop in '13, Tove Lo in '14, Meshuggah in '14, "Weird Al" Yankovic and Basshunter in '15, Deep Purple in '16, Ghost in '17, Zara Larsson in '17, Gojira in '19 and Sting in '19.
Gallery
See also
Rival park Liseberg in Gothenburg
Nearby open-air museum Skansen
The Djurgården line
References
External links
Gröna Lund official site
Parks & Resorts Scandinavia AB
Panoramic virtual tour of entrance to Grona Lund
Amusement parks in Sweden
Djurgården
Tourist attractions in Stockholm
Parks in Stockholm
1883 establishments in Sweden
Amusement parks opened in 1883 | [
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220700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhoek%20Declaration | Windhoek Declaration | The Windhoek Declaration for the Development of a Free, Independent and Pluralistic Press, short: Windhoek Declaration is a statement of press freedom principles by African newspaper journalists in 1991. The Declaration was produced at a UNESCO seminar, "Promoting an Independent and Pluralistic African Press," held in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, from 29 April to 3 May 1991.
The date of the Declaration's adoption, May 3, has subsequently been declared as World Press Freedom Day. The document has been viewed as widely influential, as the first in a series of such declarations around the world, and as a crucial affirmation of the international community's commitment to freedom of the press. Subsequently, several similar documents were drafted in other parts of the developing world: The Alma-Ata Declaration for central Asia, Sana'a Declaration for the Middle East, and the Santiago Declaration for Latin America and the Caribbean. At the tenth anniversary of the Windhoek Declaration, however, the United Nations jubilee statement noted the fragility of press freedom in the face of political violence or authoritarianism.
A New Communication Strategy
Since it was formally approved by the UNESCO Member States during the 28th Session of the General Conference (November 1995), the Windhoek Declaration has become a major reference in the United Nations system. It is part of the New Communication Strategy decided by UNESCO's General Conference during its 25th Session in November 1989, at the same time as the fall of the Berlin Wall. This new strategy de facto distanced itself from the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) which was subject to controversies within the Organization in the 1980s. These controversies have divided UNESCO and caused the United States and the United Kingdom to withdraw from the Organisation (in 1984 and 1985). The NWICO was also subject to oppositions from several professional media organizations, which saw in the New Order a means allowing states to control the media with the justification, among others, to encourage wider and better balanced dissemination of information between North and South.
The 1989 New Communication Strategy stresses that this can only be reached “without any obstacle to freedom of expression” in accordance with the fundamental purpose of UNESCO to promote the “free flow of ideas by word and image”.
Genesis of the Windhoek seminar
The Windhoek seminar was a direct follow-up to the East-West Roundtable that the Director General, Federico Mayor had rapidly set up in February 1990, a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall, in order to address one of the numerous challenges generated by the end of the Cold War, that is the democratization of the media landscape in Central and Oriental European countries. Sixty independent journalists from the Soviet Block but also journalists from Europe and North America had participated in the Roundtable. Unlike the Windhoek seminar, the East-West Roundtable hadn't adopted a final text. Its main purpose was to offer a platform for free expression to the participants whose many had just come out from underground. Several representatives of UNESCO Member States also attended the Roundtable as observers, among them some African diplomats who had asked the Director General that a similar conference be held on their continent. The Windhoek seminar was organized in response to their request.
The Windhoek process
At the 26th session of the General Conference (November 1991), the Member States of UNESCO expressed their deep satisfaction with the outcome of the Windhoek seminar and invited the Director-General “to extend to other regions of the world the action taken so far in Africa and Europe to encourage press freedom and to promote the independence and pluralism of the media; (b) to celebrate the anniversary of the Windhoek Declaration adopted on 3 May 1991; (c) to transmit to the United Nations General Assembly the wish expressed by the Member States of UNESCO to have 3 May declared ‘International Press Freedom Day”.
The implementation of resolution 26C/4.3 initiated a process in which all initiatives were related to each other. Thus, the Windhoek Declaration had a catalytic function in the democratization movement that was transforming the international media landscape of the 1990s. It was in this framework that UNESCO and the United Nations, with the support of professional media organizations, have jointly-organized four regional seminars similar to the Windhoek seminar: the first for the Asian media (Alma Ata, Kazakhstan; October 1992), the second for countries from Latin America and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile; May 1994), the third for Arab countries (Sana’a, Yemen; January 1966) and the last one for Europe and North America (Sofia, Bulgaria; September 1997). Each seminar ended with the adoption of a declaration in which participants highlighted “their full support and entire adhesion to the fundamental principles of the Windhoek Declaration, recognizing its crucial importance for the promotion of free, independent and pluralistic media, in written and broadcast press, worldwide”. UNESCO's General Conference endorsed the five declarations of Windhoek, Alma Ata, Santiago, Sana’a and Sofia at its 28th session for the first three (1995) and its 29th for the last two (1997). It is unusual for the Member States of an international organization to adopt texts coming from the civil society without making any changes, more so that these declarations are very critical of the politics and practices of certain States towards medias (without making specific reference to any of them).
In addition to the adoption of the five declarations by UNESCO's Member States, the “Windhoek process” has produced other significant results in the media field:
In February 1992, UNESCO's International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) has changed its operating rules to take into account the Windhoek Declaration's recommendations. Since then, projects submitted by the private sector have been able to benefit from the IPDC's financial support, on the same terms as those from the public sector. Editorial independence is a common criterion.
In 1992, UNESCO has provided its support to the establishment of an international alert network based in Toronto, the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) as well as to the creation of the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), one of whose mission is to support the implementation of the Windhoek Declaration's recommendations.
In December 1993, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the 3d of May World Press Freedom Day, thus embodying the proposal made by the Windhoek seminar participants and taken over by UNESCO's General Conference.
On the occasion of the 1996 3 May celebration, UNESCO's Director-General announced the creation of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize which was a proposal made by the participants to the 1993 Santiago seminar. This prize is destined to distinguish a person, organization or institution which has contributed noticeably to the defense and/or promotion of press freedom in the world. It was awarded for the first time in 1997 and, since then, awarded every year by the Director-General in the occasion of World Press Freedom Day. The prizewinner is chosen by an independent panel composed of journalists from all the regions of the world and from all types of media, including digital media.
The symbolic value of the Windhoek Declaration for Africans
The personal commitment of a few African diplomats in Paris (UNESCO), Geneva (ECOSOC) and New York (UN General Assembly) has been crucial to the success of the Windhoek process. They were those who put forward and defended in these intergovernmental fora the suggestion made at Windhoek by journalists to establish World Press Freedom Day annually celebrated on May 3. They were also those who sponsored a draft resolution to the UNESCO General Conference intended to endorse the Windhoek Declaration. This African initiative has opened the path to the four other Declarations of Alma Ata, Santiago, Sana’a and Sofia to be adopted without objection. For the Ambassador of Niger Lambert Messan, president in 1995 of the UNESCO African Group, “the Windhoek Declaration is the African contribution to the edifice of human rights”.
References
Martin, Robert (1992). "Building an Independent Mass Media in Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies 30 (1992): 331-340.
"UNESCO Celebrates Tenth Anniversary of Windhoek - IFEX
Berger, Guy (2011). "Media in Africa: 20 years after the Windhoek Declaration on Press Freedom". Windhoek: Media Institute of Southern Africa.
Modoux, A. (2007). From Windhoek to the World. in "50 years of African journalism - African media since Ghana's independence" (eds. Barratt, E and Berger, G). https://guyberger.ru.ac.za/fulltext/50years.pdf
External links
Full text of the declaration
Human rights instruments
1991 documents
1991 in Africa
African journalism
Freedom of the press | [
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220703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Press%20Freedom%20Day | World Press Freedom Day | The United Nations General Assembly declared May 3 to be World Press Freedom Day or just World Press Day, observed to raise awareness of the importance of freedom of the press and remind governments of their duty to respect and uphold the right to freedom of expression enshrined under Article 19 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and marking the anniversary of the Windhoek Declaration, a statement of free press principles put together by African newspaper journalists in Windhoek in 1991.
History
In 2018, a conference sponsored by the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations was canceled. In 2018, several news organizations joined for an ad campaign. Slain journalists in Kabul were remembered.
Prizes
UNESCO marks World Press Freedom Day by conferring the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize on a deserving individual, organisation or institution that has made an outstanding contribution to the defence and/or promotion of press freedom anywhere in the world, especially when this has been achieved in the face of danger. Created in 1997, the prize is awarded on the recommendation of an independent jury of 14 news professionals. Names are submitted by regional and international non-governmental organisations working for press freedom, and by UNESCO member states.
The Prize is named in honour of Guillermo Cano Isaza, a Colombian journalist who was assassinated in front of the offices of his newspaper, El Espectador, in Bogotá, on 17 December 1986. Cano's writings had offended Colombia's powerful drug barons.
UNESCO conference
UNESCO also marks World Press Freedom Day each year by bringing together media professionals, press freedom organisations and UN agencies to assess the state of press freedom worldwide and discuss solutions for addressing challenges. Each conference is centred on a theme related to press freedom, including good governance, media coverage of terrorism, impunity and the role of media in post-conflict countries.
List
Source:
See also
Article 19, an international organisation
International Day to End Impunity for Crimes Against Journalists
Media transparency
Reporters Without Borders
World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers
Notes and References
Notes
References
External links
UN World Press Freedom Day
UNESCO World Press Freedom Day
UNESCO World Press Freedom Day 2014
Events relating to freedom of expression
Journalism
May observances
UNESCO
Press Freedom Day, World
Freedom of the press
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220704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocet | Avocet | The four species of avocets are a genus, Recurvirostra, of waders in the same avian family as the stilts. The genus name comes from Latin , 'curved backwards' and , 'bill'. The common name is thought to derive from the Italian (Ferrarese) word . Francis Willughby in 1678 noted it as the "Avosetta of the Italians".
Biology
Avocets have long legs and they sweep their long, thin, upcurved bills from side to side when feeding in the brackish or saline wetlands they prefer. Their plumage is pied, sometimes also with some red.
Members of this genus have webbed feet and readily swim. Their diet consists of aquatic insects and other small creatures.
They nest on the ground in loose colonies. In estuarine settings, they may feed on exposed bay muds or mudflats.
The pied avocet is the emblem of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
Taxonomy
The genus Recurvirostra was introduced in 1758 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his to contain a single species, the pied avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta. The genus name combines the Latin meaning 'bent' or 'curved backwards' with meaning 'bill'.
Species
The genus contains four species.
One fossil species, R. sanctaneboulae Mourer-Chauviré, 1978, dates from the late Eocene of France.
Range and habitat
In a large colony, they are aggressively defensive and chase off any other species of birds that try to nest among or near them. That causes the annoyed remark "Avocet: Exocet from some British birdwatchers.
They had been extirpated in Britain for a long time because of land reclamation of their habitat and persecution by skin and egg collectors, but during or soon after World War II, they started breeding on reclaimed land near the Wash, which was returned to salt marsh to make difficulties for any landing German invaders. Avocets use Titchfield Haven National Nature Reserve as a summer breeding ground.
References
External links
Recurvirostra
Wading birds | [
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220705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilt | Stilt | Stilt is a common name for several species of birds in the family Recurvirostridae, which also includes those known as avocets. They are found in brackish or saline wetlands in warm or hot climates.
They have extremely long legs, hence the group name, and long thin bills. Stilts typically feed on aquatic insects and other small creatures and nest on the ground surface in loose colonies.
Most sources recognize 6 species in 2 genera, although the white-backed and Hawaiian stilts are occasionally considered subspecies of the black-necked stilt.
The genus Charadrius was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus) as the type species. The generic name Himantopus comes from the Ancient Greek meaning "strap-leg".
Species
The genus Himantopus contains five species:
Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus
White-backed stilt, Himantopus melanurus
Pied stilt, Himantopus leucocephalus
Black-necked stilt, Himantopus mexicanus
Hawaiian stilt or aeʻo, Himantopus mexicanus knudseni
Black stilt, Himantopus novaezelandiae
The genus Cladorhynchus is monotypic and contains a single species:
Banded stilt, Cladorhynchus leucocephalus
A fossil stilt has been described by Bickart, 1990, as Himantopus olsoni, based on remains recovered in the Late Miocene Big Sandy Formation of Wickieup, United States.
References
Bird common names
Recurvirostridae | [
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220706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salomon%20Gessner | Salomon Gessner | Salomon Gessner (1730–1788) was a Swiss painter, graphic artist, government official, newspaper publisher and poet; best known in the latter instance for his Idylls.
Biography
His father, Hans Konrad Gessner (1696–1775), was a printer, publisher, bookseller and member of the High Council of Zürich. From the age of six until his death, he lived in a home his father bought, at Münstergasse 9. He began an apprenticeship in 1749, at a bookshop in Berlin, but stayed for only a year, having decided to devote himself to landscape painting and etching. After a short stay in Hamburg, where he encountered the poetic works of Karl Wilhelm Ramler and Friedrich von Hagedorn, he also developed an interest in poetry.
He returned home, without definite plans, but felt uninclined to take part in his father's business. Instead, he joined a group of young men known as Dienstags-Compagnie, that met for discussions and social activities at the homes of their parents (in winter) or at a vineyard clubhouse in Selnau. There, they became enraptured by "Naturschwärmerei" (nature enthusiasm or enchantment) and fancied themselves to be ancient shepherds.
His first published poem was Lied eines Schweizers an sein bewaffnetes Mädchen and his first painting was Die Nacht (1753). His next, longer poem, Daphnis (1754), was inspired by a translation of Longus by Jacques Amyot. The first edition of what would become his best known work, Idyllen, appeared in 1756 and a volume of collected works was issued in 1762. From then until 1772, he concentrated on painting.
In 1761, he was a co-founder of the Helvetic Society and, that same year, against fierce opposition, married Judith Heidegger (1736–1818), the daughter of one of his father's competitors. A year later, his daughter, Dorothea, was born and he became the Artistic Director of the . A son, Konrad, was born the following year.
In 1765, he was elected to represent the porcelain guild on the Zürich High Council. Three years later, he won election as an "Obervogt" (supervisor) for the , in charge of Erlenbach, and his son Heinrich was born. After 1776, he held the same office for Wipkingen.
In 1780, he began publishing and editing the Zürcher Zeitung, which became the Neue Zürcher Zeitung in 1821. From 1781 until his death, he held the title of "Sihlherr", the senior administrator of Sihlwald, and was responsible for supplying firewood to Zürich. He spent the summers there, at a cabin in the forest.
In 1792/93, the Gessner Monument was erected in Platzspitz park. It was designed by and was one of the first patriotic monuments in Switzerland. Another monument dedicated to him in Bad Dürkheim was destroyed by the French in 1794. A commemorative plaque has been placed on his lifelong home. Several streets and a bridge have been named after him.
Works
Idyllen. Gessner, Zürich 1756. (Digitalized copy, online @ the Deutsches Textarchiv)
In 1776, George Robinson in London published an English translation of Gessner’s work as New Idylles.
His collected works were self-published in Zürich from 1777 to 1778. (2 volumes, Digitalisate, by the ). They were translated into French, published in Paris (1786–1793), and Amsterdam (1784) 3 volumes. Juliane Giovane translated the Idyllen into Italian.
The German edition was reissued in Leipzig in 1841. His Briefwechsel mit seinem Sohn appeared in Bern and Zürich in 1801. Juliane Giovane translated the Idyllen into Italian.
References
Further reading
Martin Bircher, et al., Salomon Gessner: Maler und Dichter der Idylle 1730–1788. Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel 1982, (exhibition catalog).
Paul Leemann-van Elck: Salomon Gessner. Sein Lebensbild mit beschreibenden Verzeichnissen seiner literarischen und künstlerischen Werke. Orell Füssli, Zürich/Leipzig 1930 (Monograph on Swiss Art #6).
External links
More works by Gessner @ ArtNet
1730 births
1788 deaths
People from Zürich
18th-century Swiss poets
Swiss male poets
18th-century Swiss painters
Swiss male painters
18th-century male writers | [
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220707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Wilhelm%20Ramler | Karl Wilhelm Ramler | Karl Wilhelm Ramler (25 February 1725 – 11 April 1798) was a German poet.
Ramler was born in Kolberg. After graduating from the University of Halle, he went to Berlin, where, in 1748, he was appointed professor of logic and literature at the cadet school. In 1786 he became associated with the author, Johann Jakob Engel, in the management of the royal theatre, of which, after resigning his professorship, he became sole director from 1790-96. He died in Berlin and his memorial is to be seen on the exterior wall of the city's Sophienkirche.
References
1725 births
1798 deaths
People from Kołobrzeg
People from the Province of Pomerania
German poets
German male poets
University of Halle alumni | [
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220709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coddled%20egg | Coddled egg | In cooking, coddled eggs are eggs that have been cracked into a ramekin or other small container, placed in a water bath or bain-marie and gently or lightly cooked just below boiling temperature. They can be partially cooked, mostly cooked, or hardly cooked at all (as in the eggs used to make caesar salad dressing, which are only slightly poached for a thicker end-product). Poached eggs are similar to coddled egg but cooked by submersion in water, rather than being placed in a water bath.
Method
The egg in broken into a , porcelain cup or ramekin with a lid, and cook using a bain-marie. The inside of the egg coddler is first buttered in order to flavor the egg and allow it to be removed more easily. A raw egg (sometimes with additional flavorings) is broken into the coddler, which is then placed in a pan of near-boiling water for 7 to 8 minutes to achieve a solid white and runny yolk.
Manufacture
Coddlers may have been manufactured by Royal Worcester, since at least the 1890s. Many companies now make egg coddlers, some of which are collectors’ items.
Possible risks
Coddled eggs do not always reach temperatures required to sterilize potential contaminants and pathogens.
In the United States, eggs have around a 1 in 30,000 risk of exposure to salmonella and other bacteria. Using fresh eggs that have been washed and kept refrigerated, or pasteurized eggs is recommended to minimize the risk. According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, eggs should be cooked until both the white and the yolk are firm, and the water temperature should be . Children, the elderly, and persons with compromised immune systems are advised against eating lightly cooked eggs because of the risk of exposure to salmonella infection.
In the UK however, as all eggs bearing the lion mark have come from hens vaccinated against salmonella, raw eggs can be safely eaten by pregnant women, infants and the elderly.
See also
List of egg dishes
Egg cup
Boiled egg
Poached egg
References
External links
Collectors' information
Egg dishes | [
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220711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Baseball%20Hall%20of%20Fame | Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame | The Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum () is a museum located in St. Marys, Ontario, Canada. The museum commemorates great players, teams, and accomplishments of baseball in Canada.
History
The museum was founded in November 1982 in Toronto at Exhibition Place and later moved to Ontario Place theme park. In August 1994, it was awarded to St. Marys, Ontario, and in June 1998 the doors officially opened in St. Marys. On November 23, 2017, construction began on a expansion to the museum, including a secure archive facility, library, new entrance, and auditorium/exhibition space. The re-designed museum opened to the public on April 27, 2019.
The Hall of Fame and Museum is dedicated to preserving Canada's baseball heritage which dates back to June 4, 1838, when a game which very closely resembled today's game of baseball was played in Beachville, Ontario.
In 2021, Helen Callaghan, who had played in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL), became the first woman individually inducted to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame; the Hall had previously inducted, as a group in 1998, all Canadian women who played in the AAGPBL.
Awards
Since opening, over 125 individual members have been inducted into the hall. This includes professional and amateur players, builders, administrators, umpires, broadcasters, writers, and honorary members who have helped popularize the sport in Canada. Several teams or groups have also been inducted. Multiple members of the hall have also been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York, as players, managers, or executives; several others have been recipients of the Ford C. Frick Award or BBWAA Career Excellence Award.
In addition, the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame awards the Tip O'Neill Award annually to the Canadian baseball player "judged to have excelled in individual achievement and team contribution while adhering to the highest ideals of the game of baseball" and the Jack Graney Award for Lifetime Media Achievement.
Facilities
The facility in St. Marys also includes four baseball fields designed by landscape architect Art Lierman of London, Ontario.
The Pearson Cup—awarded to the winner of an annual exhibition game between the Toronto Blue Jays and Montreal Expos from 1978 to 1986—is on display at the museum.
Rules for nominations
A player must be retired for at least three years.
Must receive 75 percent of the vote to be inducted.
If the person is not Canadian he must have done something significant with respect to baseball in Canada.
The person nominated will stay on the ballot for nine years as long as he receives a minimum of one vote every two years.
All information must be in by December 1 of the year to be eligible for the following year.
Inductees
Individuals
Groups
See also
History of baseball outside the United States#Canada
London Tecumsehs#Early baseball in Canada
:Category:Baseball in Canada
Baseball awards#Canada
References
External links
Official website
Baseball in Canada
Baseball museums and halls of fame
Halls of fame in Canada
Museums in Perth County, Ontario
Sports museums in Canada
Canadian sports trophies and awards
Awards established in 1983
Museums established in 1983
1983 establishments in Ontario | [
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220712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20F%C3%BCrchtegott%20Gellert | Christian Fürchtegott Gellert | Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (4 July 171513 December 1769) was a German poet, one of the forerunners of the golden age of German literature that was ushered in by Lessing.
Biography
Gellert was born at Hainichen in Saxony, at the foot of the Erzgebirge. After attending the school of St. Afra in Meissen, he entered Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of theology, but in 1738 Gellert broke off his studies as his family could no longer afford to support him and became a private tutor for a few years. Returning to Leipzig in 1741, he contributed to the Bremer Beiträge, a periodical founded by former disciples of Johann Christoph Gottsched who had revolted against the pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and poor health, Gellert gave up the idea of entering the ministry. However, he finally completed his magister degree in 1743 and qualified as a university lecturer in 1744. In 1745 he established himself as a Privatdozent in philosophy at the university of Leipzig, lecturing on poetry, rhetoric, and moral philosophy. In 1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy, a post he held until his death at Leipzig in 1769.
Works
Gellert was esteemed and venerated by his students, and others who knew him, due in great part to his personal character; he was known to be unflaggingly amiable and generous, and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to raise the religious and moral character of the people, and to this end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular German authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out of proportion to their literary value. His immensely successful collection of fables and stories in verse, Fabeln und Erzählungen, first published in 1746, with a second part appearing in 1748, established his literary reputation. A comparably popular collection of religious poems and hymns, Geistliche Oden und Lieder, appeared in 1758. It contained hymns such as "Herr, stärke mich, dein Leiden zu bedenken", a Passion hymn written to the tune of "Herzliebster Jesu".
Not a little of Gellert's fame is due to the time when he lived and wrote. The German literature of the period was dominated by Gottsched's school. A band of high-spirited youths, of whom Gellert was one, resolved to free themselves from what were seen as the conventional trammels of such pedants, and began a revolution which was finally consummated by Schiller and Goethe. Karl Philipp Moritz, in the context of his travels in England in 1782, remarked: "Among us Germans ... I can think of no poet's name beyond Gellert's which comes readily into the minds of the common people [in London]."
The fables, for which Gellert took La Fontaine as his model, are simple and didactic. His religious poems were adopted as hymns by Catholics and Protestants alike. The best known of his hymns is "Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur" (“The Heavens are Telling”). Gellert wrote a few sentimental comedies: Die Betschwester (The Praying Sister, 1745), Die kranke Frau (The Sick Woman, 1747), Das Los in der Lotterie (1748), and Die zärtlichen Schwestern (The Affectionate Sisters, 1747), the last of which was much admired. His novel Leben der schwedischen Gräfin von G. (1746), a weak imitation of Samuel Richardson's Pamela, is remarkable for being the first German attempt at a psychological novel.
Besides lecturing to large audiences on moral matters, Gellert maintained a wide-ranging correspondence with both strangers and friends, especially with those seeking advice on moral questions. Regarded by many correspondents as a teacher also of good writing style, in 1751 he published a volume of model letters, along with an essay on letter-writing (Briefe, nebst einer praktischen Abhandlung von dem guten Geschmacke in Briefen).
Editions and studies
See Gellert's Sämtliche Schriften (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig, 1769–1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). Sämtliche Fabeln und Erzählungen have been often published separately, the latest edition in 1896. A selection of Gellert's poetry (with an excellent introduction) can be found in F. Muncker, Die Bremer Beiträge (Stuttgart, 1899).
For studies of Gellert's life and work see lives by J. A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Döring (Greiz, 1833), and H. O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also Gellerts Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and Gellert's Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius (Leipzig, 1823).
Translations
Gellert's Fables and Other Poems. Translated by J. A. Murke (London: 1851).
Fables and Tales by the German Aesop, C. F. Gellert (1715-1769). Translated by John W. Van Cleve (Lewiston and Lampeter: Mellen, 2013, ).
"Jesus Lives! The Victory's Won" is a translation of Gellert's "Jesu lebt, mit ihm auch ich" (Jesus lives, I with him") from Geistliche Oden und Lieder. It is set to the tune of "Jesus, meine Zuversicht".
Legacy
Beethoven set to music six of Gellert's poems as Sechs Lieder Gellerts am Klavier zu singen (1803); the poems were all from Geistliche Oden und Lieder, including "Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur". Some of Gellerts poems became hymns, such as "Wenn ich, o Schöpfer, deine Macht".
In 1857 Berthold Auerbach paid tribute to Gellert in his story "Gellerts letzte Weihnachten", published in his Deutscher Familienkalender (German family almanac); the story was translated into English as "Christian Gellert's Last Christmas", first published in 1869.
Notes
External links
1715 births
1769 deaths
People from Hainichen, Saxony
People from the Electorate of Saxony
German Lutherans
German poets
German Protestant hymnwriters
Writers from Saxony
Christian hymnwriters
Leipzig University faculty
18th-century German writers
18th-century German male writers
German-language poets | [
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220713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumamoto%20Prefecture | Kumamoto Prefecture | is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. Kumamoto Prefecture has a population of 1,748,134 () and has a geographic area of . Kumamoto Prefecture borders Fukuoka Prefecture to the north, Ōita Prefecture to the northeast, Miyazaki Prefecture to the southeast, and Kagoshima Prefecture to the south.
Kumamoto is the capital and largest city of Kumamoto Prefecture, with other major cities including Yatsushiro, Amakusa, and Tamana. Kumamoto Prefecture is located in the center of Kyūshū on the coast of the Ariake Sea, across from Nagasaki Prefecture, with the mainland separated from the East China Sea by the Amakusa Archipelago. Kumamoto Prefecture is home to Mount Aso, the largest active volcano in Japan and among the largest in the world, with its peak above sea level.
History
Historically, the area was called Higo Province; and the province was renamed Kumamoto during the Meiji Restoration. The creation of prefectures was part of the abolition of the feudal system. The current Japanese orthography for Kumamoto literally means "bear root/origin", or "origin of the bear".
Geography
Kumamoto Prefecture is in the center of Kyushu, the southernmost of the four major Japanese islands. It is bordered by the Ariake inland sea and the Amakusa archipelago to the west, Fukuoka Prefecture and Ōita Prefecture to the north, Miyazaki Prefecture to the east, and Kagoshima Prefecture to the south.
Mount Aso (), an extensive active volcano, is in the east of Kumamoto Prefecture. This volcano is located at the centre of the Aso caldera.
As of 31 March 2019, 21% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as natural parks: the Aso Kujū and Unzen-Amakusa National Parks; Kyūshū Chūō Sanchi and Yaba-Hita-Hikosan Quasi-National Parks; and Ashikita Kaigan, Itsuki Gokanoshō, Kinpōzan, Misumi-Ōyano Umibe, Okukuma, Shōtaisan, and Yabe Shūhen Prefectural Natural Parks.
Cities
Fourteen cities are located in Kumamoto Prefecture:
Towns and villages
These are the towns and villages in each district:
Mergers
Demographics
the population was 1,748,134 inhabitants with a population density of . The prefecture ranks 23rd in Japan.
Economy
There is a Honda motorcycle plant.
Tourism
Mount Aso is one of the world's largest active volcanoes.
Kumamoto Castle
Suizenji Park
Tsūjun Bridge, the largest stone aqueduct in Japan is in Yamato
The prefecture has a mascot named "Kumamon", a black bear with red cheeks, who was created to attract tourists to the region after the Kyushu Shinkansen line opened.
Education
Universities
National
Kumamoto University
Public
Kumamoto Prefectural University
Private
Kumamoto Gakuen University
Kyushu University of Nursing and Social Welfare
Kyushu Lutheran College
Kumamoto Health Science
Shokei Gakuin University
Sojo University
Heisei College of Music
Transportation
Rail
JR Kyushu
Kyushu Shinkansen
Kagoshima Line
Hohi Line
Hisatsu Line
Misumi Line
Kumamoto Electric Railway
Kumagawa Railroad
South Aso Railway
Hisatsu Orange Railway
Tramway
Kumamoto City Transportation Bureau
Road
Expressways and toll roads
Kyushu Expressway
South Kyushu Expressway
Kumamoto Amakusa Road
National highways
Route 3
Route 57
Route 208 (Kumamoto-Tamana-Arao-Ōmuta)
Route 212
Route 218 (Kumamoto-Takachiho-Nobeoka)
Route 219
Route 265
Route 266
Route 267 (Hitoyoshi-Isa-Satsuma-Satsumasendai)
Route 268
Route 324
Route 325 (Yamaga-Minamiaso-Takamori-Takachiho)
Route 387
Route 388 (Saiki-Nobeoka-Unomae)
Route 389
Route 442
Route 443
Route 445
Route 501 (Ōmuta-Arao-Udo)
Route 503
Ports
Ferry routes
Kumamoto-Shimabara
Nagasu-Unzen
Ushibuka-Kuranomoto (Nagashima)
Yatsushiro-Kamiamakusa
Reihoku-Nagasaki
Airport
Kumamoto Airport
Amakusa Airport
Sports
These sports teams are based in the prefecture:
Professional:
Roasso Kumamoto - Men's football and J League Second Division
Blaze Kumamoto - Men's association football
Mashiki Renaissance Kumamoto - Women's association football
Amateur:
Kumamoto Golden Larks - regional baseball
The Kumamoto Prefecture will host the 2019 World Women's Handball Championship, having previously hosted the 1997 World Men's Handball Championship.
Sister cities
Kumamoto Prefecture is the 'sister state/prefecture' of Montana in the United States.
Kumamoto has a sister city located in Texas named San Antonio, which holds an annual fall festival 'akimatsuri' for its Japanese citizens. In 2015 the mascot, 'Kumamon' visited as an honorary ambassador during the festival located at the Japanese Tea Gardens.
Notable people
Jun Kunimura, a popular Japanese actor
Tetsu Komai, a Hollywood actor
Kazuaki Kiriya, a filmmaker
Kimeru, a pop artist
Miku Kobato, founder and vocalist of Band-Maid
Moe Kamikokuryou, a Japanese idol
Yuri Masuda, singer
Shodai Naoya, Sumo wrestler
Tomiko Van, singer, vocalist of Do As Infinity
Eiichiro Oda, manga author, creator of One Piece
Tetsuya Noda, contemporary artist
Katsuhiro Ueo, drifting driver
Ichiki Tatsuo, journalist and defector in the Indonesian National Revolution
Madoka Hisagae, female Japanese fencer
Hitomi Tanaka, pornographic actress
Kenta Matsumoto, vocalist and bassist of WANIMA
Koushin Nishida, guitarist of WANIMA
Kouki Fujiwara, drummer of WANIMA
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
National Archives of Japan ... Kumamoto map (1891)
Kyushu region
Prefectures of Japan | [
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220717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20von%20Hagedorn | Friedrich von Hagedorn | Friedrich von Hagedorn (23 April 1708 – 28 October 1754), German poet, was born at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish ambassador. His younger brother, Christian Ludwig, was a well known art historian and collector.
Biography
Life
He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called "English Court" (Englischer Hof) in Hamburg, a trading company founded in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death.
Career
The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title Versuch einiger Gedichte (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738 appeared Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen; in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title Sammlung neuer Oden und Lieder; and his Moralische Gedichte in 1750. A collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg in 1757 after his death. The best is J.J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F. Muncker's Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, F. von Hagedorn und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt, Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen (Berlin, 1884).
The Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart set his poem Die Alte (The Old Woman) in his song of the same name (K. 517) in 1787. Joseph Haydn set two of his poems in his canons (a capella songs) (Hob. XXVIIb).
References
External links
Poems of Friedrich von Hagedorn (Complete)
1708 births
1754 deaths
18th-century German poets
Writers from Hamburg
University of Jena alumni
German male poets
German-language poets
18th-century German male writers | [
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220719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20Baseball%20Hall%20of%20Fame | Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame | The is a museum which includes a library, reference rooms and .
It first opened in 1959 next door to Korakuen Stadium in Tokyo, Japan. In 1988, the museum moved to a new site within the Tokyo Dome.
The Hall of Fame and Museum was created as a means to contribute to the development of baseball in Japan through dedication of baseball greats—players, executives, and umpires—as Hall of Famers. In addition, the facility houses many memorable baseball materials including various kinds of baseball literature.
Players inducted
Victor Starffin (1960)
Yutaka Ikeda (1962)
Haruyasu Nakajima (1963)
Tadashi Wakabayashi (1964)
Tetsuharu Kawakami (1965)
Tsunetaro Moriyama (1966)
Kazuto Tsuruoka (1969)
Shunichi Amachi (1970)
Nobuaki Nidegawa (1970)
Shuichi Ishimoto (1972)
Sadayoshi Fujimoto (1974)
Fumio Fujimura (1974)
Hideo Nakagami (1976)
Shigeru Mizuhara (1977)
Michio Nishizawa (1977)
Kenjiro Matsuki (1978)
Shinji Hamazaki (1978)
Takehiko Bessho (1979)
Hiroshi Ohshita (1980)
Makoto Kozuru (1980)
Shigeru Chiba (1980)
Tokuji Iida (1981)
Yoshiyuki Iwamoto (1981)
Osamu Mihara (1983)
Shinji Kirihara (1984)
Shigeru Sugishita (1985)
Katsumi Shiraishi (1985)
Atsushi Aramaki (1985)
Shigeo Nagashima (1988)
Kaoru Bettou (1988)
Yukio Nishimoto (1988)
Masaichi Kaneda (1988)
Hidenosuke Shima (1989)
Katsuya Nomura (1989)
Jiro Noguchi (1989)
Juzo Sanada (1990)
Isao Harimoto (1990)
Shigeru Makino (1991)
Osamu Tsutsui (1991)
Kichiro Shimaoka (1991)
Tatsuro Hirooka (1992)
Michinori Tsubouchi (1992)
Yoshio Yoshida (1992)
Kazuhisa Inao (1993)
Minoru Murayama (1993)
Sadaharu Oh (1994)
Wally Kaname Yonamine (1994)
Shosei Go (1995) — elected by the Special Committee
Tadashi Sugiura (1995)
Tokichiro Ishii (1995)
Motoshi Fujita (1996)
Sachio Kinugasa (1996)
Katsuo Osugi (1997)
Futoshi Nakanishi (1999)
Yoshinori Hirose (1999)
Takeshi Koba (1999)
Sadao Kondo (1999)
Tetsuya Yoneda (2000)
Rikuo Nemoto (2001)
Masaaki Koyama (2001)
Kazuhiro Yamauchi (2002)
Keishi Suzuki (2002)
Yutaka Fukumoto (2002)
Kenjiro Tamiya (2002)
Toshiharu Ueda (2003)
Junzo Sekine (2003)
Akira Ogi (2004)
Noboru Akiyama (2004)
Choji Murata (2005)
Masaaki Mori (2005)
Masayori Shimura (2005)
Hiromitsu Kadota (2006)
Morimichi Takagi (2006)
Hisashi Yamada (2006)
Yasumitsu Toyoda (2006)
Takao Kajimoto (2007)
Reiichi Matsunaga (2007)
Koji Yamamoto (2008)
Tsuneo Horiuchi (2008)
Tsutomu Wakamatsu (2009)
Seiichi Shima (2008)
Osamu Higashio (2010)
Hiromitsu Ochiai (2011)
Mutsuo Minagawa (2011)
Manabu Kitabeppu (2012)
Tsunemi Tsuda (2012)
Yutaka Ohno (2013)
Hideo Nomo (2014)
Koji Akiyama (2014)
Kazuhiro Sasaki (2014)
Atsuya Furuta (2015)
Kihachi Enomoto (2016)
Kimiyasu Kudoh (2016)
Masaki Saito (2016)
Tsutomu Ito (2017)
Masaji Hiramatsu (2017)
Senichi Hoshino (2017)
Hideki Matsui (2018)
Tomoaki Kanemoto (2018)
Kazuyoshi Tatsunami (2019)
Hiroshi Gondoh (2019)
Koichi Tabuchi (2020)
Shingo Takatsu (2022)
Masa Yamamoto (2022)
Other inductees
Matsutaro Shoriki (1959)
Hiroshi Hiraoka (1959)
Yukio Aoi (1959)
Shin Hashido (1959)
Kiyoshi Oshikawa (1959)
Jiro Kuji (1959)
Eiji Sawamura (1959)
Iso Abe (1959)
Masaru Kageura (1965)
Masaichi Nagata (1988)
Saburo Yokozawa (1988)
Masao Yoshida (1992)
Lefty O'Doul (2002)
Shiki Masaoka (2002)
Horace Wilson (2003)
Sakae Suzuka (2003)
Hiromori Kawashima (2006)
Shigeyoshi Matsumae (2022)
See also
The Meikyukai ("Association of Great Players" or "Golden Players Club") (also a Japanese baseball hall of fame)
Nisei Baseball Research Project
Professional baseball in Japan
External links
Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum
Buildings and structures in Bunkyō
Baseball in Japan
Baseball museums and halls of fame
Museums in Tokyo
Sports museums in Japan
Museums established in 1959
Awards established in 1959
1959 establishments in Japan
Halls of fame in Japan | [
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220722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Joachim%20Eschenburg | Johann Joachim Eschenburg | Johann Joachim Eschenburg (7 December 1743 – 29 February 1820) was a German critic and literary historian.
He was born and educated at Hamburg, going on to study at the University of Leipzig and University of Göttingen. In 1767 he was appointed tutor, and subsequently professor, at the Collegium Carolinum in Braunschweig (today TU Braunschweig). The title of Hofrat was conferred on him in 1786, and in 1814 he was made one of the directors of the Carolinum.
He is best known for his efforts to popularize English literature in Germany. He published a series of German translations of the principal English writers on aesthetics, such as Charles Burney, Joseph Priestley and Richard Hurd; and also produced the first complete translation in German prose of Shakespeare's plays (William Shakespear's Schauspiele, 13 vols., Zürich, 1775–1782). This is virtually a revised edition of the incomplete translation published by Christoph Martin Wieland between 1762 and 1766.
Besides editing, with memoirs, the works of Friedrich von Hagedorn, Zachariä and other German poets, he was the author of a Handbuch der klassischen Literatur (1783); Entwurf einer Theorie und Literatur der schönen Wissenschaften (1783); Beispielsammiung zur Theorie und Literatur der schönen Wissenschaften (8 vols, 1788–1795); Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde (1792); and Denkmäler altdeutscher Dichtkunst (1799). Most of these passed through several editions.
Eschenburg was also a poet, and some of his hymns, e.g. Ich will dich noch im Tod erheben and Dir trau ich, Gott, und wanke nicht, remain well-known.
Eschenburg became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1809. In 1818 he became associated member.
References
Further reading
Cord-Friedrich Berghahn und Till Kinzel (ed.). Johann Joachim Eschenburg und die Künste und Wissenschaften zwischen Aufklärung und Romantik. Netzwerke und Kulturen des Wissens. Heidelberg: Winter, 2013. [with Bibliography]
Johann Joachim Eschenburg. Von Chaucer zu Pope. Essays und Übersetzungen zur englischen Literatur des Mittelalters und der Frühen Neuzeit. Till Kinzel, editor. Hannover: Wehrhahn, 2013.
Johann Joachim Eschenburg. Über William Hogarth und seine Erklärer. (= Edition Wehrhahn. Band 2). Till Kinzel, editor. Wehrhahn, Hannover 2013, .
1743 births
1820 deaths
German literary critics
German male dramatists and playwrights
German male poets
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Technical University of Braunschweig faculty
Translators of William Shakespeare
Writers from Hamburg
18th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers | [
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220724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EUR%2C%20Rome | EUR, Rome | EUR is a residential and business district in Rome, Italy, part of the Municipio IX.
The area was originally chosen in the 1930s as the site for the 1942 World's Fair which Benito Mussolini planned to open to celebrate twenty years of Fascism, the letters EUR standing for Esposizione Universale Roma. The project was originally called E42 after the year in which the exhibition was to be held. EUR was also designed to direct the expansion of the city towards the south-west and the sea, and to be a new city centre for Rome. The planned exhibition never took place due to World War II.
Most of the area is the property of EUR S.p.A., a company jointly owned by the Ministry of Economy and the Municipality of Rome.
History
The complex was planned to be home to a World's fair to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the March on Rome and of the beginning of the Fascist era.
The autonomous agency responsible for organization and construction of the project, E42 (Esposizione 1942), was created on 26 December 1936.
On 26 April 1937 Benito Mussolini planted a cluster pine at the centre of the site of the future EUR district.
The general commissioner of the agency, Vittorio Cini, presented a list of the most prominent Italian architects available to Benito Mussolini. The list included Adalberto Libera, Enrico Del Debbio, Giuseppe Terragni, Giovanni Michelucci, Adamius, Eugenio Montuori and Giovanni Muzio. Among the large list, Marcello Piacentini (head of the project), Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig, Luigi Piccinato, Luigi Vietti and Ettore Rossi were chosen. The first project, on an area of , was presented in 1938.
The name was later changed to EUR, and the final project was presented in 1939. The events of the Second World War intervened, the Expo failed to take place, and the original project was left uncompleted when the works had to stop in 1942.
During World War II the uncompleted EUR development suffered severe damage. However, the Roman authorities decided that EUR could be the basis of an out-of-town business district, which other capitals did not begin planning until decades later (for example, London Docklands and La Défense near Paris). Therefore, during the 1950s and 1960s the unfinished Fascist-era buildings were completed and other new buildings were built in contemporary styles for use as offices and government buildings, set in large gardens and parks.
EUR was almost fully completed for the 1960 Olympics, held in Rome. At that time, most of the important infrastructures, such as the Palazzo dello Sport (designed by Nervi and Piacentini) and the Velodromo were completed.
The EUR development agency, founded in 1936, became a Società per azioni on 15 March 2000 and is still responsible for some aspects of management and organization of the area.
After a period of controversy over its architectural and urban planning principles, the project to design EUR was commissioned from the leaders of both of the rival factions in Italian architecture: Marcello Piacentini for the "reactionaries" and Giuseppe Pagano for the "progressives". Each of them brought in their own preferred architects to design individual buildings within the district. EUR offers a large-scale image of how urban Italy might have looked if the Fascist regime had not fallen; wide axially planned streets and austere buildings of either stile Littorio, inspired by ancient Roman architecture, or Rationalism, modern architecture but built using traditional limestone, tuff and marble.
Architecture
The initial project was presented in 1938 under the direction of Marcello Piacentini. The design was inspired, according to the fascist ideology, by Roman Imperial town planning, with modern elements which came from Italian rationalism, the result being a sort of simplified neoclassicism.
The project develops over orthogonal axes and large and stately buildings, built mainly of limestone, tuff and marble, traditional materials associated with Roman Empire architecture.
The most representative building at EUR, and the symbol of this architectural style, is the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938–1943), an iconic project which has since become known as the "Colosseo Quadrato" (Square Colosseum). The building was designed by Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Lapadula and Mario Romano, also inspired by metaphysical art.
In 1938 Luigi Moretti (with Fariello, Muratori and Quaroni) won the competition for the design of the Imperial Square (now Piazza Guglielmo Marconi). The large building fronting the square was never finished, but after the war the structures already constructed were used for the "Skyscraper Italy (Grattacielo Italia)" by Luigi Mattioni.
Other notable buildings are:
Palazzo dei Ricevimenti e dei Congressi
Archivio Centrale dello Stato
Basilica parrocchiale dei Santi Pietro e Paolo
Office palace
INA palace and INPS palace
Several museums are also present. These comprise the Museum of Roman Civilization (Roman Culture Museum), the Museo Nazionale dell'Alto Medioevo (National Museum of the Middle Ages) and the Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnografico Luigi Pigorini (Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum). A new planetarium, connected to the Astronomy Museum, opened in 2004.
Economy
EUR is the headquarters of many companies and public bodies, such as Confindustria, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of communications, the Archivio Centrale dello Stato, the Ministry of the Environment, the SIAE, the ICE Institute, Eni company, UniCredit, Poste italiane, INAIL, INPS, and many other multinational companies. It also hosted the NATO Defense College from 1966 until 1999.
Education
The "bibliopoint" Istituto superiore "Leon Battista Alberti" is located in the EUR.
There are a lot of schools in EUR such as "Liceo Scientifico Statale Stanislao Cannizzaro", Liceo Ginnasio Statale "Francesco Vivona", another one is also ITC "Vincenzo Arangio Ruiz"; those three are all public schools, while there are also private institutes like: "Istituto Massimiliano Massimo" and Highlands Institute
Sport
In 2018, motor racing championship Formula E held a round on the Circuito Cittadino dell'EUR street track, a course which encompasses the ward. The race was won by Briton Sam Bird.
In popular culture
The Fascist architecture of EUR was prominently featured in Michelangelo Antonioni's 1962 film L'Eclisse and Bernardo Bertolucci's 1970 film The Conformist. Additionally, multiple buildings were shown in Federico Fellini's films 8½ and Boccaccio '70.
The location was also used as the headquarters of Mayflower Industries in the 1991 movie Hudson Hawk and served as a backdrop for scenes from the 1999 film adaptation of Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus. Lara Wendel's death scene in the 1982 movie Tenebrae was also shot in the location.
The burial of Marco Sciarra in 007's Spectre was filmed at Museum of Roman Civilization.
Gallery
Post-fascist architecture
EUR during the 1960s
Photos taken by Italian photographer Paolo Monti, showing the district during the 1960s:
References and notes
Bibliography
Christine Beese: Marcello Piacentini. Moderner Städtebau in Italien. Berlin 2016, pp. 300–329.
Modernist architecture in Italy
Central business districts
Italian fascist architecture
Rome Q. XXXII Europa | [
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220733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20James%20Mathews | Charles James Mathews | Charles James Mathews (26 December 1803 – 24 June 1878) was a British actor. He was one of the few British actors to be successful in French-speaking roles in France. A son of the actor Charles Mathews, he achieved a greater reputation than his father in the same profession and also excelled at light comedy. He toured three times in the United States, and met and married his second wife there.
Biography
Charles James Mathews was born in Liverpool. After attending Merchant Taylors' School, Crosby, he was articled as the architect Augustus Charles Pugin's apprentice. For some years, Mathews worked at this profession.
His first public appearance on the stage was made on 7 December 1835, at the Olympic Theatre in London, as George Rattleton in his own play The Humpbacked Lover, and as Tim Topple the Tiger in Leman Rode's Old and Young Stager.
Marriage and family
In 1838, he married Madame Vestris, then lessee of the Olympic, as her second husband. That year he also toured the US, to lukewarm reviews. In 1856, Mme Vestris died.
The following year Mathews again visited the U.S., and there in 1858 he married Mrs A. H. Davenport (Lizzie Weston), whose son Charles Willie West assumed his stepfather's surname by deed poll.
Career
Mathews started managing the Olympic Theatre soon after his marriage to Mme Vestris, but did not succeed financially. Despite introducing innovations of more realistic and detailed scenery, his following management of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, and the Lyceum Theatre also had limited financial return. They did have quite a success with their production of the Victorian farce London Assurance (1841), commissioned for their company and written by Dion Boucicault. This was Boucicault's first major success.
As an actor in England, Mathews held an unrivalled place in his unique vein of light eccentric comedy. He had an easy grace combined with "imperturbable solemnity", a combination which amused people; his humour was never broad, but always measured and restrained. It was as the leading character in such plays as the Game of Speculation, My Awful Dad, Cool as a Cucumber, Patter versus Clatter, and Little Toddlekins, that he especially excelled.
Mathews also used his time in the U.S. to collect impressions of American types and dialects, resulting in A Trip to America, a one-man stage review in which Mathews performed mimicries in character, including some in blackface.
After Mathews' return to England with his second wife, in 1861, they gave a series of "At Home" tabletop reviews at the Haymarket Theatre. These were nearly as popular as those of his father had been.
Charles James Mathews was one of the few English actors who successfully played French-speaking roles. In 1863 he appeared in Paris in a French version of his play Cool as a Cucumber, and was received with praise. He played there again in 1865 as Sir Charles Coldcream in the original play L'Homme blasé (the English version by Boucicault was known as Used Up.)
At age 66 in 1869, Mathews set out on a tour round the world, including a third visit to the U.S. He made his last appearance in New York at Wallack's Theatre on 7 June 1872, in H. J. Byron's Not such a Fool as He Looks.
After his return to England in 1872, he continued to act until within a few weeks of his death. His last appearance in London was at the Opéra Comique on 2 June 1877, in The Liar and The Cosy Couple. At Stalybridge he gave his last performance on 8 June 1878, when he played Adonis Evergreen in his comedy My Awful Dad.
Mathews died on 24 June 1878.
References
Sources
Timperley, Charles Henry A Dictionary of Printers and Printing, 1842
Notes
External links
English male stage actors
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Crosby
1803 births
1878 deaths
Male actors from Liverpool
Actor-managers
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
19th-century male actors
Bartolozzi family | [
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220739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeane%20Kirkpatrick | Jeane Kirkpatrick | Jeane Duane Kirkpatrick (née Jordan; November 19, 1926December 7, 2006) was an American diplomat and political scientist who played a major role in the foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration. An ardent anticommunist, she was a longtime Democrat who became a neoconservative and switched to the Republican Party in 1985. After serving as Ronald Reagan's foreign policy adviser in his 1980 campaign, she became the first woman to serve as United States Ambassador to the United Nations.
She was known for the "Kirkpatrick Doctrine", which advocated supporting authoritarian regimes around the world if they went along with Washington's aims. She believed that they could be led into democracy by example. She wrote, "traditional authoritarian governments are less repressive than revolutionary autocracies." She sympathized with the Argentine government during the Falklands War when President Reagan came out in support of Margaret Thatcher.
Kirkpatrick served in Reagan's Cabinet on the National Security Council, Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, Defense Policy Review Board, and chaired the Secretary of Defense Commission on Fail Safe and Risk reduction of the Nuclear Command and Control System. She wrote a syndicated newspaper column after leaving government service in 1985, specializing in analysis of the activities of the United Nations.
Early life
She was born in Duncan, Oklahoma, the daughter of an oilfield wildcatter, Welcher F. Jordan, and his wife, Leona (née Kile). She attended Emerson Elementary School there and was known to her classmates as "Duane Jordan." She had a younger sibling, Jerry. At 12, her father moved the family to Mt. Vernon, Illinois, where she graduated from Mt. Vernon Township High School. In 1948, she graduated from Barnard College of Columbia University after she received her associate degree from Stephens College (then only a two-year institution) in Columbia, Missouri. In 1968, Kirkpatrick earned a PhD in political science from Columbia.
She spent a year of postgraduate study at Sciences Po at the University of Paris, which helped her learn French. She was fluent in Spanish.
Though she ultimately became a conservative, as a college freshman in 1945 she joined the Young People's Socialist League, the youth wing of the Socialist Party of America, influenced by her grandfather who was a founder of the Populist and Socialist parties in Oklahoma. As Kirkpatrick recalled at a symposium in 2002:
It wasn't easy to find the YPSL in Columbia, Missouri. But I had read about it and I wanted to be one. We had a very limited number of activities in Columbia, Missouri. We had an anti-Franco rally, which was a worthy cause. You could raise a question about how relevant it was likely to be in Columbia, Missouri, but it was in any case a worthy cause. We also planned a socialist picnic, which we spent quite a lot of time organizing. Eventually, I regret to say, the YPSL chapter, after much discussion, many debates and some downright quarrels, broke up over the socialist picnic. I thought that was rather discouraging.
At Columbia University, her principal adviser was Franz Leopold Neumann, a revisionist Marxist. In 1967, she joined the faculty of Georgetown University and became a full professor of government in 1973. She became active in politics as a Democrat in the 1970s and was involved in the later campaigns of former Vice President and Democratic presidential candidate Hubert Humphrey. Along with Humphrey, she was close to Henry Jackson, who ran for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972 and in 1976. Like many in Jackson's circle she became identified with neoconservatism.
She was opposed to the candidacy of George McGovern in 1972 and that year she joined with Richard V. Allen and others to found the Committee on the Present Danger for the purpose of warning Americans against the Soviet Union's growing military power and the dangers of the SALT II treaty. She also served on the Platform Committee for the Democratic Party in 1976.
Kirkpatrick published a number of articles in political science journals reflecting her disillusionment with the Democratic Party with specific criticism of the foreign policy of Democratic President Jimmy Carter. Her most well known piece was "Dictatorships and Double Standards", published in Commentary in November 1979.
In that piece, Kirkpatrick mentioned what she saw as a difference between authoritarian regimes and the totalitarian regimes such as the Soviet Union; sometimes, it was necessary to work with authoritarian regimes if it suited American purposes: "No idea holds greater sway in the mind of educated Americans than the belief that it is possible to democratize governments, anytime and anywhere, under any circumstances ... Decades, if not centuries, are normally required for people to acquire the necessary disciplines and habits. In Britain, the road [to democratic government] took seven centuries to traverse ... The speed with which armies collapse, bureaucracies abdicate, and social structures dissolve once the autocrat is removed frequently surprises American policymakers."
Cabinet
The piece came to the attention of Ronald Reagan through his National Security Adviser Richard V. Allen. Kirkpatrick then became a foreign policy adviser throughout Reagan's 1980 campaign and presidency and, after his election to the presidency, Ambassador to the United Nations, which she held for four years. The Economist writes that until then, "she had never spent time with a Republican before."
On the way to her first meeting with him, she told Allen, "Listen, Dick, I am an AFL-CIO Democrat and I am quite concerned that my meeting Ronald Reagan on any basis will be misunderstood." She asked Reagan if he minded having a lifelong Democrat on his team; he replied that he himself had been a Democrat until he was 51, and in any event, he liked her way of thinking about American foreign policy.
Kirkpatrick was a vocal advocate of US support for the military regime in El Salvador during the early years of the Reagan Administration. When four US churchwomen were murdered by Salvadorean soldiers in 1980, Kirkpatrick declared her 'unequivocal' belief that the Salvadorean army was not responsible, adding that 'the nuns were not just nuns. They were political activists. We ought to be a little more clear about this than we actually are.' After the release of declassified documents in the 1990s, New Jersey congressman Robert Torricelli stated that it was 'now clear that while the Reagan Administration was certifying human rights progress in El Salvador they knew the terrible truth that the Salvadoran military was engaged in a widespread campaign of terror and torture'.
She was one of the strongest supporters of Argentina's military dictatorship following the March 1982 Argentine invasion of the United Kingdom's Falkland Islands, which triggered the Falklands War. Kirkpatrick had a "soft spot" for Argentina's General Leopoldo Galtieri and favored neutrality rather than the pro-British policy favored by Secretary of State Alexander Haig. Kirkpatrick, who, according to British UN Ambassador Sir Anthony Parsons, was very mixed up with Latin American policy, even went as far as supporting the Argentinian dictatorship by urging the Reagan Administration to act as outlined as in the Rio Pact of 1947, which stated that an attack against one state in the hemisphere should be considered an attack against them all.
British ambassador Sir Nicholas Henderson allegedly characterized her in a diplomatic cable as "more fool than fascist ... she appears to be one of America's own-goal scorers, tactless, wrong-headed, ineffective, and a dubious tribute to the academic profession to which she [expresses] her allegiance." The Reagan administration ultimately decided to declare support for the British, making her vote for United Nations Security Council Resolution 502.
At the 1984 Republican National Convention, she delivered the "Blame America First" keynote speech, which renominated Reagan by praising his administration's foreign policy while excoriating the leadership of what she called the "San Francisco Democrats" (the Democrats had just held their convention in San Francisco) for the party's shift away from the policies of Harry S. Truman and John F. Kennedy to a more strident antiwar position for which the left-wing of the Democratic Party had pushed since the Vietnam War. It was the first time since the 1952 speech from Douglas MacArthur that a non-party member had delivered the Republican Convention's keynote address.
Kirkpatrick, a member of the National Security Council, did not get along with either Secretary of State Haig or his successor, George Shultz. She disagreed with Shultz, most notably on the Iran–Contra affair in which she supported skimming money off arms sales to fund the Nicaraguan Contras while Shultz told Kirkpatrick that it would be an "impeachable offense" to do so because of the massacres perpetrated by that group. Shultz threatened to resign if Kirkpatrick was appointed National Security Adviser. Kirkpatrick was more closely allied with Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and head of the CIA William J. Casey on the issue.
Noam Chomsky, for example, referred to her as the "Chief sadist-in-residence of the Reagan Administration" and went on to criticize what he called the hypocrisy of supporting brutal military regimes that showed no respect for human rights or democracy while claiming to be protecting the region from communism. Author Lars Schoultz has argued that her policy was based on her belief that "Latin Americans are pathologically violent" and goes on to criticize that as a prejudice with no factual basis.
Ambassador to UN
Kirkpatrick said, "What takes place in the Security Council more closely resembles a mugging than either a political debate or an effort at problem-solving." Still, she finished her term with a certain respect for the normative power of the United Nations as the "institution whose majorities claim the right to decide—for the world—what is legitimate and what is illegitimate." She noted that the United States had increasingly ignored that significance and became increasingly isolated. That was problematic, because "relative isolation in a body like the United Nations is a sign of impotence," especially given its ability to shape international attitudes. She was ambassador to the UN during the September 1, 1983 Soviet shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, near Moneron Island. It had carried 269 passengers and crew including a sitting congressman, Larry McDonald (D-GA). She played before the Security Council the audio of the electronic intercept of the interceptor pilot during the attack, and the Soviet Union could no longer deny its responsibility for the shootdown.
Kirkpatrick was a Board Member of the American Foundation for Resistance International and the National Council to Support the Democracy Movements, intended to help bring down Soviet and East European Communism. Along with Vladimir Bukovsky, Martin Colman and Richard Perle, she worked to organize democratic revolutions against communism.
According to Jay Nordlinger, on a visit with American dignitaries, Soviet human rights activist Andrei Sakharov said, "Kirkpatski, Kirkpatski, which of you is Kirkpatski?" When others pointed to Kirkpatrick, he said, "Your name is known in every cell in the Gulag" because she had named Soviet political prisoners on the floor of the UN. Kirkpatrick said she would serve only one term at the UN and stepped down in April 1985.
Views on Israel
Kirkpatrick was a staunch supporter of Israel. During her ambassadorship at the United Nations, she considered its frequent criticism and condemnation of the Jewish state as holding Israel to a double standard, which she attributed to hostility and regarded as politically motivated. In 1989, Mohammed Wahby, press director of Egypt's Information Bureau, wrote to the Washington Post, "Jeane Kirkpatrick has, somehow, consistently opposed any attempt to resolve the Arab–Israeli conflict". However, in a 1989 op-ed, Kirkpatrick warned Secretary of State James Baker and Bush not to get involved in the conflict because any intervention would fail.
Kirkpatrick frequently expressed disdain for what she perceived to be disproportionate attention towards Israel's at the expense of others' conflicts. Despite this, during her tenure as UN Ambassador, she supported several resolutions condemning Israel.
Anti-Defamation League President Abraham Foxman issued a press release upon her death: "She will be fondly remembered for her unwavering and valiant support of the State of Israel and her unequivocal opposition to anti-Semitism, especially during her tenure at the United Nations. She was always a true friend of the Jewish people."
Political views
Comparing authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, she said:
"Authoritarian regimes really typically don't have complete command economies. Authoritarian regimes typically have some kind of traditional economy with some private ownership. The Nazi regime left ownership in private hands, but the state assumed control of the economy. Control was separated from ownership but it was really a command economy because it was controlled by the state. A command economy is an attribute of a totalitarian state."
Explaining her disillusionment with international organizations, especially the United Nations, she stated:
"As I watched the behavior of the nations of the U.N. (including our own), I found no reasonable ground to expect any one of those governments to transcend permanently their own national interests for those of another country."
"I conclude that it is a fundamental mistake to think that salvation, justice, or virtue come through merely human institutions."
"Democracy not only requires equality but also an unshakable conviction in the value of each person, who is then equal. Cross cultural experience teaches us not simply that people have different beliefs, but that people seek meaning and understand themselves in some sense as members of a cosmos ruled by God."
Regarding socialism, she said:
"As I read the utopian socialists, the scientific socialists, the German Social Democrats and revolutionary socialists—whatever I could in either English or French—I came to the conclusion that almost all of them, including my grandfather, were engaged in an effort to change human nature. The more I thought about it, the more I thought this was not likely to be a successful effort. So I turned my attention more and more to political philosophy and less and less to socialist activism of any kind."
Later life
In April 1985, Kirkpatrick became a Republican, a move which The Economist called her "only recourse" after her speech at the 1984 Republican convention. She returned to teaching at Georgetown University and became a fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, a Washington D.C. think tank, and a contributor to the American Freedom Journal. In 1993, she cofounded Empower America, a public-policy organization. She was also on the advisory board of the National Association of Scholars, a group that works against what it regards as a liberal bias in universities in the United States, with its emphasis on multicultural education, and affirmative action.
Kirkpatrick briefly considered running for president in 1988 against George H. W. Bush, because she believed he was not tough enough on Communism. Kirkpatrick endorsed Senator Robert Dole of Kansas, who was the runner up to Bush. Despite a strong showing in the Iowa caucuses, Dole's campaign quickly faded after he lost the New Hampshire primary in February 1988. Kirkpatrick was an active surrogate campaigner for Dole even as he was losing, as was her old foe, Alexander Haig, who endorsed Dole after ending his own 1988 campaign several days before the New Hampshire primary.
Along with Empower America co-directors William Bennett and Jack Kemp, she called on the Congress to issue a formal declaration of war against the "entire fundamentalist Islamist terrorist network" the day after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center. In 2003, she headed the US delegation to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Kirkpatrick was appointed to the Board of Directors of IDT Corp. in 2004. It was revealed after her death that in 2003, she was sent as a US envoy, to meet an Arab delegation and attempt to convince them to support the Iraq War; she was supposed to argue that pre-emptive war was justifiable, but she knew that it would not work and instead argued that Saddam Hussein had consistently gone against the UN. However she described George W. Bush as "a bit too interventionist for my taste" and felt that what she described as "moral imperialism" was not "taken seriously anywhere outside a few places in Washington, DC."
Personal life
According to a spokesperson at the American Enterprise Institute, Kirkpatrick was a Presbyterian. On February 20, 1955, she married Evron Maurice Kirkpatrick, who was a scholar and a former member of the O.S.S. (the World War II–era predecessor of the CIA). Her husband died in 1995. They had three sons: Douglas Jordan (1956–2006), John Evron, and Stuart Alan.
She had been diagnosed with heart disease and had been in failing health for several years. Kirkpatrick died at her home in Bethesda, Maryland, on December 7, 2006 from congestive heart failure. She was interred at Parklawn Memorial Park in Rockville, Maryland.
Awards and prizes
Kirkpatrick received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. The Kennedy School of Government at Harvard created a Kirkpatrick Chair in International Affairs in her honor.
She was given the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Humanitarian Award in 1983.
She received an honorary doctorate degree from Universidad Francisco Marroquín in 1985; she also received an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University in 1991.
She was awarded an honorary degree by Brandeis University in 1994, but declined it when her honor was met with protests from some professors and students, whom she described as "ideological zealots". Fifty-three professors opposed the award, with one stating: "We oppose the degree because she was the intellectual architect of Reagan administration policies that supported some of the Latin-American regimes with the most repressive records."
In 1995 she received the Walter Judd Freedom Award from The Fund for American Studies. In 2007, the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) honored Kirkpatrick with the creation of the Jeane Kirkpatrick Academic Freedom Award. The first recipient was Marine Corps reservist and correspondent Matt Sanchez. Kirkpatrick was inducted into the Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame in 1984.
In popular culture
Kirkpatrick was portrayed by Lorelei King in the 2002 BBC production of Ian Curteis's The Falklands Play.
In Berkeley Breathed's daily comic strip Bloom County, Kirkpatrick becomes former Meadow Party Presidential candidate Bill the Cat's love interest before he is exposed as using that relationship to perform espionage for the Soviet Union.
A play written by Louis Nevaer, Reagan's Athena, about her tenure as ambassador to the U.N. premiered at the Fringe in New York in August 2016.
Books authored
Making War to Keep Peace, 2007 ()
The Withering Away of the Totalitarian State...and Other Surprises, 1992 ()
Legitimacy and Force: National and International Dimensions, 1988 ()
International Regulation: New Rules in a Changing World Order, 1988 ()
Legitimacy and Force: Political and Moral Dimensions, 1988 ()
Legitimacy and Force: State Papers and Current Perspectives 1981–1985, 1987 ()
The United States and the World: Setting Limits, 1986 ()
The Reagan Doctrine and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1985 ()
Reagan Phenomenon and Other Speeches on Foreign Policy, 1983 ()
U.N. Under Scrutiny, 1982 ()
Dictatorships and Double Standards: Rationalism and Reason in Politics, 1982 ()
Presidential Nominating Process: Can It Be Improved, 1980 ()
Dismantling the Parties: Reflections on Party Reform and Party Decomposition, 1978 ()
The New Presidential Elite: Men and Women in National Politics, 1976 ()
Political Woman, 1974 (), the first major study of women in American political life. It includes interviews with 50 successful political women, representing 26 states.
See also
List of American politicians who switched parties in office
List of notable Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
List of U.S. political appointments that crossed party lines
References
Further reading
Bashevkin, Sylvia. Women as Foreign Policy Leaders: National Security and Gender Politics in Superpower America (Oxford UP, 2018) excerpt; also online review
Byrnes, Sean T. "The United States in Opposition: The United Nations, The Third World, and Changing American Visions of Global Order, 1970–1984". (PhD Diss. Emory University, 2014) excerpt.
Collier, Peter. Political Woman: The Big Little Life of Jeane Kirkpatrick (2012).
Rowlett, Bianca Joy. Jeane Kirkpatrick and Neoconservatism: The Intellectual Evolution of a Liberal (2014)
External links
"Jeane Kirkpatrick, Reagan's Forceful Envoy, Dies", 'The New York Times, December 9, 2006; accessed May 20, 2014.
"Kirkpatrick hit liberals for blaming America first", washtimes.com; accessed May 20, 2014.
official website of Empower America
American Enterprise Institute website
Profile: Jeane J. Kirkpatrick
ADL Mourns the Passing of Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick, Anti-Defamation League press release; accessed May 20, 2014.
The Cold War series: interview with Jeane Kirkpatrick, National Security Archive (February 28, 1999)
"Jeane Kirkpatrick advocates war", The Oprah Winfrey Show, October 1, 2001.
The National Association of Scholar's Board of Advisors
Jeane Kirkpatrick interviewed by Peter Krogh, American Interests'' (1982)
1926 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American Enterprise Institute
American political writers
American women ambassadors
Ambassadors of the United States
Barnard College alumni
Columbia University alumni
Burials at Parklawn Memorial Park
Cold War diplomats
Former Marxists
Georgetown University faculty
Maryland Democrats
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National Association of Scholars
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People from Duncan, Oklahoma
People from Mount Vernon, Illinois
People of the Falklands War
Permanent Representatives of the United States to the United Nations
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Recess appointments
Recipients of the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk
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American Presbyterians | [
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220741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryotron | Cryotron | The cryotron is a switch that operates using superconductivity. The cryotron works on the principle that magnetic fields destroy superconductivity. This simple device consists of two superconducting wires (e.g. tantalum and niobium) with different critical temperature (Tc). The cryotron was invented by Dudley Allen Buck of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory.
As described by Buck, a straight wire of tantalum (having lower Tc) is wrapped around with a wire of niobium in a single layer coil. Both wires are electrically isolated from each other. When this device is immersed in a liquid helium bath both wires become superconducting and hence offer no resistance to the passage of electric current. Tantalum in superconducting state can carry large amount of current as compared to its normal state. Now when current is passed through the niobium coil (wrapped around tantalum) it produces a magnetic field, which in turn reduces (kills) the superconductivity of the tantalum wire and hence reduces the amount of the current that can flow through the tantalum wire. Hence one can control the amount of the current that can flow in the straight wire with the help of small current in the coiled wire. We can think of the tantalum straight wire as a "gate" and the coiled niobium as a "control".
The article by Buck includes descriptions of several logic circuits implemented using cryotrons, including: one stage of a binary adder, carry network, binary accumulator stage, and two stages of a cryotron stepping register.
A planar cryotron using thin films of lead and tin was developed in 1957 by John Bremer at General Electric's General Engineering Lab in Schenectady, New York. This was one of the first integrated circuits, although using superconductors rather than semiconductors. In the next few years, a demonstration computer was made and arrays with 2000 devices operated. A short history of this work is in the November 2007 newsletter of the IEEE History Center.
Juri Matisoo developed a version of the cryotron incorporating a Josephson junction switched by the magnetic field from a control wire. He also explained the shortcomings of traditional cryotrons in which the superconductive material must transition between superconducting and normal states to switch the device, and thus switch relatively slowly. Matisoo's cryotron switched between a conducting state in which 'pair tunneling' of electrons through the gate took place and a 'resistive' state where only single electrons were able to tunnel. The circuit was (like the traditional cryotron) capable of some amplification (i.e gain greater than unity) had a switching rate of less than 800 picoseconds. Although the requirement for cryogenic cooling limited its practicality, it wasn't until the late 2010s that commercial transistors came close to matching this performance.
There have been periods of renewed interest in various types of cryotron, IBM experimented with using them for limited applications in supercomputers during the 1980s and (as of 2020) there has been some investigation of their potential applications both to I/O and logic in prototype quantum computers.
History
December 1953 The magnetically controlled switch is proposed in Dudley Allen Buck notebook.
July 1955 Dudley A. Buck application for U.S. Patent 2,832,897 Magnetically Controlled Gating Element
August 1955 Lincoln Laboratory Memorandum 6M-3843The Cryotron - A Superconductive Computer Component
1956 A Cryotron Catalog Memory System by Al Slade and Howard McMahon
1957 James W. Crowe application for U.S. patent 3,100,267 Superconducting Gating Devices
Legacy
The Cryotron brought Buck a number of interviews with various news agencies at the time, international scientific renown, and while work didn't survive Buck's death, many of the techniques for the research of the device would be used at Intel and other chip manufacturers and in the research of other more modern and interactive computers, especially at MIT.
References
Oxford dictionary of science,4th edition,1999,.
Switches
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220746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%20Xiangu | He Xiangu | He Xiangu, birth name He Qiong, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. While she is often seen as the only female among the Eight Immortals, the sex of Lan Caihe, another of the Eight Immortals, is somewhat ambiguous. He Xiangu is believed to have lived in the Tang dynasty and was born in either Lingling District, Yongzhou, Hunan or Zengcheng District, Guangzhou, Guangdong.
Legend
According to the Xian Fo Qi Zong (), He Xiangu was the daughter of He Tai (), a man from Zengcheng, Guangdong. At birth, she had six long hairs on the crown of her head. When she was about 14 or 15, a divine personage appeared to her in a dream and instructed her to eat powdered mica so that her body might become etherealised and immune from death. She did as instructed, vowed to remain a virgin, and gradually decreased her food intake.
Wu Zetian once sent a messenger to summon He Xiangu to the imperial court, but she disappeared on the way there.
One day during the Jinglong era (707–710 CE) in the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of the Tang dynasty, she ascended to Heaven in broad daylight and became an immortal.
Depiction
He Xiangu's lotus flower improves one's health, mental and physical. She is depicted holding a lotus flower, and sometimes with the musical instrument known as sheng, or a fenghuang to accompany her. She may also carry a bamboo ladle or fly-whisk.
Modern depictions
In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, He Xiangu was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Tso Lan, The Moon Demon.
References
Chinese goddesses
Health goddesses
Eight Immortals | [
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220747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20Bowles | Chester Bowles | Chester Bliss Bowles (April 5, 1901 – May 25, 1986) was an American diplomat and ambassador, governor of Connecticut, congressman and co-founder of a major advertising agency, Benton & Bowles, now part of Publicis Groupe. Bowles is best known for his influence on American foreign policy during Cold War years, when he argued that economic assistance to the Third World was the best means to fight communism, and even more important, to create a more peaceable world order. During World War II, he held high office in Washington as director of the Office of Price Administration, and control of setting consumer prices. Just after the war, he was the chief of the Office of Economic Stabilization, but had great difficulty controlling inflation. Moving into state politics, he served a term as governor of Connecticut from 1949 to 1951. He promoted liberal programs in education and housing, but was defeated for reelection by conservative backlash.
As ambassador to India, he established a good relationship with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, an emerging leader of the nonalignment movement. Bowles promoted rapid economic industrialization in India, and repeatedly called on Washington to help finance it. However, Washington was angered by India's neutrality, and limited funding to literacy and health programs. During the Eisenhower years, 1953-1960, Bowles organized liberal Democratic opposition, and served as a foreign policy advisor to Adlai Stevenson and John F. Kennedy. His reward was Under Secretary of State (1961), which enabled him to staff American embassies with liberal intellectuals and activists. However his liberalism proved too strong for Kennedy, who demoted him to a nominal job as roving ambassador to the Third World in 1961. Kennedy named him as ambassador to India again, 1962-1969, where he helped improve agricultural productivity and fight local famines.
Education and early career
Chester Bowles was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, to Charles Allen Bowles and Nellie Seaver (Harris). Theirs was an old Yankee family. His grandfather Samuel Bowles was a leading Republican spokesman as editor of the Springfield Republican. His father made a middle-class living as a salesmen for the wood pulp industry. Chester's parents were arch-conservative Republicans who hated and feared big government. However, Chester's political views were shaped more by his aunt Ruth Standish Baldwin, who was a socialist, pacifist, friend of Norman Thomas, and leader in the early civil rights movements for Blacks. She inspired him to read deeply in politics, civil rights, and international affairs. Chester attended elite private schools-- The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, graduating in 1919. He matriculated at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in 1924. Decades later he recalled the Yale years "as a period of overwork, confusion and missed opportunities....It was unfashionable in or out of college to think much about anything."
After working after graduation as a reporter for the newspaper in Springfield, Massachusetts owned by his family, Bowles took a minor position with the United States consulate in Shanghai, but soon returned to the U.S. because of his father's illness.
Advertising career success
Bowles became a copywriter for $25 per week at the Batten Company, an advertising agency in New York City that later became BBDO, the third-largest agency in the US. In 1929, Bowles established the Benton & Bowles advertising agency with William Benton, who was a fellow Batten employee. Despite the difficult economic environment of Great Depression, by the mid-1930s Benton & Bowles was a multimillion-dollar company. Benton & Bowles created the radio soap opera, offering specialized programming to receptive demographic groups. This allowed Benton & Bowles to create advertising campaigns to promote their clients' products to this targeted radio audience.
The New York Times referred to Bowles' career as an advertising executive as "brilliant". He and his business partner, Mr. Benton, signed major U.S. companies as advertising clients for Benton & Bowles, including General Foods, Procter & Gamble and Bristol Myers. Bowles was appointed chairman of the board in 1936. By 1941, the company reportedly earned an annual profit of more than $250,000. Bowles sold his shares in Benton & Bowles for a substantial profit. He became a multi-millionaire and fulfilled his dream by quitting the business world at age 40. He did not much enjoy the day-to-day job, saying in his autobiography:
I honestly believe that I would have been happier and more effective if I had gone into public service immediately following my graduation from college. On the other hand, I realize that the grinding effort that I put into those early years enabled my family and me to build a capital reserve which has assured us far greater independence and made it possible for me to travel, to write, to speak my mind, and to move from one career to the next as various challenges presented themselves.
Because of his strong support for the New Deal Domestic policies of the Roosevelt Administration, Bowles worked closely with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt on several key policy initiatives and programs, while continuing his job at Benton & Bowles.
Career during World War II
Initially, Bowles was opposed to the United States getting involved in World War II and joined an opposition group, the America First Committee. When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, he was rejected for health reasons when he tried to join the Navy.
Bowles then took a job as the state of Connecticut's rationing administrator in 1942. He becoming state director of price administration later that year, and then general manager. He was appointed by President Roosevelt in 1943 as administrator of the Office of Price Administration and served in that position until 1946. He played the major role in rationing consumer goods and setting prices in an effort to hold down inflation and guarantee that poor families were not outbid for the necessities of life. He served as a member of the War Production Board and the Petroleum Board for War.
Diplomatic and political career
In 1946, he was appointed director of the Office of Economic Stabilization and became chairman of the Economic Stabilization Board for President Harry S. Truman. Bowles ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in Connecticut that year. Also in 1946, he became one of the American delegates to the first conference of United Nations Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO in Paris. Bowles served as special assistant to UN Secretary General Trygve Lie in 1947 and 1948. During these years, the UN General Assembly met in session at Lake Success, New York on Long Island, as the UN building in Manhattan was not completed until 1952 He continued with the United Nations as international chairman of the United Nations Children's Appeal from 1948 to 1951.
.
Bowles was elected to the governorship of Connecticut in 1948, defeating James C. Shannon, and served one term, during which time he signed into law an end to segregation in the state national guard. During his term, Bowles was also active in improving education, mental health, housing and workmen's compensation. He lost a bitter re-election campaign to John Davis Lodge, during which his opponent painted him as an extreme liberal.
He was appointed as U.S. Ambassador to India and Nepal by President Truman, serving from 1951 to 1953. He developed a close relationship with Prime Minister Nehru, who otherwise distrusted Americans. Indeed Bowles Highly appreciated Nehru's positions, which caused him friction with the State Department.
During the Eisenhower years, Bowles was a leading Democratic liberal intellectual, especially on foreign policy matters, writing numerous articles, giving speeches, and advising Adlai Stevenson and John F. Kennedy. Bowles won a seat in the House of Representatives for Connecticut's second district and served one term, from January 3, 1959, to January 3, 1961. Without seniority, he made little impact in Congress.
Bowles was selected in 1960 as a foreign policy adviser to Senator John F. Kennedy during Kennedy's campaign for president of the US. Bowles served as chairman of the platform committee for the Democratic National Convention that year in Los Angeles, California.
President Kennedy appointed Bowles to the post of Under Secretary of State in 1961.
That November, Bowles was removed as a consequence of the touted perception in the Kennedy Administration that he failed to carry out key duties as an administrator in the Department of State, but actually, to quote John Kenneth Galbraith, for "his courage and his conscience," and because of his opposition to the Bay of Pigs Invasion. His removal was made part of a broader bureaucratic reshuffle, which became known as the "Thanksgiving Day Massacre". In early December 1961, he was replaced by George Ball as Under Secretary. In December 1961, Bowles was named President Kennedy's Special Representative and Adviser on African, Asian, and Latin American Affairs, and Ambassador at Large. Ostensibly this new position was a promotion, but this job was recognized by most experts involved at the time (and by historians in later years) as a demotion. Bowles was made Ambassador to India for the second time on July 19, 1963. He continued in this position through the remainder of Kennedy's Presidency, and for the duration of Lyndon B. Johnson's Administration. Bowles was a passionate advocate for stronger relations between the United States and India. He enjoyed good relations with India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Bowles strongly believed that the United States and India shared fundamental democratic values.
In March 1967, Bowles was formally petitioned for political asylum by Svetlana Alliluyeva, a writer and the only daughter of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, which was granted. Bowles arranged for her to leave India immediately on a middle-of-the-night flight to Rome. She traveled to Switzerland and eventually on to the U.S., where she died in 2011.
Bowles completed his service as Ambassador to India on April 21, 1969, during the early days of the presidency of Richard Nixon.
Political commitment
Chester Bowles was well known for his oft-repeated phrase, that he always had "a feeling for the people's side." He said that his grandfather and great-grandfather also used that phrase in their careers in journalism as newspaper owners. Bowles showed expertise in stagecraft, public relations and promotion, both during his career in advertising, and throughout his work as a diplomat, elected official and appointed official. For many years he was a successful author and lecturer, giving him platforms to promote his beliefs and views of politics, policy and the quest for peace. Early on, while a student at Yale College, his goal was to join the United States foreign service to become a career diplomat. Even while a business executive in the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s, he fostered a keen, growing interest in domestic issues, international issues, and a wide array of other political issues of the day. With the election of Franklin Roosevelt to the presidency in 1932, Bowles saw in the New Deal policies many ideas and concepts that he liked and would promote for decades.
Because of the strength and wealth of the United States, Bowles believed that it was essential for America to further develop vigorous, sizable foreign aid programs to a large number of countries. Bowles was a long-time advocate for peace. Because of that deep-rooted sense that peace was vital to survival and happiness of the world's population, Bowles was opposed to the Vietnam War and to the involvement of the United States in Southeast Asia. European reconstruction was vital, he believed, after the massive devastation of World War II. That devastation was due in no small measure to the bombing and other military activities conducted by the US and its Allies over the years of conflict in Europe, in his view. Bowles understood that the Nazi regime of Germany—and others in Axis alliance—needed to be defeated. Yet that meant destruction of buildings, infrastructure, deaths of civilians. Shortly after the war, Bowles saw the hampered abilities of the countries to produce food, clothe their people, provide education, sanitation and health care. Jobs were scarce and opportunities were limited for most people. Yet he was convinced that after the war the United States had a moral obligation to assist with the re-building of affected countries and with meeting the humanitarian needs of the affected people.
Civil rights was of paramount importance to Chester Bowles. As a white liberal from the Northeast, he used various tools to foment change that encouraged the independence, freedom and equality for African-Americans and other minorities, supporting changes in the laws advocating for enlightened judicial decisions affecting civil rights. He wrote articles and books that promoted civil rights and agitation for change and improvement, including in a book entitled "What Negroes Can Learn from Gandhi" published in 1958. He advanced these rights by supporting various government programs and private philanthropic initiatives.
Personal life
Bowles had two children (Chester and Barbara) with his first wife, the former Julia Fisk. He was married to Fisk in 1925. They divorced in 1933.
Bowles had three children (Cynthia, Sally, and Sam) with his second wife, the former Dorothy Stebbens. He married Stebbens in 1934. Daughter Sally Bowles continued her father's tradition of public service, Chester Jr. is an architect, and Samuel Bowles is a well-known economist.
A public housing project in northwest Hartford, Connecticut, Bowles Park, is named in Bowles's honor. Connecticut Route 9 between Old Saybrook and Cromwell is also designated as the Chester Bowles Highway.
Death
Bowles died at the age of 85, on May 25, 1986, in Essex, Connecticut. He had Parkinson's disease for 22 years (diagnosed when he was Ambassador to India). He also had a cerebrovascular accident (a stroke) the week prior to his death. His grave is in the River View Cemetery in Essex.
Bibliography
Tomorrow Without Fear (1946)
Ambassador's Report (1954)
The New Dimensions of Peace (1955)
Africa's Challenge to America (1956)
What Negroes Can Learn From Gandhi (1958)
Ideas, People, and Peace (1958)
The Coming Political Breakthrough (1959)
The Conscience of a Liberal (1962)
The Makings of a Just Society (1963)
Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life (1971)
References
John Kenneth Galbraith
review of "Promises to Keep"
New York Times April 25, 1971
Further reading
Ahlberg, Kristin. “'Machiavelli With a Heart': The Johnson Administration’s Food for Peace Program in India, 1965-1966,” Diplomatic History 31, no. 4 (2007): 665-701.
D'Auria, Gregory T. "A Connecticut Cassandra in Camelot: Chester Bowles, John F. Kennedy, and the Vietnam War." Connecticut History Review (1987): 39-57. online
Dauer, Richard P. A North-South Mind in an East-West World: Chester Bowles and the Making of United States Cold War Foreign Policy, 1951-1969 (Greenwood, 2005). online
Kux, Dennis. Estranged Democracies: India and the United States, 1941-1991 (1994)
McGarr, Paul. “'India’s Rasputin'? V.K. Krishna Menon and Anglo-American Misperceptions of Indian Foreign Policymaking, 1947-1964,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 22#2 (2011): 239-260
McMahon, Robert. The Cold War on the Periphery: The United States, India, and Pakistan (1994)
Sankaran, Sahaj. "Ambassadors Extraordinary: Chester Bowles, BK Nehru, and Ambassadorial Agency in Indo-American Relations, 1961-1969." (2020). online
Schaffer, Howard B. Chester Bowles: New Dealer in the Cold War, (Harvard University Press, 1993)
Primary sources
Bowles, Paul, and Gena Dagel Caponi. Conversations with Paul Bowles (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1993).
Bowles, Paul, and Jeffrey Miller. In touch: the letters of Paul Bowles (2014).
External links
Guide to the Chester Bowles Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library
1901 births
1986 deaths
20th-century American diplomats
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American writers
Ambassadors of the United States to India
American Congregationalists
American male writers
Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Connecticut Democrats
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Governors of Connecticut
Kennedy administration personnel
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
People from Wallingford, Connecticut
Politicians from Springfield, Massachusetts
United States Under Secretaries of State
Writers from Connecticut
Writers from Massachusetts
Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni | [
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] |
220750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Kirkpatrick | Jean Kirkpatrick | Jean Kirkpatrick may refer to:
Jeane Kirkpatrick (1926–2006), American diplomat
Jean Kirkpatrick (sociologist) (1926–2006), who founded Women For Sobriety | [
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220751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation%20problem | Transformation problem | In 20th-century discussions of Karl Marx's economics, the transformation problem is the problem of finding a general rule by which to transform the "values" of commodities (based on their socially necessary labour content, according to his labour theory of value) into the "competitive prices" of the marketplace. This problem was first introduced by Marx in chapter 9 of the draft of volume 3 of Capital, where he also sketched a solution. The essential difficulty was this: given that Marx derived profit, in the form of surplus value, from direct labour inputs, and that the ratio of direct labour input to capital input varied widely between commodities, how could he reconcile this with a tendency toward an average rate of profit on all capital invested among industries, if such a tendency (as predicted by Marx and Ricardo) exists?
Marx's theory
Marx defines value as the number of hours of labor socially necessary to produce a commodity. This includes two elements: First, it includes the hours that a worker of normal skill and dedication would take to produce a commodity under average conditions and with the usual equipment (Marx terms this "living labor"). Second, it includes the labor embodied in raw materials, tools, and machinery used up or worn away during its production (which Marx terms "dead labor"). In capitalism, workers spend a portion of their working day reproducing the value of their means of subsistence, represented as wages (necessary labor), and a portion of their day producing value above and beyond that, referred to as surplus value, which goes to the capitalist (surplus labor).
Since, according to Marx, the source of capitalist profit is this surplus labor of the workers, and since in this theory only new, living labor produces profit, it would appear logical that enterprises with a low organic composition (a higher proportion of capital spent on living labor) would have a higher rate of profit than would enterprises with a high organic composition (a higher proportion of capital spent on raw materials and means of production). However, in models of classical perfect competition, higher rates of profit are not generally found in enterprises with a low organic composition, and low profit rates are not generally found in enterprises with a high organic composition. Instead, there is a tendency toward equalization of the rate of profit in industries of different organic compositions. That is, in such models with no barriers to entry, capitalists are free to disinvest or invest in any industry, a tendency exists towards the formation of a general rate of profits, constant across all industries.
Marx outlined the transformation problem as a theoretical solution to this discrepancy. The tendency of the rate of profit toward equalization means that, in this theory, there is no simple translation from value to money—e.g., 1 hour of value equals 20 dollars—that is the same across every sector of the economy. While such a simple translation may hold approximately true in general, Marx postulated that there is an economy-wide, systematic deviation according to the organic compositions of the different industries, such that 1 hour of value equals 20 dollars times T, where T represents a transformation factor that varies according to the organic composition of the industry in consideration.
In this theory, T is approximately 1 in industries where the organic composition is close to average, less than 1 in industries where the organic composition is below average, and greater than 1 in industries where the organic composition is higher than average.
Because Marx was considering only socially necessary labor, this variation among industries has nothing to do with higher-paid, skilled labor versus lower-paid, unskilled labor. This transformation factor varies only with respect to the organic compositions of different industries.
British classical labor theory of value
Marx's value theory was developed from the labor theory of value discussed by Adam Smith and used by many British classical economists. It became central to his economics.
Simplest case: labor costs only
Consider the simple example used by Adam Smith to introduce the subject. Assume a hunters’ economy with free land, no slavery, and no significant current production of tools, in which beavers and deer are hunted. In the language of modern linear production models, call the unit labour-input requirement for the production of each good , where may be or (i.e., is the number of hours of uniform labour normally required to catch a beaver, and a deer; notice that we need to assume labour as uniform in order to be able, later on, to use a uniform wage rate).
In this case, Smith noticed, each hunter will be willing to exchange one deer (which costs him hours) for beavers. The ratio —i.e., the relative quantity of labour embodied in (unit) deer production with respect to beaver production—gives thus the exchange ratio between deer and beavers, the "relative price" of deer in units of beavers. Moreover, since the only costs are here labor costs, this ratio is also the "relative unit cost" of deer for any given competitive uniform wage rate . Hence the relative quantity of labor embodied in deer production coincides with the competitive relative price of deer in units of beavers, which can be written as (where the stands for absolute competitive prices in some arbitrary unit of account, and are defined as ).
Capital costs
Things become more complicated if production uses some scarce capital good as well. Suppose that hunting requires also some arrows , with input coefficients equal to , meaning that to catch, for instance, one beaver you need to use arrows, besides hours of labour. Now the unit total cost (or absolute competitive price) of beavers and deer becomes
where denotes the capital cost incurred in using each arrow.
This capital cost is made up of two parts. First, there is the replacement cost of substituting the arrow when it is lost in production. This is , or the competitive price of the arrows, multiplied by the proportion of arrows lost after each shot. Second, there is the net rental or return required by the arrows' owner (who may or may not be the same person as the hunter using it). This can be expressed as the product , where is the (uniform) net rate of return of the system.
Summing up, and assuming a uniform replacement rate , the absolute competitive prices of beavers and deer may be written as
Yet we still have to determine the arrows' competitive price . Assuming arrows are produced by labor only, with man-hours per arrow, we have:
Assuming further, for simplicity, that (i.e., all arrows are lost after just one shot, so that they are circulating capital), the absolute competitive prices of beavers and deer become:
Here, is the quantity of labor directly embodied in beaver and deer unit production, while is the labor indirectly thus embodied, through previous arrow production. The sum of the two,
,
gives the total quantity of labor embodied.
It is now obvious that the relative competitive price of deer can no longer be generally expressed as the ratio between total amounts of labour embodied. With the ratio will correspond to only in two very special cases: if either ; or, if . In general the two ratios will not only differ: may change for any given , if the net rate of return or the wages vary.
As it will now be seen, this general lack of any functional relationship between and , of which Ricardo had been particularly well aware, is at the heart of Marx's transformation problem. For Marx, r is the quotient of surplus value to the value of capital advanced to non-labor inputs, and is typically positive in a competitive capitalist economy.
Marx's labour theory of value
Surplus value and exploitation
Marx distinguishes between labour power as the potential to work, and labour, which is its actual use. He describes labour power as a commodity, and like all commodities, Marx assumes that on average it is exchanged at its value. Its value is determined by the value of the quantity of goods required for its reproduction.
Yet there is a difference between the value of labour power and the value produced by that labour power in its use. Unlike other commodities, in its use, labour power produces new value beyond that used up by its use. This difference is called surplus value and is for Marx the source of profit for the capitalists. The appropriation of surplus labor is what Marx denoted the exploitation of labour.
Labour as the "value-creating substance"
Marx defined the "value" of a commodity as the total amount of socially necessary labour embodied in its production. He developed this special brand of the labour theory of value in the first chapter of volume 1 of Capital. Due to the influence of Marx's particular definition of value on the transformation problem, he is quoted at length where he argues as follows:
Let us take two commodities, e.g., corn and iron. The proportions in which they are exchangeable, whatever those proportions may be, can always be represented by an equation in which a given quantity of corn is equated to some quantity of iron: e.g., 1 quarter corn = x cwt. iron. What does this equation tell us? It tells us that in two different things—in 1 quarter of corn and x cwt. of iron, there exists in equal quantities something common to both. The two things must therefore be equal to a third, which in itself is neither the one nor the other. Each of them, so far as it is exchange value, must therefore be reducible to this third.
This common 'something' cannot be either a geometrical, a chemical, or any other natural property of commodities. Such properties claim our attention only in so far as they affect the utility of those commodities, make them use values. But the exchange of commodities is evidently an act characterised by a total abstraction from use value.
If then we leave out of consideration the use value of commodities, they have only one common property left, that of being products of labour. […] Along with the useful qualities of the products themselves, we put out of sight both the useful character of the various kinds of labour embodied in them, and the concrete forms of that labour; there is nothing left but what is common to them all; all are reduced to one and the same sort of labour, human labour in the abstract.
A use value, or useful article, therefore, has value only because human labour in the abstract has been embodied or materialised in it. How, then, is the magnitude of this value to be measured? Plainly, by the quantity of the value-creating substance, the labour, contained in the article.
—Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, Chapter 1
Variable and constant capital
As labour produces in this sense more than its own value, the direct-labour input is called variable capital and denoted as . The quantity of value that living labour transmits to the deer, in our previous example, varies according to the intensity of the exploitation. In the previous example, .
By contrast, the value of other inputs—in our example, the indirect (or "dead") past labour embodied in the used-up arrows—is transmitted to the product as it stands, without additions. It is hence called constant capital and denoted as c. The value transmitted by the arrow to the deer can never be greater than the value of the arrow itself. In our previous example, .
Value formulas
The total value of each produced good is the sum of the above three elements: constant capital, variable capital, and surplus value. In our previous example:
Where stands for the (unit) Marxian value of beavers and deer.
However, from Marx's definition of value as total labour embodied, it must also be true that:
Solving for the above two relationships one has:
for all .
This necessarily uniform ratio is called by Marx the rate of surplus value, and it allows to re-write Marx's value equations as:
Classical tableaux
Like Ricardo, Marx believed that relative labour values— in the above example—do not generally correspond to relative competitive prices— in the same example. However, in volume 3 of Capital he argued that competitive prices are obtained from values through a transformation process, whereby capitalists redistribute among themselves the given aggregate surplus value of the system in such a way as to bring about a tendency toward an equal rate of profit, , among sectors of the economy. This happens because of the capitalists' tendency to shift their capital toward sectors where it earns higher returns. As competition becomes fierce in a given sector, the rate of return falls, while the opposite will happen in a sector with a low rate of return. Marx describes this process in detail.
Marx's reasoning
The following two tables adapt the deer-beaver-arrow example seen above (which, of course, is not found in Marx, and is only a useful simplification) to illustrate Marx's approach. In both cases it is assumed that the total quantities of beavers and deer captured are and respectively. It is also supposed that the subsistence real wage is one beaver per unit of labour, so that the amount of labour embodied in it is . Table 1 shows how the total amount of surplus value of the system, shown in the last row, is determined.
Table 2 illustrates how Marx thought this total would be redistributed between the two industries, as "profit" at a uniform return rate, r, over constant capital. First, the condition that total "profit" must equal total surplus value—in the final row of table 2—is used to determine r. The result is then multiplied by the value of the constant capital of each industry to get its "profit". Finally, each (absolute) competitive price in labour units is obtained, as the sum of constant capital, variable capital, and "profit" per unit of output, in the last column of table 2.
Tables 1 and 2 parallel the tables in which Marx elaborated his numerical example.
Marx's supposed error and its correction
Later scholars argued that Marx's formulas for competitive prices were mistaken.
First, competitive equilibrium requires a uniform rate of return over constant capital valued at its price, not its Marxian value, contrary to what is done in table 2 above. Second, competitive prices result from the sum of costs valued at the prices of things, not as amounts of embodied labour. Thus, both Marx's calculation of and the sums of his price formulas do not add up in all the normal cases, where, as in the above example, relative competitive prices differ from relative Marxian values. Marx noted this but thought that it was not significant, stating in chapter 9 of volume 3 of Capital that "Our present analysis does not necessitate a closer examination of this point."
The simultaneous linear equations method of computing competitive (relative) prices in an equilibrium economy is today very well known. In the greatly simplified model of tables 1 and 2, where the wage rate is assumed as given and equal to the price of beavers, the most convenient way is to express such prices is in units of beavers, which means normalising . This yields the (relative) price of arrows as
beavers.
Substituting this into the relative-price condition for beavers,
,
gives the solution for the rate of return as
Finally, the price condition for deer can hence be written as
.
This latter result, which gives the correct competitive price of deer in units of beavers for the simple model used here, is generally inconsistent with Marx's price formulae of table 2.
Ernest Mandel, defending Marx, explains this discrepancy in term of the time frame of production rather than as a logical error; i.e., in this simplified model, capital goods are purchased at a labour value price, but final products are sold under prices that reflect redistributed surplus value.
After Marx
Engels
Friedrich Engels, the editor of volume 3 of Capital, hinted since 1894 at an alternative way to look at the matter. His view was that the pure Marxian "law of value" of volume 1 and the "transformed" prices of volume 3 applied to different periods of economic history. In particular, the "law of value" would have prevailed in pre-capitalist exchange economies, from Babylon to the 15th century, while the "transformed" prices would have materialized under capitalism: see Engels's quotation by Morishima and Catephores (1975), p. 310.
Engels's reasoning was later taken up by Meek (1956) and Nell (1973). These authors argued that, whatever one might say of his interpretation of capitalism, Marx's "value" theory retains its usefulness as a tool to interpret pre-capitalist societies, because, they maintained, in pre-capitalist exchange economies there were no "prices of production" with a uniform rate of return (or "profit") on capital. It hence follows that Marx's transformation must have had a historical dimension, given by the actual transition to capitalist production (and no more Marxian "values") at the beginning of the modern era. In this case, this true "historical transformation" could and should take the place of the mathematical transformation postulated by Marx in chapter 9 of volume 3.
Other Marxist views
There are several schools of thought among those who see themselves as upholding or furthering Marx on the question of transformation from values to prices, or modifying his theory in ways to make it more consistent.
According to the temporal single-system interpretation of Capital advanced by Alan Freeman, Andrew Kliman, and others, Marx's writings on the subject can be interpreted in such a way as to remove any supposed inconsistencies. Modern traditional Marxists argue that not only does the labour theory of value hold up today, but also that Marx's understanding of the transformation problem was in the main correct.
Political-economic readings of Capital, such as Harry Cleaver's Reading Capital Politically redefine exploitation as a direct control of worked time, unrelated as such to distribution. These readings are usually associated with the autonomist strand of Marxism, which focuses on production as the key economic site within society. These readings of Capital are typically hostile to economics as such, and consider the transformation problem unimportant because they see all social arrangements in capitalism (in particular, profit and distribution) as politically determined contests between classes.
In the probabilistic interpretation of Marx advanced by Emmanuel Farjoun and Moshe Machover in Laws of Chaos (see references), they "dissolve" the transformation problem by reconceptualising the relevant quantities as random variables. In particular, they consider profit rates to reach an equilibrium distribution. A heuristic analogy with the statistical mechanics of an ideal gas leads them to the hypothesis that this equilibrium distribution should be a gamma distribution.
Finally, there are Marxist scholars (e.g., Anwar Shaikh, Fred Moseley, Alan Freeman, Makoto Itoh, Gerard Dumenil and Dominique Levy, and Duncan Foley) who hold that there exists no incontestable logical procedure by which to derive price magnitudes from value magnitudes, but still think that it has no lethal consequences on his system as a whole. In a few very special cases, Marx's idea of labour as the "substance" of (exchangeable) value would not be openly at odds with the facts of market competitive equilibrium. These authors have argued that such cases—though not generally observed—throw light on the "hidden" or "pure" nature of capitalist society. Thus Marx's related notions of surplus value and unpaid labour can still be treated as basically true, although they hold that the practical details of their workings are more complicated than Marx thought.
In particular, some (e.g., Anwar Shaikh) have suggested that since aggregate surplus value will generally differ from aggregate "profit", the former should be in fact treated as a mere pre-condition for the latter, rather than a full explanation of it. Using input-output data and empirical proxies for labour-values, Shaikh and Ochoa have provided some statistical evidence to show that, although no incontestable logical deduction may be possible of specific price magnitudes from specific value magnitudes, even within a complex model (in contrast to a probabilistic prediction), even a "93% Ricardian theory" of labour-value appears to be a better empirical predictor of price than its rivals.
Critics of the theory
Many mathematical economists assert that a set of functions in which Marx's equalities hold does not generally exist at the individual enterprise or aggregate level, so that chapter 9's transformation problem has no general solution, outside two very special cases. This was first pointed out by, among others, Böhm-Bawerk (1896) and Bortkiewicz (1906). In the second half of the 20th century, Leontief’s and Sraffa’s work on linear production models provided a framework within which to prove this result in a simple and general way.
Although he never actually mentioned the transformation problem, Sraffa’s (1960) chapter 6 on the "reduction" of prices to "dated" amounts of current and past embodied labour gave implicitly the first general proof, showing that the competitive price of the produced good can be expressed as
,
where is the time lag, is the lagged-labour input coefficient, is the wage, and is the "profit" (or net return) rate. Since total embodied labour is defined as
,
it follows from Sraffa’s result that there is generally no function from to , as was made explicit and elaborated upon by later writers, notably Ian Steedman in Marx after Sraffa.
A standard reference, with an extensive survey of the entire literature prior to 1971 and a comprehensive bibliography, is Samuelson's (1971) "Understanding the Marxian Notion of Exploitation: A Summary of the So-Called Transformation Problem Between Marxian Values and Competitive Prices" Journal of Economic Literature 9 2 399–431.
Since the 1970s, several major schools of Marxian economics have arisen in response to the transformation problem–related challenges of the neoclassical and Sraffian schools. Analytical Marxists held that the transformation problem disproved the labour theory of value and based their Marxian social theory on a combination of the Fundamental Marxian theorem, game theory, and other neoclassical and mathematical tools. Followers of the temporal single system interpretation and the new interpretation argue that critics have misunderstood Marx's definition of value and that, correctly defined, there is no difference between value and price.
The lack of any function to transform Marx's "values" to competitive prices has important implications for Marx's theory of labour exploitation and economic dynamics—namely that, some people argue with Okishio's theorem, that there is no tendency of the rate of profit to fall. This means that it is not preordained that capitalists must exploit labour to compensate for a declining rate of profit. This implies that Marx's prophecy that worsening labour exploitation would result in an eventual revolution against the capitalist system and the establishment of communism is logically and mathematically false.
Proponents of the temporal single system interpretation such as Moseley (1999), who argue that the determination of prices by simultaneous linear equations (which assumes that prices are the same at the start and end of the production period) is logically inconsistent with the determination of value by labour time, question whether the mathematical proof that Marx's transformation problem has no general solution. Other Marxian economists accept the proof, but reject its relevance for some key elements of Marxian political economy. Still others reject Marxian economics outright, and emphasise the politics of the assumed relations of production instead. To this extent, the transformation problem—or rather its implications—is still a controversial issue today.
Simon Mohun and Roberto Veneziani explain that if the LTV is taken as a macroeconomic theory, then total revenue will equal total value. However, this will mean that total profit will not be proportional to total surplus-value, meaning that surplus value cannot be the explanation for the origins of profit. However, if there is a proportionality between surplus value and profit, then the LTV fails as a macroeconomic theory.
Non-Marxian critiques
Mainstream scholars such as Paul Samuelson question the assumption that the basic nature of capitalist production and distribution can be gleaned from unrealistic special cases. For example, in special cases where it applies, Marx's reasoning can be turned upside down through an inverse transformation process; Samuelson argues that Marx's inference that
Profit is therefore the [bourgeois] disguise of surplus value which must be removed before the real nature of surplus value can be discovered." (Capital, volume 3, chapter 2)
could with equal cogency be "transformed" into:
Surplus value is therefore the [Marxist] disguise of profit which must be removed before the real nature of profit can be discovered.
To clarify this point, it may be noticed that the special cases in question are also precisely those where J. B. Clark's old model of aggregate marginal productivity holds strictly true, leading to equality between the equilibrium levels of the real wage rate and labour's aggregate marginal product, a hypothesis regarded as disproved by all sides during the Cambridge capital controversy. One would thus have a "pure" state of capitalist society where Marx's exploitation theory and its main supposed confutation were both true.
Like Clark's contention about the "fairness" of marginal-productivity wages, so Marx's basic argument—from the "substance" of value to the concept of exploitation—is claimed to be a set of non-analytical and non-empirical propositions. That is why, being non-falsifiable, both theories may be found to apply to the same formal and/or empirical object, though they are supposed to negate each other.
Samuelson not only dismissed the labour theory of value because of the transformation problem, but provided himself, in cooperation with economists like Carl Christian von Weizsäcker, solutions. Von Weizsäcker (1962), along with Samuelson (1971), analysed the problem under the assumption that the economy grows at a constant rate following the Golden Rule of Accumulation. Weizsäcker concludes:
The price of the commodity today is equal to the sum of the 'present' values of the different labour inputs.
Marxian reply to non-Marxian critiques
The Marxian reply to this mainstream view is as follows. The attempt to discard the theoretical relevance of the necessary preconditions of Marx's value analysis in volume 1 of Capital through a reductio ad absurdum is superficial. By first identifying that the preconditions necessary for J. B. Clark's old model of aggregate marginal productivity to hold true are the same as those necessary for Marxian values to conform to relative prices, we are then supposed to conclude that the foundation of Marx's analysis as based in these preconditions is faulty because Clark's model had been proven wrong in the Cambridge capital controversy. The superficiality stems from the fact that those who support this reduction forget that the Cambridge capital controversy called the entire concept of marginal productivity into question by attacking not Clark's special case assumptions but the notion that physical capital can be aggregated. Marx simply does not run into this problem because his analysis does not rely on an aggregation of physical quantities that receive a return based on their contribution as "factors" of production. The fact that marginal productivity in its aggregate form is "a hypothesis regarded as disproved by all sides during the Cambridge capital controversy" has nothing to do with the validity of the special cases of Marx, and thus we would not "have a "pure" state of capitalist society where Marx's exploitation theory and its main supposed confutation (Clark) were both true", as is concluded from this view, because the "correctness" or "incorrectness" of Clark's aggregate marginal productivity scheme in this case flows not from special case assumptions but from the fact that he is aggregating physical units of capital; i.e., Clark's argument would still not hold true even with the assumed special cases.
To further clarify this point, consider the following. First, it is never possible to provide any absolute scientific proof for the truth of any particular concept of economic value in economics, because the attribution of economic value itself always involves human and moral interpretations that go beyond facts and logic. By nature, the concept of economic value is not a scientifically provable concept but an assumption. Marx himself explicitly ridiculed the idea that he should be required to "prove his concept of value".
Second, the validity of any proposed theory of value depends on its explanatory, heuristic, and predictive power—i.e., whether it makes possible a coherent interpretation of the known facts that can at least to some extent predict observable trends. In this sense, Marx evidently felt that he had "proved" the validity of his concept of value by the integrated theory of capitalist development that it made possible (see also law of value). What mattered was the application of the concept.
Third, once a certain concept of economic value is assumed, certain predictions or explanations can be made on the basis of it, and those explanations or predictions can at least in principle be falsified by reference to logic and observable evidence. And that concept of value can be compared with rival concepts and the rival theories they make possible in order to establish which has greater explanatory or predictive capacity.
Fourth, modern philosophy of science rejects Popper's falsification theory as an adequate portrayal of science. Scientific statements are not necessarily falsifiable statements but fallible statements (i.e., they could be wrong) that, in principle, can be tested against observables, even if we do not yet know technically how to do this. Scientists do not aim mainly to falsify theories, but to confirm them in order to provide usable knowledge.
Finally, as Piero Sraffa showed clearly, the theory of the production and distribution of a surplus, however it might be devised, is logically independent of any particular theory of the exploitation of labour. Labour exploitation may occur and be conceptualised in various ways, regardless of which theory of value is held to be true. Consequently, if Marx's theory of labour exploitation is false, this is a separate issue.
See also
Capital accumulation
Critique of political economy
Labour theory of value
Law of value
Prices of production
Return of capital
Socially necessary labour time
Surplus value
Temporal single-system interpretation
Notes
References
Marx, K. (1859) Zur Kritik der politischen Oeconomie, Berlin (trans. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy London 1971).
Marx, K. (1867) Das Kapital Volume I.
Marx, K. (1894) Das Kapital Volume III (ed. by F. Engels).
Alan Freeman: Price, value and profit - a continuous, general treatment. In: Alan Freeman, Guglielmo Carchedi (editors): Marx and non-equilibrium economics. Edward Elgar. Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US 1996.
Meek, R. (1956) 'Some Notes on the Transformation Problem' Economic Journal 66 (March) 94-107.
Hicks, J. (1969) A Theory of Economic History Oxford.
Althusser, L. and E. Balibar (1970) Reading 'Capital' London.
Samuelson, P.A. (1971) "Understanding the Marxian Notion of Exploitation: A Summary of the So-Called Transformation Problem Between Marxian Values and Competitive Prices" Journal of Economic Literature 9 2 399–431.
Godelier, M. (1973) Horizon, trajets marxistes en anthropologie Paris.
Nell, E.J. (1973) 'Marx's Economics. A Dual Theory of Value and Growth: by Micho Morishima' (book review) Journal of Economic Literature XI 1369-71.
Morishima, M. and G. Catephores (1975) 'Is there an "historical transformation problem"?' Economic Journal 85 (June) 309-28.
Anwar Shaikh papers:
Alan Freeman papers:
Fred Moseley papers:
Makoto Itoh, The Basic Theory of Capitalism''.
Gerard Dumenil & Dominique Levy papers
Duncan Foley papers
Hagendorf, Klaus: Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm. Part I: The Competitive Firm. Paris: EURODOS; 2009.
Moseley, Fred (1999). "A 'New Solution' for the Transformation Problem: A Sympathetic Critique".
Marxist theory
History of economic thought
Marxian economics | [
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220752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao%20Guojiu | Cao Guojiu | Cao Guojiu, literally Imperial Brother-in-law Cao, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. His real name was Cao Yi while his courtesy name was Jingxiu, and he was better known to his contemporaries as Cao Jingxiu.
Cao Guojiu is believed to be a descendant of Cao Bin, a general of the early Song dynasty, and a younger brother of Empress Cao, the wife of Emperor Renzong of the Song dynasty. As none of Emperor Renzong's sons survived their father, the emperor designated a younger male relative, who later became Emperor Yingzong, as his successor. As such, Cao could not have been a maternal uncle of Emperor Yingzong, so his "Imperial Uncle" status seemed ambiguous. However, as the Chinese character jiu (), which means "maternal uncle", can also mean "wife's brother", it is believed that the latter meaning should apply to Cao. In other words, Cao was the "Imperial Brother-in-Law" of Emperor Renzong rather than an "Imperial (Maternal) Uncle" of any Song dynasty emperor.
Cao's younger brother, Cao Jingzhi (), abused his relationship with the imperial family by bullying others and engaging in corrupt practices. Cao tried to persuade his brother to change his ways but he did not listen. In the meantime, he also used his family fortune to help the poor and tried to make up for his brother's misdeeds. One day, Cao Jingzhi was accused by other officials in the imperial court of corruption and abuse of power. Cao felt so ashamed and disappointed by his brother's misconduct that he gave up his official career and went to the countryside to lead a reclusive life. During this time, he met the immortals Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin, who taught him Taoist magical arts. After many years of practice and cultivation, Cao himself also became an immortal.
Cao is often depicted dressed in official robes and holding a jade tablet or paiban (clapper). He is also regarded as the patron deity of acting and theatre.
Modern references
In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Cao was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Tchang Zu, The Thunder Demon. He was depicted as missing his lower right leg.
Health gods
Eight Immortals
Arts gods | [
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220754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Dundas%2C%202nd%20Viscount%20Melville | Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville | Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville (14 March 1771 – 10 June 1851) was a British statesman, the son of Henry Dundas, the 1st Viscount. Dundas was the Member of Parliament for Hastings in 1794, Rye in 1796 and Midlothian in 1801. He was also Keeper of the Signet for Scotland from 1800. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1807, a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1817, a Knight of the Thistle in 1821, and was Chancellor of the University of St Andrews from 1814. Melville filled various political offices and was First Lord of the Admiralty from 1812 to 1827, and from 1828 to 1830; his eldest son inherited his title.
Early life and family
He was born in Edinburgh on 14 March 1771, the only son of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, and his first wife, the former Elizabeth Rannie (1751–1843). Educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, he went in 1786 with his tutor John Bruce on a continental tour and enrolled at Göttingen University. He studied afterwards at the University of Edinburgh and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and was admitted at Lincoln's Inn in 1788. After a successful attempt at law he became his father's private secretary from 1794, though he was brought in as MP for Hastings in 1794, and then Rye in 1796. The same year, on 29 August, he married an heiress, Anne Saunders (died 10 Sept 1841), and took her name beside his own. They had four sons and two daughters; their eldest son, Henry Dundas, later third Viscount Melville, became an army officer while their second son, Richard Saunders Dundas, became First Naval Lord.
President of the Board of Control
Dundas was appointed Keeper of the Signet for Scotland and elected MP for Midlothian (Edinburghshire) in 1801. He remained silent in parliament until his speeches of 1805 and 1806 in defence of his father, who was then being impeached. His first real test came in negotiating to be left in charge of Scotland by a hostile 'ministry of all the talents'. He got nowhere, but won the respect of his own side, and the problem vanished with the ministry's collapse. He was rewarded with the presidency of the Board of Control for India by the Duke of Portland in 1807.
Dundas's main task was to frustrate any possibility that Napoleon might exploit his alliance with Russia to make some attempt on British India. He sent a mission to the shah of Persia, at whose court French agents were present. He formed alliances with the princes of Lahore and Kabul. He ordered occupation of the Portuguese factories in India and China, of the Dutch colony of Java, and of the French stations on Mauritius and Réunion. He had also to deal with a sharp deterioration, through loss of trade during the war, in the finances of the East India Company. A series of reports on its development since the India Act of 1784, written by a select committee which he chaired, concluded that it should give up its inefficient trading privileges, at least in the subcontinent. Dundas drafted the legislation which ended them at the renewal of the company's charter in 1813.
Dundas's Indian administration was interrupted for six months in 1809 when he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland. Spencer Perceval, succeeding Portland, then wanted to promote him to the cabinet as secretary for war, but this did not happen due to the wishes of his father. Dundas returned to the Board of Control, still without a place in cabinet. He succeeded as Viscount Melville on 27 May 1811. The next year, under Prime Minister Lord Liverpool, he was promoted First Lord of the Admiralty.
Admiralty
While the Napoleonic wars went on, his job was to maintain the British maritime supremacy established at the battle of Trafalgar. In a state paper of February 1813 he pointed out that France, with the shipbuilding resources of the Netherlands and Italy at her disposal, would be able to construct a fleet to match Britain's if the struggle continued much longer. The point was underlined by complaints from the Duke of Wellington in Spain of inadequate protection for the convoys supplying him, especially after the outbreak of hostilities with the United States in 1812 unleashed hordes of American privateers on the Atlantic.
Drastic cuts followed the eventual peace, but Britain, now the only colonial power of any importance, found her maritime commitments increased. Melville did not think the fleet could be reduced much below 100 ships of the line. The cabinet set a limit of forty-four. The following years saw a constant struggle by Melville to find every possible economy while he avoided meeting a target he regarded as unreal. He quietly got his way, not least by improving the design and durability of ships, research on which benefited from his close personal interest. Yet he resisted the introduction of steamers, since an infant technology seemed bound to prove expensive and unreliable; moreover, if navies were to be rebuilt all round as steam driven, Britain would place herself on the same level as her rivals. By the late 1820s he was able to authorise the construction of new and larger classes of ship, matching those in France and the United States. Even out of tight budgets he never failed to squeeze something for another scientific interest, in exploration (where places are named after him, see below).
Scotland
Appointed a governor of the Bank of Scotland, he was elected chancellor of the University of St Andrews in 1814, and made a Knight of the Thistle in 1821. The crisis of the system came in 1827 on the resignation of Liverpool and the succession of George Canning, who was set on Catholic emancipation. Melville said that, while he personally supported it, he could not approve of a policy which would split the outgoing cabinet. The Whigs in Canning's coalition now persuaded him that a Scottish manager was unnecessary; the home secretary could do all the work with a native adviser or two.
First Lord of the Admiralty
The old governing interest in Scotland began to break up, a process which did not halt when Melville returned under Wellington and Sir Robert Peel as President of the Board of Control in 1828, then again at the Admiralty as First Lord of the Admiralty. The Reform Act would anyway end the arrangements under which the Dundases had ruled Scotland. Melville resigned in 1830, never to hold office again. But he made himself useful in good works, notably chairmanship of the royal commission which in 1845 proposed reform of the Scots poor law.
He died on 10 June 1851 at Melville Castle, and was buried in the family vault built for his father, in the Old Kirk, Lasswade, Edinburghshire, on 17 June.
His title passed to his eldest son Henry Dundas.
Arms
Place names
His name is perpetuated by that of Melville Sound and Melville Island, Canada because of his interest in Arctic exploration. Melville Island in the Northern Territory of Australia was also named for him, by explorer Phillip Parker King. Melville Bay in Greenland was named in his honour as well. He also gives his name to Melville Street in the New Town area of Edinburgh, Scotland, and a large statue of him by Sir John Steell stands in the central square of this street. The locality of Melville in Perth, Western Australia is also named after him.
References
External links
1771 births
1851 deaths
Politicians from Edinburgh
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
University of Göttingen alumni
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
First Lords of the Admiralty
Chancellors of the University of St Andrews
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights of the Thistle
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Dundas, Robert
British MPs 1790–1796
British MPs 1796–1800
Dundas, Robert
Dundas, Robert
Dundas, Robert
Dundas, Robert
Dundas, Robert
UK MPs who inherited peerages
Governors of the Bank of Scotland
People associated with Midlothian
Chief Secretaries for Ireland
Scottish Tory MPs (pre-1912) | [
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220756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention%20Parliament%20%28England%29 | Convention Parliament (England) | The Convention Parliament was a parliament in English history which, owing to an abeyance of the Crown, assembled without formal summons by the Sovereign. Sir William Blackstone applied the term to only two English Parliaments, those of 1660 and 1689, but some sources have also applied the name to the parliament of 1399.
Features of the convention parliaments
Blackstone points out that the 1689 parliament had to assemble without a royal writ, because the throne was vacant, and no legally summoned parliament could ever be assembled unless a Convention Parliament met to settle the issue of government.
Between 1660 and 1689 the meaning of the word Convention underwent a revision. In 1660 the word was seen as pejorative with overtones of irregularity, but after the convening of the 1689 parliament some started to see this as a virtue, "a voice of liberty".
The Succession to the Crown Act 1707 and the Meeting of Parliament Act 1797 has made it extremely unlikely that there will be need of another Westminster Convention Parliament:
Convention Parliament of 1399
The first example of a convention parliament is the parliament of 1399. In 1399 a convention of estates of the realm assembled to offer the throne to Henry Bolingbroke as King Henry IV of England after the deposition of King Richard II of England. The convention had been summoned as a parliament by a writ issued by Richard, but it had not been opened by his commission as he had been deposed and it was held that this had the same effect on the parliament as the death of a monarch. So once Henry was recognised as King he re-summoned the same parliament hence validating its previous recognition of him as king.
Convention Parliament of 1660
G. M. Trevelyan England under the Stuarts 1946 edition p 298
The Convention Parliament (25 April 1660 – 29 December 1660) followed the Long Parliament that had finally voted for its own dissolution on 16 March that year. Elected as a "free parliament", i.e. with no oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth or to the monarchy, it was predominantly Royalist in its membership. It assembled for the first time on 25 April 1660.
After the Declaration of Breda had been received, Parliament proclaimed on 8 May that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the death of Charles I in January 1649. The Convention Parliament then proceeded to conduct the necessary preparation for the Restoration Settlement. These preparations included the necessary provisions to deal with land and funding such that the new régime could operate.
Reprisals against the establishment which had developed under Oliver Cromwell were constrained under the terms of the Indemnity and Oblivion Act which became law on 29 August 1660. Nonetheless there were prosecutions against those accused of regicide, the direct participation in the trial and execution of Charles I.
The Convention Parliament was dissolved by Charles II on 29 December 1660. The succeeding parliament was elected in May 1661, and was called the Cavalier Parliament. It set about both systematically dismantling of all the legislation and institutions which had been introduced during the Interregnum, and the confirming of the Acts of the Convention Parliament.
As all the acts of the Commonwealth parliaments were obliterated from the legal record, the Convention Parliament replicated some of the legislation they wanted to keep (e.g. the Navigation Act of 1651) in new acts.
See also
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1660
Convention Parliament of 1689
The Convention Parliament (29 December – 22 January 1689) was the first parliament of the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688.
This parliament, which met in 1689 after the departure of King James II of England, was not summoned by the King. It decided that the King had abdicated by fleeing the capital and throwing the Great Seal of the Realm in the River Thames. It also offered the throne jointly to King William III and Queen Mary II, formally recognising Prince William of Orange as King by passing the Bill of Rights 1689.
See also
Constituent Assembly
Constituent Cortes
Constitutional convention (political meeting)
List of Parliaments of England
Revolutionary breach of legal continuity
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1660
List of MPs elected to the English Parliament in 1689
Notes
References
1399 in England
1660 in England
1689 in England
14th-century English parliaments
17th-century English parliaments
Constitutional conventions (political meeting) | [
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220758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Tieguai | Li Tieguai | Li Tieguai (Mandarin: ; lit. "Iron Crutch Li") is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is sometimes described as irascible and ill-tempered, but also benevolent to the poor, sick and the needy, whose suffering he alleviates with special medicine from his Calabash gourd. He is often portrayed as an ugly old man with a dirty face, a scraggly beard, and messy hair held by a golden band. He walks with the aid of an iron crutch and often has a gourd slung over his shoulder or held in his hand. He often is depicted as a clown figure who descends to earth in the form of a beggar who uses his power to fight for the oppressed and needy.
The legend says that Li was born in the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), and was originally named "Li Xuan". However, in folklore, he is depicted as Laozi's apprentice, hence he should have lived in the sixth century BC.
Apotheosis
The Eight Immortals became immortals by means of practising Taoist magical arts. According to the myth, they lived on an island paradise, Mount Penglai in eastern China, which only they could traverse due to the "weak water" which would not support ships. Among the Eight Immortals, Li Tieguai was one of the more popular, and was depicted as a man leaning on a crutch and holding a Calabash gourd. Some say that in the myth the "gourd had spirals of smoke ascend from it, denoting his power of setting his spirit free from his body." Others say that the gourd was full of medicine which he dispensed to the poor and needy.
Li studied with Laozi, the founder of Taoism. He is said to have renounced material comforts and led a life of self-discipline as an act of religious devotion for 40 years, often going without food or sleep.
Li lived in a cave in the early stage of his Taoist training. Laozi tempted him with a beautiful woman he had made of wood. After refusing to acknowledge the presence of this woman and therefore defeating his temptation, Laozi told him of his trick and rewarded him with a small white tablet. After consuming this tablet, Li was never hungry nor ill. Laozi tempted Li again with money. Some robbers had buried money in Li's field without knowing he was watching. Laozi approached him in disguise and told him he should take any money that came to him. After Li refused, saying that he did not care if he remained poor his whole life, Laozi rewarded him with another pill. This pill bestowed upon Li the ability to fly at amazing speeds.
Before becoming an immortal, it was previously stated that Li was a very handsome man. However, on one occasion, his spirit travelled to Heaven to meet other immortals. He had told his apprentice, Li Qing, to wait for seven days for his spirit to return. If he did not return by then, Li Qing was to burn the body because that meant that he had become an immortal; but after six and a half days Li Qing had to go home to see to his sick mother one last time before she died. Li Qing thus cremated Li Tieguai's body. He passed by a dying beggar on his way to his mother's but did not have time to bury him. Upon returning, Li Tieguai's spirit found that his body had been cremated and had to enter the only body available at the time, the corpse of the homeless beggar who had just died of starvation. The beggar, unfortunately, had a long and pointed head, large ears with one large brass earring, a woolly and dishevelled beard and hair. He also had long, scraggy, and dark eyebrows, dark eyes, and he had a pan lid on his head and a lame leg. Laozi appeared and gave him a medicine gourd that could cure any illness and never emptied. Li then brought his apprentice's mother back to life using the liquid from his gourd. Li Qing was then dismissed as his apprentice, after being given a small pill and being told that he would work hard enough to become an immortal himself. This turned out to be true.
"The gourd served as a bedroom for the night and held medicine, which Li dispensed with great beneficence to the poor and needy." Laozi also used the bottle to make him an iron crutch that would never rust nor break. He then told Li that he was ready to join the immortals. From then on, Li was tasked with curing the sick and he travelled to many lands and "could be found wherever the sick lay dying or the poor were persecuted."
Religious influence
Probably the second most popular of the Eight Immortals, Li is associated with medicine. His symbol of an iron crutch still hangs outside some traditional apothecaries. One of the reasons for him not being extremely popular is due to his "renowned bad temper and eccentricities." Sometimes, the non devout seek out prescriptions from him through certain Taoist priests. His magical, medical gourd is his more popular sign which is favoured by professional exorcists. As a beggar, he uses his form to "fight for the rights of the poor and those in need." "He is very much a clown figure and his popularity rests upon the twin attractions of being seen as one of the downtrodden, who is really more powerful than the strongest, and the clown who is irascible."
The Eight Immortals are examples of how all can obtain immortality. Most of the immortals (including Li) were common folk who attracted the attention of the gods through suffering unjust treatment, without complaint, and gave more to others than themselves. They were admitted to eternal life as a reward for their acts on earth and bearing gifts to the Old Man of the South Pole, the god of longevity. "The path to immortality includes achieving physical and spiritual harmony through meditation, diet, exercise, breath control, and the use of herbs. To achieve this state, one also had to eliminate all disease and evil from the body and spirit".
Iconography
His characteristic emblems are the Calabash bottle which identifies him as one of the Eight Immortals and also his iron crutch. A vapour cloud emanates from the gourd, and within it is the sage's hun (soul); which may be depicted as a formless shape or as a miniature double of his bodily self.
Modern depictions
In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Li was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Bai Tza, The Water Demon.
See also
References
Health gods
Eight Immortals | [
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220760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lan%20Caihe | Lan Caihe | Lan Caihe () is a Chinese mythological figure, and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. Presence in the Eight makes this figure one of the more familiar out of hundreds of other Taoist immortals. Lan Caihe is the only one of the Eight Immortals whose gender is ambiguous. Lan isn't generally thought to be based on a historical person, but is traditionally said to have been born sometime during the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 CE), and lived as a homeless street entertainer, who wandered all over China, singing philosophical songs. Stories vary about how Lan attained immortality and became one of the Eight Immortals. Lan's emblem is a basket of flowers, and so this immortal is considered the patron of florists and gardeners.
Name and epithets
According to the Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi, epithets of Lan Caihe include "the Red-footed Great Genius," Ch’ih-chiao Ta-hsien incarnate. Lan was also called the "foot-stomping immortal," which was a reference to the genre of music that Lan performed, "stomping songs," which are described further below.
Sometimes Lan Caihe's personal name is said to have been Yang Su (not to be confused with a famous general with that name who died in 606 CE). As such, the name "Lan Caihe" is understood to be a chosen name, or a name in religion.
Gender
The gender of Lan Caihe is unknown. Different writers and artists portray this immortal as an intersex person, a man, a woman, a man who looks like a woman, a person who does not fit into contemporary male or female gender roles, or someone who appears as-- or dresses as-- different genders at different times.
Chinese theatre portrays Lan as wearing feminine clothes, but speaking in a masculine voice, that is, by a male actor wearing a feminine dress without attempting a feminine style of speech. The Kai yü ts'ung k'ao holds the view that Lan was male, and having him dress as a woman in contemporary plays was a "highly ridiculous" error.
He Xiangu is always described as the only woman among the Eight Immortals, which suggests that Lan Caihe is not a woman. According to the Xiu Xiang Ba Xian Dong You Ji (), Lan Caihe was a man who could not understand how to be a man. This could explain why Lan Caihe is sometimes seen as a woman or otherwise, and could be considered transgender.
Most English-language sources refer to Lan by he/him pronouns, though some use she/her pronouns, and some specifically acknowledge that their choice of pronoun for Lan is arbitrary and uncertain.
Appearance
As an immortal, Lan's apparent physical age is uncertain, and varies from one depiction to the next. Depictions most often show Lan as a young person of about sixteen, or a young adult. Lan was more often an old person in earlier depictions, but tends to be a young person in depictions from the past century or two. Legends describe Lan as failing to visibly age over the decades, even before attaining immortality. In connection with this, Lan represents eternal youth and innocence.
Lan Caihe is a wandering musician. This immortal's musical instruments appear in depictions in art and have an important role in stories about Lan Caihe. Lan's musical instrument is the clapper (sometimes translated as castanets), of which there are many types in China. The type used by Lan were sometimes said to be , or else the , which are apparently both types of . Usually clappers are wood or bamboo, but some legends say Lan's were jade. Lan's clappers were three chi long (about 72 centimeters; the length of a chi varies from one time period to the next). Others of the Eight Immortals also carry castanets, including Cao Guojiu, and Zhang Guolao. Because of this, sometimes archaeologists dispute which of these immortals is being represented by a figure identified only by its holding castanets.
Lan Caihe sometimes uses cymbals as well. Sometimes Lan uses a flute, but a flute is more common in depictions of the Immortal Han Xiangzi. Some art of the Eight Immortals show more of them holding instruments, so presence of an instrument is not a certain method to distinguish one immortal from another.
In most art of the Eight Immortals, Lan can be recognized as the one that carries a basket of fruit and/or flowers. Sometimes Lan carries the basket in hand, and other times, slung on a hoe over the shoulder. This basket is Lan's distinctive emblem, and is connected to how Lan is the patron of florists. Lan's basket contains plants and medicinal herbs associated with longevity, including: the magic fungus (lingzhi mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum), which resists decay, and in Traditional Chinese medicine is used to prolong life; sprigs of bamboo and pine, which as evergreen plants, symbolize longevity; flowering and leafless plum, because they show vitality in blooming in early spring from seemingly lifeless branches; chrysanthemums; and heavenly bamboo (Nandina domestica) with red berries. As with the emblems of each of the Eight Immortals, sometimes Lan's basket is depicted by itself. As a motif, Lan's basket is popular in decorations for the Chinese New Year, and represents riches and abundance Lan's flower basket, along with the emblems of the rest of the Eight Immortals, appear in such places as on a Qing dynasty 19th century imperial dragon robe.
Lan's flower basket must be distinguished from the giant lotus flower typically carried by one of the other Eight Immortals, He Xiangu. He Xiangu sometimes carries a giant ladle with its bowl full of flowers, looking similar to a flower basket.
Lan Caihe wears feminine or masculine clothing at different times. Sometimes Lan Caihe wears gender-ambiguous clothing. During Lan Caihe's initial mortal existence as a homeless musician, Lan wore a tattered blue gown or dress. This long blue gown is called lan shan (襕衫), which is traditional attire for men since the Tang dynasty. The gown was fastened with six black wooden buttons, and a waist-belt more than three inches wide. (Some English sources mistranslate this part of the description as a "wooden belt.")
Lan wore a shoe on one foot, the other foot bare. The one bare foot is also associated with the 5th–6th century Buddhist monk, Bodhidharma, for whom it symbolized survival beyond death. (Bodhidharma was seen after his own death, walking along carrying a shoe. Then, when people opened his grave to check if his body was there, they found his grave contained only his other shoe.) It's possible that imagery of these two unrelated figures came to be conflated in art. In Lan's case, the one bare foot may represent freeing the soul, as well as disregard for convention. Having a shoe on only one foot could also have a purpose in the genre of music Lan performed, "stomping songs," which are described further below.
The ragged clothing and one bare foot, carrying castanets and a string of cash, are Lan's appearance as described in the Huan Chu version of the Liexian Zhuan. Some depictions of Lan diverge significantly from anything described above.
Early life as a mortal
Scholars believe that only three members of the Eight Immortals are based on real people who historically existed: Lü Dongbin, Zhongli Quan, and Zhang Guolao. Scholars generally don't believe that Lan Caihe is based on an actual historical person. However, one view is that this immortal may have been based on an actor whose stage name was Lan Caihe, and otherwise went by Xu Jian, during the Five Dynasties period (907–960 CE).
Lan Caihe is said to have lived sometime during the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 CE), like others of the Eight Immortals. Other traditions say Lan lived later, during the Five Dynasties period. The earliest stories about Lan were told as far back as at least the 10th century CE.
Lan's air of mystery extends to time period as well as place of origin. Even the Huan Chu version of the Liexian Zhuan says "Where [Lan Caihe] came from is not known."
During Lan Caihe's career as a mortal, Lan was a homeless wandering musician and street entertainer. Lan entertained people in different towns and villages, visiting no longer than a month. Lan drank in wine shops and restaurants, entertaining the patrons with songs.
Lan's songs were improvised on the spot, while drunk (or believed to be drunk), and performed in a "half-crazy" way. Lan's voice was famously beautiful, but Lan's songs and attire were so strange that people thought this person was mentally ill, so some onlookers said slanderous things. However, the songs were hard to understand because they were intelligent and philosophically advanced, denouncing life and its pleasures, warning that life is short, telling about immortality and the immortals, and urging everyone to seek the Tao (the Way). This made the songs "unintelligible to ordinary mortals." Some ballads attributed to Lan survive today.
One of Lan's songs went: "In singer Lan Caihe's eyes, how long can your life last? Good-looking faces are just like the green trees in spring, how could they keep this unchanged forever?" Another of Lan's songs also described physical aging and the brevity of mortal life, as follows:
Another song attributed to Lan Caihe in the T'ai p'ing kuang chi refers to the swift passing of generations:
Lan's performed in a traditional Chinese music style called stomping songs (). The genre first appeared in the Tang dynasty, and the form practiced by Lan first appeared in the Northern Sung: performed alone, singing and dancing at the same time, using certain types of tunes and patterns, while stomping the foot on the beat of the music, accompanied with a clapper. All classes and parts of the society performed in this style. Lan's habit of wearing only one shoe could have a purpose in stomping one foot while performing.
Although Lan seemed to be performing music to earn a living, whenever anybody gave Lan money, the musician used it only to pay for food and drinks, and otherwise didn't use it for their own benefit. Sometimes Lan strung the money on a cord (Chinese coins having a hole in the middle for stringing), letting it drag on the ground while walking along, or waving it to the time of their song. Lan gave the rest of the money to the poor. Lan was not concerned about losing money, letting coins scatter from the cord, leaving it bare.
While living as a homeless mortal, Lan wore clothing that was generally inappropriate for the weather, without being harmed by it. During the summer, Lan wore a warm undergarment that was quilted or stuffed with cotton and wool. In the winter, Lan slept naked on the snow, so that their hot breath rose like a cloud of steam. The latter resembles paradoxical undressing, a symptom of hypothermia (being exposed to too cold of weather), in which people feel strangely as if they are too hot, and take off all their clothes, when really they are in danger of freezing to death. Paradoxical undressing is sometimes seen in street people who die of exposure. This part of the story may also represent Lan's mastery over the body, similar to feats performed by other Taoist immortals.
Lan roamed all over China for decades. Elderly people noticed that Lan's face hadn't aged since they had seen Lan during their childhoods.
In Taoism, Lan's wandering was seen as a spiritual practice, an "unencumbered lifestyle." This view is expressed the 20th verse of the Tao Te Ching (The Book of the Way), which says that in contrast with sharp-witted and determined people, a wanderer seems to be confused and drifting, but is directly mothered by the Tao (the Way). In other words, by not intentionally setting out to do things, a wanderer makes it possible for the Way to lead them to where they need to be.
Attaining immortality
Stories vary about how Lan Caihe attained immortality, some of which follow.
In one legend, Lan Caihe became drunk at an inn at Fêng-yang Fu in Anhui. While intoxicated, Lan Caihe threw down to earth their robe, belt, clappers, and their only shoe. Then Lan Caihe rode a cloud up to Heaven.
In a similar legend, Lan was drinking at a tavern in Hao-liang, and heard the music of pipes, and then a crane flew down and landed on the table on the terrace of the restaurant where Lan was eating and drinking. Lan rode the crane up to Heaven, throwing down their sash and only shoe. When onlookers tried to pick up the sash and shoe, the things vanished. In this story, the crane (in some tellings, a swan or stork instead) is a celestial being that represents immortality.
Another legend says that Lan Caihe helped a beggar. Lan gathered medicinal herbs and used them to tend to the beggar's sores. The beggar was revealed to be Li Tieguai, one of the other Eight Immortals, who usually appears as an old beggar who walks with an iron crutch, and who uses his powers to help the oppressed. Li rewarded Lan's kindness by granting Lan immortality.<ref name="Wickersham">John Moore Wickersham. Myths and Legends of the World, Volume 4." Macmillan Reference, 2000.</ref>
Life as an immortal
In The Eight Immortals Cross the Sea
In a story written by an anonymous author during the Ming dynasty (c. 14th–15th centuries), The Eight Immortals Cross the Sea (八仙過海; bā xiān guò hǎi), the Eight Immortals chose to all test their talents by ride across an ocean, not upon clouds as they all usually did, but by each placing their personal emblem upon the surface of the sea, and standing upon them to ride across the sea. (This is the origin of the proverb "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" (八仙過海，各顯神通; bā xiān guò hǎi, gè xiǎn shén tōng). This saying indicates a situation where everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.) Lan Caihe rode across the sea upon their musical instrument, the jade clappers. During this, the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea spied and envied the clappers. The Dragon King stole the instrument and imprisoned its owner. This started a war between the Eight Immortals and the dragons. Eventually the Eight Immortals rescued Lan and the clappers, and defeated the dragons by pushing a mountain into the sea, which ruined the dragons' undersea palace, and killed many. Guanyin, the Bodhisattva of mercy, showed up to bring peace. As part of the compromise, Guanyin gave the clappers to the dragons, to make up for their fatalities.
In The Legend of the Shipwrecked Servant
In one scene in "The Legend of the Shipwrecked Servant," the Eight Immortals walked on water to visit a god who lived across the sea. Lan Caihe was the one who noticed that the Immortals' mortal servant couldn't follow them that way, and asked another immortal to build a raft for the servant. Lan doesn't figure importantly in the rest of the story.
Religious role
Lan Caihe doesn't receive attention outside of Lan's presence in the group of the Eight Immortals.O’Brien, Joanne, and Kwok Man Ho, eds. The Eight Immortals of Taoism. New York: Meridian, 1990. . Page 28.
According to the Shih wu yüan hui, quoted in the 19th century compilation Chi shuo ch'üan chén, the Eight Immortals represent dualities of characteristics: old and young, male and female, rich and poor, honored and humble, warriors and scholars, noble and disabled. Of these, says the Shih wu yüan hui, Lan is supposed to represent the young.
Because of carrying a basket of flowers, this immortal is the patron of florists and gardeners.Nagel Auctions: Tek Sing treasures. Stuttgarter Kunstauktionshaus Dr. Fritz Nagel, 2000. Page 373. Because of Lan's career as a street musician, Lan is also the patron of minstrels, though being a patron of musicians is usually attributed to a different one of the Eight Immortals, such as Han Xiangzi, the flutist.
In traditional art and literature
In poetry by Yuan Yishan
Yuan Yishan () (1190–1257 CE) was a poet whose hao was Hao Wên. In his collected works and biography, yi shan xian sheng wen ji (), Yuan mentions Lan Caihe in some of his poems. In one sad passage, Yuan compares himself unfavorably with two cultural figures:
In the first line, P'an Yo was a poet and official of the 4th century who was famous for his beauty. In the second line, Yuan refers to how Lan Caihe () was sometimes derided in public for wearing a blue gown that was ragged. Yuan uses both figures to express his fear of aging, and feeling ashamed of his clothes as they become worn out as well.
Yuan also wrote this poem on a painting of Lan Caihe, in the Chinese tradition of adding calligraphy to illuminate other artists' illustrations:
Yuan's poem, above, describes the appearance and behavior of Lan Caihe, and points out that Lan's behavior was no more irrational than that of people who hurry to build mere material wealth.
In The Story of Han Xiangzi
In the 17th century novel The Story of Han Xiangzi by (楊爾曾), the protagonist is one of the other Eight Immortals, Han Xiangzi, the flutist. Lan Caihe has several appearances in this novel. In chapter 20, Lan Caihe materializes an entire remote village, called Three Mountains Village, populated exclusively by eight hundred women. Lan uses this fabricated Village of Beautiful Women to open the mind of Han Tuizhi.
In popular culture
Television and movies
The Eight Immortals, including Lan Caihe, often appear in television and movies, including the ones listed below. In some of these, Lan Caihe is played by a male actor, and in others, by an actress. This shows that presently Lan Caihe's gender is popularly seen as ambiguous.
1976 Mainland version of the opera film Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea (八仙过海). Hao Ruiting plays Lan Caihe.
1985 Hong Kong version of the ATV TV series Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea (八仙過海). Dion Lam (林迪安) plays Lan Caihe.
1985 Hong Kong version of TVB TV series The Yang's Saga (楊家將). Katie Chan Fook-Sang (陳復生) as Lan Caihe
1985 Mainland version of the movie The Legend of the Eight Immortals (八仙的传说). Yang Jianzhong (楊健忠) as Lan Caihe
1993 Hong Kong version of the movie The Laughing Eight Immortals (笑八仙). Sandra Ng (吴君如) as Lan Caihe
1996 Hong Kong version of TVB TV series Journey to the West (西遊記). Mak Ka Lun (麥嘉倫) plays Lan Caihe
1998 Singapore version of the TV series Legend of the Eight Immortals (东游记). Deborah Sim as Lan Caihe. In this story, Lan is called the Barefoot Immortal (the Barefoot Immortal is normally a different Taoist immortal from Lan), and achieved immortality with help from Sun Wukong, the monkey king.
1998 Hong Kong version of TVB TV series Journey to the West II (西遊記). Mak Ka Lun (麥嘉倫) as Lan Caihe
1998 Taiwan TV Series Li Tieguai (李鐵拐). Chien Chia-Ling (簡嘉伶) as Lan Caihe
2000 to 2005. In the animated fantasy television show Jackie Chan Adventures, which is loosely inspired by Chinese mythology, Lan Caihe was the Immortal who sealed away a villain, Dai Gui, The Earth Demon, by striking him with a flower. In this story, this immortal was portrayed as a bald older man, wearing black and purple robes.
2002 Mainland Chinese TV series The Story of the Laughing Eight Immortals (笑八仙之素女的故事). Huang Bin (黄斌) as Lan Caihe
2006 Mainland Chinese TV series Eight Immortals (八仙传奇). Tso Shiao-Hu (左孝虎) plays Lan Caihe
2008 Mainland Chinese TV Series Eight Immortals (八仙全传). Nikita Mao (毛林林) plays Lan Caihe
2011 Mainland Chinese TV series Lotus Goddess (碧波仙子). Wan Changhao (万昌皓) plays Lan Caihe
2014 mainland version of the TV series A Legend of Chinese Immortal (劍俠). Zheng Yecheng (鄭業成) as Lan Caihe
2014 Mainland TV series The Eight Fairies (蓬莱八仙). Zhao Xiaosu (赵晓苏) plays Lan Caihe.
2016 Mainland TV series Xianban Campus (仙班校园). Gao Jicai (高基才) plays Lan Caihe
The 2018 mainland TV series Little Bone: Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea (小戏骨：八仙过海). Liu Shijie (劉世傑) as Lan Caihe
Images
The Eight Immortals have always been a very familiar and popular motif in art in China, as well as in Japan and Vietnam. Lan Caihe usually appears together with them, distinguished by the emblem of the flower basket. The following gallery points out Lan Caihe's inclusion in these group portraits, as well as some less common portraits of Lan as an individual. This shows what tends to stay consistent and what changes between different depictions of Lan, including features such as Lan's emblem, age, and gender.
As an androgynous young person
In these pictures, Lan's appearance is neither distinctly masculine nor feminine. This style of depiction is more common.
As a person with facial hair or balding
In these pictures, Lan seems to have been imagined as a more masculine figure, which is less common.
See also
Barefoot Immortal, another Taoist immortal whose depictions can be similar
Guanyin, a Buddhist figure whose depictions in China often have an ambiguous gender
LGBT themes in Chinese mythology
LGBT themes in mythology
Transgender people and religion
Intersex people and religion
Spirituality and homelessness
Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries, a charitable organization based on mutual aid for homeless gender nonconforming people
References
Citations
Sources
Yetts, W. Perceval. "More Notes on the Eight Immortals." The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', no. 3, 1922, pp. 397–426. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25209911.
External links
Eight Immortals
LGBT themes in mythology
Intersex in religion and mythology
Androgynous and hermaphroditic deities
Cultural depictions of transgender and transsexual people
Homeless people
Buskers
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220763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Monarchist%20League | International Monarchist League | The International Monarchist League (known until the mid-1990s as the Monarchist League) is an organisation dedicated to the preservation and promotion of the monarchical system of government and the principle of monarchy worldwide. It has been active in advocating the restoration of the monarchy in countries that have become republics in the twentieth century, particularly since the Second World War. The League is based in the United Kingdom.
Establishment
The Rev. John Edward Bazille-Corbin (born Corbin, 1887–1964) founded the Monarchist League as a faux-chivalric body in 1943. Bazille-Corbin was a colourful character, who, according to Peter Anson, whilst retaining his living as Anglican Rector of Runwell St Mary in Essex, also became titular Bishop of Selsey in Mar Georgius' "Catholicate of the West". An avid collector of titles and orders of a questionable nature, Bazille-Corbin used the titles of Duca di San Giaconio and Marquis de Beuvel.
The League eventually developed into a pressure and support group. Celebrating its Silver Jubilee in 1968, The Monarchist editorial said "in the late 50s and the early 60s a great resurgence took place in the League when negative and passive monarchism was turned into positive and aggressive monarchism."
The league is governed by a "Grand Council", which includes some non-British representatives. The Chancellor for at least a decade prior to 1975 was Lieut.-Col. J. C. du Parc Braham, TD (1920–1990). Du Parc Braham, an industrious but eccentric personality, kept the league's profile high. He was succeeded by The Most Hon. The 6th Marquess of Bristol, who had been a member of the league's Grand Council previous to 1968. Lord Bristol subsidised the league and many of its events until his death in March 1985.
Michael Wynne-Parker had been Principal Secretary from the late 1970s, and following the Marquess of Bristol's death also became the league's Acting Chancellor until 1987 when Count Nikolai Tolstoy was appointed to that position. Wynne-Parker was then made a Vice-Chancellor, a post which he held until standing down in March 1990.
In 1971, the league had numerous peers and notables as high-profile members, including The 13th Viscount Massereene, The 26th Baron Mowbray, and John Biggs-Davison, MP, who was also on the league's 'Council of Honour'. In 1972, the Chancellor announced he had appointed Mr. Nicholas Parker as "Director of Propaganda". Count Nikolai Tolstoy-Miloslavsky joined in late 1975, and Prince Moshin Ali Khan of Hyderabad and Lord Sudeley (Vice-Chancellor from 1985) were both announced as new members in 1980.
The league had an active youth wing (under 21s), run in the mid-1960s by David Charlesworth. In February 1979, Lord Nicholas Hervey was elected as President of the International Youth Association of the League, and contributed in the July 1981 edition of The Monarchist an article entitled "The Youth Association Spreading its Wings". In 1985 he also became a league Vice-Chancellor, and made the formal toast to the guests, the Prince and Princess of Lippe, at the League's Annual Dinner in the Cholmondeley Room, The House of Lords, on 1 April 1986. Lord Nicholas Hervey remained active in the league until 1992 when he retired due to ill-health.
Restoration of activities
The Monarchist League had become virtually dormant by the mid-1980s, although Michael Wynne-Parker continued to engage in debates on behalf of the league, such as the one in 1982 at Wymondham College, Norfolk, when the motion, proposed by a Mr. Matehall, a member of the Communist Party, was "This House would Abolish the Monarchy". The motion was soundly defeated. Gregory Lauder-Frost, who had joined the league in January 1979, also organised a major dinner at the House of Lords on 9 February 1984, when the guests-of-honour were Prince & Princess Tomislav of Yugoslavia.
The death of The 6th Marquess of Bristol in March 1985 meant the end of any kind of future subsidy and left the league overdrawn at the bank as a result. One edition of The Monarchist appeared that year and none at all the following year. It appeared for the last time in February 1987 following which Michael Wynne-Parker retired. He was replaced by Kenneth McLennan Hay, BEM, who served a two-year term as Secretary-General. But he lived in Edinburgh, which was inconvenient for a body based in London.
Lauder-Frost was called in to become Publications Editor (March 1987– December 1992), and Henry von Blumenthal became Treasurer. Major re-organisation by this duo of the league and its finances took place in 1988, Lauder-Frost emphasising that "we are not just a social group, but a serious pressure group carrying out a very demanding role in the face of much opposition." In Autumn 1989, Kenneth Hay stated that the league was "indebted" to Lauder-Frost, his publications for the league being "received with enthusiasm", mentioning "the letters of appreciation" he had received "from members and non-members alike." Also that year, von Blumenthal began developing a system of collaboration with other monarchist organisations, and compiled The Monarchists' Directory and which was published by Lauder-Frost in the League's Newsletter for the first time in 1989. Von Blumenthal also attempted to develop a monarchist ideology; his article "The Royalist Reasoning" is the basis for the league's current manifesto. This led to a number of important reforms, chief of which were the establishment of a UK branch network and re-activation of the branches in the United States and Australia. One of the most successful UK branches, in Kent, was led by von Blumenthal, who had recruited Don Foreman as its secretary.
Kenneth Hay was able to report in Autumn 1989 that "the League is forging ahead". He stood down at the end of 1989 and was replaced by Lauder-Frost whom he described as having an "active mind and restless energy, who has edited the Newsletter and Policy Papers with success". Meanwhile, Anthony J. Bailey and W. Denis Walker both joined the Grand Council as Ordinary Members in March 1990, Bailey serving for three years. Lauder-Frost served a two-year term as Secretary-General of the League, whilst continuing in his longer dual role as its Publications Officer. He stood down as Secretary-General on 31 December 1991, praised "for the high profile the League achieved under his guidance" and was replaced by Don Foreman, Secretary of the Kent Branch, who remained in post until 2002.
Events
From 1988 the League stepped up functions as a way of bringing in new members and raising funds. The July 1988 Annual Dinner took place in Dartmouth House, Mayfair, with Guests-of-Honour being Crown Prince Alexander of Yugoslavia and the Duke of St. Albans. Jacqueline, Lady Killearn hosted a Reception at her home in Harley Street, London, in April 1989, for members and their guests. 1990 was a busy year for functions, with a House of Lords Dinner in March and over 100 members and guests at a Summer Reception, hosted by Conservative MP Neil Hamilton, in Westminster Hall on 17 July. Lord Sudeley and Gregory Lauder-Frost represented the League (at their own expense) at a major fund-raising dinner in New York City on 15 June 1990, which had been organised by New York member David Evans, and the Reverend (now Canon) Dr. Kenneth Gunn-Walberg. On 8–9 December that year Lauder-Frost also represented the League at the European Monarchist Conference in Warsaw, Poland, which attracted over 350 delegates from Europe, and several from North America. He returned immediately for the League's Christmas Reception at London's Lansdowne Club on the 10th. A league seminar followed on 26 January 1991 addressed by Dimitri Dostoevsky, a great-grandson of the author. This event was filmed for a BBC documentary entitled Dostoevsky's Travels, broadcast on BBC2 TV on 9 October 1991. Under Don Foreman's auspices, a new South-Eastern Counties branch was inaugurated in September 1991, and Lauder-Frost organised another dinner at the House of Lords on 30 November 1992, with the Guest-of-Honour being HRH Prince Shwebomin of Burma. The functions strategy, coupled with publications, was shown to be paying off by Spring 1992, when it was announced that in the previous three months alone 95 new members had joined.
Today
The current Chancellor is Count Nikolai Tolstoy, who took up the post in late 1987. The Administrator and Treasurer since about 1993 has been the Hon. W. Denis Walker who was introduced onto the Grand Council on 14 March 1990 by Gregory Lauder-Frost, seconded by Lord Sudeley. In March 2002 a company limited by guarantee was formed, The Monarchist Movement Trust Limited, of which Walker is Company Secretary and a director. After being based for 50 years in central London, the league is now based at an office in Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire.
Affiliated organisations
An Australian branch of the Monarchist League was founded in 1943. Prior to 1993, due to the growing battle with republicans it was felt that it needed to be an exclusively Australian body to defer criticisms that it was just an offshoot of a UK group; it severed its affiliation in 1993, and became an independent group, the Australian Monarchist League. The separate Monarchist League of Australia replaced it as an affiliate in 2006. The Monarchist League of New Zealand and the Monarchist League of Canada were founded independently of the London-based Monarchist League and had no formal affiliation; however the Canadian league was formed by John Aimers after he attended a 1969 tour of Canada by Lieut.-Col. J. C. du Parc Braham, chancellor of the London-based League. The Canadian League, was formed months later with du Parc Braham having given Aimers a list of 50 Canadian members of the British-based league. The Monarchist League remained in close contact with the Canadian group, and on 11 March 1989, Lord Nicholas Hervey had a long meeting at London's Savoy Hotel with Mr Aimers, then Chairman of the Monarchist League of Canada, in order to examine ways in which the two groups could co-operate more closely.
The league maintains a certain affiliation with several university groups in the UK, such as the Oxford Monarchists and the Strafford Club of St. Andrews University.
The Constitutional Monarchy Association is a late 1990s formation of the Monarchist League and focusses on maintaining and strengthening the constitutional monarchy in Britain. The association operates from the Monarchist League's offices, and publishes a journal, The Crown (formerly entitled Realm of Kings). It has often been called upon to respond to anti-monarchist statements within the UK. The CMA is governed by a separate council, in theory separate from that of the league. Lord Sudeley acts as the Chairman.
See also
Monarchism
Australians for Constitutional Monarchy
Constantian Society, an American monarchist movement of the past
Traditional Britain Group
Publications
The Monarchist, attempt at quarterly in 1973, but bi-annual until 1984 (incl), once in 1985, and 1987. Quality A5 journal with photos. The editors were Guy Stair Sainty, KStJT, (1975–6), Jeffrey Finestone (1979 – Feb 1987).
The Crown and Australia by Donald J Markwell, Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, London, 1987, (P/B booklet).
Monarchist League Newsletter (A4) quarterly, edited by Gregory Lauder-Frost (October 1987 – December 1992 incl.); (became simply Monarchy about 1994). Carried articles, comment, and reports.
The Betrayal of Bulgaria by Gregory Lauder-Frost, – an assessment of the Bulgarian kingdom in the 20th century, Policy Discussion Paper, Summer 1989. (This essay was translated and reprinted in the Sofia, Bulgaria, newspaper Democracy).
Monarchy by Professor Charles Arnold-Baker, OBE, London, 1991, (P/B booklet).
Romanian Essays and Notes edited by Gregory Lauder-Frost, London, February 1991, (P/B booklet).
China – The Last Years of Empire by Gregory Lauder-Frost, Monarchist League Review Paper, London, June 1992. (This followed on from the essay "China" by the same author in The Monarchist League Newsletter January 1992.)
Monarchy, current (2008) quarterly glossy A4 journal of the Monarchist League (editor unknown – not stated in journal).
The Crown, current (2008) quarterly glossy A4 journal of The Constitutional Monarchy Association (editor Hilary Eves – not stated in journal).
References
External links
Official website
1943 establishments in the United Kingdom
Monarchist organizations
Monarchist League
Political advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 1943 | [
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220766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20necropoleis | List of necropoleis | This is a list of necropoleis sorted by country. Although the name is sometimes also used for some modern cemeteries, this list includes only ancient necropoleis, generally founded no later than approximately 1500 AD. Because almost every city in the ancient world had a necropolis, this list does not aim to be complete. It only lists the most notable necropoleis.
List of necropoleis by country
Algeria
Jedars
Nepasa
Roknia
Austria
Burgstallkogel
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Radimlja
Mramorje
Brazil
Cemitério de São Francisco Xavier
Bulgaria
Varna Necropolis
China
Ming Dynasty Tombs
Western Xia tombs
Eastern Qing Tombs
Western Qing Tombs
Colombia
San Agustin Archaeological Park
Cyprus
Tombs of the Kings
Egypt
Abusir
Bagawat
Dahshur
Giza Necropolis
Qubbet el-Hawa
Saqqara
Siwa Oasis
Theban Necropolis
Umm el-Qa'ab
Minya
France
Alyscamps
Civaux
Père Lachaise Cemetery
Necropolis of Bougon
Pantheon
Germany
Necropolis of Soderstorf
Oldendorfer Totenstatt
Greece
Kerameikos
Mycenae
Vergina
Amphipolis
Marathon
Guatemala
North Acropolis, Tikal
India
Qutb Shahi tombs
Barid Shahi tombs
Iran
Naqsh-e Rustam
Iraq
Wadi-us-Salaam, reputedly the largest cemetery in the world.
Israel and the West Bank
Beit She'arim
Mount of Olives
Italy
Cerveteri
Gaudo culture necropolis
Marzabotto
Necropolis of Monte Luna
Necropolis of Monterozzi
Necropolis of Pantalica
Norchia
Lebanon
Tyre Necropolis
Libya
Necropolis of Cyrene
Malta
Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni
Morocco
Chellah
North Macedonia
Saint Erasmus
Pakistan
Chaukundi
Makli Hill
Peru
Necropolis of Wari Kayan
Russia
Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Somalia
Hafun
Spain
El Maipes necropolis
El Castillo - Palacios de la Sierra: Biggest in Europe
Syria
Necropolis of Emesa
Valley of Tombs
Turkey
Tombs of the kings of Pontus
Karacaahmet Cemetery
Eyüp Cemetery
Hierapolis necropoleis
Lycian necropoleis
Ukraine
Caves of The Kyiv Pechersk Lavra
United States
Colma, California
Uzbekistan
Bahoutdin Architectural Complex
Vatican City
Vatican Necropolis
References
Cemeteries | [
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220768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Dundas%2C%203rd%20Viscount%20Melville | Henry Dundas, 3rd Viscount Melville | General Henry Dundas, 3rd Viscount Melville GCB (25 February 1801 – 1 February 1876) was a senior British Army officer and peer.
Military career
The eldest son of Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville, and his wife Anne, Dundas joined the Army as a lieutenant in the 3rd (or Scots) Guards in 1819. He was promoted to captain of the 83rd Regiment in 1824, major in 1826 and lieutenant-colonel in 1829. In 1837 he was active in suppressing the Canadian rebellion at the Battle of the Windmill, after which he was appointed colonel and aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria in 1841.
He played a distinguished part in India as a brigadier-general in 1848–49, chosen to command the column sent from Bombay to co-operate with Lord Gough's army in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. He was second in command at the capture of Multan and then joined the main army with his force for the battle of Gujrat.
He returned to England in 1850 and became 3rd Viscount Melville on his father's death in 1851. He became Commander-in-Chief, Scotland in 1854 remaining in that post until 1860, in which year he was made Governor of Edinburgh Castle. He was raised to the rank of general in 1868.
He died unmarried at Melville Castle, near Edinburgh in 1876. He is buried in the simple Dundas Vault in Old Lasswade Kirkyard, together with his ancestors and descendants.
His younger brother, Richard Saunders Dundas, was a prominent naval officer.
He was succeeded as Viscount Melville by his brother Robert.
Parliament
He was a Member of Parliament (MP) for Rochester from 1826 to 1830, and for Winchelsea from 1830 to 1831.
Arms
Street names
The re-routed and extended Dundas Street West and East,in the City of Toronto, is named after him.
References
External links
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|-
|-
|-
1801 births
1876 deaths
British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
British Army generals
Upper Canada Rebellion people
Henry Dundas
King's Royal Rifle Corps officers
Coldstream Guards officers
83rd (County of Dublin) Regiment of Foot officers
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
UK MPs 1826–1830
UK MPs 1830–1831
UK MPs who inherited peerages | [
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220771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Whitbread%20%281764%E2%80%931815%29 | Samuel Whitbread (1764–1815) | Samuel Whitbread (18 January 1764 – 6 July 1815) was a British politician.
Early life
Whitbread was born on 18 January 1764 in Cardington, Bedfordshire, the son of the brewer Samuel Whitbread. He was educated at Eton College, Christ Church, Oxford, and St John's College, Cambridge, after which he embarked on a European "Grand Tour", visiting Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Prussia, France, and Italy. He returned to England in May 1786 and joined his father's successful brewing business.
Member of Parliament
Whitbread was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford in 1790 (his father too had been MP) and he remained MP for twenty-three years. Whitbread was a reformer — a champion of religious and civil rights, for the abolition of slavery, a proponent of a national education system and, in 1795, sponsor of an unsuccessful bill for the introduction of minimum wages. He was a close friend and colleague of Charles James Fox. After Fox's death, Whitbread took over the leadership of the Whigs, and in 1805 led the campaign to have Viscount Melville impeached. In 1806 the House of Lords found Melville not guilty of all charges.
Whitbread took over the control of his father's estate, including Southill Park and the family brewing company following his father's death in 1796 and by the earl 1810s, had introduced several new partners to bring investment to stabilise the finances of the company. These included his cousin Jacob Whitbread and John Martineau (who would subsequently merge his brewery with Whitbreads in 1812).
Whitbread admired Napoleon and his reforms in France and Europe. He hoped that many of Napoleon's reforms would be implemented in Britain. Throughout the Peninsular War he played down French defeats convinced that sooner or later Napoleon would triumph, and he did all he could to bring about a withdrawal of Britain from the continent. When Napoleon abdicated in 1814 he was devastated. Whitbread began to suffer from depression, and on the morning of 6 July 1815, he committed suicide by cutting his throat with a razor.
The Hammonds comment that "Whitbread is a politician to whom history has done less than justice... His most notable quality was his vivid and energetic sympathy; he spent his life in hopeless battles and died by his own hand of public despair."
Family
Whitbread married Lady Elizabeth (1765–1846), the eldest daughter of the first Earl Grey on 26 December 1787. Their sons, William Henry Whitbread and Samuel Charles Whitbread, were also Members of Parliament.
Samuel Whitbread Academy in Central Bedfordshire, England, is named after him.
References
Further reading
Fulford, Roger. Samuel Whitbread, 1764-1815: A study in opposition, MacMillan, 1967. (ISBN B0000CNFHB)
External links
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
People educated at Eton College
People from Cardington, Bedfordshire
British politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by sharp instrument in England
British MPs 1790–1796
British MPs 1796–1800
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
1764 births
1815 deaths
English brewers
Suicides in London
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220772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Whitbread%20%281720%E2%80%931796%29 | Samuel Whitbread (1720–1796) | Samuel Whitbread (30 August 1720 – 11 June 1796) was an English brewer and Member of Parliament. In 1742, he established a brewery that in 1799 became Whitbread & Co Ltd.
Early years
Samuel Whitbread was born on 20 August 1720 at Cardington in Bedfordshire, the seventh of eight children of Henry Whitbread. At 12, he received two years' education with a local clergyman, before being sent at age 14 to London to live with family (most likely, his uncle). At age 16, his family paid £300 for him to be taken as an apprentice at a brewery under John Wightman (Master of the Brewers' Company from 1734 to 1735).
Brewing
After learning the brewery trade, Samuel Whitbread went into partnership with Godfrey and Thomas Shewell in 1742, investing £2,600 in two of the Shewell's small breweries, the Goat Brewhouse (where porter was produced) in Old Street and a brewery nearby in Brick Lane (used to produce pale and amber beers).
Demand for the strong, black porter had begun to the grow and Whitbread identified the need for scale to ensure commercial success, moving the business to larger premises on the site of the derelict Kings Head Brewery in Chiswell Street in 1750.
Starting over, Whitbread invested in all the latest technology to industrialize production, storing the beer in large vats. The brewery was also one of the first to employ a steam engine (purchasing a sun and planet gear engine, the Whitbread Engine, from James Watt's company in 1785). While not the first to discover Porter production, Whitbread became the first to exploit it commercially on a large scale and this coincided with an increase in beer consumption in the UK, following regulations to limit the sale of gin owing to the excesses of the Gin Craze.
By 1760, it had become the second largest brewery in London (producing almost 64,000 barrels annually). By 1770 Whitbread had bought out his partners for £30,000. By the end of the century, Whitbread's business was London's biggest producer of beer, producing 202,000 barrels in 1796. In May 1787 the brewery was visited by King George III and Queen Charlotte. By 1793, Whitbread had become a Freeman of the Brewers' Company.
Member of Parliament
Whitbread was appointed High Sheriff of Hertfordshire for 1767–68 and elected Member of Parliament for Bedford in 1768, and held the seat until 1790, and then represented Steyning from 1792 to 1796. He was an early supporter for the abolition of slavery, took part in some of the anti-slavery debates of 1788 in the House of Commons.
Family
Whitbread married firstly Harriet Hayton, by whom he had two daughters, one of whom, Emma Maria Elizabeth Whitbread, married Henry St John, 13th Baron St John of Bletso, and one son, the politician, Samuel Whitbread. The other daughter, Harriet, married James Gordon MP. Harriet died in 1769 and is buried in Cardington Parish Church. Her memorial is by Richard Hayward.
He married secondly Lady Mary Cornwallis (1736–70), eldest daughter of Charles Cornwallis, 1st Earl Cornwallis, with whom he had one daughter, Mary Whitbread (1770–1858). Mary married Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet, 3rd son of Charles Grey, Lord Howick.
Whitbread became wealthy from the success of his brewery and bought several large estates, including Lord Torrington's Southill Park, Elstow Manor, and other substantial property. His real estate purchases were worth in the region of £400,000—equal to over £8 million in 1992.
Samuel Whitbread died on 11 June 1796 at Bedworth Park. The Gentleman's Magazine speculated that he was "worth over a million pounds" ().
References
English brewers
Brewing in London
Whig (British political party) MPs
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1768–1774
British MPs 1774–1780
British MPs 1780–1784
British MPs 1784–1790
British MPs 1790–1796
1720 births
1796 deaths
Whitbread people
High Sheriffs of Hertfordshire
18th-century English businesspeople
People from Cardington, Bedfordshire
People from Southill, Bedfordshire | [
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220773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Parliamentarism | History of Parliamentarism | The first parliaments date back to the Middle Ages. In 930, the first assembly of the Alþingi was convened at Þingvellir in Iceland, becoming the earliest version of a formalized parliamentary system. It was a combination of national assembly, court of justice and yearly cerebration, where the most powerful leaders, called goðar, met to decide on legislation and dispense justice, with the whole community in attendance.
In 1188 Alfonso IX, King of Leon (in current day Spain) convened the three states in the Cortes of León and according to UNESCO it was the first sample of modern parliamentarism in the history of Europe, with the presence of the common people through elected representatives.
An early example of parliamentary government developed in today's Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt (1581), when the sovereign, legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the then-monarch, King Philip II of Spain. The modern concept of parliamentary government was further developed in the Kingdom of England (1688) .
Proto-parliamentary institutions
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. This is often referred to as tribalism. Some scholars argue that in ancient Mesopotamia there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council. The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of assemblies existed, and therefore there was some form of democracy. However, these claims are not accepted by most scholars, who see these forms of government as oligarchies.
Iran
The first recorded signs of a council to decide on different issues in ancient Iran dates back to 247 BC, the time of the Parthian Empire. Parthians established the first Iranian empire since the conquest of Persia by Alexander and by their early years of reigning, an assembly of the nobles called “Mehestan” was formed that made the final decision on very serious issues.
The word "Mehestan" consists of two parts: "Meh", a word of the old Persian origin, which literally means "The Great" and "-stan", a suffix in the Persian language, which means “place”. Altogether Mehestan means a place where the greats come together.
The Mehestan Assembly, which consisted of Zoroastrian religious leaders and clan elders exerted great influence over the administration of the kingdom.
One of the most important decisions of the council was made in 208 AD, when a civil war broke out and the Mehestan decided that the empire would be ruled by two brothers simultaneously, Ardavan V and Blash V. In 224 AD, following the dissolution of the Parthian empire after over 470 years, the Mahestan council came to an end.
Islamic World
Some Muslim scholars argue that the Islamic shura (a method of taking decisions in Islamic societies) is analogous to the parliament. However, others (notably from Hizb ut-Tahrir) disagree, highlighting some fundamental differences between the shura system and the parliamentary system.
Europe
Ancient Athens was the cradle of democracy. The Athenian assembly (ἐκκλησία ekklesia), was the most important institution, and every male of Athenian citizenship above the age of thirty could take part in the discussions, but no women, no men under the age of thirty, and of course none of the many thousands of slaves were allowed to take part in the discussions. However, Athenian democracy was not representative, but rather direct, and therefore the ekklesia was not a parliamentary system.
The Roman republic, established in the 8th century BC, had legislative assemblies, who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new statutes, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. The Roman Senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy.
In Anglo-Saxon England, the Witenagamot was an important political institution. The name derives from the Old English ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, for "meeting of wise men". The first recorded act of a witenagemot was the law code issued by King Æthelberht of Kent ca. 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose; however, the witan was certainly in existence long before this time. The Witan, along with the folkmoots (local assemblies) is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament.
Early parliaments in the Middle Ages
The first parliamentary bodies involving representatives of the urban middle class were summoned in 12th century Spain. In 1187, the Castillian King Alfonso VIII summoned representatives of the nobility, the church and the 50 most important cities to a council in San Esteban de Gormaz, Soria. There was another meeting with representatives of the cities in Carrión de los Condes, Palencia, the next year, which institutionalized the Curiae. There had been other meetings previously, such as the Concilium of 1135, but they were exceptional and not leading to a regular attendance of town representatives.
The Cortes of León from year 1188 was a parliamentary body in the medieval Kingdom of León. According to the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme, it is the oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system with some temporal continuity. After coming to power, King Alfonso IX, potentially facing an attack by his two neighbors, Castile and Portugal, decided to summon the "Royal Curia". This was a medieval organisation composed of aristocrats and bishops but because of the seriousness of the situation and the need to maximise political support, Alfonso IX took the decision to also call the representatives of the urban middle class from the most important cities of the kingdom to the assembly. León's Cortes dealt with matters like the right to private property, the inviolability of domicile, the right to appeal to justice opposite the King and the obligation of the King to consult the Cortes before entering a war.
The second oldest recorded parliamentary body in Europe were the Portuguese Cortes of 1254 held in Leiria in 1254. These included burgher delegates and introduced the monetagio system, a fixed sum to be paid by burghers to the Crown. Property rights of the king and his subjects, as well as of ecclesiastical bodies, were addressed in the previous Cortes of Coimbra in 1211 (which included members of the nobility and the clergy). The Portuguese Cortes met again in 1256, 1261 and 1273 under Afonso III of Portugal, always by royal summon.
In the realms of the Crown of Aragon, the institutional system effectively limited powers of the monarchs. Particularly, in the Principality of Catalonia, in 1283, the Catalan Courts (Corts Catalanes) became one of the first parliamentary bodies of Europe that officially banned the royal power to create legislation unilaterally. Along the next centuries, the Courts developed an extensive regulation of its internal operation and guarantee of rights for the citizenship; in 1481, the Catalan Courts approved the Constitució de l'Observança, which established the submission of the king and its officers to the laws of the Principality.
In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.
Britain and the Commonwealth
In the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George I's inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister, literally the prime or first minister, Robert Walpole. The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament's role in controlling government, and in deciding who the king could ask to form a government. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government.
Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster model of government, with an executive answerable to parliament (fusion of powers), but exercising powers nominally vested in the head of state, in the name of the head of state. Hence the use of phrases like Her Majesty's government or His Excellency's government. Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions, many of whom had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament; examples include Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa. Some of these parliaments evolved, were reformed from, or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model: the Australian Senate, for instance, has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords; whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand.
France: swinging between presidential and parliamentary systems
France swung between different styles of presidential, semi-presidential and parliamentary systems of government; parliamentary systems under Louis XVIII, Charles X, the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe, King of the French and the Third Republic and Fourth Republic, though the extent of full parliamentary control differed in each, from one extreme under Charles X (a strong head of state) to full parliamentary control (under the Third Republic). Napoleon III offered attempts at some degree of parliamentary control of the executive, though few regarded his regime as genuinely parliamentary and democratic. A presidential system existed under the short-lived Second Republic. The modern Fifth Republic system combines aspects of presidentialism and parliamentarianism.
Parliamentarism in France differed from parliamentarism in the United Kingdom in several ways. First, the French National Assembly had more power over the cabinet than the British Parliament had over its cabinet. Second, France had shorter lived premierships. In the seventy years of the Third Republic, France had over fifty premierships.
In 1980 Maurice Duverger claimed that the Fifth Republic was a government in which the president was supreme, a virtual king. More recent analyses of France's system have downgraded the importance of the French president. During cohabitation, when the National Assembly of France and presidency are controlled by opposite parties, the French president is rather weak. Thus, some scholars see the French system as not one that is half presidential and half parliamentary, but as one that alternates between presidentialism and parliamentarism.
The spread of parliamentarism in Europe
Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism fueled the political left's struggle for democracy and parliamentarism. Democracy and parliamentarism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I, partially imposed by the democratic victors, Great Britain and France, on the defeated countries and their successors, notably Germany's Weimar Republic and the new Austrian Republic. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, democratic reforms were often seen as a means to counter popular revolutionary currents. Thus established democratic regimes suffered however from limited popular support, in particular from the political right.
Another obstacle was the political parties' unpreparedness for long-term commitments to coalition cabinets in the multi-party democracies on the European continent. The resulting "Minority-Parliamentarism" led to frequent defeats in votes of confidence and almost perpetual political crisis which further diminished the standing of democracy and parliamentarism in the eyes of the electorate.
Many early twentieth century regimes failed through political instability and/or the interventions of heads of state, notably King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy's failure to back his government when facing the threat posed by Benito Mussolini in 1922, or the support given by King Alfonso XIII of Spain to a prime minister using dictatorial powers in the 1920s. Finland is sometimes given as a counter-example, where a presidential democracy was established after a failed revolution and more than three months of bitter Civil War in Finland (1918). In 1932 the Lapua Movement attempted a coup d'état, aiming at the exclusion of Social Democrats from political power, but the Conservative President Svinhufvud maintained his democratic government. Parliamentarism was (re-)introduced by Svinhufvud's successor Kyösti Kallio in 1937.
See also
Democratisation § Historical cases
History of democracy
List of democracy and elections-related topics
Parliament
Parliament in the Making
Parliamentary system
Prime minister
Parliamentary sovereignty
The History of Parliament
References
External links
History of Parliament
Political systems | [
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220774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Puebla | Battle of Puebla | The Battle of Puebla (; ) took place on 5 May 1862, near Puebla City during the Second French intervention in Mexico. The battle ended in a victory by the Mexican Army over the French Army. The French eventually overran the Mexicans in subsequent battles, but the Mexican victory at Puebla against a much better equipped and larger French army provided a significant morale boost to the Mexicans and also helped slow the French advance towards Mexico City.
The Mexican victory is celebrated yearly through a festival on the same date as the battle. It is primarily celebrated in the Mexican state of Puebla, where the holiday is celebrated as El Día de la Batalla de Puebla (English: The Day of the Battle of Puebla). There is some limited recognition of the holiday in other parts of the country. In the United States, this holiday has evolved into the very popular Cinco de Mayo holiday, a celebration of Mexican heritage.
Background
The Reform War of 1858 to 1860 had caused major distress throughout Mexico's economy and bitter enemies, but the remaining defeated conservatives still opposed the government and were hoping for support for their cause. When taking office as the elected president in 1861, Benito Juárez was forced to suspend payments of interest on foreign debts for a period of two years. At the end of October 1861, diplomats from Spain, France, and the United Kingdom met in London to form the Tripartite Alliance, with the main purpose of launching an allied invasion of Mexico, and ensuring the Mexican government would be willing to negotiate terms for repaying its debts. However, the French were secretly using the alliance as a facade to invade the fractured country. The goal of French emperor Napoleon III was to set up a puppet Mexican regime in a bid to establish French influence in America and potential French allies. In December 1861, Spanish troops landed in Veracruz; British and French troops followed in early January. The allied forces occupied Veracruz and advanced to Orizaba. However, the Tripartite Alliance fell apart by early April 1862, when it became clear the French wanted to impose harsh demands on the Juarez government and provoke a war. The British and Spanish withdrew after peacefully negotiating agreements with Juárez, leaving the French to march alone on Mexico City.
Prelude to Battle
The forthcoming battle came about by a misunderstanding of the French agreement to withdraw to the coast. When the Mexican forces saw French soldiers on the march, they took it as a sign that hostilities had recommenced and felt threatened. To add to the mounting concerns, the Mexican forces were informed that political negotiations for the withdrawal had broken down. A vehement complaint was lodged by the Mexicans to Lorencez who took the effrontery as a justification to assail his forces. The French general decided to hold up his withdrawal to the coast by occupying Orizaba instead, which prevented the Mexicans from being able to defend the passes between Orizaba and the landing port of Veracruz. The commanding Mexican General, Ignacio Zaragoza fell back to Acultzingo Pass, where he and his army were defeated in a skirmish with Lorencez's forces on 28 April. Zaragoza retreated to Puebla, which had been held by the Mexican government since the Reform War. The city was heavily fortified with 5 forts surrounding it. To its north stood the two stone forts Loreto and Guadalupe on opposite hilltops. Zaragoza had a trench dug to join the forts via the saddle. Lorencez expected to meet with the forces of Mexican conservatives who promised to assist his campaign but there was no sign of them. Unknown to him, Zaragoza had already sent a force to prevent their interruption in the coming battle. He was also led to believe that the people of Puebla were friendly towards the French, and that the Mexican garrison which kept the people in line would be overrun by the population once he made a show of force. This would prove to be a serious miscalculation on Lorencez's part as more Mexicans rallied to fend off the foreigners rather than fight for the conservatives once more.
The French army consisted of mainly of Zouaves, highly skilled light infantry initially consisting of tribesmen from mainland Algeria but over time would include more Europeans. They had proved themselves highly skilled and able during the Crimean war and wars in Italy and would contribute the main effort during the battle. French forces were far better trained and equipped and the size of the army was equal to that of a French division with around 6,000 men. The French expeditionary force at the time was led by General Charles de Lorencez, an ambitious career soldier with services in Algeria and the Crimea being recently given the rank of major general.
The Mexican army was a band of ragtag patriots compared to their counterparts, but could still be counted on to serve their country. The Army of the East had recently fought and won against the conservative faction during the Reform War and were skilled in both conventional and guerilla warfare. Their commanding general was Ignacio Zaragoza, an experienced general with no formal military training who had led volunteers in support of Juarez and understood the importance of terrain and position which had led to his decision to withdraw more inward into Mexico rather than fight on open ground.
On 3 May, the retreating Mexican forces reached Puebla and began to hastily build up defenses. Although Puebla had fallen during the conservatives, the northern forts had never been attacked head on by opposing forces. Meanwhile, at the nearby village of Amazoc, Lorencez and his staff were deciding on a plan of attack. His conservative allies suggested outflanking the city altogether and marching on to Mexico City, but Lorencez did not want to leave his lines of communication back to Veracruz vulnerable to guerrillas. When battle at Puebla was inevitable, many officers and conservative allies suggested outflanking the two northern forts and attacking more south towards more favorable grounds. However, a Mexican engineer told the general that Forts Loreto and Guadalupe had been left in disrepair and they would be more susceptible to artillery shells. Lorencez decided to take on the forts and trusted that his experienced men would easily take them.
On 5 May around 5 am, the French left Amazoc towards Puebla. They set up a temporary camp by Hacienda Amalucán, three miles from Puebla, to wait for the battalion of Chasseurs d'Afrique to find space for the artillery to fire their shells. Although harassed by Mexican guerillas on horses, the French found a position 2,700 yards from Fort Guadeloupe, the main objective for the assault. As the French arrived in force during the morning, Lorencez expected that the conservatives in Puebla would riot and cause disarray in Zaragoza’s army, but by 10:15 am, the battle had begun as cannons began firing.
Battle
The forts and the trenches in between made the Mexican left flank, while the foot of Guadeloupe’s hill represented the center, and on the right, the Amazoc sentry box.
Lorencez decided to attack Puebla from the north solely on the Mexican left, focusing the attack mostly on the forts, of which Guadalupe was believed to be badly fortified. However, his officers again suggested trying to outflank the forts and attack more south but Lorencez dismissed their opinions. He intended to attack the forts overall with 4,000 soldiers. However, he started his attack late in the day, using his artillery just before noon, and advancing his infantry by noon proper. In the first assault, Lorencez used his artillery to pound the forts right before launching his men at 11:45. However, the stone forts held, possibly due to the fact that Lorencez positioned his artillery at a far range for a better angle. During the battle, he would try to change the artillery's position but the attempt was futile as the slope of fort Guadalupe subtracted the power of the bombardment as shells sometimes skidded along the ground. The French four rifled 4 pounder cannons were too weak and light to impose serious damage and only the 12 pounder howitzers made serious results among the Mexican ranks within the fort but by the first attack, the French had used up half artillery ammunition. The French sent 2 battalions of Zouaves to attack Guadeloupe while a battalion of Marines covered their flank against Loreto. The French were mauled by exposed fire from both forts and the trenches and were thus beaten back forcing Lorencez to change his tactics.
During the second assault, Lorencez planned to make a diversionary attack to the southeast of the city to draw off the attention and defenders of the forts. At 12:30 pm, the French artillery once again began a bombardment on the forts and the French soldiers once again launched their assault with the Zouave battalions and a battalion of Chasseurs de Vincennes to attack Guadeloupe. The marine battalion would cover Loreto once more while the 99th line and some Chasseurs d’Afrique would advance towards the Mexican center and also covering the Mexican right at the Amazoc sentry box covered by Porfirio Diaz’s brigade. The second attack proved more successful as companies of French Zouaves managed to climb the wall of Guadalupe with one raising the tricolor flag but they were ripped apart and pushed out in retreat. Their flag standard, decorated in the battles of Magenta and Solferino, fell into a nearby moat by the fort but was recovered by a Zouaves who went missing by Mexican fire. The early diversionary attack was also beaten back in melee combat by forces led by General Porfirio Diaz, who successfully stopped them from assisting their comrades.
By the third assault the French required the full engagement of all their reserves around 2 pm. The French artillery had run out of ammunition but Lorencez was unwilling to concede defeat yet, so the third infantry attack was ordered without any supporting fire. The same repulsed Zouaves and marines towards the Mexican left flank while the marine regiment infantry and chasseurs d’Afrique would cover the Mexican center and right flank. At 3 pm the rain started, making the battlefield slippery and muddy. The Mexican forces put up a stout defense and even took to the field to defend the positions between the hilltop forts.
As the French retreated from their final assault, Zaragoza had his cavalry attack them from the left while troops concealed along the road pivoted out to flank them. The French were harassed until they went outside the Mexican artillery range. Against the orders of his commander, General Porfirio Diaz ordered his brigade forward to charge down the disorganized French in front of them, but Zaragoza ordered him to stay in his position and allow the artillery to finish up the work until 7 pm. Lorencez withdrew to his bivouac around 4 pm, counting 172 of his men killed against only 83 of the Mexicans; Mexican historians believe he lost 50 dead, 404 wounded, and 127 prisoners.
Lorencez waited a couple of days for Zaragoza to attack again, but the general held his ground knowing that an open field battle with the French was a guaranteed defeat. Lorencez then withdrew to Orizaba, fending off Zaragoza's pursuit forces in a fighting retreat as the Mexicans sang the Marseillaise, France’s liberal anthem banned by the emperor.
Aftermath
The Battle of Puebla was an inspirational event for Mexico during the war, and it proved a stunning revelation to the rest of the world which had largely expected a rapid victory for French arms. General Zaragoza would not live long enough to celebrate the victory as he died four months later due to typhoid fever.
Slowed by their loss at Puebla, the French forces retreated and regrouped, and the invasion continued after Napoleon III determinedly sent additional troops to Mexico and dismissed General Lorencez. The French were eventually victorious, winning the Second Battle of Puebla on 17 May 1863 and pushing on to Mexico City. When the capital fell, Juárez's government was forced into exile in the remote northern parts of Mexico.
With the backing of France, the Habsburg Archduke Maximilian became Emperor of Mexico of the short-lived Second Mexican Empire. By the time that puppet regime had been created, the United States was able to support Juárez, turning the tide of the war.
Celebration
On 9 May 1862, President Juárez declared that the anniversary of the Battle of Puebla would be a national holiday, regarded as "Battle of Puebla Day" or "Battle of Cinco de Mayo".
Cinco de Mayo is not the national day of Mexico, as is sometimes misunderstood. The most important national patriotic holiday in Mexico is Independence Day, on 16 September, commemorating the 1810 "Cry of Dolores" call-to-arms, that began the War of Independence. Mexico also observes the culmination of the war of Independence, which lasted 11 years, on 27 September.
Since the 1930s, a re-enactment of the Battle of Puebla has been held each year at Peñón de los Baños, a rocky outcrop close to Mexico City International Airport.
See also
List of battles of the French intervention in Mexico
Monument for the 150th Anniversary of the Battle of Puebla
References
External links
French Intervention in Mexico: Battle of Puebla
Phil's Findings: Did Battle of Puebla change the course of U.S. history? by Philip A. Rue
1862 in the French colonial empire
1862 in Mexico
Battles involving France
Battles of the Second French intervention in Mexico
Conflicts in 1862
May 1862 events
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220775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinson%20Massif | Vinson Massif | Vinson Massif () is a large mountain massif in Antarctica that is long and wide and lies within the Sentinel Range of the Ellsworth Mountains. It overlooks the Ronne Ice Shelf near the base of the Antarctic Peninsula. The massif is located about from the South Pole. Vinson Massif was discovered in January 1958 by U.S. Navy aircraft. In 1961, the Vinson Massif was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN), after Carl G. Vinson, United States congressman from the state of Georgia, for his support for Antarctic exploration. On November 1, 2006, US-ACAN declared Mount Vinson and Vinson Massif to be separate entities. Vinson Massif lies within the Chilean claim under the Antarctic Treaty System.
Mount Vinson is the highest peak in Antarctica, at . It lies in the north part of Vinson Massif's summit plateau in the south portion of the main ridge of the Sentinel Range about north of Hollister Peak. It was first climbed in 1966 by an American team led by Nicholas Clinch. An expedition in 2001 was the first to climb via the Eastern route, and also took GPS measurements of the height of the peak. As of February 2010, 1,400 climbers have attempted to reach the top of Mount Vinson.
Geography
The Vinson Massif extends between Goodge Col and Branscomb Glacier to the northwest, Nimitz Glacier and Gildea Glacier to the southwest and south, and Dater Glacier and its tributary Hinkley Glacier to the east. The southeastern part of the massif ends at Hammer Col, which joins it to the Craddock Massif, of which the highest point is Mount Rutford (). The massif comprises both the high central Vinson Plateau with its few peaks rising to over , and several side ridges mostly trending southwest or northeast from the plateau.
The current height () of Mount Vinson was measured by a GPS survey that was conducted by the 2004 Omega Foundation team comprising Damien Gildea of Australia (leader) and Rodrigo Fica and Camilo Rada of Chile. Since 1998 and continuing through 2007, the Omega Foundation has placed a GPS receiver on the summit for a suitable period of time to obtain accurate satellite readings.
Geology
Steeply inclined strata known as the Crashsite Group forms Vinson Massif. It consists of of shallow-water, mostly marine, tan, green, and red quartzose sandstones (quartzites) and argillites. In ascending order, the Crashsite Group is subdivided into the Howard Nunataks Formation (), the Mount Liptak Formation (), and the Mount Wyatt Earp Formation (). Erosion-resistant and steeply inclined beds of the Mount Wyatt Earp Formation comprise the crest of the Vinson Massif, including Mount Vinson. The steeply inclined strata of the Crashsite Group are part of the western limb of a major syncline that forms the core of the Sentinel Range within the Ellsworth Mountains. The Mount Wyatt Earp Formation contains Devonian fossils. The transition beds at the base of the Crashsite Group contain Late Cambrian trilobites. The intervening lower parts of the Crashsite Group likely include Ordovician and Silurian strata.
Climate and glaciers
The climate on Mount Vinson is generally controlled by the polar ice cap's high-pressure system, creating predominantly stable conditions but, as in any polar climate, high winds and snowfall are a possibility. Though the annual snowfall on Mount Vinson is low, high winds can cause base camp accumulations up to in a year. During the summer season, November through January, there are 24 hours of sunlight. While the average temperature during these months is , the intense sun will melt snow on dark objects.
Over successive years, the limited amount of snow that falls on Vinson Massif compacts and is transformed into ice, forming glaciers. These glaciers follow the topography and flow down the mountain's valleys. The uppermost glacier occupies Jacobsen Valley on the north face of Mount Vinson, and flows either into Branscomb Glacier to the west or Crosswell Glacier to the east. The Crosswell Glacier flows into the Rutford Ice Stream via Ellen Glacier. The south face of Mount Vinson is drained by Roché Glacier, which flows westwards into Branscomb Glacier, with the latter leaving Vinson Massif to join Nimitz Glacier.
History
A high mountain, provisionally known as "Vinson", was long suspected to be in this part of West Antarctica, but it was not actually seen until January 1958, when it was spotted by US Navy aircraft from Byrd Station. It was named after Carl Vinson, United States Representative from Georgia who was a key supporter of funding for Antarctic research. The first measurement of the Vinson Massif was established in 1959 at the elevation of .
First ascent
In 1963, two groups within the American Alpine Club (AAC), one led by Charles D. Hollister and Samuel C. Silverstein, M.D., then in New York, and the other led by Peter Schoening of Seattle, Washington, began lobbying the National Science Foundation to support an expedition to climb Mount Vinson. The two groups merged in spring 1966 at the urging of the National Science Foundation and the AAC and Nicholas Clinch was recruited by the AAC to lead the merged expeditions. Officially named the American Antarctic Mountaineering Expedition (AAME) 1966/67, the expedition was sponsored by the AAC and the National Geographic Society, and supported in the field by the U.S. Navy and the National Science Foundation Office of Antarctic Programs. Ten scientists and mountaineers participated in AAME 1966/67. In addition to Clinch they were Barry Corbet, John Evans (University of Minnesota), Eiichi Fukushima (University of Washington, Seattle), Charles Hollister, Ph.D. (Columbia University), William Long, (Alaska Methodist University), Brian Marts, Peter Schoening, Samuel Silverstein, (Rockefeller University) and Richard Wahlstrom.
In the months prior to its departure for Antarctica the expedition received considerable press attention, primarily because of the reports that Woodrow Wilson Sayre was planning to fly in a Piper Apache piloted by Max Conrad, the "flying Grandfather", with four companions into the Sentinel Range to climb the Mount Vinson. Sayre had a reputation for problematic trips as a result of his unauthorized, unsuccessful, and nearly fatal attempt to climb Mount Everest from the North in 1962. His unauthorized incursion into Tibet led China to file an official protest with the U.S. State Department. In the end, the purported race did not materialize as Conrad had difficulties with his plane. According to press reports, he and Sayre were still in Buenos Aires on the day the first four members of AAME 1966/67 reached Mount Vinson's summit.
In December 1966 the Navy transported the expedition and its supplies from Christchurch, New Zealand to the U.S. base at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, and from there in a ski-equipped C-130 Hercules to the Sentinel Range. All members of the expedition reached the summit of Mount Vinson. The first group of four climbers summited on December 18, 1966, four more on December 19, and the last three on December 20.
On August 17, 2006, from nomination by Damien Gildea of the Omega Foundation, US-ACAN approved naming the subsidiary peaks south of Mount Vinson for the AAME 1966/67 members Nicholas Clinch, Barry Corbet, Eiichi Fukushima, Charles Hollister, Brian Marts, Samuel Silverstein, Peter Schoening and Richard Wahlstrom. Other peaks in the Sentinel Range had previously been named for John Evans and William Long.
Later ascents
The climb of Vinson offers little technical difficulty beyond the usual hazards of travel in Antarctica, and as one of the Seven Summits, it has received much attention from well-funded climbers in recent years. Multiple guide companies offer guided expeditions to Mount Vinson, at a typical cost of around US$45,000 per person, including transportation to Antarctica from Chile.
First ascent from east side
While the vast majority of prior climbs to the summit have used the western side of the massif from the Branscomb Glacier, the first ascent from the east side was successfully completed by an eight-person team sponsored by NOVA in January 2001. The team consisted of:
Conrad Anker – expedition leader
Jon Krakauer – mountaineer and author
Dave Hahn – mountain guide with 34 ascents, including ascents to Gardner, and Shinn.
Andrew Mclean – extreme skier
Dan Stone – glaciologist
Liesl Clark – producer
John Armstrong – cameraman
Rob Raker – assistant cameraman and sound recording
The team not only made the first ascent from the east side but also performed scientific research into snow accumulation at different elevations as well as taking the first ground-based GPS reading from the summit. The GPS reading gave the elevation of the highest point in Antarctica as , eclipsing the earlier established heights recorded in 1959 and 1979.
Another first was the successful aircraft landing of a Twin Otter on the Upper Dater Glacier on the eastern slopes of Mount Vinson.
NOVA named the production "Mountain of Ice", which first aired on PBS in February 2003.
See also
Vinson Plateau
Mount Sidley – highest volcano in Antarctica
Seven Summits
Maps
Vinson Massif. Scale 1:250 000 topographic map. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.
D. Gildea and C. Rada. Vinson Massif and the Sentinel Range. Scale 1:50 000 topographic map. Omega Foundation, 2007.
Antarctic Digital Database (ADD). Scale 1:250000 topographic map of Antarctica. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). Since 1993, regularly updated.
References
External links
The Vinson Massif. Explorers Dream
Mountains of Ellsworth Land
Seven Summits
Ellsworth Mountains
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
Four-thousanders of Antarctica | [
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220776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgeon | Sturgeon | Sturgeon is the common name for the 27 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. The earliest sturgeon fossils date to the Late Cretaceous, and are descended from other, earlier acipenseriform fish which date back to the Early Jurassic epoch, some 174 to 201 million years ago. The family is grouped into four genera: Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Two species (A. naccarii and A. dabryanus) may be extinct in the wild, and one (P. fedtschenkoi) may be entirely extinct. Two closely related species, Polyodon spathula (American paddlefish) and Psephurus gladius (Chinese paddlefish, possibly extinct) are of the same order, Acipenseriformes, but are in the family Polyodontidae and are not considered to be "true" sturgeons. Both sturgeons and paddlefish have been referred to as "primitive fishes" because their morphological characteristics have remained relatively unchanged since the earliest fossil record. Sturgeons are native to subtropical, temperate and sub-Arctic rivers, lakes and coastlines of Eurasia and North America.
Sturgeons are long-lived, late-maturing fishes with distinctive characteristics, such as a heterocercal caudal fin similar to those of sharks, and an elongated, spindle-like body that is smooth-skinned, scaleless, and armored with five lateral rows of bony plates called scutes. Several species can grow quite large, typically ranging in length. The largest sturgeon on record was a beluga female captured in the Volga estuary in 1827, measuring long and weighing . Most sturgeons are anadromous bottom-feeders, which migrate upstream to spawn, but spend most of their lives feeding in river deltas and estuaries. Some species inhabit freshwater environments exclusively, while others primarily inhabit marine environments near coastal areas, and are known to venture into open ocean.
Several species of sturgeon are harvested for their roe, which is processed into the luxury food caviar. This has led to serious overexploitation, which combined with other conservation threats, has brought most of the species to critically endangered status, at the edge of extinction.
Evolution
Fossil history
Acipenseriform fishes appeared in the fossil record some 174 to 201 million years ago (Mya) during the Early Jurassic, making them some of the most ancient of still-living actinopterygian fishes. True sturgeons appear in the fossil record during the Upper Cretaceous. In that time, sturgeons have undergone remarkably little morphological change, indicating their evolution has been exceptionally slow and earning them informal status as living fossils. This is explained in part by the long generation interval, tolerance for wide ranges of temperature and salinity, lack of predators due to size and bony plated armor, or scutes, and the abundance of prey items in the benthic environment. Although their evolution has been remarkably slow, they are a highly evolved living fossil, and do not closely resemble their ancestral chondrosteans. They do, however, still share several primitive characteristics, such as heterocercal tail, reduced squamation, more fin rays than supporting bony elements, and unique jaw suspension.
Phylogeny and taxonomy
Despite the existence of a fossil record, full classification and phylogeny of the sturgeon species has been difficult to determine, in part due to the high individual and ontogenic variation, including geographical clines in certain features, such as rostrum shape, number of scutes, and body length. A further confounding factor is the peculiar ability of sturgeons to produce reproductively viable hybrids, even between species assigned to different genera. While ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) have a long evolutionary history culminating in our most familiar fishes, past adaptive evolutionary radiations have left only a few survivors, such as sturgeons and gars.
The wide range of the acipenserids and their endangered status have made collection of systematic materials difficult. These factors have led researchers in the past to identify over 40 additional species that were rejected by later scientists. Whether the species in the Acipenser and Huso genera are monophyletic (descended from one ancestor) or paraphyletic (descended from many ancestors) is still unclear, though the morphologically motivated division between these two genera clearly is not supported by the genetic evidence. An effort is ongoing to resolve the taxonomic confusion using a continuing synthesis of systematic data and molecular techniques.
The phylogeny of the Acipenseridae, as on the cladogram, shows that they have evolved from among the bony fishes. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.
In currently accepted taxonomy, the class Actinopterygii and the order Acipenseriformes are both clades.
The family Acipenseridae is subdivided into 2 subfamilies, the Acipenserinae including the genera Acipenser and Huso, and Scaphirhynchinae, including the genera Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. However, multiple recent studies have recovered this arrangement as paraphyletic, instead finding A. oxyrhinchus and A. sturio to form the most basal clade among sturgeons, and all other species being in a separate clade, with the various other species of Acipenser, Scaphirhynchus, Pseudoscaphirhynchus, and Huso to have varying levels of relationship with one another.
A potential taxonomy of Acipenseridae is shown here, based on Luo et al. 2019, Nedoluzhko et al. 2020, and Shen et al. 2020. Note the paraphyletic relationships among genera:
The exact placement of Scaphirhynchus varies depending on the study and the methods used, with some placing it within the second-most basal clade comprising primarily Pacific species (shown above), whereas others place it in its own clade that is more derived than the secondmost basal clade but less derived than the most derived Atlantic + Central Asian clade. No studies have yet delineated a relationship between it and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. In addition, the exact relationships of the members of the most derived, primarily Atlantic clade vary, although most analyses at least find all the species in it to form a monophyletic clade. The placement of A. sinensis also varies by the study, with some placing it as the only Pacific member of the otherwise Atlantic-based most-derived clade, whereas others place it with the rest of the Pacific sturgeons as a sister to A. dabryanus.
Species
The family contains 8 extinct fossil species and 28 extant species/subspecies (include 1 species of Sterlet and 2 species of living fossils), in 4 genera. This list uses the original classification scheme:
Family Acipenseridae
Subfamily Acipenserinae
Genus Acipenser Linnaeus, 1758
†Acipenser albertensis Lambe 1902 >
Acipenser baerii J. F. Brandt, 1869 (Siberian sturgeon)
Acipenser baerii baicalensis A. M. Nikolskii, 1896 (Baikal sturgeon)
Acipenser baerii stenorrhynchus A. M. Nikolskii, 1896
Acipenser brevirostrum Lesueur, 1818 (Shortnose sturgeon)
Acipenser dabryanus A. H. A. Duméril, 1869 (Yangtze sturgeon)
†Acipenser cruciferus (Cope 1876)
†Acipenser eruciferus Cope 1876
Acipenser fulvescens Rafinesque, 1817 (Lake sturgeon)
†Acipenser gigantissimus Nessov 1997
Acipenser gueldenstaedtii J. F. Brandt & Ratzeburg, 1833 (Russian sturgeon)
Acipenser medirostris Ayres, 1854 (Green sturgeon)
Acipenser mikadoi Hilgendorf, 1892 (Sakhalin sturgeon)
†Acipenser molassicus Probst 1882
Acipenser naccarii Bonaparte, 1836 (Adriatic sturgeon)
Acipenser nudiventris Lovetsky, 1828 (Fringebarbel sturgeon)
†Acipenser ornatus Leidy 1873
Acipenser oxyrinchus Mitchill, 1815
Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi Vladykov, 1955 (Gulf sturgeon)
Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus Mitchill, 1815 (Atlantic sturgeon)
Acipenser persicus Borodin, 1897 (Persian sturgeon)
Acipenser ruthenus Linnaeus, 1758 (Sterlet)
Acipenser schrenckii J. F. Brandt, 1869 (Japanese sturgeon)
Acipenser sinensis J. E. Gray, 1835 (Chinese sturgeon)
Acipenser stellatus Pallas, 1771 (Starry sturgeon)
Acipenser sturio Linnaeus, 1758 (European sea sturgeon)
†Acipenser toliapicus Agassiz 1844 ex Woodward 1889
Acipenser transmontanus J. Richardson, 1836 (White sturgeon)
†Acipenser tuberculosus Probst 1882
Genus Huso J. F. Brandt & Ratzeburg, 1833
Huso dauricus (Georgi, 1775) (kaluga)
Huso huso (Linnaeus, 1758) (beluga)
Subfamily Scaphirhynchinae
Genus Scaphirhynchus Heckel, 1835 (native to North America)
Scaphirhynchus albus (Forbes & R. E. Richardson, 1905) (Pallid sturgeon)
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque, 1820) (Shovelnose sturgeon)
Scaphirhynchus suttkusi J. D. Williams & Clemmer, 1991 (Alabama sturgeon)
Genus Pseudoscaphirhynchus Nikolskii, 1900 (native to Central Asia)
Pseudoscaphirhynchus fedtschenkoi (Kessler, 1872) (Syr Darya sturgeon)
Pseudoscaphirhynchus hermanni (Kessler, 1877) (Dwarf sturgeon)
Pseudoscaphirhynchus kaufmanni (Kessler, 1877) (Amu Darya sturgeon)
Range and habitat
Sturgeon range from subtropical to subarctic waters in North America and Eurasia. In North America, they range along the Atlantic Coast from the Gulf of Mexico to Newfoundland, including the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, Missouri, and Mississippi Rivers, as well as along the West Coast in major rivers from California and Idaho to British Columbia. They occur along the European Atlantic coast, including the Mediterranean basin, especially in the Adriatic Sea and the rivers of North Italy; in the rivers that flow into the Black, Azov, and Caspian Seas (Danube, Dnepr, Volga, Ural and Don); the north-flowing rivers of Russia that feed the Arctic Ocean (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Kolyma); in the rivers of Central Asia (Amu Darya and Syr Darya) and Lake Baikal. In the Pacific Ocean, they are found in the Amur River along the Russian-Chinese border, on Sakhalin Island, and some rivers in northeast China.
Throughout this extensive range, almost all species are highly threatened or vulnerable to extinction due to a combination of habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution.
No species is known to naturally occur south of the equator, though attempts at sturgeon aquaculture are being made in Uruguay, South Africa, and other places.
Most species are at least partially anadromous, spawning in fresh water and feeding in nutrient-rich, brackish waters of estuaries or undergoing significant migrations along coastlines. However, some species have evolved purely freshwater existences, such as the lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) and the Baikal sturgeon (A. baerii baicalensis), or have been forced into them by human or natural impoundment of their native rivers, as in the case of some subpopulations of white sturgeon (A. transmontanus) in the Columbia River and Siberian sturgeon (A. baerii) in the Ob basin.
Physical characteristics
Sturgeons retain several primitive characters among the bony fishes. Along with other members of the subclass Chondrostei, they are unique among bony fishes because their skeletons are almost entirely cartilaginous. To maintain structure, sturgeons are one of few organisms to retain a post-embryonic notochord that acts like a soft spine running through the body. Notably, however, the cartilagineous skeleton is not a primitive character, but a derived one; sturgeon ancestors had bony skeletons. They also lack vertebral centra, and are partially covered with five lateral rows of scutes rather than scales. They also have four barbels—sensory organs that precede their wide, toothless mouths. They navigate their riverine habitats traveling just off the bottom with their barbels dragging along gravel, or murky substrate. Sturgeon are recognizable for their elongated bodies, flattened rostra, distinctive scutes and barbels, and elongated upper tail lobes. The skeletal support for the paired fins of ray-finned fish is inside the body wall, although the ray-like structures in the webbing of the fins can be seen externally.
Sturgeons are among the largest fish: some beluga (Huso huso) in the Caspian Sea reportedly attain over and while for kaluga (H. dauricus) in the Amur River, similar lengths and over weights have been reported. They are also among the longest-lived of the fishes, some living well over 100 years and attaining sexual maturity at 20 years or more. The combination of slow growth and reproductive rates and the extremely high value placed on mature, egg-bearing females make sturgeon particularly vulnerable to overfishing.
Sturgeons are polyploid; some species have four, eight, or 16 sets of chromosomes.
Life cycle
Sturgeons are long-lived, late maturing fishes. Their average lifespan is 50 to 60 years, and their first spawn does not occur until they are around 15 to 20 years old. Sturgeons are broadcast spawners, and do not spawn every year because they require specific conditions. Those requirements may or may not be met every year due to varying environmental conditions, such as the proper photoperiod in spring, clear water with shallow rock or gravel substrate, where the eggs can adhere, and proper water temperature and flow for oxygenation of the eggs. A single female may release 100,000 to 3 million eggs, but not all will be fertilized. The fertilized eggs become sticky and adhere to the bottom substrate upon contact. Eight to 15 days are needed for the embryos to mature into larval fish. During that time, they are dependent on their yolk sacs for nourishment. River currents carry the larvae downstream into backwater areas, such as oxbows and sloughs, where the free-swimming fry spend their first year feeding on insect larvae and crustacea. During their first year of growth, they reach in length and migrate back into the swift-flowing currents in the main stem river.
Behavior
Sturgeons are primarily benthic feeders, with a diet of shellfish, crustaceans, and small fish. Exceptionally, both Huso species, the white sturgeon and the pallid sturgeon feed primarily on other fish as adults. They feed by extending their syphon-like mouths to suck food from the benthos. Having no teeth, they are unable to seize prey, though larger individuals and more predatory species can swallow very large prey items, including whole salmon. Sturgeons feed non-visually. They are believed to use a combination of sensors, including olfactory, tactile, and chemosensory cues detected by the four barbels, and electroreception using their ampullae of Lorenzini.
The sturgeons' electroreceptors are located on the head and are sensitive to weak electric fields generated by other animals or geoelectric sources. The electroreceptors are thought to be used in various behaviors such as feeding, mating and migration.
Many sturgeons leap completely out of the water, usually making a loud splash which can be heard half a mile away on the surface and probably further under water. Why they do this is not known, but suggested functions include group communication to maintain group cohesion, catching airborne prey, courtship display, or to help shed eggs during spawning. Other plausible explanations include escape from predators, shedding parasites, or to gulp or expel air. Another explanation is that it "simply feels good". There have been some incidents of leaping sturgeon landing in boats, and causing injuries to humans; in 2015, a 5-year-old girl was fatally injured after a sturgeon leapt from the Suwannee River and struck her.
Interactions with humans
Caviar
Globally, sturgeon fisheries are of great value, primarily as a source for caviar, but also for flesh. Several species of sturgeon are harvested for their roe which is processed into caviar—a luxury food and the reason why caviar-producing sturgeons are among the most valuable and endangered of all wildlife resources.
During the 19th century, the US was the global leader in caviar production, having cornered 90% of the world's caviar trade. Atlantic sturgeon once thrived along the east coast from Canada down to Florida. They were in such abundance in the Hudson River, they were called "Albany beef" and sturgeon eggs were given away at local bars as an accompaniment to 5¢ beer. White sturgeon populations along the US west coast declined simultaneously under the pressure of commercial fishing and human encroachment. Within the course of a century, the once abundant sturgeon fisheries in the US and Canada had drastically declined, and in some areas had been extirpated under the pressure of commercial overharvesting, pollution, human encroachment, habitat loss, and the damming of rivers that blocked their ancestral migration to spawning grounds.
By the turn of the century, commercial production of sturgeon caviar in the US and Canada had come to an end. Regulatory protections and conservation efforts were put in place by state and federal resource agencies in the US and Canada, such as the 1998 US federal moratorium that closed all commercial fishing for Atlantic sturgeon. It was during the 20th century that Russia grew to become the global leader as the largest producer and exporter of caviar. As with the decline in sturgeon populations in the US and Canada, the same occurred with sturgeon populations in the Caspian Sea.
Beginning with the 1979 US embargo on Iran, poaching and smuggling sturgeon caviar was big business but an illegal and dangerous one. Officers with the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) busted a poaching ring that was based in Vancouver, Washington. The poachers had harvested 1.65 tons of caviar from nearly 2,000 white sturgeon that were poached from the Columbia River. The caviar was estimated to be worth around $2 million. WDFW busted another ring in 2003, and conducted an undercover sting operation in 2006-2007 that resulted in 17 successful attempts out of a total of 19.
In response to concerns over the future of sturgeons and associated commercial products, international trade for all species of sturgeons has been regulated under CITES since 1998.
Conservation
Sturgeons are long-lived, late maturing fishes with reproductive cycles that include long migrations, and require specific environmental conditions. They are an ancient species that have survived for millions of years but their future is threatened, due in part to their inherent ancestral characteristics and reproductive specificities. The negative impacts of overfishing, poaching, habitat destruction, and the construction of dams that have altered or blocked their annual migration to ancestral spawning grounds have taken a serious toll. Some species of sturgeon are extinct, several are on the verge of extinction, including the Chinese sturgeon, the highly prized beluga sturgeon, and the Alabama sturgeon. Many species are classified as threatened or endangered with noticeable declines in sturgeon populations as the demand for caviar increases. IUCN data indicates that over 85% of sturgeon species are at risk of extinction, making them more critically endangered than any other group of animal species.
In addition to global restocking efforts, the monitoring of populations and habitat, and various other conservation efforts by national and state resource agencies as applicable to their respective countries, several conservation organizations have been formed to assist in the preservation of sturgeons around the world. On a global scale, one such organization is the World Sturgeon Conservation Society (WSCS) whose primary objectives include fostering the "conservation of sturgeon species and restoration of sturgeon stocks world-wide”, and supporting the "information exchange among all persons interested in sturgeons." The North American Sturgeon and Paddlefish Society (NASPS) and Gesellschaft zur Rettung des Störs e.V. are WSCS affiliates. WSCS has been instrumental in organizing global conferences where scientists and researchers can exchange information and address the various conservation challenges that threaten the future of sturgeons. Conservation efforts at the grass roots level are also instrumental in helping to preserve sturgeon populations, such as Sturgeon For Tomorrow which was founded in 1977, consists of volunteers and a sturgeon guarding program to monitor known spawning sites. The organization has grown exponentially over the years and has become "the largest citizen advocacy group for sturgeon in the world", and has expanded with affiliate chapters in other states that have sturgeon populations. Other projects focus on specific local issues, such as the We Pass project, seeking a solution to the migratory impasse represented by the Iron Gates in the Danube River Basin. For example, currently all anadromous Danube sturgeon (all species except the predominantly freshwater sterlet) are now classed as Critically Endangered or extirpated from the upper and middle reaches of the Danube River above the dams.
Other uses
Before 1800, swim bladders of sturgeon (primarily Beluga sturgeon from Russia) were used as a source of isinglass, a form of collagen used historically for the clarification of wine and beer, as a predecessor for gelatin, and to preserve parchments.
The Jewish law of kashrut, which only permits the consumption of fish with scales, forbids sturgeon, as they have ganoid scales instead of the permitted ctenoid and cycloid scales. While all Orthodox groups forbid the consumption of sturgeon, some conservative groups do allow it. The theological debate over its kosher status can be traced back to such 19th-century reformers as Aron Chorin, though its consumption was already common in European Jewish communities.
Sturgeons were declared to be a royal fish under a statute dating back to 1324 by King Edward II of England. Technically, the British monarchy still owns all sturgeons, whales, and dolphins that inhabit the waters around England and Wales. Under the law of the United Kingdom any sturgeons captured within the realm are personal property of the monarch.
In heraldry, a sturgeon is the symbol on the coat of arms for Saint Amalberga of Temse.
Notes
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:
References
External links
FishBase info on Acipenser
Official website of the World Sturgeon Conservation Society
PBS special, video clips and public outreach videos about sturgeon
Articles containing video clips
Commercial fish
Apex predators
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte
Extant Maastrichtian first appearances | [
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220777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC%20Dongbin | Lü Dongbin | Lü Dongbin (796 CE-1016 CE) is a legendary Chinese scholar and poet said to have lived during the Tang Dynasty. Whether he actually lived the two hundred and twenty years cannot be determined. Elevated to the status of an immortal in the Chinese cultural sphere by Daoists, he is one of the most widely known of the group of deities known as the Eight Immortals. Lü is also a historical figure and mentioned in the official history book History of Song. He is widely considered to be one of the earliest masters of neidan, or internal alchemy. He is also depicted in art dressed as a scholar carrying a sword to dispel evil spirits.
Character
Lü Dongbin is usually portrayed as a scholarly, clever man with a genuine desire to help people obtain wisdom/enlightenment and to learn the Tao. However, he is often portrayed as having some character "flaws," not an uncommon theme for the colorful Taoist immortals, all of whom in general have various eccentricities:
He is portrayed as having bouts of drunkenness, which was not uncommon among the often fun-loving Eight Immortals. This also parallels several Taoist artists renowned for their love of drinking.
One story relates that early on after becoming immortal, he had a strong temper as a "young" immortal, even deforming a riverbank in a bout of anger.
He is said to be a ladies man, even after (or only after) becoming an immortal – and for this reason he is generally not invoked by people with romantic problems. This may also relate to some of the Taoist sexual arts.
Lü was also a prolific poet. His works were collected in the Quan Tangshi (Complete Tang poetry).
Early life
His name is Lü Yán, with Yán ( or or ) being the given name. Dòngbīn is his courtesy name. He is called Master Pure-Yang ( Chunyang Zi), and is also called Lü the Progenitor ( lü zŭ) by some Daoist, especially those of the Quanzhen School. He was born in Jingzhao Prefecture ( Jīngzhào Fŭ) around 796 CE during the Tang Dynasty
When he was born, a fragrance allegedly filled the room. His birthday is said to be on the fourteenth day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar. He had been very intelligent since childhood and had many academic achievements. However, according to one story, still unmarried by the age of 20, Lü twice took the top-level civil service exam to become a government official, but did not succeed.
In the first year of Tang Baoli (825 CE), he was a scholar for a period of time. He served as a county magistrate twice. Soon he was ruined by officialdom, abandoned his official position and retired to the mountains. Once he went to a Chang'an wine store, met the real Zhongli Quan ( Zhong Liquan), passed ten trials, and Quan taught him the way to create the Golden pill; consequently he learned the way and became an immortal.
Yellow Millet Dream
The legend has it that one night when Lü Yan was in Chang'an or Handan, he dozed off as his yellow millet was cooking in a hotel. He dreamed that he took the imperial exam and excelled, and thus was awarded a prestigious office and soon promoted to the position of vice minister ( shìláng). He then married the daughter of a prosperous household and had a son and a daughter. He was promoted again and again, and finally became the prime minister. However, his success and luck attracted jealousy of others, so he was accused of crimes that caused him to lose his office. His wife then betrayed him, his children were killed by bandits, and he lost all his wealth. As he was dying on the street in the dream, he woke up.
Although in the dream, eighteen years had passed, the whole dream actually happened in the time it took his millet to cook. The characters from his dream were actually played by Zhongli Quan in order to make him realize that one should not put too much importance on transient glory and success. As a result, Lü went with Zhongli to discover and cultivate the Tao. This dream is known as "Dream of the Yellow Millet" ( Huáng Liáng Mèng) and is described in a writing compiled by Ma Zhiyuan of the Yuan Dynasty.
In volume 82 of Song Dynasty scholar Li Fang's Extensive Records of the Taiping Era, an earlier version of the story, Lü Dongbin was replaced by Student Lu ( Lú Shēng), and Zhongli Quan by Elder Lü ( Lǚ Wēng).
The exact age of Lü Yan when this incident occurred varies in the tellings, from 20 years of age to 40.
Ten trials of Lü Dongbin
A story has it that when in Chang An, Lü was tested by Zhongli Quan ten times before Quan took him in as a disciple and Lü subsequently became immortal. These ten trials are described below.
One day Lü came back from work and found out that his loved one was dying; without sadness or remorse, he started to prepare the dress and coffin necessary for burial, but later his loved one revived and lived on. Lü was still without sadness or joyous feeling.
Lü was selling goods at a market and there came a buyer to bargain with him. After agreeing on the price, Lü handed him the stuff but the buyer refused to pay in full and then walked away. Lü would not argue and let him walk away.
On the first day of the lunar calendar, Lü met with a beggar. After giving him some money, the beggar kept asking for more and threw vulgar words at him. Lü left the scene with a smile.
Lü was once a shepherd. During his tenure a hungry tiger was eyeing the goats under his care. Lü protected the goats by sending them down to the hillside and stood in front of the Tiger. The hungry tiger was awed to see this and left without hurting Lü.
Lü was studying at a small hut on a mountain when a beautiful woman came by and asked if she could stay there for the night since she was lost. That night, this beautiful lady was flirting and tried to get Lü to have sex with her, but Lü was untouched by such temptation.
One day Lü came back to his house and saw that he had been burglarized and lost all his belongings. Without becoming angry he started to work on his farm. As he dug into the ground he found countless pieces of gold. He uncovered the earth without taking a single piece of the gold.
Lü bought some bronze utensils at a market. Upon returning home he realized that all of the utensils were made of gold and he immediately returned them to the seller.
A crazy Taoist was selling medicine on the street, telling people that his magic potion would have one of two outcomes: either 1) the drinker would die on the spot, or 2) the drinker would become immortal. No one would dare to try, except Lü, who bought and tried the potion. Nothing happened to him.
A river was elevated due to heavy rain. Lü and other passengers were on a boat crossing the river. Before reaching the middle of the journey, the weather deteriorated, and most of the passengers except Lü became worried. Lü took it in his stride and never worried about life and death!
Lü was alone at home and suddenly weird things happened. Ghost and monsters were killing each other and wanted to do the same to Lü. Showing no sense of fear, Lü kept on doing his chores without paying attention to them. Another group of devils with blood all over them tried to take Lü's life away by saying to Lü that he owed his previous life to them since in past life Lü took his life. Without any fear Lü said ‘go ahead and take my life since I took yours in past life, this is fair and square !’ All of a sudden the sky turned blue and those ghost and devils disappeared. Zhongli Quan (Who happened to be his Teacher and Mentor in Taoist stories) was looking and laughing at him while all these events were happening.
These 10 tests proved that Lü was a pure and dignified person and Master Zhongli was very satisfied and happy to take Lü to Nan San Her Ling to pass his secret to life and subsequently formed a "Zhong-Lü Golden Dan" school of Taoism. But Lü was not too fond of the secret and instead changed his formula for inner peace and benefits more human beings; many until today practiced such path to immortals. This is his major effort and contribution. He is said to have helped many to walk the right path and improve the health and living conditions of many people.
Stories and legends
Since the Northern Song Dynasty, there have been many stories and legends that are connected to Lü Dongbin. The stories were usually about Lü helping others to learn the Tao. According to the official History of the Song Dynasty (), Lü was seen several times visiting the house of Chen Tuan (), who was believed to be the first person to present to the public the Taijitu.
The kindness of Lü Dongbin is demonstrated in the Chinese proverb "dog bites Lü Dongbin" ( gǒu yǎo Lǚ Dòngbīn), which means an inability to recognize goodness and repay kindness with vice. Some say that the original proverb should actually be "," stemming from a story about the friendship between the Dog and Lü Dongbin, who both did for the other great favors, each of which seemed like a disservice initially, signifying the importance of having faith in one's friends. This story is not substantiated, because Gou Miao is not mentioned in any classical text, and only popularized on the Internet.
According to Richard Wilhelm, Lü was the founder of the School of the Golden Elixir of Life (Jin Dan Jiao), and originator of the material presented in the book "Tai Yi Jin Hua Zong Zhi" (), or The Secret of the Golden Flower. Also, according to Daoist legend, he is the founder of the internal martial arts style called "Eight Immortals Sword" (), considered to be one of the martial treasures of Wudangshan.
According to one story, Lü's teacher Zhongli Quan became an immortal and was about to fly to heaven, while saying to Lü that if he kept practicing the Tao he would also be able to fly to heaven himself very soon. Lü Dongbin replied to his teacher that he'll fly to heaven only after he enlightens all the sentient beings on earth (another story says all his relatives). According to the book "The Eight Immortals Achieving the Tao ()," in his previous incarnation, Lü Dongbin was a Taoist master and the teacher of Zhongli Quan.
According to the Taoist book "History of the Immortals" (), Lü is the reincarnation of the ancient Sage-King "Huang-Tan-Shi" ().
According to Venerable Hsuan Hua, Lü is one of the transformations of Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) Bodhisattva.
Lü Dongbin and White Peony (Bai Mudan)
One of most popular of Lü Dongbin's legends is his encounter with a prostitute named White Peony (Bai Mudan). The most popular version comes from the Journey to the East novel. It is said that the immortal Lü Dongbin was greatly attracted to White Peony, one of the most beautiful courtesans in Luoyang. Lü Dongbin slept with her many times but never ejaculated, because he didn't want to lose his Yang essence.
Unfortunately Lu's immortal colleague Iron-Crutch Li and He Xiangu taught Mudan how to make him ejaculate by tickling his groin. Finally White Peony successfully made Lü Dongbin ejaculate and absorbed his Yang essence. Later she cultivated herself and became immortal too.
Another version comes from Ba Xian Dedao novel. This version is more subtle and there is no sexual intercourse here. One day the immortal Lü Dongbin transforms himself into a handsome scholar and tries to advise the famous prostitute White Peony. In their first encounter White Peony seduces him passionately, but he refuses to sleep with her. In their second encounter, Lü agrees to sleep with her. But as they walk to the bed, Lü suddenly cries that his stomach is painful, and faints. White Peony is very sorry about his condition and calls a doctor using her money (despite her pimp's grumbling, who incites her to throw the sick Lü to the road). Lü (who is only pretending to be sick) is very pleased knowing Peony's merciful heart. In their third encounter, Lü Dongbin finally succeeds to persuade White Peony to leave her wayward life. She finally becomes immortal too.
In the opera version, White Peony is changed from a seductive prostitute to the daughter of a drugstore owner. One day Lü Dongbin comes to their store and makes trouble by asking for impossible medicines. Knowing her father's difficulty, Peony meets Lü and answers all of his question. From quarrelling they finally become lovers.
Modern worship
From the early 19th century on, Lüzu's messages were received through Fuji (planchette writing) (扶乩/扶箕), which led to the establishment of a network of Lüzu spirit writing halls throughout China, called Zanhuagong (贊化宮). They also offered medical oracles and healing services. Famous Zanhuagong were established in Hong Kong and Guangzhou.
In 19th- and 20th-century Guangdong, belief in the powers of Lüzu was strong. In the century after the 1840s, additional temples were founded which organized Fuji (planchette writing) seances, festivals for the birthdays of the gods, death rituals, and running schools, clinics, and disaster relief.
Media depictions
In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Dongbin was shown to be the immortal who sealed away Shendu, The Fire Demon.
Jackie Chan portrayed Lü Dongbin in the film The Forbidden Kingdom.
In Desolate Era, Lü Dongbin is portrayed as one of the True Yang Immortals.
See also
Weapons and armor in Chinese mythology
References
External links
The Ten Trials of Patriarch Lu Dongbin] as translated by Johan Hausen under guidance of the Abbot of Five Immortals Temple
Bai Zi Bei: The Hundred Character Tablet, a short classic on meditation and immortality attributed to Lü Dongbin
Health gods
796 births
Year of death missing
Tang dynasty poets
9th-century Chinese poets
Tang dynasty Taoists
People from Yuncheng
Poets from Shanxi
Eight Immortals | [
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220778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Br%C3%BCning | Heinrich Brüning | Heinrich Aloysius Maria Elisabeth Brüning () (26 November 1885 – 30 March 1970) was a German Centre Party politician and academic, who served as the chancellor of Germany during the Weimar Republic from 1930 to 1932.
A political scientist and Christian social activist with a PhD on the implications of nationalizing the British railway system, he entered politics in the 1920s and was elected to the Reichstag in 1924. Shortly after Brüning took office as Chancellor on 30 March 1930 he was confronted by an economic crisis caused by the Great Depression. Brüning responded with a tightening of credit and a rollback of all wage and salary increases. These policies increased unemployment and made Brüning highly unpopular, losing him support in the Reichstag. As a result, Brüning established a so-called presidential government, basing his government's authority on presidential emergency decrees invoking President Paul von Hindenburg's constitutional powers. Brüning announced his cabinet's resignation on 30 May 1932, after his policies of distributing land to unemployed workers had led him into conflict with the President and the Prussian land owners, and the President therefore had refused to sign further decrees.
Fearing arrest after the Nazi regime's ascent to power, Brüning fled Germany in 1934. After staying in Switzerland and the United Kingdom, he eventually settled in the United States. He lived in difficult economic conditions for his first years as a refugee from Nazism, but became a visiting professor at Harvard University in 1937 and was the Lucius N. Littauer Professor of Government at Harvard from 1939 to 1952. He warned the American public about Hitler's plans for war, and later about Soviet aggression and plans for expansion. He briefly returned to Germany in 1951 to take up a post as professor of political science at the University of Cologne, but returned to the United States in 1955 and lived out his days in retirement in Vermont. He became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1938.
Brüning remains a controversial figure in Germany's history, as historians debate whether he was the 'last bulwark of the Weimar Republic' or the 'Republic's undertaker', or both. Scholars are divided over how much room for manoeuvre he had during the depression and period of great political instability. While he intended to protect the Republic's government, his policies, notably his use of emergency powers, also contributed to the gradual demise of the Weimar Republic during his chancellorship.
Early life and education
Born in Münster in Westphalia, Brüning lost his father when he was one year old and thus his elder brother Hermann Joseph played a major part in his upbringing. Although brought up in a devoutly Roman Catholic family, Brüning was also influenced by Lutheranism's concept of duty, since the Münster region was home to both Catholics, who formed a majority, and Prussian-influenced Protestants.
After graduating from Gymnasium Paulinum he first leaned towards the legal profession but then studied Philosophy, History, German and Political Science at Strasbourg, the London School of Economics and Bonn, where, in 1915, he received a doctorate for his thesis on the financial, economical and legal implications of nationalizing the British railway system. Historian Friedrich Meinecke, one of his professors at Strasbourg, had a major influence on Brüning.
Volunteering for the infantry, he was accepted despite his shortsightedness and physical weakness, and served in World War I from 1915 to 1918. He rose to lieutenant in infantry regiment No. 30, Graf Werder, and company commander by the end of the war. He was cited for bravery and awarded both the second and first class Iron Cross.
Despite having been elected to a soldiers' council after the armistice of 11 November 1918, Brüning did not approve of the German Revolution of 1918–1919 which ended with the establishment of the Weimar Republic.
Rise in politics
Despite his reluctance to speak about his private life, it is assumed that his war experience and the war's aftermath persuaded him not to pursue his academic career, and he preferred to help former soldiers reintegrate into civilian life by assisting them finding employment or further their education.
He collaborated with the social reformer Carl Sonnenschein and worked in the "Secretariat for social student work". After six months he entered the Prussian welfare department and became a close associate of Adam Stegerwald, the minister. Stegerwald, also the leader of the Christian trade unions, made him chief executive of the unions in 1920, a post Brüning retained until 1930.
As the editor of the union newspaper Der Deutsche (The German), he advocated a "social popular state" and "Christian democracy," based on the ideas of Christian corporatism.
In 1923 Brüning was actively involved in organizing the passive resistance in the "Ruhrkampf".
Brüning joined the Centre Party and in 1924 was elected to the Reichstag, representing Breslau. In parliament, he quickly made a name for himself as a financial expert and managed to push through the so-called Brüning Law, which restricted the workers' share of income taxes to no more than 1.2 billion Reichsmarks.
From 1928 to 1930, he served as a member of the Prussian parliament. In 1929, after his election as leader of the Centre Party group in the Reichstag, his party's agreement to the Young Plan was made conditional on paying for it through tax increases and budget cuts. This earned him President Hindenburg's attention.
As chancellor
Brüning was appointed chancellor by Hindenburg on 29 March 1930 when the grand coalition under the Social Democrat Hermann Müller collapsed. The government was still confronted with the economic crisis caused by the Great Depression. Brüning disclosed to his associates in the German Labour Federation that his chief aim as chancellor would be to liberate the German economy from the burden of continuing to pay war reparations and foreign debt. This would require an unpopular policy of tight credit and a rollback of all wage and salary increases (internal devaluation). Brüning's financial and economic acumen combined with his openness to social questions made him a candidate for chancellor and his service as a front officer made him acceptable to President Paul von Hindenburg.
The Reichstag rejected Brüning's measures within a month. President Hindenburg, already bent on reducing the influence of the Reichstag, saw this event as the "failure of parliament", and with Brüning's consent he called new elections. These elections cost the parties of the grand coalition their majority and brought gains to both the Communists and the National Socialists. This left Brüning without any hope of regaining a majority in parliament and forced him to base his administration on the presidential emergency decree (Notverordnung) of Article 48 coined the term "authoritative democracy" to describe this form of government, based on the cooperation of the president and parliament.
Brüning was somewhat ambivalent toward democracy. Soon after taking office, he sharply limited freedom of the press. By one estimate, 100 newspaper editions were banned every month.
Hindenburg wished to base the government on the parties of the right, but the right-wing German National People's Party (DNVP) refused to support Brüning's government. To the president's dismay, Brüning had to rely on his own Centre Party, the only party that fully supported him, and on the toleration of the Social Democrats.
Brüning's measures were implemented in the summer by presidential decree, and this made him extremely unpopular among the lower and middle classes. As unemployment continued to rise, Brüning's cuts in both wages and public assistance, combined with rising prices and taxes, increased misery among workers and the unemployed. This gave rise to the slogan: "Brüning verordnet Not!" (Brüning decrees hardship), alluding to his measures being implemented by the Notverordnung.
These effects undermined the tacit support of the Social Democrats for the government, while the liberal and conservative members of Brüning's cabinet favoured opening the government to the right. President Hindenburg, pushed by his camarilla and military chief Kurt von Schleicher, also advocated such a move and insisted on a cabinet reshuffle, especially the removal of ministers Wirth and Guérard, both from the Centre Party.
The president's wishes also hampered the government's resolution in combatting the extremist parties and their respective paramilitary organisations. While the chancellor and president agreed that the Communists' and Nazis' brutality, intolerance and demagogy rendered them unfit for government, Brüning believed the government was strong enough to steer Germany through the crisis without the support of the Nazis.
Nonetheless, he negotiated with Hitler about toleration or a formal coalition, without yielding to the Nazis any position of power or full support by presidential decree. Because of these reservations the negotiations came to nothing and as street violence rose to new heights in April 1932, Brüning had both the communist "Rotfrontkämpferbund" and the Nazi Sturmabteilung banned. The unfavourable reaction in right-wing circles further undermined Hindenburg's support for Brüning.
Brüning agonized over how to stem the growing Nazi tide, especially since Hindenburg could not be expected to survive another full term as president should he choose to run again. If Hindenburg were to die in office, Hitler would be a strong favorite to succeed him.
In his posthumously published memoirs Brüning claims, without support of contemporaneous documents, that he hit upon a last-ditch solution to prevent Hitler from taking power—restoring the Hohenzollern monarchy. He planned to persuade the Reichstag to cancel the 1932 presidential election and extend Hindenburg's term. He would have then had parliament proclaim a monarchy, with Hindenburg as regent. Upon Hindenburg's death, one of Crown Prince Wilhelm's sons would have been invited to assume the throne. The restored monarchy would have been a British-style constitutional monarchy in which real power would have rested with the legislature.
He managed to garner support from all of the major parties except the Nationalists, Communists and Nazis, making it very likely that the plan would get the two-thirds majority required for passage. The plan foundered, however, when Hindenburg, an old-line monarchist, refused to support restoration of the monarchy unless Emperor Wilhelm II was called back from exile in the Netherlands. When Brüning tried to impress upon him that neither the Social Democrats nor the international community would accept any return of the deposed emperor, Hindenburg threw him out of his office.
Foreign policy
In the international theatre, Brüning tried to alleviate the burden of reparation payments and to achieve German equality in the rearmament question. In 1930, he replied to Aristide Briand's initiative to form a "United States of Europe" by demanding full equality for Germany.
In 1931 plans for a customs union between Germany and Austria were shattered by French opposition. In the same year, the Hoover memorandum postponed reparation payments and in summer 1932, after Brüning's resignation, his successors would reap the fruits of his policy at the Lausanne conference, which reduced reparations to a final payment of 3 billion marks.
Negotiations over rearmament failed at the 1932 Geneva Conference shortly before his resignation, but in December the "Five powers agreement" accepted Germany's military equality.
Hindenburg's re-election and Brüning's fall
Hindenburg was not willing at first to stand for re-election as president, but subsequently changed his mind. In the 1932 presidential election, Brüning vigorously campaigned for Hindenburg along with virtually the entire German left and centre, calling him a "venerated historical personality" and "the keeper of the constitution". After two rounds of voting Hindenburg was re-elected with a substantial majority over his main opponent Adolf Hitler. However, Hindenburg considered it shameful to have been elected with the votes of "Reds" and "Catholes", as he called Social Democrats and the mostly Catholic Centre Party. He realised he was considered the lesser of two evils by them, and he compensated for this "shame" by moving further to the right. His failing health increased the camarilla's influence.
As Brüning gradually lost Hindenburg's support, the ban of the Nazi SA paramilitary organisation initiated by Minister Wilhelm Groener on 13 April 1932 sharpened the conflict and led to considerable ill-feeling between Hindenburg and his trusted friend Kurt von Schleicher. At the same time, he was viciously attacked by the Prussian Junkers, led by Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, who opposed Brüning's policies of distributing land to unemployed workers in the course of the Eastern Aid (Osthilfe) programme and denounced him as an "Agro-bolshevik" to Hindenburg.
The president, having a personal conflict as owner of a highly indebted Junker estate, refused to sign any further emergency decrees. As a consequence Brüning announced his cabinet's resignation on 30 May 1932, "hundred metres before the finish", and was relieved of his office in a brief and undignified ceremony by Hindenburg. He firmly rejected all suggestions making the president's disloyal behaviour public because he considered such a move indecent, and still considered Hindenburg the "last bulwark" of the German people.
After his resignation
After his resignation, Brüning was invited by Ludwig Kaas to take over the leadership of the Centre Party, but the former chancellor declined and asked Kaas to stay. Brüning supported his party's determined opposition to his successor, Franz von Papen. He also supported re-establishing a working parliament by cooperating with the National Socialists, negotiating with Gregor Strasser.
After Adolf Hitler became chancellor on 30 January 1933, Brüning vigorously campaigned against the new government in the March 1933 elections. Later that month, he was a main advocate for rejecting the Hitler administration's Enabling Act, calling it the "most monstrous resolution ever demanded of a parliament." Having received assurances from Hitler that the Centre Party would not be banned he yielded to party discipline and voted in favour of the bill. With the Communist Party's deputies already banned from the Reichstag, only the Social Democrats voted against the law.
When Kaas was held up in Rome and resigned from his post as chairman of the Centre Party, Brüning was elected chairman on 6 May. Hoping to adapt to the post-Enabling Act order, the party adopted a watered-down version of the leadership principle; pro-Centre papers now declared that the party's members, or "retinue", would fully submit itself to Brüning. This only served to buy the party only a few more months of life. Prominent members were frequently arrested and beaten, pro-Centre civil servants were fired, and government officials began demanding that the party either dissolve or be banned. Bowing to the inevitable, Brüning dissolved the Centre Party on 5 July.
Exile and later years
In June 1934 Brüning fled Germany via the Netherlands, 27 days before the Night of the Long Knives, after a warning by his friends. He settled first in the United Kingdom, and in 1935 in the United States. In 1937 he became a visiting professor at Harvard University, and he was the Lucius N. Littauer Professor of Government at Harvard from 1939 to 1952. He warned the American public about Hitler's plans for war, and later about Soviet aggression and plans for expansion, but in both cases his advice went largely unheeded.
In 1951, he returned to Germany, settling in Cologne in West Germany, where he taught as a professor of political science at the University of Cologne until he retired in 1953. Partly because of his dissatisfaction with chancellor Konrad Adenauer's politics he returned to the U.S. in 1955 where he revised the manuscript of his Memoirs 1918–1934, which was edited by his longtime assistant, Claire Nix.
Due to the memoirs' highly controversial content, they were not published until after his death in 1970. Parts of the memoirs are considered unreliable, not based on historical records, and a self-justification for his politics during the Weimar Republic.
Brüning died 30 March 1970 in Norwich, Vermont, and was buried in his home town of Münster.
References
Bibliography
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.
Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. Pariahs, partners, predators: German-Soviet relations, 1922-1941 (Columbia University Press, 1997).
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External links
Online-Biography of Heinrich Brüning
Heinrich Brüning Papers on Lecturing at Dartmouth College at Dartmouth College Library
1885 births
1970 deaths
20th-century Chancellors of Germany
People from Münster
German Roman Catholics
Centre Party (Germany) politicians
University of Bonn alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Chancellors of Germany
Finance ministers of Germany
Foreign Ministers of Germany
Leaders of political parties in Germany
People from the Province of Westphalia
Prussian politicians
People of the Weimar Republic
German expatriates in the United Kingdom
German expatriates in the United States
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
Harvard University faculty
University of Cologne faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Burials at Münster Cathedral
German monarchists
Roman Catholics in the German Resistance | [
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220780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xie%20Jun | Xie Jun | Xie Jun (born October 30, 1970) is a Chinese chess grandmaster. She had two separate reigns as Women's World Chess Champion, from 1991 to 1996 and again from 1999 to 2001. Xie is one of three women to have at least two separate reigns, besides Elisaveta Bykova and Hou Yifan. Xie Jun is the current president of the Chinese Chess Association.
Early life and career
Although born in Baoding, Hebei in 1970 and raised in Beijing, the ancestral home of Xie and her parents is Liaoyuan, Jilin. At the age of six Xie began to play Chinese chess, and by the age of 10 she had become the girls' xiangqi champion of Beijing. At the urging of government authorities, she soon began playing international chess. Despite indifferent training opportunities, Xie became the Chinese girls' chess champion in 1984. In 1988 she tied for second–fourth places at the World Junior Girls' Championship in Adelaide; as the highest-placed Asian player in the tournament, she earned the Asian Junior Girls' Championship title.
At the age of 20 Xie won the right to challenge for the women's world title, and in 1991 she defeated Maia Chiburdanidze of Georgia, who had held the title since 1978, by a score of 8½–6½. In 1993 she successfully defended her title against Nana Ioseliani (winning the match 8½–2½). In the summer of 1994 she was awarded the full Grandmaster title; the sixth woman ever to be awarded that title. She lost the 1996 Women's World Chess Championship to Susan Polgar of Hungary (8½–4½) but regained the title in 1999 by defeating another championship finalist, Alisa Galliamova (8½–6½), after Polgar refused to accept match conditions and forfeited her title. In 2000, FIDE changed the format of the world championship to a knock-out system, and Xie won the title again, beating fellow Chinese player Qin Kanying 2½–1½ in the final.
In Guangzhou in April 2000, Women's Champion Xie played a match with former World Champion Anatoly Karpov.
Billed as a "female vs. male chess contest", the match consisted of four games at normal time controls and two rapid games. The four-game portion was won by Karpov 2½–1½ (1 win, 3 draws), and the rapid-play portion also went to Karpov, 1½–½ (1 win, 1 draw).
A hero in China, Xie became widely known for her optimism and vivid attacking style. Her success did much to popularize international chess in her country and the rest of Asia. Xie Jun proved to be the first of a number of strong Chinese women players, the others being Zhu Chen, Xu Yuhua, and Wang Lei. She was also an important factor in the Chinese women's team winning the gold medal at the 1998 Chess Olympiad in Elista in Kalmykia, Russia.
In July 2004, she was awarded the titles of International Arbiter and FIDE Senior Trainer. In April 2019, Xie Jun was appointed as the new president of the Chinese Chess Association.
Personal life
Around the end of the 1990s, Xie was reading for a doctorate in psychology at Beijing Normal University. By 2008, Xie Jun directed an agency in the Beijing region taking care of chess and Go talents. She is married to her former coach Wu Shaobin.
See also
Chess in China
References
Further reading
An annotated collection of many of Xie's games along with some biographical information.
A book containing interviews with many famous chess players.
External links
Official Blog
"I am not a professional" – interview
1970 births
Living people
Women's world chess champions
Chess grandmasters
Female chess grandmasters
Chess woman grandmasters
Chinese female chess players
Chess players from Hebei
Chess Olympiad competitors
Sportspeople from Baoding
Xiangqi players
Beijing Normal University alumni
Chess arbiters | [
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220782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior%20derivative | Exterior derivative | On a differentiable manifold, the exterior derivative extends the concept of the differential of a function to differential forms of higher degree. The exterior derivative was first described in its current form by Élie Cartan in 1899. It allows for a natural, metric-independent generalization of Stokes' theorem, Gauss's theorem, and Green's theorem from vector calculus.
If a differential -form is thought of as measuring the flux through an infinitesimal -parallelotope at each point of the manifold, then its exterior derivative can be thought of as measuring the net flux through the boundary of a -parallelotope at each point.
Definition
The exterior derivative of a differential form of degree (also differential -form, or just -form for brevity here) is a differential form of degree .
If is a smooth function (a -form), then the exterior derivative of is the differential of . That is, is the unique -form such that for every smooth vector field , , where is the directional derivative of in the direction of .
The exterior product of differential forms (denoted with the same symbol ) is defined as their pointwise exterior product.
There are a variety of equivalent definitions of the exterior derivative of a general -form.
In terms of axioms
The exterior derivative is defined to be the unique -linear mapping from -forms to -forms that has the following properties:
is the differential of for a -form .
for a -form .
where is a -form. That is to say, is an antiderivation of degree on the exterior algebra of differential forms.
The second defining property holds in more generality: for any -form ; more succinctly, . The third defining property implies as a special case that if is a function and a is -form, then because a function is a -form, and scalar multiplication and the exterior product are equivalent when one of the arguments is a scalar.
In terms of local coordinates
Alternatively, one can work entirely in a local coordinate system . The coordinate differentials form a basis of the space of one-forms, each associated with a coordinate. Given a multi-index with for (and denoting with an abuse of notation ), the exterior derivative of a (simple) -form
over is defined as
(using the Einstein summation convention). The definition of the exterior derivative is extended linearly to a general -form
where each of the components of the multi-index run over all the values in . Note that whenever equals one of the components of the multi-index then (see Exterior product).
The definition of the exterior derivative in local coordinates follows from the preceding definition in terms of axioms. Indeed, with the -form as defined above,
Here, we have interpreted as a -form, and then applied the properties of the exterior derivative.
This result extends directly to the general -form as
In particular, for a -form , the components of in local coordinates are
Caution: There are two conventions regarding the meaning of . Most current authors have the convention that
while in older text like Kobayashi and Nomizu or Helgason
In terms of invariant formula
Alternatively, an explicit formula can be given for the exterior derivative of a -form , when paired with arbitrary smooth vector fields :
where denotes the Lie bracket and a hat denotes the omission of that element:
In particular, when is a -form we have that .
Note: With the conventions of e.g., Kobayashi–Nomizu and Helgason the formula differs by a factor of :
Examples
Example 1. Consider over a -form basis for a scalar field . The exterior derivative is:
The last formula, where summation starts at , follows easily from the properties of the exterior product. Namely, .
Example 2. Let be a -form defined over . By applying the above formula to each term (consider and ) we have the following sum,
Stokes' theorem on manifolds
If is a compact smooth orientable -dimensional manifold with boundary, and is an -form on , then the generalized form of Stokes' theorem states that:
Intuitively, if one thinks of as being divided into infinitesimal regions, and one adds the flux through the boundaries of all the regions, the interior boundaries all cancel out, leaving the total flux through the boundary of .
Further properties
Closed and exact forms
A -form is called closed if ; closed forms are the kernel of . is called exact if for some -form ; exact forms are the image of . Because , every exact form is closed. The Poincaré lemma states that in a contractible region, the converse is true.
de Rham cohomology
Because the exterior derivative has the property that , it can be used as the differential (coboundary) to define de Rham cohomology on a manifold. The -th de Rham cohomology (group) is the vector space of closed -forms modulo the exact -forms; as noted in the previous section, the Poincaré lemma states that these vector spaces are trivial for a contractible region, for . For smooth manifolds, integration of forms gives a natural homomorphism from the de Rham cohomology to the singular cohomology over . The theorem of de Rham shows that this map is actually an isomorphism, a far-reaching generalization of the Poincaré lemma. As suggested by the generalized Stokes' theorem, the exterior derivative is the "dual" of the boundary map on singular simplices.
Naturality
The exterior derivative is natural in the technical sense: if is a smooth map and is the contravariant smooth functor that assigns to each manifold the space of -forms on the manifold, then the following diagram commutes
so , where denotes the pullback of . This follows from that , by definition, is , being the pushforward of . Thus is a natural transformation from to .
Exterior derivative in vector calculus
Most vector calculus operators are special cases of, or have close relationships to, the notion of exterior differentiation.
Gradient
A smooth function on a real differentiable manifold is a -form. The exterior derivative of this -form is the -form .
When an inner product is defined, the gradient of a function is defined as the unique vector in such that its inner product with any element of is the directional derivative of along the vector, that is such that
That is,
where denotes the musical isomorphism mentioned earlier that is induced by the inner product.
The -form is a section of the cotangent bundle, that gives a local linear approximation to in the cotangent space at each point.
Divergence
A vector field on has a corresponding -form
where denotes the omission of that element.
(For instance, when , i.e. in three-dimensional space, the -form is locally the scalar triple product with .) The integral of over a hypersurface is the flux of over that hypersurface.
The exterior derivative of this -form is the -form
Curl
A vector field on also has a corresponding -form
Locally, is the dot product with . The integral of along a path is the work done against along that path.
When , in three-dimensional space, the exterior derivative of the -form is the -form
Invariant formulations of operators in vector calculus
The standard vector calculus operators can be generalized for any pseudo-Riemannian manifold, and written in coordinate-free notation as follows:
where is the Hodge star operator, and are the musical isomorphisms, is a scalar field and is a vector field.
Note that the expression for requires to act on , which is a form of degree . A natural generalization of to -forms of arbitrary degree allows this expression to make sense for any .
See also
Exterior covariant derivative
de Rham complex
Finite element exterior calculus
Discrete exterior calculus
Green's theorem
Lie derivative
Stokes' theorem
Fractal derivative
Notes
References
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Differential forms
Differential operators
Generalizations of the derivative | [
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220784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Hevelius | Johannes Hevelius | Johannes Hevelius (in German also known as Hevel; ; – 28 January 1687) was a councillor and mayor of Danzig (Gdańsk), in the Kingdom of Poland. As an astronomer, he gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers.
Etymology
According to the Polish Academy of Sciences (1975) the origin of the name goes back to the surname Hawke, a historical alternative spelling for the English word hawk, which changed into Hawelke or Hawelecke.
In Poland he is known as Jan Heweliusz,
According to Patrick Moore Hevelius is a Latinised version of the name Hewelcke other versions of the name include Hewel, Hevel, Hevelke or Hoefel, Höwelcke, Höfelcke.
According to Feliks Bentkowski (1814), during his early years he also signed as Hoefelius. Along with the Latinized version of his name, Ludwig Günther-Fürstenwalde (1903) also reports Hevelius' signature as Johannes Höffelius Dantiscanus in 1631 and Hans Höwelcke in 1639.
Early life
Hevelius' father was Abraham Hewelke (1576–1649), his mother Kordula Hecker (1576–1655). They were German-speaking Lutherans, wealthy brewing merchants of Bohemian origin. As a young boy, Hevelius was sent to Gądecz (Gondecz) where he studied the Polish language.
Hevelius brewed the famous Jopen beer, which also gave its name to the "Jopengasse"/"Jopejska" Street, after 1945 renamed as Piwna Street (Beer Street), where St. Mary's Church is located.
After gymnasium (secondary school), where he was taught by Peter Crüger, Hevelius in 1630 studied jurisprudence at Leiden, then travelled in England and France, meeting Pierre Gassendi, Marin Mersenne and Athanasius Kircher. In 1634 he settled in his native town, and on 21 March 1635 married Katharine Rebeschke, a neighbour two years younger who owned two adjacent houses. The following year, Hevelius became a member of the beer-brewing guild, which he led from 1643 onwards.
Astronomy
Throughout his life, Hevelius took a leading part in municipal administration, becoming town councillor in 1651; but from 1639 on, his chief interest was astronomy. In 1641 he built an observatory on the roofs of his three connected houses, equipping it with splendid instruments, ultimately including a large Keplerian telescope of focal length, with a wood and wire tube he constructed himself. This may have been the longest "tubed" telescope before the advent of the tubeless aerial telescope.
The observatory was known by the name Sternenburg (; ) or "Star Castle".
This private observatory was visited by Polish Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga on 29 January 1660.
As a subject of the Polish kings, Hevelius enjoyed the patronage of four consecutive kings of Poland, and his family was raised to the position of nobility by the King of Poland Jan Kazimierz in 1660, who previously visited his observatory in 1659. While the noble status was not ratified by the Polish Sejm Hevelius's coat of arms includes the distinctive Polish royal crown.
The Polish King John III Sobieski who regularly visited Hevelius numerous times in years 1677–1683 released him from paying taxes connected to brewing and allowed his beer to be sold freely outside the city limits. In May 1679 the young Englishman Edmond Halley visited him as emissary of the Royal Society, whose fellow Hevelius had been since 1664. The Royal Society considers him one of the first German fellows. Małgorzata Czerniakowska (2005) writes that "Jan Heweliusz was the first Pole to be inducted into the Royal Society in London. This important event took place on 19th March 1664". Hevelius considered himself as being citizen of the Polish world (civis Orbis Poloniae) and stated in a letter dated from 9 January 1681 that he was Civis orbis Poloni, qui in honorem patriae suae rei Literariae bono tot labores molestiasque, absit gloria, cum maximo facultatum suarum dispendio perduravit-"citizen of Polish world who, for glory of his country and for the good of science, worked so much, and while not boasting much, executed his work with most effort per his abilities"
Halley had been instructed by Robert Hooke and John Flamsteed to persuade Hevelius to use telescopes for his measurements, yet Hevelius demonstrated that he could do well with only quadrant and alidade. He is thus considered the last astronomer to do major work without the use of a telescope.
Hevelius made observations of sunspots, 1642–1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered the Moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio (1647), a work which entitles him to be called "the founder of lunar topography".
He discovered four comets, in 1652, 1661 (probably Ikeya-Zhang), 1672 and 1677. These discoveries led to his thesis that such bodies revolve around the Sun in parabolic paths.
A complex halo phenomenon was observed by many in the city on 20 February 1661, and was described by Hevelius in his Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani the following year.
Katharine, his first wife, died in 1662, and a year later Hevelius married Elisabeth Koopmann, the young daughter of a merchant family. The couple had four children. Elisabeth supported him, published two of his works after his death, and is considered the first female astronomer.
His observatory, instruments and books were destroyed by fire on 26 September 1679. The catastrophe is described in the preface to his Annus climactericus (1685). He promptly repaired the damage enough to enable him to observe the great comet of December 1680. He named the constellation Sextans in memory of this lost instrument.
In late 1683, in commemoration of the victory of Christian forces led by Polish King John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna, he invented and named the constellation Scutum Sobiescianum (Sobieski's Shield), now called Scutum. This constellation first occurred publicly in his star atlas Firmamentum Sobiescianum, that was printed in his own house at lavish expense, and he himself engraved many of the printing plates.
His health had suffered from the shock of the 1679 fire and he died on his 76th birthday, 28 January 1687. Hevelius was buried in St. Catherine's Church in his hometown.
Descendants of Hevelius live in Urzędów in Poland where they support local astronomy enthusiasts.
Works
Selenographia (1647)
De nativa Saturni facie ejusque varis Phasibus (1656)
Historiola Mirae (1662), in which he named the periodic variable star Omicron Ceti "Mira", or "the Wonderful"
Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani (1662), principally on the transit of Mercury, but containing chapters on many other observations
Prodromus cometicus (1665)
Cometographia (1668)
Machina coelestis (first part, 1673), containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the conflagration of 1679. Hevelius description of his "naked eye" observation method in the first part of this work led to a dispute with Robert Hooke who claimed observations without telescopic sights were of little value.
(1685), describes the fire of 1679, and includes observations made by Hevelius on the variable star Mira
Prodromus Astronomiae (c.1690) an unfinished work posthumously published by Johannes wife Catherina Elisabetha Koopman Hevelius in three books including:
Prodromus, preface and unpublished observations
Catalogus Stellarum Fixarum (dated 1687), catalog of 1564 stars
Firmamentum Sobiescianum sive Uranographia (dated 1687), an atlas of constellations, 56 sheets, corresponding to his catalog, contains seven new constellations delineated by him which are still in use (plus some now considered obsolete):
Canes Venatici, Lacerta, Leo Minor, Lynx, Scutum, Sextans, and Vulpecula.
Obsolete: Cerberus, Mons Maenalus, and Triangulum Minus.
See also
Polish Navy Ship ORP Heweliusz
Polish ferry MS Jan Heweliusz, which sank in 1993
Hevelius (crater), Moon crater
5703 Hevelius, asteroid
List of largest optical telescopes historically
IH Cassiopeiae, a star designation used with some frequency, from his star map
Heweliusz, a Polish optical astronomy satellite launched in 2014 as part of the Bright-star Target Explorer (BRITE) programme
Notes
References
External links
Galileo Project on Hevelius
Project to publish the correspondence of Hevelius at the International Academy of the History of Science
Electronic facsimile-editions of the rare book collection at the Vienna Institute of Astronomy
Jan Heweliusz - Gdańszczanin Tysiąclecia
Prodromus astronomiae - in digital facsimile:
Digital Collection of the National Library of Poland : Prodromus Astronomiæ
Prodromus astronomiae, 1690, scanned book, at Linda Hall Library.
Johann Hevelius - Forgotten Pioneer of the Pendulum Clock
Uranographia, Danzica 1690 da www.atlascoelestis.com
Hevelius's new constellations
Johannes Hevelius letter to Johann Philipp von Wurtzelbau, MSS 494 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
Johannes Hevelius's correspondence on the Paris Observatory digital library
Works by Johannes Hevelius in digital library Polona
1611 births
1687 deaths
17th-century German astronomers
17th-century Polish astronomers
Scientists from Gdańsk
17th-century Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth people
17th-century Polish businesspeople
Selenographers
Scientific instrument makers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Discoverers of comets
Mayors of Gdańsk
Latin-language writers from Poland | [
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220790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20spite | Appeal to spite | An appeal to spite (Latin: argumentum ad odium) is a fallacy in which someone attempts to win favor for an argument by exploiting existing feelings of bitterness, spite, or schadenfreude in the opposing party. It is an attempt to sway the audience emotionally by associating a hate-figure with opposition to the speaker's argument.
Fallacious ad hominem arguments that attack villains holding the opposing view are often confused with appeals to spite. The ad hominem can be a similar appeal to a negative emotion, but differs from it in directly criticizing the villain—that is unnecessary in an appeal to spite, where hatred for the disfavored party is assumed.
Examples
"Why shouldn't prisoners do hard labor? The places are full of scumbags!"
"Stop that recycling! Aren't we tired of Hollywood celebrities preaching about saving the Earth?"
"Why should they even have more? I got nothing from the state and look at what I had to give off to pay for my own studies!"
"Not the opera, Hitler loved that, let's go to the circus instead."
References
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