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220794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin%20Mary%20%28disambiguation%29 | Virgin Mary (disambiguation) | Virgin Mary was a Jewish woman identified in the New Testament and in the Quran as the mother of Jesus through divine intervention
Virgin Mary may also refer to:
Virgin Mary (cocktail)
Virgin Mary (El Greco, Madrid), a 1597 painting in the Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain
Virgin Mary (El Greco, Strasbourg), a c. 1594–1604 painting in the Musée des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg, France
"Virgin Mary" (song), a 1975 song by Donna Summer
The Virgin Mary (book), a 1950 book by Giovanni Miegge
See also
Mary ever virgin (disambiguation)
Catholic Mariology
Anglican Marian theology
Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)
Ecumenical views of Mary
Islamic view of Virgin Mary
Lutheran Marian theology
Protestant views on Mary
The Holy Virgin Mary, a 1996 painting by Chris Ofilli | [
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220802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting%20off%20one%27s%20nose%20to%20spite%20one%27s%20face | Cutting off one's nose to spite one's face | "Cutting off one's nose to spite one's face" is an expression used to describe a needlessly self-destructive over-reaction to a problem: "Don't cut off your nose to spite your face" is a warning against acting out of pique, or against pursuing revenge in a way that would damage oneself more than the object of one's anger.
Origins
It was not uncommon in the Middle Ages for a person to cut off the nose of another for various reasons, including punishment from the state, or as an act of revenge. In particular, the English Saint Ebbe was said to have severed her own nose to dissuade violation by Viking raiders. Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker notes that the phrase may have originated from this practice, as at this time "cutting off someone's nose was the prototypical act of spite."
The expression has since become a blanket term for (often unwise) self-destructive actions motivated purely by anger or desire for revenge. For example, if a man was angered by his wife, he might burn down their house to punish her; however, burning down her house would also mean burning down his, along with all of their possessions.
In the 1796 edition of Francis Grose's Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, "He cut off his nose to be revenged of his face" is said to apply to "one who, to be revenged on his neighbor, has materially injured himself."
See also
Rhinectomy, the removal of the nose
Appeal to spite
Inequity aversion
References
English-language idioms
Proverbs | [
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220804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech%20Model%20Railroad%20Club | Tech Model Railroad Club | The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) is a student organization at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Historically it has been a wellspring of hacker culture and the oldest such hacking group in North America. Formed in 1946, its HO scale layout specializes in automated operation of model trains.
History
The first meeting of the Tech Model Railroad Club was organized by John Fitzallen Moore and Walter Marvin in November of 1946. Moore and Marvin had membership cards #0 and #1 and served as the first president and vice-president respectively. They then switched roles the following year.
Circa 1948, the club obtained official MIT campus space in Room 20E-214, on the third floor of Building 20, a "temporary" World War II-era structure, sometimes called "the Plywood Palace", which had been home to the MIT Radiation Lab during World War II.
The club's members, who shared a passion to find out how things worked and then to master them, were among the first hackers. Some of the key early members of the club were Jack Dennis and Peter Samson, who compiled the 1959 Dictionary of the TMRC Language and who are credited with originating the concept "Information wants to be free". The atmosphere was casual; members disliked authority. Members received a key to the room after logging 40 hours of work on the layout.
The club was composed of several groups, including those who were interested in building and painting replicas of certain trains with historical and emotional values, those that wanted to do scenery and buildings, those that wanted to run trains on schedules, and those comprising the "Signals and Power Subcommittee" who created the circuits that made the trains run. This last group would be among the ones who popularized the term "hacker" among many other slang terms, and who eventually moved on to computers and programming. They were initially drawn to the IBM 704, the multimillion-dollar mainframe that was operated in Building 26, but access to and time on the mainframe was restricted to more important people. The group really became intensively involved with computers when Jack Dennis, a former member who had by then joined the MIT Electrical Engineering faculty, introduced them to the TX-0, a $3,000,000 computer on long-term loan from Lincoln Laboratory.
At the club itself, a semi-automatic control system based on telephone relays was installed by the mid-1950s. It was called the ARRC (Automatic Railroad Running Computer). It could run a train over the entire set of track, in both directions, without manual intervention, throwing switches and powering tracks ahead of the train. A mainframe program was used to compute the path, and all modifications to the layout had to be compatible with this ability. It was sometimes used to clean the tracks with a track scraper car. Sometime around 1964, this was replaced by a second system built around the Number 5 Crossbar telephone switch; the lead designer for this project was Alan Kotok, by then a rising star on the design staff at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Equipment for this effort was donated by the telephone company via the Western Electric College Gift Plan. An extension to the basic control system allowed TMRC engineers to control switches on the layout. There was also a digital clock display with relay switching, and an internal telephone system with external tie-lines, all built from telephone stepping switches and relays.
The system of telephones was used for voice communication, for control of the clock, as well as for control of switches and blocks. Additionally, "j trains" (imaginary trains) could be run by use of plugs in the control system.
Around 1970, Digital Equipment Corporation donated two small rackmount PDP-11 minicomputers. One was eventually used to operate the club's major freight yard and the other was set up to perform user interface tasks, such as initial assignment of trains to throttles, and to throw turnouts. The computer replaced the keypad unit from an old keypunch machine which had been originally installed by Richard Greenblatt.
Vocabulary and neologisms
The TMRC spawned a unique vocabulary. Compiled in the TMRC Dictionary, it included terms that later became part of the hacker's Jargon File, such as "foo", "mung", and "frob". Other substitutions include "orifice" for office (as in later Back Orifice), "cruft" for garbage, and "hack", meaning an elaborate college prank carried out by MIT students. This last definition is the basis for the term "hacker".
System layout
By 1962, the TMRC layout was already a complex electromechanical system, controlled by about 1200 relays. There were scram switches located at numerous places around the room that could be pressed to shut down all movement on the tracks if something undesirable was about to occur, such as a train going full speed toward an obstruction. Another feature of the system was a relay-logic digital clock (dubbed the "digital crock") on the dispatch board, which was itself something of a wonder in the days before cheap LEDs and seven-segment displays. When someone hit a scram switch, the clock stopped and the time display was replaced with the word "FOO"; at TMRC the scram switches are therefore called "foo switches".
The layout is set in the 1950s, when railroads operated steam and diesel-electric engines side by side. This allows visitors to run a wide variety of model rolling stock without looking too anachronistic.
In his book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Steven Levy gives a detailed account of those early years. TMRC's "Signals and Power Subcommittee" liked to work on the layout's relays, switches, and wires, while the "Midnight Requisitioning Committee" obtained parts independently of campus procurement rules. The Signals and Power Subcommittee included most of the early TX-0 and PDP-1 computer hackers, and several people would later join the core of the MIT AI Lab staff. TMRC was even offered its own multi-rack-cabinet PDP-1 by 1965, although it had no space in which to install it and thus was forced to decline the gift.
MIT's Building 20, TMRC's home for 50 years, was slowly evacuated in 1996–98 and demolished in 1999, to make room for the Ray and Maria Stata Center. The club was offered a new space in Building N52, the MIT Museum building. Most of the original layout could not be moved, and was demolished. Construction of a new layout began immediately, and still continues. The vintage telephone crossbar relay-based control system was moved into the new space and operated for two years but, as the new layout grew, the decision was made to replace it with an electronic equivalent. Known as "System 3", this new system comprises around 40 PIC16F877 microcontrollers under the command of a Linux computer.
An unusual feature of the new layout is an H0 scale model of the Green Building, an 18-story building which is the tallest structure in the academic core of the MIT campus. The model is wired with an array of incandescent window lights which can be used as a display for playing Tetris, and was a precursor to the project to do this with the actual building. Passersby inside Building N52 can view the model through a window and play a monochromatic version of Tetris via remote control, accompanied by authentic-sounding music, even when the facility is closed. In 2011, an independent group of hackers reified this "holy grail" of hacking, by installing and operating a full-sized color version of Tetris on the tall Green Building tower.
Current activities
, TMRC holds a semi-annual Open House, inviting the MIT community and the general public to visit. At other times, visitors are generally welcome when members are present.
Notable members
John McCarthy
Jack Dennis
Peter Deutsch
Alan Kotok
Richard Greenblatt
John Fitzallen Moore
Peter Samson
'Slug' Russell
See also
Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
References
External links
Rail transport modelling associations
Massachusetts Institute of Technology student life | [
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220806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musk | Musk | Musk is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial substances with similar odors. Musk was a name originally given to a substance with a strong odor obtained from a gland of the musk deer. The substance has been used as a popular perfume fixative since ancient times and is one of the most expensive animal products in the world. The name originates from the Late Greek μόσχος 'moskhos', from Persian 'mushk', similar to Sanskrit मुष्क muṣka ("testicle"), derived from Proto-Indo-European noun múh₂s meaning "mouse". The deer gland was thought to resemble a scrotum. It is applied to various plants and animals of similar smell (e.g. muskox) and has come to encompass a wide variety of aromatic substances with similar odors, despite their often differing chemical structures and molecular shapes.
Natural musk was used extensively in perfumery until the late 19th century when economic and ethical motives led to the adoption of synthetic musk, which is now used almost exclusively. The organic compound primarily responsible for the characteristic odor of musk is muscone.
Modern use of natural musk pods occurs in traditional Chinese medicine.
Natural sources
Musk deer
The musk deer belongs to the family Moschidae and lives in Tibet, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Siberia, Mongolia, and North Vietnam. The musk pod, a preputial gland in a pouch, or sac, under the skin of the abdomen of the male musk deer, is normally obtained by killing the male deer through traps laid in the wild. Upon drying, the reddish-brown paste inside the musk pod turns into a black granular material called "musk grain", which is then tinctured with alcohol. The aroma of the tincture gives a pleasant odor only after it is considerably diluted. No other natural substance has such a complex aroma associated with so many contradictory descriptions; however, it is usually described abstractly as animalistic, earthy and woody or something akin to the odor of baby's skin.
Musk has been a key constituent in many perfumes since its discovery, being held to give a perfume long-lasting power as a fixative. Today, the trade quantity of the natural musk is controlled by CITES, but illegal poaching and trading continues.
Other animals
Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), a rodent native to North America, has been known since the 17th century to secrete a glandular substance with a musky odor. A chemical means of extracting it was discovered in the 1940s, but it did not prove commercially worthwhile.
Glandular substances with musk-like odors are also obtained from the musk duck (Biziura lobata) of southern Australia, the muskox, the musk shrew, the musk beetle (Aromia moschata), the African civet (Civettictis civetta), the musk turtle (Sternotherus odoratus), the American alligator of North America, lynx musk, lungurion which, in antiquity, was highly valued, and from several other animals.
In crocodiles, there are two pairs of musk glands, one pair situated at the corner of the jaw and the other pair in the cloaca. Musk glands are also found in snakes.
Plants
Some plants such as Angelica archangelica or Abelmoschus moschatus produce musky-smelling macrocyclic lactone compounds. These compounds are widely used in perfumery as substitutes for animal musk or to alter the smell of a mixture of other musks.
The plant sources include the musk flower (Mimulus moschatus) of western North America, the muskwood (Olearia argophylla) of Australia, and the musk seeds (Abelmoschus moschatus) from India.
Artificial compounds
Since obtaining the deer musk requires killing the endangered animal, nearly all musk fragrance used in perfumery today is synthetic, sometimes called "white musk". They can be divided into three major classes: aromatic nitro musks, polycyclic musk compounds, and macrocyclic musk compounds. The first two groups have broad uses in industry ranging from cosmetics to detergents. However, the detection of the first two chemical groups in human and environmental samples as well as their carcinogenic properties initiated a public debate on the use of these compounds and a ban or reduction of their use in many regions of the world. Macrocyclic musk compounds are expected to replace them since these compounds appear to be safer.
Other uses
Musk has been used to attract wild animals, including in man-made perfume mixtures. For example, in 2018 Indian authorities used the perfume Obsession by Calvin Klein to attract and thus trap a wild tiger that had attacked and killed more than a dozen humans.
Musk sticks, which are artificially flavoured with a substance that is reminiscent of musk perfume, are a popular confection in Australia.
See also
Androstenol
Civetone
Musk stick
Notes
Further reading
Borschberg, Peter, "O comércio europeu de almíscar com a Ásia no inicio da edad moderna - The European Musk Trade with Asia in the Early Modern Period", Revista Oriente, 5 (2003): 90-9.
Borschberg, Peter, "Der asiatische Moschushandel vom frühen 15. bis zum 17. Jahrhundert", in Mirabilia Asiatica, edited by J. Alves, C. Guillot and R. Ptak. Wiesbaden and Lisbon: Harrassowitz-Fundação Oriente (2003): 65-84.
Perfumery
Olfaction | [
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220808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosges | Vosges | The Vosges ( , ; ;Franconian and ) are a range of low mountains in Eastern France, near its border with Germany. Together with the Palatine Forest to the north on the German side of the border, they form a single geomorphological unit and low mountain range of around in area. It runs in a north-northeast direction from the Burgundian Gate (the Belfort–Ronchamp–Lure line) to the Börrstadt Basin (the Winnweiler–Börrstadt–Göllheim line), and forms the western boundary of the Upper Rhine Plain.
The Grand Ballon is the highest peak at , followed by the Storkenkopf (), and the Hohneck ().
Geography
Geographically, the Vosges Mountains are wholly in France, far above the Col de Saverne separating them from the Palatinate Forest in Germany. The latter area logically continues the same Vosges geologic structure but traditionally receives this different name for historical and political reasons. From 1871 to 1918 the Vosges marked for the most part the border between Germany and France, due to the Franco-Prussian War. The elongated massif is divided south to north into three sections:
The Higher Vosges or High Vosges (Hautes Vosges), extending in the southern part of the range from Belfort to the river valley of the Bruche. The rounded summits of the Hautes Vosges are called ballons in French, literally "balloons".
The sandstone Vosges or Middle Vosges (), between the Permian Basin of Saint-Die including the Devonian-Dinantian volcanic massif of Schirmeck-Moyenmoutier and the Col de Saverne
The Lower Vosges or Low Vosges (), commonly known as North Vosges, a sandstone plateau ranging from to high, between the Col de Saverne and the source of the Lauter.
In addition, the term "Central Vosges" is used to designate the various lines of summits, especially those above in elevation. The French department of Vosges is named after the range.
Geology
From a geological point of view, a graben at the beginning of the Paleogene period caused the formation of Alsace and the uplift of the bedrock plates of the Vosges, in eastern France, and those in the Black Forest, in Germany. From a scientific view, the Vosges Mountains are not mountains as such, but rather the western edge of the unfinished Alsatian graben, stretching continuously as part of the larger Tertiary formations. Erosive glacial action was the primary catalyst for development of the highland massif feature.
The Vosges in their southern and central parts are called the Hautes Vosges. These consist of a large Carboniferous mountain eroded just before the Permian Period with gneiss, granites, porphyritic masses or other volcanic intrusions. The north, south and west parts are less eroded by glaciers, and here Vosges Triassic and Permian red sandstone remains are found in large beds. The grès vosgien (a French name for a Triassic rose sandstone) are embedded sometimes up to more than in thickness. The Lower Vosges in the north are dislocated plates of various sandstones, ranging from high.
The Vosges are very similar to the corresponding range of the Black Forest across the Rhine since both lie within the same degrees of latitude, have similar geological formations and are characterized by forests on their lower slopes, above which are open pastures and rounded summits of a rather uniform altitude. Both areas exhibit steeper slopes towards the Rhine and a more gradual descent on the other side. Both the Vosges and the Black Forest were formed by isostatic uplift in response to the opening of the Rhine Graben, a major extensional basin. When such basins form, the thinning of the crust causes uplift immediately adjacent to the basin, decreasing with distance from the basin. Thus, the highest range of peaks rises immediately adjacent to the basin and increasingly lower mountains rise further from the basin.
Mountains
The highest points are in the Hautes Vosges: the Grand Ballon, in ancient times called Ballon de Guebwiller or Ballon de Murbach, rises to ; the Storckenkopf to ; the Hohneck to ; the Kastelberg to ; and the Ballon d'Alsace to . The Col de Saales, between the Higher and Central Vosges, reaches nearly , both lower and narrower than the Higher Vosges, with Mont Donon at being the highest point of this Nordic section.
The highest mountains and peaks of the Vosges (with Alsatian or German names in brackets) are:
Grand Ballon (Großer Belchen)
Storkenkopf
Hohneck
Kastelberg
Klintzkopf (Klinzkopf)
Rothenbachkopf
Lauchenkopf
Batteriekopf
Haut de Falimont
Gazon du Faing
Rainkopf
Gazon du Faîte
Ringbuhl (Ringbühl)
Soultzereneck (Sulzereneck)
Le Tanet (Tanneck)
Petit Ballon (Kahler Wasen or Kleiner Belchen)
Ballon d'Alsace (Elsässer Belchen)
Brézouard
Ballon de Servance (highest point in the département of Haute-Saône)
Drumont
Planche des Belles Filles
Molkenrain
Champ du Feu (Hochfeld or Firstfeld)
Baerenkopf
Rocher de Mutzig (Mutzigfelsen)
Donon
Taennchel (Tännchel)
Climont
Hartmannswillerkopf (Hartmannsweilerkopf)
Chatte Pendue
Ungersberg
Tête du Coquin
Mont Saint-Odile (Odilienberg)
Dabo (Dagsburg)
Grand Wintersberg (Großer Wintersberg)
Hohenbourg (Hohenburg)
Nature parks and protected areas
Two nature parks lie within the Vosges: the Ballons des Vosges Nature Park and the Northern Vosges Regional Nature Park. The Northern Vosges Nature Park and the Palatinate Forest Nature Park on the German side of the border form the cross-border UNESCO-designated Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve.
In the late 20th century, a wide area of the massif was included in two protected areas, the Parc naturel régional des Vosges du Nord (established in 1976) and the Parc naturel régional des Ballons des Vosges (established in 1989).
Climate
Meteorologically, as a consequence of the Foehn effect the difference between the eastern and western mean slopes of the range is very marked. The main air streams come generally from the west and southwest, so the Alsatian central plains just under the Hautes-Vosges receive much less water than the south-west front of the Vosges Mountains. The highlands of the arrondissement of Remiremont receive as annual rainfall or snowfall more than of precipitation yearly, whereas some dry countryside near Colmar receives less than of water in the event of insufficient storms. The temperature is much lower in the west front of the mountains than in the low plains behind the massif, especially in summer. On the eastern slope economic vineyards reach to a height of ; on the other hand, in the mountains, it is a land of pasture and forest.
The only rivers in Alsace are the Ill coming from south Alsace (or Sundgau), and the Bruche d'Andlau and the Bruche which have as tributaries other, shorter but sometimes powerful streams coming like the last two from the Vosges Mountains. The rivers Moselle, Meurthe and Sarre and their numerous affluents all rise on the Lorraine side.
In the High Moselle and Meurthe basins, moraines, boulders and polished rocks testify to the former existence of glaciers which once covered the top of the Vosges. The mountain lakes caused by the original glacial phenomena are surrounded by pines, beeches and maples, and green meadows provide pasture for large herds of cattle, with views of the Rhine valley, the Black Forest and the distant, snow-covered Swiss mountains.
History
The massif known in Latin as Vosago mons or Vosego silva, sometimes Vogesus mons, was extended to the vast woods covering the region. Later, German speakers referred to the same region as Vogesen or Wasgenwald.
Over the centuries, settlement population density grew gradually, as was typical for a forested region. Forests were cleared for agriculture, livestock and early industrial factories (such as charcoal works and glassworks) and the water mills used water power. Concentrations of settlement and immigration took place and not only in areas where minerals were found. In the mining area of the Lièpvrette valley, for example, there was an influx of Saxon miners and mining specialists. From time to time, wars, plagues and religious conflicts saw the depopulation of territories – in their wake it was not uncommon for people to be relocated there from other areas.
On the lower heights and buttresses of the main chain on the Alsatian side are numerous castles, generally in ruins, testifying to the importance of this crucial crossroads of Europe, violently contested for centuries. At several points on the main ridge, especially at Sainte Odile above Ribeauvillé (German: Rappoltsweiler), are the remains of a wall of unmortared stone with tenons of wood, about thick and high, called the Mur Païen (Pagan Wall). It was used for defence in the Middle Ages and archaeologists are divided as to whether it was built by the Romans, or before their arrival.
During the French Revolutionary Wars, on 13 July 1794, the Vosges were the scene of the Battle of Trippstadt. From 1871 to 1918, they formed the main border line between France and the German Empire. The demarcation line stretched from the Ballon d'Alsace in the south to Mont Donon in the north with the lands east of it being incorporated into Germany as part of Alsace-Lorraine.
The Vosges saw extensive fighting during the world wars. During World War I, there was severe and almost continuous fighting in the mountains. During World War II in October 1944, there was a fierce battle between German forces and the U.S. 442nd Battalion, a segregated unit composed of second-generation Japanese Americans (Nisei), during which the 442nd charged straight up the mountain to rescue the 1st Battalion of the 36th Infantry, formerly the Texas Guard—also known as the "Lost Battalion"—who were cut off and stranded on the mountainside under heavy fire from the Germans. Two previous rescues failed. The 442nd suffered 800 casualties, rescued the Texans, and took the mountain.
On 20 January 1992 Air Inter Flight 148 crashed into the Vosges Mountains while circling to land at Strasbourg International Airport, killing 87 people.
Language
In pre-Roman times, the Vosges was empty of settlements or was colonized and dominated by the Celts. After the Roman era, Alemanni also settled in the east, and Franks in the northwest. Contrary to widespread belief, the main ridge of the Vosges coincided with the historical Roman-Germanic language boundary only in the southern Vosges. Old Romance (Altromanisch) is spoken east of the main ridge: in the valley of the Weiss around Lapoutroie, the valley of Lièpvrette (nowadays also called the Val d'Argent; "Valley of Silver"), parts of the canton of Villé valley (Vallée de Villé) and parts of the Bruche valley (Vallée de la Bruche). By contrast, those parts of the northern Vosges and the whole of the Wasgau, which lie north of the Breusch valley, fall within the Germanic-speaking area because, from Schirmeck the historical linguistic boundary turns to the northwest and runs between Donon and Mutzigfelsen heading for Sarrebourg (Saarburg). The Germanic areas of the Vosges mountains are part of the Alemannic dialect region and cultural area and, in the north, also part of the Frankish dialect region and cultural area. The Romance-speaking areas are traditionally part of the Lorrain language region in the west and the Frainc-Comtou region in the south. For a long time the distribution of languages and dialects basically correlated with the pattern of settlement movements. However, the switch from German to French as the lingua franca which took place between the 17th and the 20th century across the whole of Alsace was not accompanied by any further significant movements of population.
See also
Northern Vosges Regional Natural Park
Vosges and Jura coal mining basins
References
Further reading
General texts:
René Bastien, Histoire de Lorraine, éditions Serpenoise, Metz, 1991, 224 pages. (simple historic approach for children)
Etienne Julliard, Atlas et géographie de l'Alsace et de la Lorraine, Flammarion, 1977, 288 pages (a geogropher's view of this part of France who gives theirs waters to Rhin)
Robert Parisot, Histoire de Lorraine (Meurthe, Meuse, Moselle, Vosges), Tome 1 à 4 et index alphabétique général, Auguste Picard éditeur, Paris, 1924. Anastaltic impression in Belgium by the éditions Culture et Civilisation, Bruxelles, 1978. (large and more sophisticated evenemential history)
Yves Sell (dir.), L'Alsace et les Vosges, géologie, milieux naturels, flore et faune, La bibliothèque du naturaliste, Delachaux et Niestlé, Lausanne, 1998, 352 pages. (global view of nature and land)
Jean-Paul von Eller, Guide géologique Vosges-Alsace, guide régionaux, collection dirigée par Charles Pomerol, 2° édition, Masson, Paris, 1984, 184 pages. (a precise geologic description)
List of majors periodicals concerning Lorraine and South Lorraine:
Annales de l'Est (et du Nord), Nancy.
Annales de la Société d'Émulation des Vosges, Epinal, from 1826.
Bulletin de la Société Philomatique Vosgienne, Saint-Dié, from 1875 to 1999 (nowadays Mémoire des Vosges Histoire Société Coutumes)
Publications of the Société d'Histoire et d'Archéologie lorraine, Metz (from 1890, nowadays Les Cahiers Lorrains, trimestrial review).
Publications of the Société d'Histoire de la Lorraine & Musée Lorrain, Nancy (Lotharingist wrintings since 1820, nowadays trimestrial périodical, Le Pays Lorrain)
On the First World War:
Guide des sources de la Grande Guerre dans le département des Vosges, Conseil général de Vosges, Epinal, 2008, 296 pages.
Isabelle Chave (dir.) avec Magali Delavenne, Jean-Claude Fombaron, Philippe Nivet, Yann Prouillet, La Grande Guerre dans les Vosges : sources et état des lieux, Actes du colloque tenu à Epinal du 4 au 6 septembre 2008, Conseil général des Vosges, 2009, 348 pages.
"La guerre aérienne dans les Vosges. 1914–1919", Mémoire des Vosges H.S.C. édité par la Société Philomatique Vosgienne, [hors série n°5, septembre 2009], 68 pages.
External links
Biosphere reserves of France
Mountain ranges of Grand Est
Mountain ranges of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
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220810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Corday | Charlotte Corday | Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont (27 July 1768 – 17 July 1793), known as Charlotte Corday (), was a figure of the French Revolution. In 1793, she was executed by guillotine for the assassination of Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat, who was in part responsible for the more radical course the Revolution had taken through his role as a politician and journalist. Marat had played a substantial role in the political purge of the Girondins, with whom Corday sympathized. His murder was depicted in the painting The Death of Marat by Jacques-Louis David, which shows Marat's dead body after Corday had stabbed him in his medicinal bath. In 1847, writer Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the posthumous nickname l'ange de l'assassinat (the Angel of Assassination).
Biography
Born in Saint-Saturnin-des-Ligneries, a hamlet in the commune of Écorches (Orne), in Normandy, Charlotte Corday was a member of a minor aristocratic family. She was a fifth-generation descendant of the dramatist Pierre Corneille. Her parents were cousins.
While Corday was a young girl, her older sister and their mother, Charlotte Marie Jacqueline Gaultier de Mesnival, died. Her father, Jacques François de Corday, Seigneur d'Armont (1737–1798), unable to cope with his grief over their deaths, sent Corday and her younger sister to the Abbaye aux Dames convent in Caen, where the former had access to the abbey's library and first encountered the writings of Plutarch, Rousseau and Voltaire. After 1791, she lived in Caen with her cousin, Madame Le Coustellier de Bretteville-Gouville. The two developed a close relationship, and Corday was the sole heir to her cousin's estate.
Corday's physical appearance is described on her passport as "five feet and one inch... hair and eyebrows auburn, eyes gray, forehead high, mouth medium size, chin dimpled, and an oval face".
Political influence
After the revolution radicalized further and headed towards terror, Charlotte Corday began to sympathize with the Girondins. She admired their speeches and grew fond of many of the Girondist groups whom she met while living in Caen. She respected the political principles of the Girondins and came to align herself with their thinking. She regarded them as a movement that would ultimately save France. The Girondins represented a more moderate approach to the revolution and they, like Corday, were skeptical about the direction the revolution was taking. They opposed the Montagnards, who advocated a more radical approach to the revolution, which included the extreme idea that the only way the revolution would survive invasion and civil war was through terrorizing and executing those opposed to it. The opposition to this radical thinking, coupled with the influence of the Girondins, ultimately led Corday to carry out her plan to murder the most radical of them all, Jean-Paul Marat.
Corday's action aided in restructuring the private versus public role of the woman in society at the time. The idea of women as second class or "less than" was challenged, and Corday was considered a hero to those who were against the teachings of Marat. There have been suggestions that her act incited the banning of women's political clubs, and the executions of female activists such as the Girondin Madame Roland.
The influence of Girondin ideas on Corday is evident in her words at her trial: "I have killed one man to save a hundred thousand." As the revolution progressed, the Girondins had become progressively more opposed to the radical, violent propositions of the Montagnards such as Marat and Robespierre. Corday's notion that she was saving a hundred thousand lives echoes this Girondin sentiment as they attempted to slow the revolution and reverse the violence that had escalated since the September Massacres of 1792.
Marat's assassination
Jean-Paul Marat was a member of the radical Jacobin faction that had a leading role during the Reign of Terror. As a journalist, he exerted power and influence through his newspaper, L'Ami du peuple ("The Friend of the People"). Corday's decision to kill Marat was stimulated not only by her revulsion at the September Massacres, for which she held Marat responsible, but by her fear of an all-out civil war. She believed that Marat was threatening the Republic, and that his death would end violence throughout the nation. She also believed that King Louis XVI should not have been executed.
On 9 July 1793, Corday left her cousin, carrying a copy of Plutarch's Parallel Lives, and went to Paris, where she took a room at the Hôtel de Providence. She bought a kitchen knife with a blade. During the next few days, she wrote her Adresse aux Français amis des lois et de la paix ("Address to the French, friends of Law and Peace") to explain her motives for assassinating Marat.
Corday initially planned to assassinate Marat in front of the entire National Convention. She intended to make an example of him, but upon arriving in Paris she discovered that Marat no longer attended meetings because his health was deteriorating due to a skin disorder (perhaps dermatitis herpetiformis). She was then forced to change her plan. She went to Marat's home before noon on 13 July, claiming to have knowledge of a planned Girondist uprising in Caen; she was turned away by Catherine Evrard, the sister of Marat's fiancée Simonne.
On her return that evening, Marat admitted her. At the time, he conducted most of his affairs from a bathtub because of his skin condition. Marat wrote down the names of the Girondins that she gave to him; she then pulled out the knife and plunged it into his chest. He called out: Aidez-moi, ma chère amie! ("Help me, my dear friend!"), and then died.
This is the moment memorialized by Jacques-Louis David's painting The Death of Marat. A different angle of the iconic pose of Marat dead in his bath is in Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry's 1860 painting Charlotte Corday.
In response to Marat's dying shout, Simonne Evrard rushed into the room. She was joined by a distributor of Marat's newspaper, who seized Corday. Two neighbors, a military surgeon and a dentist, attempted to revive Marat. Republican officials arrived to interrogate Corday and to calm a hysterical crowd who appeared ready to lynch her.
Trial
Charlotte Corday sent the following farewell letter to her father which was intercepted and read during the trial, the letter helping to establish that Marat's murder was premeditated:
Corday underwent three separate cross-examinations by senior revolutionary judicial officials, including the President of the Revolutionary Tribunal and the chief prosecutor. She stressed that she was a republican and had been so even before the Revolution, citing the values of ancient Rome as an ideal model.
The focus of the questioning was to establish whether she had been part of a wider Girondist conspiracy. Corday remained constant in insisting that "I alone conceived the plan and executed it." She referred to Marat as a "hoarder" and a "monster" who was respected only in Paris. She credited her fatal knifing of Marat with one blow not to practicing in advance but to luck.
Charlotte Corday asked for Gustave le Doulcet, an old acquaintance, to defend her, but he did not receive the letter she wrote to him in time, so Claude François Chauveau-Lagarde was appointed instead to assist her during the trial. It is believed that Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville voluntarily delayed the letter, however, it is said that Corday thought that Le Doulcet refused to defend her and sent to him a last letter of reproach just before going to the scaffold.
Execution
Following her sentencing Corday asked the court if her portrait could be painted, purportedly to record her true self. She made her request pleading, "Since I still have a few moments to live, might I hope, citizens, that you will allow me to have myself painted." Given permission, she selected as the artist a National Guard officer, Jean-Jacques Hauer, who had already begun sketching her from the gallery of the courtroom. Hauer's likeness (see above) was completed shortly before Corday was summoned to the tumbril, after she had viewed it and suggested a few changes.
Since her execution, many authors have written describing Corday as a natural blonde, primarily due to this portrait by Hauer. Although Hauer admired her and took a keen interest in her fate, he had to depict Corday as a vain aristocrat and counterrevolutionary for his own protection. To give the idea that she had taken the time to make herself presentable and powder her hair before murdering Marat, Hauer painted Corday's hair a very light shade. Despite the fame of this one portrait, many other paintings (done both in life and posthumously) show Corday in her true brunette form, and her passport describes her hair as "chestnut" (châtains), refuting the idea that Corday had fair hair.
On 17 July 1793, four days after Marat was killed, Corday was executed by the guillotine in the Place de Grève wearing the red overblouse denoting a condemned traitor who had assassinated a representative of the people. Standing alone in the tumbril amid a large and curious crowd she remained calm, although drenched by a sudden summer rainfall. Her body was buried in the Madeleine Cemetery. Her skull was said to have been removed from her grave and passed from person to person in later years.
Aftermath
After Corday's decapitation, a man named Legros lifted her head from the basket and slapped it on the cheek. Charles-Henri Sanson, the executioner, indignantly rejected published reports that Legros was one of his assistants. Sanson stated in his diary that Legros was in fact a carpenter who had been hired to make repairs to the guillotine. Witnesses report an expression of "unequivocal indignation" on her face when her cheek was slapped. The oft-repeated anecdote has served to suggest that victims of the guillotine may in fact retain consciousness for a short while, including by Albert Camus in his Reflections on the Guillotine. ("Charlotte Corday's severed head blushed, it is said, under the executioner's slap.").
This offense against a woman executed moments before was considered unacceptable and Legros was imprisoned for three months because of his outburst.
Jacobin leaders had her body autopsied immediately after her death to see if she was a virgin. They believed there was a man sharing her bed and the assassination plans. To their dismay, she was found to be a virgin.
The direct consequences of her crime were opposite to what she expected: the assassination did not stop the Jacobins or the Terror, which intensified after the murder. Also Marat became a martyr, a bust of him replaced a religious statue on the rue aux Ours and a number of place-names were changed to honor Marat.
Corday's act transformed the idea of what a woman was capable of, and to those who did not shun her for her act, she was a heroine. André Chénier, for example, wrote a poem in honor of Corday. This highlighted the "masculinity" possessed by Corday during the revolution.
The Revolution and women
Corday's killing of Marat was considered vile, an "arch-typically masculine statement", which reaction showed that whether or not one approved of what she did, it is clear that the murder of Marat changed the political role and position of women during the French Revolution. Corday was surprised by the reaction of revolutionary women, stating, "As I was truly calm I suffered from the shouts of a few women. But to save your country means not noticing what it costs."
After Corday murdered Marat, the majority of women distanced themselves from her because they believed that what she had done would spark a reaction against the now developing feminist movement, which was already facing criticism. Also, many of these women were attached to Marat in that they were supporters of his revolutionary efforts and sympathized with him as citizens of France.
Cultural references
American dramatist Sarah Pogson Smith memorialised Corday in her 1807 verse drama The Female Enthusiast: A Tragedy in Five Acts.
Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote about her in his Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson (1810).
Alphonse de Lamartine devoted to her a book of his Histoire des Girondins series (1847), in which he gave her this now-famous nickname: "l'ange de l'assassinat" (the angel of assassination).
French dramatist François Ponsard wrote a play, Charlotte Corday, that was premièred at the Théâtre-Français in March 1850.
In the 1862 novel Les Misérables, Combeferre likens Enjolras's execution of Le Cabuc to Corday's assassination of Marat, calling it a "liberating murder".
Harper's Weekly mentioned Corday in their 29 April 1865 edition, in a series of articles analyzing the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, as the "one assassin whom history mentions with toleration and even applause", but goes on to conclude that her assassination of Marat was a mistake in that she became Marat's victim rather than saving or helping his victims.
At the end of Act III, before departing to kill the Czar, the eponymous heroine of Oscar Wilde's play Vera; or, The Nihilists (1880) exclaims "the spirit of Charlotte Corday has entered my soul now".
In 1894, Kyrle Bellew penned a play in four acts detailing the assassination entitled Charlotte Corday, taking the role of Marat, while his acting partner Cora Urquhart Brown-Potter played as Charlotte Corday.
In the 1903 novel Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, young Rebecca re-enacts a scene of Charlotte Corday in prison, with her friends playing the role of the mob.
The 1919 German silent film Charlotte Corday starred Lya Mara in the title role.
Drieu La Rochelle wrote a play in three acts called Charlotte Corday in 1939. It was performed in southern France during World War II. Corday is depicted as a fervent republican who hopes eliminating Marat will save the revolution and prevent it from degenerating into tyranny.
In Peter Weiss's 1963 Marat/Sade, the assassination of Marat is presented as a play, written by the Marquis de Sade, to be performed for the public by inmates of the asylum at Charenton.
Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero composed an opera in three acts, Charlotte Corday, for the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution which was commemorated in 1989.
Corday is a character in Katherine Neville's 1988 novel The Eight. In the novel, Marat is killed, not by Corday, but by a former nun named Mireille. Corday accepts the blame and is executed for the crime so that Mireille may continue her quest for the mysterious and powerful Montglane Chess Service.
Actor Herbert Lom's 1993 novel Dr Guillotine features Corday as a principal protagonist in a story set around the Reign of Terror.
British singer-songwriter Al Stewart included a song co-written by Tori Amos about Corday on his album Famous Last Words (1993).
Charlotte appears briefly but significantly, in Caen, in A Far Better Rest (2010), by Susanne Alleyn, a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities.
The graphic novel series L'Ordre Du Chaos includes a whole book dedicated to Charlotte Corday and Marat (2014).
Corday is a central character in Lauren Gunderson's 2017 play The Revolutionists, a comedic quartet about four French women during the Reign of Terror.
Corday appears in the mobile videogame Fate/Grand Order as a playable servant of the "Assassin" class to be summoned by the player.
Solving Marat's murder is a mission in the videogame Assassin's Creed Unity. Corday is one of the suspects and confesses to the murder.
Gallery
References
Attribution
Further reading
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18th-century French criminals
1768 births
1793 deaths
1793 crimes
People from Orne
French assassins
French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution
French nobility
Girondins
French Roman Catholics
Executed assassins
French female murderers
Executed French women
People convicted of murder by France
French people convicted of murder
Women in the French Revolution
Female revolutionaries | [
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220814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground%20jay | Ground jay | The ground jays or ground choughs belong to a distinct group of the passerine order of birds in the genus Podoces of the crow family Corvidae. They inhabit high altitude semi-desert areas from central Asia to Mongolia.
Ground jays show adaptations to ground living such as long, strong legs adapted to fast running and the ability to leap and bound onto boulders and rocks with great agility. Their long, curved thick bills are adapted for digging and probing.
While capable of flight (which they do infrequently and relatively weakly), they prefer running, and will readily perch on trees and bushes also.
Species list
The ground tit (Pseudopodoces humilis), previously Hume's ground jay, has changed its placement within the Passeriformes recently because of molecular and osteological testing. It has now been placed into the Paridae.
Podoces | [
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220815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholula%2C%20Puebla | Cholula, Puebla | Cholula (), officially Cholula de Rivadavia, is a city and district located in the metropolitan area of Puebla, Mexico. Cholula is best known for its Great Pyramid, with the Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios sanctuary on top, as well as its numerous churches.
The city and district of Cholula are divided into two: San Pedro Cholula and San Andrés Cholula. Surrounding the city proper is a number of more rural communities which belong to the municipalities of San Andrés and San Pedro. The city itself is divided into eighteen neighborhoods or barrios, each with a patron saint.
This division has pre-Hispanic origins as does the division into two municipalities. The city is unified by a complicated system of shared religious responsibilities, called cargas, which function mostly to support a very busy calendar of saints' days and other festivals which occur in one part or another almost all year round. The most important of these festivals is that dedicated to the Virgin of the Remedies, the patron of the city in its entirety, which occurs at the beginning of September. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in North America.
City makeup and non religious landmarks
General description
The city of Cholula is located just west of the state capital of Puebla and is part of its metropolitan area. The city is divided into two municipalities, called San Pedro Cholula and San Andrés Cholula, which also include a number of smaller communities that surround the city proper. The main plaza of the city is located in the municipality of San Pedro Cholula, but the Great Pyramid, located only a few blocks away, is located in San Andrés Cholula. Of the two sub-divisions, San Andrés is more residential and has the higher indigenous population. The city as a whole is officially called the Distrito Cholula de Rivadavia. It was created in 1895 and named in honor of Bernardino de Rivadavia.
Since the early colonial period, the city has been organized into eighteen barrios or neighborhoods. The pre-Hispanic city had official neighborhoods, called capullis, which the Spanish reorganized around parish churches, each with a patron saint. The official chronicler of the city, however, still refers to the neighborhoods by their pre-Hispanic term. Eight of the barrios are located in the municipality of San Andrés and ten are located in San Pedro. The neighborhoods of San Pedro Cholula are San Miguel Tianguisnahuac, Jesús Tlatempa, Santiago Mixquitla, San Matías Cocoyotla, San Juan Calvario Texpolco, San Cristóbal Tepontla, Santa María Xixitla, La Magdalena Coapa, San Pedro Mexicaltzingo and San Pablo Tecama. The neighborhoods of San Andres Cholula are San Miguel Xochimehuacan, Santiago Xicotenco, San Pedro Colomoxco, Santa María Coaco, La Santísima, San Juan Aquiahuac, San Andresito and Santo Niño. Most of these barrios have a patron saint's name followed by the indigenous name (from the Nahuatl language) that remains from the pre-Hispanic period. The neighborhoods closest to the center are urbanized, with those on the edges of the city maintaining more of their rural character, with economies based primarily on agriculture and brick-making. The main unifying factor of these neighborhoods and municipalities is a complicated framework of regular cyclical social events, which are sponsored in rotation among the various barrios. Many Cholutecans still use their pre-Hispanic surnames, such as former town stewards Raymundo Tecanhuehue and Humberto Tolama Totozintle. This is because a number of members of the old Indian nobility were allowed certain privileges after the Conquest.
The city is located on the flat plains of the Valley of Puebla, with Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl visible to the west. Like the city of Puebla, it has a straight street grid oriented to the cardinal directions. Most streets in the center are numbered with indications as to their location vis-à-vis the center, north, east, south or west. On the city periphery, street names lose this system. In the center of this grid is the main square of the city which is called the Plaza de la Concordia, or sometimes the Zocalo. In the morning, this plaza is filled with vendors selling typical street food, sweets and handcrafted toys for children. On the west side of the plaza, there is the city hall, which was built over the former Xiuhcalli (House of Turquoise) where a council of nobles met during pre-Hispanic times. This government building is fronted by a line of businesses, which in turn are fronted by a gallery, marked by 46 arches supported by Doric columns, called the "portales." This arcade is the longest of its kind in Latin America.
On the east side of the main plaza is the 16th-century friary of San Gabriel, with its very large atrium, Capilla Real (Royal Chapel), Capilla de la Tercera Orden (Chapel of the Third Order), tall main church and Franciscan Library. Its cloister is still inhabited by about fifteen Franciscan friars. On the north side, there is the Parish of San Pedro, built in the 17th century. On another side of the plaza, one of the oldest residential structures in the Cholula area, called the Casa del Caballero Aguilar (House of the Eagle Knight) was converted into the Museo de la Ciudad de Cholula (Cholula City Museum). This museum was opened in September 2001, after a renovation project beginning in 1997 restored interior and exterior features such as stone sculptures as well as the original floor plan. The museum is a joint project of the city, INAH and the Universidad de las Americas Puebla. The museum traces the history of Cholula from about 1000 BCE through five rooms. The first three contain pre-Hispanic artifacts and the last two contain pieces and exhibitions related to the colonial period including religious art. The rooms also contain elements which recreate aspects of a colonial era home. The basis of the museum's collection is a group of about 1,500 artifacts from Omar Jimenez, from both the pre-Hispanic and colonial eras. There is also an area dedicated to photography of the city's religious festivals, and laboratories dedicated to the restoration of excavated objects.
Because of the student population associated with the Universidad de las Américas, and the area's popularity with tourists, the city has a lively nightclub and bar scene, mostly concentrated around the main plaza and in a part of the San Andrés municipality. The bars and clubs in San Andres mostly cater to students while the ones in the center cater for a more varied crowd. This also includes a line of strip clubs along Avenida 14 Oeste between 5 de Mayo and Calle 2 Norte. Some of these establishments include Unit, Bar-Restaurant Enamorada, La Casa del Mojito and Jazzatlán Café. However, the city is quiet during the week when these establishments are closed.
As the modern city is built over what was a major pre-Hispanic metropolis, a large part of the area has been designated as an archeological heritage site. However, only six of the declared as such have been investigated as most of the land is privately owned. This includes the Pyramid and some areas under streets where water pipes and sewerage have been modernized. There is opposition to further exploration by many residents as they are concerned that the excavation will cause inconvenience, expropriation of their lands or that the excavated areas will be subject to vandalism.
Landmarks
La Quinta Luna is a 17th-century house located in the Santa María Xixitla neighborhood, cataloged by INAH as a historic monument. It was converted into a boutique hotel, affiliated with the Hoteles Boutique de México. It was the home of an indigenous noble by the name of Juan de León y Mendoza, built with adobe walls and very high ceilings. The hotel contains seven luxury rooms, a meeting room, a library, a lobby and a restaurant, surrounding a central courtyard which has a garden. The lobby and restaurant are located in what was the chapel. The library area contains about 3,000 books and its roof is crossed by beams which were rescued during renovations to the building. The decoration is based on paintings by Federico Silva and Gerardo Gomez Brito, various pieces done in local onyx and a number of antiques from various places in the world. The lobby occasionally hosts small concerts.
Container City is a complex constructed from large shipping containers, located at the intersection of 12 Oeste and 2 Norte. The idea is from England, but this version was built by a Mexican organization. Fifty of these containers have been joined and painted with bright colors to create of spaces used to house workshops, restaurants, galleries and other businesses. There are even a few homes made of the containers in the area. The hallways have wireless Internet service, a music lounge for visitors, an entertainment area, ping pong tables and more. Some of the businesses inside include Beat Box, Hackl breads, Smart Mac, Vibra (a meditation center) and a bar called Fónica.
Parque Loro is a petting zoo containing more than 400 animals, including endangered species like monkeys, tigers, jaguars, pumas, reptiles and miniature horses. It has an auditorium with animal shows. It also has a playground, an area for pre-Hispanic dance and an area in which visitors can have their picture taken with an animal.
The city contains a number of traditional Mexican markets. The largest of these is the Mercado Municipal. This market has conserved its traditional look with women seated on the floor selling seeds, flowers, herbs, and more. On Wednesdays and Sundays, this market is augmented by street vendors, which is called a tianguis, because on these days, people from the communities surrounding the city come to buy and sell. The market specializes in locally produced products, especially flowers, fruit, vegetables and others. There are also food stands preparing local dishes. Some of the local specialties include Cholulteca soup, cecina with chili pepper strips and queso de canasta cheese, a type of edible larvae called cueclas, "tacos placeros," prepared with cecina, Bolivian coriander (pápalo), avocado, cheese and green chili pepper strips and "orejas de elefante" (elephant ears) which is an enormous tortilla with beans inside and salsa, tomatoes and cheese outside. There is a locally produced hard apple cider called "Copa de Oro," a cold drink made of chocolate and water, whipped until foamy and served in wooden bowls with flowers painted on them, and "ponche," which in Cholula is a drink prepared with blue corn and milk. Another popular market with local food specialties is the Cosme del Razo, between Calle 3 Norte and Calle 5 Norte.
There is a community just outside the city on the San Andrés side called San Luis Tehuiloyocan, which has a 17th-century house, which is boarded up and the exterior is deteriorated. This house is not promoted for tourism and generally not talked about. However, the walls of the large inner courtyard have mosaics of encrusted volcanic stone that depict a goat, a rabbit, flames and elements of the Passion of Christ, such as the weeping face of Saint Veronica, her tears flowing red. The dominant images framing the main doorway are two monkeys with their tongues sticking out and dancing. On the ends of their legs are crow's feet and on their heads are bishops' hats. Both have erect penises and have bowls of steaming liquid in front of them. In a room in the back, there is a beam with the "Magnificat" a speech by the Virgin Mary, in Latin and in reverse. Christian iconography has used the monkey as a symbol of people in the control of the Devil and many suspect the house was used for satanic rites, especially in the 18th century. It is the only example known of its kind in Mexico.
The Antigua Casa del Gobernador (Old Governor's House) was probably built after San Andrés received its status as an Indian Republic, which was in 1714. This building held sessions of the council, elections for governor, mayors and other officials of the Republic. During the 19th century, it remained as the city council hall, but today is a multipurpose facility.
Churches
It is said that the city of Cholula has 365 churches, either one for each day of the year or one for each pre-Hispanic temple that used to be there. In reality, there are only thirty seven churches; 159, if all the small chapels including those on local haciendas and ranches are counted. One legend states that the first chapel to be built in Cholula was in the San Miguelito neighborhood on what is now the outskirts of the city. It was the first structure with a red tile roof, and it was dedicated to the Archangel Michael. It is said to have contained an image of the angel, which contained inside a small demon tied to a post. As people venerated the image of the archangel, they also acknowledged the demon, in case the angel decided not to hear their pleas. This eventually gave the chapel an evil reputation as more came to ask for favors from the demon, favors that one would not ask of a saint or angel. The demon began to be blamed for misfortunes that befell in the area, as, the legend said, when they occurred, the demon image would be found untied. Eventually, the image of the archangel with the demon inside was taken away and eventually disappeared.
The architectural styles of these churches vary from Gothic to Renaissance to Churrigueresque and Neoclassical, with many mixing elements of two or more. A number also have Talavera tile as a decorative feature, which is common in Puebla. A few have intricate stucco work done by indigenous hands. These churches together contain more than 300 works of art from the 16th to 19th centuries, which have a total value of millions of dollars. Increases in the theft of religious art have led to a number of measures being taken to protect them. Over a decade ago, churches were routinely open during the week, but now many are not. When they are open, many have at least one guard on duty, or in the case of the Nuestra Señora de los Remedios church, video surveillance. Some churches put replicas of the works on display, such as in the friary of San Gabriel. Some do not permit photographs or video of the church interiors.
Various church steeples in the city fell during the 2017 Puebla earthquake.
Most of the rest of the city's churches date from the 17th to the 19th centuries and many of them are parish churches which belong to the various neighborhoods or barrios of the city proper. However, there are also several important churches in the smaller communities of the two municipalities just outside the urban area. The Parish of San Pedro is the parish church for the San Pedro municipality. It was built in the 17th century and is located facing the main square of the city. The style is a mixture of Baroque and Renaissance, with a Churrigueresque cupola. Other important churches of the San Pedro municipality include the parishes of San Miguel Tianguishhahuatl, Jesus Tlatempa, Santiago Mixquitla, San Matias Cocoyotla, San Juan Texpolco, San Cristóbal Tepontla, San Juan Texpolco, Santa Maria Xixitla, La Magdalena Coapa, San Pedro Mexicaltzingo, San Pablo Tecama, Santa Cruz de Jerusalén, Santo Sepulcro and San Miguelito.
The parish church of the San Andrés municipality was begun in the first third of the 16th century and finished in the first half of the 17th. The main façade is made of gray sandstone with three levels on which is a very large image of the Apostle Andrew, crucified on an X. The first contains the main entrance into the building, which is a simple arch with spandrels decorated with flowers. Just outside the door, there is a holy water font which is probably from the 16th century. The doorway niches contain images of San Bernardino and San Antonio, which was not common during the colonial period. The interior has only one nave as it was constructed in the 16th century. On the left side, there is a chapel of the Virgin of Solitude, which was constructed in the middle of the 18th century. It contains a Churrigueresque altar, with highly decorated pilasters. The decoration on the cupolas were done in the second half of the 18th century and redone at the end of the 19th. This chapel also contains a large number of paintings which date back as far as the 17th century.
Two other significant churches in this part of the city are the Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios and the Church of San Francisco Acatepec. Nuestra Señora de los Remedios is the best known as it is the church that is located on top of the Cholula Pyramid. This church was built in 1594 and is home to an image of the Virgin of the Remedies, the patron of Cholula. The first church collapsed in an earthquake in 1854 and was rebuilt. The new church was damaged again by an earthquake in 1999 but repaired. The pyramid it is on was a pilgrimage site in pre-Hispanic times, and it remains one now with people coming to visit this Virgin image.
One other important church of the San Andrés municipality is the Church of Santa María Tonantzintla, which is valued for its decoration in what is called folk or indigenous Baroque.
Pyramid of Cholula and Our Lady of Remedies Church
The most important tourist attraction of the city is the Great Pyramid with the Nuestra Señora de los Remedios sanctuary on top. At first glance, the pyramid looks like a hill as most of it is overgrown. The south side of the pyramid has been excavated and there is a network of tunnels inside. The pyramid and church receives about 220,000 visitors each year, and on certain special occasions such as the spring equinox and the feast of the Virgin of the Remedies, there can be up to 20,000 visitors at a time. From the top of the pyramid, in the sanctuary atrium, it is possible to see the Malinche, Popocatepetl, Iztaccíhuatl and Pico de Orizaba Volcanoes in the far eastern horizon.
The pyramid
According to myth, the pyramid was built by a giant named Xelhua of adobe bricks, after he escaped a flood in the neighboring Valley of Mexico. The pyramid is small part of the archeological zone of Cholula, which is estimated at . Building of the pyramid began in the pre Classic period and over time was built over six times to its final dimensions of on each side at the base and eighteen meters tall. This base is four times the size of that of the Great Pyramid of Giza and is the largest pyramid base in the Americas. Two of the stages of construction use talud-tablero architecture which was also used in Teotihuacan . Some of the pyramid constructions have had burials, with skeletons found in various positions, with many offerings, especially ceramics. The last state of construction has stairs on the west side leading to a temple on top, which faced Iztaccíhuatl.
However, the pyramid has been overgrown for centuries. In the 12th century, after the Toltec-Chichimecas took over the city, religious focus shifted away from the pyramid and to a new temple. By the time the Spanish arrived, the pyramid was overgrown, and by the 19th century it was still undisturbed, with only the church built in the 16th century visible.
Exploration of the pyramid began in 1931 under architect Ignacio Marquina who dug tunnels to explore the substructures. The successive pyramids and other structures of the site have been given letters and numbers to identify them, with 'Building A' designating the first pyramid constructed. Two major sets of explorations were undertaken at the site. The first was between 1931 and 1957, and the second was between 1966 and 1974. There is still minor work ongoing.
These excavations have dug about of tunnels inside the pyramid, which began with two in 1931 to prove that the hill was an archeological find. Within, he discovered altars with offerings, floors, walls and buried human remains from around 900 CE. Today, only about 800 meters of these tunnels are open to the public, which have been made into well-lit, arched passages. Visitors enter on the north side, through the center of the pyramid and exit on the south side. There are few signs explaining the structures within, but in one section allows a view of main staircases of one of the pyramids, whose nine floors have been excavated from bottom to top. There are also two famous murals. One is called "Chapulines" which consists of images of grasshoppers with a black skull in the middle. And the other is the "Bebidores" which depicts various figures drinking out of vessels most commonly used for pulque. Cholula, despite its importance, has not been studied as intensively as other Mesoamerican sites, and most of what does exist are technical field reports with few syntheses of data gathered. For this reason, it has not played a significant role in the understanding of Mesoamerica to date. Due to the condition of the surface and the large number of artifacts just under the surface, it is not possible to reconstruct the last stage of the pyramid to what it was. Around the pyramid, there are a number of other structures and patios, which form a massive complex. The Patio of the Altars was the main access to the pyramid and is named for the various altars that surround a main courtyard.
The Cholula Pyramid site museum is located across the street from the north side of the pyramid, separated by the main road that connects Cholula to Puebla. It is a small museum with two halls. The first contains a model cut away to show the various stages of the pyramid's construction. The second hall features finds from the area including clay figures, pots, other containers, and items of stone and shell, along with recreations of the two main murals of the pyramid complex. There is also a small enclosure with reproductions of the two main murals of the pyramid. For many years the museum was a psychiatric hospital run by Catholic brothers before it was converted to a museum.
The Quetzalcoatl ritual is performed on the pyramid on both the spring and fall equinoxes, with poetry, indigenous dance, music played on pre-Hispanic instruments and fireworks. Due to the large number of people who visit at this time, the INAH blocks off the archeological site, allowing people access only to the reconstructed pyramid section on the west side. Other measures to protect the site have also been implemented. Certain large fireworks have been banned by the city and the Catholic Church because they cause serious vibrations in the pyramid's tunnels. The archeological zone is guarded by a mounted police unit, as motor vehicles are not permitted to climb the structure. Some of the land around the pyramid has been bought by authorities and made into soccer fields, and sown with flowers, in order to create a buffer between the construction of homes and the pyramid.
Nuestra Señora de los Remedios church
The pyramid was a place of pilgrimage in the pre Hispanic period, and it is a place of pilgrimage today, to visit an image known as the Virgin of the Remedies, especially in September. The Virgin of the Remedies is a variation of the Virgin Mary specifically dedicated to the needs of the poor. Veneration of this Virgin in Mexico dates back to the Conquest, with various stories surrounding how this particular manifestation became associated with the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Most revolve around a conquistador by the name of Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte. One story states that he brought this image with him before leaving for the New World by a soldier who had fought in Italy. Another states that she was carried by Villafuerte, but lost during the Noche Triste only to be found later by a local indigenous man. Yet another states that an image of this Virgin appeared on the sleeve of Franciscan friar Martín de Valencia, while praying on the pyramid mound of Cholula. The Virgin of the Remedies is strongly associated with the Conquest as the protector of the conquistadors. She was made a "general" of the Spanish army in their battles against the indigenous of New Spain. During the Mexican War of Independence, she was invoked by royalist forces, while the insurgents carried the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe. For this reason, this image is also called the Virgen Gachupina, as "gachupina" is a derogatory word for the Spanish used in Mexico. The Virgin of the Remedies was one of four Virgin Mary images which were used to substitute for pre Hispanic female deities in the cardinal directions from Mexico City. This one was placed in the east, with the Virgin of Guadalupe to the north, the Virgin of Mercy to the south and the "Virgen de la Bala" to the south. There is a story that a serpent lives beneath the pyramid. It is likely related to the myth of Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent, which was converted to the snake, related to the devil and crushed under the foot of the Virgin Mary.
There are a number of stories of how the particular physical image of the Virgin of the Remedies came to the sanctuary, but she was most likely brought by Franciscan missionaries from Spain for their friary. The image measures tall, similar to those brought by Hernán Cortés and leading to speculation what it was brought by him. Images like this brought by him include the Virgin Conquistador in the San Francisco friary in Puebla, the Virgin of the Defense at the Altar of the Kings in the Puebla cathedral, the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos, the Virgin of Zapopan and the Virgin of Juquila. There is a story that states that the image was lost from the friary and a bright image of her appeared over the pyramid. The light attracted the Franciscans, who climbed the structure to find the physical image there. This prompted the decision to build the sanctuary to her in this place. 8 September is when the apparition of the image is celebrated, but the image is honored starting the first, and the local annual fair runs from the first to the fifteenth.
The sanctuary to this Virgin manifestation was established in 1594, with the first church built between then and 1666. The church has suffered damage on various occasions from lightning strikes and from earthquakes. Before the Spanish, the pyramid was considered to be sacred to a female rain deity called Chiconahuiquiahuita (Nine Rains). She was accredited with striking the new church with lightning and supposedly a stone image of her was found at the site the church is now. The lightning strikes have caused minor damage, but the earthquakes have been more serious. In 1864, the church was almost completely destroyed by an earthquake. It took ten years to rebuild and was re-inaugurated in 1873. In February 1930, there was a robbery at the church. The thieves stole the jewelry that the image had been wearing, including a gold crown, a silver halo and precious stones. The next major quake to damage the building came in 1999, which damaged the towers and caused the pilgrims' portal to collapse, with damage to 80% of the building. However, the image of the Virgin, in her Fabergé box, was undamaged.
After climbing the pyramid, there are 48 steps extending up to the church atrium. The atrium cross is placed near the main gate. It dates from 1666 and is identical to the atrium crosses at the San Gabriel Friary and the church of San Miguel Tianguisnahutl. The atrium is small, but its position at the top of the pyramid affords views of the Popocatepetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes, the flat valley floor and the large number of church cupolas that dot the city. The exterior of the church is plain but has a dome covered in multicolored tiles from Puebla.
The interior of the church is Baroque with Neoclassical elements, which is sometimes called "Republican Baroque." It contains oil paintings such as those depicting the birth of the Virgin Mary, the Announcement to the Virgin Mary, Mary and Joseph, and the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Sculptures include those of the Archangel Michael on the main altar, Diego de Alcalá, and Salvador of Horta . The altars are made of wood and plaster painted white and decorated in gold leaf. There is also gold leaf on the vaults and walls. The cupola contains allegorical paintings and on the pendentives, there are the four doctors of the Catholic Church, Francis de Geronimo, Pope Gregory I, Ambrose and Augustine of Hippo, as well as images of John Duns Scotus, Bonaventure, Bernard of Siena, and Anthony of Padua. There are also allegories representing Justice, Faith and Virtue. The vaults contain images related to the praying of the Rosary.
Neighborhoods and festivals
Barrios and cargas
The city of Cholula is made up of two municipalities: San Pedro Cholula and San Andrés Cholula. The more important social division is a system of neighborhoods or barrios. San Pedro consists of eight neighborhoods: are San Miguel Tianguisnahuac, Jesús Tlatempa, Santiago Mixquitla, San Matias Cocoyotla, San Juan Calvario Texpolco, San Cristóbal Tepontla, Santa María Xixitla, La Magdalena Coapa, San Pedro Mexicaltzingo and San Pablo Tecama. San Andrés consists of ten: San Miguel Xochimehuacan, Santiago Xicotenco, San Pedro Colomoxco, Santa María Coaco, La Santísima, San Juan Aquiahuac, San Andresito and Santo Niño. In the pre-Hispanic period, the city was a mixture of ethnicities. What unified them was a common religious belief. After the Conquest, the Spanish reorganized the pre Hispanic neighborhoods or capullis around various patron saints. These neighborhoods remain to this day, whose names refer to their patron saint affixed before the original pre-Hispanic name. The neighborhoods closest to the center are urbanized, with those on the edges of the city maintaining more of their rural character, with economies based on agriculture and brick making.
Despite five centuries of change and growth since the Conquest, modem Cholultecans maintain many traditional practices, which exist within a vital fabric of local religious and cultural life. These traditional practices very likely have pre Hispanic roots, including a ten-year cycle, called the "circular" of rotating citywide religious duties among the various neighborhoods. They continue today
There are religious festivals of one kind or another almost all year round somewhere in the Cholula area. Social life within and among the various neighborhoods is organized around these religious events, as well as traditions involving communal labor and commercial patterns. People and entire neighborhood rotate certain religious and ceremonial duties, which are called cargas. Many revolve around neighborhood and other local patron saints. These festivals require much work, money and organization. For example, during major festivals, the church of San Andres is richly decorated in flowers, and there are sand paintings called carpets on the ground in Biblical designs. During the week-long feast of Saint Andrew, there is also folk ballet, musical performances and firework shows at night. The most important festival in any of the neighborhood is that of the patron saint. The night before the church is decorated with lamps and then fireworks are set off to announce the event. The next day, Las Mañanitas is sung to the image, there are a number of Masses and it is possible to receive a "visit" by the image of another saint from another neighborhood. During one of the Masses, the carga is transferred to a new mayordomo or person in charge, which is usually attended by mayordomos from other neighborhoods. After this mass, food is offered to all in attendance.
Cargas generally last for one year and start small, such as being in charge of cleaning the neighborhood church, collecting alms and acting as a go-between for the priest and parishioners. However, most involve the sponsorship of the many religious festivals that take place in the city. This system is one of the more complex of its type in the world. Receiving a carga gives the person, called a mayordomo, prestige from the community since he is considered to be working for the common good. Mayordomos can be men, women and even children. The most prestigious carga is to be the mayordomo of the neighborhood's patron saint. This mayordomo receives a certain amount of authority and even a silver scepter along with physical possession of the image. The wives of these mayordomos, carry silver baskets. Even more prestigious than this is to be a mayordomo of a citywide festival which is organized among the neighborhoods. These include the festival of the Virgin of the Remedies, the Fiesta del Pueblo, and events related to Holy Week.
Important festivals
The most important festival period in Cholula extends from 31 August to the middle of September, which revolves around the patron saint of the city, the Virgin of the Remedies. On the night of August 31, there is the Procesión de los Faroles (Procession of the Lamps). It begins with a procession around the streets of the city, with each neighborhood carrying an image of its patron saint. At nine pm, the procession arrives to San Gabriel friary to sing and pray during what is called the "hora santa" (holy hour). The night ends at the Nuestra Señora de los Remedios church on top of the pyramid with Mass and the singing of "Las Mañanitas" to the Virgin. This tradition is recent, being only about twenty years old.
The feast of the Virgin of the Remedies officially begins on September 1 and lasts for about a week. The events of the week lead up to September 8, which is the Virgin's day, which commemorates her appearance in the city. Events include indigenous dancing such as the Concheros performed in the atrium and other locations, and pilgrims bring offerings to the image. In the afternoon, there is a burning of images called a "panzones." A panzon is an effigy made of crêpe paper with fireworks in its belly. "Panzon" means "large belly." This effigy is burned, with the fireworks going off last. After it is burned, it is taken to the neighborhood which is charged with the creation of a new one the following year.
After the veneration of the image, visitors gather in the Concordia Plaza for the "trueque" (trade), to exchange and sell goods, a tradition from the pre-Hispanic period. Common items include cheese from Chiautla, fresh and dried herbs (both culinary and medicinal), ocote wood, incense, nuts, fruits from various parts of Puebla state, resins, "mecapales", vanilla pods, saffron, peanuts, and crafts such as palm frond mats (petates), baskets, clay pots and wooden utensils. While September 8 is considered to be the date of the Virgin's first appearance in Cholula, the date is also related to Chiconauhquiauhitl (goddess of nine rains) who was worshiped at the top of this pyramid at the end of the pre-Hispanic period. The Spanish replaced this image with that of the Virgin of the Remedies. Very early on 8 September, residents and pilgrims come to the pyramid and sanctuary to sing "Las mañanitas" and carrying paper lamps. This is the most important religious event in the city, with events related to it on almost every block. This event brings in people from all parts of the city and from many parts of the region. One tradition associated with this is the exchange of small gifts among the strangers in the crowd. Traditional dress is usually worn only for this event. For women, this includes a black or dark blue skirt, with trim in magenta, or emerald green, a wrap belt tied on the hip, a blouse embroidered with flowers, a rebozo or neckerchief, with earrings and a cross of silver. Men wear loose pants and shirts of natural cotton cloth, huaraches, a wrap belt with one end hanging loose in front, and wool shoulder wrap decorated with geometric designs and a palm frond hat. Concurrent with the feast of the Virgin from the 1 to the 16th of September is the regional fair. The trueque, while still practiced in its original form, has also evolved into this regional fair, called the Feria de Cholula. It features local food and music, culminating on Mexico's Independence Day.
The next most important citywide event is called the Bajada de la Virgen, which also involves the Virgin of the Remedies. This time, instead of the masses climbing the pyramid to honor her, she comes down for two weeks in May or June to visit the various neighborhoods and surrounding rural communities. The tradition of bringing down the image from the pyramid began in 1825. The next occurred in 1870 and the third in 1890. Today, it is an annual event, but it is not the original image which leaves, rather it is a substitute. The reason for this is that the processions take a toll on the ancient image. The replicas of the image are considered to be "sisters" to the original, with the impression that it is the idea of the Virgin which is important, not the physical image. The last time the original image left the church was in 1999, due to the earthquake. It was kept at the friary of San Gabriel until it could be returned after repairs. During the Bajada, the image is carried through the streets in some portion of the city every morning, which has been prepared with elaborate gateways of flowers, and more decorating the route. When the image comes down off the pyramid, she travels through all ten neighborhoods three times in an event called the "circulares." Each circulare is dedicated to a different saint, and presided over by a mayordomo. Each neighborhood sponsors one of the circulares every ten years, providing food and drink, incense and other necessities for the rite. She descends again on August 11, all the way to the town of San Luis Tehuiloyocan. These acts of “popular” piety may be hard to some to understand; these practices trace back to almost 500 years, with the arrival of the first Franciscan friars and the original “religious” purpose may have become shrouded with the cultural aspects of these celebrations over the years
Like a number of other cities in the area, such as Huejotzingo, Cholula celebrates Carnival, this tradition began over ninety years ago, with events centered on the main square of the city. The principal dancers of this event are called the Huehues, which means "ancient ones" in Nahuatl. Overall, the event has the participation of over 3,000 dancers from the various neighborhoods as well as from other parts of Puebla and Tlaxcala states. This is one of the events which brings in crowds from Puebla city, Mexico City and surrounding towns, crowding the streets.
The Quetzalcóatl Ritual is celebrated on the spring equinox and is similar to other spring equinox rituals held on other pyramids in Mexico, such as Teotihuacan. There is indigenous dancing in the Patio of the Altars and the greeting of the sun on that morning.
"Concierto para Campanas" (Bell Concert) also called the Vaniloquio is an event when most of the city's thirty seven churches coordinate their ringing to music written by Llorenc Barber especially for the purpose. The concert involves more than 150 bells, rung by 130 people. The most important day for this event is 28 November, but it also occurs on the Sunday after Ash Wednesday. Three rockets fired from the center of the city signals the beginning. The city recommends that listeners climb onto a rooftop or the Pyramid or wander the streets to hear the concert best. The concert is proceeded by Aztec dance in the main square, as well as a cheese, bread and wine tasting event.
There are numerous events associated with Lent and Holy Week, some of which bring in large number of visitors into the city. The Tlahuanca is an event held on the fourth Monday of Lent at the Capilla Real. Originally, it was a festival held on the street, involving drinking to excess. The name comes from the word "tlahuanqui," which means drunk. Today, it is a procession inside the Capilla Real in which wooden crosses are handed out and a host offers food to visitors. To commemorate the death of the Virgin Mary, sawdust dyed in various colors, flowers and plant matter is arranged in patterns on the ground to form what are called "Las Alfombras" or "carpets." It is also done during the night before Good Friday for the Stations of the Cross procession that passes by a number of the churches on various streets in the city. The Altepeilhuitl is an event that takes place on the Sunday before the Thursday marking the ascension of Christ at the Capilla Real. Here images of towns' and neighborhoods' patron saints are adorned with fruit, squash, chili peppers, corn and bread and presented. This tradition dates back into the colonial period.
In May, there is the Fiesta de Pobres and Labradores (Festival of the Poor and Laborers). It is also known as the Feast of the Holy Trinity. It lasts approximately one month between the months of May and June. Merchants, woodworkers, general laborers, farm workers and flower growers participate in this feast. The festival also has in attendance one of the "sister" images of the Virgin of the Remedies brought down from the sanctuary at the top of the pyramid. Another event dedicated to the common people is the festival of Isidore the Laborer, when farm workers form a parade with their agricultural machines decorated with flowers.
There is also a number of fairs dedicated to local products. The Feria del Nopal (Nopal Cactus Fair) in San Bernardino Tlaxcalanzingo celebrates the main crop grown in the municipality. It occurs during the first week of June. The Feria del Queso (Cheese Fair) is held in Santa Maria Tonantzintla and is held in honor of the Virgin of the Conception. There is an exposition and sale of local cheeses at the main plaza of the municipality on the first weekend of August. There is also an annual festival dedicated to bread in which an enormous brick oven is constructed on the main plaza and local bread makers demonstrate traditional techniques. Over 150 types of bread are exhibited and sold during the event.
Events related to Day of the Dead in Cholula extend over five days, and are based on rites from the pre-Hispanic period. The first day is 28 October, when a flower-covered cross is placed on homes to welcome deceased loved ones. The souls that arrive on this date are those who died in accidents. On the 29th, those who died from drowning or suffocation arrive. On the 30th, it is the souls of deceased children in limbo, and on the 31st other children. The first and second are for adults. As in other parts of Mexico, the dead are received through large altars placed in homes, filled with the food and drink they enjoyed in life as well as flowers and other decorations.
Between these major events, there are numerous patron saint's days for all the neighborhoods and other communities of the two municipalities of San Pedro and San Andrés. Many of these events include amusement rides, fireworks, cockfights, horse races, elaborate decoration of the church the event is centered on, folk and indigenous dancing, and more. For a number of these, one of the images of the Virgin of the Remedies will also "visit."
History
Pre-Hispanic period
The name of Cholula comes from the Nahuatl word (). Its etymology has been explained either as "where water falls," or "place of those who fled" or a combination of the two. "Place of those who fled" is a reference to a myth that describes the arrival of Toltec refugees to this area because of the fall of Tula in 1000 CE. One Mexica myth states that the people of Cholula, called Chololtecs, were descended from one of the seven Aztec tribes that migrated to central Mexico from their mythical homeland Aztlan.
Settlement of Cholula began between 500 and 200 BCE (middle Pre Classic period), with two small villages established near water sources in what is now the eastern side of the city. They were two of a number of agricultural villages with ceremonial centers in the area, with evidence of emerging social stratification. Its earliest settlers were probably speakers of Oto-Manguean languages, linguist Terrence Kaufman has proposed that they were speakers of the Chorotega language of the Mangue branch of the oto-mangue family. The various small rivers and streams allowed for irrigated agriculture and at one time, several converged into a shallow lake, which may have been used for chinampas. At the end of the Pre-classic, many other settlements in the area were abandoned but Cholula grew, possibly with migration from these other settlements. This made Cholula the dominant political force in the region. This was also the time when work on the Great Pyramid began, along with another monument called the Edificio Rojo. Cholula continued to grow during the Classic period (200 – 800 CE) to an extension of over and a population of between 20,000 and 25,000. It also remained dominant over the Puebla-Tlaxcala region, with more monumental construction, including the addition of two stages to the Great Pyramid.
During this time period, there is also evidence of influence from the larger Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico. However, the exact nature of the relationship between the two cities is not entirely known. One stage of the Great Pyramid is done in talud-tablero architecture, similar to that of Teotihuacan, but the next stage uses a different style, with stairs leading to the top on all four sides. The stage after this one, built during the decline of Teotihuacan, again returns to talud-tablero. Pottery styles between the two cities are similar, especially in the early Classic period, but living spaces and some religious iconography was different. When Teotihuacan declined, Cholula also suffered a significant population decline. At this time, the area took part in the Epi-classic central Mexican culture, and the iconography changes to show Gulf coast influence. Religious focus was kept on the Great Pyramid, but added its own layers to the work.
In the 12th century, Nahua peoples migrated to the Valley of Puebla after the fall of Tula. Eventually, this group was able to displace the Oto-mangue speakers as the ruling class, pushing them to the area south of the Great Pyramid. Kaufman has proposed that the displacement of Mangue speakers to southern Mesoamerica happened at this point. However, the remaining in this area retained a certain amount of political autonomy, which would create division in the city that remains to this day. The new lords, calling themselves the Chololtecs, shifted religious focus away from the Great Pyramid and to a new temple constructed to Quetzalcoatl. As part of this shift, some of the final construction phases of the Pyramid were destroyed. However, the Chololtecs would face continued hostilities from the previous inhabitants who dominated settlements around the city.
In the Post-classic period, Cholula (900–1521) grew to its largest size and returned to its status as a regionally dominant city. The city's location was strategic, on the trade routes between the Valley of Mexico, the Valley of Oaxaca and the Gulf of Mexico, making it a major mercantile center. A variant of an artistic style and iconography, especially in pottery, spread from Cholula to Culhuacán in and other areas in the Valley of Mexico, then to other areas in Mesoamerica. This cultural trait is called Mixteca-Puebla and it was spread by the vast trading networks that existed in Mesoamerica at that time. The split between the ethnic divisions of the city eventually would coalesce into three areas by the late pre-Hispanic period, which are now known by the names of San Pedro Cholula, San Andrés Cholula and San Isabel Cholula. Only the first two are considered part of the city today.
Colonial period
By the time the Spanish arrived, Cholula was a major religious and mercantile center, with the Quetzalcoatl Temple one of the most important pilgrimage sites in the central Mexican highlands. Hernán Cortés estimated that the city had 430 temples and about 20,000 homes in the center of the city with another 20,000 on the periphery. Cortés was attracted to the pastureland of the valley area, but while there was a great deal of irrigated farms, the city had a population of about 100,000 and overpopulation meant that many poor people often lacked food.
Cortés had arrived to Cholula after the Spanish victory of the Tlaxcalans, and he was supposed to meet Moctezuma II here. Since Cholula was allied with the Aztecs, the Spanish and their new Tlaxcalan allies were suspicious of this arrangement. There are two accounts of what happened next. Spanish accounts tell of Cortés being warned through La Malinche of a plot to attack the Spanish. Cortés called the leaders of the city to the central square of the city where the Spanish were with their weapons. On signal, the Spanish charged and killed as many as six thousand Chololtecs. However, the Aztec record states that the Spanish attack was unprovoked and there was no plot against them. The event is called the Cholula Massacre, and it resulted in many deaths and destruction of much of the city.
However, unlike many other pre-Hispanic cities, which were abandoned or destroyed before or immediately after the Conquest, Cholula has remained to this day. Nearby in the same valley the Spanish built the city of Puebla, which grew to prominence rapidly. Between this and an epidemic, which claimed much of its indigenous population, Cholula never recovered its former importance. The area was first divided into encomiendas, such as that of Andrés de Tapia who held the San Andrés portion. In 1531, the entire city became a "corregimiento" or area under direct control of the Spanish Crown.
Cholula was given the status of a city in 1535, and granted a coat of arms in 1540 by Charles V. Over the colonial period, forty seven churches were constructed in the city. However, the division of the city along ethnic lines, would impact itself again. In 1714, the San Andrés sector of the city, where most of the indigenous people lived, petitioned to be separated from the San Pedro sector to become an "Indian republic," and it was granted. This gave this part of the city limited autonomy.
Independence to the present
San Pedro and San Andrés were formed into two municipalities in the 1860s under the 1861 Puebla Constitution. The city that spans the two political entities was named the Distrito Cholula de Rivadavia in 1895 by the state in honor of Bernardino Rivadavia.
Economy and tourism
The main economic activities of the city is commerce and agriculture, although the economy is shifting away from agriculture. Commerce, including tourism, is mostly concentrated in the city proper, while agriculture and certain industries such as brick making, are mostly found in the edge of the city and in the rural areas of the municipalities of San Pedro Cholula and San Andrés Cholula. Despite being a city in its own right, Cholula is part of the Puebla metropolitan area, with residential areas encroaching onto former farmland.
Most of the San Pedro municipality is dedicated to agriculture, much of which is irrigated and represents most of the irrigated farmland in the Cholula area. Agriculture employs about 30% of the population of San Andrés, while it employs 17.4% of the population of San Pedro. Principal crops include corn, beans, alfalfa, animal feed, nopal cactus, onions, cilantro, radishes, cauliflower, cabbage, lettuce and cucumbers. There are also various fruits such as pears, plums, apricots, peaches, apples and capulins. There is also extensive floriculture. Livestock includes cattle, goats, pigs, and domestic fowl. In the San Andrés area, much of the livestock is produced for autoconsumption. There are small areas of pasture and some forest on the Tecajetes Mountain, with pine, oyamel and white cedar. Its production is second in important in the Valley of Puebla. Fishing is limited to a small pond called Zerezotla, which is stocked with carp and catfish.
Industry, mining and construction employs 39% of the population in San Pedro, and just under 30% in San Andrés. Industry in San Pedro includes the making of bricks, cinderblock and clay roof tiles, textiles, chemicals, metals, furniture, ceramics and glass. Most industry in San Andrés is related to the making of cheese and other dairy products, furniture and rustic ironwork. The entire area is involved in the making of hard apple cider as well.
Commerce, services and tourism employs 39% of the population of San Pedro and about 35% of the population of San Andrés. Tourism is based on the city's history, with the main tourist attractions are the Great Pyramid, topped by the Nuestra Señora de los Remedios church, the San Gabriel friary and colored towers of the total of thirty seven churches in the city. Images of this church on top of the pyramid with Popocateptl in the background are frequently used in Mexico's national promotion of tourism. It is one of the better known destinations in central Mexico for foreign travelers. Commercial activity is based on tourism, local and regional needs as well as the city's active nightlife, with that of San Andrés more gear to local and regional commerce than that of San Pedro.
Geography and environment
Cholula is located in the center west of the state of Puebla in the Valley of Puebla, 122 km east of Mexico City and eight km west of Puebla. This valley is bordered by the Sierra Nevada to the west, the La Malinche volcano to the east, and extends over parts of the states of Puebla and Tlaxcala. The Cholula area extends over 111.03km2, which is divided politically into the municipality of San Andrés (61km2) and San Pedro (51.02km2). The Cholula area borders the municipalities of Juan C. Bonilla, Coronango, Cuautlancingo, San Gregorio Atzompa, Puebla, San Jerónimo Tecuanipan, Calpan and Ocoyucan.
The San Pedro municipality has twenty two communities outside the city; the largest of which are Almoloya, San Cosme Tezintla, Acuexcomac, San Cristóbal Tepontla, San Agustín Calvario, Zacapechpan, San Matías Cocoyotla, San Diego Cuachayotla, and San Francisco Cuapa. These communities primary economic activities are agriculture, floriculture and brick making. Other important communities of San Andrés outside the city include San Francisco Acatepec, San Antonio Cacalotepec, San Rafael Comac, San Luis Tehuiloyocan, San Bernardino Tlaxcalancingo and Santa Maria Tonanzintla.
The geography of the Cholula area is mostly flat with an average altitude of between 2,100 and 2,200 meters above sea level. There is a gentle descent from Northwest to Southeast along the Atoyac River. Apart from the Great Pyramid and some low hills in the towns of San Francisco Acatepec and Santa María Tonantzintla, the Zapotecas (2,377 m) is the main elevation, located West of the main square. One of the many legends about the Zapotecas tells of a man who made a pact with a demon in order to obtain money to sponsor a festival. The hill is a popular location for mountain biking and motocross. Each year, there is a mountain biking event that begins from the main square of Cholula and extends for 50 km through a number of small communities. San Andrés has a parasailing school, which trains beginners and organizes parasailing events which take place in the nearby Ocoyucan municipality.
The Valley of Puebla is an expanse of plains crossed by a number of small rivers, streams and arroyos, with the most significant being the Atoyac River. The Atoyac River has its beginning in the runoff of both the Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatepetl volcancos. Cholula is located in the river's upper basin. This river passes through the San Pedro area and forms part of the border between San Andrés and the city of Puebla. There are also tributaries such as the Ametlapanapa, Zapatero and the Rabanillo and number of fresh water springs and seasonal arroyos.
The only forested area is an area associated with the Sierra del Tentzo, which contains oak forests and scrub. The rest of the area is either farmland or covered by human settlements.
The area has a temperate subtropical highland climate typical of South-Central Mexico, with an average temperature of between . January is the coldest months with average temperatures between , and May is the warmest with averages between . The 'high-sun' rainy season lasts from May to October and provides about of rainfall per year. These conditions are what made the area important agriculturally starting in the pre Hispanic era.
Demographics
The population of the Distrito Cholula de Rivadavia, or the city of Cholula was 118,170 . This population divides into 35,206 on the San Andres side and 82,964 on the San Pedro side. The total population for the two municipalities, including the communities outside the city proper is 193,554 (80,118 for San Andres and 113,436 for San Pedro). there is an approximate population growth of about 3%. Almost all of the population identifies as Catholic with only between 3.5 and 4% identifying as Evangelical or Protestant. Most of the population of Cholula is mestizo; however, there are a number of indigenous families that live here, with more on the San Andrés side.
Education
The Cholula area has fifty eight preschools, sixty nine primary schools, fifty four middle schools, sixteen high schools, six technical/professional schools above the high school level and an extension of the Universidad de las Américas. The larger percentage of schools is on the San Pedro side of the city.
The city is home to one major university, the private Universidad de las Américas Puebla, whose curriculum is modeled after Oxford and Harvard . UDLAP began as Mexico City College, located in Mexico City in 1940. In the 1960s, the school changed its name to the Universidad de las Américas. In the 1990s, the school split into two entities, which today are known as UDLAP and the Universidad de las Américas de la Ciudad de México (UDLA), which is located in Colonia Roma, Mexico City The school offers bachelor's, master's and doctorates in a number of majors, and is divided into five schools: Escuela de Ciencias, Escuelas de Negocios y Economía, Escuela de Artes y Humanidades, Escuela de Ingeniería and theEscuela de Ciencias Sociales. The UDLAP campus was established in 1970 on a campus filled with well-groomed gardens and benches. Today, students and local can be found watching the school's basketball and American football teams, called the Aztecas, face other colleges at the Estadio Templo de Dolor. Cultural events generally take place at the main auditorium behind the library, which is home to the Cine Club Las Américas, where students present independent films. There are also two art galleries named Sala José Cuevas and Sala Bertha Cuevas, which host temporary exhibits. The large school which faces and dominates the town square is part of the San Gabriel Friary complex, Instituto Garcia de Cisneros, named after one the original 12 Franciscans to arrive to the Americas, is PK-12 Catholic school run by the Franciscan friars.
Transportation
The city is served by an intercity bus station run by Estrella Roja and the Puebla-Cholula Tourist Train which connects with Puebla City. There are also more local busses between Cholula and the city of Puebla run by Super Rápidos. There are also numerous "colectivos" or collective taxis and mini vans connecting with more local destinations.
See also
List of Mesoamerican pyramids
References
Bibliography
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
Puebla Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
External links
Ayuntamiento de San Andrés Cholula Official website
Municipio de San Pedro Cholula Official website
Municipio de Santa Isabel Cholula Official website
Zonas Arquelógica Cholula, Puebla state government
Universidad de las Américas – Puebla (University in San Andrés Cholula)
Populated places in Puebla
Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC
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220816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Johnson | Walter Johnson | Walter Perry Johnson (November 6, 1887 – December 10, 1946), nicknamed "Barney" and "The Big Train", was an American professional baseball player and manager. He played his entire 21-year baseball career in Major League Baseball as a right-handed pitcher for the Washington Senators from to . He later served as manager of the Senators from 1929 through 1932 and of the Cleveland Indians from 1933 through 1935.
Often thought of as one of the greatest pitchers in baseball history, Johnson established several pitching records, some of which remain unbroken nine decades after he retired from baseball. He remains by far the all-time career leader in shutouts with 110, second in wins with 417, and fourth in complete games with 531. He held the career record in strikeouts for nearly 56 years, with 3,508, from the end of his career in 1927 until the 1983 season, when three players (Steve Carlton, Nolan Ryan and Gaylord Perry) finally passed the mark. Johnson was the only player in the 3,000 strikeout club (achieved July 22, 1923) until Bob Gibson recorded his 3,000th strikeout on July 17, 1974. He also has the most innings pitched among all 18 members of the 3,000 strikeout club, as well as the lowest strikeouts per nine innings pitched (5.34 K/9). Johnson led the league in strikeouts a Major League record 12 times—one more than current strikeout leader Nolan Ryan—including a record eight straight seasons. He is the only pitcher in Major League history to record over 400 wins and strike out over 3,500 batters.
In , Johnson was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its "first five" inaugural members. His gentle nature was legendary, and to this day he is held up as an example of good sportsmanship, while his name has become synonymous with friendly competition.
Early life
Walter Johnson was the second of six children (Effie, Leslie, Earl, Blanche) born to Frank Edwin Johnson (1861–1921) and Minnie Olive Perry (1867–1967) on a rural farm four miles west of Humboldt, Kansas. Although he was sometimes said to be of Swedish ancestry and referred to by sportswriters as "The Big Swede", Johnson's ancestors came from the British Isles.
Soon after he reached his fourteenth birthday, his family moved to California's Orange County in 1902. The Johnsons settled in the town of Olinda, a small oil boomtown located just east of Brea. In his youth, Johnson split his time among playing baseball, working in the nearby oil fields, and going horseback riding. Johnson later attended Fullerton Union High School where he struck out 27 batters during a 15-inning game against Santa Ana High School. He later moved to Idaho, where he doubled as a telephone company employee and a pitcher for a team in Weiser, Idaho, of the Idaho State League. Johnson was spotted by a talent scout and signed a contract with the Washington Senators in July 1907 at the age of 19.
Playing career
Johnson was renowned as the premier power pitcher of his era. Ty Cobb recalled his first encounter with the rookie fastballer:
In 1917, a Bridgeport, Connecticut, munitions laboratory recorded Johnson's fastball at 134 feet per second, which is equal to , a velocity that may have been unmatched in his day, with the possible exception of Smoky Joe Wood. Johnson, moreover, pitched with a sidearm motion, whereas power pitchers are usually known for pitching with a straight-overhand delivery. Johnson's motion was especially difficult for right-handed batters to follow, as the ball seemed to be coming from third base. His pitching mechanics were superb, generating powerful rotation of his shoulders with excellent balance. In addition to his fastball, Johnson featured an occasional curveball that he developed around 1913 or 1914. He batted and threw right-handed.
The overpowering fastball was the primary reason for Johnson's exceptional statistics, especially his fabled strikeout totals. Johnson's record total of 3,508 strikeouts stood for more than 55 years until Nolan Ryan, Steve Carlton, and Gaylord Perry all surpassed it in that order during the 1983 season. Johnson, as of 2017, ranks ninth on the all-time strikeout list, but his total must be understood in its proper context of an era of much fewer strikeouts. Among his pre–World War II contemporaries, only two men finished within 1,000 strikeouts of Johnson: runner-up Cy Young with 2,803 (705 strikeouts behind) and Tim Keefe at 2,562 (946 behind). Bob Feller, whose war-shortened career began in 1936, later ended up with 2,581.
As a right-handed pitcher for the Washington Nationals/Senators, Walter Johnson won 417 games, the second most by any pitcher in history (after Cy Young, who won 511). He and Young are the only pitchers to have won 400 games.
In a 21-year career, Johnson had twelve 20-win seasons, including ten in a row. Twice, he topped 30 wins (33 in 1912 and 36 in 1913). Johnson's record includes 110 shutouts, the most in baseball history. Johnson had a 38–26 record in games decided by a 1–0 score; both his wins and losses in these games are major league records. Johnson also lost 65 games because his teams failed to score a run. On September 4, 5 and 7, 1908, he shut out the New York Highlanders in three consecutive games.
Three times, Johnson won the triple crown for pitchers (1913, 1918 and 1924). Johnson twice won the American League Most Valuable Player Award (1913, 1924), a feat accomplished since by only two other pitchers, Carl Hubbell in 1933 and 1936 and Hal Newhouser in 1944 and 1945.
His earned run average of 1.14 in 1913 was the fourth-lowest ever at the time he recorded it; it remains the sixth-lowest today, despite having been surpassed by Bob Gibson in 1968 (1.12) for lowest ERA ever by a 300+ inning pitcher. It could have been lower if not for one of manager Clark Griffith's traditions. For the last game of the season, Griffith often treated the fans to a farce game. Johnson actually played center field that game until he was brought in to pitch. He allowed two hits before he was taken out of the game. The next pitcher—who was actually a career catcher—allowed both runners to score. The official scorekeeper ignored the game, but later, Johnson was charged with those two runs, raising his ERA from 1.09 to 1.14. For the decade from 1910 to 1919, Johnson averaged 26 wins per season and had an overall ERA of 1.59.
Johnson won 36 games in 1913, 40% of the team's total wins for the season. In April and May, he pitched 55.2 consecutive scoreless innings, still the American League record and the third-longest streak in history. He won 25 games and lost 20 games in 1916, the last pitcher to win and lose 20 in a season until knuckleballer Wilbur Wood did so in 1973. In May 1918, Johnson pitched 40 consecutive scoreless innings; he is the only pitcher with two such 40+ inning streaks.
Although he often pitched for losing teams during his career, Johnson finally led the Washington Senators to the World Series in 1924, his 18th year in the American League. Johnson lost the first and fifth games of the 1924 World Series, but became the hero by pitching four scoreless innings of relief in the seventh and deciding game, winning in the 12th inning. Washington returned to the World Series the following season, but Johnson's experience was close to the inverse: two early wins, followed by a game seven loss. On October 15, 1927, Johnson's request for an unconditional release from the club was granted.
Johnson's Hall of Fame plaque reads that he pitched "for many years with a losing team." While the Senators had only nine winning seasons during his career, they finished in the first division (i. e., fourth place or higher) 11 times, and the second division 10 times. In Johnson's first five seasons, Washington finished last twice and next-to-last three times. But they finished second in the American League in both 1912 and 1913, which were Johnson's two 30-win seasons. Then, for the next decade, they typically finished in the middle of the pack before their back-to-back pennants.
Johnson was a good hitter for a pitcher, compiling a career batting average of .235, including a record .433 average in 1925. He also made 13 appearances in the outfield during his career. He hit over .200 in 13 of his 21 seasons, hit three home runs in 1914, and hit 12 doubles and a triple in 130 at-bats in 1917. Johnson finished his career with 23 home runs as a pitcher (24 overall, including a pinch-hit home run in 1925), the tenth-highest total for a pitcher in Major League history.
Johnson had a reputation as a kindly person, and made many friends in baseball. As reported in The Glory of Their Times, Sam Crawford was one of Johnson's good friends, and sometimes in non-critical situations, Johnson would ease up so Crawford would hit well against him. This would vex Crawford's teammate Ty Cobb, who could not understand how Crawford could hit the great Johnson so well. Johnson was also friendly with Babe Ruth, despite Ruth's having hit some of his longest home runs off him at Griffith Stadium.
In 1928, he began his career as a manager in the minor leagues, managing the Newark Bears of the International League. He continued on to the major leagues, managing the Washington Senators (1929–1932), and finally the Cleveland Indians (1933–1935). His managing record was 529–432, with his best team managed being in 1930, when the team finished 94–60, 8 games out of first place. In seven seasons, he had five winning seasons, with the only two losing seasons being at the beginning of his tenure with Washington and Cleveland, though his teams did not come close to winning the pennant, finishing 12 games behind in his last season. Johnson also served as a radio announcer on station WJSV for the Senators during the 1939 season.
Baseball Hall of Fame
Johnson was one of the first five players elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. Johnson, Ty Cobb, Christy Mathewson, Babe Ruth and Honus Wagner were known as the "Five Immortals" because they were the first players chosen for the Baseball Hall of Fame.
Politics
Walter Johnson retired to Germantown, Maryland. A lifelong Republican and friend of President Calvin Coolidge, Johnson was elected as a Montgomery County commissioner in 1938. His father-in-law was Rep. Edwin Roberts, a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1940 Johnson ran for a congressional seat in Maryland's 6th district, but came up short against the incumbent Democrat, William D. Byron, by a total of 60,037 (53%) to 52,258 (47%).
Joseph W. Martin, Jr., before he was the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (1947–1949 and 1953–1955), recruited Johnson to run for Congress. "He was an utterly inexperienced speaker," Martin later said. "I got some of my boys to write two master speeches for him—one for the farmers of his district and the other for the industrial areas. Alas, he got the two confused. He addressed the farmers on industrial problems, and the businessmen on farm problems."
Personal life
Walter married Hazel Lee Roberts on June 24, 1914, and they had five children. Johnson's eldest daughter died from influenza in 1921. His wife died in August 1930 from complications resulting from heat stroke after a long train ride from Kansas. Cobb was a good friend of Johnson, often bringing the pitcher's children gifts when he visited the family.
At 11:40 pm on Tuesday, December 10, 1946, Johnson died of a brain tumor in Washington, D.C., five weeks after his 59th birthday, and was interred at Rockville Union Cemetery in Rockville, Maryland.
Legacy
Walter Johnson High School in Bethesda, Maryland, is named for him. The monument to him that once stood outside Griffith Stadium has been moved to the school's campus. The school's yearbook is called The Windup and its newspaper is called The Pitch.
A baseball field in Rockville, Maryland is named for him.
A large recreation park (Walter Johnson Park) is named after him in Coffeyville, Kansas, where he maintained a part-time residence for several years.
The Bethesda Big Train, a summer collegiate baseball team based in Bethesda, Maryland, is named in his honor and features a Walter Johnson sculpture in front of their stadium.
The baseball field in Memorial Park, in Weiser, Idaho, is called Walter Johnson Field.
Johnson was the first American League pitcher to strike out four batters in one inning.
Johnson holds the record for most three-pitch innings by any major league pitcher with four.
In 2009, a statue of Johnson was installed inside the center field gate of Nationals Park along with ones of Frank Howard and Josh Gibson.
Walter Johnson baseball field in Humboldt, Kansas.
Walter Johnson Road in Germantown, Maryland.
Nicknames
He was also called "Sir Walter", "the White Knight", and "The Gentle Johnson" for his gentlemanly sportsmanship, and "Barney" after auto racer Barney Oldfield (he got out of a traffic ticket when a teammate in the car told the policeman Johnson was Barney Oldfield).
Other
In 1999, The Sporting News ranked Johnson number 4 on its list of Baseball's 100 Greatest Players, the highest-ranked pitcher. Later that year, he was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.
In 1985, Jonathan Richman recorded the song "Walter Johnson", which dwelt on Johnson's personality and behaviour as an exemplar of what can be good in sport.
In 2015, he along with Nap Lajoie, Christy Mathewson and Cy Young were named the "Greatest Pioneers Group." They were voted for by baseball fans online as part of the Franchise Four competition and were "selected as the most impactful players". The results were announced at the 2015 MLB All-Star Game.
Johnson's gentle nature was legendary, and to this day he is held up as an example of good sportsmanship, while his name has become synonymous with friendly competition. This attribute worked to Johnson's disadvantage in the case of fellow Hall of Famer Ty Cobb. Virtually all batters were concerned about being hit by Johnson's fastball, and many would not "dig in" at the plate because of that concern. Cobb realized that the good-hearted Johnson was privately nervous about the possibility of seriously injuring a batter. Almost alone among his peers, Cobb would actually stand closer to the plate than usual when facing Johnson.
Johnson is mentioned in the poem "Line-Up for Yesterday" by Ogden Nash:
Statistics
Career Statistics:
Pitching
Note that official MLB stats show 3,508 career strikeouts, with 70 in his first (1907) season. Stats at the websites of Baseball Hall of Fame, ESPN, Baseball Reference and Baseball Cube (see "External Links", below) all show 3,509 career strikeouts, with 71 in his first season. This has resulted in minor differences seen in references to Johnson's record when reading media and Wikipedia articles of other 3000 strikeout club pitchers.
Hitting
* Strikeouts not counted for batters until 1913 in the AL, 1910 in the NL.
See also
300 win club
3,000 strikeout club
List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
Top 100 Major League Baseball hit batsmen leaders
Top 100 Major League Baseball strikeout pitchers
List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers
List of Major League Baseball single-inning strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise
Major League Baseball titles leaders
List of Washington Senators Opening Day starting pitchers
Notes
References
Kavanagh, Jack (1997). Walter Johnson: A Life (Diamond Communications)
Thomas, Henry W. (1995). Walter Johnson: Baseball's Big Train (University of Nebraska Press: Bison Books)
Treat, Roger L., with contributions by Clark Griffith (1948). Walter Johnson King of the Pitchers (New York: Julian Messner)
Further reading
External links
Baseball Hall of Fame: Washington's 'Big Train' first to 3,000 strike
Baseball Almanac
What Did Walter Johnson's Voice Sound Like? Listen To This 1939 Senators Broadcast.
19-Year-Old Phenom Debuts for Washington: Walter Johnson
Walter Johnson Was a Suffragist
Mr. and Mrs. Walter Johnson Tie the Knot on Monroe St. NW
1887 births
1946 deaths
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Major League Baseball pitchers
Washington Senators (1901–1960) players
Baseball players from Kansas
American athlete-politicians
American League Pitching Triple Crown winners
American League wins champions
American League ERA champions
American League strikeout champions
Cleveland Indians managers
Washington Senators (1901–1960) managers
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Washington Senators (1901–1960) announcers
People from Humboldt, Kansas
People from Brea, California
Maryland Republicans
Deaths from brain tumor
Deaths from cancer in Washington, D.C.
Neurological disease deaths in Washington, D.C.
Minor league baseball managers
Newark Bears (IL) players
American people of English descent
People from Germantown, Maryland
Baseball coaches from California
County commissioners in Maryland
People from Bethesda, Maryland
20th-century American politicians | [
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220817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoplacus | Helicoplacus | Helicoplacus (often misspelled Helioplacus) is the earliest well-studied fossil echinoderm. Fossil plates are known from several regions. Complete specimens were found in Lower Cambrian strata of the White Mountains of California.
The animal was a cigar-shaped creature up to long that stood upright on one end. Unlike more typical echinoderms such as sea stars, Helicoplacus does not have fivefold symmetry. Instead, there is a spiral food groove on the outside along which food was moved to a mouth that is thought to be on the side. The respiratory system appears to be primitive. Although the animal does not look like a typical echinoderm, the plates are composed of the characteristic calcareous plates known as stereom that are common to all echinoderms. The ambulacrum is similar to that of the Edrioasteroidea; as a result, Helicoplacus may belong to Pelmatozoa.
Other contemporaneous echinoderms are known to have existed from their dissociated plates, but other than a few possible edrioasteroids, Helicoplacus is the earliest echinoderm that is well enough preserved to analyze its characteristics. One much earlier form called Arkarua has been hypothesized to be an ancestral echinoderm because of its fivefold symmetry. But Arkarua appears to lack both stereoms and a mouth.
Helicoplacus fossils date back to the Lower Cambrian, around .
Helicoplacus is thought to have been a suspension feeder living at moderate depths in highly oxygenated water with strong enough currents to ensure a steady food supply. It is typically found in greenish shales and, rarely found in shallow water sandstones and limestones. The helically spiraling rows of plates radiating from the base, which in life probably was anchored in the muddy substrate.
See also
Helicocystis
List of prehistoric echinoderms
List of echinodermata orders
References
External links
Pictures of 'Helicoplacus' can be found at http://www.usna.edu/Users/oceano/pguth/website/pl00001.htm
Helicoplacoidea
Prehistoric Echinozoa genera
Cambrian echinoderms
Prehistoric echinoderms of North America | [
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220825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing%20rain | Freezing rain | Freezing rain is rain maintained at temperatures below freezing by the ambient air mass that causes freezing on contact with surfaces. Unlike a mixture of rain and snow or ice pellets, freezing rain is made entirely of liquid droplets. The raindrops become supercooled while passing through a sub-freezing layer of air hundreds of meters above the ground, and then freeze upon impact with any surface they encounter, including the ground, trees, electrical wires, aircraft, and automobiles. The resulting ice, called glaze ice, can accumulate to a thickness of several centimeters and cover all exposed surfaces. The METAR code for freezing rain is FZRA.
A storm that produces a significant thickness of glaze ice from freezing rain is often referred to as an ice storm. Although these storms are not particularly violent, freezing rain is notorious for causing travel problems on roadways, breaking tree limbs, and downing power lines from the weight of accumulating ice. Downed power lines cause power outages in affected areas while accumulated ice can also pose significant overhead hazards. It is also known for being extremely dangerous to aircraft since the ice can effectively 'remould' the shape of the airfoil and flight control surfaces. (See atmospheric icing.)
Mechanism
Freezing rain is often associated with the approach of a warm front, when subfreezing air (temperatures at or below freezing) is trapped in the lowest levels of the atmosphere while warm air advects is aloft. This happens, for instance, when a low pressure system moves from the Mississippi River Valley toward the Appalachian Mountains and the Saint Lawrence River Valley of North America during the cold season, with a strong high pressure system sitting further east. This setup is known as cold-air damming, and is characterized by very cold and dry air at the surface within the region of high pressure. The warm air from the Gulf of Mexico is often the fuel for freezing precipitation.
Freezing rain develops when falling snow encounters a layer of warm air aloft, typically around the level, causing the snow to melt and become rain. As the rain continues to fall, it passes through a layer of subfreezing air just above the surface and cools to a temperature below freezing (). If this layer of subfreezing air is sufficiently deep, the raindrops may have time to freeze into ice pellets (sleet) before reaching the ground. However, if the subfreezing layer of air at the surface is very shallow, the rain drops falling through it will not have time to freeze and they will hit the ground as supercooled rain. When these supercooled drops make contact with the ground, power lines, tree branches, aircraft, or anything else below , a portion of the drops instantly freezes, forming a thin film of ice, hence freezing rain. The specific physical process by which this occurs is called nucleation.
Observations
Surface observations by manned or automatic stations are the only direct confirmation of freezing rain. One can never see directly freezing rain, rain, or snow on any type of weather radar, whether Doppler or conventional. It is possible, however, to estimate the area covered by freezing rain with radar indirectly.
The intensity of the radar echoes (reflectivity) is proportional to the form (water or ice) of the precipitation and its diameter. In fact, rain has much stronger reflective power than snow, but its diameter is much smaller. So, the reflectivity of rain coming from melted snow is only slightly higher. In the layer where the snow is melting, however, the wet flakes still have a large diameter and are coated with water, so the radar returns are much stronger.
The presence of this brightband indicates the presence of a warm layer above ground where snow can melt. This could be producing rain on the ground or the possibility of freezing rain if the temperature is below freezing. The accompanying image shows how such an artifact can be located with a cross-section through radar data. The height and slope of the brightband will give clues to the extent of the region where melting is occurring. Then, it is possible to associate this clue with surface observations and numerical prediction models to produce output such as the ones seen on television weather programs, where radar echoes are shown distinctly as rain, mixed, and snow precipitations.
Effects
At ground level
Freezing rain often causes major power outages by forming glaze ice. When the freezing rain or drizzle is light and not prolonged, the ice formed is thin and usually causes only minor damage (relieving trees of their dead branches, etc.). When large quantities accumulate, however, it is one of the most dangerous types of winter hazard. When the ice layer exceeds approximately , tree limbs with branches heavily coated in ice can break off under the enormous weight and fall onto power lines. Windy conditions and lightning, when present, will exacerbate the damage. Power lines coated with ice become extremely heavy, causing support poles, insulators and lines to break. The ice that forms on roadways makes vehicle travel dangerous. Unlike snow, wet ice provides almost no traction, and vehicles will slide even on gentle slopes. Because freezing rain does not hit the ground as an ice pellet (called "sleet") but still as a rain droplet, it conforms to the shape of the ground, or object such as a tree branch or car. This makes one thick layer of ice, often called "glaze".
Freezing rain and glaze ice on a large scale is called an ice storm. Effects on plants can be severe, as they cannot support the weight of the ice. Trees may snap as they are dormant and fragile during winter weather. Pine trees are also victims of ice storms as their needles will catch the ice, but not be able to support the weight. In February 1994, a severe ice storm caused over $1 billion in damage in the Southern United States, primarily in Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama, and Western North Carolina, especially the Appalachians. One particularly severe ice storm struck eastern Canada and northern parts of New York and New England in the North American ice storm of 1998.
Aircraft
Freezing rain is considered to be an extreme hazard to aircraft, as it causes very rapid structural icing, freezing necessary components. Most helicopters and small airplanes lack the necessary deicing equipment to fly in freezing rain of any intensity, and heavy freezing rain can overwhelm even the most sophisticated deicing systems on large airplanes. Icing can increase an aircraft's weight but not typically enough to cause a hazard. The main danger comes from the ice changing the shape of its airfoils.
This will reduce lift and increase drag. All three factors increase stalling speed and reduce aircraft performance, making it very difficult to climb or even maintain altitude.
An aircraft can most easily avoid freezing rain by moving into warmer air. Under most conditions, this would require aircraft to descend, which it can usually do safely and easily even with a moderate accumulation of structural ice. However, freezing rain is accompanied by a temperature inversion aloft, meaning that aircraft are required to climb to move into warmer air, which is a potentially difficult and dangerous task with even a small amount of ice accumulation.
For example, in 1994, American Eagle Flight 4184 encountered heavy air traffic and poor weather that postponed the arrival of this flight at Chicago's O'Hare International Airport, where it was to have landed en route from Indianapolis, Indiana. The ATR-72, a twin-engine turboprop carrying 68 people, entered a holding pattern southeast of O'Hare. As the plane circled, supercooled cloud droplets, freezing rain or freezing drizzle formed a ridge of ice on the upper surface of its wings, eventually causing the aircraft's autopilot to suddenly disconnect and the pilots to lose control. The ATR disintegrated on impact with a field below; all passengers and crew were killed.
See also
Black ice
Freezing drizzle
Hail
Ice pellets
Ice storm
Icing conditions
List of ice storms
References
External links
Graphic Explanation
Precipitation
Weather hazards
Snow or ice weather phenomena
Road hazards | [
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220839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutcracker%20%28bird%29 | Nutcracker (bird) | The nutcrackers (Nucifraga) are a genus of three species of passerine bird, in the family Corvidae, related to the jays and crows.
The genus Nucifraga was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the spotted nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) as the type species. The genus name is a New Latin translation of German Nussbrecher, "nut-breaker".
Extant species
The genus contains three species:
The most important food resources for these species are the seeds (pine nuts) of various pines (Pinus sp.), principally the cold-climate (far northern or high altitude) species of white pine (Pinus subgenus Strobus) with large seeds: P. albicaulis, P. armandii, P. cembra, P. flexilis, P. koraiensis, P. parviflora, P. peuce, P. pumila, P. sibirica and P. wallichiana, and also the pinyon and lacebark pines. In some regions, where none of these pines occur, the seeds of spruce (Picea sp.) and hazelnuts (Corylus sp.) form an important part of the diet too. Their bills are specialized tools for extracting seeds from pine cones.
Surplus seed is always stored for later use, and it is this genus that is responsible for the re-establishment of their favoured pines over large areas either burnt in forest fires or cleared by man. The nutcracker can store as many as 30,000 pine nuts in a single season, remembering the location of as many as 70% of their stash, even when buried in snow. Nutcrackers will cache seeds as far as away from parent plants, about eight times farther than related dispersers like jays and crows, and are thus important in re-establishing forests and responding to climate change.
Various insects are also taken, including bee and wasp larvae, and also birds' eggs and nestlings, and carrion if it is found.
Nesting is always early in this genus, so as to make the best use of pine nuts stored the previous autumn. The nest is usually built high in a conifer. There are normally 2–4 eggs laid and incubated for 18 days. Both sexes feed the young which are usually fledged by about 23 days and stay with their parents for many months, following them to learn food storage techniques.
None of the species are migratory, but they will leave their usual ranges if a cone crop failure causes a food shortage.
References
External links
Nutcracker videos on the Internet Bird Collection | [
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220841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican%20Americans | Mexican Americans | Mexican Americans ( or ) are Americans of Mexican heritage. In 2019, Mexican Americans comprised 11.3% of the US population and 61.5% of all Latino Americans. In 2019, 71% of Mexican Americans were born in the United States, though they make up 53% of the total population of foreign-born Latino Americans and 25% of the total foreign-born population. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world (24% of the entire Mexican-origin population of the world), second only to Mexico itself. Most Mexican Americans reside in the Southwest (over 60% in the states of California and Texas). Many Mexican Americans living in the United States have assimilated into US culture which has made some become less connected with their culture of birth (or of their parents) and sometimes creates an identity crisis.
Most Mexican Americans are of Indigenous descent with varying degrees of European, African, and Asian ancestry, being made up of varying Peninsular Spanish (Spaniard born in Spain that resided in the colonies of the Spanish Empire), Criollo Spanish (Spaniard settler born in the colonies of the Spanish Empire), white Mexican (after the independence of Mexico), and Mexican mestizo origin (multiracial people with a combined European and Indigenous American ancestry). Others are Indigenous primarily descended from one or more of the over 60 Indigenous groups in Mexico (approximately 200,000 people in California alone). It is estimated that approximately 10% of the current Mexican American population are descended from early Mexican residents such as New Mexican Hispanos, Tejanos, and Californios, who became US citizens in 1848 through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican–American War. Mexicans living in the United States after the treaty was signed were forced to choose between keeping their Mexican citizenship or becoming a US citizen. Few chose to leave their homes in the States. The majority of these Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language and became Americanized. Also called Hispanos, these descendants of independent Mexico from early to middle XIX century differentiate themselves culturally from the population of Mexican Americans whose ancestors arrived in the American Southwest after the Mexican Revolution.
Although most of the Mexican American population was somewhat considered white by the Treaty, many continued to face discrimination in the form of Anti-Mexican sentiment, noted in the idea that Mexicans were "too Indian" to be citizens. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of formerly Mexican citizens were often not honored by the US government. Continuous large-scale migration, particularly after the 1910 Mexican Revolution, added to this population. During the Great Depression, many Mexican Americans were repatriated or deported to Mexico. An estimated 355,000 to 2 million people were repatriated in total, 40 to 60% of whom were US citizens - overwhelmingly children.
Critical race theorist Ian Haney López, posited that in the 1930s, "community leaders promoted the term Mexican American to convey an assimilationist ideology stressing white identity" and that by the 1940s and 1950s, the community had fractured over the issue of cultural assimilation with some anti-assimilationist youth rejecting Mexican American and instead developed an "alienated pachuco culture that fashioned itself neither as Mexican nor American" while others developed a more assimilationist stance by promoting the Mexican American identity "as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans." The anti-assimilationist challenge to Mexican American identity would form the basis of Chicano/a identity in the 1960s, which itself was influenced by the reclamation of Black by African Americans. Although Chicano/a had previously been used as a classist and racial slur to refer to working class Mexican American people in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods, the Chicano Movement reclaimed the term to promote cultural revitalization and community empowerment in the 1960s and 1970s.
In the 1980s, following the decline of the Chicano Movement, assimilation and economic mobility became a goal of many Mexican Americans in an era of conservatism, many of whom adopted the terms Hispanic and Latino. Prior to this time, the United States Census provided no clear way for Mexican Americans to identify. On the 1980 census, the US government promoted the term Hispanic while Chicano appeared as a subcategory underneath the category of Spanish/Hispanic descent. Immigration from Mexico increased greatly during the 1980s and 1990s and peaked in the mid-2000s. With the peak of immigration in the 1980s the Immigration Amnesty was passed, letting many of the Mexican immigrants get their residency in the United States. The Great Recession (2007-2009) resulted in a decline in immigration from Mexico.
History of Mexican Americans
In 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Latinos of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Amerindians.
As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico. In those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole, which was a colony of Spain. This was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc.
As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, the Texas Revolution was initially a colonial Tejano cause. Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the eastern part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the increasing volume of Anglo-American immigration and restricted the number of settlers from the United States allowed to enter Texas. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state, which angered American slave owners. The American settlers, along with many of the Tejano, rebelled against the centralized authority of Mexico City and the Santa Anna regime, while other Tejano remained loyal to Mexico, and still others were neutral.
Author John P. Schmal wrote of the effect Texas independence had on the Tejano community:
A native of San Antonio, Juan Seguín is probably the most famous Tejano to be involved in the War of Texas Independence. His story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he and other Tejanos felt the hostile encroachments of the growing Anglo power against them. After receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War.
Although the events of 1836 led to independence for the people of Texas, the Latino population of the state was very quickly disenfranchised, to the extent that their political representation in the Texas State Legislature disappeared entirely for several decades.
As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an established population of colonial settlers. Californios is the term for the Spanish-speaking residents of modern-day California; they were the original Mexicans (regardless of race) and local Hispanicized Amerindians in the region (Alta California) before the United States acquired it as a territory. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory.
In California, Mexican settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios and civilian communities. Settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior. The California economy was based on agriculture and livestock. In contrast to central New Spain, coastal colonists found little mineral wealth. Some became farmers or ranchers, working for themselves on their own land or for other colonists. Government officials, priests, soldiers, and artisans settled in towns, missions, and presidios.
One of the most important events in the history of Mexican settlers in California occurred in 1833, when the Mexican Government secularized the missions. In effect this meant that the government took control of large and vast areas of land. These lands were eventually distributed among the population in the form of Ranchos, which soon became the basic socio-economic units of the province.
Relations between Californios and English-speaking settlers were relatively good until 1846, when military officer John C. Fremont arrived in Alta California with a United States force of 60 men on an exploratory expedition. Fremont made an agreement with Comandante Castro that he would stay in the San Joaquin Valley only for the winter, then move north to Oregon. However, Fremont remained in the Santa Clara Valley then headed towards Monterey. When Castro demanded that Fremont leave Alta California, Fremont rode to Gavilan Peak, raised a US flag and vowed to fight to the last man to defend it. After three days of tension, Fremont retreated to Oregon without a shot being fired.
With relations between Californios and Americans quickly souring, Fremont returned to Alta California, where he encouraged European-American settlers to seize a group of Castro's soldiers and their horses. Another group seized the Presidio of Sonoma and captured Mariano Vallejo.
The Americans chose William B. Ide as chosen Commander in Chief and on July 5, he proclaimed the creation of the Bear Flag Republic. On July 9, US military forces reached Sonoma; they lowered the Bear Flag Republic's flag, replacing it with a US flag. Californios organized an army to defend themselves from invading American forces after the Mexican army retreated from Alta California to defend other parts of Mexico.
The Californios defeated an American force in Los Angeles on September 30, 1846. In turn, they were defeated after the Americans reinforced their forces in what is now southern California. Tens of thousands of miners and associated people arrived during the California Gold Rush, and their activities in some areas meant the end of the Californios' ranching lifestyle. Many of the English-speaking 49ers turned from mining to farming and moved, often illegally, onto land granted to Californios by the former Mexican government.
The United States had first come into conflict with Mexico in the 1830s, as the westward spread of United States settlements and of slavery brought significant numbers of new settlers into the region known as Tejas (modern-day Texas), then part of Mexico. The Mexican–American War, followed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, extended US control over a wide range of territory once held by Mexico, including the present-day borders of Texas and the states of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and California.
Although the treaty promised that the landowners in this newly acquired territory would have their property rights preserved and protected as if they were citizens of the United States, many former citizens of Mexico lost their land in lawsuits before state and federal courts over terms of land grants, or as a result of legislation passed after the treaty. Even those statutes which Congress passed to protect the owners of property at the time of the extension of the United States' borders, such as the 1851 California Land Act, had the effect of dispossessing Californio owners. They were ruined by the cost over years of having to maintain litigation to support their land titles.
Following the concession of California to the United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexicans were repeatedly targeted by legislation that targeted their socio-economic standing in the area. One significant instance of this is exemplified by the passage of legislation that placed the heaviest tax burden on land. The fact that there was such a heavy tax on land was important to the socio-economic standing of Mexican Americans, because it essentially limited their ability to keep possession of the Ranchos that had been originally granted to them by the Mexican government.
19th-century and Early 20th-century Mexican migration
In the late nineteenth century, liberal Mexican President Porfirio Díaz embarked on a program of economic modernization that triggered not only a wave of internal migration in Mexico from rural areas to cities, but also Mexican emigration to the United States. A railway network was constructed that connected central Mexico to the US border and also opened up previously isolated regions. The second factor was the shift in land tenure that left Mexican peasants without title or access to land for farming on their own account. For the first time, Mexicans in increasing numbers migrated north into the United States for better economic opportunities. In the early 20th century, the first main period of migration to the United States happened between the 1910s to the 1920s, referred to as the Great Migration. During this time period the Mexican Revolution was taking place, creating turmoil within and against the Mexican government causing civilians to seek out economic and political stability in the United States. Over 1.3 million Mexicans relocated to the United States from 1910 well into the 1930s, with significant increases each decade. Many of these immigrants found agricultural work, being contracted under private laborers.
During the great depression in the 1930s, many Mexicans and Mexican Americans were repatriated to Mexico. Many deportations were overseen by state and local authorities who acted on the encouragement of Secretary of Labor William N. Doak and the Department of Labor. The government deported at least 82,000 people. Between 355,000 and 2,000,000 were repatriated or deported to Mexico in total; approximately forty to sixty percent of those repatriated were birthright citizens - overwhelmingly children. Voluntary repatriation was much more common during the repatriations than formal deportation. According to legal professor Kevin R. Johnson, the repatriation campaign was based on ethnicity and meets the modern legal standards of ethnic cleansing, because it frequently ignored citizenship.
The second period of increased migration is known as the Bracero Era from 1942 to 1964, referring to the Bracero program implemented by the United States, contracting agricultural labor from Mexico due to labor shortages from the World War II draft. An estimated 4.6 million Mexican immigrants were pulled into the United States through the Bracero Program from the 1940s to the 1960s. The lack of agricultural laborers due to increases in military drafts for World War II opened up a chronic need for low wage workers to fill jobs.
Late 20th century
While Mexican Americans are concentrated in the Southwest: California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, during World War I many moved to industrial communities such as St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and other steel-producing regions, where they gained industrial jobs. Like European immigrants, they were attracted to work that did not require proficiency in English. Industrial restructuring in the second half of the century put many Mexican Americans out of work in addition to people of other ethnic groups. Their industrial skills were not as useful in the changing economies of these areas
During the first half of the 20th century, Mexican-American workers formed unions of their own and joined integrated unions. The most significant union struggle involving Mexican Americans was the effort to organize agricultural workers and the United Farm Workers' long strike and boycott aimed at grape growers in the San Joaquin and Coachella valleys in the late 1960s. Leaders César Chávez and Dolores Huerta gained national prominence as they led a workers' rights organization that helped workers get unemployment insurance to an effective union of farmworkers almost overnight. The struggle to protect rights and sustainable wages for migrant workers has continued.
The Delano grape strike was influenced by the Filipino-American farm worker strike in Coachella Valley, May 1965. In which Migrant Filipino-American workers asked for a $0.15/hour raise.
The 1965 Delano grape strike, sparked by mostly Filipino American farmworkers, became an intersectional struggle when labor leaders and voting rights and civil rights activists Dolores Huerta, founder of the National Farm Workers Association, and her co-leader César Chávez united with the strikers to form the United Farm Workers. Huerta's slogan "Sí, se puede" (Spanish for "Yes we can"), was popularized by Chávez's fast and became a rallying cry for the Chicano Movement, or Mexican American civil rights movement. The Chicano movement aimed for a variety of civil rights reforms, and was inspired by the civil rights movement; demands ranged from the restoration of land grants to farm workers' rights, to enhanced education, to voting and political rights, as well as emerging awareness of collective history. The Chicano walkouts of antiwar students is traditionally seen as the start of the more radical phase of the Chicano movement.
Since the late 20th century, undocumented Mexican immigrants have increasingly become a large part of the workforce in industries such as meat packing, where processing centers have moved closer to ranches in relatively isolated rural areas of the Midwest; in agriculture in the southeastern United States; and in the construction, landscaping, restaurant, hotel and other service industries throughout the country.
Since there weren't many job opportunities in their country, Mexicans moved to the United States to help them receive a job. However, when they came to the United States their wages were extremely low.
Mexican-American identity has changed throughout these years. Over the past hundred years, activist Mexican Americans have campaigned for their constitutional rights as citizens, to overturn discrimination in voting and to gain other civil rights. They have opposed educational and employment discrimination, and worked for economic and social advancement. In numerous locations, court cases have been filed under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to challenge practices, such as poll taxes and literacy tests in English, that made it more difficult for Spanish-language minorities to register and vote. At the same time, many Mexican Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their community's cultural identity as distinct from mainstream United States. That changes in response to the absorption of countless new immigrants.
In the 1960s and 1970s, some Latino student groups flirted with Mexican nationalism, and differences over the proper name for members of the community. Discussion over self-identification as Chicano/Chicana, Latino, or Mexican Americans became tied up with deeper disagreements over whether to integrate into or remain separate from mainstream American society. There were divisions between those Mexican Americans whose families had lived in the United States for two or more generations and more recent immigrants, in addition to distinctions from other Latino immigrants from nations in Central and South America with their own distinct cultural traditions.
During this period, civil rights groups such as the National Mexican-American Anti-Defamation Committee were founded. By the early 21st century, the states with the largest percentages and populations of Mexican Americans are California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah. There have also been markedly increasing populations in Oklahoma, Pennsylvania and Illinois.
In terms of religion, Mexican Americans are primarily Roman Catholic. A large minority are Evangelical Protestants. Notably, according to a Pew Hispanic Center report in 2006 and the Pew Religious Landscape Survey in 2008, Mexican Americans are significantly less likely than other Latino groups to abandon Catholicism for Protestant churches.
In 2008, "Yes We Can" (in Spanish: "Sí, se puede") was adopted as the 2008 campaign slogan of Barack Obama, whose election and reelection as the first African American president underlined the growing importance of the Mexican American vote. The failure of both parties' presidents to properly enact immigration reform in the United States led to an increased polarization of how to handle an increasingly diverse population as Mexican Americans spread out from traditional centers in the Southwest and Chicago.
Most Mexican Roma came to the United States from Argentina. In 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016, 1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means.
A 2014 survey showed that 34% of Mexicans would immigrate to the United States if given the opportunity, with 17% saying they would do it illegally.
Race and ethnicity
Ethnically, Mexican Americans are a diverse population, including those of European ancestry, Indigenous, African, East Asian, Mexicans of Middle Eastern descent (mainly Lebanese), and mixed race peoples (primarily mestizo). The majority of the Mexican population identifies as mestizo. In colonial times, Mestizo was meant to be a person of mixed heritage, particularly European and Native American. Nonetheless, the meaning of the word has changed through time, currently being used to refer to the segment of the Mexican population who is of at least partial Indigenous ancestry, but does not speak Indigenous languages. Thus in Mexico, the term "Mestizo", while still mostly applying to people who are of mixed European and Indigenous descent, to various degrees, the term has become more of a cultural label rather than a racial one. It is vaguely defined and includes people who do not have Indigenous ancestry, people who do not have European ancestry as well as people of mixed, and sometimes predominant African ancestry.
Such transformation of the word is not a casualty but the result of a concept known as "mestizaje", which was promoted by the post-revolutionary Mexican government in an effort to create a united Mexican ethno-cultural identity with no racial distinctions. It is because of this that sometimes the Mestizo population in Mexico is estimated to be as high as 93% of the Mexican population.
Per the 2010 US Census, the majority (52.8%) of Mexican Americans identified as being white. The remainder identified themselves as being of "some other race" (39.5%), "two or more races" (5.0%), Native American (1.4%), Black (0.9%), and Asian / Pacific Islander (0.4%). It is notable that only 5% of Mexican Americans reported being of two or more races despite the presumption of mestizaje among the Mexican population in Mexico.
This identification as "some other race" reflects activism among Mexican Americans as claiming a cultural status and working for their rights in the United States, as well as the separation due to different language and culture. Latinos are not a racial classification, however, but an ethnic group.
Genetic studies made in the Mexican population have found European ancestry ranging from 56% going to 60%, 64% and up to 78%. In general, Mexicans have both European and Amerindian ancestries, and the proportion varies by region and individuals. African ancestry is also present, but in lower proportion. There is genetic asymmetry, with the direct paternal line predominately European and the maternal line predominately Amerindian. Younger Mexican Americans tend to have more Indigenous ancestry; in those studied born between the 1940s and 1990s, there was an average increase in ancestry of 0.4% per year. Though there is no simple explanation, it is possibly some combination of assortative mating, changes in migration patterns over time (with more recent immigrants having higher levels of Indigenous ancestry), population growth, and other unexamined factors.
For instance, a 2006 study conducted by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN), which genotyped 104 samples, reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% "Asian" (primarily Amerindian), and 5.03% Other. According to a 2009 report by the Mexican Genome Project, which sampled 300 Mestizos from six Mexican states and one Indigenous group, the gene pool of the Mexican mestizo population was calculated to be 55.2% percent Indigenous, 41.8% European, 1.0% African, and 1.2% Asian. A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found the deep paternal ancestry of the Mexican Mestizo population to be predominately European (64.9%) followed by Amerindian (30.8%) and Asian (1.2%). An autosomal ancestry study performed on Mexico City reported that the European ancestry of Mexicans was 52% with the rest being Amerindian and a small African contribution, additionally maternal ancestry was analyzed, with 47% being of European origin. Unlike previous studies which only included Mexicans who self-identified as Mestizos, the only criteria for sample selection in this study was that the volunteers self-identified as Mexicans.
While Mexico does not have comprehensive modern racial censuses, some international publications believe that Mexican people of predominately European descent (Spanish or other European) make up approximately one-sixth (16.5%), this based on the figures of the last racial census in the country, made in 1921. According to an opinion poll conducted by the Latinobarómetro organization in 2011, 52% of Mexican respondents said they were mestizos, 19% Indigenous, 6% white, 2% mulattos and 3% "other race."
US census bureau classifications
As the United States' borders expanded, the United States Census Bureau changed its racial classification methods for Mexican Americans under United States jurisdiction. The Bureau's classification system has evolved significantly from its inception:
From 1790 to 1850, there was no distinct racial classification of Mexican Americans in the US census. The categories recognized by the Census Bureau were White, Free People of Color, and Black. The Census Bureau estimates that during this period the number of persons who could not be categorized as white or black did not exceed 0.25% of the total population based on 1860 census data.
From 1850 through 1920, the Census Bureau expanded its racial categories to include multi-racial persons, under Mestizos, Mulattos, as well as new categories of distinction of Amerindians and Asians. It classified Mexicans and Mexican Americans as "white".
The 1930 US census added a separate category for "color" or "race" which declassified Mexicans as white. Census workers were instructed to write "W" for white and "Mex" for Mexican." Other categories were "Neg" for Negro; "In" for Amerindian; "Ch" for Chinese; "Jp" for Japanese; "Fil" for Filipino; "Hin" for Hindu; and "Kor" for Korean.
In the 1940 census, due to widespread protests by the Mexican American community following the 1930 changes, Mexican Americans were re-classified as White. Instructions for enumerators were: "Mexicans – Report 'White' (W) for Mexicans unless they are definitely of Indigenous or other non-white race." During the same census, however, the bureau began to track the White population of Spanish mother tongue. This practice continued through the 1960 census. The 1960 census also used the title "Spanish-surnamed American" in their reporting data of Mexican Americans; this category also covered Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans and others under the same category.
From 1970 to 1980, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people who identified as "of Other Race" in the census, reflecting the addition of a question on 'Latino origin' to the 100-percent questionnaire, an increased propensity for Latinos to identify as other than White as they agitated for civil rights, and a change in editing procedures to accept reports of "Other race" for respondents who wrote in ethnic Latino entries, such as Mexican, Cuban, or Puerto Rican. In 1970, such responses in the Other race category were reclassified and tabulated as white. During this census, the bureau attempted to identify all Latinos by use of the following criteria in sampled sets:
Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where the head of household was a Spanish speaker
persons with Spanish heritage by birth location or surname
Persons who self-identified Spanish origin or descent
From 1980 on, the Census Bureau has collected data on Latino origin on a 100-percent basis. The bureau has noted in 2002 that an increasing number of respondents identify as of Latino origin but not of the White race.
For certain purposes, respondents who wrote in "Chicano" or "Mexican" (or indeed, almost all Latino origin groups) in the "Some other race" category were automatically re-classified into the "White race" group.
Politics and debate of racial classification
In some cases, legal classification of White racial status has made it difficult for Mexican-American rights activists to prove minority discrimination. In the case Hernandez v. Texas (1954), civil rights lawyers for the appellant, named Pedro Hernandez, were confronted with a paradox: because Mexican Americans were classified as White by the federal government and not as a separate race in the census, lower courts held that they were not being denied equal protection by being tried by juries that excluded Mexican Americans by practice. The lower court ruled there was no violation of the Fourteenth Amendment by excluding people with Mexican ancestry among the juries. Attorneys for the state of Texas and judges in the state courts contended that the amendment referred only to racial, not "nationality," groups. Thus, since Mexican Americans were tried by juries composed of their racial group—whites—their constitutional rights were not violated. The US Supreme Court ruling in Hernandez v. Texas case held that "nationality" groups could be protected under the Fourteenth Amendment, and it became a landmark in the civil rights history of the United States.
While Mexican Americans served in all-White units during World War II, many Mexican–American veterans continued to face discrimination when they arrived home; they created the G.I. Forum to work for equal treatment.
In times and places in the United States where Mexicans were classified as White, they were permitted by law to intermarry with what today are termed "non-Latino whites." Social customs typically approved of such marriages only if the Mexican partner was not of visible Indigenous ancestry.
Legally, Mexican Americans could vote and hold elected office; however, in many states electoral practices discriminated against them, especially as a language minority. After they created political organizations such as the League of United Latin America Citizens and the G.I. Forum, Mexican Americans began to exert more political influence and gain elective office. Edward Roybal's election to the Los Angeles City Council in 1949 and to Congress in 1962 also represented this rising Mexican-American political power.
In the late 1960s the founding of the Crusade for Justice in Denver and the land grant movement in New Mexico in 1967 set the bases for what would become known as Chicano (Mexican American) nationalism. The 1968 Los Angeles, California school walkouts expressed Mexican-American demands to end de facto ethnic segregation (also based on residential patterns), increase graduation rates, and reinstate a teacher fired for supporting student political organizing. A notable event in the Chicano movement was the 1972 Convention of La Raza Unida (United People) Party, which organized with the goal of creating a third party to give Chicanos political power in the United States.
In the past, Mexicans were legally considered "White" because either they were accepted as being of Spanish ancestry, or because of early treaty obligations to Spaniards and Mexicans that conferred citizenship status to Mexican peoples before the American Civil War. Numerous slave states bordered Mexican territory at a time when 'whiteness' was nearly a prerequisite for US citizenship in those states.
Although Mexican Americans were legally classified as "white" in terms of official federal policy, socially they were seen as "too Indian" to be treated as such. Many organizations, businesses, and homeowners associations and local legal systems had official policies in the early 20th century to exclude Mexican Americans in a racially discriminatory way. Throughout the Southwest, discrimination in wages was institutionalized in "White wages" versus lower "Mexican wages" for the same job classifications. For Mexican Americans, opportunities for employment were largely limited to guest worker programs.
The bracero program, begun in 1942 during World War II, when many United States men were drafted for war, allowed Mexicans temporary entry into the United States as migrant workers at farms throughout California and the Southwest. This program continued until 1964.
A number of western states passed anti-miscegenation laws, directed chiefly at Chinese and Japanese. As Mexican Americans were then classified as "White" by the census, they could not legally marry African or Asian Americans (See Perez v. Sharp). According to historian Neil Foley in his book The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture, Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in Texas did marry non-Whites, typically without reprisal.
While of racial segregation and discrimination against both Mexican American and African American minorities were subject to segregation and racial discrimination, they were treated differently. There were legal racial demarcations between Whites and blacks in a state like Texas, whereas the line between Whites and Mexican Americans was not legally defined. Mexican Americans could attend White schools and colleges (which were racially segregated against blacks), mix socially with Whites and, marry Whites. These choices were prohibited to African Americans under state laws. Racial segregation operated separately from economic class and was rarely as rigid for Mexican Americans as it was for African Americans. For instance, even when some African Americans in Texas enjoyed higher economic status than Mexican Americans (or Whites) in an area, they were still segregated by law.
Demographics
Mexican-born population over time
Culture
Food and drink
Mexican Americans have influenced American cuisine. Mexican cuisine has influenced Californian cuisine.
Music
Mexican American styles of music is Chicano rock, ranchera, Conjunto, Son Jarocho, Habanera and mariachi. Chicano rap is performed by Mexican-American rappers.
Economic and social issues
Immigration issues
See also Strangers No Longer: Together on the Journey of Hope, a pastoral letter written by both the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and the Mexican Episcopal Conference, which deals with the issue of migration in the context of the United States and Mexico.
Since the 1960s, Mexican immigrants have met a significant portion of the demand for cheap labor in the United States. Fear of deportation makes them highly vulnerable to exploitation by employers. Many employers, however, have developed a "don't ask, don't tell" attitude toward hiring undocumented Mexican nationals. In May 2006, hundreds of thousands of undocumented immigrants, Mexicans and other nationalities, walked out of their jobs across the country in protest to support immigration reform (many in hopes of a path to citizenship similar to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, which granted citizenship to Mexican nationals living and working without documentation in the US).
Even legal immigrants to the United States, both from Mexico and elsewhere, have spoken out against illegal immigration. However, according to a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in June 2007, 63% of Americans would support an immigration policy that would put undocumented immigrants on a path to citizenship if they "pass background checks, pay fines and have jobs, learn English", while 30% would oppose such a plan. The survey also found that if this program was instead labeled "amnesty", 54% would support it, while 39% would oppose.
Alan Greenspan, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, has said that the growth of the working-age population is a large factor in keeping the economy growing and that immigration can be used to grow that population. According to Greenspan, by 2030, the growth of the US workforce will slow from 1 percent to 1/2 percent, while the percentage of the population over 65 years will rise from 13 percent to perhaps 20 percent. Greenspan has also stated that the current immigration problem could be solved with a "stroke of the pen", referring to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 which would have strengthened border security, created a guest worker program, and put undocumented immigrants currently residing in the US on a path to citizenship if they met certain conditions.
According to data published by the Bank of Mexico, Mexicans in the United States sent $24.7 billion in remittances to Mexico in 2015.
Discrimination and stereotypes
Throughout US history, Mexican Americans have endured various types of negative stereotypes which have long circulated in media and popular culture. Mexican Americans have also faced discrimination based on ethnicity, race, culture, poverty, and use of the Spanish language.
Mexicans faced racially segregated schooling in a number of Western states during the Depression era. In Wyoming, the segregation of Mexican children—regardless of US citizenship—mirrored the South's Jim Crow laws. Wyoming was not alone. The segregation of Mexicans also occurred in California and in neighboring Colorado, Montana, and Nebraska.
Since the majority of undocumented immigrants in the US have traditionally been from Latin America, the Mexican American community has been the subject of widespread immigration raids. During The Great Depression, the United States government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will. More than 500,000 individuals were deported, approximately 60 percent of which were actually United States citizens. In the post-war era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback.
During World War II, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans served in the US armed forces. Mexican Americans were generally integrated into regular military units; however, many Mexican–American War veterans were discriminated against and even denied medical services by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs when they arrived home. In 1948, war veteran Hector P. Garcia founded the American GI Forum to address the concerns of Mexican American veterans who were being discriminated against. The AGIF's first campaign was on the behalf of Felix Longoria, a Mexican American private who was killed in the Philippines while in the line of duty. Upon the return of his body to his hometown of Three Rivers, Texas, he was denied funeral services because of his nationality.
In the 1948 case of Perez v. Sharp, the Supreme Court of California recognized that interracial bans on marriage violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution. The case involved Andrea Perez, a Mexican-American woman listed as White, and Sylvester Davis, an African American man.
In 2006, Time magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33% since 2000, with illegal immigration being used as a foundation for recruitment. According to the 2011 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hate Crimes Statistics Report, 56.9% of the 939 victims of crimes motivated by a bias toward the victims’ ethnicity or national origin were directed at Latinos. In California, the state with the largest Mexican American population, the number of hate crimes committed against Latinos almost doubled from 2003 to 2007. In 2011, hate crimes against Latinos declined 31% in the United States and 43% in California.
Social status and assimilation
There have been increases in average personal and household incomes for Mexican Americans in the 21st century. US-born Americans of Mexican heritage earn more and are represented more in the middle and upper-class segments more than most recently arriving Mexican immigrants.
Most immigrants from Mexico, as elsewhere, come from the lower classes and from families generationally employed in lower skilled jobs. They also are most likely from rural areas. Thus, many new Mexican immigrants are not skilled in white collar professions. Recently, some professionals from Mexico have been migrating, but to make the transition from one country to another involves re-training and re-adjusting to conform to US laws —i.e. professional licensing is required.
According to James P. Smith, the children and grandchildren of Latino immigrants tend to lessen educational and income gaps with White American. Immigrant Latino men earn about half of what whites make, while second generation US-born Latinos make about 78 percent of the salaries of their white counterparts and by the third generation US-born Latinos make on average identical wages to their US-born white counterparts. However, the number of Mexican American professionals have been growing in size since 2010.
The Mexican median household income was a mere $37,390 compared to that of $49,487 and $54,656 for immigrants and native-born populations respectively. This pushed 28% of Mexican families to live in poverty, to put that in perspective the rest of the immigrants where at 18% and native-born families 10%.
Huntington (2005) argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristics of Latin American immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the US Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, Citrin et al. (2007) show that Latinos generally acquire English and lose Spanish rapidly beginning with the second generation, and appear to be no more or less religious or committed to the work ethic than native-born non-Mexican American whites. However, the children and grandchildren of Mexican immigrants were able to make close ties with their extended families in Mexico, since United States shares a 2,000 mile border with Mexico. Many had the opportunity to visit Mexico on a relatively frequent basis. As a result, many Mexicans were able to maintain a strong Mexican culture, language, and relationship with others.
South et al. (2005) examine Latino spatial assimilation and inter-neighborhood geographic mobility. Their longitudinal analysis of seven hundred Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban immigrants followed from 1990 to 1995 finds broad support for hypotheses derived from the classical account of assimilation into American society. High income, English-language use, and embeddedness in American social contexts increased Latin American immigrants' geographic mobility into multi-ethnic neighborhoods. US citizenship and years spent in the United States were positively associated with geographic mobility into different neighborhoods while co-ethnic contact and prior experiences of ethnic discrimination decreased the likelihood that Latino immigrants would move from their original neighborhoods and into non-Latino white census tracts.
Intermarriage
According to 2000 census data, US-born ethnic Mexicans have a high degree of intermarriage with non-Latino whites. Based on a sample size of 38,911 US-born Mexican husbands and 43,527 US-born Mexican wives:
50.6% of US-born Mexican men and 45.3% of US-born Mexican women married US-born Mexicans;
26.7% of US-born Mexican men and 28.1% of US-born Mexican women married non-Latino whites; and
13.6% of US-born Mexican men and 17.4% of US-born Mexican women married Mexico-born Mexicans.
In addition, based on 2000 data, there is a significant amount of ethnic absorption of ethnic Mexicans into the mainstream population with 16% of the children of mixed marriages not being identified in the census as Mexican.
A study done by the National Research Council (US) Panel on Latinos in the United States published in 2006 looked at not only marriages, but also non-marriage unions. It found that since at least 1980, marriage for females across all Latino ethnic groups, including Mexican Americans, has been in a steady decline. In addition, the percentage of births to unmarried mothers increased for females of Mexican descent from 20.3% in 1980 to 40.8% in 2000, more than doubling in that time frame. The study also found that for females of all Latino ethnicities, including Mexican origin, "considerably fewer births to unmarried Latino mothers involve partnerships with non-Latino white males than is the case for married Latino mothers. Second, births outside marriage are more likely to involve a non-Latino black father than births within marriage." Additionally, "Unions among partners from different Latino origins or between Latinos and non-Latino blacks are considerably more evident in cohabitation and parenthood than they are in marriage. In particular, unions between Latinos and non-Latino blacks are prominent in parenthood, especially non-marital births." Furthermore, for 29.7% of unmarried births to native-born females of Mexican origin and 40% of unmarried births to females of "Other Latino" origin, which may include Mexican American, information on the father's ethnicity was missing. The study was supported by the US Census Bureau, amongst other sources.
Segregation issues
Housing market practices
Studies have shown that the segregation among Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants seems to be declining. One study from 1984 found that Mexican American applicants were offered the same housing terms and conditions as non-Latino white Americans. They were asked to provide the same information (regarding employment, income, credit checks, etc.) and asked to meet the same general qualifications of their non-Latino white peers. In this same study, it was found that Mexican Americans were more likely than non-Latino white Americans to be asked to pay a security deposit or application fee and Mexican American applicants were also more likely to be placed onto a waiting list than non-Latino white applicants.
Battle of Chavez Ravine
The Battle of Chavez Ravine has several meanings, but often refers to controversy surrounding government acquisition of land largely owned by Mexican Americans in Los Angeles' Chavez Ravine over approximately ten years (1951–1961). The eventual result was the removal of the entire population of Chavez Ravine from land on which Dodger Stadium was later constructed. The great majority of the Chavez Ravine land was acquired to make way for proposed public housing. The public housing plan that had been advanced as politically "progressive" and had resulted in the removal of the Mexican American landowners of Chavez Ravine, was abandoned after passage of a public referendum prohibiting the original housing proposal and election of a conservative Los Angeles mayor opposed to public housing. Years later, the land acquired by the government in Chavez Ravine was dedicated by the city of Los Angeles as the site of what is now Dodger Stadium.
Latino segregation versus Black segregation
When comparing the contemporary segregation of Mexican Americans to that of Black Americans, some scholars claim that "Latino segregation is less severe and fundamentally different from Black residential segregation." suggesting that the segregation faced by Latinos is more likely to be due to factors such as lower socioeconomic status and immigration while the segregation of African Americans is more likely to be due to larger issues of the history of racism in the US.
Legally, Mexican Americans could vote and hold elected office, however, it was not until the creation of organizations such as the League of United Latin America Citizens and the G.I. Forum that Mexican Americans began to achieve political influence. Edward Roybal's election to the Los Angeles City Council in 1949 and then to Congress in 1962 also represented this rising Mexican American political power. In the late 1960s the founding of the Crusade for Justice in Denver in and the land grant movement in New Mexico in 1967 set the bases for what would become the Chicano (Mexican American) nationalism. The 1968 Los Angeles school walkouts expressed Mexican American demands to end segregation, increase graduation rates, and reinstate a teacher fired for supporting student organizing. A notable event in the Chicano movement was the 1972 Convention of La Raza Unida (United People) Party, which organized with the goal of creating a third party that would give Chicanos political power in the United States.
In the past, Mexicans were legally considered "White" because either they were considered to be of full Spanish heritage, or because of early treaty obligations to Spaniards and Mexicans that conferred citizenship status to Mexican peoples at a time when whiteness was a prerequisite for US citizenship. Although Mexican Americans were legally classified as "White" in terms of official federal policy, many organizations, businesses, and homeowners associations and local legal systems had official policies to exclude Mexican Americans. Throughout the southwest discrimination in wages were institutionalized in "white wages" versus lower "Mexican wages" for the same job classifications. For Mexican Americans, opportunities for employment were largely limited to guest worker programs. The bracero program, which began in 1942 and officially ended in 1964, allowed them temporary entry into the United States as migrant workers in farms throughout California and the Southwest.
Mexican Americans legally classified as "White", following anti-miscegenation laws in most western states until the 1960s, could not legally marry African or Asian Americans (See Perez v. Sharp). However, most were not socially considered white, and therefore, according to Historian Neil Foley in the book The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture, Mexicans and Mexican-Americans did marry non-whites typically without reprisal.
Despite the similarities between Mexican American and African American patterns of segregation, there were important differences. The racial demarcations between whites and blacks in a state like Texas were inviolable, whereas those between whites and Mexican Americans were not. It was possible for Mexican Americans to attend white schools and colleges, mix socially with whites and, on occasion, marry whites: all of these things were impossible for African Americans, largely due to the legalized nature of black-white segregation. Racial segregation was rarely as rigid for Mexican Americans as it was for African Americans, even in situations where African Americans enjoyed higher economic status than Mexican Americans.
Segregated schools
During certain periods , Mexican American children sometimes were forced to register at "Mexican schools", where classroom conditions were poor, the school year was shorter, and the quality of education was substandard.
Various reasons for the inferiority of the education given to Mexican American students have been listed by James A. Ferg-Cadima including: inadequate resources, poor equipment, unfit building construction. In 1923, the Texas Education Survey Commission found that the school year for some non-white groups was 1.6 months shorter than the average school year. Some have interpreted the shortened school year as a "means of social control" implementing policies to ensure that Mexican Americans would maintain the unskilled labor force required for a strong economy. A lesser education would serve to confine Mexican Americans to the bottom rung of the social ladder. By limiting the number of days that Mexican Americans could attend school and allotting time for these same students to work, in mainly agricultural and seasonal jobs, the prospects for higher education and upward mobility were slim.
Immigration and segregation
Immigration hubs are popular destinations for Latino immigrants. These segregated areas have historically served the purpose of allowing immigrants to become comfortable in the United States, accumulate wealth, and eventually leave.
This model of immigration and residential segregation, explained above, is the model which has historically been accurate in describing the experiences of Latino immigrants. However, the patterns of immigration seen today no longer follows this model. This old model is termed the standard spatial assimilation model. More contemporary models are the polarization model and the diffusion model: The spatial assimilation model posits that as immigrants would live within this country's borders, they would simultaneously become more comfortable in their new surroundings, their socioeconomic status would rise, and their ability to speak English would increase. The combination of these changes would allow for the immigrant to move out of the barrio and into the dominant society. This type of assimilation reflects the experiences of immigrants of the early twentieth century.
Polarization model suggests that the immigration of non-black minorities into the United States further separates blacks and whites, as though the new immigrants are a buffer between them. This creates a hierarchy in which blacks are at the bottom, whites are at the top, and other groups fill the middle. In other words, the polarization model posits that Asians and Latinos are less segregated than their African-American peers because white American society would rather live closer to Asians or Latinos than African-Americans.
The diffusion model has also been suggested as a way of describing the immigrant's experience within the United States. This model is rooted in the belief that as time passes, more and more immigrants enter the country. This model suggests that as the United States becomes more populated with a more diverse set of peoples, stereotypes and discriminatory practices will decrease, as awareness and acceptance increase. The diffusion model predicts that new immigrants will break down old patterns of discrimination and prejudice, as one becomes more and more comfortable with the more diverse neighborhoods that are created through the influx of immigrants. Applying this model to the experiences of Mexican Americans forces one to see Mexican American immigrants as positive additions to the "American melting pot," in which as more additions are made to the pot, the more equal and accepting society will become.
The Chicano movement and the Chicano Moratorium
In the heady days of the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano movement conducted actions such as the mass walkouts by high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles, California in 1968 and the Chicano Moratorium in Los Angeles in 1970. The movement was particularly strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, an organization that seeks to promote Chicano unity and empowerment through education and political action, but also espouses revanchist ideals centered around "taking back" the American southwest for Mexican- Americans (Chicanos) through education. The new Chicano college graduate's ideal was to become empowered through education, return to his/her community and advise more chicanos to continue with their college education after high school. And upon graduation, the purpose was to return to their communities and advise other members of their families and ethnic groups to follow their footsteps. The communities political positions, and management positions were going to be reached by empowering chicanos through higher education and become involved in city councils, management positions, and politics (Pinzon, 2015)
The Chicano Moratorium, formally known as the National Chicano Moratorium Committee, was a movement of Chicano anti-war activists that built a broad-based but fragile coalition of Mexican-American groups to organize opposition to the Vietnam War. The committee was led by activists from local colleges and members of the "Brown Berets", a group with roots in the high school student movement that staged walkouts in 1968, known as the East L.A. walkouts, also called "blowouts".
The best known historical fact of the Moratorium was the death of Rubén Salazar, known for his reporting on civil rights and police brutality. The official story is that Salazar was killed by a tear gas canister fired by a member of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department into the Silver Dollar Café at the conclusion of the National Chicano Moratorium March.
Education
Parental Involvement
Parents are commonly associated with being a child's first teacher. As the child grows older, the parent's role in their child's learning may change; however, a parent will often continue to serve as a role model. There are multiple research articles that have looked at parental involvement and education. A key aspect of parental involvement in education is that it can be transmitted in many ways. For a long time, there has been a misconception that the parents of Mexican American students are not involved in their children's education; however, multiple studies have demonstrated that parents are involved in their children's education (Valencia & Black, 2002). It is important to know that the parents of Mexican American students frequently display their involvement through untraditional methods; such as, consejos, home-base practices, and high academic expectations.
Literature has demonstrated that parental involvement has had a positive influence in the academic achievement of Mexican American students. Studies have shown that Mexican families show their value towards education by using untraditional methods (Kiyama, 2011). One educational practice that is commonly used among Mexican families are consejos (advice). Additional research has supported the idea that parents’ consejos have had a significant influence on the education of Mexican American students. Espino (2016) studied the influence that parental involvement had on seven, 1st generation Mexican American PhDs. The study found that one of the participant's father would frequently use consejos to encourage his son to continue his education. The father's consejos served as an encouragement tool, which motivated the participant to continue his education. Consejos are commonly associated with the parents’ occupation. Parents use their occupation as leverage to encourage their child to continue his or her education, or else they may end up working an undesirable job (Espino, 2016). While this might not be the most common form of parental involvement, studies have shown that it has been an effective tool that encourages Mexican American students. Although that might be an effective tool for Mexican American students, a mother can be just as an important figure for consejos. A mother's role teaches their child the importance of everyday tasks such as knowing how to cook, clean and care for oneself in order to be independent and also to help out around the house. The children of single mothers have a huge impact on their children in pushing them to be successful in school in order to have a better life than what they provided to their children. Most single mothers live in poverty and are dependent of the government, so they want the best for their children so they are always encouraging their children to be focused and do their best.
Another study emphasized the importance of home-based parental involvement. Altschul (2011) conducted a study that tested the effects of six different types of parental involvement and their effect on Mexican American students. The study used previous data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) of 1988. The data was used to evaluate the influence of parental practices in the 8th grade and their effect on students once they were in the 10th grade. Altschul (2011) noted that home-based parental involvement had a more positive effect on the academic achievement of Mexican American students, than involvement in school organizations. The literature suggests that parental involvement in the school setting is not necessary, parents can impact the academic achievement of their children from their home.
Additional literature has demonstrated that parent involvement also comes in the form of parent expectations. Valencia and Black (2002) argued that Mexican parents place a significant amount of value on education and hold high expectations for their children. The purpose of their study was to debunk the notion that Mexicans do not value education by providing evidence that shows the opposite. Setting high expectations and expressing their desire for their children to be academically successful has served as powerful tools to increase of the academic achievement among Mexican American students (Valencia & Black, 2002). Keith and Lichtman (1995) also conducted a research study that measured the influence of parental involvement and academic achievement. The data was collected from the NELS and used a total of 1,714 students that identified as Mexican American (Chicana/o). The study found a higher level of academic achievement among 8th grade Mexican American students and parents who had high educational aspirations for their children (Keith & Lichtman, 1995).
Additional research done by Carranza, You, Chhuon, and Hudley (2009) added support to the idea that high parental expectations were associated with higher achievement levels among Mexican American students. Carranza et al. (2009) studied 298 Mexican American high school students. They studied whether perceived parental involvement, acculturation, and self-esteem had any effect on academic achievement and aspirations. Results from their study demonstrated that perceived parental involvement had an influence on the students’ academic achievement and aspirations. Additionally, Carranza et al. noted that among females, those who perceived that their parents expected them to get good grades tended to study more and have higher academic aspirations (2009). The findings suggest that parental expectations can affect the academic performance of Mexican American students.
Based on current literature, one can conclude that parental involvement is an extremely important aspect of Mexican American students’ education. The studies demonstrated that parental involvement is not limited to participating in school activities at the school; instead, parental involvement can be displayed through various forms. There are numerous studies that suggest that parental expectations are associated with the achievement level of Mexican American students. Future research should continue to study the reasons why Mexican American students perform better when their parents expect them to do well in school. Furthermore, future research can also look into whether gender influences parental expectations.
Stand and Deliver was an inductee of the 2011 National Film Registry list. The National Film Board said that it was "one of the most popular of a new wave of narrative feature films produced in the 1980s by Latino filmmakers" and that it "celebrates in a direct, approachable, and impactful way, values of self-betterment through hard work and power through knowledge."
Mexican American communities
Large Mexican American populations by both size and per capita exist in the following American cities:
Los Angeles, California area – the city proper home to over 1.2 million of Mexican ancestry, another 2.3 million throughout Los Angeles County, and a total of about 6.3 million in the five-county Greater Los Angeles Area. Largest Mexican ancestry populated city in the United States. (according to the 2010 census, L.A. is now 31.9% of Mexican descent with numerous Central American national groups).
East Los Angeles, California – Unincorporated community of roughly 130,000, name synonymous with Mexican Americans, 97% Latino, 88% of Mexicans are immigrant, 40% of east L.A. residents reportedly Mexican including American-born.
Montebello, California – Over 62% of the population is Mexican.
Culver City, California – Also the site of the infamous Zoot Suit Riots in 1943.
Long Beach, California – Third largest city in Southern California, One of many cities in the region with a large Mexican/Latin American population.
South Gate, California – over 70.77% of the population is Mexican or Mexican American.
La Puente, California – about two-thirds are of Mexican ancestry or Latino, one of the largest Latino (in percentage, the most Mexican American community) populations in California.
Downey, California - Between 45 and 50% are of Mexican descent.
El Monte, California – 71.89% Mexican
Huntington Park – Large Mexican population
Cudahy, California – Large Mexican population
Irwindale, California – Large Mexican population
Oxnard, California – 65.96% Mexican
Inland Empire, California (Riverside/ San Bernardino Counties- and the cities of that namesake) – About a third of the population are of Mexican descent. Including Pomona and Romoland with high Mexican percentages.
Riverside, California, Adelanto, Hesperia, Victorville and Apple Valley in the Victor Valley, Rialto and San Bernardino, California
Indio, California and Coachella, California (primarily Mexican-American).
Santa Ana – 78% Latino with the majority being of Mexican descent.
Southern California is the highest densely populated Mexican-American region, but by areas of percentage it is South Texas.
San Diego, California – slightly less than one-third of the city's population is Latino, primarily Mexican American; however, this percentage is the lowest of any significant border city.
Imperial Valley region (Imperial County, California and Yuma, Arizona).
San Francisco Bay Area – also with over one million Latinos, many of whom are Mexican Americans, both US-born and foreign-born (see also Oakland about 10–20% Latino and San Francisco – the Mission District section- the city is 10–20% Latino).
Oakland – California's third largest Mexican-American city by percentage (over 25%) after Long Beach (about 30%). Many live in the Fruitvale district.
San Jose, California – Nearly one-third of the city's population is Mexican American or of Latino origin; San Jose has the largest Mexican American population within the Bay Area.
Central Valley of California both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys have majority Mexican American communities. Examples being Sacramento and Fresno, and the heaviest concentrations in Kern County, California around Bakersfield.
Phoenix, Arizona – fifth largest Mexican-American population.
Tucson – 30% of the almost 1 million people in the metro area.
Las Vegas, Nevada - 70 percent of Latinos that are eligible to vote in Nevada are Mexican
Dallas/Fort Worth Area – fifth largest Mexican-American population and over 1.5 million Mexicans in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex (3rd largest foreign born Mexican population in the US per MSA).
San Antonio, Texas – over half of the population in the city proper (53.2%, 705,530) and second largest Mexican population of any city in the US.
Laredo, Texas - has the largest Mexican-American community bordering with Nuevo Laredo, Mexico. The majority of Laredo speaks Spanish as their first language.
Houston, Texas – Third largest Mexican ancestry community in the United States.
San Angelo, Texas with other areas of West Texas, home to Tejanos.
El Paso, Texas – largest Mexican-American community bordering a state of Mexico.
South Texas – Heavily populated by Mexican-Americans, who are the ethnic majority, in a region spanning from Laredo to Corpus Christi to Brownsville.
Harlingen, Texas – The Latino population of Harlingen is 72% due to its proximity to the Rio Grande Mexico border.
Denver, Colorado – Colorado has the eighth largest population of Latinos, seventh highest percentage of Latinos, fourth largest population of Mexican-Americans, and sixth highest percentage of Mexican-Americans in the United States. According to the 2010 census, there are over 1 million Mexican-Americans in Colorado. Over one-third of the city's population is Mexican-American or Latino, as well as approximately one-fourth of the entire Denver Metropolitan area. About 17% of the cities population is foreign born, mostly from Latin America.
Greeley, Colorado – Over one-third of the city's population is Latino, mostly Mexican-American.
Garden City is Latino majority, and Evans has a very large Latino population as well.
Southern Colorado is home to many communities of Latinos descended from Mexican settlers who arrived during Spanish colonial times. Roughly half of Pueblo's population is Latino, mostly Mexican-American. Many other towns in southern Colorado have high proportions of Mexican-Americans. La Junta, Rocky Ford, Las Animas, Lamar, Walsenburg, and Trinidad all have large Mexican American communities.
San Luis Valley – The San Luis Valley has many towns with large Mexican-American populations. Antonito, Blanca, Center, Del Norte, Fort Garland, Monte Vista, and Romeo are all Latino majority.
The Yakima Valley and Tri-Cities, Washington – This region of Washington contains many communities of Mexican-American majority thanks to high demand for agricultural labor.
Chicago – Over 1.5 million of Mexican ancestry in the Chicago metropolitan area
New York City – Mexicans are the third largest Latino ethnic group after Puerto Ricans and Dominicans. New York City's Mexican population ranked 11th among major American cities in 2000 at 186,872.
Atlanta – Mexicans are the largest Latino ethnic group in Atlanta. Gwinnett County has the most persons born in Mexico.
Other US destinations
In the 1990s and 2000s, the Midwestern United States became a major destination for Mexican immigrants. But Mexican-Americans were already present in the Midwest's industrial cities and urban areas. Especially Mexicans/Latinos came into states like Illinois (mostly in Chicago and close-in suburbs), Indiana especially the Northern section, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan (Especially in the Western Portion of the state.), Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska and Wisconsin due to needs of the region's industrial manufacturing base.
Another destination of Mexican and Latin American immigration was the Northeastern United States, in places such as the Monongahela Valley, Pennsylvania; Mahoning Valley, Ohio; throughout Massachusetts and the state of Rhode Island; New Haven, Connecticut along with other Latin American nationalities; Washington, D.C. with Maryland and Northern Virginia included; the Hudson Valley and Long Island of New York state; the Jersey Shore region and the Delaware Valley, New Jersey.
Communities that consist mostly of recent-arrived immigrants from Mexico, other than Texas, are also present in other parts of the rural Southern United States, in states such as Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Arkansas, South Carolina and Alabama. A growing Mexican-American population is also present in urban areas such as Orlando, Florida, Tampa, Florida with the Central Florida region included; the Atlanta metro area; Charlotte, North Carolina- with a majority Latino enclave of Eastland; New Orleans which increased after Hurricane Katrina in Sep. 2005; the Hampton Roads, Virginia area; the states of Maine, New Hampshire and Delaware; and Pennsylvania especially in the Philadelphia metropolitan area.
Major cities like Boise, Idaho; Detroit, Michigan; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Portland, Oregon; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Seattle, Washington have a large Mexican-American population.
US states by Mexican American population
Health
Diabetes
Diabetes refers to a disease in which the body has an inefficiency of properly responding to insulin, which then affects the levels of glucose. The prevalence of diabetes in the United States is constantly rising. Common types of Diabetes are type 1 and type 2. Type 2 is the more common type of diabetes among Mexican Americans, and is constantly increasing due to poor diet habits. The increase of obesity results in an increase of type 2 diabetes among Mexican Americans in the United States. Mexican American men have higher prevalence rates in comparison to non-Latinos, whites and blacks. “The prevalence of diabetes increased from 8.9% in 1976–1980 to 12.3% in 1988–94 among adults aged 40 to 74” according to the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. In a 2014 study, The US Census Bureau estimates that by 2050, one in three people living in the United States will be of Latino origin including Mexican Americans. Type 2 diabetes prevalence is rising due to many risk factors and there are still many cases of pre-diabetes and undiagnosed diabetes due to lack of sources. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2011), individuals of Mexican descent are 50% more likely to die from diabetes than their white counterparts.
Notable people
See also
Indigenous Mexican Americans
Mexico–United States barrier
Migrant deaths along the Mexico–United States border
American immigration to Mexico
Mexico–United States relations
Hyphenated American
Mexicans abroad
Mexican cuisine
Mexican people
Tex-Mex cuisine
Mexican-American cuisine
History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles
History of Mexican Americans in Texas
History of Mexican Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth
History of Mexican Americans in Houston
Ethnic:
Melting pot (metaphor for cultural fusion)
Amerindian
White Latino Americans
White Mexican
Olive skin
Mestizo
Bronze race
Cosmic race
Brown race
Mestizos in the United States
Political:
Reconquista (Mexico)
Cultural:
Chicanismo
Chicano poetry
List of Mexican American writers
El Pueblo de Los Ángeles Historical Monument
Film:
Lowriders
McFarland, USA
Spare Parts
Cesar Chavez
A Better Life
From Prada to Nada
Fools Rush In
La Bamba
Tortilla Soup
References
Bibliography/further reading
Englekirk, Allan, and Marguerite Marín. "Mexican Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2014), pp. 195–217. online
Gomez, Laura. Manifest Destinies: The Making of the Mexican American Race (New York UP, 2007).
Gómez-Quiñones, Juan, and Irene Vásquez. Making Aztlán: Ideology and Culture of the Chicana and Chicano Movement, 1966-1977 (2014)
Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutiérrez. Encyclopedia of the Mexican American civil rights movement (Greenwood 2000) online
Quiroz, Anthony (ed.), Leaders of the Mexican American Generation: Biographical Essays. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2015.
Orozco, Cynthia E. No Mexicans, women, or dogs allowed: The rise of the Mexican American civil rights movement (University of Texas Press, 2010) online
Rosales, F. Arturo. Chicano! The history of the Mexican American civil rights movement (Arte Público Press, 1997); online
External links
California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – In the Chicano/Latino Collections - University of California Santa Barbara
California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – Digital Chicano Art - University of California Santa Barbara
Calisphere > California Cultures > Hispanic Americans - University of California System
ImaginArte – Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art - University of California Santa Barbara
Mexican American News – Network of the Mexican American Community
Mexican Americans MSN Encarta (Archived 2009-11-01)
Think Mexican – News, Culture, and Information on the Mexican Community
Hispanic and Latino American history
Ethnic groups in the United States
Mexican diaspora in North America | [
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] |
220846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachers%20%28disambiguation%29 | Teachers (disambiguation) | Teachers are people who help students to acquire knowledge, competence or virtue.
Teachers may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
Film and television
Teachers (film), a 1984 American satirical comedy-drama
Teachers TV, a British TV channel and website 2005–2011
Teachers (British TV series), a comedy-drama series 2001–2004
Teachers (2006 TV series), an American version of the British series
Teachers (2016 TV series), an American sitcom on TV Land based on a web series
"Teachers", an episode of New Girl (season 4)
Music
"Teachers", a song by Leonard Cohen from the 1967 album Songs of Leonard Cohen
"Teachers", a song by Daft Punk from the 1997 album Homework
"Teachers", a song by P.O.D. from the 2006 album Testify
Other uses
Teacher's Highland Cream, a blended Scotch whisky
Teachers Building Society is a mutual British financial institution
Teachers RFC, a Bermudan rugby club
See also
Teacher (disambiguation)
Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan, or Ontario Teachers' | [
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220847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer%20and%20sickle | Hammer and sickle | The hammer and sickle (Unicode: "☭") is a symbol meant to represent proletarian solidarity – a union between agricultural and industrial workers. It was first adopted during the Russian Revolution, the hammer representing workers and the sickle representing the farmers.
After World War I (which Russia withdrew from in 1917) and the Russian Civil War, the hammer and sickle became more widely used as a symbol for labor within the Soviet Union and for international proletarian unity. It was taken up by many communist movements around the world, some with local variations. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, the hammer and sickle remains commonplace in Russia itself and other former Soviet republics. In some other former communist countries, as well as in countries where communism is banned by law, its display is prohibited. The hammer and sickle is also commonplace in later self-declared socialist states such as Cuba, China, North Korea, Vietnam, and Laos.
History
Worker symbolism
Farm and worker instruments and tools have long been used as symbols for proletarian struggle.
The combination of hammer and sickle symbolised the combination of farmers and construction workers. One example of use prior to its political instrumentalization by the Soviet Union is found in Chilean currency circulating since 1894.
An alternative example is the combination of a hammer and a plough, with the same meaning (unity of peasants and workers). In Ireland, the symbol of the plough remains in use. The Starry Plough banner was originally used by the Irish Citizen Army, a socialist republican workers' militia. James Connolly, co-founder of the Irish Citizen Army with Jack White, said the significance of the banner was that a free Ireland would control its own destiny from the plough to the stars. A sword is forged into the plough to symbolise the end of war with the establishment of a Socialist International. This was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the Irish Citizen Army during the 1916 Easter Rising.
Inception
In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Anatoly Lunacharsky held a competition to create a Soviet emblem. The winning design was a hammer and sickle on top of a globe in rays of the sun, surrounded by a wreath of grain and under a five-pointed star, with the inscription "proletarians of the world, unite!" in six languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani). It originally featured a sword, but Lenin strongly objected, disliking the violent connotations. The winning designer was Yevgeny Ivanovich Kamzolkin (1885–1957).
On 6 July 1923, the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee (CIK) adopted this emblem. In his work, Daily Life in a Crumbling Empire: The Absorption of Russia into the World Economy, sociologist David Lempert hypothesizes that the hammer and sickle was a secular replacement for the patriarchal cross.
Usage in the Soviet Union
The State Emblem of the Soviet Union and the Coats of Arms of the Soviet Republics showed the hammer and sickle, which also appeared on the red star badge on the uniform cap of the Red Army uniform and in many other places.
Serp i Molot (transliteration of , "sickle and hammer") is the name of the Moscow Metallurgical Plant.
Serp i Molot is also the name of a stop on the electric railway line from Kurski railway station in Moscow to Gorky, featured in Venedikt Yerofeyev's novel, Moscow-Petushki.
Meaning
At the time of creation, the hammer and sickle stood for worker-peasant alliance, with the hammer a traditional symbol of the industrial proletariat (who dominated the proletariat of Russia) and the sickle a traditional symbol for the peasantry, but the meaning has since broadened to a globally recognizable symbol for Marxism, communist parties, or socialist states.
Current usage
Post-Soviet states
Two federal subjects of the post-Soviet Russian Federation use the hammer and sickle in their symbols: the Vladimir Oblast has them on its flag and the Bryansk Oblast has them on its flag and coat of arms, which is also the central element of its flag. In addition, the Russian city of Oryol also uses the hammer and sickle on its flag.
The former Soviet (now Russian) national airline, Aeroflot, continues to use the hammer and sickle in its symbol.
The hammer and sickle can be found as a logo on most ushanka hats, usually the Soviet-styled ones.
The de facto government of Transnistria uses (with minor modifications) the flag and the emblem of the former Moldavian SSR, which includes the hammer and sickle. The flag can also appear without the hammer and sickle in some circumstances, for example on Transnistrian-issued license plates.
Communist parties
Three out of the five currently ruling Communist parties use a hammer and sickle as the party symbol: the Communist Party of China, the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. In Laos and Vietnam, the hammer and sickle party flags can often be seen flying side by side with their respective national flags.
Many communist parties around the world also use it, including the Communist Party of Greece, the Communist Party of Chile, both the Communist Party of Brazil and the Brazilian Communist Party, the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party from Bangladesh, the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation, the Communist Party of India, the Communist Party of India (Maoist), the Indian Communist Marxist Party, the Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist), the Egyptian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Pakistan, the Communist Party of Spain, the Communist Party of Denmark, the Communist Party of Norway, the Romanian Communist Party, the Lebanese Communist Party, the Communist Party of the Philippines and the Shining Path. The Communist Party of Sweden, the Portuguese Communist Party and the Mexican Communist Party use the hammer and sickle imposed on the red star. The hammer and sickle accompanied by the white star is used by the Communist Party (Italy), the main communist party in Italy, the country with the most usage of the symbol around the world: hammer and sickle was used in past by the Italian Socialist Party, the Proletarian Unity Party (Italy) and its forerunner Italian Socialist Party of Proletarian Unity, the Proletarian Democracy and the Party of Italian Communists, all parties formerly represented in the Italian Parliament.
Variations
Many symbols having similar structures and messages to the original have been designed. For example, the Angolan flag shows a segment of a cog, crossed by a machete and crowned with a socialist star while the flag of Mozambique features an AK-47 crossed by a hoe. In the logo of the Communist Party USA, a circle is formed by a half cog and a semicircular sickle-blade. A hammer is laid directly over the sickle's handle with the hammer's head at the logo's center. The logo of the Communist Party of Turkey consists of half a cog wheel crossed by a hammer, with a star on the top.
Tools represented in other designs include: the brush, sickle and hammer of the Workers' Party of Korea; the spade, flaming torch and quill used prior to 1984 by the British Labour Party; the pickaxe and rifle used in communist Albania; and the hammer and compasses of the East German emblem and flag. The Far Eastern Republic of Russia used an anchor crossed over a spade or pickaxe, symbolising the union of the fishermen and miners. The Fourth International, founded by Leon Trotsky, uses a hammer and sickle symbol on which the number 4 is superimposed. The hammer and sickle in the Fourth International symbol are the opposite of other hammer and sickle symbols in that the head of the hammer is on the right side and the sickle end tip on the left. The Trotskyist League for the Fifth International merges a hammer with the number 5, using the number's lower arch to form the sickle. A sickle with a rifle is also used by the Marxist and Islamist group People's Mojahedin of Iran.
The Communist Party of Britain uses the hammer and dove symbol. Designed in 1988 by Michal Boncza, it is intended to highlight the party's connection to the peace movement. It is usually used in conjunction with the hammer and sickle and it appears on all of the CPB's publications. Some members of the CPB prefer one symbol over the other, although the party's 1994 congress reaffirmed the hammer and dove's position as the official emblem of the party. Similarly, the Communist Party of Israel uses a dove over the hammer and sickle as its symbol. The flag of the Guadeloupe Communist Party uses a sickle, turned to look like a majuscule G, to represent Guadeloupe.
The flag of the Black Front, a Strasserist group founded by early Nazi Party members and expelled around the time of the Night of the Long Knives purge, along with his supporters and the Sturmabteilung and originator of the ideology and the Black Front himself Otto Strasser, featured a crossed hammer and sword, symbolizing the unity of the workers and military.
The flag of Burma(Myanmar) (from 1974–2010) featured bushel of rice superimposed on a cogwheel, the rice representing the farmers and the cogwheel representing the workers, the combination symbolizing that the farmers and workers be the two basic social classes for State building.
The flag of Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM, Party of the Revolution in Swahili), currently the ruling political party of Tanzania, has a slightly different symbol with a hammer and a hoe (jembe) instead of a sickle to represent the most common farm tool in Africa.
The National Bolshevik Party used the hammer and sickle in their flag, but colored black instead of gold and in a design similar to the Nazi flag, a brighter red flag than the USSR, with a black hammer and sickle on a white disk in the center.
The symbols of the liberal socialist parties of Radical Civic Union in Argentina and the Czech National Social Party in Czechia features a hammer and a quill with the former representing workers and the latter representing clerks.
Art
The hammer and sickle has long been a common theme in socialist realism, but it has also seen some depiction in non-Marxist popular culture. Andy Warhol who created many drawings and photographs of the hammer and sickle is the most famous example of this.
Legal status
In several countries in the former Eastern Bloc, there are laws that define the hammer and sickle as the symbol of a "totalitarian and criminal ideology" and the public display of the hammer and sickle and other Communist symbols such as the red star is considered a criminal offence. Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova (1 October 2012 – 4 June 2013) and Ukraine have banned communist symbols including this one. A similar law was considered in Estonia, but it eventually failed in a parliamentary committee.
In 2010, the Lithuanian, Latvian, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Romanian, and Czech governments called for the European Union to criminalize "the approval, denial or belittling of communist crimes" similar to how a number of EU member states have banned Holocaust denial. The European Commission turned down this request, finding after a study that the criteria for EU-wide criminal legislation were not met, leaving individual member states to determine the extent to which they wished to handle past totalitarian crimes.
In February 2013, the Constitutional Court of Hungary annulled the ban on the use of symbols of fascist and communist dictatorships, including the hammer and sickle, the red star and the swastika, saying the ban was too broad and imprecise. The court also pointed to a judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in which Hungary was found guilty of violation of article 10, the right to freedom of expression. In June 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Moldovan Communist Party’s symbols—the hammer and sickle—are legal and can be used.
In Indonesia, the display of communist symbols and the country's Communist party was banned by decree of president Suharto, following the 1965–1966 killings of communists in which over 500,000 people were killed. In January 2018, an activist protesting against Bumi Resources displayed the hammer and sickle, was accused of spreading communism, and later jailed.
In Poland, dissemination of items which are "media of fascist, communist or other totalitarian symbolism" was criminalized in 1997. However, the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional in 2011.
Usage
Flags
Europe
Asia
Africa
Americas
State emblems
Soviet Union (in the constitutional order)
Other
Logos
Europe
Asia
Africa
Americas
Unicode
In Unicode, the "hammer and sickle" symbol is U+262D (☭). It is part of the Miscellaneous Symbols (2600–26FF) code block. On systems where Compose key is available, it could be written as [Compose]+CCCP. It was added to Unicode 1.1 in 1993.
See also
Arm and hammer
Communist symbolism
Socialist heraldry
Hammer and pick (⚒)
Red flag (⚑)
Red star (★)
Transport and Map Symbols Unicode block (contains 🛠 "hammer and wrench" as U+1F6E0)
Notes
References
External links
Heraldic charges
National symbols of Armenia
National symbols of Azerbaijan
National symbols of Belarus
National symbols of Georgia (country)
National symbols of Kazakhstan
National symbols of Kyrgyzstan
National symbols of Laos
National symbols of Moldova
National symbols of Russia
National symbols of Tajikistan
National symbols of the People's Republic of China
National symbols of the Soviet Union
National symbols of Turkmenistan
National symbols of Ukraine
National symbols of Uzbekistan
Symbols of communism | [
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220852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn%20Mawr%20College | Bryn Mawr College | Bryn Mawr College ( ; Welsh: ) is a women's liberal arts college in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Founded as a Quaker institution in 1885, Bryn Mawr is one of the Seven Sister colleges, a group of elite, historically women's colleges in the United States, and the Tri-College Consortium along with Haverford College and Swarthmore College. The college has an enrollment of about 1,350 undergraduate students and 450 graduate students. It was the first women's college to offer graduate education through a PhD.
History
Bryn Mawr College is a private women's liberal arts college founded in 1885. The phrase literally means 'large hill' in Welsh. The Graduate School is co-educational. It is named after the town of Bryn Mawr, in which the campus is located, which had been renamed by a representative of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Bryn Mawr was the name of an area estate granted to Rowland Ellis by William Penn in the 1680s. Ellis's former home, also called Bryn Mawr, was a house near Dolgellau, Merioneth, Gwynedd, Wales. The college was largely founded through the bequest of Joseph W. Taylor, and its first president was James Rhoads. Bryn Mawr was one of the first institutions of higher education in the United States to offer graduate degrees, including doctorates, to women. The first class included 36 undergraduate women and eight graduate students. Bryn Mawr was originally affiliated with the Quakers (Religious Society of Friends), but by 1893 had become non-denominational.
In 1912, Bryn Mawr became the first college in the United States to offer doctorates in social work, through the Department of Social Economy and Social Research. This department became the Graduate School of Social Work and Social Research in 1970. In 1931, Bryn Mawr began accepting men as graduate students, while remaining women-only at the undergraduate level.
From 1921 to 1938 the Bryn Mawr campus was home to the Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in Industry, which was founded as part of the labor education movement and the women's labor movement. The school taught women workers political economy, science, and literature, as well as organizing many extracurricular activities.
The college celebrated its 125th anniversary of "bold vision, for women, for the world" during the 2010–2011 academic year. In September 2010, Bryn Mawr hosted an international conference on issues of educational access, equity, and opportunity in secondary schools and universities in the United States and around the world. Other festivities held for the anniversary year included publication of a commemorative book on 125 years of student life, and, in partnership with the Philadelphia Mural Arts Program, creation of a mural in West Philadelphia highlighting advances in women's education.
On February 9, 2015, the Board of Trustees announced approval of a working group recommendation to expand the undergraduate applicant pool. Transgender women and intersex individuals identifying as women may now apply for admission, while transgender men identifying as such at time of application may not. This official decision made Bryn Mawr the fourth women's college in the United States to accept trans women.
On November 19, 2020, a 16-day student strike for social justice and against racism organized by the Bryn Mawr Strike Collective came to an end. President Kim Cassidy accepted the areas that need action as demanded by the Collective and committed herself and the institution to fight for anti-racism.
Presidents
1885–1894 James Rhoads
1894–1922 M. Carey Thomas
1922–1942 Marion Edwards Park
1942–1970 Katharine Elizabeth McBride
1970–1978 Harris Wofford
1978–1997 Mary Patterson McPherson
1997–2008 Nancy J. Vickers
2008–2013 Jane Dammen McAuliffe
2013–present Kimberly Wright Cassidy
Campus
The campus was designed in part by noted landscape designers Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted, and has subsequently been designated an arboretum (the Bryn Mawr Campus Arboretum). Bryn Mawr has frequently been listed as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States .
Student residences
The majority of Bryn Mawr students live on campus in residence halls. Many of the older residence halls were designed by Cope & Stewardson (same architects who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis and Princeton University) and are known for their Collegiate Gothic architecture, modeled after Cambridge University. Each is named after a county town in Wales: Brecon, Denbigh (1891), Merion (1885), and Radnor (1887), and Pembroke East and West (1892). Rhoads North and South was named after the college's first president, James E. Rhoads; Rockefeller is named after its donor, John D. Rockefeller. Erdman was opened in 1965, designed by architect Louis Kahn. In addition, students may choose to live in Batten House (an environmentally friendly co-op). Perry House, which was originally established as the Spanish language house in 1962, was redefined as the Black Cultural Center in the 1970s. In 2015, Perry House was relaunched by the college in the former French tower of Haffner, which had undergone renovations and reconstruction the previous year. Along with Perry, now known as the Enid Cook '31 Center, a new residence hall was built where the old Haffner Language and Culture House once stood.
Glenmede (formerly graduate student housing) is an estate located about a half mile from the main campus which at one point was available housing for undergraduate students. In 2007, it was sold to a conservation buyer as the annual costs of upkeep were too great for the college.
Libraries
Bryn Mawr's library holdings are housed in the Mariam Coffin Canaday Library (opened 1970), the Rhys Carpenter Library (opened 1997), and the Lois and Reginald Collier Science Library (opened 1993). TRIPOD, the online library catalog, automatically accesses holdings at Haverford and Swarthmore.
Blanca Noel Taft Memorial Garden
In 1908, John C. Olmsted designed a private garden for M. Carey Thomas adjoining the Deanery. The garden was later modified and renamed as the Blanca Noel Taft Memorial Garden. In its current form, the garden is a small, serene enclosure with two wall fountains, one with a small basin and the other with a sunken reflecting pool. The decorative wall tiles above the smaller wall fountain and basin were purchased from Syria.
Erdman Hall Dormitory
In 1960, architect Louis I. Kahn and Bryn Mawr College president, Katharine Elizabeth McBride, came together to create the Erdman Hall dormitory.
For over a year, Kahn and his assistants struggled to translate the college's design program of 130 student rooms and public spaces into a scheme (well documented by the letters written between McBride and Kahn). The building comprises three geometrical square structures, connected at their corners. The outer walls are formed by interlocking student rooms around three inner public spaces: the entry hall, dining hall and living hall. These spaces receive light from towering light monitors.
Marjorie Walter Goodhart Theater
The Marjorie Walter Goodhart Theater houses a vaulted auditorium designed by Arthur Ingersoll Meigs of Mellor, Meigs & Howe, two smaller spaces that are ideal for intimate performances by visiting artists, practice rooms for student musicians, and the Office for the Arts. The building's towers and gables, friezes, carvings and ornamental ironwork, designed by Samuel Yellin, were done in the gothic revival style. In the fall of 2009, the college completed a $19 million renovation of Goodhart, which included expanded stage and rehearsal space, updated sound and lighting, a teaching theater, and renovated seating for audiences.
Old Library (previously M. Carey Thomas Library and College Hall)
Previously named after Bryn Mawr's first Dean and second president, Old Library was used as the primary campus library until 1970, when Mariam Coffin Canaday Library opened. The Great Hall (formerly the reading room of the library) was designed by Walter Cope (of Cope and Stewardson) in 1901 and built by Stewardson and Jamieson several years later, although M. Carey Thomas played a large part in its construction. Today, it is a space for performances, readings, lectures, and public gatherings. Old Library encloses a large open courtyard called "The Cloisters", which is the site of the college's traditional Lantern Night ceremony. The cremated remains of M. Carey Thomas and Emmy Noether are located in the Cloisters. Georgiana Goddard King is also buried in the cloister. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1991. The Great Hall was once the home of an Athena Lemnia statue (damaged in 1997) that is now located in a high alcove in the Rhys Carpenter Art and Archaeology Library. A plaster cast of that Athena now stands in her place at the Great Hall. Students often leave offerings to this statue in the hope that she will intervene on their behalf during testing and other trying circumstances. In 2018, the Board of Trustees formalized the use of the name "The Old Library."
Rhys Carpenter Art and Archaeology Library
Named for Bryn Mawr's late professor of Classical Archaeology, the Rhys Carpenter Library was designed by Henry Myerberg of New York and opened in 1997. The space is connected to the rear of the M. Carey Thomas Library. The entrance is a four-story atrium. Names of art and archaeology faculty are displayed on the main wall of the atrium, along with a series of plaster casts of the metopes of the Parthenon. Most of the stacks, study areas, lecture halls and seminar rooms are located underground. The roof comprises a wide grassy area used for outdoor concerts and picnics. The building won a 2001 Award of Excellence for Library Architecture from the Library Administration and Management Association and the American Institute of Architects. Carpenter Library also houses the college's renowned collections in Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology, History of Art, and Classics. The building also contains a large lecture hall and several seminar rooms.
The Deanery
The Bryn Mawr College Deanery was the campus residence of the first Dean and second President of Bryn Mawr College, M. Carey Thomas, who maintained a home there from 1885 to 1933. Under the direction of Thomas, the Deanery was gradually enlarged and elaborately decorated with the assistance of the American artist Lockwood de Forest and furnished with art from Thomas' world travels. From 1933 until 1968, the Deanery served as the Alumnae Center and Inn for the college. The building was demolished in the spring of 1968 to make space for the construction of Canaday Library, which stands on the site today. At the time of its demolition, many of the Deanery's furnishings were re-located to Wyndham, an 18th-century farmhouse (with several modern additions) which became the college's new Alumnae Center.
Organization
Bryn Mawr undergraduates largely govern themselves in academic and social matters via the Self-Government Association. A significant aspect of self-government is the Academic Honor System (honor code). The Honor Code is a set of principles that stress mutual respect and academic integrity. Students ratify the code each year, agree to adhere to it, and enforce its provisions.
Along with Haverford College, Bryn Mawr forms the Bi-College Community. Students in the "Bi-Co" enjoy unlimited cross-registration privileges and may choose to major at the other institution. The two institutions join with Swarthmore College to form the Tri-College Consortium, opening the Swarthmore course catalog to interested Bryn Mawr students as well. Free shuttles are provided between the three campuses. There is the Blue Bus between Bryn Mawr and Haverford College, and a van, known to the students as the "Swat Van", that travels among the three colleges.
In addition, the college is affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania through a special association known as the Quaker Consortium, allowing Bryn Mawr students to take classes there. Additionally, Bryn Mawr students in the Growth and Structure of Cities department may earn a Bachelor of Arts at Bryn Mawr and a master's degree in city planning at Penn through the 3–2 Program in City and Regional Planning. Students also are allowed to take classes related to their major at the nearby Villanova University through a specific registration process.
Academics
Bryn Mawr is a small, four year, residential baccalaureate college. Although the college offers several graduate programs, the majority of enrollments are from students enrolled in the undergraduate arts and sciences program.
Students at Bryn Mawr are required to complete divisional requirements in the social sciences, natural sciences (including lab skills) and humanities. In addition, they must complete one year of a foreign language and fulfill a quantitative skills requirement and an Emily Balch Seminar requirement. The Emily Balch Seminars are similar to courses in freshman composition at other institutions. The seminars stress development of critical thinking skills and are discussion-based, with "intensive reading and writing."
Admissions
Admission to Bryn Mawr is classified as "more selective, lower transfer in." For the Class of 2023 (enrolling fall 2019), Bryn Mawr received 3,332 applications, admitted 1,102 (33.1%), and enrolled 374 students. For the freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 640-740 for evidence-based reading and writing, and 650-770 for math, while the middle 50% ACT composite score range was 29–33.
Traditions
The four major traditions held at Bryn Mawr College include Parade Night, which traditionally took place on the first day of classes each academic year, but has been moved to the Friday of the first week of classes; Lantern Night, which takes place in late October or early November; Welcome the First Years Week (previously known as Hell Week), which takes place in mid-February; and May Day, which takes place on the Sunday after classes end in the spring semester. The Dar Williams song "As Cool As I Am" has recently become part of the tradition of May Day; it is played during the "May Hole" celebration, which is the feminist answer to the traditional maypoles displayed on campus. In the bi-campus newspaper shared with Haverford College, one student called it the college's unofficial anthem.
Bryn Mawr students gather quarterly for "Step Sings," or evenings spent outside Taylor Hall, singing hymns, traditional feminist songs and contemporary songs. Step Sings follow each major tradition.
Two Traditions heads, elected by the student body, are in charge of organizing and running traditions.
In addition to events, Bryn Mawr's traditions extend to superstitions around the campus, some of which date back to the opening of the college in 1885. Many of these superstitions involve not being able to graduate, and can be rectified by leaving an offering at the statue of Athena in the Great Hall.
Sustainability
Bryn Mawr has signed the American College and University President's Climate Commitment, and in doing so, the school agreed to make all new buildings comply with a LEED silver standard or higher; to purchase Energy Star products whenever possible; and to provide and encourage the use of public transportation. The school's dining halls strive to be environmentally sustainable by working to expand their local and organic offerings, recycling in all dining areas, and recycling used fry oil as bio-diesel fuel. The dining halls previously offered biodegradable takeout containers, but reverted to Styrofoam in the 2009/10 academic year. Additionally, all leftover food is donated to a local food bank. On the College Sustainability Report Card 2011, published by the Sustainable Endowments Institute, Bryn Mawr received a B+. The school's highest category score was an A in Investment Priorities, since Bryn Mawr invests in renewable energy funds.
Athletics
Bryn Mawr fields intercollegiate teams in badminton, basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, lacrosse, rowing, rugby, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. The badminton team won national intercollegiate championships in 1996 and 2008. The mascot of the college is the owl, the symbol of Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom.
Notable alumnae and faculty
Alumnae
A large number of Bryn Mawr alumnae have gone on to become notable in their respective fields. The list includes Drew Gilpin Faust (class of 1968), the first woman president of Harvard University; Hanna Holborn Gray (1950), the first woman president of a major research university (University of Chicago); modernist poets Hilda "H.D." Doolittle (attended), and Marianne Moore (1909); classics scholar Edith Hamilton (M.A. 1894); author, social activist and feminist Grace Lee Boggs (Ph.D. 1940); Nobel Peace Prize winner Emily Greene Balch (1889); geneticist Nettie Stevens (Ph.D. 1903); physicist and astronomer Frances Lowater (Ph.D. 1904); mathematician Ada Isabel Maddison (Ph.D. 1896); Physician Martha Tracy (1898) a pioneer in medical education and in public health; 1891 Fellow in Mathematics Ruth Gentry; artist Anne Truitt (1943); author Ellen Kushner (attended); economist and founding Director of the Congressional Budget Office Alice Rivlin (1952); four-time Academy Award-winning actress Katharine Hepburn (1928); novelist and poet Ellis Avery (1993); novelist Andrea Portes (1993); poet Jane Hess Flanders (1962); Jo Ellen Johnson Parker (B.A., 1975), the 10th president of Sweet Briar College; Hadley Richardson (attended), first wife of Ernest Hemingway; Martha Gellhorn, (attended) journalist, and third wife of Ernest Hemingway; Julia Fahl, mayor of Lambertville, New Jersey; Agnes E. Wells, women's equal rights movement activist and dean of women at Indiana University; Carol Alonso, nuclear physicist; Mary Elizabeth Taylor, former aide to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Forbes 30 under 30; Carolyn Goodman, mayor of Las Vegas from 2011-; Betsy Hodges, mayor of Minneapolis from 2013 to 2017; Renata Adler, novelist and journalist; Dame A.S. Byatt, novelist and Booker Prize winner; Joan Slonczewski, biologist and science fiction novelist; Caroline Stevermer, fantasy novelist; Rachel Simon, author and memoirist; Maggie Siff, actor (1996). Neuroscientist Candace Pert (1970) helped discover opioid receptors. Ana Botín is chair of the Santander Group, one of the world's largest banking groups. Indie musician Michelle Zauner (who performs as Japanese Breakfast) attended Bryn Mawr as well. Maya Ajmera, CEO of Society for Science & the Public also attended Bryn Mawr.
Faculty
Notable faculty include Woodrow Wilson, chemists Arthur C. Cope and Louis Fieser, Arthur Lindo Patterson of the Patterson function, Edmund Beecher Wilson, philologists Catherine Conybeare, Grace Frank and Louise Holland, archaeologist Leicester Bodine Holland, Thomas Hunt Morgan, historian Caroline Robbins, mathematicians Emmy Noether and Lillian Rosanoff Lieber, classicists Richmond Lattimore, Tenney Frank and Lily Ross Taylor, the Catalan philosopher Josep Ferrater Mora, Germanic philologist Agathe Lasch, Classical philologist Wilmer Cave Wright, Hispanist and medievalist Georgiana Goddard King, and the poet Karl Kirchwey.
Notes
References
Further reading
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. The Power and Passion of M. Carey Thomas. New York: Knopf, 1994.
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: design and experience in the women's colleges from their nineteenth-century beginnings to the 1930s; 2nd ed. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993.
External links
The Bi-College News, Bryn Mawr and Haverford Colleges' Student Newspaper
Eastern Pennsylvania Rugby Union
Educational institutions established in 1885
Gothic Revival architecture in Pennsylvania
Liberal arts colleges in Pennsylvania
Lower Merion Township, Pennsylvania
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Seven Sister Colleges
Universities and colleges in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
1885 establishments in Pennsylvania
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Quaker universities and colleges
Private universities and colleges in Pennsylvania | [
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220856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackinac%20Center%20for%20Public%20Policy | Mackinac Center for Public Policy | The Mackinac Center for Public Policy () in Midland, Michigan, is the largest state-based free market think tank in the United States.
The Mackinac Center conducts policy research and educational programs. The Center sponsors MichiganVotes.org, an online legislative voting record database which provides a non-partisan summary of every bill and vote in the Michigan legislature. Mackinac Center scholars generally recommend lower taxes, reduced regulatory authority for state agencies, right-to-work laws, school choice, and enhanced protection of individual property rights. However, they avoid socially conservative issues such as reproductive or marriage rights.
Joseph P. Overton, (1960–2003), a senior vice president of the Mackinac Center, stated the political strategy that later became known as the Overton window. Overton said that politically unpopular, unacceptable policies must be changed into politically acceptable policies before they can be enacted into law.
The Center was ranked among the top 5 percent of almost 1,900 think tanks in the United States by the 2018 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report.
History
The organization was founded in 1987. In a 2011 interview, founder Joe Olson said that the Center was first conceived in a Lansing, Michigan bar at a meeting between Olson, fellow insurance company executive Tom Hoeg, Richard McLellan and then-Senator John Engler. Olson said the founders wanted an organization that would focus on research, writing, speaking, issuing press releases and looking at public policy from a free-market point of view.
The Center began operations with no office or full-time staff. It formally opened offices in Midland in 1988 with its first president, Lawrence W. Reed, an economist, writer, and speaker who had chaired the economics department at Northwood University. The Lansing-based Cornerstone Foundation provided early direction and some funding. The Center's first annual budget under Reed was $80,000. In 1999, the Mackinac Center moved from rented offices to its current headquarters after having raised $2.4 million to renovate a former Woolworth's department store on Midland's Main Street.
Reed served as president from the Center's founding until September 2008, when he assumed the title President Emeritus and also became the president of the Foundation for Economic Education. Former Chief Operating Officer Joseph G. Lehman was named the Mackinac Center's president on September 1, 2008.
The Mackinac Center is classified as a 501(c)(3) organization under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. The Mackinac Center is a member of the State Policy Network, an umbrella organization of conservative and libertarian think tanks operating at the state level. In November 2006 The New York Times published a two-part series about state-based free-market think tanks that described how the Mackinac Center trained think-tank executives from 42 countries and nearly every US state. The New York Times also reported that, "When the Mackinac Center was founded in 1987, there were just three other conservative state-level policy institutes. Now there are 48, in 42 states."
When asked by Detroit's Metro Times in 1996, the Center's President Lawrence Reed said: "Our funding sources are primarily foundations ... with the rest coming from corporations and individuals," but that "... revealing our contributors would be a tremendous diversion..."
In 2002, the Michigan Education Association (MEA) sued the Mackinac Center over the Center's use of a supportive quote by the MEA's President in fundraising material. In 2004, the Michigan Court of Appeals threw out the lawsuit.
In 2014, the organization released a mobile app, VoteSpotter. The app allows users to track votes by elected officials in the United States. It was originally an extension of the organization's MichiganVotes.org website, but has since expanded to include other states.
In 2019, a satellite office was opened in Lansing, Michigan.
Principles
The Mackinac Center prefers the term "free market" over "conservative", because it does not address social issues such as abortion, censorship, and gambling. The Center writes that its ideology is most accurately characterized as flowing from the "classical liberal tradition" of Milton Friedman and others: "socially tolerant, economically sophisticated, desiring little government intervention in either their personal or economic affairs."
The Mackinac Center was involved in the effort to pass a right-to-work law in Michigan and has supported efforts in other states to expand right to work laws and workers' rights to not pay dues to a union they do not support. The Center also launched the website MyPayMySay.com to alert union members to their rights.
Publications
In addition to policy studies, the Center publishes a number of periodicals including Michigan Education Report, Michigan Privatization Report, Michigan Science, Michigan Capitol Confidential, Impact, Michigan Education Digest and Michigan Context and Performance Report Card.
Personnel
Policy staff members
Burton W. Folsom Jr., Senior Fellow in Economic Education
Lawrence Reed, President Emeritus
Adjunct scholars
Peter Boettke
Richard Ebeling
James Gattuso
Paul McCracken (1915–2013)
Robert Murphy
Mark J. Perry
Robert Sirico
Bradley A. Smith
John B. Taylor
Richard Vedder
Gary L. Wolfram
Board of directors
Current members of the Mackinac Center's board of directors include:
Jim Barrett, Member; President & CEO of the Michigan Chamber of Commerce
Dulce Fuller, Member; Chair of the Southeast Michigan Committee of The Heritage Foundation
Daniel Graf, Member; Financial analyst at Amerisure Mutual Holdings
Richard Haworth, Member; Chairman of Haworth, an office furniture and architectural interior company based in Holland, Michigan
Kent Herrick, Vice Chairman; President of Thermogy
J.C. Huizenga, Member; Chairman of and founder of Huizenga Group, Member of the Acton Institute board of trustees
Joseph Lehman, President; Vice chair of the National Taxpayers Union and a director of the Fairness Center
Edward Levy, Member; President of Edw. C. Levy Co.
Rodney Lockwood, Member; Chairman/CEO of the Lockwood Companies
Joseph Maguire, Treasurer; President of Wolverine Development Corporation
Richard D. McLellan, Secretary; McLellan Law Offices; formerly Dykema Gossett Law Firm
D. Joseph Olson, Member; retired from Amerisure
Clifford Taylor, Chairman; Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court from 2005 through 2009
Former members of the organization's board include:
Robert Teeter, Republican pollster and political campaign strategist
Paul V. Gadola, United States District Judge
Lawrence Reed, President Emeritus of the Mackinac Center and president of the Foundation for Economic Education
References
External links
Mackinac Center's official website
Organizational Profile, National Center for Charitable Statistics (Urban Institute)
MichiganWorkerFreedom.org
Michigan Capitol Confidential
501(c)(3) organizations
Libertarianism in the United States
Midland, Michigan
Organizations based in Michigan
Political and economic think tanks in the United States
Think tanks established in 1987
Libertarian organizations based in the United States | [
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220857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo%20della%20Quercia | Jacopo della Quercia | Jacopo della Quercia (, ; 20 October 1438), also known as Jacopo di Pietro d'Agnolo di Guarnieri, was an Italian sculptor of the Renaissance, a contemporary of Brunelleschi, Ghiberti and Donatello. He is considered a precursor of Michelangelo.
Biography
Jacopo della Quercia takes his name from Quercia Grossa (now Quercegrossa), a place near Siena, Tuscany, where he was born in 1374. He received his early training from his father, Piero d'Angelo, a woodcarver and goldsmith. Jacopo della Quercia, a Sienese, must have seen the works of Nicola Pisano and Arnolfo di Cambio on the pulpit in the cathedral of Siena and this must have influenced him. His first work may have been at the age of sixteen, an equestrian wooden statue for the funeral of Azzo Ubaldini.
In 1386 he and his father moved to Lucca, owing to party strife and disturbances.
It is likely that della Quercia studied the huge collection of Roman sculptures and sarcophagi in the Camposanto in Pisa. These and later influences made him a transitional figure in the history of European art; his work shows a pronounced midcareer shift from the Gothic style to that of the Italian Renaissance. As in the case of Ghiberti, this development probably results from exposure to his contemporary, Donatello.
Della Quercia's earliest work (though this attribution is sometimes contested) appears in the Lucca cathedral: Man of Sorrows (Altar of the Sacrament) and a relief on the tomb of St. Aniello. In 1401 he entered a competition to design the bronze doors for Florence's Baptistery, but lost to Ghiberti. The unsuccessful entry's whereabouts are unknown.
In 1403 he sculpted the marble Virgin and Child for the Ferrara cathedral. Another (possible) work from his period in Ferrara is the statuette of St. Maurelius (both on in display in the Museo del Duomo).
Back again in Lucca in 1406, he received the commission from the city's ruler, Paolo Guinigi, to begin work at the tomb of his second wife Ilaria del Carretto in the Lucca cathedral. The richly dressed woman rests on top of the sarcophagus, delicately portrayed in a Gothic fashion, with her dog, symbol of conjugate fidelity, at her feet. But his use of several nude putti at the flanks of the tomb clearly shows the classical influence of the Roman sarcophagi at Camposanto (Pisa). This is a first, a harbinger of the incipient Renaissance.
Fonte Gaia in Siena
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In 1406 he was asked to build a new fountain in the Piazza del Campo in Siena. It had to replace the original fountain with a statue of the goddess Venus. This pagan statue was blamed for an outbreak of the Black Plague. The statue was destroyed and buried outside the city walls to avert its "evil influence". This prestigious commission shows that he was already being recognized as Siena's most prominent sculptor. The rectangular fountain, built in white marble, was dedicated to the Virgin, adorned on the three sides by many statues and multiple spouts. Because he accepted also other commissions at the same time, progress was slow. He started in 1414 and the fountain was only finished in 1419. He carved the panels in the workshop for sculptors, next to the cathedral. This workshop is now converted into the Cathedral Museum. It was called Fonte Gaia, because of the joy and the festivities when it was brought into operation. It is now a center of attraction for the many tourists. The old statues were replaced by copies in 1858 from Tito Sarrocchi and are now on display in the lower levels at Santa Maria della Scala.
Other works
In 1412, contracted by a wealthy merchant Lorenzo Trenta, he started the design of the Trenta Chapel in the basilica of San Frediano in Lucca. In 1413 he was accused, together with his assistant Giovanni da Imola, of serious crimes: theft, as well as rape and sodomy of one Clara Sembrini. He fled to Siena (and began working on the Fonte Gaia), but his assistant was incarcerated for three years. Jacopo della Quercia only would return to Lucca in March 1416, given a letter of safe conduct. He continued at the Trenta Chapel on the marble altar and several statues of saints, contained in niches. Some work was also performed by his assistant. Jacopo also designed the tomb slabs of Lorenzo Trenta and his wife Isabetta Onesti, on the pavement in front of the altar.
When in 1416 Lorenzo Ghiberti was asked to design a hexagonal basin with bronze panel for the Baptistery in Siena, political infighting brought Jacopo della Quercia into the project (who had been his competitor for the bronze doors in Florence). He only completed one bronze relief The Annunciation to Zacharias because he was working at the same time on the Fonte Gaia and the Trenta Chapel. His lingering on this project brought him in legal difficulties with the authorities. Since he had been rejected in the competition for the "Doors of Paradise" in Florence, he had been reluctant to work with bronze. And when he worked on the tabernacle of the baptistery, he insisted on taking care only of the marble part.
In 1421 he carved an Annunciation, in a different style, with two wooden polychromed statues Virgin and Gabriel for the Collegiata in San Gimignano (the polychrome finishing was done by other masters, such as Martino di Bartolomeo). The sophistication of this group, equal to the quality of his marble statues, shows that he was also versatile in woodcarving. This led some authors to ascribe other wooden statues to him, but most are attributable to his very active workshop.
In his later years, he became even more active, working on different projects simultaneously. In 1427 he received the commission to design the upper part of the baptismal font for the Siena Baptistery. This hexagonal column, resting on a pillared base in the middle of the basin, contains five prophets situated in niches. The marble statue of St. John the Baptist, at the top of the dome above the tabernacle, is also attributed to Jacopo della Quercia.
Porta Magna in Bologna
In 1425 he accepted another major commission: the design of the round-arched Porta Magna of the San Petronio church in Bologna. It would keep him busy for a good deal of the last thirteen years of his life and it is considered his masterwork. Each side of the door is flanked, first by a colonette with a spirally wound decoration, then nine busts of prophets and at the end five scenes from the Old Testament, carved into somewhat lower relief. In the Creation of Adam, he uses the same arrangement as in the Fonte Gaia (in Siena), but in reverse order. Michelangelo, who had visited Bologna in 1494, conceded that his Genesis on the Sistine Chapel ceiling was based on these reliefs. The architrave above the door contains five reliefs with representations from the New Testament. The lunette contains three free-standing statues : Virgin and Child, Saint Petronius (with a model of Bologna in his right hand) and Saint Ambrose (carved by another sculptor Domenico Aimo in 1510). Originally this third statue had to represent the papal legate Cardinal Alemmano, but this intention was quickly abandoned after the cardinal had been evicted from Bologna. He relied heavily on the artists of his Bolognese workshop, such as Cino di Bartolo, for assistance in this project.
While working at the Porta Magna, he was asked in 1434 by the Sienese to design the Loggia di San Paolo, close to the Piazza del Campo. He was not able to finish this commission. At his death he had only finished the capitals and six niches.
In his final years he was awarded several honours by the Sienese. In 1435 he was knighted and given the important position of Operaio of the cathedral.
In his final years, he was also involved in the decoration of the chapel of the Saint Sebastian (destroyed in 1645) for the cardinal Casini in the cathedral of Siena, but, part of a relief of the cardinal, most work was done by his Siena workshop. This carved high relief, Cardinal Antonio Casini presented to the Virgin by St. Anthony of Egypt, is on display in the Hall of Statues in the Cathedral Museum.
Jacopo della Quercia died at Siena on 20 October 1438. He was buried in the San Agostino church in Siena.
He was already held in high esteem by his contemporaries, such as Lorenzo Ghiberti, Antonio Filarete and Giovanni Santi. Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Jacopo della Quercia in his Lives of the Artists.
Main works
An equestrian wooden statue for the funeral of Azzo Ubaldini (1400 ?)
Knight of San Cassiano (Il Cavaliere di San Cassiano) (1400?) - Wood, height 185 cm Church di San Cassiano, San Cassiano
(? ) Madonna on top of the Piccolomini altar in the Siena cathedral (1397–1400)Virgin and Child (Silvestri Madonna) (1403) - Marble, height 210 cm, Cathedral of FerraraSt. Maurelius (c. 1403) - Cathedral of Ferrara.
The tomb of Ilaria del Carretto (c. 1406) -Cathedral of Lucca
Fonte Gaia (1408–1419) - SienaVirtue (1409–19) - Marble, height 135 cm, Palazzo Pubblico, SienaHope (1409–19) - Marble, Palazzo Pubblico, SienaAcca Laurentia (1414–19) - Marble, height 162 cm, Palazzo Pubblico, SienaRhea Sylvia (1414–19) - Marble, height 160 cm, Palazzo Pubblico, SienaAnnunciation, Virgin and Gabriel - Collegiata di San Gimignano
polyptych on the Trenta family altar (1422) - Basilica di San Frediano, Lucca
Porta Magna (1425) - Basilica di San Petronio, Bologna
Fountain, panels and statuette of John the Baptist (1427) - Baptistry of Siena's cathedral.
References
Beck, James - Jacopo della Quercia'' - 797 pp, two vol., Columbia University Press 1992
External links
Jacopo Della Quercia on the Catholic Encyclopedia
Jacopo della Quercia - Web Gallery of Art
1374 births
1438 deaths
People from Siena
Italian sculptors
15th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
Catholic sculptors | [
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220861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven%20Summits | Seven Summits | The Seven Summits are the highest mountains of each of the seven traditional continents. Climbing to the summit of all of them is regarded as a mountaineering challenge, first achieved on 30 April 1985 by Richard Bass. Climbing the Seven Summits and additionally reaching the North and South poles has been dubbed the Explorers Grand Slam.
Definition
The Seven Summits are composed of each of the highest mountain peaks on each of the continents. Different lists include slight variations, but generally the same core is maintained. The seven summits depend on the definition used for a continent – in particular the location of the border of that continent. This results in two major points of variation: the first one is Mont Blanc versus Mount Elbrus for Europe, it depends on whether the crest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains is taken to define the Greater Caucasus watershed which marks the continental boundary between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian seas, this classification would place Mount Elbrus in Asia instead of Europe; and the second one is Puncak Jaya (also known as "Carstensz Pyramid") versus Mount Kosciuszko for the continent of Australia, it depends on whether one includes the Sahul Shelf or only mainland Australia as the continent. This also gives rise to another list called the "Eight Summits" including both Puncak Jaya and Mount Kosciuszko along with the six summits on the other continents.
This creates several possible versions of the seven summits:
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Mount Wilhelm (Continent)
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Kosciuszko (the Bass version)
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Elbrus, Puncak Jaya (the Messner version)
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Mount Wilhelm (the Wilhelm version)
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Kosciuszko (the 1950s explorer Hackett version)
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mont Blanc, Puncak Jaya
Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Vinson, Mauna Kea, Puncak Jaya / Kosciuszko (the tectonic version)
The concept Richard Bass and his climbing partner Frank Wells were pursuing was to be the first to stand atop the highest mountain on each continent. They pursued this goal as they defined it, climbing Aconcagua for South America, McKinley (now Denali) for North America, Kilimanjaro for Africa, Elbrus for Europe, Vinson for Antarctica, Kosciuszko for Australia, and finally Everest for Asia.
Definition using tectonic plates
Using the largest tectonic plates, Asia and Europe could be grouped as Eurasia, and the very large Pacific Plate would have Mauna Kea as its highest mountain. Puncak Jaya is actually on the Maoke Plate, while Mount Wilhelm is on the Woodlark Plate, both of which are usually grouped with the larger Australian Plate. If not, then Mount Kosciuszko would revert to being the highest of that plate (see also list of highest points of Oceanian countries).
African Plate – Kilimanjaro
Antarctic Plate – Vinson
Australian Plate – Puncak Jaya / Kosciuszko
Eurasian Plate – Mount Everest
North American Plate – Denali
Pacific Plate – Mauna Kea
South American Plate – Aconcagua
Australia
The highest mountain in mainland Australia is Mount Kosciuszko, above sea level. However, the highest mountain on the Australian continent, which includes Australia and New Guinea, is Puncak Jaya, above sea level, in the Indonesian province of Papua and on the island of New Guinea, which shares the Sahul continental shelf with Australia. Mount Kosciuszko is easier to climb, being a four hour, grade 3 return walk from the nearest car park, while Puncak Jaya is classed as a mountaineering expedition.
Some sources claim Mount Wilhelm () in Papua New Guinea's Bismarck Range (on the island of New Guinea, like Puncak Jaya) as the highest mountain on the Australian continent, on account of Indonesia being a part of Asia (see list of Southeast Asian mountains, which includes Puncak Jaya and other mountains in Western New Guinea, Indonesia). However, such a definition is political, not geophysical, and would mean that the western part of New Guinea changed continents in 1969.
In terms of Australia as a country, Mawson Peak () is higher than Kosciuszko. However, it is not located in Oceania, but on Heard Island, a small offshore island in the southern Indian Ocean. If excluding the island of New Guinea, then Aoraki / Mount Cook on the South Island of New Zealand is the highest mountain in Australasia at .
Sources that list Mount Wilhelm as highest point in Oceania or show boundaries putting Puncak Jaya in Asia include: the United Nations, 7 Continent Summits, World Atlas, the CIA World Factbook, Canada Atlas, and Papua New Guinea PNG Trekking.
Europe
The generally accepted highest summit in Europe is Mount Elbrus () in the Caucasus, appearing on both the Bass and Messner lists. However, because the location of the boundary between Asia and Europe is not universally agreed upon, its inclusion in Europe is disputed: if the Kuma–Manych Depression is used as the geological border between Asia and Europe, the Caucasus and Elbrus lie wholly in Asia. If the Greater Caucasus watershed is used instead, Elbrus' peaks are wholly in Europe, albeit close to the border with Asia. Mont Blanc (), lying on the border between France and Italy in the Graian Alps, is seen by some to be the highest mountain in Europe.
North America
Denali is the highest mountain peak in North America. The Caribbean Plate and the Panama Plate, both share geological processes with the North American continent, have their own highest mountain peaks:
North America – Denali ()
Caribbean Plate – Acatenango Volcano ()
Panama Plate – Mount Chirripó ()
South America
Aconcagua is the highest mountain peak in South America. The Altiplano Plate and the North Andes Plate, both share geological processes with the South American continent, have their own highest mountain peaks:
South America – Aconcagua ()
Altiplano Plate – probably Nevado Sajama ()
North Andes Plate – Chimborazo ()
The Bass and Messner lists
The first Seven Summits list as postulated by Bass (the Bass or Kosciusko list) chose the highest mountain of mainland Australia, Mount Kosciuszko (), to represent the Australian continent's highest summit. Reinhold Messner postulated another list (the Messner or Carstensz list), replacing Mount Kosciuszko with Indonesia's Puncak Jaya, or Carstensz Pyramid (). Neither the Bass nor the Messner list includes Mont Blanc. From a mountaineering point of view, the Messner list is the more challenging one. Climbing Carstensz Pyramid has the character of an expedition, whereas the ascent of Kosciuszko is an easy hike. Indeed, Patrick Morrow used this argument to defend his choice to adhere to the Messner list, "Being a climber first and a collector second, I felt strongly that Carstensz Pyramid, the highest mountain in Australasia ... was a true mountaineer’s objective."
Mountaineering challenge
The mountaineering challenge to climb the Seven Summits is traditionally based on either the Bass or the Messner list. (It is assumed that most of the mountaineers who have completed the Seven Summits would have climbed Mont Blanc as well.) As of January 2010, approximately 275 climbers climbed all seven of the peaks from either the Bass or the Messner list; about 30% of those have climbed all of the eight peaks required to complete both lists.
History
In 1956, William D. Hackett (1918–1999), an American mountaineer, reached the top of five continents. He climbed Denali (then known as Mount McKinley) (1947), Aconcagua (1949), Kilimanjaro (1950), Kosciuszko (1956) and Mont Blanc (1956). In that time, Mont Blanc was considered to be the highest mountain of the European continent. Hackett made an attempt to climb Mount Vinson and obtained a permit for Mount Everest in 1960, but due to several circumstances (frostbite, lack of funds, etc.), he never made it to more than five summits.
In 1970, the Japanese mountaineer and adventurer Naomi Uemura (1941-1984) was the first person to reach five of the Seven Summits including Mount Everest. He climbed Mont Blanc (1966), Kilimanjaro (1966), Aconcagua (1968), Mount Everest (1970 solo) and Denali (1970 solo). After the first solo trip to the North Pole (1978), he planned to go on his own to Antarctica to climb Mount Vinson. In preparation for the Antarctica expedition, he did a solo winter ascent of Denali (1984). On the descent he disappeared in a winter storm.
In 1978, the Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner was the first person to reach six of the Seven Summits (1971 Puncak Jaya, 1974 Aconcagua, 1976 Mount McKinley (now Denali), 1978 Kilimanjaro, 1978 Mount Everest). For Messner, Carstensz Pyramid (Puncak Jaya) was the highest peak in Australia (Messner list), but in 1983, he climbed Mount Kosciuszko to also satisfy the other geographic definition of Australia. In the same year, Messner climbed Mount Elbrus and declared that it was the true highest peak of Europe. This definition was quickly accepted by others in the mountaineering community. Finally in 1986, he climbed Mount Vinson. At that time, he was only the fifth person to reach the Seven Summits.In 1985, Richard Bass, a businessman and amateur mountaineer, was the first man to climb all Seven Summits. In only one year, 1983, he climbed six peaks: Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Mount Elbrus, Mount Vinson and Mount Kosciuszko. All of these climbs he did together with his companion Frank Wells and different mountain guides. Beginning in 1983, Bass and Wells made various guided attempts to climb Mount Everest, the highest and most difficult peak in the list. On 30 April 1985, Bass reached the summit of Mount Everest in a party without Wells, guided by the American professional mountaineer David Breashears. He then co-authored the book Seven Summits, which covered the undertaking. Later in 1985, American mountaineer Gerry Roach became the second person to climb the Seven Summits.
In 1986, the Canadian mountaineer Patrick Morrow became the first man to climb the Seven Summits in the Carstensz version (Messner list). He climbed Denali (1977), Aconcagua (1981), Mount Everest (1982), Kilimanjaro (1983), Mount Kosciuszko (1983), Mount Vinson (1985), Mount Elbrus (1985) and finally the Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid) on May 7, 1986. Morrow was also the first to complete both lists (Bass and Messner).
In 1990, Rob Hall and Gary Ball became the first to complete the "Seven Summits" in seven months. Using the Bass list, they started with Everest on 10 May 1990, and finished with Vinson on 12 December 1990, hours before the seven-month deadline.
In 1992, Junko Tabei became the first woman to complete the "Seven Summits". Mary "Dolly" Lefever became the first American woman to climb the "Seven Summits" on March 11, 1993, when she climbed Australia's Mount Kosciuszko. Earlier in 1993, she had become the oldest surviving woman to have reached the summit of Mount Everest; she was 47 years old. In January 1996, Chris Haver became the first American to climb and ski all seven summits. Yasuko Namba was famous in her native Japan for becoming the second Japanese woman to reach all of the Seven Summits including Everest, where she died during the storm of May 1996 during her descent.
In 2000, Croatian mountaineer Stipe Božić completed the Seven Summits. In May 2002, Susan Ershler and her husband, Phil, became the first married couple to climb the "Seven Summits" together. The first person to complete Seven Summits without the use of supplemental oxygen on Mount Everest is Reinhold Messner. Miroslav Caban is the second climber to finish the project without supplemental oxygen on Everest (finished in 2005 with Carstensz). Ed Viesturs also summitted all peaks without supplemental oxygen. Between 2002 and 2007, Austrian climber Christian Stangl completed the Seven Summits (Messner list), climbing alone and without supplemental oxygen, and reported a record total ascent time from respective base camp to summit of 58 hours and 45 minutes.
On 17 May 2006, Rhys Jones became the youngest person to complete the Seven Summits (Bass list) at the age of exactly 20 years. Notable climbers who had previously been the youngest to complete the Seven Summits include Rob Hall in 1990 and David Keaton in 1995. In May 2007, Samantha Larson completed the seven at the age of 18 years and 220 days (she is still the youngest woman to have climbed the Seven Summits). Johnny Strange finished climbing the summits at the age of 17 years and 161 days in June 2009. On 26 May 2011, at 6:45 Nepali time, Geordie Stewart became the youngest Briton to complete the Seven Summits at the age of 22 years and 21 days. In 2009-10, Indian mountaineer Krushnaa Patil made a bid for the fastest woman to complete the challenge; she fell short of the challenge when, in May 2009, her seventh and final summit bid on Denali was halted by her guide's illness. George Atkinson then became the youngest person in the world to complete the round aged 16 years 362 days. On 24 December 2011, the record was once again beaten, by American Jordan Romero, who completed the challenge at the age of 15 years, 5 months and 12 days by climbing Vinson.
In October 2006, Kit Deslauriers became the first person to have skied down (parts of) all seven peaks (Bass list). Three months later, in January 2007, Swedes Olof Sundström and Martin Letzter completed their Seven Summits skiing project by skiing down (parts of) Carstensz Pyramid, thus becoming the first and only people to have skied both lists.
Indian mountaineer Malli Mastan Babu also had the eminence of setting a Guinness world record by surmounting the Seven Summits in 172 days in 2006. The world record for completion of the Messner and Bass list was 136 days, by Danish climber Henrik Kristiansen in 2008. Kristiansen completed the summits in the following order: Vinson on Jan 21, Aconcagua on Feb 6, Kosciuszko on Feb 13, Kilimanjaro on Mar 1, Carstensz Pyramid on Mar 14, Elbrus on May 8, Everest on May 25, spending just 22 days on the mountain (normally, expeditions take up to two months acclimatizing, laying ropes, etc.) and finally Denali on June 5, beating Ian McKeever's previous record by 20 days. Vern Tejas set the new record for the same, in 134 days. Tejas began with summiting Vinson on 18 January 2010 and ended with summiting Denali on May 31. This was Tejas' ninth time to complete the Bass Seven Summits.
In January 2010, the Spanish climber Carlos Soria Fontán, at the age of 71, completed the seven summits (Messner list) after reaching the summit of Kilimanjaro. He had climbed the first one in 1968. On 23 May 2010, AC Sherpa summited Mount Everest as his last and final conquest of the Seven Summits (Bass list). In doing this, he set a new record by climbing the Seven Summits within 42 climbing days. Additionally, when climbing Mount Kilimanjaro (via Marangu) he summited in just 16 hours and 37 minutes, easily beating the previous record of 18 hours.
As of 24 December 2011, it is reported that only 118 people have climbed the Seven Summits if one assumes "full" completion of the quest requires climbing the "Eight Summits" across both the Bass and Messner lists (climbing both Carstensz Pyramid and Kosciusko in addition to the other six "undisputed" summits such as Everest). 231 persons have climbed the Messner list, while 234 have completed the Bass list. 348 have done either the Bass or Messner list.
In 2013, Vanessa O'Brien became the fastest female to complete the Seven Summits (including Carstensz Pyramid), finishing in 10 months. Cason Crane became the first openly gay man to climb the Seven Summits. On 21 November 2013, Werner Berger (Canada, ex-South African), at the age of 76 years and 129 days, became the oldest person in the world to complete the Seven Summits after a 6-day jungle trek to Carstensz Pyramid. In 2013, Cheryl and Nikki Bart became the first mother-daughter team to complete the Seven Summits.
On 16 December 2014, Tashi and Nungshi Malik became the world's first twins and siblings to complete the Seven Summits (Messner list). Colin O'Brady broke the record for the Messner and Bass lists in 131 days, summiting Vinson on 17 January 2016 and completing with Denali on 27 May 2016.
The youngest person to complete both the Seven Summits and the Volcanic Seven Summits is Satyarup Siddhanta from India. He completed the feat on 15 Jan 2019 after summitting Mt Sidley, Antarctica at the age of 35 years 261 days breaking the record of Daniel Bull from Australia . He was also the first Indian to accomplish the feat and created a Guinness world record.
On 6 January 2018, Chris Bombardier reached the summit of Mount Vinson, becoming the first person with hemophilia to complete the Seven Summits (Messner list). On 23 June 2018, Silvia Vasquez-Lavado reached the summit of Denali, becoming the first openly gay woman to complete the Seven Summits (including Carstensz Pyramid). On 4 January 2019, Arunima Sinha reached the summit of Mount Vinson, becoming the first female amputee to complete the Seven Summits (including Carstensz Pyramid).
Criticism
Alpinism author Jon Krakauer (1997) wrote in Into Thin Air that it would be a bigger challenge to climb the second-highest peak of each continent, known as the Seven Second Summits – a feat that was not accomplished until January 2013. This discussion had previously been published in an article titled The Second Seven Summits in Rock & Ice Magazine (#77) authored by the mountaineer and Seven Summits completer David Keaton. This is especially true for Asia, as K2 (8,611 m) demands greater technical climbing skills than Everest (8,848 m), while altitude-related factors such as the thinness of the atmosphere, high winds and low temperatures remain much the same. Some of those completing the seven ascents are aware of the magnitude of the challenge. In 2000, in a foreword to Steve Bell et al., Seven Summits, Morrow opined "[t]he only reason Reinhold [Messner] wasn’t the first person to complete the seven was that he was too busy gambolling up the 14 tallest mountains in the world."
Defence
Bill Allen, who completed the Seven Summits twice, said that getting to the summit never gets old. The 8000ers are all in East Asia; Nepal, China, India and Pakistan in a more narrow region of Earth, and many of the climbs are quite dangerous with several climbers dying short of completing all 14. Another problem is that while there are 14 main summits, there are additional sub-peaks over 8000 m. Indeed, in 2013, authorities were considering officially recognizing some additional peaks as 8000ers.
Impact and related climbing list concepts
One idea is to climb shorter peaks rather than the highest such as with the Seven Second Summits and Seven Third Summits. The Explorers Grand Slam includes the Seven Summits and both poles. Like the number one list, the number two and three lists is subject to the Bass vs. Messner geophysical/political dichotomy.
Number twos
K2
Ojos del Salado ("Eyes of Salt")
Mount Logan
Dykh-Tau ("Jagged Mount")
Mount Kenya
Mount Tyree
Puncak Mandala (formerly "Juliana Peak")
Mount Townsend
A Seven Second Summits collection was first achieved in January 2013 by Christian Stangl. It is considered to be a more difficult mountaineering challenge than the standard Seven Summits, even if the peaks are lower.
See also
Eight-thousander
Explorers Grand Slam, also known as the Adventurers Grand Slam
Extremes on Earth
List of elevation extremes by country
List of highest mountains on Earth
List of islands by highest point
Lists of mountains (for other climbing lists)
Seven Second Summits
Seven Third Summits
Three Poles Challenge
Volcanic Seven Summits
Notes
References
Bibliography
Updated until December 2011, 348 summiteers.
External links
3D Tour of the Seven Summits in Virtual Earth
7Summits.com, voluminous information within a commercial website
Essay on the criteria for the Seven Summits
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220862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanajuato%2C%20Mexico | Guanajuato, Mexico | Guanajuato, Mexico, may refer to:
The state of Guanajuato, one of the 32 component federal entities of the United Mexican States
Guanajuato, Guanajuato, capital city of that state
See also
Guanajuato (disambiguation) | [
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220865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20700%20Club | The 700 Club | The 700 Club is the flagship television program of the Christian Broadcasting Network, airing each weekday in syndication in the United States and available worldwide on CBN.com. The news magazine program features live guests, daily news, contemporary music, testimonies, and Christian ministry. Celebrities and other guests are often interviewed, and Christian lifestyle issues are presented. The program additionally features world news stories plus investigative reporting by the CBN News team.
The 700 Club has been in production since 1966. It is hosted by Gordon Robertson, Terry Meeuwsen, Ashley Key and Wendy Griffith. Previous co-hosts include Pat Robertson (1966–2021), Ben Kinchlow (1975–88, 1992–96), Sheila Walsh (1987–92), Danuta Rylko Soderman (1983–88), Kristi Watts (1999–2013), and Lisa Ryan. Tim Robertson served as host for a year (1987–88) along with Kinchlow and actress Susan Howard, while Pat Robertson ran unsuccessfully for President in the 1988 campaign.
Early history
In 1960, Pat Robertson, the son of former U.S. Senator Absalom Willis Robertson, purchased the license for WTOV-TV, channel 27 in Portsmouth, Virginia (unrelated to the current WTOV-TV in Steubenville, Ohio), which had ceased operation because of poor viewership. Renamed WYAH-TV (known today as CW affiliate WGNT), the station began broadcasting Christian programming to the Hampton Roads area on October 1, 1961.
In 1962, the station suffered financially and almost closed. To keep the station on the air, WYAH produced a special telethon edition of the show. For the telethon, Robertson set a goal of 700 members each contributing $10 per month (), which was enough to support the station. Robertson referred to these members as the "700 Club" and the name stuck. The telethon was successful and is still held annually.
After the telethon in 1966, The 700 Club continued as a nightly, two-hour Christian variety program of music, preaching, group prayer, Bible study, and interview segments. The music was hymns, instrumental pieces, southern gospel music, and urban gospel music.
The first permanent host of the program was Jim Bakker, who, along with his then-wife Tammy Faye Bakker, also hosted a children's show on WYAH called Come On Over (later retitled Jim and Tammy). The couple left CBN in 1972; reportedly, Jim Bakker was fired by Pat Robertson over philosophical differences. The Bakkers then moved on to help launch the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) before starting their own television ministry and signature show, The PTL Club. After the Bakkers left, some staffers at the station reportedly responded by destroying the Bakkers' sets and puppets. Pat Robertson took over as host, and evolved his 700 Club by cutting back on music and preaching and heading toward the talk show format developed by Bakker. Robertson transformed the 700 Club from a nightly religious-themed telethon to a Christian talk show.
The 700 Club originally aired only on WYAH-TV and other CBN-owned stations in Atlanta (WANX-TV) and Dallas (KXTX-TV), and later Boston (WXNE-TV). The program entered national syndication in 1974, as CBN purchased airtime on stations such as WPIX in New York City, KTLA in Los Angeles, WPHL-TV in Philadelphia, and WDCA in Washington, D.C., among others. The roster of stations carrying the program grew to over 100 markets by 1976. In some markets, the show aired on multiple stations, choosing between either the full 90-minute version or an edited 60-minute version. In 1977, The 700 Club received additional exposure nationally on the newly launched CBN Cable Network where, like CBN's broadcast outlets, it aired three times daily.
1980–present
In 1979, The 700 Club moved its studios from WYAH's facilities in Portsmouth into CBN's then-new campus in neighboring Virginia Beach, where the program continues to originate. During the 1980s, the show evolved into more of a format resembling a magazine show like Group W's PM Magazine, with news/opinion and lifestyle segments interspersed with interviews. In some markets, The 700 Club aired during the morning hours, competing head-to-head with the major network "breakfast television" programs such as NBC's Today and ABC's Good Morning America.
Even after CBN sold its group of terrestrial stations later in the decade, The 700 Club continued to air on CBN Cable as well as many commercial secular stations and Christian stations nationally. CBN was re-branded as The Family Channel in 1988. The Family Channel was packaged as part of a sale of International Family Entertainment to News Corporation and television producer Haim Saban in 1998. The channel was renamed Fox Family Channel, but only three years later Fox Family was sold to The Walt Disney Company and was subsequently re-branded ABC Family. Disney later rebranded ABC Family as Freeform on January 12, 2016; Freeform was later reunited with many of its former corporate siblings from News Corporation in 2019. , The 700 Club airs on Freeform three times daily, part of a contractual obligation originally made as part of the Family Channel's sale to News Corporation. As of 2009, the first airing of the show in the morning (only) has been preceded by a half-hour show called 700 Club Interactive, which utilizes Internet user-generated videos and comments by viewers of the show.
Political advocacy
Between 1978 and 1980, discussions on current political issues became a part of the program, and news segments were added in the first 20 minutes of the show. The 700 Club strongly supports Israel, especially in its conflicts with the Palestinians and the United Nations. Among its frequent Jewish guests are Michael Medved and Rabbi Daniel Lapin, who share Clubs conservative Judeo-Christian beliefs.
Staff HostsGordon Robertson (1998–)
Terry Meeuwsen (1993–)
Wendy Griffith (2013–), occasional news anchor
Ashley Key (2021–present)CBN News reportersJohn Jessup (2003–), main news anchor
Charlene Aaron (2003-), news anchor
Jennifer Wishon (2008–)
Efrem Graham (2009–)
Mark Martin (2009–)
Gary Lane (1984-)
Dale Hurd (1991–)
Scott Ross (1988–)
Chris Mitchell (1989-)
Paul Strand (1995–)
George Thomas (1996-)
Heather Sells (2005-)
Lorie Johnson (2009-)
Caitlin Burke (2014-)
Abigail Robertson (2015-)
Jenna Browder (2016-)
Brody Carter (2021-)
Former HostsPat Robertson (1966–87, 1988–2021)
Jim Bakker (1966–72) alternating hosting duties with Robertson
Ben Kinchlow (1975–88, 1992–96)
Sheila Walsh (1987–92)
Danuta Rylko Soderman (1983–88)
Kristi Watts (1999–2013)
Lisa Ryan (1996–2005)
Tim Robertson (1987–88)
Susan Howard (1987–88)CBN News reporters'''
Lee Webb (2001–13)
Criticism
As a commentator and minister on The 700 Club, Robertson has made a number of controversial statements that have attracted criticism. Some of his remarks have been the subject of national and international media attention, prompting responses from politicians.
Robertson's service as a minister has included the controversial belief in the healing power of God. He credited his prayers for steering the course of Hurricane Gloria in 1985. On March 23, 1995, Pat Robertson led a television program in which he attacked Hinduism, calling it "demonic". He has also referred to Islam as "Satanic". Robertson has denounced views of feminism, activism regarding homosexuality, abortion, and liberal college professors. Critics claim Robertson had business dealings in Africa with former presidents Charles Taylor of Liberia and Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire who both had been internationally denounced for claims of human rights violations. Robertson was criticized worldwide for his call for Hugo Chávez's assassination and for his remarks concerning Ariel Sharon's ill-health as an act of God.
Former 700 Club co-host Danuta Rylko Soderman later criticized Robertson for having no room on the show for profiling people with progressive illness, who were overweight, had facial blemishes, used wheelchairs, crutches, were blind or had blindness, no disabilities that could not be healed as Robertson viewed people with such problems as "failures of the faith" and that "Robertson offers the Reader’s Digest version of answers to difficult and demanding religious, social, financial, marital, political, sexual and moral concepts." She also accused the show of faking a piece that had Robertson walking into a Contras camp in the Nicaraguan jungle during the Nicaraguan Civil War, claiming that the camp was actually a "prop" built by an airfield specifically for Robertson's visit.
The week of September 11, 2001, Robertson discussed the terror attacks with Jerry Falwell, who said that "the ACLU has to take a lot of blame for this" in addition to "the pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays, and the lesbians [who have] helped [the terror attacks of September 11th] happen". Robertson replied, "I totally concur". Both evangelists were seriously criticized by President George W. Bush for their commentary, for which Falwell later issued an apology.
In October 2003, while interviewing State Department critic Joel Mowbray about his book Dangerous Diplomacy'', Robertson appeared to suggest that destroying the Harry S Truman Building with a nuclear bomb would enhance United States security by eliminating a nest of liberal traitors who secretly yearn for Islamic world domination. After officials condemned his remarks, Robertson aired a "clarifying" segment which he described as "issu[ing] a correction to the State Department" in which he reiterated his previous comments.
On November 9, 2009, Robertson said that Islam is "a violent political system bent on the overthrow of the governments of the world and world domination". He went on to elaborate that "you're dealing with not a religion, you're dealing with a political system, and I think we should treat it as such, and treat its adherents as such as we would members of the communist party, members of some fascist group".
Robertson's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake also drew worldwide controversy and was met with international condemnation. Robertson claimed that Haiti's founders had sworn a "pact to the Devil" in order to liberate themselves from the French slave owners and indirectly attributed the earthquake to the consequences of the Haitian people being "cursed" for doing so. CBN later issued a statement saying that Robertson's comments "were based on the widely-discussed 1791 slave rebellion led by Dutty Boukman at Bois Caiman, where the slaves allegedly made a famous pact with the devil in exchange for victory over the French". Various figures in mainline and evangelical Christianity have on occasion disavowed some of Robertson's remarks.
References
External links
for UK & Europe
The 700 Club at Trinity Broadcasting Network
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Christian Broadcasting Network original programming | [
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220871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puebla%2C%20Mexico | Puebla, Mexico | Puebla, Mexico, may refer to:
Puebla, one of the 32 component federal entities of the United Mexican States
Puebla, Puebla, capital city of that state (also known, inter alia, as "Puebla de los Ángeles", "Heróica Puebla de Zaragoza", etc.) | [
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220872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cry%20of%20Dolores | Cry of Dolores | The Cry of Dolores () occurred in Dolores, Mexico, on 16 September 1810, when Roman Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang his church bell and gave the call to arms that triggered the Mexican War of Independence.
Every year on the eve of Independence Day, the President of Mexico re-enacts the cry from the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City, while ringing the same bell Hidalgo used in 1810.
Historical event
In the 1810s, what would become Mexico was still New Spain, part of the Spanish crown. The independence movement began to take shape when José Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara went to the small town of Dolores (now known as Dolores Hidalgo) and asked the local Roman Catholic priest, Miguel Hidalgo, to help initiate an effort to free New Spain from Spanish control.
Gutiérrez de Lara went to Washington, D.C. for military support (being the first Mexican to do so). Hidalgo remained in Dolores, waiting for Gutiérrez de Lara to return with military support. However, fearing arrest, Hidalgo told his brother Mauricio to make the sheriff free the pro-independence inmates there. Mauricio and armed men set 80 inmates free in the early morning hours of 16 September 1810. Around 2:30 a.m., Hidalgo ordered the church bells to be rung and gathered his congregation. Flanked by Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama, he addressed the people in front of his church, urging them to revolt. His speech became known as the "Cry of Dolores".
The liberated country adopted Mexico as its official name. Mexico's independence from Spain took a decade of war. Gutiérrez de Lara commanded and led Mexico to victory. Independence was achieved by the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 28 September 1821. However, Hidalgo is credited as being the "father of his country".
Exact words and meaning
Scholars have not been able to reach a consensus on the exact words Miguel Hidalgo said at the time. Michael Meyer has noted: "The exact words of this most famous of all Mexican speeches are not known, or, rather, they are reproduced in almost as many variations as there are historians to reproduce them."
Meyer also argues that:
In contrast, William F. Cloud divides the sentiments above between Hidalgo and the crowd:
Many believe that Hidalgo's Grito condemned the notion of monarchy and criticized the current social order in detail. In fact, his opposition was targeted to Spain and its viceroy in Mexico: that is, not against the monarchy in general but against "bad government". The Grito also emphasized loyalty to the Catholic religion, a sentiment with which both Mexican-born Criollos and Peninsulares (native Spaniards) could sympathize. However, the strong anti-Spanish cry of "Death to Gachupines" (Gachupines being a slur given to Peninsulares) would have shocked Mexico's elites.
National festivities
The day of 16 September was first celebrated in 1812 in Huichapan, Hidalgo. It was given the status of a national holiday in the Constitution of Apatzingán, ratified by the conventions of 1822 and 1824, and first celebrated nationally in 1825.
The Cry of Dolores has assumed an almost mythical status. Since the late 20th century, the event has come to symbolize Mexican independence and to initiate Independence Day ceremonies the following day (16 September). Independence Day in Mexico is a patriotic holiday, marked by parades, concerts, patriotic programs, drum and bugle and marching band competitions, and special programs on the national and local media outlets.
Presidential celebration at Mexico City
Every 15 September at around 11 p.m., the President of Mexico stands on the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City and rings the same bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810, which was moved to the National Palace. The President then recites a shout of patriotism (a Grito Mexicano) based upon the "Grito de Dolores", with the names of the important heroes of the Mexican War of Independence who were there on that historic day. The Grito ends with the threefold shout of ¡Viva México!
The Grito often differs slightly from year to year to reflect recent sentiments, or a preference by the President for a shorter or longer shout. This is the version often recited by the President of Mexico:
Spanish
¡Mexicanos!
¡Vivan los héroes que nos dieron patria!
¡Viva Hidalgo!
¡Viva Morelos!
¡Viva Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez!
¡Viva Allende!
¡Viva Aldama y Matamoros!
¡Viva la Independencia Nacional!
¡Viva México! ¡Viva México! ¡Viva México!
English
Mexicans!
Long live the heroes who gave us our homeland!
Long live Hidalgo!
Long live Morelos!
Long live Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez!
Long live Allende!
Long live Aldama and Matamoros!
Long live the nation's independence!
Long Live Mexico! Long Live Mexico! Long Live Mexico!
Beneath the balcony of the National Palace, there is a large crowd in the Plaza de la Constitución (also called the Zócalo), to hear the recitation. The event draws up to half a million spectators from all over Mexico and tourists worldwide. After the President recites each line beginning with "¡Viva(n)!", the crowd responds by repeating, "¡Viva(n)!"
After the recitation, the President rings the bell one last time and waves the Flag of Mexico to the applause of the crowd.
This is followed by the playing of the Mexican national anthem by a military band from the Mexican Armed Forces, with the crowd singing along. The ceremonies conclude with a spectacular fireworks display at the Zócalo grounds.
On the morning of 16 September, or Independence Day, the national military parade in honor of the holiday starts in the Zócalo and its outskirts, passes the Hidalgo Memorial and ends on the Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City’s main boulevard, passing "El Ángel de la Independencia" memorial column and other places along the way.
Recent exceptions
The Grito is not always re-enacted at the National Palace; some years it is performed in Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, where it originally happened. This is especially common in the final year of a President's term.
President Felipe Calderón made an exception by re-enacting the Grito in Dolores Hidalgo as part of the bicentennial celebrations on 16 September 2010, even though he had already done so the night before from the National Palace balcony to launch the celebrations. As a result, in 2012, Calderón's final year as President, he did not go to Dolores Hidalgo but gave the Grito from the National Palace balcony instead. President Enrique Peña Nieto did not give the Grito in Dolores Hidalgo in any of his six years as President, becoming the fourth president to break the tradition.
Many presidents add their "personal touch" to the Grito and this can be controversial. President Vicente Fox frequently took liberties with it, adding and removing items, addressing Mexicans in both genders, and in 2001 wishing long life to "our agreements". Peña Nieto gave "vivas" to victims of recent earthquakes in 2017.
During Peña Nieto's presidency, the Grito became an occasion for political protest against him and his Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). On 15 September 2016, a month after the president appeared to be humiliated by U.S. Presidential candidate Donald Trump, thousands of citizens marched, yelled, and carried signs. They tried to enter the Zócalo during the Grito, but were blocked by a wall of soldiers. News outlets within Mexico failed to acknowledge the protest. The event was well-attended but opponents charge that the PRI brought acarreados (poor people or hand-picked party members) as a fake show of support.
The Grito was also disrupted in 2006 by a demonstration called the Plantón. Crowds loyal to losing candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador protested alleged irregularities in the general election just concluded, and the Grito could not be delivered at the Zócalo but was spoken at the National Palace. López Obrador won the presidency in 2018.
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused the Grito to be done remotely.
Celebrations by governors and municipal presidents
Similar celebrations to the Presidential one occur in cities and towns throughout Mexico, and in Mexican embassies and consulates worldwide on 15 or 16 September. The chief executive, ambassador, or consul rings a bell and recites the traditional words, including the names of independence heroes and local patriots, and ending with the threefold shout of Viva Mexico! The bell rings a second time, the Mexican flag is waved, and everyone sings the National Anthem, followed by fireworks. There are also celebrations in schools throughout Mexico, and in these cases whenever the bell ringing is reenacted the school or university head utters the traditional words. Celebrations also take place outside of Mexico, such as in U.S. states that have a large concentration of people of Mexican heritage who celebrate the holiday.
Notes
References
Further reading
Sr. Antonio Barajas Becerra, "Entrada de los Insurgentes a la Villa de San Miguel El Grande, la tarde del Domingo, 16 de Septiembre de 1801."
Antonio Barajas Beccera, 1969, Generalisimo don Ignacio de Allende y Unzaga, 2a edicion, p. 108 ("a las cinco de la manana del domingo 16 de Septiembre, 1810").
Gloria Cisneros Lenoir, Miguel Guzman Peredo, 1985, Miguel Hidalgo y la Ruta de la Independencia, Bertelsmann de Mexico, p. 87.
External links
Mexico connect.com: "El Grito" (The Cry)
Bibliography and Hemerography: Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla.
Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla - Documents of 1810 and 1811.
Chronology of Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla
Mexico Celebrates Its Bicentennial - slideshow by Life magazine
Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)
Mexican War of Independence
1810 in New Spain
Battle cries
Colonial Mexico
History of Guanajuato
Independent Mexico
Mexico
Political catchphrases
September observances
September 1810 events | [
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220881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolores%20Hidalgo | Dolores Hidalgo | Dolores Hidalgo (; in full, Dolores Hidalgo Cuna de la Independencia Nacional, ) is the name of a city and the surrounding municipality in the north-central part of the Mexican state of Guanajuato.
It is located at , at an elevation of about 1,980 meters (6,480 feet) above sea level. In the census of 2005 the city had a population of 54,843 people, while the municipality had 134,641 inhabitants. The city lies directly in the center of the municipality, which is 1,590 km² (613.9 sq mi) in area and includes numerous small outlying communities, the largest of which is Río Laja.
Dolores Hidalgo was named a Pueblo Mágico (Magic Town) in 2002
History
The city was a small town known simply as Dolores when Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla uttered his famous cry for the independence of Mexico (the Grito de Dolores) there in the early hours of September 16, 1810, in front of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores parish church. After Mexico achieved independence, the town was renamed Dolores Hidalgo in his honor.
Today Dolores Hidalgo is known primarily for its ceramics industry, started by Father Hidalgo, which provides income to well over half the city's population. The inexpensive and mass-produced output of the town is marketed throughout Latin America and the United States. The central square of the town, in front of Fr Hidalgo's historic church, is a popular tourist spot.
A place of pilgrimage in Dolores Hidalgo for many fans of ranchera and popular music is the tomb of José Alfredo Jiménez, one of the country's most beloved singers and songwriters, as well as one of the most prolific popular songwriters in the history of western music. He is buried in the town cemetery.
Footballer Adolfo "El Bofo" Bautista and USA Olympian Leonel Manzano were born here.
References
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
Guanajuato Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
External links
−Dolores Hidalgo Cuna de la Independencia Nacional — Official website.
San Luis De La Paz, Guanajuato Nearby colonial town.
Dolores Hidalgo eGuide to Dolores Hidalgo
Bibliography and Hemerography: Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla.
Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla - Documents of 1810 and 1811.
Chronology of Miguel Hidalgo and Costilla.
Points of interest on the map for Dolores Hidalgo
Populated places in Guanajuato
Municipalities of Guanajuato
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220884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence%20Cathedral | Florence Cathedral | Florence Cathedral, formally the (; in English Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower), is the cathedral of Florence, Italy (). It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white, and has an elaborate 19th-century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.
The cathedral complex, in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. These three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major tourist attraction of Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until the development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
The cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is Giuseppe Betori.
History
Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of Florence's second cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata; the first was the Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze, the first building of which was consecrated as a church in 393 by St. Ambrose of Milan. The ancient structure, founded in the early 5th century and having undergone many repairs, was crumbling with age, according to the 14th-century Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani, and was no longer large enough to serve the growing population of the city. Other major Tuscan cities had undertaken ambitious reconstructions of their cathedrals during the Late Medieval period, such as Pisa and particularly Siena where the enormous proposed extensions were never completed.
City council approved the design of Arnolfo di Cambio for the new church in 1294. Di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on 9 September 1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 140 years; Arnolfo's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size.
After Arnolfo died in 1302, work on the cathedral slowed for almost 50 years. When the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of wool merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died on 8 January 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348.
In 1349, work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, starting with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the centre nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and only the dome remained incomplete until 1418.
On 19 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neri's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutor, drew a salary equal to Brunelleschi's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, was promised equal credit, although he spent most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423, Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.
Work on the dome began in 1420 and finished in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on 25 March 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration in 1436, Guillaume Dufay's motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed.
The decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed with the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower. There are two side doors: the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six side windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
During its long history, the cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), has heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici on Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo il Magnifico barely escaping death), in the Pazzi conspiracy.
Exterior
Plan and structure
The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
The dimensions of the building are enormous: building area , length , width , width at the crossing . The height of the arches in the aisles is . The height of the dome is . It has the fifth tallest dome in the world.
Planned Sculpture for the exterior
The Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. Donatello, then in his early twenties, was commissioned to carve a statue of David in 1408, to top one of the buttresses of Florence Cathedral, though it was never placed there. Nanni di Banco was commissioned to carve a marble statue of Isaiah, at the same scale, in the same year. One of the statues was lifted into place in 1409, but was found to be too small to be easily visible from the ground and was taken down; both statues then languished in the workshop of the opera for several years. In 1410 Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. In 1409-1411 Donatello made a statue of Saint John the Evangelist which until 1588 was in a niche of the old cathedral façade. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. A statue of David by Michelangelo was completed 1501-1504 although it could not be placed on the buttress because of its six-ton weight. In 2010 a fiberglass replica of "David" was placed for one day on the Florence cathedral.
Dome
After a hundred years of construction and by the beginning of the 15th century, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, high, long, was standing in a side aisle of the unfinished building, and had long been sacrosanct. It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravanti's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini. That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts. Furthermore, the use of buttresses was forbidden in Florence, as the style was favored by central Italy's traditional enemies to the north. Neri's model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome's Pantheon, partly supported by the inner dome, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri's dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. The Pantheon had employed structural centring to support the concrete dome while it cured. This could not be the solution in the case of a dome this size and would put the church out of use. For the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting above the floor and spanning , there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms. Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of brick, due to its light weight compared to stone and being easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco, a model which is still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi's control over the construction.
Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious. The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one at the top, one at the bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.
Each of Brunelleschi's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams in diameter and no more than long. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. Brunelleschi also included vertical "ribs" set on the corners of the octagon, curving towards the center point. The ribs, deep, are supported by 16 concealed ribs radiating from center. The ribs had slits to take beams that supported platforms, thus allowing the work to progress upward without the need for scaffolding.
A circular masonry dome can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome.
The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only thick at the base and thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome and has no embedded chains.
A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses were centuries in the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition, even though there had been evidence that Brunelleschi had been working on a design for a lantern for the upper part of the dome. The evidence is shown in the curvature, which was made steeper than the original model. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo) was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to . This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
The commission for this gilt copper ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention.
Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore".
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world.
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the 19th century.
Facade
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto's death. A mid-15th-century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was completed in only its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587–1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre.
The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years, but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
In 1864, a competition held to design a new façade was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808–1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and was completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
Main Portal
The three huge bronze doors date from 1899 to 1903. They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna. The mosaics in the lunettes above the doors were designed by Niccolò Barabino. They represent (from left to right): Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions; Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist; and Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists. The pediment above the central portal contains a half-relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter. Giuseppe Cassioli sculpted the right-hand door.
On top of the façade is a series of niches with the twelve Apostles with, in the middle, the Madonna with Child. Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists.
Interior
The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression. The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola.
Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits (the singing galleries for the choristers) of Luca della Robbia and Donatello.
As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:
Lorenzo Ghiberti had a large artistic impact on the cathedral. Ghiberti worked with Filippo Brunelleschi on the cathedral for eighteen years and had a large number of projects on almost the whole east end. Some of his works were the stained glass designs, the bronze shrine of Saint Zenobius and marble revetments on the outside of the cathedral.
Dante Before the City of Florence by Domenico di Michelino (1465). This painting is especially interesting because it shows us, apart from scenes of the Divine Comedy, a view on Florence in 1465, a Florence such as Dante himself could not have seen in his time.
Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood by Paolo Uccello (1436). This almost monochrome fresco, transferred to canvas in the 19th century, is painted in terra verde, a color closest to the patina of bronze.
Equestrian statue of Niccolò da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno (1456). This fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th century, in the same style as the previous one, is painted in a color resembling marble. However, it is more richly decorated and gives more the impression of movement. Both frescoes portray the condottieri as heroic figures riding triumphantly. Both painters had problems when applying in painting the new rules of perspective to foreshortening: they used two unifying points, one for the horse and one for the pedestal, instead a single unifying point.
Busts of Giotto (by Benedetto da Maiano), Brunelleschi (by Buggiano – 1447), Marsilio Ficino, and Antonio Squarcialupi (a most famous organist). These busts all date from the 15th and the 16th centuries.
Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello (1443). This one-handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica (Italian time), a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours. This timetable was used until the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order.
The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary. They are the work of the greatest Florentine artists of their times, such as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained-glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century.
Donatello designed the stained-glass window (Coronation of the Virgin) in the drum of the dome (the only one that can be seen from the nave).
The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso (1323), bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time.
The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano (1495–1497). The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli. The ten-paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ.
In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one of his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser-known Giovanni Balducci. There was also a glass-paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th-century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo.
Many decorations date from the 16th-century patronage of the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo (1520–26). Some pieces of marble from the façade were used, topside down, in the flooring (as was shown by the restoration of the floor after the 1966 flooding).
The ceiling of the dome is decorated with a representation of The Last Judgment. Originally left whitewashed following its completion it was the Grand Duke Cosimo I de' Medici who decided to have the ceiling of the dome painted. This enormous work, 3,600 metres² (38 750 ft²) of painted surface, was started in 1572 by Giorgio Vasari and would not be completed until 1579. The upper portion, near the lantern, representing The 24 Elders of Apocalypse was finished by Vasari before his death in 1574. Federico Zuccari with the assistance of Bartolomeo Carducci, Domenico Passignano and Stefano Pieri finished the other portions: (from top to bottom) Choirs of Angels; Christ, Mary and Saints; Virtues, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Beatitudes; and at the bottom of the cupola: Capital Sins and Hell. These frescoes are considered Zuccari's greatest work. But the quality of the work is uneven because of the input of different artists and the different techniques. Vasari had used true fresco, while Zuccari had painted in secco. During the restoration work, which ended in 1995, the entire pictorial cycle of The Last Judgment was photographed with specially designed equipment and all the information collected in a catalogue. All the restoration information along with reconstructed images of the frescos were stored and managed in the Thesaurus Florentinus computer system.
Crypt
The cathedral underwent difficult excavations between 1965 and 1974. The archaeological history of this huge area was reconstructed through the work of Dr. Franklin Toker: remains of Roman houses, an early Christian pavement, ruins of the former cathedral of Santa Reparata and successive enlargements of this church. Close to the entrance, in the part of the crypt open to the public, is the tomb of Brunelleschi. While its location is prominent, the actual tomb is simple and humble. That the architect was permitted such a prestigious burial place is proof of the high esteem he was held in by the Florentines.
Other burials
Zenobius of Florence
Conrad II of Italy
Giovanni Benelli
Filippo Brunelleschi
Giotto di Bondone
Pope Nicholas II
Pope Stephen IX
John Hawkwood
Cracking of the dome
The unreinforced masonry that Brunelleschi used to construct the dome is weak in tension which leads to cracking when tensile stresses exceed the limited masonry tensile strength. The material is especially susceptible to damage from seismic loading due to its heterogeneity and many surfaces between different materials (stones to mortar connection).
Cracking of the dome was observed even before its construction was completed. It is possible that the first cracks were caused by a strong earthquake in 1453.
The first written evidence about the presence of cracks appears in a report by Gherardo Silvani report dated 18 September 1639 which refers to “peli” (“hairs”). In 1694 Gianbattista Nelli and Vincenzo Viviani surveyed the cracks with Nelli recording that there were two major cracks with a maximum width of . They believed that the cracks were caused by the weight of the dome, and the resulting the horizontal thrusts on the pillars.
A commission, headed by Vincenzo Viviani carried out investigations in 1695 and came to the conclusion that the cracking was due to the dead weight of the buildings, it was proposed that the dome be strengthened by installing four large iron belts; three on the outside of the dome between the bugling area of the dome and the circular windows, while the fourth would be installed internally in the second walkway between the two shells. This was similar to what had been done on the dome of St. Peter's in Rome. After a long debate, the discussion was made to leave the dome as it was.
The first most complete survey of the cracks was published in 1757 by the Jesuit Leonardo Ximenes (1716–1786). In his document he described 13 different crack typologies.
In 1934, Pier Luigi Nervi, who was head of a special commission established by the Opera del Duomo to study the cracking observed that the cracks opened and closed with the seasons. In the winter, the domes stone and bricks would contract causing the cracks to widen while over the summer the materials would expand and the cracks would close up.
While modern buildings by design incorporate expansion joints, the cathedral's dome does not include any and so subsequently developed its own expansion joints in the form of these cracks which allowed the structure to “breath”. To date they have not caused any catastrophic damage to the dome.
In 1955 the Opera del Duomo installed 22 mechanical deformometers, which were read four times a year to record the variations in the width of the major cracks in the inner dome. At the same time the dome's internal and external temperatures were also recorded. This remained in service until 2009.
In 1975 a commission was appointed by the Italian government to safeguard the dome.
In 1978 a government culture agency decided to restore the frescoes. Brunelleschi left forty eight holes in the base of the dome. They are open on the inside and covered by the outer skin of the dome. It has long been assumed that the holes simply served as mounts for the scaffold used when frescoes were painted on the inside of the dome. While the holes had been able to support the scaffolding used for the creation of the frescos on the interior of the dome they were not strong enough for the network of modern metal scaffolding necessary to provide access for the restoration work undertaken on the frescos between 1979 and 1995. To strengthen the private company contracted to build scaffolding for the work was allowed in 1982 to fill the holes with concrete so that steel beams could be anchored in them.
In 1985 local architect Lando Bartoli noticed that additional cracks were forming around the sealed holes. It was theorized at the time that in summer the four major masses separated by the “A” cracks expanded into the fissures, but now, at the base of the dome, the masses come up against the unyielding concrete that now fills the 48 holes acts as a fulcrum which causes the energy that was once dissipated with the closing of the fissures and into the holes to be transferred into the upper areas of the dome.
However analysis by Andrea Chiarugi, Michele Fanelli and Giuseppetti (published in 1983) found that the principal source of the cracks was a dead-weight effect due to the geometry of the dome, its weight (estimated to be 25,000 tons) and the insufficient resistance of the ring beam, while thermal variations, has caused fatigue loading and thus expanding of the structure.
This is a well-known collapse mechanism typical of domed structures: a lowering of the top of the structure under its own weight with significant horizontal thrusts on the bearing elements.
In 1985 a commission established by the Italian Ministry of Cultural and Monumental Heritage accepted this theory. The debate about the filling of the scaffolding holes was finally settled in 1987 when it was demonstrated that closing the 48 holes had had no impact on the expansion and contraction of the dome.
A survey completed in 1984 counted a total of 493 cracks of various sizes, sorted into categories identified by the letters “A” through “D”. These are as follows:
Type A. These are sub-vertical major cracks that start from the ring beam and continue upwards for approximately two-thirds of the height of the dome; they pass through both the internal and external layer of the even webs and their range in thickness from to (webs 4 and 6) and to (webs 2 and 8). The dome has eight webs numbered counter clockwise from 1, which faces the main nave of the cathedral. These effectively divide the dome into quarters and never completely close in summer. There is a theory that the plaster used to patch the cracks over the years and crumbling building materials have jammed the fissures.
Type B. These sub-vertical minor cracks are located near the circular windows.
Type C. These are sub-vertical minor cracks that are present around the eight edges of the dome.
Type D. These are four sub-vertical minor cracks in the internal part of the odd webs. They do not pass through the width of the dome.
All have formed in a symmetrical pattern.
The development of the Type “A” cracks means that the dome now permanently behaves as four drifting half-arches linked below the upper oculus. The abutments of these half-arches are constituted by the pillars, the chapels and the nave of the church.
The differences in the cracking patterns between even and odd webs is believed to be due to variations in the stiffness of the supporting ring beam structure under the dome as it is supported by four heavy pillars which lien up with the even webs while the odd webs are located over four arches which connect the pillars.
In 1987 a second and more comprehensive digital system (which automatically collects data every six hours) was installed by ISMES (in cooperation with the “Soprintendenza”, the local branch of the Ministry of Culture, which is responsible for the conservation of all historical monuments in Florence) in 1987. It consists of 166 instruments, among which are 60 thermometers measuring the masonry and air temperature at various locations, 72 inductive type displacement transducers (deformometers) at various levels on the main cracks of the inner and outer domes; eight plumb-lines at the centre of each web, which measure the relative displacements between pillars and tambour; eight livellometers and two piezometers, one near the web 4 and the other below the nave which register the variation of the underground water level.
A linear regression analysis of the recorded data has shown that the major cracks are widening by approximately per century. Another source quotes a movement of 5.5mm.
Using software that had been used to model the structures of large dam a computer model of the dome was developed in 1980 in a collaboration between Italian National Agency for Electric Power and Structural and Hydraulic Research Centre (CRIS) by a group of researcher leaded by Michele Fanelli and Gabriella Giuseppetti in cooperation with the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Florence, under the supervision of Andrea Chiarugi. Because of limited computational resources and for reasons of symmetry only a quarter of the dome was modelled. The resulting finite elements analysis confirmed that the main cracks was essentially being created by self-weight of the dome. Since then series of numerical models of increasing complexity have been developed.
To assist in monitoring of the dome an extensive photogrammetric and topographical survey of the entire dome was commissioned in 1992 by the “Soprintendenza”. The results of this survey were then used to further develop the finite elements model of the dome.
See also
Italian Gothic architecture
Roman Catholic Marian churches
List of largest domes
List of tallest domes
Santa Reparata, Florence
Inferno, 2013 Dan Brown novel
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe
Notes
References
Library of Congress permalink
(in line presentation)
Further reading
"The Great Cathedral Mystery", PBS Nova TV documentary, 12 February 2014
Hunt, Don, "Secrets of the Duomo" , Journal, Issue 2, 2014, International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
</ref>
Ricci, Massimo, Il genio di Brunelleschi e la costruzione della Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore, Livorno : Casa Editrice Sillabe S.r.l., April 2014. (The genius of Filippo Brunelleschi and the construction of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore). . The book is the result of forty years of research on the secret technique with which Brunelleschi built the Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Ricci makes the case for the dome being an inverted arch and uses a herringbone pattern (spina a pesce) for the dome's bricks.
Vereycken, Karel, "The Secrets of the Florentine Dome", Schiller Institute, 2013. (Translation from the French, "Les secrets du dôme de Florence", la revue Fusion, n° 96, Mai, Juin 2003)
External links
L'Opera del Duomo, Firenze
Brunelleschi's Dome – en
Museums in Florence – Cathedral and Giotto Belltower
NGM.NationalGeographic.com 2014– 02 Il Duomo 360 Panorama View Interactive
NGM.NationalGeographic.com 2014-02 Il Duomo Cutaway Interactive
ngm.nationalgeographic.com 2014-02 ll Duomo Piazza 360 degree panorama interactive
ngm.nationalgeographic.com 2014-02 Il Duomo Compared to other Domes Interactive
Cathedral
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Italy
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1436
15th-century establishments in the Republic of Florence
Church buildings with domes
Filippo Brunelleschi church buildings
Fresco paintings
Cathedral
Gothic architecture in Florence
Renaissance architecture in Florence
Buildings containing meridian lines
Cathedrals in Tuscany | [
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220886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Mac%20Index | Big Mac Index | The Big Mac Index is a price index published by The Economist as an informal way of measuring the purchasing power parity (PPP) between two currencies and provides a test of the extent to which market exchange rates result in goods costing the same in different countries. It "seeks to make exchange-rate theory a bit more digestible."
The index, created in 1986, takes its name from the Big Mac, a hamburger sold at McDonald's restaurants.
Overview
The Big Mac index was introduced in The Economist in September 1986 by Pam Woodall as a semi-humorous illustration of PPP and has been published by that paper annually since then. The index also gave rise to the word burgernomics.
One suggested method of predicting exchange rate movements is that, according to the law of one price, the rate between two currencies should naturally adjust so that a sample basket of goods and services should cost the same in both currencies. In the Big Mac Index, the basket in question is a single Big Mac burger as sold by the McDonald's fast food restaurant chain. The Big Mac was chosen because it is available to a common specification in many countries around the world as local McDonald's franchisees at least in theory have significant responsibility for negotiating input prices. For these reasons, the index enables a comparison between many countries' currencies.
The Big Mac PPP exchange rate between two countries is obtained by dividing the price of a Big Mac in one country (in its currency) by the price of a Big Mac in another country (in its currency). This value is then compared with the actual exchange rate; if it is lower, then the first currency is under-valued (according to PPP theory) compared with the second, and conversely, if it is higher, then the first currency is over-valued.
For example, using figures in July 2008:
the price of a Big Mac was $3.57 in the United States (varies by store)
the price of a Big Mac was £2.29 in the United Kingdom (varies by region)
the implied purchasing power parity was $1.56 to £1, that is $3.57/£2.29 = 1.56
this compares with an actual exchange rate of $2.00 to £1 at the time
(2.00–1.56)/1.56 = 28%
the pound was thus overvalued against the dollar by 28%
The Eurozone is mixed, as prices differ widely in the EU area. As of April 2009, the Big Mac was trading in Germany at , which translates into , which would imply that the euro was trading above the PPP, with the difference being 10.9%.
Variants
The Economist sometimes produces variants on the theme. For example, in January 2004, it showed a Tall Latte index with the Big Mac replaced by a cup of Starbucks coffee.
In 2007, an Australian bank tried a variation the Big Mac index, being an "iPod index": since the iPod is manufactured at a single place, the value of iPods should be more consistent globally. However, this theory can be criticised for ignoring shipping costs, which will vary depending on how far the product is delivered from its "single place" of manufacture in China.
Bloomberg L.P. introduced the Billy index where they convert local prices of IKEA's Billy bookshelf into US dollars and compare the prices.
Gold-Mac-Index: The value of the purchasing power for 1 g of gold (Gold.de: calculation of the gold price average of the corresponding year), how many burgers one got for 1 g gold.
A Swiss bank has expanded the idea of the Big Mac index to include the amount of time that an average local worker in a given country must work to earn enough to buy a Big Mac.
In 2017, the comparison platform Versus did a version called The Chai Latte Global Index, comparing Starbucks Chai Latte prices worldwide, by first converting the local prices into USD.
Global personal finance comparison website, Finder.com, released a more comprehensive Starbucks Index in 2019, which analyzed coffee prices for a tall latte in 76 countries and autonomous regions around the world. The report included a Latte Line, which measured the correlation between the price of coffee and a country's GDP.
Limitations
While economists widely cite the Big Mac index as a reasonable real-world measurement of purchasing power parity, the burger methodology has some limitations.
The Big Mac Index is limited by geographical coverage, due to the presence of the McDonald's franchise. For example, in Africa McDonald's is only present in Morocco, Egypt and South Africa (there has been a similar index created solely for Africa called the "KFC Index": as the name suggests, instead of using a Big Mac, this index uses KFC's Original 15 pc. bucket to compile its data).
In many countries, eating at international fast-food chain restaurants such as McDonald's is relatively expensive in comparison to eating at a local restaurant, and the demand for Big Macs is not as large in countries such as India as in the United States. Social status of eating at fast food restaurants such as McDonald's in a local market, what proportion of sales might be to expatriates, local taxes, levels of competition, and import duties on selected items may not be representative of the country's economy as a whole.
In addition, there is no theoretical reason why non-tradable goods and services such as property costs should be equal in different countries: this is the theoretical reason for PPPs being different from market exchange rates over time. The relative cost of high-margin products, such as essential pharmaceutical products, or cellular telephony might compare local capacity and willingness to pay, as much as relative currency values.
Nevertheless, McDonald's is also using different commercial strategies which can result in huge differences for a product. Overall, the price of a Big Mac will be a reflection of its local production and delivery cost, the cost of advertising (considerable in some areas), and most importantly what the local market will bear – quite different from country to country, and not all a reflection of relative currency values.
In some markets, a high-volume and low-margin approach makes most sense to maximize profit, while in others a higher margin will generate more profit. Thus the relative prices reflect more than currency values. For example, a hamburger costs only in France, and in Belgium, but overall, McDonald's restaurants in both countries cost roughly the same. Prices of Big Macs can also vary greatly between different areas within a country. For example, a Big Mac sold in New York City will be more expensive than one sold at a McDonald's located in a rural area.
One other example is that Russia has one of the cheapest Big Macs, despite the fact that Moscow is the most expensive city in the world. Standard food ingredients are cheap in Russia, while restaurants suitable for business dinners with English speaking staff are expensive.
Manipulation
Critics of the presidency of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner in Argentina and many economists believe that the government has for years falsified consumer price data to understate the country's true inflation rate. The Economist stated in January 2011 that Big Mac index "does support claims that Argentina's government is cooking the books. The gap between its average annual rate of burger inflation (19%) and its official rate (10%) is far bigger than in any other country." That year the press began reporting on unusual behavior by the more than 200 Argentinean McDonald's restaurants. They no longer prominently advertised Big Macs for sale and the sandwich, both individually and as part of value meals, was being sold for an unusually low price compared to other items. Guillermo Moreno, Secretary of Commerce in the Kirchner government, reportedly forced McDonald's to sell the Big Mac at an artificially low price to manipulate the country's performance on the Big Mac index. In June 2012, the price of the Big Mac value meal suddenly rose by 26%, closer to that of other meals, after The Economist, The New York Times, and other media reported on the unusual pricing. A Buenos Aires newspaper stated "Moreno loses the battle".
Comparison issues
The Big Mac (and virtually all sandwiches) vary from country to country with differing nutritional values, weights and even nominal size differences.
Not all Big Mac burgers offered by the chain are exclusively beef. In India – which is a predominantly Hindu country – beef burgers are not available at any McDonald's outlets. The Chicken Maharaja Mac serves as a substitute for the Big Mac.
There is a lot of variance with the exclusively beef "Big Mac": the Australian version of the Big Mac has 22% fewer Calories than the Canadian version, and is 8% lighter than the version sold in Mexico.
On 1 November 2009, all three of the McDonald's in Iceland closed, primarily due to the chain's high cost of importing most of the chain's meat and vegetables, by McDonald's demands and standards, from the Eurozone. At the time, a Big Mac in Iceland cost 650 krona ($5.29), and the 20% price increase that would have been needed to stay in business would have increased that cost to 780 krona ($6.36). Fish and lamb are produced in Iceland, while beef is often imported (but also exported).
Figures
Six most expensive (12 January 2021) This statistic shows the most expensive places to buy a Big Mac.
– $7.30 (6.50 CHF)
– $6.37 (52.88 SEK)
– $6.09 (52.00 NOK)
– $5.66 (5.66 USD)
Israel – $5.35 (17.00 ILS)
– $5.29 (6.77 CAD)
Six cheapest (12 January 2021) This statistic shows the least expensive places to buy a Big Mac.
– $1.62 (130.07 INR)
– $1.77 (15,500.00 LBP)
– $1.81 (135.00 RUB)
– $2.01 (14.99 TRY)
– $2.16 (33.50 ZAR)
– $2.20 (62.00 UAH)
Six fastest earned (July 2015) This statistic shows the average working time required to buy one Big Mac in selected cities around the world in 2015.
– 8.6 min
– 10.3 min
, Tokyo – 10.4 min
, Zürich – 10.6 min
, Miami – 10.7 min
, Geneva – 10.8 min
Six slowest earned (July 2015) This statistic shows the average working time required to buy one Big Mac in selected cities around the world in 2015.
, Nairobi – 172.6 min
, Manila – 87.5 min
, Mexico City – 78.4 min
, Jakarta – 66.7 min
, Cairo – 62.5 min
, Kyiv – 54.7 min
See also
Banana equivalent dose
Christmas Price Index
Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention
KFC Index
List of humorous units of measurement
List of unusual units of measurement
Recession index
Notes
External links
The Big Mac Index index page – contains Big Mac Index data dating back to 1997 (Economist.com subscription required for detail)
Big Mac versus iTunes Aplia
Big Mac Index in text format for analysis
UBS Prices and Earnings Report 2006: Dublin is 8th most expensive city but 3rd highest for net earnings Very thorough article on the time-based Big Mac index.
The Big Mac Index Converter – Currency conversion calculator that uses the Big Mac Index.
1986 introductions
Economics articles
Global economic indicators
McDonald's
The Economist | [
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220888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duffman | Duffman | Barry Duffman, more commonly known as Duffman, is a character on the animated sitcom The Simpsons. He is the mascot and chief spokesperson for Duff Beer. It has been referenced, however, that the corporate mascot "Duffman" has actually been embodied by a number of different actors, though they are virtually identical. He is known for his staccato catchphrase: "Oh, yeah!" (also the character's unofficial theme song). He is recognizable by his "Duff"-branded cap, wayfarer sunglasses, red cape, light blue bodysuit, and utility belt stocked with "Duff".
Profile
Barry Duffman, better known as Duffman and voiced by Hank Azaria, is a recurring character who, according to Chris Turner, "embodies all the self-importance and over-statement of contemporary marketing." He is the mascot for the fictional Duff Corporation that sells Duff Beer, and is based on Budweiser's former mascot Bud Man. Duffman is a muscular actor, dressed in a superhero costume who spouts slogans while he thrusts his hips. Duffman's thrusts were first acted out by Brad Bird. His catchphrase, "Oh, yeah!", is a nod to the Yello song "Oh Yeah", which many advertisers began to use when Ferris Bueller's Day Off made it a hit. While loyal to his corporate sponsors, in the season 15 episode "Co-Dependent's Day", Duffman reveals he is ashamed of betraying his Jewish heritage by doing a Nazi-esque performance at Oktoberfest ("This Reich will last a thousand beers! Oh, ja! [muttering]: I do this, and I'm Jewish."). In the season 17 episode "Marge and Homer Turn a Couple Play", it was revealed there were two other Duffmen working (but it is kept a secret so as not to disillusion children). "Jaws Wired Shut" revealed that all the actors who have played Duffman have died, a nod to the Marlboro Man deaths, ("Duffman can never die; only the actors who play him"), which sheds some light on the so-called continuity error in which Duffman was referred to as "Larry" in "Pygmoelian". Howard K. Duff called him "Sid", in "Hungry, Hungry Homer", and in "Old Yeller Belly", he self-identifies (while out of character) as "Barry Duffman". In "Waiting for Duffman", in which Duffman retires temporarily and is replaced by Homer, his name is Barry Huffman. The character has been portrayed as Jewish.
Duffman's first appearance was in the ninth-season episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson" in 1997. Incidentally, a comic book character named "Duffman" was featured in the cover of the program for the 1994 San Diego Comic-Con, drawn by Simpsons illustrators Steve Vance and Bill Morrison.
There are also international, culture-specific versions of Duffman for the overseas markets. Duffmensch, the German version of Duffman, wears a blue pickelhaube helmet and blue spandex lederhosen with a dark leather waistbelt with beer-can holders that look like ammunition pouches. He uses the German language slogan Oh Ja!. The Canadian version of Duffman (seen on the label of Le Duff, the Canadian version of Duff) wears a Mountie uniform and uses the French-language slogan Mais Oui! They are still played by the American Duffman and have his mannerisms.
Production and reception
Duffman's voice actor, Hank Azaria, has revealed that he "dreads" voicing the character, as it "will blow me out in a second" and "actually does hurt".
MLB player Matt Duffy, nicknamed "Duffman", has had the character stenciled on his bats.
References
The Simpsons characters
Animated television characters introduced in 1997
Fictional American Jews
Fictional salespeople
Male characters in television
Male characters in animated series | [
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220890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-American%20Exposition | Pan-American Exposition | The Pan-American Exposition was a World's Fair held in Buffalo, New York, United States, from May 1 through November 2, 1901. The fair occupied of land on the western edge of what is now Delaware Park, extending from Delaware Avenue to Elmwood Avenue and northward to Great Arrow Avenue. It is remembered today primarily for being the location of the assassination of United States President William McKinley at the Temple of Music on September 6, 1901. The exposition was illuminated at night. Thomas A. Edison, Inc. filmed it during the day and a pan of it at night.
History
The event was organized by the Pan-American Exposition Company, formed in 1897. Cayuga Island was initially chosen as the place to hold the Exposition because of the island's proximity to Niagara Falls, which was a huge tourist attraction. When the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, plans were put on hold. After the war, there was a heated competition between the cities of Buffalo and Niagara Falls over the location. Buffalo won for two main reasons. First, Buffalo had a much larger population; with roughly 350,000 people, it was the eighth-largest city in the United States. Second, Buffalo had better railroad connections; the city was within a day's journey by rail for over 40 million people. In July 1898, Congress pledged $500,000 for the Exposition to be held at Buffalo. The "Pan American" theme was carried throughout the event with the slogan "commercial well being and good understanding among the American Republics." The advent of the alternating current power transmission system in the US allowed designers to light the Exposition in Buffalo using power generated away at Niagara Falls.
Assassination of President McKinley
The exposition is most remembered because United States President William McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist, Leon Czolgosz, at the Temple of Music on September 6, 1901. The President died eight days later on September 14 from gangrene caused by the bullet wounds.
On the day prior to the shooting, McKinley had given an address at the exposition, which began as follows:
The newly developed X-ray machine was displayed at the fair, but doctors were reluctant to use it on McKinley to search for the bullet because they did not know what side effects it might have had on him. Also, the operating room at the exposition's emergency hospital did not have any electric lighting, even though the exteriors of many of the buildings were covered with thousands of light bulbs. Doctors used a pan to reflect sunlight onto the operating table as they treated McKinley's wounds.
Buildings and exhibits
Buildings and exhibits featured at the Pan-American Exposition included:
Attractions
The Court of Fountains, the central court to the exposition.
The Great Amphitheater
The Triumphal Bridge, which was positioned over the "Mirror Lake".
Joshua Slocum's sloop, the Spray, on which he had recently sailed around the world alone.
A Trip to the Moon, a mechanical dark ride that was later housed at Coney Island's Luna Park.
In the center of the rose-garden beside the Woman's Building was Enid Yandell's "Struggle of Existence," a plaster version of the fountain "Struggle of Life" installed in Rhode Island
Lina Beecher, creator of the Flip Flap Railway, attempted to demonstrate one of his looping roller coasters at the fair, but the organizers of the event considered the ride to be too dangerous and refused to allow it on the grounds. Buffalo native Nina Morgana, later a soprano with the Metropolitan Opera, was a child performer in the "Venice in America" attraction at the Exposition. Composer/organist Fannie Morris Spencer gave two recitals in the Temple of Music.
Demolition
When the fair ended, the contents of the grounds were sold to the Chicago House Wrecking Company of Chicago for US$92,000 ($ in dollars). Demolition of the buildings began in March 1902, and within a year, most of the buildings were demolished. The grounds were then cleared and subdivided to be used for residential streets, homes, and park land. Similar to previous world fairs, most of the buildings were constructed of timber and steel framing with precast staff panels made of a plaster/fiber mix. These buildings were built as a means of rapid construction and temporary ornamentation and not made to last. Prior to its demolition, an effort was made via public committee to purchase and preserve the original Electric Tower from the wrecking company for nearly US$30,000 ($ in dollars). However, the necessary funding could not be raised in time.
The site of the exposition was bounded by Elmwood Avenue on the west, Delaware Avenue on the east, what is now Hoyt Lake on the south, and the railway on the north. It is now occupied by a residential neighborhood from Nottingham Terrace to Amherst Street, and businesses on the north side of Amherst Street. A stone and marker on a traffic island dividing Fordham Drive, near the Lincoln Parkway, marks the area where the Temple of Music was located.
Legacy
The New York State Building, located in Delaware Park, was designed to outlast the Exposition and is now used as a museum by the Buffalo History Museum. Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, it can be visited at the corner of Elmwood Avenue and Nottingham Avenue. The Museum's Research Library has an online bibliography of its extensive Pan-American holdings. Included in the Library collection are the records of the Pan-American Exposition Company.
The Albright-Knox Art Gallery was intended to serve as a Fine Arts Pavilion but due to construction delays, it was not completed in time.
The original Electric Tower, although demolished, was the inspiration and design prototype for the 13 story, Beaux-Arts Electric Tower, built in 1912, in downtown Buffalo. The Hotel Statler was likewise demolished before Statler built a replacement in 1907, then another replacement in 1923.
A boulder marking the site of McKinley's assassination was placed in a grassy median on Fordham Drive in Buffalo.
At least one engine from the miniature railway that carried visitors around the fair was preserved. It is currently privately owned and operated in Braddock Heights, Maryland.
Statistics
Ticket Cost: US$0.50($ in dollars).
Total Event Expense: US$7 million($ in dollars)
Visitors: 8,000,000
See also
Put Me Off at Buffalo – popular song used to advertise the Exposition
List of world's fairs
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
Raphael Beck
World's Columbian Exposition
List of world expositions
International Fair Association Grounds
References
Further reading
Margaret Creighton (October 18, 2016). Electrifying Fall of Rainbow City: Spectacle and Assassination at the 1901 World's Fair. .
External links
Doing the Pan: Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901
New York Heritage Digital Collections: Pan-American Exposition Scrapbooks
University at Buffalo Library: Pan-American Exposition of 1901
University at Buffalo Digital Collections: Pan-American Exposition of 1901
Pan-American Exposition Company Records: An inventory of the collection in the Research Library at The Buffalo History Museum. The business records are not digitized or online, so an in-person visit is needed to study them.
Pan-American Exposition: List of Prizes, compiled by The Buffalo History Museum
Pan-American Exposition Then and Now: A map of the grounds with an overlay of modern streets, created by The Buffalo History Museum
1901 Buffalo - approximately 120 links
The Shapell Manuscript Foundation: Pan-American Exposition souvenir booklet autographed by William McKinley
World's fairs in New York (state)
1901 in the United States
20th century in Buffalo, New York
Exposition
Assassination of William McKinley
1901 in New York (state)
Articles containing video clips
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220895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandparent%20visitation | Grandparent visitation | Grandparent visitation is a legal right that grandparents in some jurisdictions may have to have court-ordered contact (or visitation) with their grandchildren.
United States
In the United States, most states have statutes that describe when a third party, such as a grandparent, may ask a court to grant them the legal right to maintain ongoing contact with somebody else's child. Many states have laws that specifically address the rights of grandparents. However, a federal Supreme Court decision called Troxel v. Granville places limits on when states can grant visitation rights to third parties, including grandparents.
State laws vary greatly, and no state guarantees that the grandparents will be able to obtain a court order granting them visitation, unless it is in the best interests of the child. The rationale behind these laws is that sometimes, especially with the death of a parent or in a family that has undergone divorce, the children may not have the opportunity to have contact with the non-custodial parent and his relatives, thus fostering continued familial bonds. Those opposing this view say that court-ordered grandparent visitation infringes upon the fundamental right of fit parents to raise their child in the manner that they see fit (including the right to decide with whom the child will associate). Grandparent's rights to see their grandchildren, following death, divorce, child born out of wedlock, or where the child does not reside in the home of a parent, was first created by Bloomfield Hills, Michigan Family Law Attorney, Richard S. Victor who later went on to form the national nonprofit Grandparents Rights Organization (GRO) in the early 1980s and which still exists today.
In mosts states grandparent rights exists however, the grandparent must obtain their own attorney. They will not be awarded an assigned counsel.
Organizations, like the Grandparents Rights Organization, are working on some changes in the law to provide grandparents automatic visitation upon the death of a parent (their child) to allow for continued family interaction with that part of their family.
Impact of Troxel v. Granville
In the case of Troxel v. Granville, the United States Supreme Court stated that "the interest of parents in the care, custody and control of their children--is perhaps the oldest of the fundamental liberty interests recognized by this Court." The Supreme Court also made it clear that this fundamental right is implicated in grandparent visitation cases. The plurality opinion stated at the outset that statutes allowing grandparent visitation orders to be imposed over parental objection "present questions of constitutional import." However, the court clearly held that the states that did have grandparent visitation laws would not be held unconstitutional on their face, as requested in the case. The Supreme Court declared that a parent's fundamental right to the "care, custody and control of their children" was "at issue in this case." They held that in order for state laws to be constitutional, three things need to be in the law: 1) If there is a claim or action filed, it is the grandparent that has the burden of proof; 2) The court should give "deference" to a "fit" parent's decision; and 3) The grandparent may still proceed with their request for grandparent visitation and overcome being denied contact; and each state should have a set of factors for the court to evaluate when deciding to either grant or deny a grandparent's request, over a parent's objections. The Supreme Court struck down the Washington visitation statute because it was not their grandparent visitation statute that was being evaluated and the statute that the grandparent filed under was "over broad" and too excessive. Prior to the case being heard by the US Supreme Court, the state legislature in Washington repealed the law in question, but allowed their grandparent visitation law to remain in place, as that law was never challenged in the case.
State courts considering non-parent visitation petitions must apply "a presumption that fit parents act in the best interests of their children.". Troxel requires that state courts must give "deference" or some special weight to a fit parent's decision to deny non-parent visitation. "Choices [parents make] about the upbringing of children... are among constitutional rights, but were not an absolute right... sheltered by the Fourteenth Amendment against the State's unwarranted usurpation, disregard, or disrespect." This principle must inform the understanding of the "special weight" that Troxel requires courts to give to parents' decisions concerning whether, when and how grandparents will associate with their children. Even though Troxel does not define "special weight," previous Supreme Court precedent indicates that "special weight" is a strong term signifying very considerable deference. The "special weight" requirement, as illuminated by these prior Supreme Court cases, means that the deference provided to the parent's wishes will be overcome only by some compelling governmental interest and by overwhelmingly clear factual circumstances supporting that governmental interest.
References
Family law in the United States | [
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220899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Dominicus%20Fiorillo | Johann Dominicus Fiorillo | Johann Dominicus Fiorillo (13 October 1748 – 10 September 1821) was a German painter and historian of art.
Fiorillo, a son of Italian composer Ignazio Fiorillo, was born at Hamburg. He received his first instructions in art at an academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in 1761, to continue his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to Bologna, where he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 admission to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick.
In 1781 he removed to Göttingen, occupied himself as a drawingmaster, and was named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints at the university library. He was appointed professor extraordinary in the philosophical faculty in 1799, and ordinary professor at Göttingen University in 1813. During this period he had made himself known as a writer by the publication of his Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste, in 5 volumes (1798–1808). This was followed in 1815 to 1820 by the Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste in Deutschland und den vereinigten Niederlanden, in 4 volumes. These works, though not attaining to any high mark of literary excellence, are esteemed for the information collected in them, especially on the subject of art in the later Middle Ages. Fiorillo practiced his art almost until his death, but has left no memorable masterpiece. The most noticeable of his painting is perhaps the Surrender of Briseis.
He died at Göttingen.
See also
List of German painters
Literature
Antje Middeldorf Kosegarten (ed.): Johann Dominicus Fiorillo Kunstgeschichte und die romantische Bewegung um 1800, Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag 1997 (in German)
[This entry is based on an article from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.]
1748 births
1821 deaths
18th-century German painters
German male painters
19th-century German painters
19th-century male artists | [
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220901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20release%20life%20cycle | Software release life cycle | A software release life cycle is the sum of the stages of development and maturity for a piece of computer software. Cycles range from its initial development to its eventual release, and include updated versions of the released version to help improve software or fix software bugs still present in the software.
Computer users are most likely to be familiar with the beta phase, as software products are sometimes publicly advertised as being beta in order to reduce users' expectations of their reliability.
Stages of development
Pre-alpha
Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the software project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, and unit testing. In typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the feature is complete.
Alpha
The alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase of software testing (alpha is the first letter of the Greek alphabet, used as the number 1). In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques. Additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release.
Alpha software is not thoroughly tested by the developer before it is released to customers. Alpha software may contain serious errors, and any resulting instability could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version. In general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a feature freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete. A beta test is carried out following acceptance testing at the supplier's site (alpha test) and immediately prior to general release of the software as a product.
Beta
Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the beta stage is also known as betaware. A beta phase generally begins when the software is feature complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the beta phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software and speed or performance issues, and may still cause crashes or data loss. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing. The process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Software beta releases can be either public or private, depending on whether they are openly available or only available to a limited audience. Beta version software is often useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization and to prospective customers. Some developers refer to this stage as a preview, preview release, prototype, technical preview or technology preview (TP), or early access.
Beta testers are people who actively report issues of beta software. They are usually customers or representatives of prospective customers of the organization that develops the software. Beta testers tend to volunteer their services free of charge but often receive versions of the product they test, discounts on the release version, or other incentives.
Perpetual beta
Some software is kept in so-called perpetual beta, where new features are continually added to the software without establishing a final "stable" release. As the Internet has facilitated rapid and inexpensive distribution of software, companies have begun to take a looser approach to use of the word beta.
Open and closed beta
Developers may release either a closed beta, also called private beta, or an open beta, also called public beta; closed beta versions are released to a restricted group of individuals for a user test by invitation, while open beta testers are from a larger group, or anyone interested. Private beta could be suitable for the software that is capable of delivering value, but is not ready to be used by everyone either due to scaling issues, lack of documentation or still missing vital features. The testers report any bugs that they find, and sometimes suggest additional features they think should be available in the final version.
Open betas serve the dual purpose of demonstrating a product to potential consumers, and testing among a wide user base likely to bring to light obscure errors that a much smaller testing team might not find.
Release candidate
A release candidate (RC), also known as "going silver", is a beta version with potential to be a stable product, which is ready to release unless significant bugs emerge. In this stage of product stabilization, all product features have been designed, coded and tested through one or more beta cycles with no known showstopper-class bugs. A release is called code complete when the development team agrees that no entirely new source code will be added to this release. There could still be source code changes to fix defects, changes to documentation and data files, and peripheral code for test cases or utilities. Beta testers, if privately selected, will often be credited for using the release candidate as though it were a finished product. Beta testing is conducted in a client's or customer's location and to test the software from a user's perspective.
Stable release
Also called production release, the stable release is the last release candidate (RC) which has passed all verifications / tests. The remaining bugs are considered as acceptable. This release goes to production. Some domains (for example, Linux distributions), have two types of stable releases: normal, or stable releases and long-term support (LTS) releases which are maintained for a longer period of time.
Feature complete
A feature complete (FC) version of a piece of software has all of its planned or primary features implemented but is not yet final due to bugs, performance or stability issues. This occurs at the end of alpha testing of development.
Usually a feature complete software still has to undergo beta testing and bug fixing, as well as performance or stability enhancing before it can go to release candidate, and finally gold status.
Release
Once released, the software is generally known as a "stable release". The formal term often depends on the method of release: physical media, online release or a web application.
Release to manufacturing (RTM)
The term release to manufacturing (RTM), also known as "going gold", is a term used when a software product is ready to be delivered. This build may be digitally signed, allowing the end user to verify the integrity and authenticity of the software purchase. A copy of the RTM build known as the "gold master" or GM is sent for mass duplication or disc replication if applicable. This terminology is taken from the audio record making industry, specifically the process of mastering. RTM precedes general availability (GA) when the product is released to the public. A golden master build (GM) is typically the final build of a piece of software in the beta stages for developers. Typically, for iOS, it is the final build before a major release, however, there have been a few exceptions.
It is typically used in certain retail mass-production software contexts—as opposed to a specialized software production or project in a commercial or government production and distribution—where the software is sold as part of a bundle in a related computer hardware sale and typically where the software and related hardware is ultimately to be available and sold on mass/public basis at retail stores to indicate that the software has met a defined quality level and is ready for mass retail distribution. RTM could also mean in other contexts that the software has been delivered or released to a client or customer for installation or distribution to the related hardware end user computers or machines. The term does not define the delivery mechanism or volume; it only states that the quality is sufficient for mass distribution. The deliverable from the engineering organization is frequently in the form of a golden master media used for duplication or to produce the image for the web.
General availability (GA)
General availability (GA) is the marketing stage at which all necessary commercialization activities have been completed and a software product is available for purchase, depending, however, on language, region, electronic vs. media availability. Commercialization activities could include security and compliance tests, as well as localization and worldwide availability. The time between RTM and GA can be from a week to months in some cases before a generally available release can be declared because of the time needed to complete all commercialization activities required by GA. At this stage, the software has "gone live".
Release to the Web (RTW)
Release to the Web (RTW) or Web release is a means of software delivery that utilizes the Internet for distribution. No physical media are produced in this type of release mechanism by the manufacturer. Web releases are becoming more common as Internet usage grows.
Support
During its supported lifetime, software is sometimes subjected to service releases, patches or service packs, sometimes also called "interim releases" or "maintenance release" (MR). For example, Microsoft released three major service packs for the 32-bit editions of Windows XP and two service packs for the 64-bit editions. Such service releases contain a collection of updates, fixes, and enhancements, delivered in the form of a single installable package. They may also implement new features. Some software is released with the expectation of regular support. Classes of software that generally involve protracted support as the norm include anti-virus suites and massively multiplayer online games. Continuing with this Windows XP example, Microsoft did offer paid updates for five more years after the end of extended support. This means that support ended April 8, 2019.
End-of-life
When software is no longer sold or supported, the product is said to have reached end-of-life, to be discontinued, retired, deprecated, abandoned, or obsolete, but user loyalty may continue its existence for some time, even long after its platform is obsolete—e.g., the Atari ST and Sinclair ZX Spectrum.
After the end-of-life date, the developer will usually not implement any new features, fix existing defects, bugs or vulnerabilities (whether known before that date or not) or provide any support for the product. If the developer wishes, they may release the source code, so the platform will live again, and be maintained by volunteers, and if not, it may be reverse-engineered later when it becomes abandonware.
History
Usage of the "alpha/beta" test terminology originated at IBM. Similar terminologies for IBM's software development were used by people involved with IBM from at least the 1950s (and probably earlier). "A" test was the verification of a new product before the public announcement. "B" test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured. "C" test was the final test before the general availability of the product. As software became a significant part of IBM's offerings, the alpha test terminology was used to denote the pre-announcement test and the beta test was used to show product readiness for general availability. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBM's earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology. IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of "beta test" to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM. Rather, IBM used the term "field test".
Major public beta's developed afterwards, with early customers having purchased a "pioneer edition" of the WordVision word processor for the IBM PC for $49.95. In 1984, Stephen Manes wrote that "in a brilliant marketing coup, Bruce and James Program Publishers managed to get people to pay for the privilege of testing the product." In September 2000 a boxed version of Apple's Mac OS X Public Beta operating system was released. Microsoft's release of community technology previews (CTPs) for Windows Vista, between September 2005 and May 2006. and from 2009 to 2011, Minecraft was in public beta.
In February 2005, ZDNet published an article about the phenomenon of a beta version often staying for years and being used as if it were in production level. It noted that Gmail and Google News, for example, had been in beta for a long time although widely used; Google News left beta in January 2006, followed by Google Apps (now named Google Workspace), including Gmail, in July 2009. Since the introduction of Windows 8, Microsoft has called pre-release software a preview rather than beta. All pre-release builds released through the Windows Insider Program launched in 2014 are termed "Insider Preview builds". "Beta" may also indicate something more like a release candidate, or as a form of time-limited demo, or marketing technique.
See also
Application retirement
Merge window
Release automation
Release engineering
Release management
Rolling release
Software deployment
Software versioning
Lifecycle management
References
Bibliography
Continuous Delivery: Reliable Software Releases through Build, Test, and Deployment Automation by Jez Humble, David Farley; | [
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220902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mundanes | The Mundanes | The Mundanes were an early-1980s Rhode Island-based new wave band with six members: John Andrews, Marsha Armitage, Jonathan Gregg, Dean Lozow, and Kevin Tooley, and John Linnell.
Marsha Armitage was the lead vocalist. The band was initially based in Providence (several of the band members attended Brown University) and played locally in the Boston-Providence area. The band generated tremendous energy and had a devoted following, but struggled to sign to a record label. In 1981, the band relocated to New York City. Shortly thereafter, John Linnell left the band to pursue another musical project, They Might Be Giants, with John Flansburgh. Drummer Kevin Tooley was replaced by Peter Clemente, and Jim Gillson replaced John Linnell on keyboards. The band continued to gig in New England and played frequently in New York City venues, including CBGB. David Hemming, who had previously managed Pat Travers and Ozzy Osbourne, took on the band's management. They recorded a demo at RCA Studios, produced by Mick Ronson, that attracted record label attention, but the band remained unsigned and ultimately broke up in mid-1983.
References
External links
The Mundanes on This Might Be A Wiki
Museum of Idiots
American new wave musical groups
Musical groups from Rhode Island
They Might Be Giants | [
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220903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%20Church%20Cathedral | Christ Church Cathedral | Christ Church Cathedral is the name of many cathedrals around the world, and may refer to:
Australia
Christ Church Cathedral, Grafton, an Anglican cathedral in the Clarence Valley Council, New South Wales
Christ Church Cathedral, Newcastle, an Anglican cathedral in the City of Newcastle, New South Wales
Bahamas
Christ Church Cathedral, Nassau; a cathedral in the Bahamas
Canada
Christ Church Cathedral (Vancouver), British Columbia
Christ Church Cathedral (Victoria, British Columbia)
Christ Church Cathedral (Fredericton), New Brunswick
Christ's Church Cathedral (Hamilton, Ontario)
Christ Church Cathedral (Ottawa), Ontario
Christ Church Cathedral (Montreal), Quebec
Christ Church Cathedral (Whitehorse), Yukon Territory
Falkland Islands
Christ Church Cathedral (Falkland Islands)
Ireland
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
Christ Church Cathedral, Waterford
New Zealand
ChristChurch Cathedral, Christchurch
Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, Christchurch, seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Christchurch
Christ Church Cathedral, Nelson
Tanzania
Christ Church, Zanzibar, Stone Town
United Kingdom
Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Christ at Canterbury, mother church of the Anglican Communion, formerly known as Christ Church, Canterbury
Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, England (also the college chapel of Christ Church, Oxford)
Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford, England
Christ Church Cathedral, Lisburn, Northern Ireland
United States
Alabama
Christ Church Cathedral (Mobile, Alabama)
Connecticut
Christ Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut)
Indiana
Christ Church Cathedral (Indianapolis)
Kentucky
Christ Church Cathedral (Lexington, Kentucky)
Christ Church Cathedral (Louisville, Kentucky)
Louisiana
Christ Church Cathedral (New Orleans)
Massachusetts
Christ Church Cathedral (Springfield, Massachusetts)
Missouri
Christ Church Cathedral (St. Louis, Missouri)
Ohio
Christ Church Cathedral (Cincinnati)
Tennessee
Christ Church Cathedral (Nashville, Tennessee)
Texas
Christ Church Cathedral (Houston)
Wisconsin
Christ Church Cathedral (Eau Claire, Wisconsin)
See also
Christ Cathedral (disambiguation)
Christ Church (disambiguation)
Christchurch (disambiguation) | [
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220908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition%20Universelle%20%281855%29 | Exposition Universelle (1855) | The Exposition Universelle of 1855 was an International Exhibition held on the Champs-Élysées in Paris from 15 May to 15 November 1855. Its full official title was the Exposition Universelle des produits de l'Agriculture, de l'Industrie et des Beaux-Arts de Paris 1855. Today the exposition's sole physical remnant is the Théâtre du Rond-Point des Champs-Élysées designed by architect Gabriel Davioud, which originally housed the Panorama National.
History
The exposition was a major event in France, then newly under the reign of Emperor Napoleon III. It followed London's Great Exhibition of 1851 and attempted to surpass that fair's Crystal Palace with its own Palais de l'Industrie.
The arts displayed were shown in a separate pavilion on Avenue Montaigne. There were works from artists from 29 countries, including French artists François Rude, Ingres, Delacroix and Henri Lehmann, and British artists William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais. However, Gustave Courbet, having had several of his paintings rejected, exhibited in a temporary Pavillon du Réalisme adjacent to the official show.
According to its official report, 5,162,330 visitors attended the exposition, of whom about 4.2 million entered the industrial exposition and 0.9 million entered the Beaux Arts exposition. Expenses amounted to upward of $5,000,000, while receipts were scarcely one-tenth of that amount. The exposition covered with 34 countries participating.
For the exposition, Napoleon III requested a classification system for France's best Bordeaux wines which were to be on display for visitors from around the world. Brokers from the wine industry ranked the wines according to a château's reputation and trading price, which at that time was directly related to quality. The result was the important Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855.
See also
Adrien Chenot
References
Further reading
Elizabeth M. L. Gralton, 'Lust of the Eyes: The Anti-Modern Critique of Visual Culture at the Paris Expositions universelles, 1855–1900', French History & Civilization (2014), Vol. 5, pp 71–81.
External links
Official website of the BIE
Rapport sur l’exposition universelle de 1855 (official report, published 1856, in French)
Fanfare for the New Empire
1855 Paris (BIE World Expo) - approximately 70 links
ExpoMuseum
World's fairs in Paris
1855 in France
Garden festivals in France
1855 festivals | [
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220911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odette%20Hallowes | Odette Hallowes | Odette Sansom (28 April 1912 – 13 March 1995), also known as Odette Churchill and Odette Hallowes, code named Lise, was an agent for the United Kingdom's clandestine Special Operations Executive (SOE) in France during the Second World War. The purpose of SOE was to conduct espionage, sabotage, and reconnaissance in occupied Europe against the Axis powers, especially Germany. SOE agents allied themselves with resistance groups and supplied them with weapons and equipment parachuted in from England. Sansom was the first woman to be awarded the George Cross by the United Kingdom and was awarded the Légion d'honneur by France.
Sansom arrived in France on 2 November 1942 and worked as a courier with the Spindle network (or circuit) of SOE headed by Peter Churchill (whom she later married). In January 1943, to evade arrest, Churchill and Sansom moved their operations to near Annecy in the French Alps. She and Churchill were arrested there on 16 April 1943 by spy-hunter Hugo Bleicher. She spent the rest of the war imprisoned in Ravensbrück Concentration Camp.
Her wartime experiences and endurance of a brutal interrogation and imprisonment, which were chronicled in books and a motion picture, made her one of the most celebrated members of the SOE and one of the few to survive Nazi imprisonment.
Early years
Odette Marie Léonie Céline Brailly was born on 28 April 1912 at 208, rue des Corroyers in Amiens, France; the daughter of Emma Rose Marie Yvonne née Quennehen and Florentin Désiré Eugène 'Gaston' Brailly, a bank manager, killed at Verdun shortly before the Armistice in 1918 and posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre and Médaille militaire for heroism. She had one brother. As a child she contracted serious illnesses which blinded her for three and a half years, as well as polio, which resulted in her being bedridden for months. She had a convent education and was considered difficult, perhaps because of her illnesses.
She met an Englishman, Roy Patrick Sansom (1911–1957), in Boulogne and married him in Boulogne-sur-Mer on 27 October 1931, moving with him to Britain. The couple had three daughters: Françoise Edith, born 1932 in Boulogne; Lili M, born 1934 in Fulham; and Marianne O, born 1936 in Fulham. Mr. Sansom joined the army at the beginning of the Second World War, and Odette Sansom and the children moved to Somerset for their safety.
Second World War service
Recruited by SOE
In the spring of 1942, the Admiralty appealed for postcards or family photographs taken on the French coastline for possible war use. Hearing the broadcast, Sansom wrote that she had photographs taken around Boulogne, but she mistakenly sent her letter to the War Office instead of the Admiralty. That brought her to the attention of Colonel Maurice Buckmaster's Special Operations Executive.
As cover for her secret work, Sansom was enrolled in the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry, which supplied SOE with support personnel. She left her three daughters in a convent school, and was trained to be sent into Nazi-occupied France to work with the French Resistance.
Originally Sansom was considered too temperamental and stubborn by SOE, with an evaluation stating "She is impulsive and hasty in her judgments and has not quite the clarity of mind which is desirable in subversive activity. She seems to have little experience of the outside world. She is excitable and temperamental, although she has a certain determination." However, the evaluation noted "her patriotism and keenness to do something for France." Buckmaster allowed her training to continue regardless. A bad fall during training ruled out parachute entry into France.
George Starr, one of SOE's most successful agents and a self-described martinet, called Sansom "a dreadful lady" and deplored what he portrayed as her seductive behavior.
Service in France
Sansom made a landing on a beach near Cassis on the night of 2 November 1942, and made contact with Captain Peter Churchill, who headed Spindle, an SOE network based in Cannes. Her code name was "Lise." Sansom's initial objective was to contact the French Resistance on the French Riviera, and then move to Auxerre in Burgundy to establish a safe house for other agents.
At the time of her arrival in France, the Spindle network was beset by internal strife between the principal agent, André Girard, and his assistant and with the network's radio operator, Adolphe Rabinovitch. A list of 200 potential supporters, lost by André Marsac, a Girard courier, was obtained by the Germans. With Sansom stranded in Cannes, Churchill obtained Buckmaster's permission to scrap her original mission and for her to act as his courier. Sansom, posing as "Madame Odette Metayer," was required to find food and lodging for Rabinovitch, who was in France illegally and had no ration card, and also to tend to air drops that were sometimes carelessly placed in dangerous areas. Her work brought her initially to Marseilles, then considered a dangerous town because of its infiltration by German agents. Sansom was shocked by the lax attitude toward security by her French supporters. Sansom grew close to Churchill and to Rabinovitch, whom she liked and trusted. She later recalled that she had suspicions of disloyalty about other members of the Spindle network, but declined to identify who she suspected.
Captured
In January 1943, the Spindle team of Churchill, Rabinovich, and Sansom, feeling vulnerable to German capture, moved north from the French Riviera to the quiet Italian-occupied Annecy area in the French Alps. Churchill and Sansom took up residence at the Hotel de la Poste in the village of Saint-Jorioz. They were joined there by several other members of the Carte network and SOE, a gathering which attracted the attention of the Italian fascist police and the Gestapo. SOE agent Francis Cammaerts visited Annecy briefly in March or early April 1943 and assessed the security of Churchill and Sansom's network as deficient and likely to be penetrated by the Germans.
Meanwhile, in Paris in mid-March, spy-catcher Hugo Bleicher, an Abwehr counterintelligence officer, arrested Marsac, persuading him and another Carte associate, Roger Bardet, that he was an anti-Nazi German colonel and that they should work together. He learned from Marsac the location of Churchill and Sansom, got a letter of introduction to them from him, and proceeded to Saint-Jorioz where he introduced himself to Sansom as "Colonel Henri." He spun a tale to her of them traveling together to London to "discuss means of ending the war." He then departed Saint-Jorioz with a plan to return and depart France together by clandestine aircraft on April 18. Sansom had Rabinovich send a wireless message to SOE headquarters in London reporting the contact. London replied immediately: "Henri highly dangerous...you are to hide across lake and cut contacts with all save Arnaud [Rabinovich]..."
Churchill was in London consulting with SOE at the time of Bleicher's meeting with Sansom. He was warned to avoid contact with Sansom and 'Colonel Henri" on his return to France, but when he was parachuted back into the Annecy area on April 14/15, he was met by Sansom and Rabinovich. As Sansom did not anticipate the return of Henri until April 18, she and Churchill proceeded to the hotel in Saint-Jorioz. At 2:00 a.m. on April 16, Bleicher, no longer in the guise of "Colonel Henri," appeared in the hotel with Italian soldiers and arrested Sansom and Churchill.
Imprisonment
Fresnes Prison
At Fresnes prison, near Paris, Sansom was interrogated by the Gestapo fourteen times. She was subjected to torture. Her back was scorched with a red-hot poker and all of her toenails were pulled out. She refused to disclose the whereabouts of Rabinovitch and another British agent, stuck to her fabricated cover story that Churchill was the nephew of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, that she was his wife, and that he knew nothing of her activities. The hope was that in this way their treatment would be mitigated. The British had calculated that if the Germans thought she was related to the British Prime Minister, they would want to keep her alive as a possible bargaining tool.
Sansom succeeded in diverting attention from Churchill, who was subject to only two interrogations, and protected the identities of the two officers, whose locations were known only to her. While imprisoned, Bleicher occasionally appeared and sought to invite her to travel with him to Paris to attend concerts and dine in restaurants, to persuade her to talk. Sansom rejected the overtures.
She was condemned to death on two counts in June 1943, to which she responded, "Then you will have to make up your mind on what count I am to be executed, because I can only die once." Infuriated, Bleicher sent her to Ravensbrück concentration camp.
Ravensbruck concentration camp
In Ravensbruck Sansom was kept in a punishment block cell, on a starvation diet, and could hear other prisoners being beaten.
After the Allied landings in the south of France in August 1944, on orders from Berlin, all food was withdrawn for a week, all light was removed from Sansom's cell, and the heat was turned up. Despite a report by the camp doctor that she would not survive such conditions for more than a few weeks, after being found unconscious in her cell she was placed in solitary confinement. Her conditions only improved in December 1944, when she was moved to a ground floor cell. The cell was located near the crematorium and would be covered with burned hair from the cremations. At one point toward the end of the war, she witnessed an instance of cannibalism of a dead inmate by starving prisoners.
When the Allies were only a few miles from Ravensbrück, the camp commandant Fritz Suhren took Sansom and drove to an American base to surrender. He hoped that her supposed connections to Churchill might allow him to negotiate his way out of execution.
Churchill survived the war but Rabinovitch was executed by the Gestapo in 1944.
Survival methods
Sansom was aided in her endurance in prison by her early blindness and paralysis, and by the example of her grandfather, who "did not accept weakness very easily." She also accepted in advance that she might be captured by the Germans. She adopted an attitude of defiance, and found that this resulted in a degree of respect by her captors and helped her survive the imprisonment mentally.
Sansom said she believed she was "not brave, not courageous, but just make up my mind about certain things." She recalled in a post-war interview that while everyone has a breaking point, her feeling was that if she could "survive the next minute without breaking up, that is another minute of life. And if I can think that way instead of thinking what is going to happen in a half-hour's time," Because of her past illnesses she knew "I was able to accept this, and survive it." By accepting death, she felt that "they would not win anything. They'll have a dead body, useless to them. They won't have me. I won't let them have me." She described it as a "kind of bargaining."
The Germans generally found persons of the prisoners' own nationality to carry out the torture, she later recalled, so that one "could not say they were tortured by the Germans." Her torture was carried out by a "very good-looking young Frenchman" who she believed was mentally ill.
After the war
Sansom testified against the prison guards charged with war crimes at the 1946 Hamburg Ravensbrück Trials, which resulted in Suhren's execution in 1950.
Roy and Odette's marriage was dissolved in 1946 and she married Peter Churchill in 1947.
In 1951, her home was burgled and the George Cross stolen. After an appeal by her mother, it was returned with a note saying: "You, Madame, appear to be a dear old lady. God bless you and your children. I thank you for having faith in me. I am not all that bad — it's just circumstances. Your little dog really loves me. I gave him a nice pat and left him a piece of meat — out of fridge. Sincerely yours, A Bad Egg." In 1955, she co-founded the annual Women of the Year Lunch with Tony Lothian and Lady Georgina Coleridge (journalist and daughter of the Marquess of Tweeddale).
She was divorced from Churchill in 1955 and married Geoffrey Hallowes, a former SOE officer, in 1956.
She died on 13 March 1995 in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey, England, aged 82.
Legacy
Sansom, known as Odette Churchill after her marriage, gained considerable fame after the publication of a 1949 biography and a film on her war work and prison ordeal in 1950. She became what one biographer described as a "celebrated heroine on both sides of the Channel." However, her story was not without controversy. Some officials did not believe her story and cast doubt upon her integrity.
She was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire and was the first of three Second World War First Aid Nursing Yeomanry members to be awarded the George Cross (gazetted 20 August 1946), all for work with the SOE. She remains the only woman to have received the George Cross while alive, all other female awards to date being posthumous. She was also appointed a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur for her work with the French Resistance.
Documents disclosed long after the war indicate that her superiors had to fight for Sansom's George Cross, because she was unable to prove that she had been tortured by the Nazis and that she had not betrayed her fellow agents. The medal was awarded after medical records and eyewitness testimony supported her case.
Her wartime record was the subject of a 1950 film, Odette, in which the title role was played by Anna Neagle and Trevor Howard played Churchill. Buckmaster played himself in the film, and Sansom, then known as Odette Churchill, wrote a personal message that appeared at the end of the film, which was well received. Odette Churchill had opposed making the film in Hollywood, for fear that the film would be fictionalised. The fame that the movie brought to Odette Sansom and Peter Churchill also brought criticism from their former associates in SOE and the French Resistance. A manifesto signed by about 20 former associates accused Churchill of being in France only to collect material for a book about his experiences and asked what acts of sabotage he and Odette had carried out.
She served as a technical advisor on a film on her fellow SOE agent Violette Szabo, Carve Her Name with Pride.
On 23 February 2012, the Royal Mail released a postage stamp featuring Hallowes as part of its "Britons of Distinction" series.
A second biography, Code Name: Lise, was released on January 15, 2019, written by Larry Loftis and published by Simon & Schuster.
On 6 March 2020 Great Western Railway named a train after her. the ceremony in Odette's honour was held at Paddington Station in London and attended by Anne, Princess Royal.
Military honours
Her honours consisted of:
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Biography of SOE agent Odette Hallowes at Nigel Perrin's site
Imperial War Museums Interview
Newsreel footage of marriage to Peter Churchill, 1947
Daily Mirror article
1912 births
1995 deaths
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Female resistance members of World War II
Female wartime spies
French recipients of the George Cross
French Resistance members
French torture victims
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Ravensbrück concentration camp survivors
French Special Operations Executive personnel
French women in World War II
First Aid Nursing Yeomanry people
20th-century French women | [
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220913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bart | Bart | Bart is a masculine given name, usually a diminutive of Bartholomew, sometimes of Barton, Bartolomeo, etc.
Bart is a German, Dutch and Ashkenazi Jewish surname, and derives from the name Bartholomäus, a German form of the biblical name Bartholomew meaning 'son of talmai' in Aramaic.
Given names
Bart Aernouts (born 1982), Belgian professional cyclist
Bart Andrus (born 1958), American football player and coach
Bart Arens (born 1978), Dutch radio DJ
Bart Baker (born 1986), American comedian and parody musician
Bart Bassett (born 1961), Australian politician
Bart Baxter, American poet
Bart Becht (born 1956), Dutch businessman
Bart Berman (born 1938), Dutch-Israeli pianist and composer
Bart Biemans (born 1988), Belgian footballer
Bart Bok (1906–1983), Dutch-American astronomer
Bart Bongers (born 1946), Dutch water polo player
Bart Bowen (born 1967), American cyclist
Bart Bradley (1930–2006), Canadian ice hockey centre
Bart Braverman (born 1946), American actor
Bart Brentjens (born 1968), Dutch cyclist
Bart Bryant (born 1962), American golfer
Bart Bull, American writer, reporter, author, columnist, and critic
Bart Bunting (born 1976), Australian blind Paralympic alpine skier
Bart Burns (1918–2007), American actor
Bart Buysse (born 1986), Belgian footballer
Bart Cambré (born 1970), Belgian business theorist
Bart Campolo, American humanist writer and former Christian pastor
Bart Cantz (1860–1943), American baseball player
Bart Carlier (1929–2017), Dutch footballer
Bart Carlton, American basketball player
Bart Claessen (born 1980), Dutch trance music DJ
Bart Conner (born 1958), American Olympic gymnast
Bart Cummings (1927–2015), Australian racehorse trainer
Bart Davis (born 1955), American lawyer and politician
Bart De Clercq (born 1986), Belgian cyclist
Bart Decrem, Belgian-born Silicon Valley entrepreneur
Bart Deelkens (born 1978), Belgian footballer
Bart De Wever (born 1970), Belgian politician
Bart de Graaff (1967–2002), Dutch television personality
Bart de Liefde (born 1976), Dutch politician and field hockey umpire
Bart de Ligt (1883—1938), Dutch anarcho-pacifist and antimilitarist
Bart DeLorenzo, American theatre director and producer
Bart Dockx (born 1981), Belgian cyclist
Bart Dodson, American paralympic athlete
Bart Dorsa (born 1967), American artist, photographer, and filmmaker
Bart D. Ehrman (born 1955), American biblical scholar and atheism activist
Bart Evans (born 1970), American baseball pitcher
Bart Evans (polo), American polo player
Bart Exposito (born 1970), American painter
Bart Farley, American soccer goalkeeper
Bart Fletcher, American actor
Bart Forbes (born 1939), American painter and illustrator
Bart Freundlich (born 1970), American film producer, director, and screenwriter
Bart Giamatti (1938–1989), American university president and baseball executive
Bart Goor (born 1973), Belgian soccer player
Bart Gordon (born 1949), American lawyer and politician
Bart Groothuis (born 1981), Dutch politician
Bart Laeremans (born 1966), Belgian politician
Bart Moeyaert (born 1964), Belgian writer
Bart Preneel (born 1963), Belgian scientist
Bart Schilperoord (born 1982), Dutch cricketer
Bart Scott (born 1980), American football player
Bart Sibrel (born 1964), American conspiracy theory film maker
Bart Somers (born 1964), Belgian politician
Bart Staes (born 1958), Belgian politician
Bart Starr (1934–2019), American football player and coach
Bart Stupak (born 1952), Polish-American politician
Bart Taminiau (born 1947), Dutch field hockey player
Bart Tanski (born 1990), American football player
Bart Veldkamp (born 1967), Dutch speed skater
Bart Voskamp (born 1968), Dutch cyclist
Bart Wellens (born 1978), Belgian cyclo-cross cyclist
Bart Wenrich, American television producer
Bart Whiteman (1948–2006), American theatre actor, director, producer, and critic
Bart Willoughby (born 1960), Indigenous Australian musician
Bart Wuyts (born 1969), Belgian tennis player
Bart Yasso, American runner and biathlete
Bart Yates, American novelist
Bart Zeller (born 1941), American baseball player
Bart Zoet (1942–1992), Dutch cyclist
Fictional characters
Bart Allen, a DC Comics superhero called Flash, Kid Flash and Impulse
Bart Hamilton, the third Green Goblin, a Spider-Man villain
Bart Hawk, a military pilot who went by the codename Blackhawk in the 1940s Quality Comics incarnation
Bart McQueen, in the soap opera Hollyoaks
Bart Rathbone, a salesman in the radio drama and comedy series Adventures in Odyssey
Bart Simpson, in the television series The Simpsons
Animals
Bart the Bear (1977–2000), an Alaskan Kodiak bear who appeared in many Hollywood films
Bart the Bear 2 (born 2000), an Alaskan brown bear who appears in films and television
Surname
Andrzej Bart (born 1951), Polish novelist, screenwriter and film director
Cécile Bart (born 1958), French painter
François Cornil Bart (1677–1755), French vice admiral
Frank J. Bart (1883–1961), United States Army private awarded the Medal of Honor
Harm Bart (born 1942), Dutch mathematician and economist
Harriet Bart (born 1941), American artist
Jean Bart (1650–1702), French naval commander and privateer
Joey Bart (born 1996), American baseball player
Lionel Bart (1930–1999), composer of musicals
Pauline Bart (1930–2021), American sociologist
Peter Bart (born 1932), American journalist, former editor-in-chief of Variety magazine
Philippe-François Bart (1706–1784), Governor of Saint-Domingue
Roger Bart (born 1962), American actor
See also
Black Bart (disambiguation)
Tony Di Bart, stage name of English singer Antonio Carmine Di Bartolomeo (born 1964)
Masculine given names
Dutch masculine given names
English masculine given names | [
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220918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20and%20South%20Seas%20Exhibition%20%281889%29 | New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition (1889) | The New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition was an international exhibition held in Dunedin, New Zealand from 26 November 1889 to 19 April 1890.
Organization
D. H. Hasting proposed the hosting of an international exhibition in Dunedin, New Zealand to celebrate the golden jubilee of the proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1890. A meeting was held on 25 October 1888 to form an organizing committee. John Roberts was elected president and Richard Twopeny, executive commissioner. The national government officially recognized the New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition, and granted £10,000 for its organization.
Architecture
A site of about 121 acres was donated by the Otago Harbour Board bounded by Crawford, Anderson's Bay, Cumberland, and Jerrvois Streets. The Main Building was designed by James Hislop and built by contractors McMath and Walker of Invercargill. The building consisted of several annexes and halls forming an irregular quadrilateral with its longest side measuring 1,162 feet and a total width of 465 feet. A huge dome 50 feet in diameter rose 80 feet above the main entrance.
Celebrations
The Exhibition was opened on 26 November 1889 by Governor Lord Onslow. During the 125 days the exhibition was open there was an attendance of 625,248, before the exhibition closed on 19 April 1890. The exhibition managed to make a profit of £579.
Nations in Attendance:
Africa: Mauritius
America: Canada, Costa Rica, United States
Asia: Ceylon, Japan, Syria
Europe: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy
Oceania: Cook Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, New Guinea, New Hebrides, New South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, Samoa, Solomon Islands, South Australia, Tonga, Victoria, Western Australia.
The fair celebrated that country and the South Seas. Exhibitions included New Zealand's Eiffel Tower, a wooden structure based on the Eiffel Tower built by the Austral Otis Elevator Company and used to display their products. The tower was estimated to cost £1200 and included an elevator that travelled about 30 m. A smaller Eiffel Tower, without an elevator, was situated in an adjacent garden area, near the internal courtyard of the exhibition.
John Roberts was President of the Exhibition and for his services was awarded the Companionship of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George, in 1891. Alfred Lee Smith was one of the directors of the exhibition.
On the occasion of the exhibition a book was published, titled Picturesque Dunedin. It was edited by Alexander Bathgate, and gave a description of Dunedin and its neighbourhood, with a short historical account of the city and its principal institutions.
References
World's fairs in New Zealand
History of New Zealand
History of Dunedin
1889 in New Zealand
Festivals in Dunedin
Festivals established in 1889
1880s in Dunedin | [
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220919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encapsulation%20%28computer%20programming%29 | Encapsulation (computer programming) | In object-oriented programming (OOP), encapsulation refers to the bundling of data with the methods that operate on that data, or the restricting of direct access to some of an object's components. Encapsulation is used to hide the values or state of a structured data object inside a class, preventing direct access to them by clients in a way that could expose hidden implementation details or violate state invariance maintained by the methods.
Publicly accessible methods are generally provided in the class to access or modify the state more abstractly. In practice sometimes methods (so-called "getters" and "setters") are provided to access the values indirectly, but, although not necessarily a violation of abstract encapsulation, they are often considered a sign-post of potentially poor object-oriented programming (OOP) design practice (an Anti-pattern).
This mechanism is not unique to OOP. Implementations of abstract data types, e.g., modules, offer a similar form of encapsulation. The similarity has been explained by programming language theorists in terms of existential types.
Meaning
In object-oriented programming languages, and other related fields, encapsulation refers to one of two related but distinct notions, and sometimes to the combination thereof:
A language mechanism for restricting direct access to some of the object's components.
A language construct that facilitates the bundling of data with the methods (or other functions) operating on that data.
Some programming language researchers and academics use the first meaning alone or in combination with the second as a distinguishing feature of object-oriented programming, while some programming languages that provide lexical closures view encapsulation as a feature of the language orthogonal to object orientation.
The second definition is motivated by the fact that in many object-oriented languages, and other related fields, the components are not hidden automatically and this can be overridden; thus, information hiding is defined as a separate notion by those who prefer the second definition.
The features of encapsulation are supported using classes in most object-oriented languages, although other alternatives also exist.
Encapsulation and inheritance
The authors of Design Patterns discuss the tension between inheritance and encapsulation at length and state that in their experience, designers overuse inheritance. They claim that inheritance often breaks encapsulation, given that inheritance exposes a subclass to the details of its parent's implementation. As described by the yo-yo problem, overuse of inheritance and therefore encapsulation, can become too complicated and hard to debug.
Information hiding
Under the definition that encapsulation "can be used to hide data members and member functions", the internal representation of an object is generally hidden from view outside of the object's definition. Typically, only the object's own methods can directly inspect or manipulate its fields. Hiding the internals of the object protects its integrity by preventing users from setting the internal data of the component into an invalid or inconsistent state. A supposed benefit of encapsulation is that it can reduce system complexity, and thus increase robustness, by allowing the developer to limit the interdependencies between software components.
Some languages like Smalltalk and Ruby only allow access via object methods, but most others (e.g., C++, C#, Delphi or Java) offer the programmer a degree of control over what is hidden, typically via keywords like public and private. ISO C++ standard refers to protected, private and public as "access specifiers" and that they do not "hide any information". Information hiding is accomplished by furnishing a compiled version of the source code that is interfaced via a header file.
Almost always, there is a way to override such protection – usually via reflection API (Ruby, Java, C#, etc.), sometimes by mechanism like name mangling (Python), or special keyword usage like friend in C++. Systems that provide object-level capability-based security (adhering to the object-capability model) are an exception, and guarantee strong encapsulation.
Examples
Restricting data fields
Languages like C++, C#, Java, PHP, Swift, and Delphi offer ways to restrict access to data fields.
Below is an example in C# that shows how access to a data field can be restricted through the use of a private keyword:
class Program
{
public class Account
{
private decimal accountBalance = 500.00m;
public decimal CheckBalance()
{
return this.accountBalance;
}
}
static void Main()
{
Account myAccount = new Account();
decimal myBalance = myAccount.CheckBalance();
/* This Main method can check the balance via the public
* "CheckBalance" method provided by the "Account" class
* but it cannot manipulate the value of "accountBalance" */
}
}
Below is an example in Java:
public class Employee {
private BigDecimal salary = new BigDecimal(50000.00);
public BigDecimal getSalary() {
return this.salary;
}
public static void main() {
Employee e = new Employee();
BigDecimal sal = e.getSalary();
}
}
Encapsulation is also possible in non-object-oriented languages. In C, for example, a structure can be declared in the public API via the header file for a set of functions that operate on an item of data containing data members that are not accessible to clients of the API with the extern keyword.
// Header file "api.h"
struct Entity; // Opaque structure with hidden members
// API functions that operate on 'Entity' objects
extern struct Entity * open_entity(int id);
extern int process_entity(struct Entity *info);
extern void close_entity(struct Entity *info);
// extern keywords here are redundant, but don't hurt.
// extern defines functions that can be called outside the current file, the default behavior even without the keyword
Clients call the API functions to allocate, operate on, and deallocate objects of an opaque data type. The contents of this type are known and accessible only to the implementation of the API functions; clients cannot directly access its contents. The source code for these functions defines the actual contents of the structure:
// Implementation file "api.c"
#include "api.h"
struct Entity {
int ent_id; // ID number
char ent_name[20]; // Name
... and other members ...
};
// API function implementations
struct Entity * open_entity(int id)
{ ... }
int process_entity(struct Entity *info)
{ ... }
void close_entity(struct Entity *info)
{ ... }
Name mangling
Below is an example of Python, which does not support variable access restrictions. However, the convention is that a variable whose name is prefixed by an underscore should be considered private.
class Car:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self._maxspeed = 200
def drive(self) -> None:
print(f"Maximum speed is {self._maxspeed}.")
redcar = Car()
redcar.drive() # This will print 'Maximum speed is 200.'
redcar._maxspeed = 10
redcar.drive() # This will print 'Maximum speed is 10.'
See also
Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
Object-oriented programming
Software design pattern
Facade pattern
References
Object-oriented programming
Articles with example Java code | [
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220924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hee-seop%20Choi | Hee-seop Choi | Hee-seop Choi (; Hangul: 최희섭; Hanja: 崔熙燮; ; born March 16, 1979) is a South Korean former professional baseball first baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Chicago Cubs, Florida Marlins, and Los Angeles Dodgers and in the KBO League for the Kia Tigers.
Early life and amateur career
Choi was born in Yeongam County, South Jeolla Province, South Korea on March 19, 1979. He graduated from Gwangju Jeil High School in Gwangju, South Korea, in 1998. He attended Korea University in 1998 and was a member of the South Korea national baseball team that finished second in the 1998 Baseball World Cup. He was scouted and signed by Leon Lee, the father of former major league first baseman Derrek Lee. Coincidentally, he later was traded to the Marlins for Lee.
Professional career
Chicago Cubs
Beginning in , Choi spent four seasons in the Cubs minor league system and was considered to be one of the organization's top prospects. On September 3, 2002, Choi made his Major League debut against the Milwaukee Brewers and became the first Korean-born position player to play in the Major Leagues.
In , Choi played in 80 games, hitting .218 with eight home runs and 28 RBI. He was the Opening Day starter for the Cubs, but suffered a concussion following a collision with teammate pitcher Kerry Wood on June 7, 2003. Choi went on the disabled list, and never reclaimed his starting role. After the season, he was traded to the Florida Marlins for Derrek Lee.
Florida Marlins
With his new team, Choi began the season impressively batting .295 with nine home runs and 18 RBIs in April. But his stay with the Marlins was a brief one. On July 30, he was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers along with Brad Penny and minor league pitcher Bill Murphy for Paul Lo Duca, Guillermo Mota, and Juan Encarnación.
Los Angeles Dodgers
Choi went on to bat only .161 for the remainder of the 2004 season with the Dodgers, leading many to criticize the Dodgers' sabermetrician general manager Paul DePodesta for acquiring him. Sabermetric baseball analysts claimed that Choi did not get enough playing time because of bias from the Dodgers' old school managerial style, which kept rookies on the bench for extended periods of time. Jim Tracy reportedly said that he did not start Choi on one particular day because Adam Eaton was pitching and Eaton has a unique arm angle in his pitching delivery.
Choi's production picked up during the 2005 season as he played in 133 games that season and posted a .253 batting average, while hitting 15 home runs and driving in 42 runs. The highlight of Choi's season came during a weekend series against the Minnesota Twins from June 10–12, when he accomplished the rare feat of hitting six home runs in a three-game series.
However, during the – off-season, DePodesta was fired by Dodgers owner Frank McCourt, and new general manager Ned Colletti signed Nomar Garciaparra to be the everyday first baseman. Rather than keep Choi on the bench or blocking prospect James Loney's path to the big leagues, Colletti decided to waive Choi during spring training; he was subsequently claimed by the Boston Red Sox.
Post-Dodgers
Choi represented South Korea in the World Baseball Classic, in which his most significant contribution was hitting a three-run pinch-hit home run against Team USA.
Choi spent the entire 2006 season with Pawtucket. He was designated for assignment August 1, 2006, while on Pawtucket's disabled list and removed from Boston's 40-man roster. Choi cleared waivers on August 11, 2006, and was outrighted to Pawtucket.
On December 1, 2006, Choi signed a minor league contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays where he was given a shot to be Tampa Bay's everyday first baseman. Choi decided to return home after failing to make Tampa Bay's 40-man roster after spring training.
Kia Tigers
On May 14, , Choi signed with the Kia Tigers in the Korea Baseball Organization. In his KBO debut game, He went 0-for-5 against the Doosan Bears. Choi finished his first KBO season with a .337 batting average, 7 home runs and 45 RBI, playing in 52 games.
Choi began the season in a slump due to a waist injury, finishing the month of April with a batting average of just .208 and going 25-for-120 to close out the month, and was then demoted to the Korean minor league affiliate of the Kia Tigers. In July, he returned to the 26-man first-team roster, but finished the season with horrendous offensive stats. His batting average was a disappointing .229, and he had only 6 home runs and 22 RBI.
In , Choi broke out offensively and became a star, rebounding from the slump. He helped the Tigers into title contention immediately, batting .308, blasting a pro career-best 33 home runs, leading the KBO league in runs with 98 and helping them win the 2009 KBO regular season. Choi was runner-up in home runs (33), RBI (100), and walks (103), 4th in slugging percentage (.589), 6th in on-base percentage (.435), and 11th in batting average (.308). Choi and Kim Sang-hyeon hit 69 home runs, and the two together are called the "CK Cannon".
On December 11, 2009, he obtained his first KBO League Golden Glove Award in first baseman nomination.
In , Choi had a .286 batting average, with 21 home runs, 84 RBIs, and drew 81 walks. Choi received an all-star selection and also participated in the home run derby, where he set the record for longest home run.
In , Choi was limited to 70 games due to injury. Choi hit .281, with 9 home runs and 37 RBI.
In , Choi hit .252, with 7 home runs and 42 RBI in another injury-plagued season.
In , Choi hit .258, with 11 home runs and 42 RBI. After the season, he underwent knee surgery.
Achievements
2009 Runs Leader (KBO)
2009 Golden Glove Award (First baseman)
All-Star appearances
Choi was one of eight representatives in the 2005 Home Run Derby, representing South Korea. Although he lasted only one round, he matched The Netherlands' representative, Andruw Jones, with a total of five home runs. He did not feature in the All-Star game.
References
External links
Career statistics and player information from Korea Baseball Organization
2006 World Baseball Classic players
Kia Tigers players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Iowa Cubs players
West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx players
Daytona Cubs players
Navegantes del Magallanes players
South Korean expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Lansing Lugnuts players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Florida Marlins players
Chicago Cubs players
KBO League first basemen
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball players from South Korea
South Korean expatriate baseball players in the United States
Korea University alumni
1979 births
Living people
Sportspeople from South Jeolla Province | [
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] |
220946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIT | JIT | JIT or Jit may refer to:
The word Jit was first made in 1870
Just-in-time compilation
Just-in-time manufacturing
Jhulelal Institute of Technology, Nagpur University, India
Joint investigation team, investigating cross-border crime
Jit, a style of Zimbabwean dance music
Jit (film), a 1990 Zimbabwean film
Jit, Qalqilya, a Palestinian town in the West Bank
A slang term in the U.S. state of Florida referring to someone who is younger and more naive
See also
Just in Time (disambiguation) | [
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220950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20Cooperation%20Council | Gulf Cooperation Council | The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (), originally (and still colloquially) known as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC; ), is a regional, intergovernmental political and economic union that consists of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The council's main headquarters is in the city of Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. The Charter of the GCC was signed on 25 May 1981, formally establishing the institution.
All current member states are monarchies, including three constitutional monarchies (Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain), two absolute monarchies (Saudi Arabia and Oman), and one federal monarchy (the United Arab Emirates, which is composed of seven member states, each of which is an absolute monarchy with its own emir). There have been discussions regarding the future membership of Jordan, Morocco, and Yemen.
During the Arab Spring in 2011, Saudi Arabia raised a proposal to transform the GCC into a "Gulf Union" with tighter economic, political and military coordination, regarded as a move to counterbalance the Iranian influence in the region. Objections were raised against the proposal by other countries. In 2014, Bahrain prime minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa said that current events in the region highlighted the importance of the proposal. The Peninsula Shield Force is the military arm of the GCC, formed in 1984.
Founding
The original union comprised Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The unified economic agreement between the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council was signed on 11 November 1981 in Abu Dhabi, UAE. These countries are often referred to as "the GCC states" or "Gulf countries".
Objectives
In 2001, the GCC Supreme Council set the following goals:
Customs union in January 2003
Common market by 2007
Common currency by 2010
Oman announced in December 2006 that it would not be able to meet the 2010 target date for a common currency. Following the announcement that the central bank for the monetary union would be located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and not in the UAE, the UAE announced their withdrawal from the monetary union project in May 2009. The name Khaleeji has been proposed as a name for this currency. If realized, the GCC monetary union would be the second-largest supranational monetary union in the world, measured by the GDP of the common-currency area.
Other stated objectives include:
Formulating similar regulations in various fields such as religion, finance, trade, customs, tourism, legislation, and administration.
Fostering scientific and technical progress in industry, mining, agriculture, water, and animal resources.
Establishing scientific research centers.
Setting up joint ventures.
Unified military (Peninsula Shield Force).
Encouraging cooperation of the private sector.
Strengthening ties between their people.
This area has some of the fastest-growing economies in the world, mostly due to a boom in oil and natural gas revenues coupled with a building and investment boom backed by decades of saved petroleum revenues. In an effort to build a tax base and economic foundation before the reserves run out, the UAE's investment arms, including Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, retain over US$900 billion in assets. Other regional funds also have several hundreds of billions of dollars of assets under management.
The region is an emerging hotspot for events, including the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar. Doha also submitted an unsuccessful application for the 2016 Summer Olympics. Qatar was later chosen to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup.
Recovery plans have been criticized for crowding out the private sector, failing to set clear priorities for growth, failing to restore weak consumer and investor confidence, and undermining long-term stability.
Logo
The logo of the GCC consists of two concentric circles. On the upper part of the larger circle, the Bismillah phrase is written in Arabic, which means "In the name of God", and on the lower part the council's full name, in Arabic. The inner-circle contains an embossed hexagonal shape that represents the council's six-member countries. The inside of the hexagon is filled by a map encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, on which the areas of the member countries are borderless and colored in brown. On the edge of the hexagon are colors representing the flags of the six-member countries.
Economy
Internal market
A common market was launched on 1 January 2008 with plans to realize a fully integrated single market. It eased the movement of goods and services. However, implementation lagged behind after the 2009 financial crisis. The creation of a customs union began in 2003 and was completed and fully operational on 1 January 2015. In January 2015, the common market was also further integrated, allowing full equality among GCC citizens to work in the government and private sectors, social insurance and retirement coverage, real estate ownership, capital movement, access to education, health and other social services in all member states. However, some barriers remained in the free movement of goods and services. The coordination of taxation systems, accounting standards and civil legislation is currently in progress. The interoperability of professional qualifications, insurance certificates and identity documents is also underway.
Monetary union
In 2014, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia took major steps to ensure the creation of a single currency. Kuwait's finance minister said the four members are pushing ahead with the monetary union but said some "technical points" need to be cleared. He added, "A common market and common central bank would also position the GCC as one entity that would have great influence on the international financial system". The implementation of a single currency and the creation of a central bank is overseen by the Monetary Council.
There is currently a degree to which a nominal GCC single currency already exists. Businesses trade using a basket of GCC currencies, just as before the euro was introduced, the European Currency Unit (ECU) was long used beforehand as a nominal medium of exchange. Plans to introduce a single currency had been drawn up as far back as 2009, however due to the financial crisis and political differences, the UAE and Oman withdrew their membership.
Mergers and acquisitions
Companies and investors from GCC countries are active in mergers and acquisitions (M&A). Since 1999, more than 5,200 transactions with a known value of US$573 billion have been announced. They are active within GCC and in cross-border M&A abroad. The investor group includes in particular a number of sovereign wealth funds.
Infrastructure
The GCC launched common economic projects to promote and facilitate integration. The member states have connected their power grids, and a water connection project was launched with plans to be in use by 2020. A project to create common air transport was also unveiled.
The GCC also launched major rail projects to connect the peninsula. The railways are expected to fuel intra-regional trade while helping reduce fuel consumption. Over US$200 billion will be invested to develop about of rail network across the GCC, according to Oman's Minister of Transport and Communications. The project, estimated to be worth $15.5 billion, is scheduled to be completed by 2021. "It will link the six member states as a regional transport corridor, further integrating with the national railway projects, deepening economic social and political integration, and it is developed from a sustainable perspective." stated, Ramiz Al Assar, Resident World Bank advisor for the GCC.
Saudi Arabian Railways, Etihad Rail, and national governments have poured billions into railway infrastructure to create rail networks for transporting freight, connecting cities, and reducing transport times.
Politics and governance
Supreme Council
The GCC Supreme Council is composed of the heads of the member states. It is the highest decision-making entity of the GCC, setting its vision and goals. Decisions on substantive issues require unanimous approval, while issues on procedural matters require a majority. Each member state has one vote. Its presidency is rotatory based on the alphabetical order of the names of the member states.
Ministerial Council
The Ministerial Council is composed of the Foreign Ministers of all the member states. It convenes every three months. It primarily formulates policies and makes recommendations to promote cooperation and achieve coordination among the member states when implementing ongoing projects. Its decisions are submitted in the form of recommendations for the approval of the Supreme Council. The Ministerial Council is also responsible for preparations of meetings of the Supreme Council and its agenda. The voting procedure in the Ministerial Council is the same as in the Supreme Council.
Secretariat General
The Secretariat is the executive arm of the Gulf Cooperation Council. It takes decisions within its authority and implements decisions approved by the Supreme or Ministerial Council. The Secretariat also compiles studies relating to cooperation, coordination, and planning for common action. It prepares periodical reports regarding the work done by the GCC as a whole and regarding the implementation of its own decisions. The current Secretary-General is Nayef Falah Mubarak Al Hajraf, and his deputies include Abdulaziz Al Auwaishig and Khalifa Alfadhel.
Monetary Council
On 15 December 2009, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia announced the creation of a Monetary Council to introduce a single currency for the union. The board of the council, which set a timetable and action plan for establishing a central bank and choosing a currency regime, met for the first time on 30 March 2010. Kuwaiti foreign minister Mohammad Sabah Al-Sabah said on 8 December 2009 that a single currency may take up to ten years to establish. The original target was in 2010. Oman and the UAE later announced their withdrawal from the proposed currency.
In 2014, major moves were taken to ensure the launch of a single currency. Kuwait's finance minister stated that a currency should be implemented without delay. Negotiations with the UAE and Oman to expand the monetary union were renewed.
Patent Office
The GCC Patent Office was approved in 1992 and established soon after in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Applications are filed and prosecuted in the Arabic language before the GCC Patent Office in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, which is a separate office from the Saudi Arabian Patent Office. The GCC Patent Office grants patents valid in all GCC member states. The first GCC patent was granted in 2002. As of 2013, it employed about 30 patent examiners.
Peninsula Shield Force
Amidst the Bahraini uprising, Saudi Arabia and the UAE sent ground troops to Bahrain in order to protect vital infrastructure such as the airport and highway system. Kuwait and Oman refrained from sending troops. Instead, Kuwait sent a navy unit.
The secretary-general of the GCC strongly endorsed the use of international force in Libya. GCC member states joined coalition efforts to enforce the no-fly zone.
In September 2014, GCC members Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, UAE and Qatar, plus pending member Jordan, commenced air operations against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Syria. Saudi Arabia and the UAE, however, are among the states that oppose the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria, whereas Qatar has historically supported it. They also pledged other support including operating training facilities for Syrian rebels (in Saudi Arabia) and allowing the use of their airbases by other countries fighting ISIL. Some of the GCC countries also send some troops to fight the opposition government in Yemen.
GCC Standardization Organization (GSO)
This is the standardization organization of the GCC, and Yemen also belongs to this organization.
Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting (GOIC)
The Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting (GOIC) was founded in 1976 by the six GCC member states; Yemen joined the organization in 2009. It is headquartered at Doha, Qatar. The organization chart of GOIC includes the Board members and the General Secretariat. The Board is formed by member state representatives appointed by their governments.
Secretaries-General
Member states
There are 6 member states of the union:
Associated members
The associate membership of Iraq in certain GCC-related institutions was discontinued after the invasion of Kuwait.
Yemen was in negotiations for GCC membership in 2007, and hoped to join by 2016. The GCC has already approved Yemen's accession to the GCC Standardization Authority, Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting (GOIC), GCC Auditing and Accounting Authority, Gulf Radio and TV Authority, The GCC Council of Health Ministers, The GCC Education and Training Bureau, The GCC Council of Labour & and Social Affairs Ministers, and The Gulf Cup Football Tournament. The Council issued directives that all the necessary legal measures be taken so that Yemen would have the same rights and obligations of GCC member states in those institutions.
Sports
The union has served as a grouping for sports co-operation and competition. The GCC states have an annual Meeting of the Youth and Sports ministers to boost youth and sports initiatives in the region; in 2015, this gathering was held for the 29th time. The promotion of the hosting of international sports events has also served an economic purpose for the union's countries, leading to investment and development in the region.
The GCC Games, a quadrennial multi-sport event, was established by the union and first held in 2011. There are numerous long-running GCC Championships for individual sports, including: the Gulf Cooperation Council Athletics Championships (first held in 1986; youth section from 2000) sailing, basketball, swimming, tennis, gymnastics (senior and youth levels), weightlifting, futsal, snooker, and table tennis.
2014 Saudi–Qatari rift
Qatar's support for the Muslim Brotherhood across the Middle East-North Africa (MENA) region, Hamas and radical Islamists in Libya has led to increasing tensions with other Arab states of the Persian Gulf. These tensions came to a head during a March 2014 meeting of the GCC, after which the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain announced the recall of their ambassadors to Qatar.
Some financial economists have interpreted the 2014 Saudi–Qatari rift as a tangible political sign of a growing economic rivalry between oil and natural gas producers, which could "have deep and long-lasting consequences" beyond MENA.
2017 Rift with Qatar
On 5 June 2017, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Egypt had officially cut diplomatic ties with Qatar. Saudi Arabia said it took the decision to cut diplomatic ties due to Qatar's "embrace of various terrorist and sectarian groups aimed at destabilising the region", including the Muslim Brotherhood, al-Qaida, ISIL and Iran-supported groups in Saudi Arabia's eastern province of Qatif. Political researcher Islam Hassan viewed this as a continuation of Qatar's foreign policy rivalry with Saudi Arabia and UAE.
In June 2017, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain put a ban on Qataris and their businesses. Qataris were not allowed to enter or live in these countries unless they have a spouse living there, and they must carry a visa in order to enter these countries. Qatar Airways aircraft were also not allowed to fly over these countries. Saudi Arabia stated that they would turn its land border into a canal, known as the Salwa Canal in 2018, The plan was abandoned in 2019.
On 4 January 2021, Kuwait National TV announced that Saudi Arabia will restore all diplomatic ties with Qatar and the air space will be opened for Qatari aircraft. The state TV also announced the reopening of Qatar - Saudi Land Border.
Later that evening, it was announced that The Kingdom of Bahrain, The United Arab Emirates, and Egypt agreed to restore ties with Qatar and on 4 January 2021 it was made official at the Al-Ula summit where the blockading countries along with the State of Qatar signed an official agreement and ended the rift after 3 years and 7 months.
Related states
Since the creation of the council in 1981 its membership has not expanded, with all members being Arab monarchies.
Some GCC countries have land borders with Iraq, Jordan or Yemen, and sea borders with Iran, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea or Somalia.
Egypt
Only the Sinai peninsula of Egypt lies in the Arabian peninsula. In 2011, Bahrain's Foreign Minister called for Egypt to be admitted as a member of the GCC.
Iraq
Iraq is the only Arab country bordering the Persian Gulf that is not a member of the GCC. Despite the societal, political and historical differences between Iraq and its neighboring Gulf states, in 2012, former Iraqi defence minister, stated that Iraq wanted to join the GCC. Kuwait supported Iraq joining the GCC. However, no progress were made since then.
Iran
At the December 2012 Manama summit, the GCC states called for an end to Iranian interference in their internal affairs.
Jordan and Morocco
In May 2011, Jordan's request to join the GCC, which had been first submitted 15 years earlier, was accepted and Morocco was invited to join the union. In September 2011, a five-year economic plan for both countries was put forward after a meeting between the foreign ministers of both countries and those of the GCC states. Although a plan for accession was being looked into, it was noted that there was no timetable for either's accession, and that discussions would continue.
As Jordan and Morocco are the only two Arabic speaking monarchies not currently in the council, the current members see them as strong potential allies. Jordan borders Saudi Arabia and is economically connected to the Persian Gulf States. Although Morocco is not near the Persian Gulf, the Moroccan foreign minister Taieb Fassi Fihri notes that "geographical distance is no obstacle to a strong relationship".
Yemen
Yemen was in negotiations for GCC membership, and hoped to join by 2015. Although it has no coastline on the Persian Gulf, Yemen lies in the Arabian Peninsula and shares a common culture and history with other GCC members. The GCC has already approved Yemen's accession to the GCC Standardization Authority, Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting (GOIC), GCC Auditing and Accounting Authority, Gulf Radio and TV Authority, GCC Council of Health Ministers, GCC Education and Training Bureau, GCC Council of Labour and Social Affairs Ministers, and Gulf Cup Football Tournament. The Council issued directives that all the necessary legal measures be taken so that Yemen would have the same rights and obligations of GCC member states in those institutions.
In May 2017, the Gulf Cooperation Council rejected the formation of a transitional political council in southern Yemen, which called for the separation of Southern Yemen, siding with Yemen President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi in doing so.
Related organizations
The GCC members and Yemen are also members of the Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA). However, this is unlikely to affect the agenda of the GCC significantly as it has a more aggressive timetable than GAFTA and is seeking greater integration.
See also
Arab League
Arabian Peninsula
Eastern Arabia
Peninsula Shield Force
Khaleeji (currency)
Gulf Railway
Qatar diplomatic crisis
References
Further reading
Bianco, C. (2020a). The GCC monarchies: Perceptions of the Iranian threat amid shifting geopolitics. The International Spectator, 55(2), 92–107.
Bianco, C. (2020b). A Gulf apart: How Europe can gain influence with the Gulf Cooperation Council. European Council on Foreign Relations, February 2020. Available at https://ecfr.eu/archive/page/-/a_gulf_apart_how_europe_can_gain_influence_with_gulf_cooperation_council.pdf.
Bianco, C. (2021). Can Europe Choreograph a Saudi-Iranian Détente? European University Institute, Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies, Middle East Directions. Available at: https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/70351/PB_2021_10-MED.pdf?sequence=1.
Bianco, C., & Stansfield, G. (2018). The intra-GCC crises: Mapping GCC fragmentation after 2011. International Affairs, 94(3), 613–635.
Miniaoui, Héla, ed. Economic Development in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: From Rentier States to Diversified Economies. Vol. 1. Springer Nature, 2020.
Guzansky, Y., & Even, S. (2020). The economic crisis in the Gulf States: A challenge to the “contract” between rulers and ruled. INSS Insight No. 1327, June 1, 2020. Available at https://www.INSS.org.il/publication/gulf-states-economy/?offset=7&posts=201&outher=Yoel%20Guzansky.
Guzansky, Y., & Marshall, Z. A. (2020). The Abraham accords: Immediate significance and long-term implications. Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, 1–11.
Guzansky, Y., & Segal, E. (2020). All in the family: Leadership changes in the Gulf. INSS Insight No. 1378, August 30, 2020. Available at: https://www.INSS.org.il/publication/gulf-royal-families/?offset=1&posts=201&outher=Yoel%20Guzansky
Guzansky, Y., & Winter, O. (2020). Apolitical Normalization: A New Approach to Jews in Arab States. INSS Insight No. 1332, June 8, 2020. Available at: https://www.INSS.org.il/publication/judaism-in-the-arab-world/?offset=5&posts=201&outher=Yoel%20Guzansky.
see https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world
Woertz, Eckart. "Wither the self-sufficiency illusion? Food security in Arab Gulf States and the impact of COVID-19." Food Security 12.4 (2020): 757-760.
Zweiri, Mahjoob, Md Mizanur Rahman, and Arwa Kamal, eds. The 2017 Gulf Crisis: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Vol. 3. Springer Nature, 2020.
External links
The Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting (GOIC)
1981 establishments in the United Arab Emirates
1981 in economics
Arabian Peninsula
Articles containing video clips
Continental unions
Customs unions
Economic integration
Intellectual property organizations
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
International economic organizations
International organizations based in Asia
International organizations based in the Middle East
Organizations established in 1981
Pan-Arabism
Proposed currencies
Supranational unions
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Bahrain–Iran relations
Iran–Kuwait relations
Iran–Oman relations
Iran–Qatar relations
Iran–Saudi Arabia relations
Iran–Saudi Arabia military relations
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Iran–United Arab Emirates relations | [
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220954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Nepomuk%20Maelzel | Johann Nepomuk Maelzel | Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (or Mälzel; August 15, 1772 – July 21, 1838) was a German inventor, engineer, and showman, best known for manufacturing a metronome and several music-playing automatons, and displaying a fraudulent chess machine. He worked with Beethoven to compose a piece of music for one of his inventions.
Life and work
Maelzel was born in Regensburg. The son of an organ builder, he received a comprehensive musical education. He moved to Vienna in 1792.
After several years of study and experiment, he produced an orchestrion instrument, which was publicly exhibited, and afterward sold for 3,000 florins. In 1804, he invented the panharmonicon, an automaton able to play the musical instruments of a military band, powered by bellows and directed by revolving cylinders storing the notes. This attracted universal attention; the inventor became noted throughout Europe, was appointed imperial court-mechanician at Vienna, and drew the admiration of Ludwig van Beethoven and other noted composers. This instrument was sold to a Parisian admirer for 120,000 francs.
In 1805 Maelzel purchased Wolfgang von Kempelen's half-forgotten automaton chess player, The Turk, took it to Paris, and sold it to Eugene Beauharnais at a large profit. Returning to Vienna, he gave his attention to the construction of an automaton trumpeter, which, with lifelike movements and sudden changes of attire, performed French and Austrian field signals and military airs. In 1808 he invented an improved ear trumpet, and a musical chronometer.
In 1813 Maelzel and Beethoven were on familiar terms. Maelzel conceived and musically sketched Wellington's Victory, or The Battle of Vitoria for which Beethoven composed the music to be played on Maelzel's 'mechanical orchestra', the panharmonicon; they also gave several concerts, at which Beethoven's symphonies were interspersed with the performances of Maelzel's automatons.
In 1814, Beethoven wrote a deposition claiming that Maelzel had defrauded him, claiming ownership of this music, and illegally staging performances of it from an inaccurate transcription. Beethoven described Maelzel in this deposition as "a rude, churlish man, entirely devoid of education or cultivation".
In 1816 Maelzel became established in Paris as manufacturer of a metronome. Maelzel's metronome was copied from a metronome invented earlier by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. By 1817, Beethoven and Maelzel appear to have reconciled. Beethoven wrote glowingly of Maelzel's metronome and declared he would stop using traditional tempo indications like allegro.
In 1817 Maelzel left Paris for Munich, and then again took up his abode in Vienna. At this time he found means to repurchase von Kempelen's chess player, and, after spending several preparatory years in constructing and improving a number of mechanical inventions, he formed an enterprise devoted to exhibiting his array of mechanical wonders in the New World.
He died on a ship in the harbor of La Guaira, Venezuela, reportedly from alcohol poisoning.
Quotations
Views on Maelzel show that he was not always positively viewed by his contemporaries (e.g. regarding his relation to Art).
Maelzel will be especially remembered [...] by the Metronome. [...]As a man, Maelzel seems to have been quarrelsome, extravagant, and unscrupulous. [...] Had he possessed a larger amount of culture and of conscience, he might have done service to high Art.
— The Year-book of facts in science and art (1856)
Notes
References
External links
A short biography of Mälzel
1772 births
1838 deaths
18th-century German engineers
19th-century German engineers
18th-century German inventors
19th-century German inventors
German expatriates in Austria
German expatriates in Venezuela
Scientists from Regensburg
Chess automatons
Chess people | [
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220961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry | Industry | Industry may refer to:
Economics
Industry (economics), a generally categorized branch of economic activity
Industry (manufacturing), a specific branch of economic activity, typically in factories with machinery
The wider industrial sector of an economy, including manufacturing and production of other intermediate or final goods
The general characteristics and production methods common to an industrial society
Industrialization, the transformation into an industrial society
Industry classification, a classification of economic organizations and activities
Places
Industry, Alabama
Industry, California
Industry station
Industry, Illinois
Industry, Kansas
Industry, Maine
Industry, Missouri
Industry, New York
Industry, Pennsylvania
Industry, Texas
Industry Bar, a New York City gay bar
Industry-Rock Falls Township, Phelps County, Nebraska
Film and television
Made in Canada (TV series), a Canadian situation comedy series also known as The Industry in foreign syndication
Industry (TV series), a British drama series on BBC Two and HBO
Music
Industry (American band), a 1980s synth-pop band
Industry (Irish band), Irish band (2009–2010)
Industry (Dom & Roland album)
Industry (Richard Thompson and Danny Thompson album), 1997
Industry (EP), an EP by Jon McLaughlin
Other
Industry (archaeology), a typological classification of stone tools
See also
Industrial (disambiguation)
Industria (disambiguation) | [
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220964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska%20punk | Ska punk | Ska punk (also spelled ska-punk) is a fusion genre that mixes ska music and punk rock music together. (sometimes spelled skacore) is a subgenre of ska punk that mixes ska with hardcore punk. Early ska punk mixed both 2 Tone and ska with hardcore punk. Ska punk tends to feature brass instruments, especially horns such as trumpets, trombones and woodwind instruments like saxophones, making the genre distinct from other forms of punk rock. It is closely tied to third wave ska which reached its zenith in the mid 1990s.
Before ska punk began, many ska bands and punk rock bands performed on the same bills together and performed to the same audiences. Some music groups from the late 1970s and early 1980s, such as the Clash, the Deadbeats, the Specials, the Beat, and Madness fused characteristics of punk rock and ska, but many of these were either punk bands playing an occasional ska-flavored song, or are usually considered 2-Tone ska bands who played faster songs with a punk attitude. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, ska-punk enjoyed its greatest success, heralded by bands such as Fishbone, Dance Hall Crashers, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Citizen Fish, Sublime, the Porkers, Mad Caddies, Culture Shock, The Ernies, Operation Ivy, Less Than Jake, and Reel Big Fish.
Ska punk had significant mainstream success in the middle-to-late 1990s, with many bands topping pop and rock music charts. The best selling ska punk record of the era was No Doubt's Tragic Kingdom, which was certified diamond by the RIAA in 1999 and was certified diamond by Music Canada in 1997. By the early 2000s, many of the bands in ska punk had broken up, and the genre lost mainstream appeal, though it continued to have underground popularity and featured a revival in the late 2010s with bands like The Interrupters returning to chart success, when their song "She's Kerosene" reached the top-5 on alternative and rock music charts in Canada and the U.S.
Characteristics
Ska punk combines ska music with punk rock music. is a subgenre of ska punk that blends ska with hardcore punk. Early ska punk combined both 2 Tone and ska with hardcore punk. Ska punk often features wind instruments, especially horns such as saxophones, trombones and trumpets, making the genre distinct from other forms of punk rock. It is similar to traditional Jamaican ska, but faster and heavier.
History
Predecessors and early development (Late 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s)
Before ska punk started, many ska bands and punk rock bands performed on the same bills together and appealed to the same audiences. A ska revival occurred simultaneously around the beginning of British punk rock and the near-simultaneous rebirth of the late 1970s British mod and skinhead movements. During the late 1970s and early 1980s in United Kingdom, many punk rock bands mixed punk rock with ska influences. Pioneering punk rock band the Clash incorporated influences from ska alongside a range of other genres on their seminal 1979 post-punk album London Calling. Songs like 1978's "Kill The Hippies" by the Deadbeats prominently featured horns, although there are no ska elements. Other British bands that were influenced by both punk rock and ska included the Specials, the Beat and Madness. With both films like the 1981 documentary film Dance Craze and supportive radio stations like Los Angeles, California's KROQ, ska crossed the Atlantic. Many early ska punk bands mixed 2 Tone with hardcore punk. During the 1980s, ska punk was underground. However, Fishbone, one of the earliest ska punk bands, achieved moderate success. Other ska punk bands from the 1980s and early 1990s include Mr. Bungle, Operation Ivy, Culture Shock, Voodoo Glow Skulls, the Porkers, Sublime, Citizen Fish, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, The Suicide Machines, MU330 and Dance Hall Crashers.
Mainstream success (Mid–late 1990s)
Ska punk broke into the mainstream in the mid-1990s with bands such as Sublime, No Doubt, Goldfinger, Reel Big Fish, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Less Than Jake and Rancid all achieving mainstream success. Sublime's song "Date Rape" became a hit on major California alternative rock radio stations. However, Sublime did not reach its peak of popularity until 1996 with the release of the band's 1996 self-titled album, which was certified 5x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 1999. Because of Sublime's popularity, the band's album 40oz. to Freedom was certified 2x platinum by the RIAA in 2005.
Another ska punk band that achieved mainstream success during the mid-late 1990s was No Doubt. No Doubt's 1995 album Tragic Kingdom was certified diamond by the RIAA in 1999 and was certified diamond by Music Canada in 1997. Tragic Kingdom sold at least 16,000,000 copies worldwide. Rancid's song "Time Bomb" peaked at number 48 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart and the band's 1994 album ...And Out Come the Wolves was certified platinum by the RIAA. Reel Big Fish's album Turn the Radio Off, which was released in August 1996, was certified gold by the RIAA in November 1997. Reel Big Fish's song "Sell Out" peaked at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart. Goldfinger's song "Here in Your Bedroom" peaked at number 47 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart. The Mighty Mighty Bosstones achieved mainstream success in 1997; their song "The Impression That I Get" peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart, number 19 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart, and number 17 on the Adult Pop Songs chart. Also, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones' song "The Rascal King" peaked at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart. The Mighty Mighty Bosstones' album Let's Face It, which was released in March 1997, was certified platinum by the RIAA in September 1997. In 2000, Billboard wrote that according to Nielsen SoundScan, Let's Face It sold 1,700,000 copies. Smash Mouth's 1997 album Fush Yu Mang was certified 2x platinum in 1999.
Decline (2000s–early 2010s) and revival (late 2010s–present)
Ska and reggae influenced rock music retreated to niche status by the first decade of the 2000s, with many major acts, such as The Mighty Mighty Bosstones taking an extended hiatus, and chart success eluded most bands of the genre. Some acts continued to produce such music through the decade, spearheaded by groups from Southern California (the home of ska-punk pioneers Sublime) such as Slightly Stoopid, Long Beach Shortbus, Long Beach Dub Allstars, and Tribal Seeds. Goldfinger released "The Knife" in 2017 and does sporadic one-off shows and short tours a few times each year. In 2017, Less Than Jake released their "Sound The Alarm" EP and continue to tour internationally. In 2018, Reel Big Fish released "Life Sucks... Let's Dance" and continue to tour, with Aaron Barrett being the only remaining original member of the band. The Mighty Mighty Bosstones would reform and continue to use their former popularity to promote the genre, hosting their Hometown Throwdown concert series each December. In 2018, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones released "While We're at It" and continue to tour internationally. Between 2017 and 2018, Fishbone reunited with most of their original lineup and continue to tour regularly. Chart success returned in 2018, when The Interrupters scored a minor hit with their song "She's Kerosene", that peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart and No. 1 on the RPM Canadian rock/alternative chart. Detroit ska punk outfit The Suicide Machines released a new album titled "Revolution Spring", released in March 2020 on Fat Wreck Chords. The Planet Smashers released "Too Much Information" on Stomp Records in 2019 and continue to play shows in the U.S. and Canada. Mustard Plug from Grand Rapids, Michigan continues to tour and put out new music as well. Furthermore, the duo 100 gecs incorporated ska punk elements into their 2019 song "stupid horse" from the album 1000 Gecs.
Ann Arbor, Michigan-based ska punk band, We Are the Union released "Self Care" in 2018 and tour frequently. Their trombone player, Jeremy Hunter, has their own YouTube channel called Skatune Network. They post ska and ska punk covers of a multitude of different songs ranging from video game soundtracks and cartoon songs to pop punk and more. The channel has a significant international following online and has released multiple albums of the songs. Buck-O-Nine released a new album titled: "Fundaymental" in 2019. Other artists that continue to tour and/or put out music on a regular basis include: Kill Lincoln, Omnigone, Catbite, Big D and the Kids Table, Five Iron Frenzy, Pilfers, Mad Caddies, Voodoo Glow Skulls, Joystick, Mike Park's The Bruce Lee Band, Tape Girl, Noise Complaint, Skatsune Miku, Monkey, and Ballyhoo!.
See also
List of ska musicians
Reggae rock
References
Citations
Bibliography
English styles of music
American styles of music
British rock music genres
Ska genres
Punk rock genres
Fusion music genres
Reggae fusion
1990s in music
20th-century music genres
1990s fads and trends
American rock music genres
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220966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%20Raphael%20Mengs | Anton Raphael Mengs | Anton Raphael Mengs (22 March 1728 – 29 June 1779) was a German painter, active in Dresden, Rome, and Madrid, who while painting in the Rococo period of the mid-18th century became one of the precursors to Neoclassical painting, which replaced Rococo as the dominant painting style in Europe.
Early life
Mengs was born in 1728 at Ústí nad Labem (German: Aussig) in the Kingdom of Bohemia, the son of , a Danish painter who eventually established himself at Dresden, where the court of Saxonian-Polish electors and kings was. His older sister, Therese Maron, was also a painter, as was his younger sister, Julia.
His and Therese's births in Bohemia were mere coincidence. Their mother was not their father's wife; Ismael carried on a years-long affair with the family's housekeeper, Charlotte Bormann. In an effort to conceal the births of two illegitimate children, Ismael took Charlotte, under the pretext of "vacations", to the nearest bigger town abroad, Ústí nad Labem (90 km upstream of the Elbe River). At least in Anton's case, Ismael Mengs took his baby and Charlotte back to Dresden a few weeks after the birth. There they lived for the next 13 years.
In 1741 Ismael moved his family from Dresden to Rome.
Adulthood and death
In 1749 Anton Raphael Mengs was appointed first painter to Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, but this did not prevent him from continuing to spend much of his time in Rome. There he married Margarita Guazzi, who had sat for him as a model in 1748. He converted to Catholicism, and in 1754 he became director of the Vatican painting school. His fresco painting Parnassus at Villa Albani gained him a reputation as a master painter.
In 1749 Mengs accepted a commission from the Duke of Northumberland to make a copy, in oil on canvas, of Raphael's fresco The School of Athens for his London home. Executed in 1752–5, Mengs's painting is full-sized, but he adapted the composition to a rectangular format and added other figures. It is now in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Mengs died in Rome in June 1779 and was buried there in the Church of Santi Michele e Magno.
Career
On two occasions he accepted invitations from Charles III of Spain to go to Madrid. There he produced some of his best work, most notably the ceiling of the banqueting hall of the Royal Palace of Madrid, the subject of which was the Triumph of Trajan and the Temple of Glory. After the completion of this work in 1777, Mengs returned to Rome, where he died two years later, in poor circumstances, leaving twenty children, seven of whom were pensioned by the king of Spain. His portraits and self-portraits recall an attention to detail and insight often lost in his grander paintings.
His closeness to Johann Joachim Winckelmann has enhanced his historical importance. Mengs came to share Winckelmann's enthusiasm for classical antiquity, and worked to establish the dominance of Neoclassical painting over the then popular Rococo style. At the same time, however, the influence of the Roman Baroque remained strong in his work, particularly in his religious paintings. He would have fancied himself the first neoclassicist, while in fact he may be the last flicker of Baroque art. Rudolf Wittkower wrote: "In the last analysis, he is as much an end as a beginning". Goethe regretted that "so much learning should have been allied to a total want of initiative and poverty of invention, and embodied with a strained and artificial mannerism."
Mengs had a well-known rivalry with the contemporary Italian painter Pompeo Batoni. He was also a friend of Giacomo Casanova. Casanova provides accounts of his personality and contemporary reputation through anecdotes in his Histoire de ma vie. Among his pupils in Italy were Anton von Maron, Antonio Maron (Vienna, 1731- Naples 1761). His pupils in Spain included Agustín Esteve.
Besides numerous paintings in Madrid, the Ascension and St Joseph at Dresden, Perseus and Andromeda at Saint Petersburg, and the ceiling of the Villa Albani are among his chief works. A Noli me tangere was commissioned as an altar-piece by All Souls College, Oxford, and is now held in the National Gallery, London. Another altar-piece was installed in Magdalen College, Oxford.
Theoretical writings
Mengs wrote about art in Spanish, Italian, and German. He reveals an eclectic theory of art that sees perfection as attainable through a well-balanced fusion of diverse excellences: Greek design combined with the expression of Raphael, the chiaroscuro of Correggio, and the colour of Titian.
Selected works
Ascension (Dresden, Court Church), 1751/1766
St Joseph (Dresden, Court Church), 1751/1766
The Glory of Saint Eusebius (ceiling fresco, Sant'Eusebio, Rome), 1757 (modello, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Canada Ottawa)
Portrait of Ferdinand I (National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples, Italy), 1759
Charles III (Museo del Prado, Madrid), 1761
Infante Don Louis de Borbon (Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio)
Gallery
See also
Karl Woermann, Ismael und Raphael Mengs (Leipzig, 1893)
Notes
Sources
Neil Jeffares, Dictionary of pastellists before 1800, online edition
Paintings by Anton Raphael Mengs at WikiGallery.org
External links
Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Mengs (see index)
'Self-portrait' (1774) at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool
'Portrait of Charles III' (1761) at the Museo del Prado
Scholarly articles in English about Anton Raphael Mengs both in web and PDF @ the Spanish Old Masters Gallery
1728 births
1779 deaths
German people of Danish descent
German male painters
18th-century German painters
German neoclassical painters
Sibling artists
Artists from Ústí nad Labem
German Roman Catholics
Neoclassical painters
Catholic painters | [
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220967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezia%20Province | Zambezia Province | Zambezia () is the second most-populous province of Mozambique, located in the central coastal region south-west of Nampula Province and north-east of Sofala Province. It has a population of 5.11 million, according to the 2017 census. The provincial capital is Quelimane.
Zambezia has a total area of 103,478 km2; much of it drained by the Zambezi River. Much of the coast consists of mangrove swamps, and there is considerable forest inland.
Agricultural products include rice, maize, cassava, cashews, sugarcane, soybeans, coconuts, citrus, cotton, and tea. The country's largest tea estates are at Gurúè, while Lioma is a centre of soybean production. Fishing is especially productive of shrimp, and gemstones are mined at several sites.
Vasco da Gama landed at the site of Quelimane in 1498. Shortly after, the Portuguese established a permanent presence, and many moved up the Zambezi into the interior, for many years the farthest inland European presence (although over time there was much intermarrying, and few residents were of purely Portuguese descent).
Districts
Zambezia Province is divided into the 16 districts of:
Luabo District,
Alto Molocue District - with an area of 6,386 km2 and 278,064 people,
Chinde District - with an area of 4,403 km2 and 121,173 people,
Gilé District - with an area of 8,875 km2 and 168,962 people,
Gurué District - with an area of 5,606 km2 and 302,948 people,
Ile District - with an area of 5,589 km2 and 292,504 people,
Inhassunge District - with an area of 745 km2 and 91,989 people,
Lugela District - with an area of 6,178 km2 and 137,040 people,
Maganja da Costa District - with an area of 7,597 km2 and 282,173 people,
Milange District - with an area of 9,794 km2 and 515,029 people,
Mocuba District - with an area of 8,867 km2 and 306,543 people,
Mopeia District - with an area of 7,614 km2 and 115,614 people,
Morrumbala District - with an area of 12,972 km2 and 361,896 people,
Namacurra District - with an area of 1,798 km2 and 179,133 people,
Namarroi District - with an area of 3,019 km2 and 127,651 people,
Nicoadala District - with an area of 3,582 km2 and 232,929 people, and
Pebane District - with an area of 9,985 km2 and 186,330 people.
In addition, there is one municipality - the city of
Quelimane - with an area of 117 km2 and 192,876 population.
The above district populations are from the provisional results of the September 2007 Census.
Demographics
See also
Postage stamps and postal history of Zambezia
References
Bibliography
External links
http://www.mozambique.mz/provinc/zambezia/eindex.htm
Province of Zambezia official site
Zambezia Online
Provinces of Mozambique
Former Portuguese colonies | [
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220971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelding | Gelding | A gelding is a castrated male horse or other equine, such as a pony, donkey or a mule. Castration, as well as the elimination of hormonally driven behavior associated with a stallion, allows a male equine to be calmer and better-behaved, making the animal quieter, gentler and generally more suitable as an everyday working animal. The gerund and participle "gelding" and the infinitive "to geld" refer to the castration procedure itself.
Etymology
The verb "to geld" comes from the Old Norse gelda, from the adjective geldr ("barren"). The noun "gelding" is from the Old Norse geldingr.
History
The Scythians are thought to have been the first people to geld their horses. They valued geldings as war horses because they were quiet, lacked mating urges, were less prone to call out to other horses, were easier to keep in groups, and were less likely to fight with one another.
Reasons for gelding
A male horse is often gelded to make him better-behaved and easier to control. Gelding can also remove lower-quality animals from the gene pool.
To allow only the finest animals to breed on, while preserving adequate genetic diversity, only a small percentage of all male horses should remain stallions. Mainstream sources place the percentage of stallions that should be kept as breeding stock at about 10%, while an extreme view states that only 0.5% of all males should be bred. In wild herds, the 10% ratio is largely maintained naturally, as a single dominant stallion usually protects and breeds with a herd which is seldom larger than 10 or 12 mares, though he may permit a less dominant junior stallion to live at the fringes of the herd. There are more males than just herd stallions, so unattached male horses group together for protection in small all-male "bachelor herds", where, in the absence of mares, they tend to behave much like geldings.
Geldings are preferred over stallions for working purposes because they are calmer, easier to handle, and more tractable. Geldings are therefore a favorite for many equestrians. In some horse shows, due to the dangers inherent in handling stallions, which require experienced handlers, youth exhibitors are not permitted to show stallions in classes limited to just those riders.
Geldings are often preferred over mares, because some mares become temperamental when in heat and the use of mares may be limited during the later months of pregnancy and while caring for a young foal.
In horse racing, castrating a stallion may be considered worthwhile if the animal is easily distracted by other horses, difficult to handle, or otherwise not running to his full potential due to behavioral issues. While this means the horse loses any breeding value, a successful track career can often be a boost to the value of the stallion that sired the gelding.
Sometimes a stallion used for breeding is castrated later in life, possibly due to sterility, or because the offspring of the stallion are not up to expectations, or simply because the horse is not used much for breeding, due to shifting fashion in pedigree or phenotype. Castration may allow a stallion to live peacefully with other horses, allowing a more social and comfortable existence.
Under British National Hunt racing (i.e. Steeplechase) rules, to minimize health and safety risks, nearly all participating horses are gelded. On the other hand, in other parts of Europe, geldings are excluded from many of the most prestigious flat races including the Classics and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe (with an exception being the French classic Prix Royal-Oak, open to geldings since 1986). In North American Thoroughbred racing, geldings, if otherwise qualified by age, winnings, or experience, are allowed in races open to intact males. The same applies in Australia.
Concerns about gelding
To perpetuate any given breed, some male horses must remain capable of reproduction. Thus, animals considered to be the finest representatives are kept as stallions and used for mating. Though the criteria used can be, in some places, rather subjective, a stallion should have a superior appearance, or phenotype; a superior pedigree, or genotype, and, ideally, a successful performance record in the area of specialty for that particular breed.
Some cultures historically did not and still seldom geld male horses, most notably the Arabs, who usually used mares for everyday work and for war. In these cultures, most stallions are still not used for breeding, only those of the best quality. When used as ordinary riding animals, they are kept only with or near other male horses in a "bachelor" setting, which tends to produce calmer, less stallion-like behavior. Sometimes religious reasons for these practices exist; for example, castration of both animals and humans was categorically forbidden in the Hebrew Bible and is prohibited in Jewish law.
Gelding horses is generally approved of as a way to allow more horses to live comfortably and safely in proximity to humans and other horses, and as an ethical means of population control, even within the animal rights community. However, a small number of horse owners are concerned that the process may cause pain for the animal or somehow lessen their vitality or spirit. While modern surgical procedures cause far less discomfort to the animal than more primitive methods, there is minor postoperative discomfort when the animal is in recovery.
Although castrations generally have few complications, there are risks. Castration can have complication such as swelling, hemorrhage or post-operative bleeding, infections, and eventration. It can take up to six weeks for residual testosterone to clear from the new gelding's system and he may continue to exhibit stallion-like behaviors in that period. For reasons not always clear, about 30% of all geldings may still display a stallion-like manner, some because of a cryptorchid testicle retained in the horse, some due to previously learned behavior, but some for no clear reason. Training to eliminate these behaviors is generally effective. Another risk is to the veterinarian, if a standing castration is performed, it is possible for the horse to injure the veterinarian during the procedure, and if complications arise, the horse must be immediately anesthetized. Castration does not automatically change bad habits and poor manners. This must be accomplished by proper training.
Time of gelding
A horse may be gelded at any age; however, if an owner intends to geld a particular foal, it is now considered best to geld the horse prior to becoming a yearling, and definitely before he reaches sexual maturity. While it was once recommended to wait until a young horse was well over a year old, even two, this was a holdover from the days when castration was performed without anesthesia and was thus far more stressful on the animal. Modern veterinary techniques can now accomplish castration with relatively little stress and minimal discomfort, so long as appropriate analgesics are employed. A few horse owners delay gelding a horse on the grounds that the testosterone gained from being allowed to reach sexual maturity will make him larger. However, recent studies have shown that this is not so: any apparent muscle mass gained solely from the presence of hormones will be lost over time after the horse is gelded, and in the meantime, the energy spent developing muscle mass may actually take away from the energy a young horse might otherwise put into skeletal growth; the net effect is that castration has no effect on rate of growth (although it may increase the amount of fat the horse carries).
Many older stallions, no longer used at stud due to age or sterility, can benefit from being gelded. Modern veterinary techniques make gelding an even somewhat elderly stallion a fairly low-risk procedure, and the horse then has the benefit of being able to be turned out safely with other horses and allowed to live a less restricted and isolated life than was allowed for a stallion.
Specialized maintenance of geldings
Owners of male horses, both geldings and stallions, need to occasionally check the horse's sheath, the pocket of skin that protects the penis of the horse when it is not in use for urination (or, in the case of stallions, breeding). Geldings tend to accumulate smegma and other debris at a higher rate than stallions, probably because geldings rarely fully extrude the penis, and thus dirt and smegma build up in the folds of skin.
Castration techniques
There are two major techniques commonly used in castrating a horse, one requiring only local anaesthesia and the other requiring general anaesthesia. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages.
Standing castration
Standing castration is a technique where a horse is sedated and local anaesthesia is administered, without throwing the horse to the ground or putting him completely "under". It has the benefit that general anaesthesia (GA) is not required. This method is advocated for simple procedures because the estimated mortality for GA in horses at a modern clinic is low, approximately one or two in 1000. Mortality in the field (where most horse castrations are performed) is probably higher, due to poorer facilities.
For standing castration, the colt or stallion is sedated, typically with detomidine with or without butorphanol, and often physically restrained. Local anaesthetic is injected into the parenchyma of both testes. An incision is made through the scrotum and the testes are removed, then the spermatic cord is crushed, most commonly with either ligatures or emasculators, or both. The emasculators are applied for two to three minutes, then removed, and a careful check is made for signs of haemorrhage. Assuming that bleeding is at a minimum, the other side is castrated in the same manner. Most veterinarians remove the testis held most "tightly" (or close to the body) by the cremaster muscle first, so as to minimize the risk of the horse withdrawing it to the point where it is inaccessible. The horse, now a gelding, is allowed to recover.
Standing castration can be performed in more complicated cases. Some authorities have described a technique for the removal of abdominally retained testes from cryptorchid animals, but most surgeons still advocate a recumbent technique, as described below. The primary drawback to standing castration is the risk that, even with sedation and restraint, the horse may object to the procedure and kick or otherwise injure the individual performing the operation.
Recumbent castration
Putting a horse under general anaesthesia for castration is preferred by some veterinarians because "surgical exposure is improved and it carries less (overall) risk for surgeon and patient". For simple castration of normal animals, the advantages to recumbent castration are that the horse is prone, better asepsis (sterile environment) can be maintained, and better haemostasis (control of bleeding) is possible. In addition, there is significantly less risk of the surgeon or assistants being kicked. In a more complex situation such as castration of cryptorchid animals, the inguinal canal is more easily accessed. There are several different techniques (such as "open", "closed", and "semi-closed") that may be employed, but the basic surgery is similar. However, general anaesthesia is not without risks, including post-anaesthetic myopathy (muscle damage) and neuropathy (nerve damage), respiratory dysfunction (V/Q mismatch), and cardiac depression. These complications occur with sufficient frequency that castration has a relatively high overall mortality rate. To minimize these concerns, the British Equine Veterinary Association guidelines recommend two veterinary surgeons should be present when an equine general anaesthesia is being performed.
Aftercare
With both castration techniques, the wound should be kept clean and allowed to drain freely to reduce the risk of hematoma formation, or development of an abscess. The use of tetanus antitoxin and analgesics (painkillers) are necessary, and antibiotics are also commonly administered. The horse is commonly walked in hand for some days to reduce the development of edema.
Possible complications
Minor complications following castration are relatively common, while serious complications are rare. According to one in-depth study, for standing castration the complication rate is 22%, while for recumbent castration it is 6% (although with a 1% mortality).
The more common complications are:
Post-operative swelling (edema) – minor and very common
Scrotal/incisional infection – local seroma/abscess formation is relatively common, when the skin seals over before the deeper pocket has time to seal. This requires reopening the skin incision, to establish adequate drainage. To prevent the wounds from closing too quickly the horse needs to be exercised at least once daily after the procedure. It is common to treat the horse with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug to reduce the swelling and sometimes it is necessary to give antibiotics. The complication usually resolves quickly after this.
Peritonitis from bacteria entering the abdominal cavity through the cord is a rare complication.
Chronic infection leads to a schirrous cord – the formation of a granuloma at the incision site, that may not be obvious for months or even years
Hemorrhage (bleeding) ranges from the relatively common and insignificant occasional drip to the uncommon but potentially life-threatening blood loss.
Evisceration, a condition where the abdominal contents "fall out" of the surgical incision, is uncommon, and while the survival rate is 85–100% if treated promptly, the mortality rate is high for those not dealt with immediately.
See also
Eunuch, ridgling, wether, and steer
Spaying and neutering (for animals)
Sampson (horse)
References
External links
Update on sheath cleaning, with how-to video link
Types of horse
Horse health
Veterinary castration
Male horses | [
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220978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambologna | Giambologna | Giambologna (1529 – 13 August 1608) — (known also as Jean de Boulogne and Giovanni da Bologna) — was a Flemish sculptor based in Italy, celebrated for his marble and bronze statuary in a late Renaissance or Mannerist style.
Biography
Jean de Boulogne was born in Douai, Flanders (now in France), in 1529. After youthful studies in Antwerp with the architect-sculptor Jacques du Broeucq, he moved to Italy in 1550 and studied in Rome, making a detailed study of the sculpture of classical antiquity. He was also much influenced by Michelangelo, but developed his own Mannerist style, with perhaps less emphasis on emotion and more emphasis on refined surfaces, cool elegance, and beauty. Pope Pius IV gave Giambologna his first major commission, the colossal bronze Neptune and subsidiary figures for the Fountain of Neptune (the base designed by Tommaso Laureti, 1566) in Bologna. Giambologna spent his most productive years in Florence, where he had settled in 1553. In 1563 he was named a member (Accademico) of the prestigious Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, just founded by the Duke Cosimo I de' Medici, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the painter-architect Giorgio Vasari, becoming also one of the Medicis' most important court sculptors. He died in Florence at the age of 79; the Medici had never allowed him to leave Florence, as they rightly feared that either the Austrian or Spanish Habsburgs would entice him into permanent employment. He was interred in a chapel he designed himself in the Santissima Annunziata.
Work
Giambologna became well known for a fine sense of action and movement, and a refined, differentiated surface finish. Among his most famous works are the Mercury (of which he did four versions), poised on one foot, supported by a zephyr. The god raises one arm to point heavenwards in a gesture borrowed from the repertory of classical rhetoric that is characteristic of Giambologna's maniera.
His other most famous work is the Rape of the Sabine Women (1574–82) a marble sculpture which is featured prominently in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence's Piazza della Signoria. This impressive sculpture which includes three full figures was carved from a single piece of marble. Giambologna carved it without a subject in mind, and the name Rape of the Sabine Women was given after it was in place in the Loggia. The sculpture was produced for Francesco de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Another of his marbles, Hercules Slaying a Centaur was also placed in the Loggia dei Lanzi in 1599.
Giambologna's several depictions of Venus established a canon of proportions, and set models for the goddess' representation that were influential for two generations of sculptors in Italy and in the North. He created allegories strongly promoting Medicean political propaganda, such as Florence Triumphant over Pisa and, less overtly, Samson Slaying a Philistine, for Francesco de' Medici (1562).
On Michelangelo's death in 1564, Daniele da Volterra created several busts of the sculptor from his death mask. After Volterra died in 1566, one of these busts was delivered to Giambologna, who around 1570 sculpted a clothed upper torso for the bust.
The equestrian statue of Cosimo I de' Medici, also in Florence, was completed by his studio assistant Pietro Tacca.
Giambologna provided as well as many sculptures for garden grottos and fountains in the Boboli Gardens of Florence and at Pratolino, and the bronze doors of the cathedral of Pisa. He created the bronze sea-horses and some other sculptures for Bartolomeo Ammannati's Fountain of Neptune, Florence.
For the grotto of the Villa Medicea of Castello he sculpted a series of studies of individual animals, from life, which may now be viewed at the Bargello. Small bronze reductions of many of his sculptures were prized by connoisseurs at the time and ever since, for Giambologna's reputation has never suffered eclipse.
Giambologna was an important influence on later sculptors through his pupils Adriaen de Vries and Pietro Francavilla who left his atelier for Paris in 1601, as well as Pierre Puget who spread Giambologna's influence throughout Northern Europe, and in Italy on Pietro Tacca, who assumed Giambologna's workshop in Florence, and in Rome on Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Alessandro Algardi.
Gallery
References
Further reading
A. Rudigier, B. Truyols: Giambologna. Court Sculptor to Ferdinando I. His art, his style and the Medici gifts to Henri IV, London, 2019, .
Gloria Fossi, et al., Italian Art, Florence, Giunti Gruppo Editoriale, 2000, .
Giambologna, 1529–1608: sculptor to the Medici: an exhibition organised by the Arts Council of Great Britain etc., catalogue edited by Charles Avery and Anthony Radcliffe. London, Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978, .
External links
Biography with a portrait on kfki.hu
Giambologna on mega.it
A Tour of the location of Giambologna's major works in Florence
1529 births
1608 deaths
16th-century Flemish sculptors
16th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
17th-century Italian sculptors
Mannerist sculptors
People from Douai | [
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220980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashiyaki | Akashiyaki | is a small round dumpling from the city of Akashi in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. The dumpling is made of an egg-rich batter and octopus dipped into dashi (a thin fish broth) before eating. Locals refer to it simply as . Modern style akashiyaki first started selling in the Taishō period by a yatai shopper Seitarō Mukai. There are over 70 akashiyaki shops in Akashi now.
Although takoyaki, another Japanese dumpling, is more popular in Japan, it is based on akashiyaki. Both are made with a takoyaki pan, a type of frying pan or cooktop with many hemispherical molds. Compared to takoyaki, akashiyaki has a softer, more eggy texture.
Akashiyaki is shown in the cyberpunk visual novel video game Snatcher. In the English release, however, it was changed to "Neo Kobe Pizza", which people have actually gone to the effort of recreating.
See also
Japanese cuisine
List of dumplings
Takoyaki
References
Dumplings
Japanese cuisine
Culture in Hyōgo Prefecture
Japanese egg dishes | [
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220986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sans-culottes | Sans-culottes | The sans-culottes (, literally "without breeches") were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime. The word sans-culotte, which is opposed to that of the aristocrat, seems to have been used for the first time on 28 February 1791 by Jean-Bernard Gauthier de Murnan in a derogatory sense, speaking about a "sans-culottes army". The word came into vogue during the demonstration of 20 June 1792.
The name sans-culottes refers to their clothing, and through that to their lower-class status: culottes were the fashionable silk knee-breeches of the 18th-century nobility and bourgeoisie, and the working class sans-culottes wore pantaloons, or long trousers, instead. The sans-culottes, most of them urban labourers, served as the driving popular force behind the revolution. They were judged by the other revolutionaries as "radicals" because they advocated a direct democracy, that is to say, without intermediaries such as members of parliament. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, with little or no support from the upper class and middle class, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army and were responsible for many executions during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars.
Political ideals
The most fundamental political ideals of the sans-culottes were social equality, economic equality, and popular democracy. They supported the abolition of all the authority and privileges of the monarchy, nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy, the establishment of fixed wages, the implementation of price controls to ensure affordable food and other essentials, and vigilance against counter-revolutionaries.
The sans-culottes (...) campaigned for a more democratic constitution, price controls, harsh laws against political enemies, and economic legislation to assist the needy.
They expressed their demands through petitions of the sections presented to the assemblies (the Legislative, and Convention) by the delegates. The sans-culottes had a third way of applying pressure to achieve their demands: the police and the courts received thousands of denunciations of traitors and supposed conspirators. The height of their influence spanned roughly from the original overthrow of the monarchy in 1792 to the Thermidorian Reaction in 1794. Throughout the revolution, the sans-culottes provided the principal support behind the more radical and anti-bourgeoisie factions of the Paris Commune, such as the Enragés and the Hébertists, and were led by populist revolutionaries such as Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert.
In the summer of 1793 the sans-culottes, the Parisian enragés especially, accused even the most radical Jacobins of being too tolerant of greed and insufficiently universalist. From this far-left point of view, all Jacobins were at fault because all of them tolerated existing civil life and social structures.
The sans-culottes also populated the ranks of paramilitary forces charged with physically enforcing the policies and legislation of the revolutionary government, a task that commonly included violence and the carrying out of executions against perceived enemies of the revolution.
During the peak of their influence, the sans-culottes were seen as the truest and most authentic sons of the French Revolution, held up as living representations of the revolutionary spirit. During the height of revolutionary fervor, such as during the Reign of Terror when it was dangerous to be associated with anything counter-revolutionary, even public functionaries and officials actually from middle or upper-class backgrounds adopted the clothing and label of the sans-culottes as a demonstration of solidarity with the working class and patriotism for the new French Republic.
But by early 1794, as the bourgeois and middle-class elements of the revolution began to gain more political influence, the fervent working-class radicalism of the sans-culottes rapidly began falling out of favour within the National Convention. It was not long before Maximilien de Robespierre and the now dominant Jacobin Club turned against the radical factions of the National Convention, including the sans-culottes, despite their having previously been the strongest supporters of the revolution and its government. Several important leaders of the Enragés and Hébertists were imprisoned and executed by the very revolutionary tribunals they had supported. The execution of radical leader Jacques Hébert spelled the decline of the sans-culottes, and with the successive rise of even more conservative governments, the Thermidorian Convention and the French Directory, they were definitively silenced as a political force. After the defeat of the 1795 popular revolt in Paris, the sans-culottes ceased to play any effective political role in France until the July Revolution of 1830.
Appearance
The distinctive costume of typical sans-culottes featured:
the pantalon (long trousers) – in place of the culottes (silk knee-breeches) worn by the upper classes
the carmagnole (short-skirted coat)
the sabots (a type of wooden clog) and
the red Phrygian cap, also known as a "liberty cap"
Events
On 27 April 1791, Robespierre opposed plans to reorganize the National Guard and restrict its membership to active citizens, largely property owners. He demanded the reconstitution of the army on a democratic basis to allow passive citizens. He felt that the army had to become the instrument of defence of the Revolution and no longer be a threat to it. On 28 April, despite Robespierre's intensive campaign, the principle of an armed bourgeois militia was definitively enacted in the Assembly.
Along with other Jacobins, he urged in his magazine the creation of an "armée révolutionnaire" in Paris, consisting of 20,000 men, with the goal to defend "liberty" (the revolution), maintain order in the sections and educate the members in democratic principles; an idea he borrowed from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Machiavelli. According to Jean Jaures, he considered this even more important than the right to strike.
Following the king's veto of the Assembly's efforts to raise a militia of volunteers, the reinstatement of Brissotin ministers and suppression of non-juring priests, the monarchy faced an abortive Demonstration of 20 June 1792. Sergent-Marceau and Panis, the administrators of police, urged the Sans-culottes to lay down their weapons, telling them it was illegal to present a petition in arms, although their march to the Tuileries was not banned. They invited the officials to join the procession and march along with them.
Early in the morning (10 August 1792) 30,000 Fédérés, and Sans-culottes militants from the sections led a successful assault upon the Tuileries; according to Robespierre a triumph for the "passive" (non-voting) citizens. Sulpice Huguenin, head of the sans-culottes in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, was appointed provisional president of the Insurrectionary Commune.
In Spring 1793, after the defection of Dumouriez, Robespierre urged the creation of a "Sans-culotte army" to sweep away any conspirator.
On 1 May the crowds threatened armed insurrection if the emergency measures demanded [price control] were not adopted. On 8 and 12 May Robespierre repeated in the Jacobin club the necessity of founding a revolutionary army consisting of Sans-culottes, paid by a tax on the rich, to beat the aristocrats inside France and the convention. Every public square should be used to produce arms and pikes. On 18 May Marguerite-Élie Guadet proposed to examine the "exactions" and to replace municipal authorities.
As rioting persisted a commission of inquiry of twelve members, with a very strong Girondin majority, was set up to investigate the anarchy in the communes and the activities of the Sans-culottes. On 28 May the Paris Commune accepted the creation of a sans-culottes army to enforce revolutionary laws. Petitioners from the sections and the Commune appeared at the bar of the Convention at about five o'clock in the afternoon on 31 May. They demanded that a domestic revolutionary army should be raised and that the price of bread should be fixed at three sous a pound, that nobles holding senior rank in the army should be dismissed, that armouries should be created for arming the sans-culottes, the departments of State purged, suspects, arrested, the right to vote provisionally reserved to sans-culottes only, and a fund set apart for the relatives of those defending their country and for the relief of aged and infirm. According to Hampson, the subject is quite extraordinarily complicated and obscure. The next day all Paris was in arms.
Hanriot was ordered to march his National Guard, by this time mostly consisting of Sans-culottes, from the town hall to the Palais National. On 2 June 1793, a large force of supposedly 80,000 Sans-culottes and National Guards led by Hanriot, surrounded the convention with 160-172 guns.
On 4 September, the Sans-culottes again invaded the convention. They demanded tougher measures against rising prices and the setting up of a system of terror to root out the counter-revolution. The Sans-culottes took an especially active interest in the revolutionary army.
A "Sans-culotte army" (in a sense, Robespierre's brain-child) was formed in Paris. (A force of citizen-soldiers which could go into the countryside to supervise the requisition of grain, to prevent the manoeuvres of rich égoistes and deliver them up to the vengeance of the laws'.)
Barère voiced the Committee of Public Safety's support for the measures desired by the assembly: he presented a decree that was passed immediately, establishing a paid armed force of 6,000 men and 1,000 gunners "designed to crush the counter-revolutionaries, to execute wherever the need arises the revolutionary laws and the measures of public safety that are decreed by the National Convention, and to protect provisions (A force of citizen-soldiers which could go into the countryside to supervise the requisition of grain, to prevent the manoeuvres of rich égoistes and deliver them up to the vengeance of the laws".) For that reason, twelve travelling tribunals (with moveable guillotines) were set up.
Three months later, on 4 December the departmental armées revolutionnaires (except in Paris) were banned on proposal of Tallien. The sections lost all rights to control their delegates and officials.
On 4 March 1794, there were rumours of uprising in the Cordeliers club. The Hébertists hoped that the National Convention would expel Robespierre and his Montagnard supporters. The Sans-culottes did not respond and Hanriot refused to cooperate. On 13 March Hébert, the voice of the Sans-culottes, had been using the latest issue of Le Père Duchesne to criticise Robespierre. On 18 March Bourdon attacked the Commune and the Sans-culottes army. (Ronsin, Vincent, Momoro, Clootz, etc.) were arrested on charges of complicity with foreign powers (William Pitt the Younger), etc. and guillotined on 24 March. On 27 March the infantry and cavalry of the armée revolutionnaire, for eight months active in Paris and surroundings, was finally disbanded, except their artillery. (Hanriot was denounced by the Revolutionary Tribunal as an accomplice of Hébert, but seems to have been protected by Robespierre.)
Montagnard influence
The working class was especially hurt by a hail storm which damaged grain crops in 1788, which caused bread prices to skyrocket. While the peasants of rural France could sustain themselves with their farms, and the wealthy aristocracy could still afford bread, the urban workers of France, the group that comprised the sans-culottes, suffered. In the city, the division grew between the sans-culottes and these wealthy aristocrats; the former had a particular hostility "towards those with large private incomes."
The faction known as the Montagnards expressed concern for the working classes of France. When the National Convention met to discuss the fate of the former king Louis XVI in 1792, the sans-culottes vehemently opposed a proper trial, instead opting for an immediate execution. The moderate Girondin faction voted for a trial, but the radical Montagnards sided with the sans-culottes, deeming that a trial was not necessary, and won with a slim majority. Louis XVI was executed on January 21, 1793.
The demands of the sans-culottes did not stop with the execution of the King, and the Montagnards worked hard to fulfil their mounting orders. This increased pressure from the radical masses exacerbated the ideological split between the Montagnards and the Girondins, and tensions began to grow within the convention. Eventually, by May 1793, the Montagnards worked with the National Guard—which was, at this time, mostly sans-culottes—to depose many of the Girondin deputies. Jeremy Popkin writes, "[the Montagnards and the sans-culottes] surrounded the Convention, and two days later the intimidated assembly suspended twenty-nine Girondin deputies. The defeated Girondin leaders fled to the provinces. The Montagnards were left in control of the Convention, which itself was clearly at the mercy of whoever could command the armed sans-culottes battalions." Now, whoever was in control of France's destiny had to answer to the sans-culottes, who "effectively exercised legislative power" in situations of unrest. Otherwise, they would risk a similar uprising and their own exile, or possibly even execution. This political shift towards radicalism would soon turn into the Reign of Terror.
Reign of Terror
The mass violence of the sans-culottes created a lasting impact during the Reign of Terror. These revolutionaries allied themselves most readily with those in power who promised radical change. The sans-culottes believed in a complete upheaval of the government, pushing for the execution of any that were considered corrupt by the leaders, even going as far as wanting "the enemies of the republic [to] hang-main and the guillotine to stand like the first patriots, the finisher of the law." The support of the sans-culottes could be used as a political weapon to get rid of enemies of the Revolution. The key to Robespierre's Terror lay in their willingness and ability to mobilize. Thus, the Committee leaders used speeches to gain their support. In a speech On the Principles of Political Morality. Robespierre proclaimed: "It has been said that terror was the mainspring of despotic government. Does your government, then, resemble a despotism? Yes, as the sword which glitters in the hands of liberty's heroes resembles the one with which tyranny's lackeys are armed." Robespierre expressed a desire for liberty that the sans-culottes admired. They pushed the committee for radical changes and often found a voice with Robespierre. Their desperate desire for immediate changes and their aptitude for violence made the sans-culottes a necessary group in implementing the Terror.
Legacy
The popular image of the sans-culotte has gained currency as an enduring symbol for the passion, idealism and patriotism of the common man of the French Revolution. The term sans-culottism, sans-culottisme in French, refers to this idealized image and the themes associated with it. Many public figures and revolutionaries who were not strictly working class styled themselves citoyens sans-culottes in solidarity and recognition. However, in the period immediately following the Thermidorian Reaction, the sans-culottes and other far-left political factions were heavily persecuted and repressed by the likes of the Muscadins.
The French Republican Calendar at first termed the complementary days at the end of the year Sansculottides; however, the National Convention suppressed the name when adopting the Constitution of the Year III (1795) and substituted the name jours complémentaires ("additional days").
Analysis
According to Sally Waller, part of the sans-culottes mantra was "permanent anticipation of betrayal and treachery". The members of the sans-culottes were constantly on edge and fearing betrayal, which can be attributed to their violent and radical rebellion tactics.
Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm observes that the sans-culottes were a "shapeless, mostly urban movement of the labouring poor, small craftsmen, shopkeepers, artisans, tiny entrepreneurs and the like". He further notes they were organised notably in the local political clubs of Paris and "provided the main striking-force of the revolution". Hobsbawm writes that these were the actual demonstrators, rioters and constructors of the street barricades. However, Hobsbawm maintains, sans-culottism provided no real alternative to the bourgeois radicalism of the Jacobins; from Hobsbawm's Marxist perspective, the ideal of the sans-culottes, which sought to express the interests of the "little men" who existed between the poles of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, was contradictory and ultimately unrealizable.
The Marxist historian Albert Soboul emphasized the importance of the sans-culottes as a social class, a sort of proto-proletariat that played a central role in the French Revolution. That view has been sharply attacked by scholars who say the sans-culottes were not a class at all. Indeed, as one historian points out, Soboul's concept has not been used by scholars in any other period of French history.
Modern colloquial usage
Ironically, given its origin as a term to describe men's breeches, the term "culottes" in French was first used to describe women's underpants, an article of clothing that has little or no relation to the historical culottes, but now refers to apparent skirts that are actually split with two legs. The term sans-culottes has been used colloquially to mean not wearing underpants.
See also
The first man who was called a sans-culotte was the poet Nicolas Joseph Laurent Gilbert; also Robespierre and Pétion de Villeneuve were described as sans-culottes before the word came in vogue.
Croppy
Descamisado
Enragés
François Chabot
Hébertists
Lazzaroni (Naples)
Lumpenproletariat
References
Further reading
Andrews, Richard Mowery. "Social Structures, Political Elites and Ideology in Revolutionary Paris, 1792–94: A Critical Evaluation of Albert Soboul's' Les sans-culottes parisiens en l'an II'," Journal of Social History (1985) 19#1 pp. 71–112. in JSTOR
Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989), pp. 393–99
Palmer, Robert Roswell (1958), Twelve Who Ruled.
The Making of the Sans-culottes: Democratic Ideas and Institutions in Paris ...by R.B. Rose (1983)
Salmon, Jean (1975), Curés Sans-culottes En Province : 1789-1814. Langres: Diffusion Museé Saint-Didier.
Sonenscher, Michael. Sans-Culottes: An Eighteenth-Century Emblem in the French Revolution (Princeton University Press, 2008). Pp. 493.
Williams, Gwyn A (1969), Artisans and Sans-culottes: Popular Movements in France and Britain during the French Revolution. Foundations of Modern History. New York: Norton.
Woloch, Isser, and Peter McPhee. "A Revolution in Political Culture" in McPhee, ed., A Companion to the French Revolution (2012) pp. 435–453
Anti-Catholicism in France
Anti-monarchists
French radicals
Groups of the French Revolution
18th century in Paris
French Revolution
18th-century rebellions
18th-century revolutions
Republicanism in France
French First Republic | [
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] |
220990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20delegates%20to%20the%20Continental%20Congress | List of delegates to the Continental Congress | The Continental Congress was initially a convention of delegates from several British American colonies at the height of the American Revolution era, who spoke and acted collectively for the people of the Thirteen colonies that ultimately became the United States of America. The term mostly refers to the First Continental Congress of 1774 and the Second Continental Congress of 1775–1781. More broadly, it also refers to the Congress of the Confederation of 1781–1789, thus covering the entire period the Continental Congress served as the chief legislative and executive body of the U.S. government.
The unicameral Congress of the Confederation, officially styled "The United States in Congress Assembled," was composed of delegates elected by the legislature of the various states. The Confederation Congress was the immediate successor to the Second Continental Congress; and delegates to it were similarly chosen. Many of the delegates to the initial 1775 session of the Second Continental Congress had also attended the previous First Continental Congress. Altogether, The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress lists 343 men who served as delegates to the Continental Congress in three incarnations from 1774 to 1789; also listed are another 90 persons who were elected as delegates but never served.
Background
Convened in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament earlier that year, the 56 delegates to the First Continental Congress sought to help repair the frayed relationship between the British government and its American colonies. They organized the Continental Association, an economic boycott of Great Britain, and petitioned the king for a redress of grievances. They also resolved to reconvene in May 1775 if necessary.
Delegates from the various colonies did indeed reconvene for a Second Continental Congress as scheduled, but by the time they gathered, the Revolutionary War had begun. Moderates in the Congress still hoped that the colonies could be reconciled with Great Britain, but a movement towards independence steadily gained ground. At this juncture Congress simultaneously sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III, hoping for a rapprochement, and issued a Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, which contained the words "Our cause is just. Our union is perfect... being with one mind resolved to die freemen rather than to live slaves...".
Congress functioned as a de facto national government from the outset by establishing the Continental Army, directing strategy, and appointing diplomats. It eventually adopted the Lee Resolution which established the new country on July 2, 1776, and it agreed to the Declaration of Independence two days later.
Afterward, the Congress functioned as the provisional government of the United States through March 1, 1781. During this period, in addition to successfully managing the war effort, its primary achievements included: drafting the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. Constitution; securing diplomatic recognition and support from foreign nations; and resolving state land claims west of the Appalachian Mountains. When the Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states, the Continental Congress became the Congress of the Confederation, which helped guide the new nation through the final stages of the Revolutionary War. Under the Articles, the Confederation Congress had limited power. It could declare war, sign treaties, and settle disputes between the states. It could also borrow or print money, but did not have the power to tax; nor could it compel the individual states to comply with its decisions. It convened in eight sessions (a ninth failed to achieve a quorum) prior to being supplanted in 1789, when the United States Congress became the nation's legislative branch of government under a new Constitution.
Article V of the Articles of Confederation
Article V of the Articles of Confederation provided for the annual election of delegates to Congress by legislatures of the various states to terms that commenced on the first Monday in November, in every year. Each state could send 2–7 delegates, and no person was permitted to serve as a delegate for more than three years within a span of six years. State legislatures also had the authority to recall or to replace its delegates at any time. Prior to 1781, delegates to the Continental Congress served at the pleasure of the state legislature that commissioned them; neither term limits nor specific start–end–date of service existed.
Elected delegates who participated
The following tables list the 343 people who served in Congress: 1st Continental, 2nd Continental, or Confederation, between 1774 and 1789, as well as the year(s) of their active participation.
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Virginia
Elected delegates who did not participate
The following table lists the 90 people who were elected to Congress: 1st Continental, 2nd Continental, or Confederation, between 1774 and 1789, but who did not participate, as well as the year(s) of their election.
See also
Founding Fathers of the United States, includes a listing of which Founding Fathers signed one or more of the era's four formative state documents
History of the United States (1776–1789)
Perpetual Union
Notes
References
Further reading
Garraty, John A.; Carnes, Mark C., gen. eds. (1999, 2002 supplement). American National Biography. 24 volumes. New York, New York: Oxford University Press (for the American Council of Learned Societies). . Official website .
Continental Congress
Continental Congress
18th century-related lists | [
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220995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmar | Kolmar | Kolmar may refer to:
the German name for the town of Chodzież in Poland
the German name for the commune of Colmar in France
Gertrud Kolmar, a German lyric poet
See also
Kreis Kolmar in Posen, a "county" in the Prussian province of Posen (1879-1919) | [
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221000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Intelligence%20Service%20of%20Brazil | National Intelligence Service of Brazil | The Serviço Nacional de Informações, or SNI (National Information Service) of Brazil was formed by the Castelo Branco government in 1964. SNI was disbanded for a time and later resumed operations under the name Agência Brasileira de Inteligência.
History
Originally, the SNI was a civilian agency under the retired General Golbery do Couto e Silva in 1964. It provided Castelo Branco with an alternative intelligence source and was initially trained by the PIDE of the Salazar regime.
After the political dominance of Brazilian hard-liners in 1967, the SNI came under military control and began to be trained by the CIA. The agency was the backbone of the regime's anti-communist actions. Although there have been secret police in Brazil since at least the Vargas era, military involvement reached new heights with the creation of the SNI. It grew out of the Institute for Research and Social Studies (Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Sociais or IPES), which Couto e Silva had established to undermine the former Goulart government (1961-64).
In 1973, control over the domestic intelligence community with the opening of the Escola Nacional de Informações (EsNI or National Intelligence School) was established. The following year, the EsNI absorbed the Escola Superior de Guerra postgraduate intelligence course.
Supposedly, the EsNI did not train police agents and selected its own students. By 1980 some officers were saying that the EsNI would be as useful as the ESG to their careers.
Structure
In theory, the SNI supervised and coordinated the intelligence agencies of the three services, but in practice the service agencies maintained their autonomy.
The three service agencies were:
The Army Information Center (Centro de Informações do Exército, or CIE)
The Air force Information Center (Centro de Informações da Aeronáutica, or CISA)
The Naval Information Center (Centro de Informações de Marinha, or Cenimar).
The branch chiefs of staff were technically responsible for the intelligence work in their designated service. But in fact, CIE activities followed a parallel chain of command, and so the officers were often left uninformed.
Each command also had an Internal Operations Department-Internal Defense Operations Center (Departamento de Operações Internas-Centro de Operações de Defesa Interna—known as DOI-CODI).
CIE
From the outset, there was resistance to the idea of the CIE. In 1966 President Castelo Branco rejected the idea of creating an army intelligence service, because it would weaken the General Staff. The next year, 1967, the new minister of the army, General Aurélio de Lira Tavares, established the CIE over the objections of the chief of staff, General Orlando Geisel.
As early as 1968, the CIE began bombing theaters, destroying bookstores, and kidnapping people. When insurgents began terrorist violence in late 1968, the CIE expanded to about 200 officers and began a counter-offensive, eliminating all signs of leftist violence in three years.
President Geisel, a retired general, struggled to have his orders fulfilled by the CIE system. Consequently, the CIE sought to undermine his government and to make Army Minister Sylvio Couto Coelho da Frota the next president. The CIE also waged a pamphlet war against the previously mentioned Couto e Silva, chief of Geisel's Civilian Household, who wanted to shut down the CIE.
Methods of surveillance
The SNI provided clearance for anyone seeking a government job or requesting to conduct research in the army archives. Using an elaborate system of informants and telephone taps, the SNI accumulated and analyzed reports on many sources.
One study by political scientist David V. Fleischer and Robert Wesson suggests that there were as many as 50,000 persons employed in the SNI during the 1964-85 regime. Furthermore, both Presidents Médici and Figueiredo had been SNI chiefs.
Notable differences
Alfred Stepan, a professor of political science at Columbia University, observed that the SNI differed from similar agencies in other countries. In retrospect, he noted that it had quite a monopoly in operations and training, with a voice as a ministry in the presidential cabinet and representation in almost every facet of public life. High-ranking officials helped achieve SNI security goals through their government positions. Moreover, the SNI was completely autonomous, giving it an unprecedented power.
References
Library of Congress
See also
Operation Condor
Political history of Brazil
Brazilian intelligence agencies | [
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221004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholesale%20price%20index | Wholesale price index | The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is the price of a representative basket of wholesale goods. Some countries (like the Philippines) use WPI changes as a central measure of inflation. But now India has adopted new CPI to measure inflation. However, United States now report a producer price index instead.
It also influences stock and fixed price markets. The WPI is published by the Economic Adviser in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The Wholesale Price Index focuses on the price of goods traded between corporations, rather than the goods bought by consumers, which is measured by the Consumer Price Index. The purpose of the WPI is to monitor price movements that reflect supply and demand in industry, manufacturing and construction. This helps in analyzing both macroeconomic and microeconomic conditions.
Calculation
The wholesale price index (WPI) is based on the wholesale price of a few relevant commodities of over 240 commodities available. The commodities chosen for the calculation are based on their importance in the region and the point of time the WPI is employed. For example, in India about 435 items were used for calculating the WPI in base year 1993-94 while the advanced base year 2011-12 uses 697 items. Currently the base year has been revised from 2004-05 to 2011-12 by the Office of Economic Advisor(OEA), Department for promotion of industry and internal trade Ministry of Commerce and Industry to align it with the base year of other macro economic indicators
like the gross domestic product (GDP)and Index of Industrial Production (IIP).
Under primary article group of the new WPI there are 117 items against earlier 98, while fuel and power category remains static at 16. In the new series, there are 564 items of manufactured products compared to 318 items earlier.
The indicator tracks the price movement of each commodity individually. Based on this individual movement, the WPI is determined through the averaging principle. The following methods are used to compute the WPI:
The Laspeyres Formula is the weighted arithmetic mean based on the fixed value-based weights for the base period.
The Ten-Day Price Index is a procedure under which, “sample prices” with high intra-month fluctuations are selected and surveyed every ten days by phone. Utilizing the data retrieved by this procedure, and with the assumption that other non-surveyed “sample prices” remain unchanged, a “ten-day price index” is compiled and released.
Monthly price indexes are compiled by calculating the simple arithmetic mean of three ten-day “sample prices” in the month.
In May 2021, the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) soared to 12.94 per cent, the highest in the past decade.
See also
Consumer price index
Inflation
Monetary Union Index of Consumer Prices
Price index
Producer price index
References
Price indices
Price index | [
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221005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Corvette | Chevrolet Corvette | The Chevrolet Corvette, colloquially known as the 'Vette, is a two-door, two-passenger luxury sports car manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet across more than 60 years of production and eight design generations. From 1953 to 2019, it was front-engined, and since 2020, it is mid-engined. With its generations noted sequentially from C1 to C8, the Corvette serves as Chevrolet's halo vehicle and is noted for its performance and distinctive plastic bodywork, either fiberglass or composite.
In 1953, GM executives accepted a suggestion by Myron Scott, then the assistant director of the Public Relations department, to name the company's new sports car after the small maneuverable warship. The first model, a convertible, was introduced at the 1953 GM Motorama as a concept car; production models went on sale later that year. In 1963, the second generation was introduced in coupe and convertible styles. Originally manufactured in Flint, Michigan, and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette has since 1981 been manufactured in Bowling Green, Kentucky. This is also where the National Corvette Museum resides, which houses many iterations of the car.
The Corvette has become widely known as "America's Sports Car." Automotive News wrote that after being featured in the early 1960s television show Route 66, "the Corvette became synonymous with freedom and adventure," ultimately becoming both "the most successful concept car in history and the most popular sports car in history."
History
First generation (C1; 1953–1962)
The first generation of Corvette was introduced late in the 1953 model year. It first appeared as a show car for the 1953 General Motors Motorama, held January 17–23 at New York's Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. At the time, Chevrolet general manager Thomas H. Keating said it was six months to a year away from production readiness. The car generated enough interest to induce GM to make a production version to sell to the public. Production began on June 30, 1953.
This generation was often referred to as the "solid-axle" models (the independent rear suspension was not introduced until the second generation). Three hundred hand-built Corvette convertibles were produced, all Polo White, for the 1953 model year.
The 1954 model year vehicles could be ordered in Pennant Blue, Sportsman Red, Black, or Polo White; 3,640 were built, and sold slowly.
The 1953, 1954, and 1955 model years were the only Corvettes equipped with a version of the second- generation Blue Flame inline-six rated at .
The 1955 model offered a V8 engine as an option. Despite the poor sales of the Corvette at the time, the brand new V-8 was an overwhelmingly popular option. Only 6 of the 1955 models were produced with the inline-six. With a large inventory of unsold 1954 models, GM limited production to 700 for 1955. With the new V8, the 0–60 mph time improved by 1.5 seconds., and saw three new competitors called the Ford Thunderbird and the Studebaker Speedster introduced that same year, and the larger Chrysler C-300.
A new body was introduced for the 1956 model featuring a new "face" and side coves; the taillamp fins were also gone. An optional "Ramjet" fuel injection system was made available in the middle of the 1957 model year. It was one of the first American mass-produced engines in history to reach per cubic inch (16.4 cubic cm) and Chevrolet's advertising agency used a "one hp per cubic inch" slogan for advertising the Small-Block engine. Other options included power windows (1956), hydraulically operated power convertible top (1956), heavy duty brakes and suspension (1957), and four speed manual transmission (late 1957). Delco Radio transistorized signal-seeking "hybrid" car radio, which used both vacuum tubes and transistors in its radio's circuitry (1956 option).
The 1958 Corvette received a body and interior freshening which included a longer front end with quad headlamps, bumper exiting exhaust tips, a new steering wheel, and a dashboard with all gauges mounted directly in front of the driver. Exclusive to the 1958 model were hood louvers and twin trunk spears. The 1959–60 model years had few changes except a decreased amount of body chrome and more powerful engine offerings.
In 1961, the rear of the car was completely redesigned with the addition of a "duck tail" with four round lights. The light treatment would continue for all following model year Corvettes until 2014. In 1962, the Chevrolet Small-Block was enlarged to . In standard form it produced . For an extra 12% over list price, the fuel-injected version produced , making it the fastest of the C1 generation. 1962 was also the last year for the wrap around windshield, solid rear axle, and convertible-only body style. The trunk lid and exposed headlamps did not reappear for many decades.
Second generation (C2; 1963–1967)
The second generation (C2) Corvette, which introduced Sting Ray to the model, continued with fiberglass body panels, and overall, was smaller than the first generation. The C2 was later referred to as mid-years. The car was designed by Larry Shinoda with major inspiration from a previous concept design called the "Q Corvette," which was created by Peter Brock and Chuck Pohlmann under the styling direction of Bill Mitchell. Earlier, Mitchell had sponsored a car known as the "Mitchell Sting Ray" in 1959 because Chevrolet no longer participated in factory racing. This vehicle had the largest effect on the styling of this generation, although it had no top and did not give away what the final version of the C2 would look like. The third inspiration was a mako shark Mitchell had caught while deep-sea fishing.
Production started for the 1963 model year and ended in 1967. Introducing a new name, "Sting Ray", the 1963 model was the first year for a Corvette coupé and it featured a distinctive tapering rear deck (a feature that later reappeared on the 1971 "Boattail" Buick Riviera) with, for 1963 only, a split rear window. The Sting Ray featured hidden headlamps, non-functional hood vents, and an independent rear suspension. Corvette chief engineer Zora Arkus-Duntov never liked the split rear window because it blocked rear vision, but Mitchell thought it to be a key part of the entire design. Maximum power for 1963 was and was raised to in 1964. Options included electronic ignition, the breakerless magnetic pulse-triggered Delcotronic first offered on some 1963 Pontiac models. On 1964 models the decorative hood vents were eliminated and Duntov, the Corvette's chief engineer, got his way with the split rear window changed to a full-width window.
Four-wheel disc brakes were introduced in 1965, as was a "big block" engine option: the V8. Side exhaust pipes were also optionally available in 1965, and continued to be offered through 1967. The introduction of the big block in 1965 spelled the beginning of the end for the Rochester fuel injection system. The option cost while the fuel injected engine cost . Few people could justify spending more for less, even though FI could deliver over 20 mpg on the highway and would keep delivering fuel despite high G-loading in corners taken at racing speeds. Another rare '63 and '64 option was the Z06 competition package, which offered stiffer suspension, bigger, multi-segment lined brakes with finned drums, and more. Only a couple hundred coupes and a single convertible were factory-equipped this way in 1963. With only 771 fuel-injected cars built in 1965, Chevrolet discontinued the option at the end of the '65 production, having introduced a less-expensive big block 396 engine rated at 425 hp in the middle of the production year and selling over 2,000 in just a few months. For 1966, Chevrolet introduced an even larger Big Block version. Other options available on the C2 included the Wonderbar auto-tuning AM radio, AM-FM radio (mid-1963), air conditioning (late-1963), a telescopic steering wheel (1965), and headrests (1966). The Sting Ray's independent rear suspension was successfully adapted for the new-for-1965 Chevrolet Corvair, which solved the quirky handling problems of that unique rear-engine compact.
1967 was the final model year for the second generation. The 1967 model featured restyled fender vents, less ornamentation, and back-up lamps which were on the inboard in 1966 were now rectangular and centrally located. The first use of all four taillights in red started in 1961 and was continued thru the C2 line-up except for 1966. The 1967 and subsequent models continuing on all Corvettes since. 1967 had the first L88 engine option which was rated at , but unofficial estimates place the actual output at or more. Only twenty such engines were installed at the factory. From 1967 to 1969, the Holley triple two-barrel carburetor, or Tri-Power, was available on the 427 L89 (a $368 option, on top of the cost for the high-performance 427). Despite these changes, sales slipped more than 15%, to 22,940 (8,504 coupes, off close to 15%, and 14,436 convertibles, down nearly 19%).
Duntov came up with a lightweight version of the C2 in 1962. Concerned about Ford and what they were doing with the Shelby Cobra, GM planned to manufacture 100 Grand Sport Corvettes, but only five were actually built. They were driven by historic drivers such as Roger Penske, A. J. Foyt, Jim Hall, and Dick Guldstrand among others. Today the five cars (001-005) are all held by private owners, and are among the most coveted and valuable Corvettes ever built. 002 is exhibited in the Simeone Foundation Automotive Museum and is in running condition.
Third generation (C3; 1968–1982)
The third generation Corvette, patterned after the Mako Shark II concept car, was introduced for the 1968 model year and was in production until 1982. C3 coupes featured the first use of T-top removable roof panels. It introduced monikers that were later revived, such as LT-1, ZR-1, Z07, and Collector Edition. In 1978, Corvette's 25th anniversary was celebrated with a two-tone Silver Anniversary Edition and an Indy Pace Car replica edition of the C3. This was also the first time that a Corvette was used as a Pace Car for the Indianapolis 500.
Engines and chassis components were mostly carried over from the C2, but the body and interior were new. The engine replaced the old as the base engine in 1969, but power remained at . 1969 was the only year for a C3 to optionally offer either a factory-installed side exhaust or a normal rear exit with chrome tips. The all-aluminum ZL1 engine was also new for 1969; the special big-block engine was listed at , but was reported to produce and propelled a ZL1 through the 1/4 mile in 10.89 seconds.
There was an extended production run for the 1969 model year due to a lengthy labor strike, which meant sales were down on the 1970 models, to 17,316. 1970 small-block power peaked with the optional high compression, high-revving LT-1 that produced . The 427 big-block was enlarged to with a rating. The ZR-1 special package was an option available on the 1970 through 1972 model years, and included the LT-1 engine combined with special racing equipment. Only 53 ZR-1's were built.
In 1971, to accommodate regular low-lead fuel with lower anti-knock properties, the engine compression ratios were lowered which resulted in reduced power ratings. The power rating for the L48 base engine decreased from 300 to 270 horsepower and the optional special high performance LT1 engine decreased from 370 to 330 horsepower. The LS5 motor was carried over and produced . Offered in ‘71 only was the LS6 big-block featuring aluminum heads and delivering , highest of the 1970-72 series, and could be ordered with an automatic transmission. For the 1972 model year, GM moved to the SAE Net measurement which resulted in further reduced, but more realistic, power ratings than the previous SAE Gross standard. Although the 1972 model's horsepower was actually the same as that for the 1971 model year, the lower net horsepower numbers were used instead of gross horsepower. The L48 base engine was now rated at and the optional LT1 engine was now rated at . 1974 models had the last true dual exhaust system that was dropped on the 1975 models with the introduction of catalytic converters requiring the use of no-lead fuel. Engine power decreased with the base ZQ3 engine producing , the optional L82's output , while the 454 big-block engine was discontinued. Gradual power increases after 1975 peaked in 1980 with the model's optional L82 producing in its final year. 1981 saw a single engine, the L81, which had while the fuel-injected 1982 L83 had .
Styling changed subtly throughout the generation until 1978 for the car's 25th anniversary. The Sting Ray nameplate was not used on the 1968 model, but Chevrolet still referred to the Corvette as a Sting Ray; however, 1969 (through 1976) models used the "Stingray" name as one word, without the space. In 1970, the body design was updated including fender flares, and interiors were refined, which included redesigned seats, and indication lights near the gear shift that were an early use of fiber optics. Due to government regulation, the 1973 Corvette's chrome front bumper was changed to a system with a urethane bumper cover. 1973 Corvettes are unique in that sense, as they are the only year where the front bumper was polyurethane and the rear retained the chrome two-piece bumper set. 1973 was also the last year chrome bumpers were used. The optional wire-spoked wheel covers (left) were offered for the last time in 1973. Only 45 Z07 were built in 1973. From 1974 onwards both the front and rear bumpers were polyurethane.
In 1974, a rear bumper system with a two-piece, tapering urethane bumper cover replaced the Kamm-tail and chrome bumper blades, and matched the new front design from the previous year. 1975 was the last year for the convertible, (which did not return for 11 years) and Dave McLellan succeeded Zora Arkus-Duntov as the Corvette's Chief Engineer. For the 1976 models the fiberglass floor was replaced with steel panels to provide protection from the catalytic converter's high operating temperature. For 15 model years the names Corvette, Sting Ray, and Stingray were synonymous. 1977 was the last year the tunneled roof treatment with a vertical back window was used, in addition, leather seats were available at no additional cost for the first time. The black exterior color returned after a six-year absence.
The 1978 25th Anniversary model introduced the fastback glass rear window and featured a new interior and dashboard; also, the headlights were changed from round to square units. Corvette's 25th anniversary was celebrated with the Indy 500 Pace Car limited edition and a Silver Anniversary model featuring silver over gray lower body paint. All 1979 models featured the previous year's pace car seats and offered the front and rear spoilers as optional equipment. 53,807 were produced for the model year, making 1979 the peak production year for all versions of the Corvette. Sales have trended downward since then. In 1980, the Corvette received an integrated aerodynamic redesign that resulted in a significant reduction in drag. After several years of weight increases, 1980 Corvettes were lighter as engineers trimmed both body and chassis weight. In mid-1981, production relocated from St. Louis, to Bowling Green, Kentucky (where all subsequent Corvette generations have since been manufactured), and several two-tone paint options were offered. The 1981 models were the last available with a manual transmission until well into the 1984 production run. In 1982, a fuel-injected engine returned, and a final C3 tribute Collectors Edition featured an exclusive, opening rear window hatch.
Fourth generation (C4; 1984–1996)
The fourth-generation Corvette was the first complete redesign of the Corvette since 1963. Production was to begin for the 1983 model year but quality issues and part delays resulted in only 43 prototypes for the 1983 model year being produced that were never sold. All of the 1983 prototypes were destroyed or serialized to 1984 except one with a white exterior, medium blue interior, L83 350 ci, 205 bhp V8, and 4-speed automatic transmission. After extensive testing and modifications were completed, it was initially retired as a display sitting in an external wall over the Bowling Green Assembly Plant's employee entrance. Later this only surviving 1983 prototype was removed, restored, and is now on public display at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. It is still owned by GM. On February 12, 2014, it was nearly lost to a sinkhole which opened up under the museum. Eight other Corvettes were severely damaged.
Regular fourth generation production began on January 3, 1983; the 1984 model year and delivery to customers began in March 1983. The 1984 model carried over the L83 slightly more powerful (5 bhp) "Crossfire" V8 engine from the final 1982 third-generation model. New chassis features were aluminum brake calipers and an all-aluminum suspension for weight savings and rigidity. The new one-piece Targa top had no center reinforcement. Retractable headlights continued to be used, but they were now single units, which were last used in 1957. A new electronic dashboard with digital liquid crystal displays for the speedometer and tachometer was standard. Beginning in 1985, the L98 engine with tuned port fuel injection became the standard engine.
September 1984 through 1988 Corvettes offered a Doug Nash-designed "4+3" transmission – a 4-speed manual coupled to an automatic overdrive on the top three gears. It was designed to help the Corvette meet U.S. fuel economy standards. Since 1981 (when it was last offered), a manual transmission returned to the Corvette starting with production in late 1984. The transmission proved to be problematic and was replaced by a modern ZF 6-speed manual transmission in 1989.
In 1986, the second Corvette Indy Pace Car was released. It was the first convertible Corvette since 1975. A Center High Mounted Signal Light (CHMSL) – a third center brake light – was added in 1986 to comply with safety regulations. While the color of the pace car used in the race was yellow, all 1986 convertibles also had an Indy 500 emblem mounted on the console, making any color a "pace car edition". In 1987, the B2K twin-turbo option became available from the factory. The Callaway Corvette was a Regular Production Option (RPO B2K). The B2K option coexisted from 1990 to 1991 with the ZR-1 option, which then replaced it. Early B2Ks produced and ; later versions boasted and .
1988 saw the 35th Anniversary Edition of the Corvette. Each of these featured a special badge with an identification number mounted next to the gear selector and was finished with a white exterior, wheels, and interior. In 1990, the ZR1 option Corvette was introduced with the LT5 engine designed by Lotus and built in the Mercury Marine plant in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The LT5 engine was a 4 cam (DOHC) design producing 375 hp (280 kW) when at "open throttle". The C4 ZR1 ran from 1990 thru 1995 model years. In 1991, all Corvettes received updates to the body, interior, and wheels. The convex rear fascia that set the 1990 ZR-1 apart from the base model was now included on L98 Corvettes, making the styling of the expensive ZR-1 even closer to that of the base cars. The most obvious difference remaining between the base and ZR-1 models besides the wider rear wheels was the location of the CHMSL, which was integrated into the new rear fascia used on the base model, but remained at the top of the rear-hatch on the ZR-1's.
For the 1992 model year, the LT1 engine was introduced, an increase of over 1991's L98 engine. This engine featured reverse-flow cooling (the heads were cooled before the block), which allowed for a higher compression ratio of 10.5:1. A new distributor was also debuted. Called "Optispark", the distributor was driven directly off the front of the camshaft and mounted in front of the timing cover, just above the crankshaft and harmonic balancer. Also new for 1992 was Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR), a form of traction control that utilized the Corvette's brakes, spark retard, and throttle close-down to prevent excessive rear wheel spin and possible loss of control. The traction control device could be switched off if desired.
A special 40th Anniversary Edition was released in 1993, which featured a commemorative Ruby Red color, 40th anniversary badges, and embroidered seat backs. The 1993 Corvette also marked the introduction of the Passive Keyless Entry System, making it the first GM car to feature it. Production of the ZR-1 ended in 1995, after 6,939 cars had been built. 1996 was the final year of C4 production, and featured special models and options, including the Grand Sport and Collector Edition, OBD II (On-Board Diagnostics), run flat tires, and the LT4 engine. The LT4 V8 was available only with a manual transmission, while all LT1 Corvettes used automatic transmissions.
Chevrolet released the Grand Sport (GS) version in 1996 to mark the end of production of the C4 Corvette. The Grand Sport moniker was a nod to the original Grand Sport model produced in 1963. A total of 1,000 GS Corvettes were produced, 810 as coupes and 190 as convertibles. The 1996 GS came with the high-performance LT4 V8, producing and . The Grand Sport came only in Admiral Blue with a white stripe down the middle, black wheels, and two red stripes on the front left wheel arch.
Fifth generation (C5; 1997–2004)
The C5 Corvette was redesigned from the ground up after sales from the previous generation began to decline. Production of the C5 Corvette actually began in 1996 but quality/manufacturing issues saw its release to the public in mass delayed until 1997, and continuing through the 2004 model year. The C5 was a completely new design that featured many new concepts and manufacturing breakthroughs that would be carried forward to the C6 & C7. It had a top speed of and was judged by the automotive press as a breakthrough with vastly improved dynamics in nearly every area over the previous C4 design. Innovations included a 0.29 drag coefficient, near 50/50 weight distribution, active handling (the first stability control for a Corvette). It also weighed less than the C4. It was the first time the platform was badge engineered as the Cadillac XLR with limited sales.
An all new LS1 aluminum engine (Gen III small block) featured individual ignition coils for each cylinder, and aluminum block and pistons. It was initially rated at and , but was increased to in the 2001 edition. The new engine, combined with the new body, was able to achieve up to 28 mpg on the highway.
For its first year, the C5 was available only as a coupe, although the new platform was designed from the ground up to be a convertible, which returned in 1998, followed by the fixed-roof coupe (FRC) in 1999. One concept for the FRC was for it to be a stripped-down model with a possible V6 engine (nicknamed in-house as the "Billy Bob"). By 2000, FRC plans laid the groundwork for the return in 2001 of the Z06, an RPO option not seen since Zora's 1963 race-ready Corvette.
The Z06 model replaced the FRC model as the highest performance C5 Corvette. Instead of a heavier double-overhead cam engine like the ZR-1 of the C4 generation, the Z06 used an LS6, a derivative of the standard LS1 engine. Using the much more rigid fixed roof design allowed the Z06 unprecedented handling thanks to upgraded brakes and less body flex. Those characteristics, along with the use of materials such as a titanium exhaust system and a carbon fiber hood in the 2004 model year, led to further weight savings and performance gains for the C5 Z06. The LS6 was later upgraded to for 2002–2004. Although the Z06's rated power output is equal to that of the C4 ZR-1, the improved rigidity, suspension, brakes, and reduced weight of the C5 produced a car quicker than C4 ZR-1.
Sixth generation (C6; 2005–2013)
For the C6 Corvette GM wanted to focus more upon refining the C5 than trying to redesign it. Car & Driver, and Motor Trend, described the C6 as an "evolution of the C5, instead of a complete redo". The C6 wheelbase was increased while body overhangs were decreased when compared to the C5. Retractable headlights were replaced with fixed units, making this the first model since 1962 to be so equipped. The C6 brought a new and improved interior compared to the C5. As a result of the upgraded interior, the C6 had a slight increase in passenger hip room. It also sported an updated LS1/LS6 engine now called the LS2. This engine was primarily an LS1/LS6 with a bump in displacement from 5.7L to 6.0 liters. The increased displacement of the 6.0 bumped the LS2's horsepower up by 50 BHP over its LS1 progenitor, although still 5 BHP less than the upgraded LS6 engine found in the previous C5 Z06. Thus the LS2 was now at 364 cu in, and it produced at 6000 rpm and at 4400 rpm, giving the vehicle a 0– time of under 4.2 seconds. Its top speed was .
The C6 generation did not match the previous generation's relatively good fuel economy, despite its relatively low 0.28 drag coefficient and low curb weight, achieving 16/26 mpg (city/highway) equipped with automatic or manual transmissions; like all manual transmission Corvettes since 1989, it is fitted with Computer Aided Gear Selection (CAGS) to improve fuel economy by requiring drivers to shift from 1st gear directly to 4th in low-speed/low-throttle conditions. This feature helps the C6 avoid the Gas Guzzler Tax by achieving better fuel economy.
The new Z06 arrived as a 2006 model in the third quarter of 2005. It has a 7.0 L version of the small block engine codenamed LS7. At 427.6 cubic inches, the Z06 was the largest small block ever offered from General Motors. Because of the Corvette's former use of 427 cubic-inch big blocks in the late-1960s and early 1970s, the LS7's size was rounded down to 427 cubic inches. Official output was and has a 0- time of 3.7 seconds. Top speed is . Another first for a Corvette, the Z06 featured a full aluminum chassis. The frame mirrored the C5/6 architecture but substituting aluminum hydroformed rails and aluminum extrusions and castings fore and aft. This dropped weight from 419 to 287 pounds while improving chassis stiffness.
For 2008, the Corvette received a mild freshening: a new LS3 engine with displacement increased to , resulting in and ( and if ordered with the optional performance exhaust). The 6-speed manual transmission also has improved shift linkage and a 0– time of 4.0 seconds, while the automatic is set up for quicker shifts giving the C6 automatic a 0– time of 4.0 seconds, quicker than any other production automatic Corvette. The interior was slightly updated and a new 4LT leather-wrap interior package was added. The wheels were also updated to a new five-spoke design.
The ZR1 was formally announced in a December 2007 press statement by General Motors, where it was revealed that their target of per had been reached by a new "LS9" engine with an Eaton-supercharged 6.2-liter engine producing and . The LS9 engine was the most powerful to be put into a GM production sports car. Its top speed was .
The historical name Grand Sport returned to the Corvette lineup in 2010 as an entirely new model series that replaced the Z51 option. The new model was basically an LS3 equipped Z06 with a steel frame instead of aluminum. It retained many of the features of the Z06 including a wide body with 18x9.5 and 19x12 inch wheels, dry-sump oiling (manual transmission coupes only), 6-piston 14" front brakes and 4-piston rear, and improved suspension. Manual transmission-equipped G/S coupe models received a tweaked LS3 with a forged crank, are built in Z06 fashion by hand and utilize a dry-sump oil system. The first three gears were also made shorter for better throttle response and faster acceleration. A new launch control system was introduced for all models that allows for sub-4-second 0–60. EPA is estimated 26 MPG highway, 1.0 G on skid pad.
Beginning with the 2011 model year, buyers of the Corvette Z06 and ZR1 were offered the opportunity to assist in the build of their engine. Titled the "Corvette Engine Build Experience," buyers paid extra to be flown to the Wixom, Michigan Performance Build Center. Participants helped the assembly line workers build the V8 engine, then took delivery of the car at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, KY, near the Corvette final assembly point.
The last C6 Corvette was manufactured in February 2013. In May 2013, a federal investigation of problems with more than 100,000 C6 lighting systems was announced.
Seventh generation (C7; 2014–2019)
Development for the seventh generation Corvette started in 2007. Originally set to be introduced for the 2011 model year, its introduction was delayed for three years. It was finally released for the 2014 model year. Mid-engine and rear-engine layouts had been considered, but the front-engine, rear-wheel drive (RWD) platform was chosen to keep production costs lower.
To GM's product planners and marketers, the fact that the Corvette had become known as an "old man's toy" became a prime factor in developing the next generation. Studies showed that about 46 percent of Corvette buyers in 2012, through October, were 55 or older, compared with 22 percent of Audi R8 and 30 percent of Porsche 911 customers. The head of Chevy marketing, Chris Perry, acknowledges that too many people saw it as the car of "the successful plumber." John Fitzpatrick, Corvette's marketing manager said "It's the old saying, 'Nobody wants to be seen driving an old man's car, but everybody wants to be seen driving a young man's car.' " To counter that perception GM planned to make the new generation C7 more aspirational to younger people. Towards that end, a camouflaged version of the car was made available in the popular video game Gran Turismo 5 in November 2012. As part of the marketing effort associated with the introduction of the new generation, the 2013 Indianapolis 500 utilized a Corvette for the 12th time as its pace car.
The Motley Fool reports that Chevrolet could be earning $10,000 or more in gross profit for every Corvette it sells. GM's profit on sales is separate from the profits made by the individual dealerships selling the cars to the public.
The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette includes an LT1 6.2 L V8 (376 cu in) making or with the optional performance exhaust. The LT1 engine (the "LT1" designation was first used by GM in 1970 and then later in 1992.) is in the Gen V family of small block engines, which will be used in GM vehicles as the new small V8 option. It features three advanced technologies to the new LT1 V8 engine: direct injection, variable valve timing, and an active fuel management system. Fuel injectors are located under the intake manifold. The Corvette remains rear-wheel drive with the transaxle located in the rear. Transmission choices include a 7-speed manual or a 6-speed (2014) / 8-speed (2015-) automatic with paddle shifters. The new interior includes wide-bottom seats as standard, with sportier versions with high side bolsters optional. The Corvette's flag logo has been revised for the new car and a small casting of a stingray has been added to the car's ornamentation.
Features of the new generation's structure include a carbon fiber hood and removable roof panel. The fenders, doors and rear quarter panels remain composite. At the rear of the car, the trademark round taillights have changed to a more squarish form. The underbody panels are made of "carbon-nano" composite and it makes use of a new aluminum frame which locates the four wheels an inch farther apart, front to rear and side to side. Luggage space decreased by 33% from the previous generation's. The overall weight of the car was not announced by General Motors for many months after its first showing in January 2013. Despite the increased use of aluminum and other light weight materials, numerous publications reported that the weight would remain essentially unchanged from that of the previous generation's. In August 2013, the weight of the new Corvette was reported to be , meaning it would weigh more than the previous generation's C6 ZR1 model (). The ZR1 C6 weight included a supercharger and intercooler on its 6.2L engine.
Chevrolet announced the C7 Z06 at the 2014 Detroit Auto Show. The 2015 Z06 Corvette has 650 bhp from the supercharged LT4 aluminum 6.2 L V8 engine.
The new generation Corvette resurrected the "Stingray" name (originally spelled "Sting Ray" on 1963 to 1967 models and "Stingray" from 1969 to 1976), last used in 1976.
For the 2015 model, Chevrolet began offering a transaxle version of the 8L90 8-speed automatic to replace the previous 6-speed 6L80.
For the 2017 model year Chevrolet once again introduced the Grand Sport (GS) model. This model includes Z06 wide-body styling features and suspension tuning along with the Z51 dry sump LT1 engine configuration. Grand Sport models were available in 10 exterior colors and could have the optional Heritage Package which included hash-mark fender graphics (available in six colors. As part of the introduction of the Grand Sport in Geneva, Switzerland, Chevrolet also announced a 2017 Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport Collector Edition that was to be limited to 1,000 vehicles in total with 850 for the US Market. Final production numbers show 784 Coupes and 151 Convertibles were built; 935 total.
The $4,995 Z25 Option Package was a cosmetic upgrade that contained the following: blue fender hash-marks, two-tone blue leather seating surfaces with a logo on the seat headrest, blue leather stitching, serialized edition numbered dash plaque, and carpeted floor mats with logo,
For the 2019 model year, the ZR1 variant returned. This model features a new LT5 engine. The long block of the LT5 is the same as the LT4, but the supercharger displacement was increased from 1.7 liters to 2.65 liters. The C7 ZR1 power output is 755 horsepower.
The last C7 Corvette (also making it the last front-engined Corvette), a black Z06, was auctioned off on June 28, 2019 for $2.7 million at the Barrett-Jackson Northeast auction. The auction benefited the Stephen Siller Tunnel to Towers Foundation, which helps pay off mortgages for the families of first responders that were killed in the line of duty and builds "mortgage-free, accessible smart homes" for injured service members.
Eighth generation (C8; 2020–present)
The 2020 Corvette model, both coupe and convertible configurations of the base-model Stingray made their debut within a 3-month gap. The coupe made its debut on July 18, 2019, with three launch colors, red (with the Z51 Package), white, and blue while the convertible made its debut on October 2 at the Kennedy Space Center along with the C8.R race car, which took part at the 2020 Daytona 24 Hours.
The Corvette C8 is the first production Corvette to have a rear mid-engine configuration. It is also GM's first rear mid-engine production car since the 1984 Pontiac Fiero. It is powered by a 6.2 liter naturally aspirated V8 called the LT2, this engine generates 495 horsepower and 470 lb/ft of torque when equipped with the Z51 performance package. The C8 is the first Corvette to be offered without a traditional manual transmission, while the convertible is the first Corvette with a retractable hardtop.
In January 2020 the car became the most expensive charity vehicle sold that week at the Barrett-Jackson auction, selling for $3 million. The proceeds of the sale went to the Detroit Children's Fund.
The LT2 saw fuel management system upgrades for the 2022 model year which featured a new fuel pump and injectors. The base price was also increased by $1200. A new IMSA GTLM Championship Edition package, limited to 1000 units, was introduced for 2022.
The Corvette C8 Z06 will debut in the 2023 model year. It will feature a 670 horsepower 5.5L naturally-aspirated double overhead cam flat-plane crank V8, the highest horsepower naturally aspirated V8 engine in history. The Z06 will rev to 8600 rpm and feature a magnesium dual-clutch transmission.
Awards
Over the years, the Corvette has won awards from automobile publications as well as organizations such as the Society of Automotive Engineers.
Automobile Magazine ranked the 1963–1967 Sting Ray first on their "100 Coolest Cars" list, above the Dodge Viper GTS, the Porsche 911, and others. In 2013, Automobile Magazine had selected the Corvette C7 as its "Automobile of the Year".
Sports Car International placed the Corvette at number 5 on their list of the "Top Sports Cars of the 1960s".
Hot Rod magazine in its March 1986 issue selected the 1973–74 Corvette LS6 454 as one of the "10 most collectable muscle cars" in the company of the 1968–70 Chevelle, 1970 'Cuda, 1970 Challenger, 1966–67 Fairlane, 1968–70 AMX, 1970 Camaro Z28, 1968–70 GTO, 1968–69 Charger, and 1967–68 Mustang.
Car and Driver readers selected the Corvette "Best all around car" nine out of eleven years in Car and Driver's Reader's Choice Polls including 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, and 1975.
Car and Driver magazine selected the Corvette for its annual Ten Best list sixteen times: the C4 from 1985 through 1989, the C5 in 1998, 1999, and 2002 through 2004, the C6 from 2005 through 2009, and the C7 in 2014.
Motor Trend magazine named the Corvette Car of the Year in 1984, 1998, and 2020.
Society of Automotive Engineers publication Automotive Engineering International selected the 1999 Corvette Convertible, (along with the Mercedes-Benz S500) "Best Engineered Car of the 20th century".
The 2005 Corvette was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award and was named "Most Coveted Vehicle" in the 2006 Canadian Car of the Year contest.
U.S. News & World Report selected the 2010 Corvette the "Best Luxury Sports Car for the Money".
Edmunds.com, in its "100 Best Cars Of All Time" list, ranked the 1963 Corvette Stingray as the 16th best car ever produced worldwide. The 1990 ZR1 took #50, the 1955 Corvette V8 took #72, and the 2009 ZR1 took #78 overall.
The 2014 Corvette was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award
NASA Corvettes
Astronaut Alan Shepard, a long-time Corvette owner, was invited by then GM Chief Engineer Zora Arkus-Duntov to drive pre-production Corvette models. General Motors executives later gave Shepard a 1972 model with a Bill Mitchell interior. Jim Rathmann, a Melbourne, Florida Chevrolet dealer and winner of the 1960 Indy 500, befriended astronauts Shepard, Gus Grissom, and Gordon Cooper. Rathmann convinced GM President Ed Cole to set up a program that supplied each astronaut with a pair of new cars each year. Most chose a family car for their wives and a Corvette for themselves. In his memoir Last Man On The Moon, Gene Cernan describes how this worked. The astronauts received brand-new Corvettes, which they were given the option to purchase at a "used" price after they'd been driven 3000 miles. Alan Bean recalls Corvettes lined up in the parking lot outside the astronaut offices at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, and friendly races between Shepard and Grissom along the Florida beach roads and on beaches as local police turned a blind eye. Shepard, Grissom and Cooper even pulled each other on skis in the shallow water. The Mercury and later astronauts were unofficially tied to the Corvette and appeared in official photographs with their cars and with mock-ups of space vehicles such as the Apollo Lunar Module or Lunar Roving Vehicle. Cooper talked of the races along Cocoa Beach in his eulogy of Shepard at the Johnson Space Center in 1998.
Concept cars
Corvette concept cars have inspired the designs of several generations of Corvettes. The first Corvette, Harley Earl's 1953 EX-122 Corvette prototype was itself, a concept show car, first shown to the public at the 1953 GM Motorama at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City on January 17, 1953. It was brought to production in six months with only minor changes.
Harley Earl's successor, Bill Mitchell was the man behind most of the Corvette concepts of the 1960s and 1970s. The second-generation (C2) of 1963 was his, and its design first appeared on the Stingray Racer of 1959. It made its public debut at Maryland's Marlborough Raceway on April 18, 1959, powered by a V8 with experimental 11:1 compression aluminum cylinder heads and took fourth place. It raced through 1960 wearing only "Sting Ray" badges before retiring to tour the auto-show circuit in 1961.
In 1961 the XP-755 Mako Shark show car was designed by Larry Shinoda as a concept for future Corvettes. In keeping with the name, the streamlining, pointed snout, and other detailing was partly inspired by the look of that very fast fish. The 1961 Corvette tail was given two additional tail lights (six total) for the concept car. The body inspired the 1963 production Sting Ray.
In 1965 Mitchell removed the original concept body and redesigned it as the Mako Shark II. Chevrolet actually created two of them, only one of which was fully functional. The original Mako Shark was then retroactively called the Mako Shark I. The Mako Shark II debuted in 1965 as a show car and this concept influenced Mitchell's redesigned Corvette of 1968.
The Aerovette has a mid-engine configuration using a transverse mounting of its V-8 engine. Zora Arkus-Duntov's engineers originally built two XP-882s during 1969. John DeLorean, Chevy general manager, ordered one for display at the 1970 New York Auto Show. In 1972, DeLorean authorized further work on the XP-882. A near-identical body in aluminum alloy was constructed and became the XP-895 "Reynolds Aluminum Car." Duntov and Mitchell responded with two Chevrolet Vega (stillborn) Wankel 2-rotor engines joined together as a 4-rotor engine which was used to power the XP-895. It was first shown in late 1973. The 4-rotor show car was outfitted with a small-block V8 in 1977 and rechristened Aerovette. GM chairman Thomas Murphy approved the Aerovette for 1980 production, but Mitchell's retirement that year, combined with then Corvette chief engineer Dave McLellan's lack of enthusiasm for the mid-engine design and slow-selling data on mid-engined cars killed the last hope for a mid-engine Corvette.
A Corvette Stingray Anniversary concept car was unveiled at the 2009 Detroit Auto Show, fifty years after the Sting Ray racer-concept of 1959. The vehicle was based on a combination of the 1963 Sting Ray and the 1968 Stingray. The new Stingray concept appears in the 2009 movie Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, as the vehicle mode of the character Sideswipe. A convertible/speedster version was used for the same character in the 2011 sequel, Transformers: Dark of the Moon.
Production
Production statistics from when the first-generation of Corvettes were released in 1953 until present.
Owner demographics
According to research by Specialty Equipment Market Association and Experian Automotive, as of 2009, there were approximately 750,000 Corvettes of all model years registered in the United States. Corvette owners were fairly equally distributed throughout the country, with the highest density in Michigan (3.47 per 1000 residents) and the lowest density in Utah, Mississippi, and Hawaii (1.66, 1.63, and 1.53 registrations per 1000 residents). 47% of them hold college degrees (significantly above the nationwide average of 27%), and 82% are between ages of 40 and 69 (median age being 53).
Racing
C5-R
In 1960, three C-1 Corvettes were race modified and entered in the 24 Hours of Le Mans by team owner Briggs Cunningham and which were numbered #1, #2, and #3 cars in the race. The numbered #3 car was driven by John Fitch and Bob Grossman and it had finished the race in eighth place overall, but it had won the big-bore GT class.
The Chevrolet Corvette C5-R is a grand touring racing car built by Pratt & Miller and General Motors for competition in endurance racing. The car is based on the C5 generation of the Chevrolet Corvette sports car, yet is designed purely for motorsports use. It became one of the most dominant cars in GT categories, with wins at the 24 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, and 24 Hours of Le Mans, as well as championships in the American Le Mans Series. The Corvette C5-Rs debuted in 1999 and continues to be raced to this day, although the C5-R has effectively been replaced by the Corvette C6.R.
C6.R
C6.R GT1 (Z06)
In 2005, the factory Corvette Team began racing the C6.R to coincide with the new sixth-generation (C6) Corvette being released to the public. Private teams, primarily in Europe, continued to race the C5-R for a couple of years before switching to the C6.R. Corvette C6.R went on to win its class at every race it entered in the 2005 ALMS season. By the end of 2009, Corvette had clinched four consecutive ALMS GT1 team and manufacturers titles (2005–2008) and three Le Mans 24 Hour class victories in the LMGT1 category (2005, 2006, 2009). 2007 and 2008 races were won by the factory Aston Martin squad's DBR9. The last official race for factory GT1 Corvettes was the 2009 24 Hours of Le Mans.
C6.R GT2 (ZR1)
While some privateers continued to use the GT1 version of the C6.R in Europe, the official factory team Corvette Racing switched from the slowly dying GT1 category to the much more competitive and popular GT2 class in mid-2009. The new GT2 C6.R used a modified version of the ZR1 model body but does not have the ZR1 supercharged engine. GT2 rules are based more on production vehicles, therefore the GT2 C6.R naturally aspirated engine was considerably more restricted and less powerful than its predecessor. The car debuted at Mid-Ohio's ALMS round. They achieved one ALMS race victory in the remaining 2009 ALMS season, and one victory at the final round of the 2010 ALMS season, Petit Le Mans. Corvette Racing's two GT2 C6.Rs also led most of the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, but both cars were forced to retire. Racing in the new GTE Pro class, the C6.R raced in the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans with the No. 73 car taking the class victory. The No. 74 car led the class for most of the race but crashed in the morning hours. The C6.R raced by Larbre Competition also took the GTE Am class victory. In 2012, Corvette Racing returned to glory in the ALMS winning 4 of 10 races and claiming the Driver's, Team, and Manufacturer's Championships. Corvette Racing repeated the feat in 2013 by winning 5 of 10 races and claiming the Driver's, Team, and Manufacturer's Championships again.
C7.R
In 2014, Corvette Racing introduced the new C7.R to coincide with the launch of the seventh-generation C7 Corvette. The car made its on track debut at the 2013 Rolex Motorsports Reunion and later participated in the 2014 Roar Before the Rolex 24 to prepare for the 2014 United SportsCar Championship. The car's new livery was debuted at the 2014 North American International Auto Show. In 2015, the Corvette Racing C7.R took class victories at both the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 24 Hours of Le Mans.
C8.R
In October 2019, at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, the C8.R made its surprise debut during the world premiere of the C8 Convertible. Two cars took part in the 2020 Rolex 24 at Daytona International Speedway. The cars placed 4th and 7th in the GTLM Class. For the 2022 model year, Chevrolet offered a C8.R inspired IMSA GTLM Special Edition package for the production Corvette Stringray.
Indianapolis 500 pace cars
The Indianapolis 500 race has used a Corvette as its pace car 18 times. The 2008 running of the Indy 500 represented a record fifth-consecutive year to lead the field until 2009 when the Chevrolet Camaro SS was selected. The Corvette's pace car years and details include:
1978 – Driven by 1960 race winner Jim Rathmann; Chevrolet produced 6,502 production replicas.
1986 – Driven by famed pilot Chuck Yeager; all 7,315 production convertibles were considered pace car convertibles and included official graphics (to be installed at the owner's discretion).
1995 – Driven by then-Chevrolet General Manager Jim Perkins; 527 production replicas produced.
1998 – Driven by 1963 race winner Parnelli Jones after an injury prevented golfer Greg Norman from performing the duty; 1,158 production replicas produced.
2002 – Driven by actor Jim Caviezel; no production replicas produced, but graphics were available by special order. About 300 sets sold.
2004 – Driven by actor Morgan Freeman; no production replicas produced.
2005 – Driven by General Colin Powell; no production replicas produced.
2006 – Driven by cycling champion Lance Armstrong; first Corvette Z06 pace car; no production replicas produced.
2007 – Driven by actor Patrick Dempsey; 500 production replicas – all convertibles.
2008 – Driven by Emerson Fittipaldi; 500 production replicas – coupes and convertibles.
2012 – Driven by Guy Fieri; first Corvette C6 ZR1 pace car; no production replicas produced.
2013 – Driven by Jim Harbaugh; first year of production for C7 generation.
2015 – Driven by Jeff Gordon; first Chevrolet Corvette C7 Z06 pace car
2017 – Driven by actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan; 2017 Grand Sport Convertible
2018 - Driven by professional basketball player Victor Oladipo. Chevrolet Corvette C7 ZR1; no production replicas produced.
2019 - Driven by NBC Sports broadcaster Dale Earnhardt, Jr. Last year of production for C7 generation; no production replicas produced.
2020 - Driven by GM President Mark Reuss. 2020 Corvette Stingray Torch Red Coupe. No production replicas produced.
See also
Chevrolet Engineering Research Vehicle
Kaiser Darrin, prototype in 1952, 435 built for 1954 model year
Nash-Healey, 1951–1954
National Corvette Museum
VH1 Corvette Give-away Sweepstakes (also known as the "VH1 Collection", 36 Corvettes, one for each model year, 1953-1989)
CorvetteForum, the largest Corvette enthusiasts' club in the world
Notes
References
Nichols, Richard. Corvette: 1953 to the Present. London: Bison Books, 1985. .
Further media
Videos
External links
Chevrolet Corvette (North American site)
Chevrolet Corvette (European site)
1950s cars
1960s cars
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
Bowling Green, Kentucky
Corvette
Coupés
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Roadsters
Hatchbacks
Cars introduced in 1953
Flagship vehicles | [
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] |
221008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20law%20schools | Lists of law schools | This lists of law schools is organized by world region and then country.
Africa
Egypt
Law schools in Egypt
Ghana
Ghana School of Law
Liberia
Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law, University of Liberia
Nigeria
Nigerian Law School
Edwin Clark University Faculty of Law
Abia State University Faculty of Law
Adekunle Ajasin University Faculty of Law
Ahmadu Bello University Faculty of Law
Ambrose Alli University Faculty of Law
Anambra State University Faculty of Law
Bayero University Faculty of Law
Benue State University Faculty of Law
Delta State University Faculty of Law
Ebonyi State University Faculty of Law
Enugu State University Faculty of Law
Igbinedion University Faculty of Law
Imo State University Faculty of Law
Kogi State University Faculty of Law
Lagos State University Faculty of Law
Madonna University Faculty of Law
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Faculty of Law
Obafemi Awolowo University Faculty of Law
Olabisi Onabanjo University Faculty of Law
Rivers State University Faculty of Law
University of Abuja Faculty of Law
Ekiti State University Faculty of Law
University of Benin Faculty of Law
University of Calabar Faculty of Law
University of Ibadan Faculty of Law
University of Ilorin Faculty of Law
University of Jos Faculty of Law
University of Lagos Faculty of Law
University of Maiduguri Faculty of Law
University of Nigeria Faculty of Law
University of Uyo Faculty of Law
Usman Danfodiyo University Faculty of Law
Niger Delta University Faculty of Law
Babcock University Faculty of Law
Nasarawa State University Faculty of Law
Benson Idahosa University Faculty of Law
Osun State University Faculty of Law
Afe Babalola University Faculty of Law
Umaru Musa Yar'adua University Katsina Faculty of Law
Justice Fati Lami Abubakar law school, Minna
South Africa
List of law schools in South Africa
Uganda
List of law schools in Uganda
Asia
China
List of law schools in China
Hong Kong
List of law schools in Hong Kong
India
List of law schools in India
Indonesia
Padjadjaran University
University of Indonesia
Gadjah Mada University
Airlangga University
Medan Area University
Muhammadiyah University of North Sumatera
Atma Jaya Catholic University
Iraq
List of law schools in Iraq
Israel
List of law schools in Israel
Japan
Macau
List of law schools in Macau
Malaysia
Public universities
University of Malaya (UM)
MARA University of Technology (UiTM)
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)
National University of Malaysia (UKM)
University of North Malaysia (UUM)
Sultan Zainal Abidin University (UniSZA)
Islamic Science University of Malaysia (USIM)
Private universities and colleges
Advanced Tertiary College
Brickfield Asia College
KDU University College
HELP University
Multimedia University (MMU)
Taylor's University
INTI International University
Myanmar
Dagon University
Mandalay University
Yangon University
Yangon University of Distance Education
Pakistan
List of law schools in Pakistan
Philippines
List of law schools in the Philippines
Singapore
National University of Singapore - NUS Faculty of Law
Singapore Management University - Yong Pung How School of Law
Singapore University of Social Sciences - SUSS School of Law
South Korea
Law school in South Korea
Sri Lanka
Faculty of Law, University of Colombo
University of Peradeniya
Open University of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Law College
University of Jaffna
Taiwan
List of law schools in Taiwan
Thailand
Faculty of Law, Chulalongkorn University
Faculty of Law, Thammasat University
Faculty of Law, Ramkhamhaeng University
Faculty of Law, Chiang Mai University
Department of Law, Kasetsart University
Vietnam
Ho Chi Minh City University of Law
University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City
Hanoi Law University
Uzbekistan
Tashkent State University of Law
Australia and New Zealand
List of law schools in Australia
List of law schools in New Zealand
Europe
Armenia
Yerevan State University - Faculty of Law
American University of Armenia
French University in Armenia - Faculty of law
Austria
Johannes Kepler University - Faculty of Law, Linz
Karl-Franzens-Universität, Graz
Universität Salzburg - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Salzburg
University of Innsbruck - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Innsbruck
University of Vienna - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Vienna
Azerbaijan
Baku State University, Law School
Belgium
College of Europe - Law Department, Bruges (only postgraduate)
Ghent University - Faculty of Law, Ghent
Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven - Faculty of Law, Leuven
Saint-Louis University, Brussels - Faculty of Law, Brussels
University of Antwerp - Faculty of Law, Antwerp
University of Hasselt - Faculty of Law, Hasselt
University of Liège - Faculty of Law, Political Science and Criminology, Liège
UCLouvain - Faculty of Law and Criminology, Louvain-la-Neuve
University of Namur - Faculty of Law, Namur
Vrije Universiteit Brussel - Faculty of Law and Criminology, Brussels
Bosnia and Herzegovina
University of Banja Luka - Faculty of Law
University of Mostar Faculty of Law
University of Sarajevo Faculty of Law
University of Tuzla - Faculty of Law
Croatia
University of Osijek - Faculty of Law
University of Rijeka - Faculty of Law
University of Split - Faculty of Law
University of Zagreb - Faculty of Law
Czech Republic
Charles University in Prague - Faculty of Law
Masaryk University of Brno - Faculty of Law
Palacký University of Olomouc Faculty of Law
University of West Bohemia - Faculty of Law
Denmark
Copenhagen Business School - Law Department
University of Copenhagen - Faculty of Law
University of Aarhus - School of Law
University of Southern Denmark - Faculty of Social Sciences, Odense
University of Aalborg - Department of Law
Estonia
Tallinn University of Technology Tallinn Law School
University of Tartu - Faculty of Law
Tallinn University - Law School
Finland
University of Helsinki - Faculty of Law
University of Lapland - Faculty of Law, Rovaniemi
University of Turku - Faculty of Law
University of Eastern Finland - Department of Law, Joensuu
France
List of law schools in France
List of faculties of law in France
Collège de droit in France
Germany
Bucerius Law School, Hamburg
Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Freie Universität Berlin
Friedrich-Alexander-Universität - Law School, in Erlangen and Nuremberg
Friedrich-Schiller-Universität - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover - Faculty of Law
Heidelberg University Faculty of Law, University of Heidelberg
Heinrich Heine University - Faculty of Law, Düsseldorf
Humboldt University of Berlin
Institute for Law and Finance, Frankfurt
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität - Fachbereich Rechtswissenschaft, Frankfurt
Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz - Faculty of Law
Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg - Juristische Fakultät
Justus-Liebig-Universität - Department of Law, Giessen
Leipzig University - Faculty of Law
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg - Juristische und Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Philipps-Universität Marburg
Ruhr-Universität Bochum - Juristische Fakultät
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg - Juristische Fakultät
Universität Augsburg - Law School
Universität Bayreuth - Rechtswissenschaften Fakultäten
Universität Bielefeld - Rechtswissenschaften Fakultäten
Universität Bremen - Fachbereich Rechtswissenschaft
Universität des Saarlandes - Faculty of Law and Economics
Universität Trier - Rechtswissenschaft
University of Bonn
University of Cologne
University of Freiburg
University of Göttingen
University of Greifswald Faculty of Business and Law, Greifswald
University of Hagen - Faculty of Law
University of Hamburg
Universität Konstanz - Faculty of Law, Economics and Politics
Universität Mannheim - Fakultät für Rechtswissenschaft und Volkswirtschaftslehre
University of Münster
University of Osnabrück - Faculty of Law
University of Passau - Faculty of Law
University of Potsdam - Faculty of Law
Universität Regensburg - Juristische Fakultät
University of Rostock - Faculty of Law
University of Tübingen - Faculty of Law
Hungary
Central European University- Legal Studies Department, Budapest
Eötvös Loránd University - Faculty of Law, Budapest
University of Miskolc - Faculty of Law
University of Szeged - Faculty of Law
University of Debrecen - Faculty of Law
Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary - Faculty of Law
Pázmány Péter Catholic University - Faculty of Law and Political Sciences
University of Pécs - Faculty of Law
Széchenyi István University - Deák Ferenc Faculty of Law and Political Sciences
Iceland
University of Reykjavik - School of Law
University of Iceland - Faculty of Law
Ireland
List of law schools in the Republic of Ireland
Italy
Kosovo
University of Pristina - Faculty of Law (Pristina)
Latvia
List of law schools in Latvia
Lithuania
List of law schools in Lithuania
Luxembourg
Université de Luxembourg - Département de Droit
Malta
University of Malta - Faculty of Laws
International Maritime Law Institute (IMLI)
Montenegro
University of Montenegro Faculty of Law (Podgorica, Budva, Bijelo Polje)
University "Mediterranean" - Faculty of Law (Podgorica)
Netherlands
Amsterdam Law School
Erasmus University Rotterdam - School of Law
Hague Academy of International Law - The Hague
Leiden University - Faculty of Law
Maastricht University - Faculty of Law
Radboud University Nijmegen - Faculty of Law
Tilburg University - Faculty of Law
University of Amsterdam - Faculty of Law
University of Groningen - Faculty of Law
Utrecht University - Faculty of Law
Vrije University Amsterdam - Faculty of Law
North Macedonia
European University-Republic of Macedonia - Faculty of Law (Skopje)
FON University - Faculty of Law (Skopje)
Goce Delčev University of Štip - Faculty of Law (Skopje)
Ss. Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje - Faculty of Law
International University of Struga (Struga)
State University of Tetovo - Faculty of Law
Norway
University of Bergen - Faculty of Law
University of Oslo - Faculty of Law
University of Tromsø - Faculty of Law
Poland
List of law schools in Poland
Portugal
University of Coimbra
Portuguese Catholic University, Lisbon and Oporto
University of Lisbon
University of Minho, Braga
University of Porto
New University of Lisbon
Universidade Lusíada de Lisboa
Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias
Universidade Portucalense Infante Dom Henrique, Porto
Russia
Academic Law University under the auspices of the Institute of State and Law, Russian Academy of Sciences
Bashkir State University - Institute of Law
Baikal State University of Economics and Law
Chelyabinsk State University - Faculty of Law
Finance University under the Government of the Russian Federation - Faculty of Law
Higher School of Economics - Faculty of Law
Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law
Irkutsk State University - Faculty of Law
Kazan Federal University - Faculty of Law
Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law
Kutafin Moscow State Law University
Moscow State Institute of International Relations - International Law School
Moscow State University Faculty of Law
Novosibirsk State University - Institute for the Philosophy and Law
Petrozavodsk State University - Faculty of Law
Russian Peoples' Friendship University - Faculty of Law
Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration – Institute of Law and National Security
Russian State University for the Humanities - Faculty of Law
Russian School of Private Law
Ryazan State University - Faculty of Law
Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University - Faculty of Law
Saint Petersburg State University, Faculty of Law
Saratov State Academy of Law
Siberian Federal University - Institute of Law
State University of Management - Institute of Public Administration and Law
South Ural State University - Faculty of Law
Tomsk State University - Institute of Law
Tyumen State University - Faculty of Law
Ural State Law University
Voronezh State University - Faculty of Law
Serbia
Belgrade Law School
Novi Sad Law School
Niš Law School
University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Law
University of Priština, Faculty of Law in North Mitrovica
Union University, Faculty of Law (Belgrade)
Megatrend University, Faculty of Law (Belgrade)
Slovakia
List of law schools in Slovakia
Slovenia
University of Ljubljana - Faculty of Law
University of Maribor - Faculty of Law
Spain
University of Castilla–La Mancha - Facultad de Derecho, Albacete
Universidad de Allicante - Facultad de Derecho, San Vicente del Raspeig
Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona - Facultad de Derecho
Universitat de Barcelona - Facultad de Dret
Universitat Pompeu Fabra - Facultad de Dret, Barcelona
Universidad de Deusto - Facultad de Derecho, Bilbao
Universidad de Extremadura - Facultad de Derecho, Cáceres
Universitat Jaume I - Facultad de Ciències Jurídiques i Econòmiques, Castellón
Universidad de Cordoba - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad del Pais Vasco - Facultad de Derecho, Donostia - San Sebastián
Universitat de Girona - Facultad de Dret
Universidad de Granada - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad de Cadiz, Facultad de Derecho, Jerez de la Frontera
Universidade da Coruña - Facultad de Dereito
Universidad de La Laguna - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria - Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas, Las Palmas
Universidad de León - Facultad de Derecho
Universitat de Lleida - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Autonoma de Madrid - Facultad de Derecho, Madrid
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Complutense de Madrid - Facultad de Derecho, Madrid
Universidad de Alcalá - Facultad de Derecho, Madrid
Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Pontifica de Comillas - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad de Malaga - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Miguel Hernández - Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas, Elche
Universidad de Murcia - Facultad de Derecho
University of Navarra School of Law, Pamplona
Universidade de Vigo - Facultad de Derecho, Orense
Universidad de Oviedo - Facultad de Derecho
Universitat de les Illes Balears - Facultad de Dret, Palma, Spain
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos - Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales, Madrid; Móstoles; Fuenlabrada; Aranjuez
Universitat Rovira i Virgili - Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas, Tarragona
Universidad de Salamanca - Facultad de Derecho, Salamanca
Universidad de Cantabria - Facultad de Derecho, Santander, Spain
Universidade de Santiago de Compostela - Facultad de Dereito
Universidad de Sevilla - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Pablo de Olavide - School of Law, Sevilla
Universitat de Valencia - Facultad de Derecho
Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad de Valladolid
Universidad de Zaragoza - Facultad de Derecho
Sweden
List of law schools in Sweden
Switzerland
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva (only Postgraduate)
Universität St.Gallen - Law School
Universität Basel - Juristische Fakultät
Universität Bern - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Université de Fribourg / Universität Freiburg - Faculté de droit / Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Université de Genève - Faculté de droit
Université de Lausanne - Faculté de droit, des sciences criminelles et d'administration publique
Universität Luzern - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Université de Neuchâtel - Faculté de droit
Universität Zürich - Rechtswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Turkey
List of law schools in Turkey
Ukraine
List of law schools in Ukraine
United Kingdom
List of law faculties in the United Kingdom
Latin America and the Caribbean
Bahamas
University of the West Indies - Eugene Dupuch Law School
Barbados
University of the West Indies
Brazil
List of law schools in Brazil
Cayman Islands
Cayman Islands Law School (School of Law)
Chile
Universidad de Chile - Facultad de Derecho
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile - Facultad de Derecho
Universidad Adolfo Ibañez - Facultad de Derecho
Costa Rica
Universidad de Costa Rica (School of Law)
Universidad Autónoma de Centro América (School of Law)
Universidad de San José (University with a Faculty of Law)
Ecuador
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador (School of Law)
Universidad Catolica Santiago de Guayaquil (School of Law)
Universidad Central del Ecuador (School of Law)
Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Santo (School of Law)
Universidad San Francisco de Quito (College of Law)
Universidad Del Pacifico - Ecuador (School of Law)
Jamaica
University of the West Indies - Norman Manley Law School
Panama
Universidad Latinoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnología (School of Law)
Trinidad and Tobago
University of the West Indies - Hugh Wooding Law School
North America
List of law schools in Canada
List of law schools in the United States
List of law schools in Mexico
See also
Legal education
Lists of universities and colleges
Madrasa
References
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221012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby-class%20corvette | Visby-class corvette | The Visby class is a warship in use by the Swedish Navy. It is the latest class of corvette adopted by the navy after the and corvettes. Its design emphasizes low visibility radar cross-section and infrared signature, and the class has received widespread international attention because of its capabilities as a stealth ship.
The first ship in the class is named after Visby, the main city on the island of Gotland.
The Visby ships are designed by Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV) and built by Kockums AB in Karlskrona. The first ship of the class was launched in 2000, but production then suffered repeated delays. The fifth and last ship was delivered in 2015.
In 2021, an order was placed for the development of a second generation of evolved Visby corvettes
Design
The hull is constructed with a sandwich design consisting of a PVC core with a carbon fibre and vinyl laminate (see also the Oceanic-Creations spin-off). There are multiple advantages to using composite materials in ship hulls. Good conductivity and surface flatness means a low radar signature, while good heat insulation lowers the infrared signature and increases survivability in case of fire. The composite sandwich used is also non-magnetic, which lowers the magnetic signature. Composites are also very strong for their relative weight, and less weight means a higher top speed and better maneuverability. The composite weighs roughly 50% less than the equivalent strength steel.
Visbys angular tumblehome design reduces its radar signature. Jan Nilsson, one of the designers, told BBC News Online: "We are able to reduce the radar cross-section by 99%. That doesn't mean it's 99% invisible, it means that we have reduced its detection range." The 57 mm cannon barrel can be folded into the turret to reduce its cross-section. There are plans for additional improvements in this area, especially for the deck rails and masts.
History
Much of the design was based on the experiences learned from the experimental ship HSwMS Smyge. The class was originally designed to be divided into two subcategories where the last ship was optimized for surface combat and 4 others for submarine hunting; however, this was changed due to cutbacks.
A helicopter, such as the Agusta Westland A109M selected by Sweden, can land, take off, and refuel on the upper deck. A helicopter hangar was originally planned but was considered to be too cramped and was removed.
The ships took an exceptionally long time from launch to delivery and the construction has been fraught with repeated delays. In 2008, the only weapons system that had been integrated and tested in Visby was the gun.
Finally, on 16 December 2009, the next two of the corvettes were delivered to the Swedish Navy by the Försvarets materielverk (FMV). The two ships, K32 and K33, were delivered with underwater and surface/air sensors fully integrated. However, the only weapon that had been integrated and test-fired on the ships was still the Bofors 57 Mk3 gun. The FMV calls this version 4, which aims to get the ships into service and start training crews.
Version 5 is due in 2012 and is intended to supplement the ships with mine clearance systems, helicopter landing capability (only K31 is certified to date), anti-surface ship missiles, and additional stealth adaptation. Visby was the first of the corvettes to be upgraded to Version 5. On 22 March 2012 FMV reported that the ship had been modified and that the system would be tested before reentering the Swedish Navy by the end of 2012.
Although the design of the ships originally called for the installation of surface-to-air missiles, on 18 September 2008 the Genomförandegruppen cancelled the project in order to rationalize the procurement of defence materiel for the Swedish defence.
Second Generation
In January 2021 Saab and the Swedish Defense Materiel Administration (FMV) signed two agreements for a mid-life upgrade of the current Visbys as well as the product definition phase for the next generation Visby Generation 2 corvettes.
Units
All systems for the ship Uddevalla were acquired, but the ship was later canceled, so there are now plans to build a full Visby class simulator.
PTK Visby, the lead ship of the class, is doing system tests and readying the ships for active service within the Swedish Navy. The formation is under the 3rd Naval Warfare Flotilla but takes its orders from the FMV. The system tests are taking a long time partly because of funding issues and partly because of the novel and cutting-edge nature of the platform.
Similar ships
Tuo Chiang stealth corvette (Taiwan)
(United Arab Emirates)
(Finland)
Type 022 missile boat (China)
Milgem-class corvette (Turkey)
(Norway)
Gallery
References
External links
Official builder's homepage (as of 2018)
Swedish navy page on the Visby trials
Naval-Technology - www.naval-technology.com
Corvette classes
2000s ships
Stealth ships | [
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221013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colmar | Colmar | Colmar (, ; Alsatian: ; German during 1871–1918 and 1940–1945: ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department and of the subprefecture of the Colmar-Ribeauvillé arrondissement.
The city is renowned for its well-preserved old town, its numerous architectural landmarks, and its museums, among which is the Unterlinden Museum, which houses the Isenheim Altarpiece.
Colmar is situated on the Alsatian Wine Route and considers itself to be the "capital of Alsatian wine" ().
History
Colmar was first mentioned by Charlemagne in his chronicle about Saxon wars. This was the location where the Carolingian Emperor Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. Colmar was granted the status of a free imperial city by Emperor Frederick II in 1226. In 1354 it joined the Décapole city league. The city adopted the Protestant Reformation in 1575, long after the northern neighbours of Strasbourg and Sélestat. During the Thirty Years' War, it was taken by the Swedish army in 1632, which held it for two years. In 1634, the Schoeman family arrived and started the first town library. In 1635, the city's harvest was spoiled by Imperialist forces while the residents shot at them from the walls.
The city was conquered by France under King Louis XIV in 1673 and officially ceded by the 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen. In 1854 a cholera epidemic killed many in the city. With the rest of Alsace, Colmar was annexed by the newly formed German Empire in 1871 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War and incorporated into the Alsace-Lorraine province. It returned to France after World War I according to the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1940, and then reverted to French control after the battle of the "Colmar Pocket" in 1945. Colmar has been continuously governed by conservative parties since 1947, the Popular Republican Movement (1947–1977), the Union for French Democracy (1977–1995) and the Union for a Popular Movement (since 1995), and has had only three mayors during that time.
The Colmar Treasure, a hoard of precious objects hidden by Jews during the Black Death, was discovered here in 1863.
Geography
Colmar is south-southwest of Strasbourg, at 48.08°N, 7.36°E, on the Lauch River, a tributary of the Ill. It is located directly to the east of the Vosges and connected to the Rhine in the east by a canal.
In 2017, the city had a municipal population of 69,105, and the metropolitan area of Colmar had a population of 131,639 in 2016. Colmar is the center of the arrondissement of Colmar-Ribeauvillé, which had 211,312 inhabitants in 2017.
Climate
Colmar features an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), but the latter is significantly modified by the city's far inland position with cold, dry winters and warm to hot, wetter summers.
The city has a sunny microclimate and is one of the driest cities in France, with an annual precipitation of just , making it ideal for Alsace wine. It is considered the capital of the Alsatian wine region.
The dryness results from the town's location next to mountains, which force clouds arriving from the west to rise, and much of their moisture to condense and fall as precipitation over the higher ground, leaving the air warmed and dried by the time it reaches Colmar.
The city is therefore closer to a continental climate and winter and summer temperatures can sometimes be the coldest or hottest in France.
Population
Main sights
Mostly spared from the destructions of the French Revolution and the wars of 1870–1871, 1914–1918 and 1939–1945, the cityscape of old-town Colmar is homogenous and renowned among tourists. An area that is crossed by canals of the river Lauch (which formerly served as the butcher's, tanner's and fishmonger's quarter) is now called "little Venice" ().
Architectural landmarks
Colmar's secular and religious architectural landmarks reflect eight centuries of Germanic and French architecture and the adaptation of their respective stylistic language to the local customs and building materials (pink and yellow Vosges sandstone, timber framing).
Secular buildings
Maison Adolph – 14th century (German Gothic)
Koïfhus, also known as Ancienne Douane – 1480 (German Gothic)
Maison Pfister – 1537 (German Renaissance).
Ancien Corps de garde – 1575 (German Renaissance)
Maison des Chevaliers de Saint-Jean – 1608 (German Renaissance)
Maison des Têtes – 1609 (German Renaissance)
Poêle des laboureurs – 1626 (German Baroque)
Ancien Hôpital – 1736–1744 (French Classicism)
Tribunal de grande instance – 1771 (French Classicism)
Hôtel de ville – 1790 (French Classicism)
Colmar prison – 1791, formerly a convent built in 1316.
Cour d'Assises – 1840 (French Neoclassicism)
Théâtre municipal – 1849 (French Neoclassicism)
Marché couvert – 1865 (French Neo-Baroque). The city's covered market, built in stone, bricks and cast iron, still serves today.
Préfecture – 1866 (French Neo-Baroque)
Water tower – 1886. Oldest still preserved water tower in Alsace. Out of use since 1984.
Gare SNCF – 1905 (German Neo-Baroque)
Cour d'appel – 1906 (German Neo-Baroque)
Religious buildings
– 1234–1365. The largest church of Colmar and one of the largest in Haut-Rhin. Displays some early stained glass windows, several Gothic and Renaissance sculptures and altars, a grand Baroque organ case. The choir is surrounded by an ambulatory opening on a series of Gothic chapels, a unique feature in Alsatian churches.
– 1289–1364. Now disaffected as a church, displays Martin Schongauer's masterwork La Vierge au buisson de roses as well as 14th century stained glass windows and baroque choir stalls. The adjacent convent buildings house a section of the municipal library.
– 13th century. Gothic and Renaissance stained glass windows and mural paintings, as well as a wooden and painted ceiling.
– 13th century. Disaffected church and convent buildings notable for a richly ornate cloister. Now housing the Unterlinden Museum (see below).
– 1371. Disaffected church and convent buildings now used as an assembly hall and festival venue ().
– 1742–1750. Classicist chapel of a former Jesuit college.
Synagogue – 1843 (Neoclassicism)
Fountains
– 1864 (Statue by Bartholdi)
– 1888 (Statue by Bartholdi)
– 1898 (Statue by Bartholdi)
Monuments
– 1856 (first shown 1855 in Paris. Statue by Bartholdi, his earliest major work)
– 1894 (Statue by Bartholdi)
Statue − 1902 (in the courtyard of the Bartholdi Museum)
Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) replica
Museums
Unterlinden Museum – one of the main museums in Alsace. Displays the Isenheim Altarpiece, a large collection of medieval, Renaissance and baroque Upper-Rhenish paintings and sculptures, archaeological artefacts, design and international modern art.
Musée Bartholdi – the birthplace of Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi shows his life and work through paintings, drawings, family objects and furniture as well as numerous plaster, metal and stone sculptures. A section of the museum is further dedicated to the local Jewish community's heritage.
– the zoological and ethnographic museum of Colmar was founded in 1859. Besides a large collection of taxidermied animals, and artefacts from former French and German colonies in Africa and Polynesia, it also houses a collection of ancient Egyptian items.
– the town's toy museum, founded 1993.
– industrial and technological museum in a former factory, dedicated to the history of everyday technology.
Library
The Municipal Library of Colmar () owns one of the richest collections of incunabula in France, with more than 2,300 volumes. This is quite an exceptional number for a city that is neither the main seat of a university, nor of a college, and has its explanation in the dissolution of local monasteries, abbeys and convents during the French Revolution and the subsequent gift of their collections to the town.
Transport
The small regional Colmar Airport serves Colmar.
The railway station Gare de Colmar offers connections to Strasbourg, Mulhouse, Besançon, Zürich and several regional destinations. Colmar was also once linked to Freiburg im Breisgau, in Germany and on the other side of the Rhine, by the Freiburg–Colmar international railway. However the railway bridge over the Rhine between Breisach and Neuf-Brisach was destroyed in 1945 and never replaced.
Education
Senior high schools in Colmar include:
Lycée Camille Sée
Lycée polyvalent Blaise Pascal
Lycée polyvalent Martin Schongauer
Lycée privé Saint-André
Lycée professionnel privé Saint-Jean
École privée Mathias Grunewald
Colmar shares the (Upper Alsace University) with the neighbouring, larger city of Mulhouse. Of the approximately 8,000 students of the UHA, around 1,500 study at the (IUT) Colmar, at the Colmar branch of the and at the (UFR PEPS).
The École Compleméntaire Pour L'Enseignement Japonaise a Colmar (コルマール補習授業校 Korumāru Hoshū Jugyō Kō), a part-time supplementary Japanese school, is held in Colmar. At one time classes were held at the Centre Cultural de Seijo.
Music
Since 1980, Colmar is home to an international summer festival of classical music (also known as ). In its first version (1980 to 1989), it was placed under the artistic direction of the German conductor Karl Münchinger. Since 1989, it is helmed by the Russian violinist and conductor Vladimir Spivakov.
Economy
Colmar is an affluent city whose primary economic strength lies in the flourishing tourist industry. But it is also the seat of several large companies: Timken (European seat), Liebherr (French seat), Leitz (French seat), Capsugel France (A division of Pfizer).
Every year since 1947, Colmar is host to what is now considered as the biggest annual commercial event as well as the largest festival in Alsace, the Foire aux vins d'Alsace (Alsacian wine fair).
When Air Alsace existed, its head office was on the grounds of Colmar Airport.
Parks and recreation
By 1991 Lycée Seijo, a Japanese boarding high school in Kientzheim, had established a Japanese cultural center. It housed books and printed materials in Japan and hosted lectures and film screenings.
Notable people
Caspar Isenmann (1410? – 1484?), painter
Martin Schongauer (1450–1491), painter and engraver
Georg Wickram (1502–1562), poet and novelist
Jean-François Rewbell (1747–1807), diplomat and revolutionist
Jean Rapp (1771–1821), lieutenant general
Conrad Berg (1785–1852), composer
Charles Xavier Thomas (1785–1870), inventor
Marie Bigot (1786–1820), musician, pianist and composer, friend of Haydn and Beethoven
Armand Joseph Bruat (1796–1855), admiral
Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès (1812–1895), politician, killer of Alexander Pushkin in a duel
Auguste Nefftzer (1820–1876), journalist
Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi (1834–1904), sculptor, created Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty)
Camille Sée, (1847–1919), politician
Jean-Baptiste Lemire (1867–1945), composer
Jean-Jacques Waltz (1873–1951), drawer and caricaturist
Ernst Stadler (1883–1914), Alsatian poet
Paul Wormser (1905–1944), Olympic epee fencer
Hans Loewald (1906–1993), psychoanalyst and theorist
Jean-Pierre Muller (1924–2008), Olympic epee fencer
Bernard Schmitt (economist) (1929–2014), economist and founder of the "Quantum Economics"
Guy Roux (born 1938), football coach
Pierre Moerlen (1952–2005), musician, drummer and composer
Pierre Hermé (born 1961), confectioner, entrepreneur and pastry chef
Thomas Bloch (born 1962), musician
Éric Straumann (born 1964), politician
Pascal Elbé (born 1967), actor, director and screenwriter
Marc Keller (born 1968), football player
Cendrine Wolf (born 1969), children's author
Pascal Johansen (born 1979), football player
Amaury Bischoff (born 1987), football player
Fabien Schmidt (born 1989), professional cyclist
Ryad Boudebouz (born 1990), Algerian-French footballer
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Colmar is twinned with:
Schongau, Bavaria, Germany (1962)
Lucca, Italy (1962)
Princeton, United States (1986)
Győr, Hungary (1993)
Sint-Niklaas, Belgium (1962)
Vale of White Horse, England, United Kingdom (1978)
Eisenstadt, Austria (1983)
Replicas of historical buildings in Malaysia
Bukit Tinggi Resort Colmar Tropicale which is situated in Bentong district, State of Pahang, Malaysia is a resort-theme historical village inspires from the original Colmar commune in France. Colmar Tropicale located 60 km north-east of Kuala Lumpur.
North of it, a rebuild of Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg is in the Berjaya Hills, hosting an organic resort hotel.
In popular culture
Colmar's cityscape (and that of neighbouring Riquewihr) served as inspiration for the design of the Japanese animated film Howl's Moving Castle. Scenes in the anime Is the Order a Rabbit? are also based on this location.
See also
List of mayors of Colmar
References
External links
Official website of the city of Colmar
Wine domain of the city of Colmar
Tourist office of Colmar
Colmar Music Festival
Communes of Haut-Rhin
Décapole
Free imperial cities
Populated places established in the 9th century
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221024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eek | Eek | Eek or EEK may refer to:
People
Karl Morten Eek (born 1988), Norwegian footballer
Maria Magdalena Eek (1733–1800), Finnish pastry chef
Places
Eek, Alaska
Eek Airport, Alaska
Eek River, Alaska
Other uses
Estonian kroon, a former currency of Estonia
Workers Revolutionary Party (Greece) (Greek: )
Eek, a character in the animated television series Eek! The Cat
E484K (nicknamed "Eek"), a variant of SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19)
See also
EKE (disambiguation)
Eek-A-Mouse (born 1957), Jamaican reggae musician | [
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] |
221025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HRK | HRK | HRK may refer to:
HRK (gene), a human gene
Croatian kuna, the currency of Croatia
German Rectors' Conference (German: )
Haruku language, spoken in Indonesia
Heidelberger RK, a German rowing club
Heinz Rudolf Kunze (born 1956), German singer and writer
Hirok railway station, in Balochistan, Pakistan
Kharkiv International Airport, in Ukraine | [
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221026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabre%20d%27%C3%89glantine | Fabre d'Églantine | Philippe François Nazaire Fabre d'Églantine (28 July 1750 – 5 April 1794), commonly known as Fabre d'Églantine (), was a French actor, dramatist, poet, and politician of the French Revolution.
He is best known for having invented the names of the months in the French Republican calendar, and for the song Il pleut, il pleut, bergère which is still a popular nursery rhyme today.
Early life
He was born in Carcassonne, Aude. His surname was Fabre, the d'Églantine being added in commemoration of his receiving a silver wild rose () from Clémence Isaure from the Academy of the Jeux Floraux at Toulouse. He married Marie Strasbourg Nicole Godin on 9 November 1778. His earliest works included the poem Étude de la nature, "The Study of Nature", in 1783. After travelling in the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, where he produced an unsuccessful comedy entitled Les Gens de lettres, ou Le provincial à Paris (1787).
A tragedy, Augusta, produced at the Théâtre Français, also proved a failure. Many of his plays were popular and he is remarked as one of the most important playwrights during the French Revolution. His most popular play was: Philinte, ou La suite du Misanthrope (1790), supposed to be a continuation of Molière's Le Misanthrope, but the hero of the piece is a different character from the nominal prototype —a pure and simple egotist. On its publication, the play was introduced by a preface, in which the author satirises L'Optimiste of his rival Jean François Collin d'Harleville, whose Châteaux en Espagne had gained the applause which Fabre's Présomptueux (1789) had failed to win. The character of Philinte had much political significance. The play's character Alceste received the highest praise, and stands for the patriot citizen, while Philinte is a dangerous aristocrat in disguise.
Fabre constructed the play to represent what he envisioned as the new relationship between theater and society. Not only did Fabre believe that Old Regime society was bankrupt, Old Regime comedy was viewed by the budding playwright as equally without value. Fabre d’Eglantine believed that he could fashion a place for theater in revolutionary culture and redeem French drama by developing a new form of theater that would promote the new social order of equality and fraternity. He found his justification and framework in Rousseaus’s critique of theatricality and advocated transparency as the critical transformative element that could generate theater worthy of and in keeping with revolutionary culture. As envisioned by Fabre, evolutionary political institutions would not shape theater; rather, a regenerated revolutionary theatrical culture would redeem the work of art, generating a new, revolutionary society.
Political activity
Fabre served as president and secretary of the club of the Cordeliers, and belonged also to the Jacobin Club. Georges Danton chose Fabre as his private secretary, and he sat in the National Convention of 1792-1794. D'Églantine voted for the death of King Louis XVI, supporting the maximum and a law which allowed for summary executions, and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins.
After the death of Jean-Paul Marat (13 July 1793), Fabre published Portrait de l'Ami du Peuple.
On the abolition of the Gregorian Calendar in France he sat on the committee entrusted with the creation of the French Republic's French Republican Calendar. The calendar was designed by the politician and agronomist Gilbert Romme, although it is usually attributed to Fabre d'Eglantine, who invented the names of the months. This Calendar featured a ten-day week so that Sunday would be forgotten as a religious day, and the months were named after the intrinsic qualities of the seasons. He contributed a large part of the new nomenclature; for example, the months of Prairial and Floréal, as well as the days Primidi and Duodi. The report which he made on the subject, on 24 October 1793, described the aim of the commission as "to substitute for visions of ignorance the realities of reason, and for sacerdotal prestige the truth of nature," to exalt "the agricultural system…by marking the days and the divisions of the year with intelligible or visible signs taken from agriculture and rural life.”
Execution and legacy
Early on the morning of 14 November 1793, the Montagnard and former friar François Chabot burst into Maximilien Robespierre's bedroom dragging him from bed with accusations of counter-revolution and conspiracy, waving a hundred thousand livres in assignat notes, claiming that a band of royalist plotters gave it to him to buy Fabre d'Eglantine's vote, along with others, to liquidate some stock in an overseas trading concern.
The fraud that he spoke of regarding Fabre had been carried out in early October, when the French East India Company had been liquidated in accordance with the anti-capitalist legislation of the summer. The decree had apparently been falsified so that the directors were blackmailed into turning over the half-million-livre profits of this exercise to the cabal of the Convention members responsible. In 1794, Robespierre had evidence of Fabre's criminality and he denounced Fabre for what he viewed as a particular heinous crime, criminality disguised by patriotism.
On 12 January 1794 Fabre was arrested by order of the Committee of Public Safety on a charge of malversation and forgery in connection with the affairs of the French East India Company. This struck a hard blow to the Montagnards and sent them on their way to extinction in the Convention. During his trial, d'Eglantine was asked to testify in his own defense and tried to twist the facts around, accusing other people, but was unsuccessful. According to legend, Fabre showed the greatest calmness and sang his own well-known song:
Il pleut, il pleut, bergère,rentre tes blancs moutons.
Fabre died under the guillotine on 5 April 1794 with the other Dantonists. On his way to the scaffold he distributed his handwritten poems to the people.
According to a popular legend, Fabre complained bitterly about the injustice done to him on the way to the scaffold, whereupon Danton replied with supreme sarcasm: "Des vers... Avant huit jours, tu en feras plus que tu n'en voudras!" ("Before eight days have passed, you'll make more of them than you would like to"), where "them" (vers) can be understood as either "verses" or "worms".
A posthumous play, Les Précepteurs, using the themes of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile: Or, On Education, was performed on 17 September 1794 and met with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre's other plays are the Convalescent de qualité (1791), and L'Intrigue épistolaire (1791, supposedly including a depiction of the painter Jean-Baptiste Greuze). The author's Œuvres mêlées et posthumes were first published at Paris in 1802 in two volumes.
Fictional accounts
Fabre appears as a major character in Hilary Mantel's A Place of Greater Safety, a novel about the French Revolution.
Fabre also appears as a secondary character in Emma Orczy's The Way of the Scarlet Pimpernel.
References
The Britannica cites as its sources:
Albert Maurin, Galerie hist. de la Révolution française, tome n
Jules Janin, Histoire de la littérature dramatique
André Chénier, Tableau de la littérature française; FA Aulard in the Nouvelle Revue (July 1885).
Andress, David. 2006. The Terror the merciless war for freedom in revolutionary France. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux
Linton, Marisa. 2013. Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Maslan, Susan. 2005. Revolutionary acts theater, democracy, and the French revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
Theirs, Adolphe. 1838 The History of the French Revolution. London: R. Bentley.
Notes
External links
Fabre d’Églantine: Rapport sur le calendrier révolutionnaire (in French)
Encyclopædia Britannica, Philippe Fabre d'Eglantine
1750 births
1794 deaths
People from Carcassonne
Deputies to the French National Convention
Regicides of Louis XVI
18th-century French dramatists and playwrights
French male stage actors
18th-century French male actors
Executed writers
French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution | [
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221028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plains-wanderer | Plains-wanderer | The plains-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) is a bird, the only representative of family Pedionomidae and genus Pedionomus. It is endemic to Australia. The majority of the remaining population is found in the Riverina region of New South Wales.
Description
The plains-wanderer is a quail-like ground bird, measuring 15–19 cm. It is such an atypical bird that it is placed in an entire family of its own, Pedionomidae.
The adult male is light brown above, with fawn-white underparts with black crescents. The adult female is substantially larger than the male, and has a distinctive white-spotted black collar. They have excellent camouflage, and will first hide at any disturbance. If approached too closely, they will run rather than fly, at which they are very poor. Females lay four eggs, which the male then incubates.
Taxonomy
It was formerly believed to be related to the buttonquails and thus placed in the gamebird order Galliformes or with the cranes and rails in Gruiformes. DNA-DNA hybridization and RAG-1 sequence data places it as a wader related to the jacanas (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990, Paton et al. 2003, Thomas et al. 2004, van Tuinen et al. 2004). It thus represents a remarkable case of morphological convergence, or perhaps it is simply extremely plesiomorphic in morphology (the buttonquails, meanwhile, having turned out to be a very basal offshoot of the wader radiation). In the latter case, this would mean that the jacanas, painted snipe and seedsnipes – all ecologically very different birds – all evolved from birds very similar to the living plains-wanderer.
Status and conservation
Population decline has been caused by the conversion of native grasslands to cultivation and intensive predation by the introduced fox — the species' ground-nesting habits, poor flying ability, and tendency to run rather than fly from predators make it easy prey for the introduced fox. Sites identified by BirdLife International as being important for plains-wanderer conservation are Boolcoomatta, Bindarrah and Kalkaroo Stations in north-eastern South Australia, Diamantina and Astrebla Grasslands in western Queensland, Patho Plains in northern Victoria and the Riverina Plains in New South Wales.
International
This bird is listed as Critically Endangered on the 2018 IUCN Red List.
Australia
Plains-wanderers are listed as Critically Endangered on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC). Their conservation status also varies from state to state within Australia. For example:
The plains-wanderer is listed as Critically Endangered on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988). Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared.
The plains-wanderer is listed as Endangered on Schedule 1 of the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (now Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016).
Conservation Efforts
A captive population was established in late-2018 within a purpose-built facility containing 30 aviaries at Taronga Western Plains Zoo in Dubbo. These captive individuals will form an insurance population as part of a breed-and-release program to support the wild population.
See also
Pualco Range Conservation Park
References
Further reading
Paton, T. A.; Baker, A. J.; Groth, J. G. & Barrowclough, G. F. (2003): RAG-1 sequences resolve phylogenetic relationships within charadriiform birds. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 29: 268–278. (HTML abstract)
Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward (1990): Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
Thomas, Gavin H.; Wills, Matthew A. & Székely, Tamás (2004): A supertree approach to shorebird phylogeny. BMC Evol. Biol. 4: 28. PDF fulltext Supplementary Material
van Tuinen, Marcel; Waterhouse, David & Dyke, Gareth J. (2004): Avian molecular systematics on the rebound: a fresh look at modern shorebird phylogenetic relationships. Journal of Avian Biology 35(3): 191–194. PDF fulltext
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet.
Thinocori
Endangered fauna of Australia
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Queensland
Birds of South Australia
Endemic birds of Australia
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to Australia
Birds described in 1841
Taxa named by John Gould | [
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221030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Washington%20Ship%20Canal | Lake Washington Ship Canal | The Lake Washington Ship Canal, which runs through the city of Seattle, connects the fresh water body of Lake Washington with the salt water inland sea of Puget Sound. The Hiram M. Chittenden Locks accommodate the approximately difference in water level between Lake Washington and the sound. The canal runs east–west and connects Union Bay, the Montlake Cut, Portage Bay, Lake Union, the Fremont Cut, Salmon Bay, and Shilshole Bay, which is part of the sound.
History
The ship canal project began in 1911 and was officially completed in 1934. Prior to construction of the Lake Washington Ship Canal, otherwise known as the Salmon Bay Waterway, water used to exit Lake Washington via the Black River which flowed from the south end of Lake Washington into the Duwamish River.
As early as 1854, there was discussion of building a navigable connection between Lake Washington and Puget Sound for the purpose of transporting logs, milled lumber, and fishing vessels. Thirteen years later, the United States Navy endorsed a canal project, which included a plan for building a naval shipyard on Lake Washington. In 1891 the US Army Corps of Engineers started planning the project. Some preliminary work was begun in 1906, and work began in earnest five years later. The delays in canal planning and construction resulted in the U.S. Navy building the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington, which is located across the Sound from Seattle.
Early efforts
For centuries, people had been dragging boats between the lakes, giving names like "carry a canoe" sxWátSadweehL to the crossing points. In 1854 Seattle pioneer Thomas Mercer proposed canals connecting Lake Union and Lake Washington to Puget Sound in a speech at the first Independence Day celebration of the Seattle area's first permanent white settlement, shortly after its founding. Mercer gave the lakes the names they are presently called, over the original Lushootseed names used by the Duwamish, tenas Chuck or XáXu7cHoo ("small great-amount-of-water") for Lake Union and hyas Chuck or Xacuabš ("great-amount-of-water") for Lake Washington. Lake Union was chosen to suggest the future canals merging the waters, and Lake Washington for George Washington.
In 1860 local landowner Harvey L. Pike tried to dig a ditch by himself with pick and shovel at Montlake to transport logs between Portage Bay and Union Bay, in the hopes of increasing the value of his property along the route. Giving up on digging the first Portage Canal himself, in 1871 he joined Thomas Burke and Daniel Gilman in incorporating the Lake Washington Canal Company, deeding his land to the company. Instead of finishing the canal, the company instead built a tramway to carry coal brought by barge across Lake Washington. In 1883, David Denny and Burke hired a crew of Chinese laborers to complete the canal at Montlake, creating a channel that included a lock, capable of floating logs down from Lake Washington to Lake Union.
The Army Corps of Engineers investigated Puget Sound for military defense purposes and chose Lake Washington as the best location for a Naval base, due to the security of the waters, proximity to supplies of fresh water, coal and timber, and the less corrosive effect on wooden ship hulls of a fresh water port. A report by Lieutenant Thomas H. Hardy of October 13, 1871, forwarded to Congress by Army General Barton S. Alexander of the Board of Engineers of the Pacific Coast said the coal fields of Seattle Coal and Transportation Company, two miles east of Lake Sammamish, supplied 1,500 tons per month of steam ship grade coal, and potentially twice this amount. The route directly across the narrowest part of Seattle, that is, Semple's Canal from Leschi straight across to present-day Harbor Island, was rejected in this report because of the 200 to 300 foot height of the hills that would have to be cut through. The route via the Black and Duwamish Rivers would be crooked and several miles in length, would let out into shoals rather than deep water, and would have to be frequently dredged to remove sand brought by river flooding. As to connecting Lake Union to Shilshole Bay—the route ultimately chosen—Gen. Alexander had "serious objections", including the expense and the need for dredging a channel, and that the canal line let out in shoal water that was exposed to heavy seas, and would be less defensible in wartime, being "exposed to the cannonade of an enemy". Alexander was less opposed to digging straight south from Salmon Bay through Interbay to Smith Cove, but would still terminate in shoals and be just as costly as his preferred route from Lake Union through Mercer's Farm into Elliott Bay, while being less defensible. The estimated cost for the project was $4.7 million.
In the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1902, Congress directed the Secretary of War to appoint a committee of three officers to study the feasibility of a canal and lock system to connect Puget Sound to Lake Washington. Lieutenant Colonel William H. Heuer, Captain William C. Langfitt and Lieutenant Robert P. Johnson met August, 1902 in Seattle and conducted a survey of possible routes. They examined the route of the Lake Washington Waterway Company, via Shilshole Bay, as well as a route from Lake Union to Smith Cove, the Montlake coal tramway, and Thomas Mercer's farm. In November 1902, a public meeting was called in the Chamber of Commerce hall, but was quickly adjourned because no one came to speak.
In 1906, as local debate over the location of the canals continued, and funding from Washington, D.C. was delayed, Seattle developer James A. Moore, known today for the Moore Theatre and Moore Haven, Florida, proposed a canal that could accommodate small ships, with two wooden locks connecting Salmon Bay to Shilshole Bay. Moore secured Congressional approval for his project, granting him rights to build. In April of the same year, Hiram M. Chittenden came to Seattle as the new Army District Engineer. Chittenden favored the same route to Shilshole Bay as Moore, but found the plan too modest, and potentially unsafe. Chittenden said Moore's hope-for budget of $500,000 was insufficient, and the locks should be built to accommodate larger vessels, and that the wooden locks would eventually deteriorate and collapse, draining Lake Washington into Puget Sound.
Instead, Chittenden proposed a double concrete lock with steel gates, allowing small craft to pass with less waste. A single set of locks on the western end of Salmon Bay would be used in place of the small wooden lock near Fremont Avenue, which would lower Lake Washington to the same level as Lake Union. Having a single lock between Puget Sound and the freshwater lakes would reduce the risk of flooding and reduce overall cost of the project. Before he could move forward, Chittenden had to sway local leaders away from supporting Moore's project. After enthusiasm for his canal eroded and funding dried up, Moore transferred his rights to a public-private entity, the Lake Washington Canal Association, in 1907. Though Chittenden hoped to cap his career with the construction of the Locks, ill health forced him to retire in 1909, though he continued lobbying Congress for the project, and served as a consulting engineer and as a Seattle port commissioner until his death in October 1917.
Ballard Locks construction
Sewage and stormwater mitigation
During heavy or prolonged rain, stormwater runoff and overflowing wastewater from neighborhoods along the Ship Canal is dumped into the waterway. The practice was found to be polluting Salmon Bay and Puget Sound with an average of 130 spills per year dumping of untreated wastewater. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology ordered the Seattle city government to address the issue, signing a consent decree in 2016 to plan a diversion system. The system will use a tunnel running along the north side of the canal with access stations at five sites in Fremont, northern Queen Anne, and Ballard before reaching a pump station, where wastewater can continue to the West Point sewage treatment plant. The project is expected to cost $570 million to construct, with 65 percent of funding sourced from Seattle Public Utilities and the remaining 35 percent from the King County government. The project had originally been estimated to cost $423 million, but limited supply in the area's busy construction market caused cost overruns. Construction on the tunnel is planned to begin in June 2021 with the launch of a tunnel boring machine, named "Mudhoney" in honor of the local grunge band following a public contest. It is expected to be completed in 2025.
Canal crossings
The Canal's crossings, from east to west, are:
the University Link Tunnel carrying Link light rail under the canal
the Montlake Bridge carrying State Route 513 (Montlake Boulevard NE) over the Montlake Cut
the University Bridge carrying Eastlake Avenue over Portage Bay
the Ship Canal Bridge carrying Interstate 5 over Portage Bay
the George Washington Memorial Bridge (commonly called the Aurora Bridge) carrying Aurora Avenue N. (State Route 99) over the west end of Lake Union
the Fremont Bridge connecting 4th Avenue N. to Fremont Avenue N. over the Fremont Cut
Northern Pacific Railroad Ship Canal Bridge near the west end of the Fremont Cut 1914–1976, no longer extant.
the Ballard Bridge carrying 15th Avenue over Salmon Bay
pedestrian crossing only at the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks
the BNSF Railway's Salmon Bay Bridge over Salmon Bay
An additional crossing for transit, bicycles, and pedestrians between the Ballard and Fremont bridges was proposed by Mayor Mike McGinn in 2012, but funding to study its feasibility were rejected by the Seattle City Council. A new Link light rail crossing, carrying the Ballard Link Extension near the existing Ballard Bridge, is planned to be constructed in the 2030s.
Seattle landmarks
The Lake Washington Ship Canal and the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Montlake Cut, along with the Montlake Bridge are City of Seattle Designated Landmarks (ID #107995).
Notes
External links
Buildings and structures in Seattle
Water transport in Seattle
Ship canals
Canals in Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Seattle
Canals on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
Canals opened in 1934
1934 establishments in Washington (state) | [
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221031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLN | PLN | PLN or pln may refer to:
Organisations
Liberal Nationalist Party (Spanish: ), a former political party of Nicaragua
National Liberal Party (Panama) (Spanish: ), a political party of Panama
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica) (Spanish: ), a political party of Costa Rica
Perusahaan Listrik Negara, Indonesian government-owned electricity company
Science and technology
Phospholamban, a protein
Peripheral lymph node
Pln, the abbreviation for the orchid genus Pleione
.pln, a file extension used by SilkTest
Probabilistic logic network
Other uses
Polish złoty, ISO 4217 currency code
Pellston Regional Airport, Pellston, Michigan, IATA code
Personal learning network
Picton, Lennox and Nueva, islands near the southern tip of South America
Port letter and number, identifying fishing vessels | [
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] |
221032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNY%20%28disambiguation%29 | CNY (disambiguation) | CNY is the ISO 4217 code for Renminbi, the currency of the People's Republic of China.
CNY may also refer to:
City of New York, the most populous city in the United States
CNY (IATA code), for Canyonlands Field airport near Moab in Grand County, Utah, United States
Chinese New Year, a traditional festival
Central New York, the central region of upper New York State, United States
ConnectNY, a consortium of 18 college libraries in New York State
See also
New York City (disambiguation)
NYC (disambiguation)
cony (disambiguation) | [
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] |
221033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THB | THB | THB may refer to:
Tanah Abang station
Tetrahydrobiopterin, a chemical
Tetrahydrocorticosterone, a hormone
Thai baht, the currency of Thailand (ISO 4217 code: THB)
THB (comics), and the character Tri-Hydro Bi-Oxygenate
Three Horses Beer of Madagascar
Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway reporting mark | [
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] |
221035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Coalition%20%28disambiguation%29 | National Coalition (disambiguation) | The National Coalition is a coalition of opposition groups in the Syrian Civil War that was founded in Doha, Qatar, in November 2012.
National Coalition may also refer to:
In Finland, the National Coalition Party ()
In El Salvador, the National Coalition Party (El Salvador)
In Ireland, the Government of the 20th Dáil, a Fine Gael and Labour Party coalition government
In the Philippines, Koalisyong Pambansa (National Coalition)
See also
National Government (United Kingdom), sometimes referred to as the National Coalition | [
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221043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20law%20schools%20in%20the%20United%20States | List of law schools in the United States | Law schools in this list are categorized by whether they are currently active, proposed, or closed; within each section they are listed in alphabetical order by state, then name. Most of these law schools grant the Juris Doctor degree, which is the typical first professional degree in law in the United States.
Law schools are nationally accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA), and graduates of these schools may generally sit for the bar exam in any state. There are 199 ABA accredited law schools, along with one law school provisionally accredited by the ABA. Whittier Law School, Arizona Summit Law School and Concordia University School of Law are the most recent law school closures. The latter two having discontinued their legal programs in 2019, while the former closed in the summer of 2020.
The ABA revoked the accreditation of Thomas Jefferson School of Law in 2019.
In addition, individual state legislatures or bar examiners, like the State Bar of California, may maintain a separate accreditation system which is open to non-ABA accredited schools. The California State Bar also accredits law schools, which the California Committee of Bar Examiners (CBE) recognizes. Also, the CBE allows registered "Unaccredited" schools to operate and students of those schools are eligible to take the California Bar Examination upon graduation.
No correspondence or online law schools are accredited by the ABA or by state bar examiners. However, twelve correspondence and online law schools, although not accredited, are registered by the Committee of Bar Examiners of the State Bar of California. This means that the graduates of these distance learning law schools can sit for the California Bar Examination and, under varying circumstances, the bar exams in many other states.
Non-profit schools
1 – Provisional ABA accreditation expired in June 2011
2 – Provisional accreditation via the Puerto Rico Supreme Court
For-profit schools
Proposed
Former
See also
History of the American legal profession
Lists of law schools
Law school in the United States
Legal education in the United States
Law school rankings in the United States
Online law school
List of law school GPA curves
List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court justices
Catholic University of America School of Canon Law
Notes
External links
List of ABA approved law schools
Law Schools, State Bar of California
NALP (National Association for Law Placement) Directory of Law Schools—a non-profit educational association listing of law schools
List of Top Law Schools – U.S. News University Directory
United States
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221045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20law%20schools%20in%20Canada | List of law schools in Canada | A number of law schools in Canada operate as a faculty or as an affiliated school to a Canadian public university. Twenty law schools offer common law schooling, whereas seven schools offer schooling in the civil law system. Although the judicial system in most Canadian provinces operate under a common law system, the province of Quebec uses the civil law system for private law matters. As a result, most Canadian law schools that offer schooling in civil law are based in Quebec.
Legal education in Canada
Generally, entry into law programs in Canada is based primarily on a combination of the student's previous grades as well as, for English-language common-law programs, their score on the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Factors such as specialized degrees, work experience, community involvement, personal character, extracurricular activities, and references are sometimes taken into account, for which the Universities of Calgary, Windsor and McGill's holistic law school admissions are well known, but the LSAT remains far more determinative of admission than comparable standardized tests for other disciplines, such as the MCAT or GMAT. Quebec law schools, including the dual-curriculum, bilingual McGill University Faculty of Law, do not require applicants to write the LSAT, although any scores are generally taken into account; nor do the French-language common-law programs at the Université de Moncton École de droit and University of Ottawa Faculty of Law.
All of Canada's law schools are affiliated with public universities, and are thus public institutions. This practice has been held to have helped reduce disparities in the quality of students and instruction as between the schools. Since there is a limited number of positions in each law school's annual admissions, entry to all Canadian law schools is intensely competitive: most law schools receive far more applicants than they can accommodate. Most schools focus on their respective regions, and many graduates remain in the region in which the school is located, though the relatively uniform quality of the law schools affords greater geographic mobility to graduates.
After completing the Juris Doctor (J.D.), a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), or a Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.), students must article for about a year (in Quebec, the six-month stage is the equivalent to articling); this can be a challenge for those with lower grades, as there are often a shortage of articling positions, and completion of articles is required to be able to practice law in Canada. Articling involves on-the-job training, at a lower introductory salary, under the supervision of a lawyer licensed by the Provincial Bar who has been practising for a minimum of 5 years. After ten to sixteen months of articling and call to the bar, lawyers are free to practice in their own right: many are hired by the same lawyer or firm for which they articled, while some choose to begin independent practices or accept positions with different employers. Others may leave the private practice of law to work in government or industry as a lawyer or in a law-related position.
Schools teaching common law
Schools teaching civil law
Schools offering dual law degrees or choice of legal system
Queen's University Faculty of Law
Queen's Law students expecting to graduate with their common law JD degree may apply by March, to the Faculty of Law at the Université de Sherbrooke for admission into the combined degree program which leads to the conferral of a civil law degree after just one academic year of study.
Osgoode Hall Law School
Complete an additional year at Université de Montréal, Faculty of Law to earn a B.C.L. in civil law.
University of Ottawa, Faculty of Law
Complete 3 years through the Canadian Law Program (PDC Programme de droit canadien) to earn a common-law (JD) and civil (LL.L.) simultaneously. This is an elite single-stream program available to 20 exceptional candidates only. Or, through the National Program, students can complete an additional year to complement either a common- (JD) or civil-law (LL.L.) degree with the other degree. Spend two years at each of the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University College of Law or Washington College of Law to obtain Canadian common-law and U.S. law degrees (double JD).
McGill University, Faculty of Law
Complete 3, 3.5 or 4 years (at the student's option) to earn civil- (B.C.L.) and common-law (J.D.) degrees through the mandatory 'transsystemic' programme. (In 1999 this single-stream program replaced the dual-stream National Programme, in place since 1968.)
Université de Montréal, Faculty of Law
Complete an additional year at Osgoode Hall Law School to earn a JD in common law. University of Montreal has its own JD program that can be taken in the third year of the LL.B. studies.
Université de Sherbrooke, Faculty of Law
Complete an additional year to earn a JD in common law and transnational law
University of Windsor, Faculty of Law
Complete three years to earn a Canadian common-law degree (JD) and, through the University of Detroit Mercy School of Law, a U.S. law degree (JD).
See also
Higher education in Canada
Lists of law schools
References
External links
Canadian Law Schools - Law Society Admission Council
Canada
Law | [
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221046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Union | Lake Union | Lake Union is a freshwater lake located entirely within the city limits of Seattle, Washington, United States. It is a major part of the Lake Washington Ship Canal. The easternmost point of the lake is the Ship Canal Bridge, which carries Interstate 5 over the eastern arm of the lake and separates Lake Union from Portage Bay. Lake Union is the namesake of the neighborhoods located on its east and west shores: Eastlake and Westlake respectively. The northern shore of the lake is home to Gas Works Park. Notable features of the southern area of the lake—collectively known as the South Lake Union district—include Lake Union Park, Museum of History & Industry (MOHAI), and the Center for Wooden Boats.
The George Washington Memorial Bridge (also known as the Aurora Bridge) carries State Route 99 over the western arm of Lake Union. The Aurora Bridge is so named because it carries Aurora Ave N down the western side of the lake. Lake Union's westernmost point can be considered the Fremont Cut, which is located just west of the Aurora Bridge and is spanned by the Fremont Bridge. The Fremont Bridge carries Fremont Ave N between the neighborhoods of Fremont and Queen Anne and separates Lake Union from the rest of the Lake Washington Ship Canal to the west.
History
A glacial lake, its basin was dug 12,000 years ago by the Vashon glacier, which also created Lake Washington and Seattle's Green, Bitter, and Haller Lakes.
Name
Lake Union received its present name from Thomas Mercer, who in 1854 correctly predicted that canals would someday join Lake Washington to Puget Sound in a "union of waters." The Duwamish called it – comparing it with what is now known as Lake Washington – "Small Lake" or "Little Lake" (Lushootseed: XáXu7cHoo or Ha-AH-Chu, literally "small great-amount-of-water," the diminutive form of the word used for Lake Washington). In Chinook, an intertribal trading language, it was called Tenas Chuck ("small water").
Geography
Several Seattle neighborhoods take their name from the lake: Eastlake, Westlake, Northlake, and South Lake Union; and three major streets are named in relation to it: Westlake Avenue, which runs along its western shore from Downtown to the Fremont Bridge; Eastlake Avenue, which runs along its eastern shore from Cascade to the University District, and Northlake Way, which runs along its northern shore from the University District past Gas Works Park to the edge of Fremont.
Industry
Boeing began production on Lake Union in 1916. Shipyards, wharfs, and sawmills have also dotted the shore.
Recreation
Lake Union's proximity to and scenic views of Seattle make it a popular recreational spot. Seaplanes operated by Kenmore Air and Seattle Seaplanes land and take off from the lake throughout the day. Pleasure boats from Lake Washington pass through on their way to Puget Sound. The Center for Wooden Boats holds a yearly wooden boat festival. The world-famous Duck Dodge sailboat races are run on Lake Union each Tuesday during the summer. Rowers in sweep and sculling boats use the lake year-round. Paddle boarding and kayaking are also popular on this lake.
Parks
Gas Works Park is the largest park on Lake Union and the most popular for Seattleites and visitors. It is the venue for summer concerts and Seattle's major Fourth of July fireworks show. Other parks ring the lake, clockwise around the compass from Gas Works which is nearly due north: North Passage Point Park, South Passage Point Park, Fairview Park, Terry Pettus Park, and South Lake Union Park.
Floating homes
Floating homes line the east and west sides of Lake Union. In Sleepless in Seattle, the character played by Tom Hanks lived on one of these homes.
Connections to other bodies of water
Part of the Lake Washington Ship Canal system, water flows into the lake from Lake Washington through the Montlake Cut, and out via the Fremont Cut on its way to Puget Sound. Before construction of the canal, Lake Union emptied into Salmon Bay via a creek which followed roughly the same course as the Fremont Cut does today.
Salinity
Because of the connection via the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks to the salt water of Puget Sound, the water is brackish to a certain extent, which increases in the summer as the inflow rate from Lake Washington decreases and the locks open more frequently for pleasure craft.
Competitive rowing
Lake Union is home to several rowing centers and teams, including Holy Names Academy Crew, Lake Union Crew, Lake Washington Rowing Club and Pocock Rowing Center, all members of USRowing. Also rowing out of bodies of water attached to Lake Union are the Seattle Rowing Center and the Conibear Shellhouse, serving the Washington Huskies.
Seaplane base
Lake Union is home to two seaplane bases: Kenmore Air Harbor Seaplane Base , and Seattle Seaplanes , located one nautical mile (1.85 km) north of the central business district of Seattle.
References
External links
Houseboats
Union
Union
Landforms of Seattle | [
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221047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow%20measurement | Flow measurement | Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. The common types of flowmeters with industrial applications are listed below:
a) Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area)
b) Inferential (turbine type)
c) Electromagnetic
d) Positive-displacement flowmeters, which accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the volume is filled to measure flow.
e) Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding)
f) Anemometer
g) Ultrasonic
h) Mass flowmeter (Coriolis force).
Flow measurement methods other than positive-displacement flowmeters rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large flows, tracer methods may be used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or radioisotope.
Kinds and units of measurement
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in physical quantities of kind volumetric or mass flow rates, with units such as liters per second or kilograms per second, respectively. These measurements are related by the material's density. The density of a liquid is almost independent of conditions. This is not the case for gases, the densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, composition.
When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy content, as in the sale of natural gas, the flow rate may also be expressed in terms of energy flow, such as gigajoule per hour or BTU per day. The energy flow rate is the volumetric flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or mass flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit mass. Energy flow rate is usually derived from mass or volumetric flow rate by the use of a flow computer.
In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol , and the mass flow rate, the symbol .
For a fluid having density , mass and volumetric flow rates may be related by .
Gas
Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure, are heated or are cooled. A volume of gas under one set of pressure and temperature conditions is not equivalent to the same gas under different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through a meter and "standard" or "base" flow rate through a meter with units such as acm/h (actual cubic meters per hour), sm3/sec (standard cubic meters per second), kscm/h (thousand standard cubic meters per hour), LFM (linear feet per minute), or MMSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day).
Gas mass flow rate can be directly measured, independent of pressure and temperature effects, with thermal mass flowmeters, Coriolis mass flowmeters, or mass flow controllers.
Liquid
For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S. or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute or, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic meters per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by a current for example) is a sverdrup (Sv) equivalent to 106 m3/s.
Primary flow element
A primary flow element is a device inserted into the flowing fluid that produces a physical property that can be accurately related to flow. For example, an orifice plate produces a pressure drop that is a function of the square of the volume rate of flow through the orifice. A vortex meter primary flow element produces a series of oscillations of pressure. Generally, the physical property generated by the primary flow element is more convenient to measure than the flow itself. The properties of the primary flow element, and the fidelity of the practical installation to the assumptions made in calibration, are critical factors in the accuracy of the flow measurement.
Mechanical flowmeters
A positive displacement meter may be compared to a bucket and a stopwatch. The stopwatch is started when the flow starts and stopped when the bucket reaches its limit. The volume divided by the time gives the flow rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system of continually filling and emptying buckets to divide the flow without letting it out of the pipe. These continuously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may take the form of pistons reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter or through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears or a helical screw.
Piston meter/rotary piston
Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm ( in). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display are advanced.
Oval gear meter
An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more oblong gears configured to rotate at right angles to one another, forming a T shape. Such a meter has two sides, which can be called A and B. No fluid passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of the two gears always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is protruding into the measurement chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity holds a fixed volume of fluid in a measurement chamber. As the fluid pushes the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in the measurement chamber on side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet port will be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will now close off the fluid from entering side B. This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is metered through alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating gears can transmit a signal to an electric reed switch or current transducer for flow measurement. Though claims for high performance are made, they are generally not as precise as the sliding vane design.
Gear meter
Gear meters differ from oval gear meters in that the measurement chambers are made up of the gaps between the teeth of the gears. These openings divide up the fluid stream and as the gears rotate away from the inlet port, the meter's inner wall closes off the chamber to hold the fixed amount of fluid. The outlet port is located in the area where the gears are coming back together. The fluid is forced out of the meter as the gear teeth mesh and reduce the available pockets to nearly zero volume.
Helical gear
Helical gear flowmeters get their name from the shape of their gears or rotors. These rotors resemble the shape of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped structure. As the fluid flows through the meter, it enters the compartments in the rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. The length of the rotor is sufficient that the inlet and outlet are always separated from each other thus blocking a free flow of liquid. The mating helical rotors create a progressive cavity which opens to admit fluid, seals itself off and then opens up to the downstream side to release the fluid. This happens in a continuous fashion and the flowrate is calculated from the speed of rotation.
Nutating disk meter
This is the most commonly used measurement system for measuring water supply in houses. The fluid, most commonly water, enters in one side of the meter and strikes the nutating disk, which is eccentrically mounted. The disk must then "wobble" or nutate about the vertical axis, since the bottom and the top of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. A partition separates the inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives direct indication of the volume of the liquid that has passed through the meter as volumetric flow is indicated by a gearing and register arrangement, which is connected to the disk. It is reliable for flow measurements within 1 percent.
Turbine flowmeter
The turbine flowmeter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.
The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.
Turbine flowmeters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow. Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the water distribution system. Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally available for 4 to 30 cm (–12 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but are greatly affected by the flow profile and fluid conditions.
Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with approvals for the high flow rates required in fire protection systems. They are often approved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) or similar authorities for use in fire protection. Portable turbine meters may be temporarily installed to measure water used from a fire hydrant. The meters are normally made of aluminum to be lightweight, and are usually 7.5 cm (3 in) capacity. Water utilities often require them for measurement of water used in construction, pool filling, or where a permanent meter is not yet installed.
Woltman meter
The Woltman meter (invented by Reinhard Woltman in the 19th century) comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow, much like a ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flowmeter. They are commonly referred to as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.
Single jet meter
A single jet meter consists of a simple impeller with radial vanes, impinged upon by a single jet. They are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the EU.
Paddle wheel meter
Paddle wheel flowmeters consist of three primary components: the paddle wheel sensor, the pipe fitting and the display/controller. The paddle wheel sensor consists of a freely rotating wheel/impeller with embedded magnets which are perpendicular to the flow and will rotate when inserted in the flowing medium. As the magnets in the blades spin past the sensor, the paddle wheel meter generates a frequency and voltage signal which is proportional to the flow rate. The faster the flow the higher the frequency and the voltage output.
The paddle wheel meter is designed to be inserted into a pipe fitting, either 'in-line' or insertion style. These are available with wide range of fittings styles, connection methods and materials such as PVDF, polypropylene, and stainless steel. Similar to turbine meters, the paddle wheel meter require a minimum run of straight pipe before and after the sensor.
Flow displays and controllers are used to receive the signal from the paddle wheel meter and convert it into actual flow rate or total flow values. The processed signal can be used to control the process, generate an alarm, send signals to external etc.
Paddle wheel flowmeters (also known as Pelton wheel sensors) offer a relatively low cost, high accuracy option for many flow system applications, typically with water or water-like fluids.
Multiple jet meter
A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the circumference of the element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear on the impeller and its shaft. Thus these types of meters are recommended to be installed horizontally with its roller index pointing skywards.
Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focused on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.
Current meter
Flow through a large penstock such as used at a hydroelectric power plant can be measured by averaging the flow velocity over the entire area. Propeller-type current meters (similar to the purely mechanical Ekman current meter, but now with electronic data acquisition) can be traversed over the area of the penstock and velocities averaged to calculate total flow. This may be on the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The flow must be kept steady during the traverse of the current meters. Methods for testing hydroelectric turbines are given in IEC standard 41. Such flow measurements are often commercially important when testing the efficiency of large turbines.
Pressure-based meters
There are several types of flowmeter that rely on Bernoulli's principle. The pressure is measured either by using laminar plates, an orifice, a nozzle, or a Venturi tube to create an artificial constriction and then measure the pressure loss of fluids as they pass that constriction, or by measuring static and stagnation pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.
Venturi meter
A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors measure the differential pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times. The coefficient of discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The first large-scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed by Clemens Herschel, who used them to measure small and large flows of water and wastewater beginning at the very end of the 19th century.
Orifice plate
An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed perpendicular to the flow; it constricts the flow, and measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric, eccentric, and segmental.
Dall tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. As with these flowmeters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks. Differential pressure produced by a Dall tube is higher than Venturi tube and nozzle, all of them having same throat diameters.
Pitot tube
A pitot tube is used to measure fluid flow velocity. The tube is pointed into the flow and the difference between the stagnation pressure at the tip of the probe and the static pressure at its side is measured, yielding the dynamic pressure from which the fluid velocity is calculated using Bernoulli's equation. A volumetric rate of flow may be determined by measuring the velocity at different points in the flow and generating the velocity profile.
Averaging pitot tube
Averaging pitot tubes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one dimension. A typical averaging pitot tube consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in a "plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.
Cone meters
Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched in 1985 by McCrometer in Hemet, CA. The cone meter is a generic yet robust differential pressure (DP) meter that has shown to be resistant to effects of asymmetric and swirling flow. While working with the same basic principles as Venturi and orifice type DP meters, cone meters don't require the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone acts as a conditioning device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements are between 0–5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for an orifice plate or 22 diameters for a Venturi. Because cone meters are generally of welded construction, it is recommended they are always calibrated prior to service. Inevitably heat effects of welding cause distortions and other effects that prevent tabular data on discharge coefficients with respect to line size, beta ratio and operating Reynolds numbers from being collected and published. Calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty up to ±0.5%. Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty of ±5.0%
Linear resistance meters
Linear resistance meters, also called laminar flowmeters, measure very low flows at which the measured differential pressure is linearly proportional to the flow and to the fluid viscosity. Such flow is called viscous drag flow or laminar flow, as opposed to the turbulent flow measured by orifice plates, Venturis and other meters mentioned in this section, and is characterized by Reynolds numbers below 2000. The primary flow element may consist of a single long capillary tube, a bundle of such tubes, or a long porous plug; such low flows create small pressure differentials but longer flow elements create higher, more easily measured differentials. These flowmeters are particularly sensitive to temperature changes affecting the fluid viscosity and the diameter of the flow element, as can be seen in the governing Hagen–Poiseuille equation.
Variable-area flowmeters
A "variable area meter" measures fluid flow by allowing the cross sectional area of the device to vary in response to the flow, causing some measurable effect that indicates the rate.
A rotameter is an example of a variable area meter, where a weighted "float" rises in a tapered tube as the flow rate increases; the float stops rising when area between float and tube is large enough that the weight of the float is balanced by the drag of fluid flow. A kind of rotameter used for medical gases is the Thorpe tube flowmeter. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. Some are designed to spin visibly in the fluid stream to aid the user in determining whether the float is stuck or not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids but are most commonly used with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure flow down to 1% accuracy.
Another type is a variable area orifice, where a spring-loaded tapered plunger is deflected by flow through an orifice. The displacement can be related to the flow rate.
Optical flowmeters
Optical flowmeters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as where is the distance between the laser beams and is the time interval.
Laser-based optical flowmeters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in challenging environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.
Optical flowmeters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not change, optical flowmeters do not require periodic calibration after their initial commissioning. Optical flowmeters require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.
Commercially available optical flowmeters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to atmospheric pollution.
Open-channel flow measurement
Open channel flow describes cases where flowing liquid has a top surface open to the air; the cross-section of the flow is only determined by the shape of the channel on the lower side, and is variable depending on the depth of liquid in the channel. Techniques appropriate for a fixed cross-section of flow in a pipe are not useful in open channels. Measuring flow in waterways is an important open-channel flow application; such installations are known as stream gauges.
Level to flow
The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind weir or in flume using various secondary devices (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula of the form where is the flow rate, is a constant, is the water level, and is an exponent which varies with the device used; or it is converted according to empirically derived level/flow data points (a "flow curve"). The flow rate can then be integrated over time into volumetric flow. Level to flow devices are commonly used to measure the flow of surface waters (springs, streams, and rivers), industrial discharges, and sewage. Of these, weirs are used on flow streams with low solids (typically surface waters), while flumes are used on flows containing low or high solids contents.
Area/velocity
The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement and the average velocity of the flow is measured directly (Doppler and propeller methods are common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow. There are two types of area velocity flowmeter: (1) wetted; and (2) non-contact. Wetted area velocity sensors have to be typically mounted on the bottom of a channel or river and use Doppler to measure the velocity of the entrained particles. With depth and a programmed cross-section this can then provide discharge flow measurement. Non-contact devices that use laser or radar are mounted above the channel and measure the velocity from above and then use ultrasound to measure the depth of the water from above. Radar devices can only measure surface velocities, whereas laser-based devices can measure velocities sub-surface.
Dye testing
A known amount of dye (or salt) per unit time is added to a flow stream. After complete mixing, the concentration is measured. The dilution rate equals the flow rate.
Acoustic Doppler velocimetry
Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to record instantaneous velocity components at a single point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect.
Thermal mass flowmeters
Thermal mass flowmeters generally use combinations of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow with a knowledge of the fluid's specific heat and density. The fluid temperature is also measured and compensated for. If the density and specific heat characteristics of the fluid are constant, the meter can provide a direct mass flow readout, and does not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified range.
Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of thermal mass flowmeters on a microscopic scale as MEMS sensors; these flow devices can be used to measure flow rates in the range of nanoliters or microliters per minute.
Thermal mass flowmeter (also called thermal dispersion or thermal displacement flowmeter) technology is used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive. For more aggressive gases, the meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy), and pre-drying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.
Today, thermal mass flowmeters are used to measure the flow of gases in a growing range of applications, such as chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that are difficult for other flowmetering technologies. Some other typical applications of flow sensors can be found in the medical field like, for example, CPAP devices, anesthesia equipment or respiratory devices. This is because thermal mass flowmeters monitor variations in one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature, thermal conductivity, and/or specific heat) of gaseous media to define the mass flow rate.
The MAF sensor
In many late model automobiles, a Mass Airflow (MAF) sensor is used to accurately determine the mass flow rate of intake air used in the internal combustion engine. Many such mass flow sensors use a heated element and a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the air flowrate. Other sensors use a spring-loaded vane. In either case, the vehicle's electronic control unit interprets the sensor signals as a real-time indication of an engine's fuel requirement.
Vortex flowmeters
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is called the Von Kármán vortex street after von Kármán's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is calculated using the cross-sectional area of the flowmeter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation
where is the frequency of the vortices, the characteristic length of the bluff body, is the velocity of the flow over the bluff body, and is the Strouhal number, which is essentially a constant for a given body shape within its operating limits.
Sonar flow measurement
Sonar flowmeters are non-intrusive clamp-on devices that measure flow in pipes conveying slurries, corrosive fluids, multiphase fluids and flows where insertion type flowmeters are not desired. Sonar flowmeters have been widely adopted in mining, metals processing, and upstream oil and gas industries where traditional technologies have certain limitations due to their tolerance to various flow regimes and turn down ratios.
Sonar flowmeters have the capacity of measuring the velocity of liquids or gases non-intrusively within the pipe and then leverage this velocity measurement into a flow rate by using the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the line pressure and temperature. The principle behind this flow measurement is the use of underwater acoustics.
In underwater acoustics, to locate an object underwater, sonar uses two knowns:
The speed of sound propagation through the array (i.e., the speed of sound through seawater)
The spacing between the sensors in the sensor array
and then calculates the unknown:
The location (or angle) of the object.
Likewise, sonar flow measurement uses the same techniques and algorithms employed in underwater acoustics, but applies them to flow measurement of oil and gas wells and flow lines.
To measure flow velocity, sonar flowmeters use two knowns:
The location (or angle) of the object, which is 0 degrees since the flow is moving along the pipe, which is aligned with the sensor array
The spacing between the sensors in the sensor array
and then calculates the unknown:
The speed of propagation through the array (i.e. the flow velocity of the medium in the pipe).
Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and Coriolis flowmeters
Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.
Magnetic flowmeters
Magnetic flowmeters, often called "mag meter"s or "electromag"s, use a magnetic field applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flowmeter requires a conducting fluid and a nonconducting pipe liner. The electrodes must not corrode in contact with the process fluid; some magnetic flowmeters have auxiliary transducers installed to clean the electrodes in place. The applied magnetic field is pulsed, which allows the flowmeter to cancel out the effect of stray voltage in the piping system.
Non-contact electromagnetic flowmeters
A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). An LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case, the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.
Ultrasonic flowmeters (Doppler, transit time)
There are two main types of ultrasonic flowmeters: Doppler and transit time. While they both utilize ultrasound to make measurements and can be non-invasive (measure flow from outside the tube, pipe or vessel), they measure flow by very different methods.
Ultrasonic transit time flowmeters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow. This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of sound can be calculated. Using the two transit times and and the distance between receiving and transmitting transducers and the inclination angle one can write the equations:
and
where is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and is the speed of sound.
With wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can also be used to measure volume flow independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.
Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters measure the Doppler shift resulting from reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of the particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For the Doppler principle to work, there must be a high enough density of sonically reflective materials such as solid particles or air bubbles suspended in the fluid. This is in direct contrast to an ultrasonic transit time flowmeter, where bubbles and solid particles reduce the accuracy of the measurement. Due to the dependency on these particles, there are limited applications for Doppler flowmeters. This technology is also known as acoustic Doppler velocimetry.
One advantage of ultrasonic flowmeters is that they can effectively measure the flow rates for a wide variety of fluids, as long as the speed of sound through that fluid is known. For example, ultrasonic flowmeters are used for the measurement of such diverse fluids as liquid natural gas (LNG) and blood. One can also calculate the expected speed of sound for a given fluid; this can be compared to the speed of sound empirically measured by an ultrasonic flowmeter for the purposes of monitoring the quality of the flowmeter's measurements. A drop in quality (change in the measured speed of sound) is an indication that the meter needs servicing.
Coriolis flowmeters
Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of mass flow can be obtained in a coriolis flowmeter. Furthermore, a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid that is measured; the same measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas and bitumen without recalibration.
Coriolis flowmeters can be used for the measurement of natural gas flow.
Laser Doppler flow measurement
A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will be partially scattered with a change in wavelength proportional to the particle's speed (the Doppler effect). A laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), also called a laser Doppler anemometer (LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small volume in a flowing fluid containing small particles (naturally occurring or induced). The particles scatter the light with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted wavelength can be used to directly, and with great precision, determine the speed of the particle and thus a close approximation of the fluid velocity.
A number of different techniques and device configurations are available for determining the Doppler shift. All use a photodetector (typically an avalanche photodiode) to convert the light into an electrical waveform for analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is divided into two beams. In one general LDV class, the two beams are made to intersect at their focal points where they interfere and generate a set of straight fringes. The sensor is then aligned to the flow such that the fringes are perpendicular to the flow direction. As particles pass through the fringes, the Doppler-shifted light is collected into the photodetector. In another general LDV class, one beam is used as a reference and the other is Doppler-scattered. Both beams are then collected onto the photodetector where optical heterodyne detection is used to extract the Doppler signal.
Calibration
Even though ideally the flowmeter should be unaffected by its environment, in practice this is unlikely to be the case. Often measurement errors originate from incorrect installation or other environment dependent factors. In situ methods are used when flowmeter is calibrated in the correct flow conditions. The result of a flowmeter calibration will result in two related statistics: a performance indicator metric and a flow rate metric.
Transit time method
For pipe flows a so-called transit time method is applied where a radiotracer is injected as a pulse into the measured flow. The transit time is defined with the help of radiation detectors placed on the outside of the pipe. The volume flow is obtained by multiplying the measured average fluid flow velocity by the inner pipe cross-section. This reference flow value is compared with the simultaneous flow value given by the flow measurement to be calibrated.
The procedure is standardised (ISO 2975/VII for liquids and BS 5857-2.4 for gases). The best accredited measurement uncertainty for liquids and gases is 0.5%.
Tracer dilution method
The radiotracer dilution method is used to calibrate open channel flow measurements. A solution with a known tracer concentration is injected at a constant known velocity into the channel flow. Downstream the tracer solution is thoroughly mixed over the flow cross-section, a continuous sample is taken and its tracer concentration in relation to that of the injected solution is determined. The flow reference value is determined by using the tracer balance condition between the injected tracer flow and the diluting flow.
The procedure is standardised (ISO 9555-1 and ISO 9555-2 for liquid flow in open channels). The best accredited measurement uncertainty is 1%.
See also
Anemometer
Automatic meter reading
Flowmeter error
Ford viscosity cup
Gas meter
Laser Doppler velocimetry
Primary flow element
Water meter
References
Fluid dynamics
Measurement
Medical ultrasonography | [
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221048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Marek%20Independent%20Party | John Marek Independent Party | The John Marek Independent Party (JMIP) was a political party in North Wales which eventually evolved into Forward Wales.
The JMIP was formed in March 2003 by John Marek. Marek had been deselected by his local Labour as official candidate in the 2003 National Assembly for Wales election, over his criticisms of its perceived rightward march.
The JMIP stood for the May 2003 elections to the National Assembly for Wales on a left-wing platform that included public ownership of the railways and greater powers for the Assembly. The media portrayed the JMIP as a real threat to Labour in North-East Wales.
The party stood in the constituencies of Wrexham and Clwyd South. The party also had a list in the North Wales region. Their candidates were:
John Marek (Wrexham, former Labour MP/AM)
Colin Jones (Second on the North Wales List, Anti-War Activist)
Marc Jones (Clwyd South, BBC Wales Director and Producer)
On 1 May 2003 Marek won Wrexham with 6,539 votes or 37.7% of the vote. Elsewhere they got 2,210 or 11.8% in Clwyd South and 11,008 or 6.3% on the North Wales list. It was the only minor party to retain its deposit in the regional lists and its constituency result compared favourably with other left-wing candidates.
During its existence the JMIP forged strong links with the Scottish Socialist Party, and Tommy Sheridan spoke at its Summer Gathering in August 2003. On 8 November 2003 the JMIP held a conference and re-launched itself as Forward Wales.
See also
Welsh Socialist Alliance
References
Defunct political parties in Wales
Political parties established in 2003
Political parties disestablished in 2003
Locally based political parties in Wales | [
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221052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Annual%20Grammy%20Awards | 1st Annual Grammy Awards | The 1st Annual Grammy Awards were held on May 4, 1959. They recognized musical accomplishments by performers for the year 1958. Two separate ceremonies were held simultaneously on the same day; the first hotel in Beverly Hills, California, and the second in the Park Sheraton Hotel in New York City. Ella Fitzgerald, Count Basie, Domenico Modugno, Ross Bagdasarian, and Henry Mancini, each won 2 awards.
Award winners
The following awards were given in the first award ceremony:
General
Record of the Year
"Nel Blu Dipinto di Blu (Volare)" – Domenico Modugno
"Catch a Falling Star" – Perry Como
"Fever" – Peggy Lee
"The Chipmunk Song" – David Seville and the Chipmunks
"Witchcraft" – Frank Sinatra
Album of the Year
The Music from Peter Gunn – Henry Mancini
Tchaikovsky: Concerto No. 1 In B-Flat Minor, Op. 23 – Van Cliburn
Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Irving Berlin Song Book – Ella Fitzgerald
Come Fly with Me – Frank Sinatra
Only the Lonely – Frank Sinatra
Song of the Year
"Nel Blu Dipinto di Blu (Volare)" – Franco Migliacci and Domenico Modugno, songwriters (Domenico Modugno)
"Catch a Falling Star" – Lee Pockriss and Paul Vance, songwriters (Perry Como)
"Gigi" – Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe, songwriters (Vic Damone)
"Fever" – Eddie Cooley and Johnny Davenport, songwriters (Peggy Lee)
"Witchcraft" – Cy Coleman and Carolyn Leigh, songwriters (Frank Sinatra)
Children's
Best Recording for Children
Ross Bagdasarian Sr. for "The Chipmunk Song (Christmas Don't Be Late)" performed by Ross Bagdasarian Sr. as "David Seville and the Chipmunks"
Comedy
Best Comedy Performance
Ross Bagdasarian, Sr. for "The Chipmunk Song", performed by Ross Bagdasarian Sr. as "David Seville and the Chipmunks"
Composing and arranging
Best Musical Composition First Recorded and Released in 1958 (over 5 minutes duration)
Nelson Riddle (composer) for "Cross Country Suite"
Best Arrangement
Henry Mancini (arranger & artist) for The Music from Peter Gunn
Country
Best Country & Western Performance
The Kingston Trio for "Tom Dooley"
Jazz
Best Jazz Performance, Individual
Ella Fitzgerald for Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Duke Ellington Songbook
Best Jazz Performance, Group
Count Basie for Basie
Musical show
Best Original Cast Album (Broadway or TV)
Meredith Willson (composer) & the original cast with Robert Preston, Barbara Cook, David Burns, Eddie Hodges, Pert Kelton & Helen Raymond for The Music Man
Best Sound Track Album, Dramatic Picture Score or Original Cast
André Previn & the original cast for Gigi (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)
Packaging and notes
Best Album Cover Photography
Frank Sinatra for Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely
Pop
Best Vocal Performance, Female
Ella Fitzgerald for Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Irving Berlin Songbook
Best Vocal Performance, Male
Perry Como for "Catch a Falling Star"
Best Performance by a Vocal Group or Chorus
Keely Smith & Louis Prima for "That Old Black Magic"
Best Performance by a Dance Band
Count Basie for Basie
Best Performance by an Orchestra
Billy May for Billy May's Big Fat Brass
Production and engineering
Best Engineered Record - Non-Classical
Ted Keep (engineer) for "The Chipmunk Song" performed by David Seville
Best Engineered Record (Classical)
Sherwood Hall III (engineer), Laurindo Almeida & Salli Terri for Duets with Spanish Guitar
R&B
Best Rhythm & Blues Performance
"Tequila"-The Champs
Spoken
Best Performance, Documentary or Spoken Word
Stan Freberg for The Best of the Stan Freberg Shows
References
001
1959 in New York City
1959 music awards
1959 in Los Angeles
1959 in American music
May 1959 events in the United States
Events in New York City
Events in Los Angeles | [
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221054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20education | Legal education | Legal education is the education of individuals in the principles, practices, and theory of law. It may be undertaken for several reasons, including to provide the knowledge and skills necessary for admission to legal practice in a particular jurisdiction, to provide a greater breadth of knowledge to those working in other professions such as politics or business, to provide current lawyers with advanced training or greater specialisation, or to update lawyers on recent developments in the law.
Legal education can take the form of a variety of programs, including:
Primary degrees in law, which may be studied at either undergraduate or graduate level depending on the country.
Advanced academic degrees in law, such as masters and doctoral degrees.
Practice or training courses, which prospective lawyers are required to pass in some countries before they may enter practice.
Applied or specialised law accreditation, which are less formal than degree programs but which provide specialised certification in particular areas.
Continuing legal education, which do not lead to a qualification but provide practicing lawyers with updates on recent legal developments.
History
Early Western legal education emerged in Republican Rome. Initially those desiring to be advocates would train in schools of rhetoric. Around the third century BCE Tiberius Coruncanius began teaching law as a separate discipline. His public legal instruction had the effect of creating a class of legally skilled non-priests (jurisprudentes), a sort of consultancy. After Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became more formal, with the introduction of books on law beyond the then scant official Roman legal texts. It is possible that Coruncanius allowed members of the public and students to attend consultations with citizens in which he provided legal advice. These consultations were probably held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus accessible to all those interested.
Canon and ecclesiastical law were studied in universities in medieval Europe. However, institutions providing education in the domestic law of each country emerged later in the eighteenth century.
In England, legal education emerged in the late thirteenth century through apprenticeships. The Inns of Court controlled admission to practice and also provided some legal training. English universities had taught Roman and canon law for some time, but formal degrees focused on the native common law did not emerge until the 1800s.
Forms
Primary degrees in law
In many countries, including most of those in the Commonwealth of Nations, the principal law degree is an undergraduate degree, usually known as a Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Graduates of such a program are eligible to become lawyers by passing the country's equivalent of a bar exam. In these countries, graduate law programs are advanced degrees which allow for more in-depth study or specialisation.
In the United States and Canada, the primary law degree is a graduate degree known as the Juris Doctor (JD). Students may pursue such a degree only after completing an undergraduate degree, usually a bachelor's degree. The undergraduate degree can be in any field, though most American lawyers hold bachelor's degrees in the humanities and social sciences. American law schools are usually an autonomous entity within a larger university.
Primary degrees in law are offered by law schools, known in some countries as faculties of law. Law schools may have varying degrees of autonomy within a particular university or, in some countries, can be entirely independent of any other post-secondary educational institution.
Advanced degrees in law
Higher degrees allow for more advanced academic study. These include the Masters of Law (LLM) by coursework or research, and doctoral degrees such as the PhD or SJD.
Practitioners may undertake a Masters of Law by coursework to obtain greater specialisation in an area in which they practice. In many common law countries, a higher degree in law is common and expected for legal academics. In addition, incorporating practical skills is beneficial for practitioners seeking higher degrees to better prepare them in their respective legal area of practice.
In contrast, higher degrees in law are uncommon in the United States, even within the academy.
Practice or training courses
In some countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Canada and some states of Australia, the final stages of vocational legal education required to qualify to practice law are carried out outside the university system. The requirements for qualification as a barrister or as a solicitor are covered in those articles.
Applied law programs or specialist accreditation
Legal education providers in some countries offer courses which lead to a certificate or accreditation in applied legal practice or a particular specialisation.
Continuing legal education
Continuing legal education (also known as continuing professional development) programs are informal seminars or short courses which provide legal practitioners with an opportunity to update their knowledge and skills throughout their legal career. In some jurisdictions, it is mandatory to undertake a certain amount of continuing legal education each year.
By country
Australia
In Australia most universities offer law as an undergraduate-entry course (LLB, 4 years), or combined degree course (e.g., BSc/LLB, BCom/LLB, BA/LLB, BE/LLB, 5–6 years). Some of these also offer a three-year postgraduate Juris Doctor (JD) program. Bond University in Queensland runs three full semesters each year, teaching from mid-January to late December. This enables the Bond University Law Faculty to offer the LLB in the usual 8 semesters, but only 2 years. They also offer a JD in two years. The University of Technology, Sydney will from 2010 offer a 2-year accelerated JD program.
In 2008, the University of Melbourne introduced the Melbourne Model, whereby Law is only available as a graduate degree, with students having to have completed a three-year bachelor's degree (usually an Arts degree) before being eligible. Students in combined degree programs would spend the first 3 years completing their first bachelor's degree together with some preliminary law subjects, and then spend the last 2–3 years completing the law degree (JD). Alternatively, one can finish any bachelor's degree, and providing their academic results are high, apply for graduate-entry into a 3-year LLB program. Australian Law Schools include those at the University of New England, Australian Catholic University, Australian National University, La Trobe University, Flinders University, Bond University, Macquarie, Monash, Deakin, UNSW, University of Tasmania, Adelaide, Victoria University, Sydney, Melbourne, Queensland University of Technology, the University of Queensland, the University of Western Australia and the University of Canberra.
Canada
The professional law degree in Canada is the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) / Juris Doctor (J.D.) for common law jurisdictions, and the Bachelor of Laws, Licentiate of Law or Bachelor of Civil Law (LL.B./LL.L./B.C.L.) for Quebec, a civil law jurisdiction. Quebec civil law degrees (and the transsystemic B.C.L../J.D. [previously called B.C.L./LL.B.] program at McGill University) are undergraduate-entry—students can be admitted directly after Quebec's pre-university college program ().
Admittance to an LL.B. (also called J.D.) program in common law requires at least two years of undergraduate education, although a completed undergraduate degree is usually required. In practice, the vast majority of those who are admitted have already earned at least an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. The change in academic nomenclature re-designating the common law degree as a J.D. rather than an LL.B., currently completed or under consideration at a number of Canadian schools, has not affected the level of instruction—it is the same degree.
China
Germany
In Germany, law degrees historically did not exist and are unnecessary for legal practice. However, those who wish to enter the legal profession must still study in universities, for which the standard curriculum length is 4 and 1/2 years. Some law schools have also begun to award the Diplom-Jurist degree. German students enter into law school after high school (Gymnasium) graduation.
After their studies, candidates complete the First State Examination. In the First State Exam, 30% of the exam is on a specialized area of law, chosen by the examinee, which is organized and carried out by the university. In practice, the more important part is the 70% of obligatory areas of law examined by the Justizprüfungsamt, a body of the state administration of justice. Failure rates of the 1st State Examination can be up to 30%. The written part concerns the analysis of legal issues.
After passing the 1st State Examination, candidates undertake a two-year legal traineeship (“Referendariat”), organized by the Federal States. After the legal traineeship, candidates must take the 2nd State Examination, with failure rates far lower than in the 1st State Examination. The written exam consists of drafting judgments, contract and other legal documents; there is also an oral exam. After passing the 2nd State Exam, the trainee may become a lawyer.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong law can be studied as a four-year undergraduate degree Bachelor of Laws (LLB), a two-year postgraduate degree (Juris Doctor), or the Common Professional Examination conversion course for non-law graduates. One must then pass the one-year Postgraduate Certificate in Laws (PCLL) currently offered at the University of Hong Kong (HKU), Chinese University of Hong Kong and City University of Hong Kong, before starting vocational training: a year's pupillage for barristers or a two-year training contract for solicitors.
The move to a four-year LLB was recent and, in the case of HKU, was aimed at shifting some of the more theoretical aspects of the HKU PCLL into the LLB, leaving more room for practical instruction.
India
The Bar Council of India prescribes and supervises standard of legal education in India. Law degrees in India are granted and conferred in terms of the Advocates Act, 1961, which is a law passed by the Parliament both on the aspect of legal education and also regulation of conduct of legal profession. Various regional universities or specialised national law universities offer Law graduate degrees through various law schools.
In India law can be studied, as LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) or B.L. (Bachelor of Law), a three-year graduate degree after completion of Bachelor's degree. Alternatively after standard 12 one can join an integrated five-year law course which provides option to avail B.A. LL.B. or B.B.A. LLB. or B.Sc. LL.B. In India applied legal education for specific branches of law is also offered such as, Business law, Human resource and Labour laws, Property laws, Family laws, Human rights & Legal awareness, Taxation law and many more.
Italy and France
Law in Italy and France is studied in a jurisprudence school which is an entity within a larger university. Legal education can be started immediately after obtained a Diploma. Italian and French law schools are affiliated with public universities, and are thus public institutions. As a consequence, law schools are required to admit anyone holding the baccalaureate. However, the failure rate is extremely high (up to 70%) during the first two years of the "licenza in diritto". There are no vast disparities in the quality of Southern European law schools. Many schools focus on their respective city and region.
The law school program is divided following the European standards for university studies (Bologna process):
first a license of law program (Licence de droit): three-year period
Then a Master of law program (Master de droit): two-year period
Ph.D. in Law (Doctorat en droit): three-year period (often more).
The first year of the master program (M1) is specialized: public law, private law, business law, European and international law, etc.
The second year of the master of law program (M2) can be work-oriented or research oriented (the students write a substantial thesis and can apply to doctoral programs, e.g., a PhD in Law).
The second year is competitive (entry is based on the student's grades and overall score and on extracurricular activities) and generally more specialized (IP law, contract law, civil liberties, etc.).
Students must pass a specific examination to enter bar school (CRFPA, école du barreau). They must successfully finish the first year of a Master of law (M1 or maitrise de droit) to be able to attend.
If they succeed, then after 18 months (school, practical aspects, ethics and internship) they then take the CAPA exam and diploma(Certificat d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat). Successful students also take the Oath in order to practice law.
Japan
The Japanese Ministry of Justice opened the University of Tokyo Faculty of Law in 1877 (changed to Imperial University in 1886). To matriculate to the University of Tokyo, students had to finish ten to fifteen years of compulsory education; acceptance was therefore available to only a small elite. The law program produced politically-dependable graduates to fill fast-track administrative positions in government, also known as high civil servants (koto bunkan), and to serve as judges and prosecutors.
Private law schools opened around 1880. These lacked the government funding given to the University of Tokyo, so the quality of education there lagged behind. Students only had to pass an examination to matriculate to private law schools, so many of them had not completed middle school. The private law schools produced a large portion of private attorneys because their graduates were often ineligible to apply for government positions.
The Imperial University Faculty of Law was given supervisory authority over many private law schools in 1887; by the 1920s, it promulgated a legal curriculum comprising six basic codes: Constitutional Law, Civil Law, Commercial Law, Civil Procedure, Criminal Law, and Criminal Procedure. The same basic structure survived in Japanese legal education to the end of the twentieth century.
Prior to the implementation of the "law school system" in 2004, the legal education system was driven more by examinations than by formal schooling. The passage rate for the bar exam was historically around three percent, and nearly all those who sat for the exam took it several times. A number of specialized "cram schools" trained prospective lawyers for the exam, and these schools remain prevalent today. After passing the bar exam, prospective barristers were required to train for 16 months at the Legal Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court of Japan. The training period has traditionally been devoted to litigation practice and virtually no training is given for other aspects of legal practice, e.g., contract drafting, legal research. During this period, the most "capable trainees" are "selected out" to become career judges; others may become prosecutors or private practitioners.
In 2004, the Japanese Diet passed a law allowing for the creation of graduate level law school that offer a J.D., or Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士). The 2006 bar examination was first in Japanese history to require a law school degree as a prerequisite. In the past, although there has been no educational requirement, most of those who passed the examination had earned undergraduate degrees from "elite" Japanese universities such as the University of Tokyo, Kyoto University or Hitotsubashi University. With this new law school system came a new bar exam, with a 40–50% passage rate which is capped by a numerical quota. Applicants are now limited to taking the exam three times in a five-year period. Despite the much higher bar passage rate with the new exam, due to the quotas, approximately half of Japanese law school graduates will never be admitted to practice. The new system also reduced the apprenticeship period at the Legal Research and Training Institute to one year.
A number of other law-related professions exist in Japan, such as patent agents (benrishi), tax accountants (zeirishi), scriveners, etc., entry to each of which is governed by a separate examination. Attorneys ("bengoshi"), being qualified to practice any law, can automatically be qualified as patent agents and tax accountants with no additional examination, but not vice versa.
Korea
Legal education in Korea is driven by examination. The profession of barristers, is highly regulated, and the pass rate for the bar exam is around five percent. Prospective attorneys who do pass the exam usually take it two or three times before passing it, and a number of specialized "private educational institutes" exist for prospective lawyers. After passing the bar exam, prospective barristers undergo a two-year training period at the Judicial Research and Training Institute of the Supreme Court of Korea. During this period, the most capable trainees are "selected out" to become career judges; others may become prosecutors or private practitioners.
In 2007, the Korean government passed a law allowing for the creation of three-year law schools (법학전문대학원). According to the new law, the old system of selecting lawyers by examination will be phased out by 2013 and the U.S.-style law schools will be the sole route to become a lawyer.
In February 2008, the Ministry of Education of Korea selected 25 universities to open law schools. The total enrollment for all law schools is capped at 2,000, which is a source of contention between the powerful Korea Bar Association, and citizen groups and school administrators. There is an uproar among the schools which failed to get the government's approval and even among the schools that did get the approval, there is dissatisfaction due to an extremely low enrollment number. Several law schools are permitted to enroll 40 students per year, which is far below the financially sustainable number. Beginning in 2012, passage of the Lawyer Admission Test (which is distinct from the old bar exam) will be required for qualification to practice.
A number of other legal professions exist in Korea, such as patent attorneys (변리사), tax attorneys (세무사), solicitors(법무사), etc., entry to each of which is governed by a separate examination.
Malaysia
As a Commonwealth country, the Malaysian legal education system is rooted from the United Kingdom. Legal qualifications offered by the local law faculties require students to have a pre-university qualification such as the Malaysian Higher School Certificate, A-Level, International Baccalaureate, Foundation Course or a Diploma. Generally, the law degree programmes in Malaysia consist of civil law subjects, but there are institutions such as The National University of Malaysia, International Islamic University Malaysia and Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin that include Sharia or Islamic law courses as requirements for admission and graduation.
Malaysian law graduates from universities in the UK, Australia or New Zealand are allowed to practice law in Malaysia. However, they are required to obtain a Certificate of Legal Practice in Laws of Malaysia.
New Zealand
The Council of Legal Education was established by section 2 of the New Zealand University Amendment Act 1930 (amending and deemed part of the New Zealand University Act 1908). There is a New Zealand Law Students Association, which has published a journal called Wagon Mound, and holds an annual national mooting competition. There is an Auckland University Law Students Society, which publishes the Auckland University Law Review, is a member of International Law Students Association, and which held the Students' Conference on Law Reform in 1965. There is a Wellington Law Students Society, an Otago Law Students Society, and a University of Canterbury Law Students Society. The original Canterbury Law Students Society was established in 1875.
Philippines
Law degree programs are considered graduate programs in the Philippines. As such, admission to law schools requires the completion of a bachelor's degree, with a sufficient number of credits or units in certain subject areas.
Legal education in the Philippines is regulated and supervised by the Legal Education Board, a statutorily created independent Body chaired by a retired member of the Supreme Court or of the Court of Appeals. Its first chairman is Justice Hilarion Aquino. Sitting as members of the Board are a representative of the law professors, a representative of the law deans and a representative of the Commission on Higher Education. The membership of a student representative has been subject to continuing debate and resistance on the part of law schools.
Graduation from a Philippine law school constitutes the primary eligibility requirement for the Philippine Bar Examinations, administered by the Supreme Court during the month of September every year.
In order to be eligible to take the bar examinations, one must complete either of the two professional degrees: The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) program or the Juris Doctor (J.D.) program. Advanced degrees are offered by some law schools, but are not requirements for admission to the practice of law in the Philippines. The degrees Master of Laws (LL.M.), Master of Legal Studies are available in only a handful of Philippine universities and colleges, among these San Beda College Graduate School of Law, the University of Santo Tomas and Ateneo de Manila University. The Doctor of Civil Law degree (DCL) is offered only by the University of Santo Tomas and the Doctor of Juridical Science (JSD) degree is offered by the San Beda College Graduate School of Law. Graduate programs in law are also regulated by the Legal Education Board.
Legal education in the Philippines normally proceeds along the following route:
Undergraduate education (usually 4 years)
Law school (usually 4 years)
Admission to the bar (usually by taking a Philippine bar exam)
Legal practice and mandatory continuing legal education
Russia and Ukraine
Law degree – jurist (often compared to an LL.M., but in fact equivalent to the degree of Specialist specific to the Soviet educational system) is awarded in Russia and Ukraine after 5 years of study at a university. Jurist degree may also be awarded in a shorter period of time if a law student has already completed Bachelor or Specialist degree in another field of studies or has previously earned a basic law degree (comparable to Paralegal, an associate degree in U.S.) from a specialized law college. Bachelor jurist degree (equivalent to Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.)) may be earned concurrently with another bachelor's or master's degree in some universities (comparable to a double-major). Note that this fused, one-degree (Specialist) educational scheme has coexisted with the two-degree (bachelor's – master's) scheme since Russia and Ukraine launched their higher education reforms to bring the domestic educational systems in closer compliance with the Bologna accords. See also academic degree. The latest educational reforms created new system where a four-year law program is offered at the universities for earning bachelor's degree, and a five-year law program is offered for master's degree. The degree of Specialist is no longer awarded and is renamed into master's degree.
Serbia
To become a lawyer in Serbia, students must graduate from an accredited faculty of law. First-level studies last four years (eight semesters), after which it is possible to enroll in Master's degree and PhD studies programmes. To become a student of the faculty of law, a candidate must pass the admission test. The practical training for students is organized at courts of law, and local and international moot court competitions. A lawyer must pass the national bar examination to become an attorney, a judge, or a prosecutor. In order to take the bar exam, it is only necessary to complete the 4 year studies programme and have a certain amount of work experience ( i.e. as a paralegal), but most attorneys have also attained the master's degree in law before passing the bar exam.
South Africa
In South Africa, the LL.B. is the universal legal qualification for admission and enrollment as an Advocate or Attorney. Since 1998, LL.B. programmes may be entered directly at the undergraduate level; at the same time, the LLB. continues to be offered postgraduate and may then be accelerated dependent on the bachelor's degree. The programme lasts between two and four years correspondingly (compare Australia, above). See .
Although not formally required for specialised practice, further training, e.g. in tax, is usually via postgraduate diplomas or focused, coursework-based LL.M. programmes. Research degrees are the LL.M. and LL.D., or PhD depending on university. The Master's dissertation reflects an ability to conduct independent research, whereas the Doctoral thesis will, in addition, constitute an original contribution to the field of law in question. A doctorate, generally, is required for positions in legal academia. See ; .
Historically, the B.Proc. and B.Juris were the legal degrees offered at the undergraduate level. The four-year BProc qualified one to practise as an attorney, or become a prosecutor or magistrate in the lower courts, but did not allow for admission as an advocate. The three-year B.Juris was the basic requirement for prosecutors and magistrates in the lower courts, but on its own, did not qualify one to practise as an attorney. Both offered admission to the LLB.
For admission as an attorney, one serves "articles" as a candidate attorney with a practising attorney for two years, and then writes a "board exam" set by the relevant provincial Law Society. See Attorneys in South Africa. The length of articles may be reduced by attending a practical legal training course or performing community service.
Attorneys may additionally qualify as Notaries and Conveyancers, via the Conveyancing and Notarial Practice Examinations; those with technical or scientific training may further qualify as patent attorneys.
The requirements to enter private practice as advocates (Junior Counsel) are to become members of a Bar Association by undergoing a period of training (pupilage) for one year with a practicing Advocate, and to sit an admission examination. On the recommendation of the Bar Councils, an advocate "of proven experience and skill" with at least ten years experience, may be appointed by the President of South Africa as a Senior Counsel (SC; also referred to as a "silk"). See Advocates in South Africa.
The Act regulating admission to practise law ("The Qualifications of Legal Practitioners Amendment Act of 1997") is being revised.
South American countries
The law of South America is one of the most unified in the world. All countries can be said to follow civil law systems, although recent developments in the law of Brazil suggest a move towards the stare decisis doctrine.
Sri Lanka
In order to practice law in Sri Lanka, a lawyer must be 'admitted and enrolled as an Attorney-at-Law of the Supreme Court of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. To be admitted to the bar a law student must complete law exams held by the Sri Lanka Law College and undergo a six-month period of apprenticeship under a senior practicing lawyer. There are two routes taken by students:
Those who have gained a law degree, an LL.B. (which is 3–4 years long in Sri Lankan State Universities of University of Colombo, University of Jaffna, Open University of Sri Lanka and University of Peradeniya) are given direct entry to undertake law exams at the Sri Lanka Law College.
Those who don't hold a law degree, could gain entrance to the Sri Lanka Law College via a competitive entrance exam to study law and prepare for the law exams.
Both groups of students must undergo a period of apprenticeship under a senior practicing lawyer who has at least 8 years of practicing experience. To become a judge one must be admitted as an Attorney-at-Law.
United Kingdom
In England and Wales, law can be studied as an undergraduate degree or in a Graduate Diploma in Law where students complete the Common Professional Examination. After obtaining the degree which is necessary to complete certain vocational courses and to serve a period of on the job training before one is able to qualify to practice as a barrister, legal executive, or solicitor. Bar Professional Training Course is regarded as one of the hardest degrees and presently it is the most expensive law-related degree.
United States
The education of lawyers in the United States is generally undertaken through a law school program, although in some states (such as California and Virginia) applicants who have not attended law school may qualify to take the bar exam.
Legal education in the United States normally proceeds along the following route:
Undergraduate education (usually 4 years)
Law school (usually 3 years)
Admission to the bar (usually by taking a state's bar exam)
Legal practice
In the United States, in most cases, the degree awarded by American law schools is the Doctor of Jurisprudence or Juris Doctor (J.D.), a Doctoral degree, the pursuit of which students undertake only after having completed an undergraduate degree in some other field (usually a bachelor's degree). The law school program is considered to be a professional school program and upon graduation you receive the distinct title of Doctor (although most states strictly regulate the ability of attorneys to style themselves "doctor").
Research degrees that are awarded include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), Doctor of Juridical Science degrees (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) and Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.), are post-undergraduate and research and academic-based level degrees. In the U.S. the Legum Doctor (LL.D.) is only awarded as an honorary degree.
A number of law students apply for an optional judicial clerkship (less than 10% end up in such position), to be taken after law school and before legal practice. Clerkships usually last one year with appellate courts, but trial level courts (including federal district court) are increasingly moving towards two-year clerkships.
Once a student has graduated from law school, the student is expected to pursue admission to the bar in order to practice. Requirements for membership in the bar vary across the United States. In almost every state, the only way to be admitted to the bar is to pass a (usually multi-day) written examination. Once admitted, most States require attorneys to must meet certain Continuing Legal Education (CLE) requirements.
Academic degrees for non-lawyers are available at the baccalaureate and master's level. A common baccalaureate level degree is a Bachelor of Science in Legal Studies (B.S.). Academic master's degrees in legal studies are available, such as the Master of Studies (M.S.), and the Master of Professional Studies (M.P.S.). Such a degree is not required to enter a J.D. program.
Foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S., who do not have a J.D., often seek to obtain a Master of Laws (LL.M.) (or other degrees similar to the LL.M., such as the Juris Master (J.M.), Master of Comparative Law (M.C.L.) and Master of Jurisprudence (M.J.)).
See also
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221055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futura%20International%20Airways | Futura International Airways | Futura International Airways was an airline with its head office in the Zona Facturación on the property of Palma de Mallorca Airport in Palma de Mallorca, Spain. It operated scheduled services and charter flights for tour operators and other airlines, in Europe, as well as wet lease and ad hoc charters. Its main base was Palma de Mallorca Airport. After failing to re-finance itself the company ceased trading on the 8 September 2008, leaving many passengers stranded in and around Spain.
There was also an intrastate airline operating in California in the U.S. in 1962 flying as Futura Airlines with Lockheed Constellation propliners serving Los Angeles, Oakland, Sacramento, Fresno, Bakersfield and Lake Tahoe.
History
The airline was established in 1989 by Aer Lingus, Belton Air and Banco Santander, starting operations on 17 February 1990 with a flight from Palma de Mallorca to Manchester. During the 1990s, the airline expanded to cover the whole of Europe, including the Canary Islands in the South and Scandinavia and Iceland in the North, with charter flights, ad hoc charters, third party short-medium-long term operations (wet-lease) and ACMI. Under the leadership of CEO Roman Pané , it used to operate its own scheduled flights and ad hoc flights on behalf of various tour operators and airlines in Europe, North and South America, Africa and Southeast Asia. Futura operated from five permanent bases: Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife, Málaga, Gran Canaria and Dublin; as well as various other seasonal bases throughout the year. (Source: ).
The airline was later owned by Corpfin Capital (65%), Aer Lingus (20%) and management and employees (15%). On 16 October 2007, Corpfin Capital and Aer Lingus sold their stakes, during the process of a secondary buyout instigated by the present management team, making way for the participation of the investment fund Hutton Collins, so that the resulting shareholdings were as follows: the Futura Group (management and employees) had 53.5% and Hutton Collins owned 46.5%. The airline had 1,211 employees (at May 2008). It wholly owned cargo subsidiary Flyant (officially Servicios Aéreos Integrales S.A.) and Dublin-based Irish charter airline Futura Gael.
In 2008, a few months prior to its demise, in order to reduce the cost base structure, Futura relaunched Flyant as a new passenger carrier with a class-1 AOC, while continuing freighter operations as well under the Flyant name as well. Flyant (passenger carrier) took over some Futura operations, wet leasing a Boeing 737-300 and a 737-400 to Air Algerie, both aircraft and crew were based in Algiers. Futura also set up and operated a successful turn-key airline setting up and management consultancy and offered its services and on the ground aircraft maintenance services as well to several air carriers across continents, one example being Aerolínea Principal in Chile.
The airline abruptly ceased operations at 00:00 on September 8, 2008, due to a lack of cash (with debts of around €50 million). Its AOC was revoked by the Spanish Aviation Authority two weeks later after the airline was unable to show a viability plan. Since then, its grounded fleet was gradually returned to lessors.
Flyant, which also ceased operations initially alongside parent Futura, later continued in the cargo business, having been sold for the symbolic amount of one Euro, to New Iberital, a Catalan logistics group, which later renamed it Saicus Air. Flyant/Saicus Air continued operating a reduced fleet of a single Boeing 737-300, although eventually this other airline also ceased operations on 14 December 2008. : An attempt was made to restart passenger operations under Saicus Air using MD-83 aircraft however, that also was unsuccessful.
Subsidiaries
Futura Gael - An Irish-based wholly owned subsidiary set up in 2007 to begin charter flights from Ireland to the EU.
Flyant (Servicios Aéreos Integrales S.A)
Futura Formación TRTO
Futura Mantenimiento
Destinations
Domestic
International
Livery
Futura's aircraft were painted in white through the fuselage area, with the name Futura in blue over the front passenger windows. The tails carried Futura's logo and were painted blue.
Fleet
As of 4 September 2008, the Futura International Airways fleet consisted of the following aircraft:
References
External links
Futura International Airways (Archive)
Futura International Airways (Archive)
Futura International Airways Fleet
Futura gets Europe's first 737-900ers
Descriptif compagnie Futura International Airways
Defunct airlines of Spain
Airlines established in 1989
Airlines disestablished in 2008 | [
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221056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futura | Futura | Futura may refer to:
Businesses and organisations
Futura International Airways, a former airline based in Spain
Futura Gael, a former Irish subsidiary airline of Futura International Airways
Tikal Futura, a shopping, business and hotel complex in Guatemala City, Guatemala
Futura plus, a Serbian wholesale and retail company
Futura, a now defunct British paperback publisher, part of Robert Maxwell's British Printing & Communications corporation.
Brands and marques
Gibson Futura, an electric guitar
Futura (typeface), a typeface designed in 1927 by Paul Renner
Futura (cooker), a product of Hawkins Cookers Limited
Royal Futura, a portable typewriter produced from 1958 to 1962
Futura (clothing), a Dutch clothing brand.
Vehicles
Aprilia Futura, a motorcycle
Lincoln Futura, a Ford concept car
Ford Futura, a car made by Ford Australia
Suzuki Futura, a Suzuki Carry commercial vehicle made by Suzuki of Indonesia since 1991
VDL Futura, a model of double decker and single decker coach models manufactured by VDL Bus and Coach
Books
Futura (magazine), a monthly French comic book magazine in the 1970s
Futura (science fiction magazine), published in Croatia 1992-2007
Film and TV
Rai Futura, an Italian entertainment TV channel
Futura (TV channel), Brazilian educational channel
Futura, the name of the Maschinenmensch in the original script of the film Metropolis
Futura, the home world of the eponymous hero in the television cartoon series Colonel Bleep.
Music and entertainment
Futura Records, a French record company and Jazz label
Radio Futura, a Spanish pop rock group
La Futura, an album by the American rock band ZZ Top
Futura Free, a song by American alternative R&B singer Frank Ocean
Futura, an album by Bosnian rapper Jala Brat
Sport
FC Futura, a football club from Finland
Futura Cup, a hockey trophy of the Ligue Nord-Americaine de Hockey, Quebec
Other uses
Futura (graffiti artist) (formerly known as Futura 2000), a graffiti artist
Futura, a play written by Jordan Harrison and presented by the National Asian American Theater Company
See also
Salix futura, a species of willow native to Japan
Diva Futura, an Italian pornography and erotica film studio
Diva Futura (album), an album by the Greek metal band Nightfall | [
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221075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial | Imperial | Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism.
Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to:
Places
United States
Imperial, California
Imperial, Missouri
Imperial, Nebraska
Imperial, Pennsylvania
Imperial, Texas
Imperial, West Virginia
Imperial, Virginia
Imperial County, California
Imperial Valley, California
Imperial Beach, California
Elsewhere
Imperial (Madrid), an administrative neighborhood in Spain
Imperial, Saskatchewan, a town in Canada
Buildings
Imperial Apartments, a building in Brooklyn, New York
Imperial City, Huế, a palace in Huế, Vietnam
Imperial Palace (disambiguation)
Imperial Towers, a group of lighthouses on Lake Huron, Canada
The Imperial (Mumbai), a skyscraper apartment complex in India
Animals and plants
Cheritra or imperial, a genus of butterfly
Architecture, design, and fashion
Imperial, a luggage case for the top of a coach
Imperial, the top, roof or second-storey compartment of a coach or carriage, especially a stagecoach
Imperial, a style of moustache
Imperial staircase, a style of staircase
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional entities
Imperial, a megacorporation in Mutant Chronicles
Imperial, several entities in the Galactic Empire (Star Wars)
Imperial (Elder Scrolls), a fictional race in The Elder Scrolls series of video games
Games
Imperial (board game), a German-style board game by Mac Gerdts
Literature
Imperial (book), a 2009 book by William T. Vollmann
Imperial (comics), a story arc from New X-Men
Music
Groups and labels
Imperial Records, an American record company
Little Anthony and the Imperials, an American doo-wop vocal group
The Imperials, a vocal group
Imperial (band), an American metalcore band
Albums
Imperial (Denzel Curry album), 2016
Imperial (In Fear and Faith album), 2010
Imperial, by Robin Guthrie, 2003
The Imperial (The Delines album), 2019
The Imperial (Flipmode Squad album), 1998
Imperial, by Soen, 2021
Songs
"Imperial", a song by HammerFall from the 2005 album Chapter V: Unbent, Unbowed, Unbroken
"Imperial", a song by Momus from his 2016 album Scobberlotchers
"Imperial", a song by Rah Digga from the 2000 album Dirty Harriet
"Imperial", a song by Strapping Young Lad from the 2005 album Alien
Brands and enterprises
Beverages and foods
Imperial (beer), a Costa Rican brand of beer
Imperial margarine, a brand of margarine distributed by Unilever
Mint imperial, a type of candy
Hotels
Hotel Imperial, a hotel in Vienna, Austria
Imperial Hotel (disambiguation)
The Imperial, New Delhi, a hotel in India
Transportation
Chrysler Imperial, a car built 1926–1954 and after 1990
Imperial (automobile), a marque used by Chrysler 1955–1983
Imperial (British automobile), three separate British makes of car
Imperial (SP train), a night train of the Rock Island Rail Road and the Southern Pacific
Imperial Limited, a night train of the Canadian Pacific Railway
Imperial Air Cargo, a South African cargo airline
Imperial Airlines, a United States commuter airline
Imperial Airport, an airport in Saskatchewan, Canada
Imperial Automobile Company, an American automaker 1908–1916
Other brands and enterprises
Imperial Bank Limited, a commercial bank in Kenya
Imperial Oil, a Canadian company
Imperial Productions, a London theatre company
Imperial Theater (disambiguation)
Imperial Tobacco, a British multinational company
Imperial Typewriter Company, a British manufacturer
Organizations
Education
Imperial College London, an English university
Imperial Academy (Ethiopia), the national academy of Ethiopia
Imperial Valley College, an American community college in Imperial County, California
Government and politics
Indian Civil Service (British India), a British rule in India
Sports
Imperials Football Club, a defunct Australian rules football club
Imperial Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football (soccer) club
People
Athena Imperial (born 1987), Filipina news reporter, communication researcher and beauty queen
Barbie Imperial (born 1998), Filipina actress and model
Carlos Eduardo Imperial (1935–1992), Brazilian actor, filmmaker, presenter, songwriter and music producer
Carlos R. Imperial (1930–2010), Filipino politician
Dino Imperial (born 1988), Filipino actor, club MC, model and radio disk jockey
Francisco Imperial, 15th-century Genoese poet in Seville
Standards and types
Imperial, a traditional paper size, 22 x 30 inches
Imperial, a wine bottle nomenclature for a one-gallon bottle size
Imperial purple, a reddish-purple natural dye
Imperial units, a measurement system used in the UK and Commonwealth of Nations
See also
Imperial Court (disambiguation)
Imperial River (disambiguation)
Imperial Seal (disambiguation)
Imperial University (disambiguation) | [
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221081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand%20%28unit%29 | Hand (unit) | The hand is a non-SI unit of measurement of length standardized to . It is used to measure the height of horses in many English-speaking countries, including Australia, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was originally based on the breadth of a human hand. The adoption of the international inch in 1959 allowed for a standardized imperial form and a metric conversion. It may be abbreviated to "h" or "hh". Although measurements between whole hands are usually expressed in what appears to be decimal format, the subdivision of the hand is not decimal but is in base 4, so subdivisions after the radix point are in quarters of a hand, which are inches. Thus, 62 inches is fifteen and a half hands, or 15.2 hh (normally said as "fifteen-two", or occasionally in full as "fifteen hands two inches").
Terminology
"Hands" may be abbreviated to "h", or "hh". The "hh" form is sometimes interpreted as standing for "hands high". When spoken aloud, hands are stated by numbers, 15.0 is "fifteen hands", 15.2 is alternately "fifteen-two" or "fifteen hands, two inches", and so on.
To convert inches to hands, the number in inches is divided by four, then the remainder is added after the radix point. Thus, a horse that measures 60 inches is 15 hands high (15 × 4 = 60) and a horse halfway between 15 and 16 hands is 15.2 hands, or 62 inches tall (15 × 4 + 2 = 62) Because the subdivision of a hand is a base 4 system, a horse 64 inches high is 16.0 hands high, not 15.4. A designation of "15.5 hands" is not halfway between 15 and 16 hands, but rather reads 15 hands and five inches, an impossibility in a base 4 radix numbering system, where a hand is four inches.
History
Ancient Egypt
The hand, sometimes also called a handbreadth or handsbreadth, is an anthropic unit, originally based on the breadth of a male human hand, either with or without the thumb, or on the height of a clenched fist.
On surviving Ancient Egyptian cubit-rods, the royal cubit is divided into seven palms of four digits or fingers each. Five digits are equal to a hand, with thumb; and six to a closed fist. The royal cubit measured approximately 525 mm, so the width of the ancient Egyptian hand was about 94 mm.
Biblical use
In Biblical exegesis the hand measurement, as for example in the Vision of the Temple, Authorized Version , is usually taken to be palm or handbreadth, and in modern translations may be rendered as "handbreadth" or "three inches".
United Kingdom
The hand is a traditional unit in the UK. It was standardised at four inches by a statute of King Henry VIII in 1540, but some confusion between the various types of hand measurement, and particularly between the hand and the handsbreadth, appears to have persisted. Phillips's dictionary of 1706 gives four inches for the length of the handful or hand, and three inches for the handsbreadth; Mortimer gives the same, three inches for the Hand's-breadth, and four for the "Handful, or simply, Hand", but adds "The hand among horse-dealers, &c. is four-fingers' breadth, being the fist clenched, whereby the height of a horse is measured", thus equating "hand" with both the palm and the fist. Similarly, Wright's 1831 translation of Buffon mentions "A hand breadth (palmus), the breadth of the four fingers of the hand, or three inches", but the Encyclopædia Perthensis of 1816 gives under Palm (4): "A hand, or measure of lengths comprising three inches".
Use in measuring horses
Today the hand is used to measure the height of horses, ponies, and other equines. It is used in the US, and also in some other nations that use the metric system, such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland and the UK. In other parts of the world, including continental Europe, and in FEI-regulated international competition, horses are measured in metric units, usually metres or centimetres. In South Africa, measurements may be given in both hands and centimetres, while in Australia, the equestrian regulations stipulate that both measurements are to be given.
In those countries where hands are the usual unit for measuring horse height, inches rather than hands are commonly used in the measurement of smaller equines including miniature horses/ponies, miniature mules, donkeys, and Shetland ponies.
A horse is measured from the ground to the top of the highest non-variable point of the skeleton, the withers. For official measurement, the spinous process of the fifth thoracic vertebra may be identified by palpation, and marked if necessary. Some varieties of Miniature horses are measured at the base of the last true hairs of the mane rather than at the withers.
For international competition regulated by the Fédération Équestre Internationale (FEI) and for USEF competition in the US, a horse can be measured with shoes on or off. In the United Kingdom, official measurement of horses is overseen by the Joint Measurement Board (JMB). For JMB purposes, the shoes must be removed and the hooves correctly prepared for shoeing prior to measurement.
See also
Anthropic units
List of horse breeds
List of unusual units of measurement
Pony
Span (unit)
References
Customary units of measurement in the United States
Horses
Human-based units of measurement
Imperial units
Units of length | [
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221090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etti%20Plesch | Etti Plesch | Etti Plesch, born Maria Anna Paula Ferdinandine Gräfin von Wurmbrand-Stuppach (3 February 1914 – 28 April 2003), was an Austro-Hungarian countess, huntress, racehorse owner, and socialite. Plesch lost two of her six husbands to the same woman, Louise de Vilmorin, a French literary figure, and owned two winners of The Derby, in Psidium in 1961 and Henbit in 1980.
Early life
Born as Countess Maria Anna Paula Ferdinandine von Wurmbrand-Stuppach in Vienna, Austria, of Greco-Austrian heritage. "Etti", as she was known, was putatively the elder daughter of Count Ferdinand von Wurmbrand-Stuppach (1879–1933) and his wife May Baltazzi (1885–1981), but more likely was the countess's biological child by Count Josef Gizycki (1867-1926). Her mother, who was a cousin of Baroness Mary Vetsera, a mistress of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, said that Count Gizycki's main interest in life was "the pleasuring of women in a physical way .... He was amoral and cynical, but he was a marvelous lover." (Gizycki was famed in the early 1900s because of his stormy marriage to American newspaper heiress Cissy Patterson.)
Biography
Etti von Wurmbrand-Stuppach was raised in Vienna and in Moravia, with travels to other sites throughout Europe. From the age of 10 until she was 17, she was treated for tuberculosis at the Waltzaner Sanatorium in Davos, the setting for Thomas Mann's novel The Magic Mountain.
First marriage
At the age of 17, she fell in love with Count Wladimir Wladschi Mittrovsky von Mitrowitz (1901-1976), but was forbidden to marry him because he had a blood disease. She journeyed to New York and met American railway heir Clendenin Ryan, Jr (1905–1957), grandson of Thomas Fortune Ryan, marrying him on 20 February 1935, after he proposed on their third date, in Saint Patrick's Cathedral in New York. Mayor Fiorello La Guardia was best man.
Second marriage
The marriage lasted three months (they divorced in 1935 and the marriage was annulled in 1944), and she returned to Europe, where she met Hungarian Count Paul Pálffy ab Erdöd (1890–1968) and became his fourth of eight eventual wives in late 1935. They lived in Slovakia. Their life was taken up with tiger hunts in India; they both became good shots, killing stags, elephants, and antelopes. They attended the World Exposition of Shooting at Berlin, hosted by Hermann Göring. Shortly afterwards, Pálffy became smitten with siren-like writer Louise de Vilmorin (1902–1969) in Paris, divorced Etti in December 1937, and married Louise.
Third marriage
On the rebound, Etti married Count Tamás Esterházy de Galántha (1901–1964), descendant of the junior committal branch of a great princely family, on 5 March 1938, and went to live in his Devecser castle, in Hungary. They hunted, traveled, and had one daughter, Marie-Anna Berta Felicie Johanna Ghislaine Theodora Huberta Georgina Helene Genoveva (b. 12 December 1938 - d. 27 November 2021), known as "Bunny". Her daughter married in 1962 (and divorced 1972) the Hon. Dominic Elliot (b. 1931), younger son of the 5th Earl of Minto, and had issue two sons (the elder Alexander dying unmarried in 1985).
In 1942, she journeyed abroad alone, and her husband also fell under the spell of heartbreaker Vilmorin. He eloped with Vilmorin and divorced Etti in 1944. (Vilmorin and Esterházy never married.)
Fourth marriage
Etti's next husband was Austrian Count Sigismund Berchtold zu Ungarschütz (1900–1979), son of Count Leopold Berchtold, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who advised the Emperor to declare war on the Serbs, starting World War I. They wed in 1944 and divorced in 1949.
Fifth marriage
The fifth was Chicago millionaire William Deering Davis, who had been briefly married to silent film star Louise Brooks, in the 1930s; Plesch's marriage to Davis lasted from 1949 until their divorce in 1951.
Sixth marriage
In 1954, Etti married her last husband, Dr Árpád Plesch (1889–1974), a Hungarian lawyer, international financier, and collector of rare botanical books and pornographic esoterica. She met Plesch through her friends Gloria Guinness and Thomas "Loel" Guinness in Paris.
Thoroughbred racing
The very wealthy Dr. Plesch shared Etti Plesch's passion for Thoroughbred horse racing, for which she had been influenced by her maternal grandfather Alexander Baltazzi, who won the 1876 edition of the Epsom Derby with Kisber. Her husband and she began racing Thoroughbreds in 1954, and won major races such as the 1959 Coronation Cup with Nagami and that year's Irish Oaks with Discorea. Their 1961 Epsom Derby winner Psidium was bred by Etti Plesch and raced by the couple. Following her husband's death in 1974, she continued to race horses, and in 1970 won France's most prestigious race with Sassafras. In 1980, Etti Plesch became the only female owner to ever win the Epsom Derby twice when her horse Henbit won England's most prestigious race.
Among her other notable horses, Etti Plesch owned and raced Miswaki, a Group One winner in France as well as a stakes race winner in the United States, hat became an important sire of 97 stakes race winners and was the Leading broodmare sire in Great Britain and Ireland in 1999 and 2001.
The Plesches lived on the Avenue Foch in Paris, and at the Villa Leonina at Beaulieu-sur-Mer in the south of France, where he had a famous botanical garden.
After her husband's death in 1974, she took up partying and writing her memoirs, which were almost completed at the time of her death. They were edited by Hugo Vickers and published posthumously in 2007 as Horses and Husbands.
She died 28 April 2003 in Monte Carlo.
References
Further reading
Horses & Husbands – The Memoirs of Etti Plesch (2007) Dovecote Press
French racehorse owners and breeders
Owners of Epsom Derby winners
Owners of Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winners
Austrian countesses
Hungarian nobility
Esterházy family
Etti
Austrian expatriates in Hungary
Austrian expatriates in France
Austrian people of Greek descent
Nobility from Vienna
1914 births
2003 deaths | [
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221095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currawong | Currawong | Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus Strepera in the family Artamidae native to Australia. These are the grey currawong (Strepera versicolor), pied currawong (S. graculina), and black currawong (S. fuliginosa). The common name comes from the call of the familiar pied currawong of eastern Australia and is onomatopoeic. They were formerly known as crow-shrikes or bell-magpies. Despite their resemblance to crows and ravens, they are only distantly related to the corvidae, instead belonging to an Afro-Asian radiation of birds of superfamily Malaconotoidea.
They are not as terrestrial as the magpie and have shorter legs. They are omnivorous, foraging in foliage, on tree trunks and limbs, and on the ground, taking insects and larvae (often dug out from under the bark of trees), fruit, and the nestlings of other birds. They are distinguishable from magpies and crows by their comical flight style in amongst foliage, appearing to almost fall about from branch to branch as if they were inept flyers.
Taxonomy and evolution
Ornithologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe held that currawongs were more closely related to crows and ravens than the Australian magpie and butcherbirds, and duly placed them in the Corvidae. A review of the family Cracticidae by ornithologist John Albert Leach in 1914, during which he had studied their musculature, found that all three genera were closely related. Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade, which later became the family Artamidae in the official Australian checklist in 2008. The International Ornithologists’ Union has maintained the two clades as separate families, hence currawongs are listed along with butcherbirds, magpie and Peltops.
The family Cracticidae has its greatest diversity in Australia, which suggests that the radiation of its insectivorous and scavenger members to occupy various niches took place there. The butcherbirds became predators of small animals, much like the northern hemisphere shrikes, while the Australian magpie became a predominantly ground-hunting omnivore, with the currawongs generally hunting in both living and fallen trees, scavenging and hunting insects and small vertebrates, and occupying in Australia the niche of many Eurasian corvids.
A 2013 genetic analysis by Anna Kearns and colleagues confirmed the currawongs are a monophyletic group, with some indication that the black currawong lineage diverged from a common ancestor of the grey and pied currawongs (though sampling was limited and not the focus of the study). The common ancestor of butcherbirds and currawongs diverged from peltops between 28.3 and 16.9 million years ago, which followed the expansion of open habitat in Australia 30 to 25 million years ago. The ancestors of currawongs then diverged from the ancestor of butcherbirds and magpie between 17.3 and 9.8 million years ago.
Currawongs and indeed all members of the broader Artamidae are part of a larger group of African shrike-like birds including bushshrikes (Malaconotidae), helmetshrikes (Prionopidae), ioras (Aegithinidae), and vangas (Vangidae), which were defined as the superfamily Malaconotoidea by Cacraft and colleagues in 2004. They are thus only distantly related to crows and ravens, which are in a separate superfamily Corvoidea.
Species and races
Although there are several distinct forms, the number of species has varied between two and seven, with three currently recognised. (In 1870 the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London had a living specimen of each of the three species.) Several subspecies of the grey currawong are fairly distinctive and described on that species page.
Etymology
The term currawong itself is derived from the call of the pied currawong. However, the exact origin of term is unclear; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the local Jagera language from the Brisbane region, although the Dharug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility. Yungang as well as kurrawang and kurrawah are names from the Tharawal people of the Illawarra region.
Description
The three currawong species are sombre-plumaged dark grey or black birds with large bills. They resemble crows and ravens, although are slimmer in build with longer tails, booted tarsi and white pages on their wings and tails. Their flight is undulating. Male birds have longer bills than females. The reason for this is unknown but suggests differentiation in feeding technique.
The true currawongs are a little larger than the Australian magpie, smaller than the ravens (except possibly the little raven, which is only slightly larger on average), but broadly similar in appearance. They are easily distinguished by their yellow eyes, in contrast to the red eyes of a magpie and white eyes of Australian crows and ravens. Currawongs are also characterised by the hooked tips of their long, sharply pointed beaks.
Distribution and habitat
Currawongs are protected in NSW under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974.
Behaviour
Currawongs are dominant birds that can drive off other species, especially when settling around an area used or inhabited by people. They have been known to migrate to towns and cities during the winter. Birds congregate in loose flocks.
The female builds the nest and incubates the young alone, although both parents feed them. The nests are somewhat flimsy for birds their size.
Currawongs can be friendly to humans and may form long lasting relationships. As of September 2021, a currawong had been visiting the same property in the Barrington Tops area of New South Wales for over eighteen years.
References
External links
Currawong videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Sound and flight of the currawong – an artwork in a book format created by Wim de Vos and held by the Australian Library of Art, State Library of Queensland
Birds In Backyards – grey currawong
Birds In Backyards – pied currawong
Birds In Backyards – Birds Behaving Badly – Pied Currawong (Site on pest status of pied currawong)
^
Australian Aboriginal words and phrases
Taxa named by René Lesson | [
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221126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iv%C3%A1n%20Calder%C3%B3n%20%28boxer%29 | Iván Calderón (boxer) | Iván Calderón Marrero (born January 27, 1975) is a Puerto Rican former professional boxer who competed from 2001 to 2012. He is a two-weight world champion, having held the WBO mini flyweight title from 2003 to 2007 (making eleven successful defenses and being recognized as super champion by the organization), and the WBO, Ring magazine, and lineal light flyweight titles from 2007 to 2010 (making six successful defenses). Additionally, his August 2010 bout against Giovani Segura was named fight of the year by Ring magazine. As an amateur Calderón represented Puerto Rico in international competitions, including the 2000 Olympics.
Personal life
Iván Calderón was born in the municipality of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico and currently resides in a sector called "Las Americas" in Bayamón. Iván had a troubling childhood surrounded by violence and problems, which according to him has helped him develop more patience which has helped him in his personal life. Calderón attended middle school in José Nevárez Landrón School, located in Toa Baja, Puerto Rico. His first wife was Wilma Laguna, with whom he has two children, Wilvani and Iván junior. In an interview with El Nuevo Día he noted that he engaged Laguna on August 29, 1997 following a quinceañero and the couple married on February 5, 1999. According to him the couple had some disagreements when they met, based on some attitudes he presented, he also notes that he felt she was arrogant at first. However, on one day he decided to propose to her and after four months of establishing a relationship the couple moved in together. Calderón expressed that he is "too much of a house man" and claims that as a result of a rule established by his former wife any kind of non-familiar activity is prohibited on Sundays. In January 2009, it was made public that Calderón and Laguna had established a divorce process.
He is married to A. Maldonado Garcia Dennisse; a prepared and educated woman. Maldonado has his Bachelors of Business Administration from the University Ana G. Mendez. Currently has a daughter named Diannelys E. Calderon.
Calderón spends the money that he earns boxing on properties and he is associated with a company dedicated to satellite vehicle tracking. He is employed by the City of Guaynabo's Department of Sports and Recreation and has been involved in several youth-oriented charities in his native Puerto Rico, including lecturing in island schools and co-sponsoring a massive gift-giving effort in the town of Loíza's Three Kings festival in early 2006. As a result of his charitable efforts with children that live in poor communities he was awarded a special award at the World Boxing Organization's 2007 annual convention.
On November 16, 2011 Federal agents in Puerto Rico seized more than $4 million worth cocaine from a house owned by Calderon. Drug Enforcement Administration spokeswoman Laila Rico said 225 kilograms (nearly 500 pounds) of cocaine were found when agents raided the house in the coastal town of Humacao. Calderon denied knowledge of the narcotics and was never formally charged with an offence.
Amateur career
In 1993, Calderón defeated Miguel Cotto in the light flyweight division, when both boxers were in the early stages of amateur experience. Following this, both athletes developed a close friendship. Calderón lost to Brian Viloria once during his amateur boxing career, but defeated him three times before turning professional. In addition, Calderon competed as an international amateur in several tournaments, including the following:
1999 3rd place as a Light Flyweight at Pan-American Games in Winnipeg, Canada. Results were:
Defeated Wilfrido Valez (Colombia) points
Defeated Mendeo Winston (Dominican Republic) points
Lost to Maikro Romero (Cuba) points
2000 represented Puerto Rico as a light flyweight at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Result was:
Lost to Masara La Paene (Indonesia) points
Professional career
After turning professional, Calderón was frequently showcased on ESPN's Friday Night Fights show. On July 1, 2001, Calderón defeated José Manuel Ramírez by unanimous decision. During this fight, he suffered an open wound over his right eyebrow, which required surgery. On May 3, 2003, Calderón became a world champion for the first time, defeating Eduardo Marquez by a technical decision in nine rounds at Las Vegas, as part of the de la Hoya-Campas undercard, to win the World Boxing Organization's world strawweight title. He had dropped Marquez twice before the end of the fight. Calderón retained his title by a 12-round decision in his first defense, on September 5, over Lorenzo Trejo of Mexico, at Caguas, Puerto Rico. In his second defense, held at Bayamón, he defeated former world champion Alex Sanchez by a unanimous twelve-round decision. On March 20, 2004, he retained the championship with an eleventh-round knockout win over former International Boxing Federation world champion Edgar Cardenas, in Guaynabo. Before that fight, Calderón obtained his high school credit diploma.
On July 31, 2004, as part of the Morales-Hernandez undercard in Las Vegas, he retained his title once again, with a twelve-round decision win over former world champion Roberto Leyva. On November 23 of that year, he made his fifth defense, defeating Nicaraguan Carlos Fajardo by a twelve-round unanimous decision. As part of the Barrera-Morales III undercard. His fight with Fajardo was shown live on HBO's Pay per view. On April 30, of 2005, he retained the title with an eighth-round knockout victory over Noel Tunacao, a member of the Tunacao boxing family of the Philippines. On September 25, he retained his title for the seventh time, with a twelve-round unanimous decision over Mexico's Gerardo Verde, at Atlantic City, New Jersey.
On December 10, 2004, Calderón retained the title again, this time with a twelve-round unanimous decision over former world champion Daniel Reyes. Calderón began 2006 by defending his title successfully on February 18, with a twelve-round unanimous decision over Isaac Bustos in Las Vegas. He would defend his title successfully twice in 2006 after his fight with Isaac Bustos. On April 29 against Miguel Tellez winning the fight by technical knock out thus gaining his sixth knock out victory. He finished his boxing year on October 21 by defeating José Luis Varela of Venezuela by unanimous decision. Following this fight the World Boxing Organization recognized him as a WBO Super Champion for reaching ten successful title defenses. On his first fight of 2007 that took place on March 28 in Baranquilla, Colombia Calderón defeated Ronald Barrera by split decision. Following his fight against Barrera Calderón announced that he was interested in changing weight and challenge one of the champions in the light flyweight division thus finishing his minimum weight run after twelve successful defenses of the division's title.
During this timeframe, Freddie Roach selected Calderón as a sparring partner for Oscar De La Hoya. The reason for this was that the trainer was seeking a fast adversary. On November 16, 2008, Roach rememorated the event in his blog for The Ring, stating that "Calderon slapped Oscar around like it was unbelievable." The trainer also noted that he asked De La Hoya to pursue the offense, but the boxer's attempts were unsuccessful. In response, Calderón expressed that he participated in "three or four rounds" of sparring, during which he "gave him problems" and "made him uncomfortable", while De La Hoya "tried to hit" but seemed "out of timing". Similarly, Calderón competed against Shane Mosley in a four-round sparring match. The session was in preparation, serving as training for the first of a series of fights against Hugo Cázares. During the actual contest, Mosley had problems landing punches due to his adversary's speed. While Calderón recognized that his opponent's weight made the practice feel like a complete workout. Subsequently, Mosley expressed that "Iván uses the angles very well and sparring against someone that moves so much is fun". Calderón noted that competing against a heavier boxer helped him adjust to the pressure that could be presented by Cázares.
Light flyweight division
On August 25, 2007, Calderón defeated Hugo Cázares by split decision to become the WBO and Lineal Light Flyweight Champion. Calderón entered the ring accompanied by a display of fireworks, before a crowd that featured several media personalities, including Oscar De La Hoya. The size difference between both pugilists was evident since the moment that they stood next to each other prior to the beginning of the fight. Early in the fight Calderón's tactic consisted of connecting fast consecutive combinations while avoiding Cázares' punches. With this strategy he managed to stun Cazares with uppercuts and straight punches. During the fight the crowd displayed support for Calderón, at one point chanting "Olé" when his adversary's punches missed. In the third round Cázares displayed a more fluid offensive, but in the fifth he presented a strategy that consisted of only throwing power punches which seemed to benefit Calderón. In the seventh round Ivan's offensive pace slowed which benefited Hugo who improved on the offensive aspect. In the eighth round Cázares connected several hard punches which led to Calderón to rely on holds to slow his offense, in this round Cázares scored a knockdown. In the ninth he was in a defensive stance, and during the last rounds he continued this pattern and only connected solidly in the tenth round while Cázares missed several of the punches he threw. At the conclusion of the fight the judges awarded scores of 116-111 for Cázares and 115-112 twice for Calderón. With this victory he became the eleventh Puerto Rican boxer to win multiple world championships and unified this championship with the minimum division's one until he vacated it following the announcement that he was going to continue in the light flyweight division. The Ring also recognized Calderón as their champion, dethroning Cázares.
Calderón was successful on his first light flyweight title defense when he defeated Juan Esquer in a card that took place on December 1, 2007 in New Mexico. During the course of the fight Esquer was more active offensively. During the first four rounds of the match Calderón used his boxing skills to avoid being hit by the punches thrown by Esquer. From the fifth round onwards Calderón proceeded to exchange combinations of punches with Esquer, eventually gaining control of the fight's tempo. The fight lasted twelve rounds and Iván won the fight by unanimous decision with the judges awarding scores of 116-112, 118-110 and 115-113. Calderón's second defense in the light flyweight division took place on April 4, 2008, where he defeated Nelson Dieppa by unanimous decision. The three judges awarded him identical scores of 120-108.
Following a protest, the World Boxing Organization named Cázares the mandatory challenger for the championship. The event was scheduled for August 30, 2008. Calderón entered the ring dressed as a matador in reference to his boxing style, which provoked "Olé" chants from the public. In the early stages, the fight's pattern was similar to the first meeting. Calderón relied on counter punching while boxing to avoid Cázares' offensive. Late in the first round, the challenger fell following a combination, but the referee declared that it was an accidental slip. In the following rounds, Cázares tried pressuring in the offensive, but Calderón continued boxing and held his opponent if approached. The challenger was momentarily stunned by an uppercut in the final seconds of the third episode. Cázares' technique in the next two rounds consisted of throwing punches to the body, while his offensive to the head was being stopped by his opponent's forearms. In the sixth round, Calderón focused on his defense, slowing the pace of his offensive. In the seventh episode, an accidental head clash opened a laceration in Calderón's forehead. Who was examined by the ringside doctor, after expressing that he was feeling disoriented. The physician recommended stopping the fight. Due to the circumstances, the outcome was decided by the judges' score cards, which favored Calderón 67-66 and 68-65 twice. Following the event, he announced his intention to participate in a unification match against one of the other light flyweight champions. Due to the nature of this injury, the Puerto Rico Boxing Commission prohibited Calderón participation in any card within 120 days. Two weeks after the contest, the wound was reopened and he underwent plastic surgery to prevent reinjury. On September 23, 2008, Peter Rivera announced that Calderón was expected to return between January and February 2009. Rivera noted that the fight would be against one of the other light flyweight champions, most likely César Canchila, citing that although both Ulises Solís and Edgar Sosa were approached, with both claiming to be available, neither one actually pursued serious negotiations. He subsequently stated that negotiations had been extended to Solís' representatives, but that those of Sosa still declined, citing that "[He] is a fighter that has always refused to fight with Iván. His managers don't want to sacrifice him and prefer to keep him in Mexico competing in soft fights." In the meanwhile, he received a homage as part of the Dominican Parade in San Juan, serving as Padrino Internacional (lit. "International Godfather") along Juan Manuel López.
On June 13, 2009, Calderón defended the championship against Rodel Mayol. During the first stage, both pugilists fought in the middle of the ring, while he focused on attacking the body while the challenger employed jabs. During the second and third rounds, Mayol pressured the offensive, managing to land a moderate number of punches. In the fourth round, Calderón began pursuing the offensive, while avoiding Mayol's punches. This continued in the following chapter, but a head clash opened another laceration on his forehead, he continued the contest, but was more aggressive from this point onwards. Calderón's corner tried to stop the bleeding, but the referee suspended the contest during the sixth round after these attempts proven unsuccessful. The fight was declared a technical draw, with both fighters receiving a 58-56 card while the third judge scored in 57-57. An immediate rematch was scheduled three months later. Calderón began this contest by effectively avoiding Mayol's constant attack, while throwing limited punches. This pattern continued during the following three rounds. In the fifth, Mayol connected his best punch of the fight, winning the round. To retaliate, Calderón became more aggressive, throwing more combinations. The seventh round began with exchanges from both boxers, but a head clash opens another laceration that stops the fight. The contest was declared a technical decision, with the judges offering scores of 68-65 twice for Calderón and 68-65 for Mayol.
Retirement
On October 29, 2012, almost a month after his last fight, Calderón officially announced his retirement from professional boxing. The announcement was made during the inauguration of the Félix Pagán Pintor Gymnasium in Guaynabo, Puerto Rico. Calderón will now work as administrator of the gymnasium.
Professional boxing record
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!
!Result
!Record
!Opponent
!Type
!Round, time
!Date
!Location
!Notes
|-
|39
|Loss
|35–3–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Moisés Fuentes
|TKO
|5 (12),
|6 Oct 2012
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|38
|Win
|35–2–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Felipe Rivas
|SD
|12
|29 Oct 2011
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|37
|Loss
|34–2–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Giovani Segura
|KO
|3 (12),
|2 Apr 2011
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|36
|Loss
|34–1–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Giovani Segura
|KO
|8 (12),
|28 Aug 2010
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|35
|Win
|34–0–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Jesus Iribe
|UD
|12
|12 Jun 2010
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|34
|Win
|33–0–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Rodel Mayol
|TD
|7 (12),
|12 Sep 2009
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|33
|Draw
|32–0–1
|style="text-align:left;"| Rodel Mayol
|
|6 (12),
|13 Jun 2009
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|32
|Win
|32–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Hugo Cázares
|TD
|7 (12),
|30 Aug 2008
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|31
|Win
|31–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Nelson Dieppa
|UD
|12
|5 Apr 2008
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|30
|Win
|30–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Juan Esquer
|UD
|12
|1 Dec 2007
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|29
|Win
|29–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Hugo Cázares
|SD
|12
|25 Aug 2007
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|28
|Win
|28–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Ronald Barrera
|
|12
|28 Apr 2007
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|27
|Win
|27–0
|style="text-align:left;"| José Luis Varela
|UD
|12
|21 Oct 2006
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|26
|Win
|26–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Miguel Tellez
|TKO
|9 (12),
|29 Apr 2006
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|25
|Win
|25–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Isaac Bustos
|UD
|12
|18 Feb 2006
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|24
|Win
|24–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Daniel Reyes
|UD
|12
|10 Dec 2005
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|23
|Win
|23–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Gerardo Verde
|UD
|12
|25 Jun 2005
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|22
|Win
|22–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Noel Tunacao
|TKO
|8 (12),
|30 Apr 2005
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|21
|Win
|21–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Carlos Fajardo
|UD
|12
|27 Nov 2004
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|20
|Win
|20–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Roberto Carlos Leyva
|UD
|12
|31 Jul 2004
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|19
|Win
|19–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Edgar Cardenas
|KO
|11 (12),
|20 Mar 2004
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|18
|Win
|18–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Alex Sánchez
|UD
|12
|6 Dec 2003
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|17
|Win
|17–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Lorenzo Trejo
|UD
|12
|5 Sep 2003
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|16
|Win
|16–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Eduardo Ray Marquez
|
|9 (12),
|3 May 2003
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|15
|Win
|15–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Juan Carlos Perez
|UD
|10
|7 Mar 2003
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|14
|Win
|14–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Valentin Leon
|UD
|10
|20 Dec 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|13
|Win
|13–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Lee Marvin Sandoval
|UD
|12
|22 Nov 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|
|-
|12
|Win
|12–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Roberto Gomez
|UD
|10
|6 Sep 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|11
|Win
|11–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Alejandro Moreno
|UD
|10
|30 Jul 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|10
|Win
|10–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Carlos Lopez
|UD
|4
|3 May 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|9
|Win
|9–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Jorge Romero
|TKO
|4 (8)
|1 Mar 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|8
|Win
|8–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Mike Thomas
|UD
|8
|11 Jan 2002
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|7
|Win
|7–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Jorge Romero
|UD
|8
|28 Oct 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|6
|Win
|6–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Alberto Rossel
|UD
|8
|26 Aug 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|5
|Win
|5–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Jose Manuel Ramirez
|UD
|6
|1 Jul 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|4
|Win
|4–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Iran Ethridge
|
|1 (4),
|20 May 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|3
|Win
|3–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Benjamin Escobia
|UD
|4
|29 Apr 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|2
|Win
|2–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Arturo Velazquez
|
|4
|25 Mar 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
|-
|1
|Win
|1–0
|style="text-align:left;"| Sergio Diaz
|
|1 (4),
|17 Feb 2001
|style="text-align:left;"|
|
See also
List of WBO world champions
List of Puerto Ricans
Boxing at the 2000 Summer Olympics
List of Puerto Rican boxing world champions
References
External links
Iván Calderón Video Interview @ FightFan.com
1975 births
Living people
People from Guaynabo, Puerto Rico
Boxers at the 1999 Pan American Games
Boxers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
World light-flyweight boxing champions
Olympic boxers of Puerto Rico
World Boxing Organization champions
Mini-flyweight boxers
World mini-flyweight boxing champions
Puerto Rican male boxers
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Puerto Rico
Pan American Games medalists in boxing
Central American and Caribbean Games bronze medalists for Puerto Rico
Competitors at the 1998 Central American and Caribbean Games
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in boxing
Medalists at the 1999 Pan American Games | [
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221145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosimo%20I%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany | Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany | Cosimo I de' Medici (12 June 1519 – 21 April 1574) was the second Duke of Florence from 1537 until 1569, when he became the first Grand Duke of Tuscany, a title he held until his death.
Life
Rise to power
Cosimo was born in Florence on 12 June 1519, the son of the famous condottiere Ludovico de' Medici (known as Giovanni delle Bande Nere) and his wife Maria Salviati, herself a granddaughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was the grandson of Caterina Sforza, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola. Cosimo came to power in 1537 at age 17, just after the 26-year-old Duke of Florence, Alessandro de' Medici, was assassinated. Cosimo was from a different branch of the Medici family, descended from Giovanni il Popolano, the great-grandson of Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, founder of the Medici Bank. It was necessary to search for a successor outside of the "senior" branch of the Medici family descended from Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici, since the only male child of Alessandro, the last lineal descendant of the senior branch, was born out-of-wedlock and was only four years' old at the time of his father's death. Up to the time of his accession, Cosimo had lived only in Mugello (the ancestral homeland of the Medici family) and was almost unknown in Florence. However, many of the influential men in the city favoured him as the new duke. Several hoped to rule through him, thereby enriching themselves at the state's expense. However, as the Florentine literatus Benedetto Varchi famously put it, "The innkeeper's reckoning was different from the glutton's." Cosimo proved strong-willed, astute and ambitious and soon rejected the clause he had signed that entrusted much of the power of the Florentine duchy to a Council of Forty-Eight.
When the Florentine exiles heard of the death of Alessandro, they marshalled their forces with support from France and from disgruntled neighbors of Florence. During this time, Cosimo had an illegitimate daughter, Bia (1537 – 1542), who was portrayed shortly before her premature death in a painting by Bronzino.
Toward the end of July 1537, the exiles marched into Tuscany under the leadership of Bernardo Salviati and Piero Strozzi. When Cosimo heard of their approach, he sent his best troops under Alessandro Vitelli to engage the enemy, which they did at Montemurlo. After defeating the exiles' army, Vitelli stormed the fortress, where Strozzi and a few of his companions had retreated to safety. It fell after only a few hours, and Cosimo celebrated his first victory. The prominent prisoners were subsequently beheaded on the Piazza della Signoria or in the Bargello. Filippo Strozzi's body was found with a bloody sword next to it and a note quoting Virgil, but many believe that his suicide was faked.
Rule of Tuscany
In 1537, Cosimo sent Bernardo Antonio de' Medici to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to gain recognition for his position as head of the Florentine state. That recognition came in June 1537 in exchange for help against France in the course of the Italian Wars. With this move, Cosimo firmly restored the power of the Medici, who thereafter ruled Florence until the death of the last of the Medici rulers, Gian Gastone de' Medici, in 1737. The help granted to Charles V allowed him to free Tuscany from the Imperial garrisons and to increase as much as possible its independence from the overwhelming Spanish influence in Italy.
Cosimo next turned his attention to Siena. With the support of Charles V, he defeated the Sienese at the Battle of Marciano in 1554 and laid siege to their city. Despite the inhabitants' desperate resistance, the city fell on 17 April 1555 after a 15-month siege, its population diminished from forty thousand to eight thousand. In 1559, Montalcino, the last redoubt of Sienese independence, was annexed to Cosimo's territories. In 1569, Pope Pius V elevated him to the rank of Grand Duke of Tuscany.
In the last 10 years of his reign, struck by the death of two of his sons by malaria, Cosimo gave up active rule of the Florentine state to his son and successor Francesco I. He retreated to live in his villa, the Villa di Castello, outside Florence.
Statesmanship
Cosimo was an authoritarian ruler and secured his position by employing a guard of Swiss mercenaries. In 1548, he managed to have his relative Lorenzino, the last Medici claimant to Florence who had earlier arranged the assassination of Cosimo's predecessor Alessandro, assassinated himself in Venice.
Cosimo also was an active builder of military structures, as a part of his attempt to save the Florentine state from the frequent passage of foreign armies. Examples include the new fortresses of Siena, Arezzo, Sansepolcro, the new walls of Pisa and Fivizzano and the strongholds of Portoferraio on the island of Elba and Terra del Sole.
He laid heavy tax burdens on his subjects. Despite his economic difficulties, Cosimo I was a lavish patron of the arts and also developed the Florentine navy, which eventually took part in the Battle of Lepanto, and which he entrusted to his new creation, the Knights of St. Stephen.
Patronage of the arts
Cosimo is perhaps best known today for the creation of the Uffizi ("offices"). Originally intended as a means of consolidating his administrative control of the various committees, agencies, and guilds established in Florence's Republican past, it now houses one of the world's most important collections of art, much of it commissioned and/or owned by various members of the Medici family.
His gardens at Villa di Castello, designed by Niccolò Tribolo when Cosimo was only seventeen years old, were designed to announce a new golden age for Florence and to demonstrate the magnificence and virtues of the Medici. They were decorated with fountains, a labyrinth, a grotto and ingenious ornamental water features, and were a prototype for the Italian Renaissance garden. They had a profound influence on later Italian and French gardens through the eighteenth century.
Cosimo also finished the Pitti Palace as a home for the Medici and created the magnificent Boboli Gardens behind the Pitti. As his more prominent ancestors had been, he was also an important patron of the arts, supporting, among others, Giorgio Vasari, Benvenuto Cellini, Pontormo, Bronzino, the architect Baldassarre Lanci, and the historians Scipione Ammirato and Benedetto Varchi.
A large bronze equestrian statue of Cosimo I by Giambologna, erected in 1598, still stands today in the Piazza della Signoria, the main square of Florence.
Cosimo was also an enthusiast of alchemy, a passion he inherited from his grandmother Caterina Sforza.
Marriage and family
In 1539, Cosimo married the Spanish noblewoman Eleanor of Toledo (1522 – 1562), the daughter of Don Pedro Álvarez de Toledo, the Spanish viceroy of Naples and third cousin to Emperor Charles V himself. The couple had a long and peaceful married life. Surprisingly for the era, Cosimo was faithful to his wife throughout their married life. The example of a traditional couple served to strengthen his various reforms and separate their association with the former Duke. Eleanor was a political adviser to her husband and often ruled Florence in his absence. She provided the Medici with the Pitti Palace and was a patron of the new Jesuit order.
The Duchess died with her sons Giovanni and Garzia in 1562, when she was only forty; all three of them were struck down by malaria while traveling to Pisa.
With Eleanor, Cosimo fathered eleven children:
Maria (April 3, 1540 – November 19, 1557), engaged to Alfonso di Ercole II d'Este, but died before the marriage
Francesco (March 25, 1541 – October 19, 1587), Cosimo's successor as Grand Duke of Tuscany
Isabella (31 August 1542 – 16 July 1576), murdered by her husband Paolo Giordano I Orsini because of infidelity
Giovanni (28 September 1543 – November 1562), who became Bishop of Pisa and a cardinal
Lucrezia (7 June 1545 – 21 April 1561), who married Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara and Modena, in 1560
Pietro (Pedricco) (10 August 1546 – 10 June 1547), who died in infancy
Garzia (5 July 1547 – 12 December 1562), who died of malaria at age 15
Antonio (July 1, 1548 – July 1548), who died in infancy
Ferdinando (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609), Francesco's successor as Grand Duke of Tuscany
Anna (19 March 1553 – 6 August 1553), who died in infancy
Pietro (3 June 1554 – 25 April 1604), who murdered his wife Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo because of infidelity
Before his first marriage, Cosimo fathered an illegitimate daughter with an unknown woman:
Bia de' Medici (ca. 1536 – March 1, 1542)
After Eleanor's death in 1562, Cosimo fathered two children with his mistress Eleonora degli Albizzi:
an unnamed daughter (born and died 1566) who died before baptismGiovanni (1567 – 1621), later legitimized by his father
In 1570, Cosimo married Camilla Martelli (died 1590) and fathered one child with her:
Virginia (29 May 1568 – 15 January 1615), who married Cesare d'Este, Duke of Modena
Ancestry
References
Sources
Further reading
Henk Th. Van Veen, Cosimo I de' Medici and his Self-Representation in Florentine Art and Culture (Cambridge, CUP, 2006).
Gáldy, Andrea M. Cosimo I de'Medici as collector: antiquities and archaeology in sixteenth-century Florence'' (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009).
External links
Tales From The Crypt: Reports On The Exhumation Of The Medici Tombs In Italy
|-
Cosimo 1
1519 births
1574 deaths
Cosimo 1
Cosimo 1
Nobility from Florence
Italian patrons of the arts
Knights of the Golden Fleece
1560s in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
1570s in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
16th century in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
16th-century Italian nobility
16th-century monarchs in Europe
Italian art patrons | [
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] |
221151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal%20tiger | Bengal tiger | The Bengal tiger is a population of the Panthera tigris tigris subspecies. It ranks among the biggest wild cats alive today. It is considered to belong to the world's charismatic megafauna.
The tiger is estimated to have been present in the Indian subcontinent since the Late Pleistocene, for about 12,000 to 16,500 years.
Today, it is threatened by poaching, loss and fragmentation of habitat, and was estimated at comprising fewer than 2,500 wild individuals by 2011. None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within its range is considered large enough to support an effective population of more than 250 adult individuals.
The Bengal tiger's historical range covered almost all of India and into Pakistan's Indus River valley until the early 19th century. Today, it inhabits India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and southern Tibet. India's tiger population was estimated at 2,603–3,346 individuals by 2018. Around 300–500 individuals are estimated in Bangladesh, 220–274 in Nepal by 2018, and 90 individuals in Bhutan by 2015.
Taxonomy
Felis tigris was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the tiger. It was subordinated to the genus Panthera by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1929. Bengal is the traditional type locality of the species and the nominate subspecies Panthera tigris tigris.
The validity of several tiger subspecies in continental Asia was questioned in 1999. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognise only two subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland.
The nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades: the northern clade comprises the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and the southern clade all remaining continental tiger populations. The extinct and living tiger populations in continental Asia have been subsumed to P. t. tigris since the revision of felid taxonomy in 2017.
Results of a genetic analysis of 32 tiger samples indicate that the Bengal tiger samples grouped into a different monophyletic clade than the Siberian tiger samples.
Genetic ancestry
The Bengal tiger is defined by three distinct mitochondrial nucleotide sites and 12 unique microsatellite alleles. The pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger corresponds to the premise that it arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. This is consistent with the lack of tiger fossils from the Indian subcontinent prior to the late Pleistocene, and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which was separated from the subcontinent by rising sea levels in the early Holocene.
Characteristics
The Bengal tiger's coat is yellow to light orange, with stripes ranging from dark brown to black; the belly and the interior parts of the limbs are white, and the tail is orange with black rings. The white tiger is a recessive mutant, which is reported in the wild from time to time in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, and especially in the former State of Rewa. However, it is not an occurrence of albinism. In fact, there is only one fully authenticated case of a true albino tiger, and none of black tigers, with the possible exception of one dead specimen examined in Chittagong in 1846.
Males and females have an average total length of and respectively, including a tail of long. They typically range in height at the shoulders. The standard weight of males ranges from , while that of the females ranges from .
The smallest recorded weights for Bengal tigers are from the Bangladesh Sundarbans, where adult females are .
The tiger has exceptionally stout teeth. Its canines are long and thus the longest among all cats. The greatest length of its skull is .
Body weight and size
Bengal tigers reach a head-to-body length of plus a tail of and a weight of up to . Several scientists indicated that adult male Bengal tigers in the Terai consistently attain more than of body weight. Seven adult males captured in Chitwan National Park in the early 1970s had an average weight of ranging from , and that of the females was ranging from . Two male tigers captured in Chitwan National Park exceeded weights of and are the largest free ranging tigers reported to date.
Three tigresses from the Bangladesh Sundarbans had a mean weight of . The oldest female weighed and was in a relatively poor condition at the time of capture. Their skulls and body weights were distinct from those of tigers in other habitats, indicating that they may have adapted to the unique conditions of the mangrove habitat. Their small sizes are probably due to a combination of intense intraspecific competition and small size of prey available to tigers in the Sundarbans, compared to the larger deer and other prey available to tigers in other parts.
The very large "Leeds Tiger" on display at Leeds City Museum, shot in 1860 near Mussoorie, had a body length of at death. Two tigers shot in Kumaon District and near Oude at the end of the 19th century allegedly measured more than . But at the time, sportsmen had not yet adopted a standard system of measurement; some measured 'between the pegs' while others measured 'over the curves'. The greatest length of a tiger skull measured "over the bone"; this one was shot in the vicinity of Nagina in northern India.
In the beginning of the 20th century, a male tiger was shot in central India with a head and body length of between pegs, a chest girth of , a shoulder height of and a tail length of , which was perhaps bitten off by a rival male. This specimen could not be weighed, but it was calculated to weigh no less than . A male weighing was shot in northern India in the 1930s. A male tiger shot in Nepal weighed and measured 'over the curves'.
The heaviest wild tiger was possibly a huge male killed in 1967 at the foothills of the Himalayas. It weighed after eating a buffalo calf; it measured in total length between pegs, and over curves. Without eating the calf beforehand, it would have likely weighed at least . This specimen is on exhibition in the Mammals Hall of the Smithsonian Institution. In the Central Provinces of India, a male tiger shot weighed and measured .
Thus, the Bengal tiger rivals the Siberian tiger in average weight.
Distribution and habitat
In 1982, a sub-fossil right middle phalanx was found in a prehistoric midden near Kuruwita in Sri Lanka, which is dated to about 16,500 ybp and tentatively considered to be of a tiger. Tigers appear to have arrived in Sri Lanka during a pluvial period, during which sea levels were depressed, evidently prior to the last glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago. The tiger probably arrived too late in southern India to colonise Sri Lanka, which earlier had been connected to India by a land bridge.
Results of a phylogeographic study using 134 samples from tigers across the global range suggest that the historical northeastern distribution limit of the Bengal tiger is the region in the Chittagong Hills and Brahmaputra River basin, bordering the historical range of the Indochinese tiger.
In the Indian subcontinent, tigers inhabit tropical moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, tropical and subtropical moist deciduous forests, mangroves, subtropical and temperate upland forests, and alluvial grasslands. Latter habitat once covered a huge swath of grassland, riverine and moist semi-deciduous forests along the major river system of the Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, but has now been largely converted to agricultural land or severely degraded. Today, the best examples of this habitat type are limited to a few blocks at the base of the outer foothills of the Himalayas including the Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs) Rajaji-Corbett, Bardia-Banke, and the transboundary TCUs Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki, Dudhwa-Kailali and Shuklaphanta-Kishanpur. Tiger densities in these TCUs are high, in part because of the extraordinary biomass of ungulate prey.
In Pakistan, Khairpur was the last stronghold of the tiger by the late 19th century; the last individuals were shot in 1906 in Bahawalpur in the Indus Riverine jungles.
India
In the 20th century, Indian censuses of wild tigers relied on the individual identification of footprints known as pug marks – a method that has been criticised as deficient and inaccurate. Camera traps are now being used in many sites.
Good tiger habitats in subtropical and temperate forests include the Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs) Manas-Namdapha. TCUs in tropical dry forest include Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kanha-Indravati corridor, Orissa dry forests, Panna National Park, Melghat Tiger Reserve and Ratapani Tiger Reserve. The TCUs in tropical moist deciduous forest are probably some of the most productive habitats for tigers and their prey, and include Kaziranga-Meghalaya, Kanha-Pench, Simlipal and Indravati Tiger Reserves. The TCUs in tropical moist evergreen forests represent the less common tiger habitats, being largely limited to the upland areas and wetter parts of the Western Ghats, and include the tiger reserves of Periyar, Kalakad-Mundathurai, Bandipur and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.
During a tiger census in 2008, camera trap and sign surveys using GIS were employed to estimate site-specific densities of tiger, co-predators and prey. Based on the result of these surveys, the total tiger population was estimated at 1,411 individuals ranging from 1,165 to 1,657 adult and sub-adult tigers of more than 1.5 years of age. Across India, six landscape complexes were surveyed that host tigers and have the potential to be connected. These landscapes comprise the following:
in the Sivaliks–Gangetic flood plain landscape there are six populations with an estimated population size of 259 to 335 individuals in an area of of forested habitats, which are located in Rajaji and Corbett National Parks, in the connected habitats of Dudhwa-Kheri-Pilibhit, in Suhelwa Tiger Reserve, in Sohagi Barwa Sanctuary and in Valmiki National Park;
in the Central Indian highlands there are 17 populations with an estimated population size of 437 to 661 individuals in an area of of forested habitats, which are located in the landscapes of Kanha-Pench, Satpura-Melghat, Sanjay-Palamau, Navegaon-Indravati; isolated populations are supported in the tiger reserves of Bandhavgarh, Tadoba, Simlipal and the national parks of Panna, Ranthambore–Kuno–Palpur–Madhav and Saranda;
in the Eastern Ghats landscape there is a single population with an estimated population size of 49 to 57 individuals in a habitat in three separate forest blocks located in the Srivenkateshwara National Park, Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve and the adjacent proposed Gundla Brahmeshwara National Park, and forest patches in the tehsils of Kanigiri, Badvel, Udayagiri and Giddalur;
in the Western Ghats landscape there are seven populations with an estimated population size of 336 to 487 individuals in a forested area of in three major landscape units Periyar-Kalakad-Mundathurai, Bandipur-Parambikulam-Sathyamangalam-Mudumalai-Anamalai-Mukurthi and Anshi-Kudremukh-Dandeli;
in the Brahmaputra flood plains and northeastern hills tigers live in an area of in several patchy and fragmented forests;
in the Sundarbans National Park tigers live in about of mangrove forest.
Manas-Namdapha, Orang-Laokhowa and Kaziranga-Meghalaya are Tiger Conservation Units in northeastern India, stretching over at least across several protected areas. Tigers are also present in Pakke Tiger Reserve. In the Mishmi Hills, tigers were recorded in 2017 up to an elevation of in snow.
Ranthambore National Park hosts India's westernmost tiger population. The Dangs' Forest in southeastern Gujarat is potential tiger habitat.
As of 2014, the Indian tiger population was estimated to range over an area of and number 2,226 adult and subadult tigers older than one year. About 585 tigers were present in the Western Ghats, where Radhanagari and Sahyadri Tiger Reserves were newly established. The largest population resided in Corbett Tiger Reserve with about 215 tigers. The Central Indian tiger population is fragmented and depends on wildlife corridors that facilitate connectivity between protected areas. By 2018, the population had increased to an estimated 2,603–3,346 individuals.
In May 2018, a tiger was recorded in Sahyadri Tiger Reserve for the first time in eight years.
In February 2019, a tiger was sighted in Gujarat's Lunavada area in Mahisagar district, and found dead shortly afterwards. Officials assumed that it originated in Ratapani Tiger Reserve and travelled about over two years. It probably died of starvation. In May 2019, camera traps recorded tigers in Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary and Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park, the first records in Goa since 2013.
The tigers in the Sundarbans in India and Bangladesh are the only ones in the world inhabiting mangrove forests. The population in the Indian Sundarbans was estimated as 86-90 individuals in 2018.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, tigers are now relegated to the forests of the Sundarbans and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Chittagong forest is contiguous with tiger habitat in India and Myanmar, but the tiger population is of unknown status.
As of 2004, population estimates in Bangladesh ranged from 200 to 419 individuals, most of them in the Sundarbans. This region is the only mangrove habitat in this bioregion, where tigers survive, swimming between islands in the delta to hunt prey. Bangladesh's Forest Department is raising mangrove plantations supplying forage for spotted deer. Since 2001, afforestation has continued on a small scale in the Sundarbans.
From October 2005 to January 2007, the first camera trap survey was conducted across six sites in the Bangladesh Sundarbans to estimate tiger population density. The average of these six sites provided an estimate of 3.7 tigers per . Since the Bangladesh Sundarbans is an area of , it was inferred that the total tiger population comprised approximately 200 individuals.
Home ranges of adult female tigers were recorded comprising between , which would indicate an approximate carrying capacity of 150 adult females. The small home range of adult female tigers and consequent high density of tigers in this habitat type relative to other areas may be related to both the high density of prey and the small size of the Sundarban tigers.
Since 2007, tiger monitoring surveys have been carried out every year by WildTeam in the Bangladesh Sundarbans to monitor changes in the Bangladesh tiger population and assess the effectiveness of conservation actions. This survey measures changes in the frequency of tiger track sets along the sides of tidal waterways as an index of relative tiger abundance across the Sundarbans landscape.
By 2009, the tiger population in the Bangladesh Sundarbans was estimated as 100–150 adult females or 335–500 tigers overall. Female home ranges, recorded using Global Positioning System collars, were some of the smallest recorded for tigers, indicating that the Bangladesh Sundarbans could have one of the highest densities and largest populations of tigers anywhere in the world. They are isolated from the next tiger population by a distance of up to . Information is lacking on many aspects of Sundarbans tiger ecology, including relative abundance, population status, spatial dynamics, habitat selection, life history characteristics, taxonomy, genetics, and disease. There is also no monitoring program in place to track changes in the tiger population over time, and therefore no way of measuring the response of the population to conservation activities or threats. Most studies have focused on the tiger-human conflict in the area, but two studies in the Sundarbans East Wildlife sanctuary documented habitat-use patterns of tigers, and abundances of tiger prey, and another study investigated tiger parasite load. Some major threats to tigers have been identified. The tigers living in the Sundarbans are threatened by habitat destruction, prey depletion, highly aggressive and rampant intraspecific competition, tiger-human conflict, and direct tiger loss.
By 2017, this population was estimated at 84–158 individuals.
A rising sea-level due to climate change is projected to cause a severe loss of suitable habitat for this population in the following decades, around 50% by 2050 and 100% by 2070.
Nepal
The tiger population in the Terai of Nepal is split into three isolated subpopulations that are separated by cultivation and densely settled habitat. The largest population lives in Chitwan National Park and in the adjacent Parsa National Park encompassing an area of of prime lowland forest. To the west, the Chitwan population is isolated from the one in Bardia National Park and adjacent unprotected habitat farther west, extending to within of the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, which harbours the smallest population.
From February to June 2013, a camera trapping survey was carried out in the Terai Arc Landscape, across an area of in 14 districts. The country's tiger population was estimated at 163–235 breeding adults comprising 102–152 tigers in the Chitwan-Parsa protected areas, 48–62 in Bardia-Banke National Parks and 13–21 in Shuklaphanta National Park.
Between November 2017 and April 2018, the third nationwide survey for tiger and prey was conducted in the Terai Arc Landscape; the country's population was estimated at 220–274 tigers.
Bhutan
In Bhutan, tigers have been documented in 17 of 18 districts. They inhabit the subtropical Himalayan foothills at an elevation of in the south to over in the temperate forests in the north. Their stronghold appears to be the country's central belt between the Mo River in the west and the Kulong River in the east ranging in elevation from . By 2005, Bhutan's tiger population was estimated at 103 individuals.
Royal Manas and Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Parks form the largest contiguous tiger conservation area in Bhutan representing subtropical to alpine habitat types.
In 2010, camera traps recorded a tiger pair at elevations of . As of 2015, the tiger population in Bhutan was estimated at 89 to 124 individuals in a survey area of .
In 2008, a tiger was recorded at an elevation of in Jigme Dorji National Park, which is the highest elevation record of a tiger known to date. In 2017, a tiger was recorded for the time in Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary. It probably used a wildlife corridor to reach northeastern Bhutan.
Bhutan's tiger population was estimated at 90 individuals comprising 60 females and 30 males with a population density estimate of 0.19–0.31 tigers per by March 2015.
Tibet
The presence of the Bengal tiger in southeastern Tibet was investigated in 1995 when the loss of livestock was high in Mêdog County due to a large predator. Tiger paw prints were found on pastures around several villages.
One tiger was shot in 1996, and about 4–5 tigers were reported by officials in the area by 1999.
About 8–12 tigers were thought to remain in this area a decade later.
A camera trapping and interview survey during 2013–2018 in nine potential sites in Mêdog County revealed that only 1–3 non-resident individuals might be entering the area south of the Yarlung Tsangpo river, but only during the dry season from October to March.
In early 2019, a Bengal tiger was photographed twice at an elevation of in a broadleaved forest in Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon National Nature Reserve.
Ecology and behaviour
The basic social unit of the tiger is the elemental one of female and her offspring. Adult animals congregate only temporarily when special conditions permit, such as plentiful supplies of food. Otherwise, they lead solitary lives, hunting individually for the forest and grassland animals, upon which they prey. Resident adults of either sex maintain home ranges, confining their movements to definite habitats within which they satisfy their needs and those of their cubs, which includes prey, water and shelter. In this site, they also maintain contact with other tigers, especially those of the opposite sex. Those sharing the same ground are well aware of each other's movements and activities. In Chitwan National Park, radio-collared subadult tigers started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months. Four females stayed closer to their mother's home range than 10 males. Latter dispersed between . None of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than wide, but moved through prime alluvial and forested habitat.
In the Panna Tiger Reserve an adult radio-collared male tiger moved between locations on successive days in winter, and in summer. His home range was about in summer and in winter. Included in his home range were the much smaller home ranges of two females, a tigress with cubs and a subadult tigress. They occupied home ranges of .
The home ranges occupied by adult male residents tend to be mutually exclusive, even though one of these residents may tolerate a transient or sub-adult male at least for a time. A male tiger keeps a large territory in order to include the home ranges of several females within its bounds, so that he may maintain mating rights with them. Spacing among females is less complete. Typically there is partial overlap with neighbouring female residents. They tend to have core areas, which are more exclusive, at least for most of the time. Home ranges of both males and females are not stable. The shift or alteration of a home range by one animal is correlated with a shift of another. Shifts from less suitable habitat to better ones are made by animals that are already resident. New animals become residents only as vacancies occur when a former resident moves out or dies. There are more places for resident females than for resident males.
During seven years of camera trapping, tracking, and observational data in Chitwan National Park, six to nine breeding tigers, two to 16 non-breeding tigers, and six to 20 young tigers of less than one year of age were detected in the study area of . One of the resident females left her territory to one of her female offspring and took over an adjoining area by displacing another female; and a displaced female managed to re-establish herself in a neighbouring territory made vacant by the death of the resident. Of 11 resident females, 7 were still alive at the end of the study period, two disappeared after losing their territories to rivals, and two died. The initial loss of two resident males and subsequent take over of their home ranges by new males caused social instability for two years. Of four resident males, one was still alive and three were displaced by rivals. Five litters of cubs were killed by infanticide, two litters died because they were too young to fend for themselves when their mothers died. One juvenile tiger was presumed dead after being photographed with severe injuries from a deer snare. The remaining young lived long enough to reach dispersal age, two of them becoming residents in the study area.
Hunting and diet
The tiger is a carnivore. It prefers hunting large ungulates such as chital, sambar, gaur, and to a lesser extent also barasingha, water buffalo, nilgai, serow and takin. Among the medium-sized prey species it frequently kills wild boar, and occasionally hog deer, Indian muntjac and grey langur. Small prey species such as porcupines, hares and peafowl form a very small part in its diet. Because of the encroachment of humans into tiger habitat, it also preys on domestic livestock.
Bengal tigers occasionally hunt and kill predators such as Indian leopard, Indian wolf, Indian jackal, fox, mugger crocodile, Asian black bear, sloth bear, and dhole. They generally do not attack adult Indian elephant and Indian rhinoceros, but such extraordinarily rare events have been recorded. In Kaziranga National Park, tigers killed 20 rhinoceros in 2007. In 2011 and 2014, two instances of Bengal tigers killing adult elephants were recorded; in Jim Corbett National Park on a 20-year-old elephant cow, and another on a 28-year-old sick elephant in Kaziranga National Park; latter was eaten by several tigers at once. In the Sundarbans, a king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) and an Indian cobra (Naja naja) were found in the stomachs of tigers.
Results of scat analyses indicate that the tigers in Nagarahole National Park preferred prey weighing more than and that on average tiger prey weighed . The prey species included chital, sambar, wild pig and gaur. Gaur remains were found in 44.8% of all tiger scat samples, sambar remains in 28.6%, wild pig remains in 14.3% and chital remains in 10.4% of all scat samples. In Bandipur National Park, gaur and sambar together also constituted 73% of tiger diet.
In most cases, tigers approach their victim from the side or behind from as close a distance as possible and grasp the prey's throat to kill it. Then they drag the carcass into cover, occasionally over several hundred metres, to consume it. The nature of the tiger's hunting method and prey availability results in a "feast or famine" feeding style: they often consume of meat at one time.
If injured, old or weak, or regular prey species are becoming scarce, tigers also attack humans and become man-eaters.
Reproduction and lifecycle
The tiger in India has no definite mating and birth seasons. Most young are born in December and April. Young have also been found in March, May, October and November. In the 1960s, certain aspects of tiger behaviour at Kanha National Park indicated that the peak of sexual activity was from November to about February, with some mating probably occurring throughout the year.
Males reach maturity at 4–5 years of age, and females at 3–4 years. A Bengal comes into heat at intervals of about 3–9 weeks, and is receptive for 3–6 days. After a gestation period of 104–106 days, 1–4 cubs are born in a shelter situated in tall grass, thick bush or in caves. Newborn cubs weigh and they have a thick woolly fur that is shed after 3.5–5 months. Their eyes and ears are closed. Their milk teeth start to erupt at about 2–3 weeks after birth, and are slowly replaced by permanent dentition from 8.5 to 9.5 weeks of age onwards. They suckle for 3–6 months, and begin to eat small amounts of solid food at about 2 months of age. At this time, they follow their mother on her hunting expeditions and begin to take part in hunting at 5–6 months of age. At the age of 2–3 years, they slowly start to separate from the family group and become transient, looking out for an area, where they can establish their own home range. Young males move further away from their native home range than young females. Once the family group has split, the mother comes into heat again.
Threats
None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within the Bengal tiger range is large enough to support an effective population size of 250 individuals. Habitat losses and the extremely large-scale incidences of poaching are serious threats to the species' survival.
The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 grants some of India's most impoverished communities the right to own and live in the forests, which likely brings them into conflict with wildlife and under-resourced, under-trained, ill-equipped forest department staff. In the past, evidence showed that humans and tigers cannot co-exist.
Poaching
The most significant immediate threat to the existence of wild tiger populations is the illegal trade in poached skins and body parts between India, Nepal and China. The governments of these countries have failed to implement adequate enforcement response, and wildlife crime remained a low priority in terms of political commitment and investment for years. There are well-organised gangs of professional poachers, who move from place to place and set up camp in vulnerable areas. Skins are rough-cured in the field and handed over to dealers, who send them for further treatment to Indian tanning centres. Buyers choose the skins from dealers or tanneries and smuggle them through a complex interlinking network to markets outside India, mainly in China. Other factors contributing to their loss are urbanisation and revenge killing. Farmers blame tigers for killing cattle and shoot them. Their skins and body parts may however become a part of the illegal trade. In Bangladesh, tigers are killed by professional poachers, local hunters, trappers, pirates and villagers. Each group of people has different motives for killing tigers, ranging from profit, excitement to safety concerns. All groups have access to the Illegal wildlife trade in body parts.
The illicit demand for bones and body parts from wild tigers for use in Traditional Chinese medicine is the reason for the unrelenting poaching pressure on tigers on the Indian subcontinent. For at least a thousand years, tiger bones have been an ingredient in traditional medicines that are prescribed as a muscle strengthener and treatment for rheumatism and body pain.
Between 1994 and 2009, the Wildlife Protection Society of India has documented 893 cases of tigers killed in India, which is just a fraction of the actual poaching and trade in tiger parts during those years.
In 2004, all the tigers in India's Sariska Tiger Reserve were killed by poachers. In 2007, police in Allahabad raided a meeting of suspected poachers, traders and couriers. One of the arrested persons was the biggest buyer of Indian tiger parts who sold them to Chinese buyers, using women from a nomadic tribe as couriers. In 2009, none of the 24 tigers residing in the Panna Tiger Reserve were left because of excessive poaching.
In November 2011, two tigers were found dead in Maharashtra: a male tiger was trapped and killed in a wire snare; a tigress died of electrocution after chewing at an electric cable supplying power to a water pump; another dead tigress found in Kanha Tiger Reserve landscape was suspected to have been poisoned. In 2021, Bangladeshi police arrested a poacher suspected of killing 70 Bengal tigers during a period of 20 years.
Human–tiger conflict
The Indian subcontinent has served as a stage for intense confrontations between tigers and people. At the beginning of the 19th century tigers were so numerous, that the killing of tigers was officially rewarded in many localities. The Terai region supported large numbers of tigers that were pushed into marginal habitat after the 1950s, when the conversion of natural habitat for paddy fields increased. Marauding tigers began to take a toll of human life in areas bordering cultivation. They are thought to have followed domestic livestock that wintered in the plains when they returned to the hills in the spring, and then being left without prey when the herds dispersed back to their respective villages. These tigers were the old, the young and the disabled. All suffered from some disability, mainly caused either by gunshot wounds or porcupine quills.
In the Sundarbans, 10 out of 13-man-eaters recorded in the 1970s were males, and they accounted for 86% of the victims. These man-eaters have been grouped into the confirmed or dedicated ones who go hunting especially for human prey; and the opportunistic ones, who do not search for humans but will, if they encounter a man, attack, kill and devour him. In areas where opportunistic man-eaters were found, the killing of humans was correlated with their availability, most victims being claimed during the honey gathering season. Tigers in the Sunderbans presumably attacked humans who entered their territories in search of wood, honey or fish, thus causing them to defend their territories. The number of tiger attacks on humans may be higher outside suitable areas for tigers, where numerous people are present, but with little wild prey for tigers.
In Nepal, the incidence of man-eating tigers has been only sporadic. In Chitwan National Park no cases were recorded before 1980. In the following few years, 13 people have been killed and eaten in the park and its environs. In the majority of cases, man-eating appeared to have been related to an intra-specific competition among male tigers.
An interview survey with 499 local people in Chitwan revealed that lower caste Hindus and people with less than eight years of formal education had negative attitudes to the tiger; most of them owned livestock and had heard about tigers attacking people and livestock.
In December 2012, a tiger was shot by the Kerala Forest Department on a coffee plantation on the fringes of the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. Chief Wildlife Warden of Kerala ordered the hunt for the animal after mass protests erupted as the tiger had been carrying away livestock. The Forest Department had constituted a special task force to capture the animal with the assistance of a 10-member Special Tiger Protection Force and two trained Indian elephants from the Bandipur Tiger Reserve in Karnataka.
Conservation efforts
An area of special interest lies in the "Terai Arc Landscape" in the Himalayan foothills of northern India and southern Nepal, where 11 protected areas composed of dry forest foothills and tall-grass savannas harbour tigers in a landscape. The goals are to manage tigers as a single metapopulation, the dispersal of which between core refuges can help maintain genetic, demographic, and ecological integrity, and to ensure that species and habitat conservation becomes mainstreamed into the rural development agenda. In Nepal a community-based tourism model has been developed with a strong emphasis on sharing benefits with local people and on the regeneration of degraded forests. The approach has been successful in reducing poaching, restoring habitats, and creating a local constituency for conservation.
WWF partnered with Leonardo DiCaprio to form a global campaign, "Save Tigers Now", with the ambitious goal of building political, financial and public support to double the wild tiger population by 2022. Save Tigers Now started its campaign in 12 different WWF Tiger priority landscapes, since May 2010.
In India
In 1973, Project Tiger was launched aiming at ensuring a viable tiger population in the country and preserving areas of biological importance as a natural heritage for the people. The project's task force visualised these tiger reserves as breeding nuclei, from which surplus animals would disperse to adjacent forests. The selection of areas for the reserves represented as close as possible the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger's distribution in the country. Funds and commitment were mustered to support the intensive program of habitat protection and rehabilitation under the project. By the late 1980s, the initial nine reserves covering an area of had been increased to 15 reserves covering an area of . More than 1100 tigers were estimated to inhabit the reserves by 1984.
Through this initiative the population decline was reversed initially, but has resumed in recent years; India's tiger population decreased from 3,642 in the 1990s to just over 1,400 from 2002 to 2008.
The Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 enables government agencies to take strict measures so as to ensure the conservation of the Bengal tigers. The Wildlife Institute of India estimates showed that tiger numbers had fallen in Madhya Pradesh by 61%, Maharashtra by 57%, and Rajasthan by 40%. The government's first tiger census, conducted under the Project Tiger initiative begun in 1973, counted 1,827 tigers in the country that year. Using that methodology, the government observed a steady population increase, reaching 3,700 tigers in 2002. However, the use of more reliable and independent censusing technology including camera traps for the 2007–2008 all-India census has shown that the numbers were in fact less than half than originally claimed by the Forest Department.
Following the revelation that only 1,411 Bengal tigers existed in the wild in India, down from 3,600 in 2003, the Indian government set up eight new tiger reserves. Because of dwindling tiger numbers, the Indian government has pledged US$153 million to further fund the Project Tiger initiative, set up a Tiger Protection Force to combat poachers, and fund the relocation of up to 200,000 villagers to minimise human-tiger interaction. Indian tiger scientists have called for use of technology in the conservation efforts.
In January 2008, the Government of India launched a dedicated anti-poaching force composed of experts from Indian police, forest officials and various other environmental agencies. Ranthambore National Park is often cited as a major success by Indian officials against poaching.
Kuno-Palpur in Madhya Pradesh was supposed receive Asiatic lions from Gujarat. Since no lion has been transferred from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh so far, it may be used as a sanctuary for the tiger instead.
In captivity
Bengal tigers have been captive bred since 1880 and widely crossed with tigers from other range countries.
In July 1976, Billy Arjan Singh acquired a hand-reared tigress from Twycross Zoo in the United Kingdom, and reintroduced her to the wild in Dudhwa National Park with the permission of India's then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In the 1990s, some tigers from this area were observed to have the typical appearance of Siberian tigers, namely a large head, pale fur, white complexion, and wide stripes, and were suspected to be Siberian–Bengal tiger hybrids. Tiger hair samples from the national park were analysed using mitochondrial sequence analysis. Results revealed that the tigers in question had a Bengal tiger mitochondrial haplotype indicating that their mother was an Bengal tiger. Skin, hair and blood samples from 71 tigers collected in Indian zoos, in the Indian Museum, Kolkata and including two samples from Dudhwa National Park were used for a microsatellite analysis that revealed that two tigers had alleles in two loci contributed by Bengal and Siberian tigers.
However, samples of two hybrid specimens constituted a too small sample base to conclusively assume that Tara was the source of the Siberian tiger genes.
Indian zoos bred tigers for the first time at the Alipore Zoo in Kolkata. The 1997 International Tiger Studbook lists the global captive population of Bengal tigers at 210 individuals that are all kept in Indian zoos, except for one female in North America. Completion of the Indian Bengal Tiger Studbook is a necessary prerequisite to establishing a captive management program for tigers in India.
In Bangladesh
WildTeam is working with local communities and the Bangladesh Forest Department to reduce human-tiger conflict in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. For over 100 years people, tigers, and livestock have been injured and killed in the conflict; in recent decades up to 50 people, 80 livestock, and 3 tigers have been killed in a year. Now, through WildTeam's work, there is a boat-based Tiger Response team that provides first aid, transport, and body retrieval support for people being killed in the forest by tigers. WildTeam has also set up 49 volunteer Village Response Teams that are trained to save tigers that have strayed into the village areas and would be otherwise killed. These village teams are made up of over 350 volunteers, who are also now supporting anti-poaching work and conservation education/awareness activities. WildTeam also works to empower local communities to access the government funds for compensating the loss/injury of livestock and people from the conflict. To monitor the conflict and assess the effectiveness of actions, WildTeam have also set up a human-tiger conflict data collection and reporting system.
In Nepal
The government aims at doubling the country's tiger population by 2022. In May 2010, Banke National Park was established with an area of .
"Re-wilding" project in South Africa
In 2000, the Bengal tiger re-wilding project Tiger Canyons was started by John Varty, who together with the zoologist Dave Salmoni trained captive-bred tiger cubs how to stalk, hunt, associate hunting with food and regain their predatory instincts. They claimed that once the tigers proved that they can sustain themselves in the wild, they would be released into a free-range sanctuary of South Africa to fend for themselves.
The project has received controversy after accusations by their investors and conservationists of manipulating the behaviour of the tigers for the purpose of a film production, Living with Tigers, with the tigers believed to be unable to hunt. Stuart Bray, who had originally invested a large sum of money in the project, claimed that he and his wife, Li Quan, watched the film crew "[chase] the prey up against the fence and into the path of the tigers just for the sake of dramatic footage."
The four tigers involved in this project have been confirmed to be crossbred Siberian–Bengal tigers, which should neither be used for breeding nor being released into the Karoo. Tigers that are not genetically pure will not be able to participate in the tiger Species Survival Plan, as they are not used for breeding, and are not allowed to be released into the wild.
In culture
The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The tiger crest is the emblem on the Chola coins. The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandya emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks.
Today, the tiger is the national animal of India. Bangladeshi banknotes feature a tiger. The political party Muslim League of Pakistan uses the tiger as its election symbol.
Tipu Sultan, who ruled Mysore in late 18th-century India, was also a great admirer of the animal. The famed 18th-century automaton, Tipu's Tiger was also created for him. The tiger was the dynastic symbol of this dynasty.
The iconography persisted and during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Punch ran a political cartoon showing the Indian rebels as a tiger, attacking a victim, being defeated by the British forces shown by the larger figure of a lion.
Several people were nicknamed Tiger or Bengal Tiger. Bengali revolutionary Jatindranath Mukherjee was called Bagha Jatin (Bengali for Tiger Jatin). Educator Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee was often called the "Tiger of Bengal".
The Bengal tiger has been used as a logo and a nickname for famous personalities. Some of them are mentioned below:
Members of the East Bengal Regiment of the Bangladesh Army are nicked 'Bengal Tigers'; the regiment's logo is a tiger face. Senior Tigers is the nickname of the first battalion.
In arts
The main antagonist of The Jungle Book, Shere Khan, is a Bengal tiger.
The Man-Eaters of Kumaon is based on man-eating tigers and leopards in Kumaon Division.
In the fantasy adventure novel Life of Pi and in its 2012 film adaptation, a Bengal tiger named Richard Parker is the lead character.
The Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo is based on a real story of a tiger that escaped from Baghdad Zoo in 2003 and haunts the streets of Baghdad seeking the meaning of life.
The Lost Land of the Tiger is a documentary by the BBC on tigers in Bhutan.
The 2014 Indian film Roar – Tigers of the Sundarbans is about a white Bengal tigress in the Sundarbans.
Notable individuals
Notable Bengal tigers include the man-eating Tigers of Chowgarh, Chuka man-eating tiger, the Bachelor of Powalgarh and Thak man-eater, Tiger of Segur, Tiger of Mundachipallam, and the Wily Tiger of Mundachipallam.
Tiger versus lion
Apart from the above-mentioned uses of the Bengal tiger in culture, the fight between a tiger and a lion has, for a long time, been a popular topic of discussion by hunters, naturalists, artists, and poets, and continue to inspire the popular imagination to the present-day. There have been historical cases of fights between Bengal tigers and lions in captivity.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Felids of India
Mammals of Bangladesh
Mammals of Nepal
Mammals of Bhutan
Environment of West Bengal
Sundarbans
Mammals described in 1758
Bengal tiger
Articles containing video clips
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221155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight%20Gentlemen%20of%20Huainan | Eight Gentlemen of Huainan | The Eight Gentlemen of Huainan () were the eight scholars under the patronage of Liu An (劉安 Liú Ān), the prince of Huainan during the Western Han Dynasty. Together, they wrote the philosophical collection Huainanzi (淮南子, Huáinánzǐ, literally "The Philosophers of Huainan").
They were:
Jin Chang (晋昌 Jìn Chāng),
Lei Bei (雷被 Léi Bèi),
Li Shang (李尚 Lǐ Shàng),
Mao Bei (毛被 Máo Bèi),
Su Fei (苏飞 Sū Fēi),
Tian You (田由 Tián Yóu),
Wu Bei (伍被 Wǔ Bèi), and
Zuo Wu (左吴 Zuǒ Wú).
The "Bagong Mountain" ("Eight Gentlemen Mountain") in China is named after them.
8 Eight Immortals of Huainan
2nd-century BC Chinese people
Articles about multiple people in pre-Tang China
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221156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20federalism | Canadian federalism | Canadian federalism () involves the current nature and historical development of the federal system in Canada.
Canada is a federation with eleven components: the national Government of Canada and ten provincial governments. All eleven governments derive their authority from the Constitution of Canada. There are also three territorial governments in the far north, which exercise powers delegated by the federal parliament, and municipal governments which exercise powers delegated by the province or territory. Each jurisdiction is generally independent from the others in its realm of legislative authority. The division of powers between the federal government and the provincial governments is based on the principle of exhaustive distribution: all legal issues are assigned to either the federal Parliament or the provincial Legislatures.
The division of powers is set out in the Constitution Act, 1867 (originally called the British North America Act, 1867), a key document in the Constitution of Canada. Some amendments to the division of powers have been made in the past century and a half, but the 1867 Act still sets out the basic framework of the federal and provincial legislative jurisdictions.
The federal nature of the Canadian constitution was a response to the colonial-era diversity of the Maritimes and the Province of Canada, particularly the sharp distinction between the French-speaking inhabitants of Lower Canada and the English-speaking inhabitants of Upper Canada and the Maritimes. John A. Macdonald, Canada's first prime minister, originally favoured a unitary system; later, after witnessing the carnage of the American Civil War, he supported a federal system to avoid similar violent conflicts.
History
Origins
The foundations of Canadian federalism were laid at the Quebec Conference of 1864. The Quebec Resolutions were a compromise between those who wanted sovereignty vested in the federal government and those who wanted it vested in the provinces. The compromise based the federation on the constitution of the British Empire, under which the legal sovereignty of imperial power was modified by the conventions of colonial responsible government, making colonies of settlement (such as those of British North America) self-governing in domestic affairs. A lengthy political process ensued before the Quebec Resolutions became the British North America Act of 1867. This process was dominated by John A. Macdonald, who joined British officials in attempting to make the federation more centralized than that envisaged by the Resolutions.
The resulting constitution was couched in more centralist terms than intended. As prime minister, Macdonald tried to exploit this discrepancy to impose his centralist ideal against chief opponent Oliver Mowat. In a series of political battles and court cases from 1872 to 1896, Mowat reversed Macdonald's early victories and entrenched the co-ordinated sovereignty which he saw in the Quebec Resolutions. In 1888, Edward Blake summarized that view: "[It is] a federal as distinguished from a legislative union, but a union composed of several existing and continuing entities ... [The provinces are] not fractions of a unit but units of a multiple. The Dominion is the multiple and each province is a unit of that multiple ..." The accession of Wilfrid Laurier as prime minister inaugurated a new phase of constitutional consensus, marked by a more-egalitarian relationship between the jurisdictions. The federal government's quasi-imperial powers of disallowance and reservation, which Macdonald abused in his efforts to impose a centralised government, fell into disuse.
1914–1960
During World War I the federal Crown's power was extended with the introduction of income taxes and passage of the War Measures Act, the scope of which was determined by several court cases. The constitution's restrictions of parliamentary power were affirmed in 1919 when, in the Initiatives and Referendums Reference, a Manitoba act providing for direct legislation by way of initiatives and referendums was ruled unconstitutional by the Privy Council on the grounds that a provincial viceroy (even one advised by responsible ministers) could not permit "the abrogation of any power which the Crown possesses through a person directly representing it". Social and technological changes also worked their way into constitutional authority; the Radio Reference found that federal jurisdiction extended to broadcasting, and the Aeronautics Reference found the same for aeronautics.
In 1926, the King–Byng Affair resulted in a constitutional crisis which was the impetus for changes in the relationship between the governor general and the prime minister. Although its key aspects were political in nature, its constitutional aspects continue to be debated. One result was the Balfour Declaration issued later that year, whose principles were eventually codified in the Statute of Westminster 1931. It, and the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865, gave the federal parliament the ability to make extraterritorial laws and abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, but civil appeals continued until 1949. The last Privy Council ruling of constitutional significance occurred in 1954, in Winner v. S.M.T. (Eastern) Limited. After that, the Supreme Court of Canada became the final court of appeal.
In 1937, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta John C. Bowen refused to give Royal Assent to three Legislative Assembly of Alberta bills. Two would have put the province's banks under the control of the provincial government; the third, the Accurate News and Information Act, would have forced newspapers to print government rebuttals to stories the provincial cabinet considered "inaccurate". All three bills were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference re Alberta Statutes, which was upheld by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
World War II's broader scope required passage of the National Resources Mobilization Act to supplement the powers in the War Measures Act to pursue the national war effort. The extent to which wartime federal power could expand was further clarified in the Chemicals Reference (which held that Orders in Council under the War Measures Act were equivalent to acts of parliament) and the Wartime Leasehold Regulations Reference, which held that wartime regulations could displace provincial jurisdiction for the duration of an emergency. Additional measures were required in order to secure control of the economy during that time. Jurisdiction over unemployment insurance was transferred permanently to the federal sphere; the provinces surrendered their power to levy succession duties and personal and corporate income taxes for the duration of the war (and for one year afterwards) under the Wartime Tax Rental Agreement; and labour relations were centralized under federal control with the Wartime Labour Relations Regulations (lasting until 1948), in which the provinces ceded their jurisdiction over all labour issues.
Canada emerged from the war with better cooperation between the federal and provincial governments. This led to a welfare state, a government-funded health care system and the adoption of Keynesian economics. In 1951 section 94A was added to the British North America Act, 1867 to allow the Canadian parliament to provide for pensions. This was extended in 1964 to allow supplementary benefits, including disability and survivors' benefits. The era saw an increase in First Ministers' Conferences to resolve federal-provincial issues. The Supreme Court of Canada became the court of final appeal after the 1949 abolition of appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and parliament received the power to amend the constitution, limited to non-provincial matters and subject to other constraints.
1960–1982
1961 saw the last instance of a lieutenant governor reserving a bill passed by a provincial legislature. Frank Lindsay Bastedo, Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan, withheld Royal Assent and reserved Bill 5, An Act to Provide for the Alteration of Certain Mineral Contracts, to the Governor-in-Council for review. According to Bastedo, "[T]his is a very important bill affecting hundreds of mineral contracts. It raises implications which throw grave doubts of the legislation being in the public interest. There is grave doubt as to its validity". The act was upheld in an Order in Council by the federal government.
Parliament passed the Canadian Bill of Rights, the first codification of rights by the federal government. Prime Minister Lester Pearson obtained passage of major social programs, including universal health care (a federal-provincial cost-sharing program), the Canada Pension Plan and Canada Student Loans. Quebec's Quiet Revolution encouraged increased administrative decentralization in Canada, with Quebec often opting out of federal initiatives and instituting its own (such as the Quebec Pension Plan). The Quebec sovereignty movement led to the victory of the Parti Québécois in the 1976 Quebec election, prompting consideration of further loosening ties with the rest of Canada; this was rejected in a 1980 referendum.
During the premiership of Pierre Trudeau, the federal government became more centralist. Canada experienced "conflictual federalism" from 1970 to 1984, generating tensions with Quebec and other provinces. The National Energy Program and other petroleum disputes sparked bitterness in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Newfoundland toward the federal government.
Patriation
Although Canada achieved full status as a sovereign nation in the Statute of Westminster 1931, there was no consensus about how to amend the constitution; attempts such as the 1965 Fulton–Favreau formula and the 1971 Victoria Charter failed to receive unanimous approval from both levels of government. When negotiations with the provinces again stalled in 1980, Trudeau threatened to take the case for patriation to the British parliament "[without] bothering to ask one premier". According to the federal cabinet and Crown counsel, if the British Crown (in council, in parliament, and on the bench) exercised sovereignty over Canada, it would do so only at the request of the federal ministers.
Manitoba, Newfoundland and Quebec posed reference questions to their respective courts of appeal, in which five other provinces intervened in support. In his ruling, Justice Joseph O'Sullivan of the Manitoba Court of Appeal held that the federal government's position was incorrect; the constitutionally-entrenched principle of responsible government meant that "Canada had not one responsible government but eleven." Officials in the United Kingdom indicated that the British parliament was under no obligation to fulfill a request for legal changes desired by Trudeau, particularly if Canadian convention was not followed. All rulings were appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. In a decision later known as the Patriation Reference, the court ruled that such a convention existed but did not prevent the federal parliament from attempting to amend the constitution without provincial consent and it was not the role of the courts to enforce constitutional conventions.
The Canadian parliament asked the British parliament to approve the Constitution Act, 1982, which it did in passage of the Canada Act 1982. This resulted in the introduction of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the transfer of constitutional amendment to a Canadian framework and the addition of section 92A to the Constitution Act, 1867, giving the provinces more jurisdiction over their natural resources.
After 1982
The Progressive Conservative Party under Joe Clark and Brian Mulroney favoured the devolution of power to the provinces, culminating in the failed Meech Lake and Charlottetown accords. After merging in 2003 with the heavily devolutionist Canadian Alliance, the Conservative Party under Stephen Harper has maintained the same stance. When Harper was appointed prime minister in 2006, the frequency of First Ministers' conferences declined significantly; inter-provincial cooperation increased with meetings of the Council of the Federation, established by the provincial premiers, in 2003.
After the 1995 Quebec referendum on sovereignty, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien limited the ability of the federal government to spend money in areas under provincial jurisdiction. In 1999 the federal government and all provincial governments except Quebec's agreed to the Social Union Framework Agreement, which promoted common standards for social programmes across Canada. Former Prime Minister Paul Martin used the phrase "asymmetrical federalism" to describe this arrangement. The Supreme Court upholds the concepts of flexible federalism (where jurisdictions overlap) and cooperative federalism (where they can favourably interact), as noted in Reference re Securities Act.
The Crown
As a federal monarchy, the Canadian Crown is present in all jurisdictions in the country, with the headship of state a part of all equally. Sovereignty is conveyed not by the governor general or federal parliament, but through the Crown itself as a part of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of Canada's 11 (one federal and 10 provincial) legal jurisdictions; linking the governments into a federal state, the Crown is "divided" into 11 "crowns". The fathers of the Canadian Confederation viewed the constitutional monarchy as a bulwark against potential fracturing of the Canadian federation, and the Crown remains central to Canadian federalism.
Distribution of legislative powers
Division of powers
The federal-provincial distribution of legislative powers (also known as the division of powers) defines the scope of the federal and provincial legislatures. These have been identified as exclusive to the federal or provincial jurisdictions or shared by all. Section 91 of the Constitution Act, 1867, lists the major federal parliament powers, based on the concepts of peace, order, and good government; while Section 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 enumerates those of the provincial governments.
The act puts remedial legislation on education rights, uniform laws relating to property and civil rights (in all provinces other than Quebec), creation of a general court of appeal and other courts "for the better Administration of the Laws of Canada," and implementing obligations arising from foreign treaties, all under the purview of the federal legislature in Section 91. Some aspects of the Supreme Court of Canada were elevated to constitutional status in 1982.
The act lists the powers of the provincial parliaments (subject to the federal parliament's authority to regulate inter-provincial movement) in Section 92. These powers include the exploration, development and export to other provinces of non-renewable natural resources, forestry resources and electrical energy. Education is under provincial jurisdiction, subject to the rights of separate schools.
Old-age pensions, agriculture and immigration are shared within federal and provincial jurisdictions. One prevails over the other, however: for pensions, federal legislation will not displace provincial laws, and for agriculture and immigration it is the reverse.
The Constitution Act, 1871 allowed parliament to govern any territories not forming part of any province, and the Statute of Westminster 1931, gave parliament the ability to pass extraterritorial laws.
Doctrines
To rationalize how each jurisdiction may use its authority, certain doctrines have been devised by the courts: pith and substance, including the nature of any ancillary powers and the colourability of legislation; double aspect; paramountcy; inter-jurisdictional immunity; the living tree; the purposive approach, and charter compliance (most notably through the Oakes test). Additionally, there is the implied Bill of Rights.
Jurisdiction over public property
Jurisdiction over Crown property is divided between the provincial legislatures and the federal parliament, with the key provisions Sections 108, 109, and 117 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Public works are the property of the federal Crown, and natural resources are within the purview of the provinces. Title to such property is not vested in one jurisdiction or another, however, since the Canadian Crown is indivisible. Section 109 has been given a particularly-broad meaning; provincial legislation regulating labour used to harvest and the disposal of natural resources does not interfere with federal trade and commerce power, and royalties have been held to cover the law relating to escheats. Canada cannot unilaterally create Indian reserves, since the transfer of such lands requires federal and provincial approval by Order in Council (although discussion exists about whether this is sound jurisprudence).
The provincial power to manage Crown land did not initially extend to Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan when they were created from part of the Northwest Territories, since the land was vested in the federal Crown. It was vacated on some land (the Railway Belt and the Peace River Block) by British Columbia when it entered the confederation. Title to this land was not vested in those provinces until the passage of the Natural Resources Acts in 1930. The power is not absolute, however; provincial Crown land may be regulated or expropriated for federal purposes. The administration of crown land is also subject to the rights of First Nations (since they are a relevant interest), and provincial power "is burdened by the Crown obligations toward the Aboriginal people in question". Debate exists about whether such burdens apply in the same manner in the Western provinces under the Natural Resources Acts.
Management of offshore resources is complex; although management of the beds of internal waters is vested in the provincial Crowns, management of beds of territorial seas is vested in the federal Crown (with management of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone). The beds and islands of the waters between Vancouver Island and mainland British Columbia have been declared the property of the Crown in right of British Columbia. Federal-provincial management agreements have been implemented concerning offshore petroleum resources in the areas around Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia.
Taxation and spending
Taxation is a power of the federal and provincial legislatures; provincial taxation is more restricted, in accordance with sections 92(2) and 92(9) of the Constitution Act, 1867. In Allard Contractors Ltd. v. Coquitlam (District), provincial legislatures may levy an indirect fee as part of a valid regulatory scheme. Gérard La Forest observed obiter dicta that section 92(9) (with provincial powers over property and civil rights and matters of a local or private nature) allows for the levying of license fees even if they constitute indirect taxation.
Parliament has the power to spend money on public debt and property. Although the Supreme Court of Canada has not ruled directly about constitutional limits on federal spending power, parliament can transfer payments to the provinces. This arises from the 1937 decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council on the Unemployment Insurance Reference, where Lord Atkin observed: "Assuming the Dominion has collected by means of taxation a fund, it by no means follows that any legislation which disposes of it is necessarily within Dominion competence ... If on the true view of the legislation it is found that in reality in pith and substance the legislation invades civil rights within the Province, or in respect of other classes of subjects otherwise encroaches upon the provincial field, the legislation will be invalid". In Re Canada Assistance Plan, Justice Sopinka held that the withholding of federal money previously granted to fund a matter within provincial jurisdiction does not amount to the regulation of that matter.
Federal legislative power
Much distribution of power has been ambiguous, leading to disputes which have been decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and (after 1949) the Supreme Court of Canada. The nature of the Canadian constitution was described by the Privy Council in 1913 as not truly federal (unlike the United States and Australia); although the British North America Act, 1867, states in its preamble that the colonies had expressed "their desire to be federally united into one Dominion", "the natural and literal interpretation of the word [federal] confines its application to cases in which these States, while agreeing on a measure of delegation, yet in the main continue to preserve their original Constitutions". The Privy Council determined that the Fathers of Confederation desired a "general Government charged with matters of common interest, and new and merely local Governments for the Provinces". Matters other than those listed in the British North America Act, 1867, as the responsibility of the federal or provincial parliaments fell to the federal legislature (the reverse of the arrangement between the federal and state congresses in the United States).
National and provincial concerns
The preamble of Section 91 of the Constitution Act, 1867 states: "It shall be lawful for the Queen ... to make laws for the Peace, Order, and good Government of Canada, in relation to all Matters not coming within the Classes of Subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces". In addition to assigning powers not stated elsewhere (which has been narrowly interpreted), this has led to the creation of the national-emergency and national-concern doctrines.
The national-emergency doctrine was described by Mr Justice Beetz in Reference re Anti-Inflation Act. The national-concern doctrine is governed by the principles stated by Mr Justice Le Dain in R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd..
The federal government is partially limited by powers assigned to the provincial legislatures; for example, the Canadian constitution created broad provincial jurisdiction over direct taxation and property and civil rights. Many disputes between the two levels of government revolve around conflicting interpretations of the meaning of these powers.
By 1896, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council arrived at a method of interpretation, known as the "four-departments doctrine", in which jurisdiction over a matter is determined in the following order:
Does it fall under Section 92, ss. 115?
Can it be characterized as falling under Section 91, ss. 129?
Is it of a general nature, bringing it within Section 91's residuary clause
If not, it falls under Section 92, ss. 16.
By the 1930s, as noted in the Fish Canneries Reference and Aeronautics Reference, the division of responsibilities between federal and provincial jurisdictions was summarized by Lord Sankey.
Although the Statute of Westminster 1931 declared that the Parliament of Canada had extraterritorial jurisdiction, the provincial legislatures did not achieve similar status. According to s. 92, "In each Province the Legislature may exclusively make Laws ...".
If a provincial law affects the rights of individuals outside the province:
If it is, in pith and substance, provincial, ancillary effects on the rights of individuals outside the province are irrelevant but
Where it is, in pith and substance, legislation in relation to the rights of individuals outside the province, it will be ultra vires the province
In The Queen (Man.) v. Air Canada, it was held that the s. 92(2) power providing for "direct taxation within the province" does not extend to taxing sales on flights passing over (or through) a province, but the question of how far provincial jurisdiction can extend into a province's airspace was left undecided. However, the property and civil rights power does allow for determining rules with respect to conflict of laws in civil matters.
National dimension
Federal jurisdiction arises in several circumstances:
Under the national-emergency doctrine for temporary legislation (the War Measures Act)
Under the national-concern doctrine for:
Matters not existing at confederation (radio and television)
Matters of a local or private nature in a province which have become matters of national concern, such as what can accrue to the regulation of trade and commerce
Matters where the grant is exclusive under Section 91 (criminal law)
Matters where authority may be assumed (as with works for the general advantage of Canada)
The gap approach, employed sparingly, identifies areas of jurisdiction arising from oversights by the drafters of the constitution; for example, federal jurisdiction to incorporate companies is inferred from the power provinces have under Section 92 for "The Incorporation of Companies with Provincial Objects".
Uniformity of federal law
Section 129 of the Constitution Act, 1867 provided for laws in effect at the time of Confederation to continue until repealed or altered by the appropriate legislative authority. Similar provisions were included in the terms of union of other territories that were subsequently incorporated into Canada.
The uniformity of laws in some areas of federal jurisdiction was significantly delayed. Offences under the Criminal Code were not made uniform until 1892, when common-law criminal offences were abolished. Divorce law was not made uniform until 1968, Canadian maritime law not until 1971 and marriage law not until 2005. Provisions of the Civil Code of Lower Canada, adopted in 1865 by the former Province of Canada, affecting federal jurisdiction continued to be in force in Quebec (if they had not been displaced by other federal Acts) until their repeal on 15 December 2004.
Interplay of jurisdictions
According to the Supreme Court of Canada, "our Constitution is based on an allocation of exclusive powers to both levels of government, not concurrent powers, although these powers are bound to interact in the realities of the life of our Constitution." Chief Justice Dickson observed the complexity of that interaction:
The history of Canadian constitutional law has been to allow for a fair amount of interplay and indeed overlap between federal and provincial powers. It is true that doctrines like interjurisdictional and Crown immunity and concepts like "watertight compartments" qualify the extent of that interplay. But it must be recognized that these doctrines and concepts have not been the dominant tide of constitutional doctrines; rather they have been an undertow against the strong pull of pith and substance, the aspect doctrine and, in recent years, a very restrained approach to concurrency and paramountcy issues.
Notable examples include:
Although the provinces have the power to create criminal courts, only the federal government has the power to determine criminal procedure. Criminal procedure includes prosecution, and federal law can determine the extent of federal and provincial involvement. The provinces' power under s. 92(14) over the administration of justice includes the organization of courts and police forces, which determines the level of law enforcement. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as the federal police, contracts for the provision of many provincial and municipal police forces.
Although the federal power to regulate fisheries does not override provincial authority to require a permit for catching fish in waters under provincial control, the regulation of recreational fisheries has been partially delegated under the Fisheries Act to the provinces for specified species in specific provinces.
Works affecting navigation are subject to federal approval under the Navigable Waters Protection Act and provincial approval, since the beds of navigable waters are generally reserved to the Crown in right of the province.
Although federal jurisdiction over broadcasting and most telecommunications is exclusive, the provinces may regulate advertising and cable installation (above or underground).
Although the concept of marriage is under federal jurisdiction, the solemnization of marriages is controlled by the provinces.
The provincial power to regulate security interests under the property and civil-rights power will be displaced by security interests created under a federal head of power – most notably under the banking power – but only to the extent that federal law has covered the field.
Laws arising from the property and civil-rights power will be used to complement the interpretation of federal legislation where the federal Act has not provided otherwise, but federal power cannot be used to create rules of private law in areas outside its jurisdiction.
In insolvency law, provincial statutes operate by federal incorporation into the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act. However, where a stay under federal law has been lifted in order to allow proceedings to take place, a province can impose a moratorium on proceedings falling under provincial law.
Delegation and cooperation
In 1899, Lord Watson asserted during the argument in CPR v Bonsecours that neither the federal parliament nor the provincial legislatures could give legislative authority to the other level. Subsequent attempts to dovetail federal and provincial legislation to achieve certain ends met with difficulty, such as an attempt by Saskatchewan to ensure enforcement of a federal statute by enacting a complementary Act declaring that the federal Act would continue in force under provincial authority if it was ruled ultra vires. The Saskatchewan Court of Appeal ruled a federal and provincial Act ultra vires, voiding both as an attempt by the province to vest powers in parliament unauthorized by the BNA Act.
The matter was addressed in 1950 by the Supreme Court, which held ultra vires a proposed Nova Scotia Act which would have authorized the inter-delegation of legislative and taxation authority between Parliament and the Nova Scotia legislature. In that decision, Justice Rand explained the distinction between delegation to a subordinate body and that to a legislative body.
Later attempts to achieve federal-provincial coordination have succeeded with other types of legislative schemes involving:
Conditional legislation (such as a federal Act, providing that it will not apply where a provincial Act has been enacted in a given matter). As Justice Rand declared in 1959, "That Parliament can so limit the operation of its own legislation and that it may do so upon any such event or condition is not open to serious debate".
Incorporation by reference or adoption (for example, a federal regulation prohibiting vehicles from operating on a federal highway except "in accordance with the laws of the province and the municipality in which the highway is situated")
Joint schemes with administrative cooperation, such as the administrative authority granted by federal law to provincial transport boards to license extraprovincial transport
Power to implement treaties
To understand how treaties can enter Canadian law, three significant cases must be considered:
the Aeronautics Reference, the Radio Reference and the Labour Conventions Reference.
Although the reasoning behind the judgments is complex, it is considered to break down as follows:
Aeronautics were held by the Aeronautics Reference to be within the authority of the Parliament of Canada under s. 132 governing treaties entered into by the British Empire. After that treaty was replaced, it was held in Johannesson v. West St. Paul that in accordance with Ontario v. Canada Temperance Federation the field continued to be within federal jurisdiction under the power relating to peace, order and good government.
Although an international agreement governing broadcasting was not a treaty of the British Empire, the Radio Reference held that it fell within federal jurisdiction; Canada's obligations under its agreements in this field required it to pass legislation applying to all Canadian residents, and the matter could be seen as analogous to telegraphs (already in the federal sphere).
The Labour Conventions Reference dealt with labour relations (clearly within provincial jurisdiction); since the conventions were not treaties of the British Empire and no plausible argument could be made for the field attaining a national dimension or becoming of national concern, the Canadian Parliament was unable to exercise new legislative authority.
Although the Statute of Westminster 1931 had made Canada fully independent in governing its foreign affairs, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council held that s. 132 did not evolve to take that into account. As noted by Lord Atkin at the end of the judgment,
It must not be thought that the result of this decision is that Canada is incompetent to legislate in performance of treaty obligations. In totality of legislative powers, Dominion and Provincial together, she is fully equipped. But the legislative powers remain distributed and if in the exercise of her new functions derived from her new international status she incurs obligations they must, so far as legislation be concerned when they deal with provincial classes of subjects, be dealt with by the totality of powers, in other words by co-operation between the Dominion and the Provinces. While the ship of state now sails on larger ventures and into foreign waters she still retains the watertight compartments which are an essential part of her original structure.
This case left undecided the extent of federal power to negotiate, sign and ratify treaties dealing with areas under provincial jurisdiction, and has generated extensive debate about complications introduced in implementing Canada's subsequent international obligations; the Supreme Court of Canada has indicated in several dicta that it might revisit the issue in an appropriate case.
Limits on legislative power
Outside the questions of ultra vires and compliance with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, there are absolute limits on what the Parliament of Canada and the provincial legislatures can legislate. According to the Constitution Act, 1867:
S. 96 has been construed to hold that neither the provincial legislatures nor Parliament can enact legislation removing part of the inherent jurisdiction of the superior courts.
S. 121 states, "All Articles of the Growth, Produce, or Manufacture of any one of the Provinces shall, from and after the Union, be admitted free into each of the other Provinces". This amounts to a prohibition of inter-provincial tariffs.
S. 125 states, "No Lands or Property belonging to Canada or any Province shall be liable to Taxation".
Under s. 129, limits have been placed on the ability of the legislatures of Ontario and Quebec to amend or repeal Acts of the former Province of Canada. Where such an act created a body corporate operating in the former Province, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council held that such bodies cannot have "provincial objects" and only the Parliament of Canada had power to deal with such acts. It has been held that this restriction exists for any Act applying equally to Upper and Lower Canada, which became problematic when the Civil Code of Lower Canada was replaced by the Civil Code of Quebec.
While the Parliament of Canada has the ability to bind the Crown in right of Canada or of any province, the converse is not true for the provincial legislatures, as "[p]rovincial legislation cannot proprio vigore [ie, of its own force] take away or abridge any privilege of the Crown in right of the Dominion."
Notes
References
Acts and other instruments
Case citations
Other sources
External links
Federalism - The canadian encyclopedia
Federalism in Canada: Basic Framework and Operation
Federalism-e – published by Queen's University Institute of Intergovernmental Relations
Canadian Federalism
Studies on the Canadian Constitution and Canadian Federalism
Constitutional Law professor Hester Lessard on the Downtown Eastside and Jurisdictional Justice
Canadian Governments Compared – ENAP
Canadian Confederation
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221158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight%20Immortals%20from%20Sichuan | Eight Immortals from Sichuan | Eight Immortals from Sichuan () are eight Sichuanese who supposedly became xian ("immortals; transcendents; fairies"). The term is first used by Qiao Xiu (譙秀 qiáo xiù) in Record of Shu (《蜀紀》 shǔ zì) written in Jin Dynasty.
They are:
Fan Changsheng (范长生 Fàn Chángshēng),
Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒 Dǒng Zhòngshū),
Li Babai (李八百 Lǐ Bābǎi),
Li Er (李耳 Lǐ Ěr),
Master Erzhu (尔朱先生 Ěrzhū Xiānshēng),
Rong Chenggong (容成公 Róng Chénggōng),
Zhang Daoling (张道陵 Zhāng Dàolīng), and
Yan Junping (严君平 Yán Jūnpíng).
8 Eight Immortals from Sichuan
Articles about multiple people in pre-Tang China
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221159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight%20Immortals%20of%20the%20Wine%20Cup | Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup | The Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup or Eight Immortals Indulged in Wine () were a group of Tang Dynasty scholars who are known for their love of alcoholic beverages. They are not deified and xiān ("immortal; transcendent; fairy") is metaphorical. The term is used in a poem by Du Fu, as well as in the biography of Li Bai in the New Book of Tang.
They appeared in Du's poem in the following order:
He Zhizhang (賀知章 Hè Zhīzhāng)
Li Jin (李璡 Lǐ Jìn)
Li Shizhi (李適之 Lǐ Shìzhi)
Cui Zongzhi (崔宗之 Cuī Zōngzhī)
Su Jin (蘇晉 Sū Jìn)
Li Bai (李白 Lǐ Bái)
Zhang Xu (張旭 Zhāng Xù)
Jiao Sui (焦遂 Jiaō Suì)
See also
Chinese alcoholic beverage
External links
Pieter Eijkhoff, Wine In China Its History And Contemporary Developments
8 Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup
Articles about multiple people in pre-Tang China
Tang dynasty poets
Chinese alcoholic drinks
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221160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight%20Elders | Eight Elders | The Eight Great Eminent Officials (), abbreviated as the Eight Elders (), were a group of elderly members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) who held substantial power in the last two decades of the 20th century. In the English-speaking world, these men are often called The Eight Immortals as an allusion to the Taoist deities commonly known as the Eight Immortals.
Deng Xiaoping, who emerged as China's top leader in December 1978, as a result of the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, was the most powerful of the group, but his power was never absolute, and he had to consult and make compromises with the other seven Elders, of whom the most prominent were Chen Yun and Li Xiannian (considered the second and third in power, respectively, and both associated with the leftist hard-liners and opposition to reform and market-oriented economy). Deng's allies among the Elders included Yang Shangkun and Peng Zhen. However, by the late 1980s, all Elders, including Deng himself, were united in opposition to further political reforms, while holding different views in economic and foreign affairs.
According to reformist General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, of all the Elders, Li Xiannian was the most prominent, most active and most successful in opposing and blocking changes and reforms in both political and economic issues. Important decisions were often made in Deng's home. The Eight Elders were able to remove three Party leaders. Hua Guofeng was gradually removed from Premier and Party chairman between 1980 and 1981; Hu Yaobang was removed in 1987; and, Zhao Ziyang was removed in 1989. The core of the eight Elders, Deng Xiaoping, retired after the 5th Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee (November 1989), when he resigned from his last official title (Chairman of the Central Military Commission), and the rest of the Elders officially retired after the 14th Party Congress in October 1992 when the Central Advisory Commission was abolished. However, they still held decisive influence behind the scenes until the death of Deng Xiaoping happened in February 1997.
Membership
The membership was never formally stated. However, with Deng Xiaoping as the main holder of power, the eight elders are accepted to include:
Timeline of the life span of members
Descendants
Descendants of the eight Elders who have benefited significantly from nepotism and cronyism constitute a group now known as "the Princelings" or the "Crown Prince Party". Its members, rising through party ranks, can easily overrule any opposition in their jurisdictions, even if they are assigned to a local administrative position. They are often seen to outrank other party officials and possess greater prestige due to their lineage. Bloomberg has reported on the extensive wealth accumulated by these descendants via their roles in various public and private companies.
Notes
References
External links
AsiaWeek article
John Ruwitch 'China's leaders tug strings of power in retirement' (Reuters)
History of the People's Republic of China
Octets
Chinese Communist Party
de:Führungsgenerationen in der Volksrepublik China | [
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221162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20currawong | Grey currawong | The grey currawong (Strepera versicolor) is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia, including Tasmania. One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae. It is a large crow-like bird, around long on average; with yellow irises, a heavy bill, dark plumage with white undertail and wing patches. The male and female are similar in appearance. Six subspecies are recognised and are distinguished by overall plumage colour, which ranges from slate-grey for the nominate from New South Wales and eastern Victoria and subspecies plumbea from Western Australia, to sooty black for the clinking currawong of Tasmania and subspecies halmaturina from Kangaroo Island. All grey currawongs have a loud distinctive ringing or clinking call.
Within its range, the grey currawong is generally sedentary, although it is a winter visitor in the southeastern corner of Australia. Comparatively little studied, much of its behaviour and habits is poorly known. Omnivorous, it has a diet that includes a variety of berries, invertebrates, and small vertebrates. The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas as well as scrubland in drier parts of the country. It is less arboreal than the pied currawong, spending more time foraging on the ground. It builds nests high in trees, which has limited the study of its breeding habits. Unlike its more common relative, it has adapted poorly to human impact and has declined in much of its range, although not considered endangered.
Taxonomy and naming
The grey currawong was first described as Corvus versicolor by ornithologist John Latham in 1801, who gave it the common name of "variable crow". The specific name versicolor means 'of variable colours' in Latin. Other old common names include grey crow-shrike, leaden crow-shrike, mountain magpie, black-winged currawong (in western Victoria), clinking currawong (in Tasmania), and squeaker (in Western Australia). The black-winged currawong was known to the Ramindjeri people of Encounter Bay as wati-eri, the word meaning "to sneak" or "to track". Kiling-kildi was a name derived from the call used by the people of the lower Murray River.
Together with the pied currawong (S. graculina) and black currawong (S. fuliginosa), the grey currawong forms the genus Strepera. Although crow-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and are instead closely related to the Australian magpie and the butcherbirds. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade, which later became the family Artamidae.
Subspecies
Six subspecies are spread around Australia. They vary extensively in the colour of their plumage, from grey to sooty black, and the amount of white on their wings, and most were at one time considered separate species:
S. v. versicolor, the nominate race, is known as the grey currawong, and is found in New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and eastern and central Victoria, west to Port Phillip on the coast, and to the Grampians inland.
S. v. intermedia, the grey-brown form of South Australia, is also known as the brown currawong. It is found in the Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas, the Gawler and Mount Lofty Ranges and the eastern areas of the Great Australian Bight. The smallest of the six subspecies, it has a shorter wing and tail. Birds in the southern Eyre Peninsula have darker plumage than those in the northern parts. First described by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877 from a specimen collected in Port Lincoln, its specific name is the Latin adjective intermedia "intermediate".
S. v. arguta, the darkest race, is from eastern Tasmania and is known as the clinking currawong from its call or locally as the black magpie. Sharpe called it the Tasmanian hill-crow. It was first described by John Gould in 1846. The specific name is the Latin adjective argūtus "shrill/piercing", "noisy" or "melodious". Larger and heavier than the nominate subspecies, it has longer wings, tail, bill, and tarsus.
S. v. melanoptera, known as the black-winged currawong, is from western Victoria's Mallee region and South Australia west to the Mount Lofty Ranges. It can be difficult to distinguish from the black and pied currawongs at any distance. Of similar size and bill-shape to the nominate subspecies, it has a darker blackish-brown plumage and lacks the white wing markings. Birds from much of western Victoria are intermediates between this and the nominate subspecies, often bearing partial white markings on the wings. Similarly, in the western part of its range in South Australia are intermediate with subspecies to the west and also have some paler patches. Named by John Gould in 1846, its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek words melano- "black" and pteron "wings". American ornithologist Dean Amadon observed that birds from northwestern Victoria were lighter in plumage than those of South Australia, and tentatively classified them as a separate subspecies howei. However, he noted they warranted further investigation, and subsequent authorities have not recognised the populations as separate.
S. v. halmaturina is restricted to Kangaroo Island. A dark-plumaged subspecies, it has a longer narrower bill than the nominate race, and is lighter in weight. The specific name is the adjective halmaturina "of Kangaroo Island". It was first named by Gregory Mathews in 1912.
S. v. plumbea is found from western South Australia and the southwestern corner of the Northern Territory westwards into Western Australia. It is colloquially known as "squeaker" from the sound of its call. Named by Gould in 1846, its specific name is the Latin adjective plumběus "leaden". The common name leaden cuckoo-shrike refers to this group. Very similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies, it differs in its thicker, more downward curved bill. The base plumage is variable, but tends to be slightly darker and possibly more brown-tinged than the nominate subspecies. Amadon noted that a specimen from the Everard Ranges in northwestern South Australia was larger and paler than other specimens of plumbea. Although he considered these Central Australian birds as a separate subspecies centralia, he conceded very little was known. They have been considered part of plumbea subsequently.
Description
A larger and more slender bird than its more common relative the pied currawong, the adult grey currawong ranges from in length, with an average of around ; the wingspan varies from , averaging around , with an average weight of around . Adults of the Tasmanian subspecies average around . The male is on average slightly larger than the female, but the size and weight ranges mostly overlap. It is generally a dark grey bird with white in the wing, undertail coverts, the base of the tail and most visibly, the tip of the tail. It has yellow eyes. The orbital (eye-ring), legs and feet are black, whereas the bill and gape range from greyish black to black. The overall plumage varies according to subspecies. The nominate race versicolor and plumbea are slate-grey in colour, while melanoptera and intermedia are blackish-brown, and arguta of Tasmania and halmaturina a sooty black. The size of the white patch on the wing also varies, being large and easily spotted in versicolor, plumbea, intermedia and arguta, but non-existent or indistinct in melanoptera and halmaturina.
More specifically, the nominate subspecies has a grey forehead, crown, nape, ear-coverts and throat with the face a darker grey-black. The feathers of the throat are longer, giving rise to hackles there. The upperparts and underparts are a brownish-grey and become more brown with age. Towards the belly, the feathers are a paler grey. The wings are grey-brown, and the blackish primaries have white edges which merge to form the prominent white wing markings.
Birds appear to moult once a year in spring or summer, although observations have been limited. Young birds spend about a year in juvenile plumage before moulting into adult plumage at around a year old. Juvenile birds have more brown-tinged and uniform plumage; the darker colour around the lores and eyes are less distinct. Their blackish bill is yellow-tipped, and the gape is yellow. Their eyes are brownish, but turn yellow early. The exact timing is unknown but likely to be around four months of age.
Voice
Unlike that of the pied currawong, the grey currawong's call does not sound like its name. The grey currawong is best known for making a sound variously transcribed as p'rink, clink, cling, ker-link or tullock, either in flight or when gathered in any numbers. The call has been described as very loud and ringing in the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island subspecies; Edwin Ashby wrote that in Tasmania it was akin to the squeaking of a wheelbarrow and Gregory Mathews that it was like the kling of an anvil. Elsewhere, their call has been likened to the screech of ungreased metal grinding in Victoria and South Australia (races versicolor and melanoptera are noted as similar to each other), and as a harsh squeak in Western Australia. The clinking call resembles that of the superb lyrebird, which imitates the currawong call at times.
A softer and more tuneful musical call has been called the toy-trumpet call. It has been reported to foretell rainy weather. The loud bell call resembles the clinking call, and is a clear piping sound. Females and young make an insistent repetitive squawking when begging for food from a parent or mate, similar to the begging call of the Australian magpie, and make a gobbling sound when fed.
Similar species
The grey currawong is unlikely to be confused with other species apart from other currawongs. It is immediately distinguishable from crows and ravens as they have wholly black plumage, a stockier build and white (rather than yellow) eyes. However, it can be encountered in mixed-species flocks with the pied currawong. It can be distinguished by its paler plumage, lack of white base to the tail, straighter bill, and very different vocalisations. In northwestern Victoria, the black-winged currawong (subspecies melanoptera) has a darker plumage than other grey subspecies, and is thus more similar in appearance to the pied currawong, but its wings lack the white primaries of the latter species. In Tasmania, the black currawong is similar but has a heavier bill and call similar to the pied and lacks the white rump.
Distribution and habitat
Grey currawongs are found right across the southern part of Australia from the Central Coast region of New South Wales, occurring south of latitude 32°S southwards and westwards, from the vicinity of Mudgee in the north and southwest to Temora and Albury onto the Riverina and across most of Victoria and southern South Australia to the fertile south-west corner of Western Australia and the semi-arid country surrounding it. The clinking subspecies is endemic to Tasmania, where it is more common in the eastern parts, but is absent from King and Flinders Islands in Bass Strait. There is an outlying population in the arid area where the Northern Territory meets South Australia and Western Australia. In general, the grey currawong is sedentary throughout its range, although it appears to be resident in the cooler months only in south Gippsland in eastern Victoria and the far south coast of New South Wales.
The grey currawong is found in wet and dry sclerophyll forests across its range, as well as mallee scrubland, and open areas such as parks or farmland near forested areas. It also inhabits pine plantations. Preferences vary between regions; subspecies versicolor is more common in wetter forests in southeastern mainland Australia, while the Tasmanian subspecies arguta is found most commonly in lowland dry sclerophyll forest. The subspecies melanoptera and intermedia are found mainly in mallee scrublands and woodlands, while in Western Australia, subspecies plumbea is found in various forests and woodlands, such as jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), karri (E. diversicolor), tuart (E. gomphocephala) and wandoo (E. wandoo), as well as paperbark woodlands around swampy areas, and acacia shrublands dominated by summer-scented wattle (Acacia rostellifera) and mulga (Acacia aneura) with Eremophila understory.
Formerly common, the grey currawong appears to have declined across its distribution; it became scarce in northern Victoria in the 1930s, and in northeastern Victoria in the 1960s. Habitat destruction has seen it decline in southeastern South Australia around Naracoorte and from many areas in the Western Australian Wheatbelt. It also became rare in the Margaret River and Cape Naturaliste regions after 1920, and vanished from much of the Swan Coastal Plain by the 1940s. One place which has seen an increase in numbers is the Mount Lofty Ranges in the 1960s. The species has never been common in the Sydney Basin and sightings have been uncommon and scattered since the time of John Gould in the early 19th century. The status of the species is uncertain in the Northern Territory, where it may be extinct. It has been classified as critically endangered there pending further information.
Behaviour
Overall, data on the social behaviour of the grey currawong is lacking, and roosting habits are unknown. It is generally shyer and more wary than its pied relative, but has become more accustomed to people in areas of high human activity in southwest Western Australia. Its undulating flight is rapid and silent. It hops or runs when on the ground. Birds are generally encountered singly or in pairs, but may forage in groups of three to eleven birds. Up to forty birds may gather to harvest a fruit tree if one is found. The black-winged subspecies is seldom seen in groups larger than four or five, while the clinking currawong may form groups of up to forty birds over the non-breeding season.
There is some evidence of territoriality, as birds in the Wheatbelt maintain territories year-round there. The grey currawong has been recorded harassing larger birds such as the wedge-tailed eagle, square-tailed kite and Australian hobby. The species has been observed bathing by shaking its wings in water at ponds, as well as applying clay to its plumage after washing.
Two species of chewing louse have been isolated and described from grey currawongs: (Menacanthus dennisi) from subspecies halmaturina on Kangaroo Island in South Australia, and Australophilopterus strepericus from subspecies arguta near Launceston in Tasmania. A new species of spirurian nematode, Microtetrameres streperae isolated from a grey currawong at Waikerie was described in 1977. The parasitic alveolate Isospora streperae was described from a grey currawong (subspecies plumbea) from Western Australia.
Breeding
The breeding habits of the grey currawong are not well known, and the inaccessibility of its nests makes study difficult. The breeding season lasts from August to December. The grey currawong builds a large shallow nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees; generally eucalypts are chosen. It produces a clutch of one to five (though usually two or three) rounded or tapered oval eggs, which vary in size and colour according to subspecies. Those of subspecies versicolor average in size and are a pale brown or buff with shades of pink or wine tones, and are marked with streaks or splotches of darker brown, purple-brown, slate-grey or even blue-tinged. Those of the black-winged currawong are similarly sized at and are buff or flesh-coloured with a purple tint and marked with darker browns or purple-browns. The clinking currawong lays larger and paler eggs of dull white, pale grey or buff with a faint wine-colour tint, and marked with darker tones of purple-, grey- or blue-tinged brown, which average . The eggs of the brown currawong are also pale wine-tinted brown, buff, or cream with darker markings of cinnamon, brown or purple-brown, and measure . Finally, the western subspecies lays eggs averaging in size which are pale shades of red-brown or wine-colour, with darker red-brown markings. In all subspecies, the markings can coalesce over the larger end of the egg to form a darker 'cap'. The incubation period is poorly known because of the difficulty of observing nests, but one observation suggested around 23 days from laying to hatching. Like all passerines, the chicks are born naked, and blind (altricial), and remain in the nest for an extended period (nidicolous). Both parents feed the young.
Data on nesting success rates is limited; one study of 35 nests found that 28 (80%) resulted in the fledging of at least one young currawong. Causes of failure included nest collapse by gale-force winds and rain, and harassment and nest raiding by pied currawongs. The incidence of brood parasitism is uncertain. A pair of grey currawongs have been observed feeding a channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) chick on one occasion.
Feeding
The grey currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. It preys on many invertebrates, such as snails, spiders and woodlice, and a wide variety of insects including beetles, earwigs, cockroaches, wasps, ants and grasshoppers, and smaller vertebrates, including frogs, lizards such as the bearded dragon as well as skinks, rats, mice, and nestlings or young of Tasmanian nativehen, red wattlebird, eastern spinebill, house sparrow (Passer domesticus), and splendid fairywren (M. splendens), It has been recorded hunting at the nests of the superb fairywren (Malurus cyaneus), and the bell miner (Manorina melanophrys).
A wide variety of plant material is also consumed, including the fruit or berries of Ficus species, Leucopogon species, Exocarpos species, a cycad Macrozamia riedlei, a mistletoe Lysiana exocarpi, Astroloma humifusum, A. pinifolium, Myoporum insulare, Enchylaena tomentosa and Coprosma quadrifida. The grey currawong also eats berries of introduced plants such as Pyracantha angustifolia and P. fortuneana, and Cotoneaster species, and crops such as maize, apples, pears, quince, various stone fruit of the genus Prunus, grapes, tomato, passion flowers, and the nectar of gymea lily (Doryanthes excelsa). On Kangaroo Island, the grey currawong has been identified as the main vector for the spread of bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides). Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subspecies monilifera), another invasive species readily dispersed in bird droppings, is also consumed by grey currawongs. In Tasmania, A. pinifolium is especially popular, and one observer noted that the normally noisy birds became quiet and sluggish after eating it, prompting him to wonder whether the plant had a narcotic effect on the birds.
Foraging takes place on the ground, or less commonly in trees or shrubs. Most commonly the grey currawong probes the ground for prey, but sometimes chases more mobile animals. It has been recorded removing insects from parked cars, as well as employing the zirkeln method, where it inserts its bill in a crack or under a rock and uses it to lever open a wider space to hunt prey. In one case, a bird was observed holding bark off the branch of a eucalypt and levering open gaps every with its bill. The grey currawong usually swallows prey whole, although one bird was observed impaling a rodent on a stick and eating parts of it, in the manner of a butcherbird. A field study on road ecology in southwestern Australia revealed that the grey currawong is unusual in inhabiting cleared areas adjacent to roads. However, it was not recorded feeding on roadkill, and moves away from the area in breeding season. It was also commonly hit and killed by vehicles.
In Aboriginal mythology
A grey currawong features in the major Dreaming story of the Kaurna people, when the ancestor hero Tjilbruke kills one in order to use fat and feathers to cover his body before transforming himself into a glossy ibis at Rosetta Head.
References
Notes
Cited texts
External links
'Nest of the squeaker bird', drawing by A. J. Campbell, now in NLA catalogue
grey currawong
Birds of South Australia
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of Tasmania
Birds of Western Australia
Endemic birds of Australia
grey currawong
grey currawong
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] |
221165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPC | NPC | NPC may stand for:
Science and medicine
Computing
Nearest prototype classifier
Network Parameter Control (in Asynchronous Transfer Mode networks)
Non-deterministic polynomial-time complete (NP-complete)
Non-printing character
Electronics
Neutral Point Clamped, a topology used in power supplies and active filters
Medicine
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, a common tumour of the nasopharynx
NPC, an optometric abbreviation meaning "near point of convergence" or "no previous correction"
Neural progenitor cell; see Notch signaling pathway
Niemann–Pick disease, type C
NPC1, a protein involved in the disease
NPC2, a protein involved in the disease
Nuclear pore complex, in molecular biology
Organisations
Corporations
National Petrochemical Company of Iran
National Power Corporation, a government-owned corporation in the Philippines
Nauru Phosphate Corporation, Republic of Nauru
Nevada Power Company, United States
Non-profit company, a type of nonprofit organization in South Africa
Political organisations
National Peace Council, United Kingdom
Nationalist Party of China or Kuomintang, a political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Nationalist People's Coalition, a political party in the Philippines
National People's Congress, the unicameral legislature of the People’s Republic of China
National Petroleum Council (US)
Northern People's Congress, a political party in Nigeria
Nobel Peace Center, Oslo, Norway
NPC Secretary-General, a political office in the People's Republic of China
Student organisations
National Panhellenic Conference, an umbrella organization for college sororities, United States and Canada
National Postgraduate Committee, the representative body for postgraduates in the United Kingdom
Other organisations
see also under Sport, below
National Press Club, the name of a number of press clubs
Niagara Parks Commission, an agency of the Government of Ontario, Canada
Northern Provincial Council, provincial council for the Northern Province in Sri Lanka
Sport and games
Sport
National Paralympic Committee, a national constituent of the worldwide Paralympic movement
National Physique Committee, a bodybuilding organization in the United States
National Provincial Championship (1976–2005), original domestic rugby competition in New Zealand original before reform into 14 sides
National Provincial Championship (2006–present) (currently known as the Bunnings NPC), new 14 team domestic rugby competition in New Zealand previously known as the Air New Zealand Cup, ITM Cup and Mitre 10 Cup that replaced the old National Provincial Championship.
Non-playing captain of a team in various sports; see, for example, contract bridge
Computer and video games
Non-player characters in video games and role-playing games
NPC (meme), a variant of the Wojak internet meme
New Play Control!, a series of Wii ports of first-party GameCube video games
Research and educational facilities
National Paralegal College, a for-profit online college based in Phoenix, Arizona, United States
National Park College, a community college in Hot Springs, Arkansas, United States
Netherlands Proteomics Centre, Netherlands
Other
NATO Programming Centre, part of the NATO Communications and Information Agency
Neighbourhood police centre, a mid-sized police station in Singapore
NPC (cable system), underwater cable connecting Japan and the United States
Fujicolor NPC 160, former name of Fujicolor Pro 160C | [
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221166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20currawong | Black currawong | The black currawong (Strepera fuliginosa), also known locally as the black jay, is a large passerine bird endemic to Tasmania and the nearby islands within the Bass Strait. One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie within the family Artamidae. It is a large crow-like bird, around long on average, with yellow irises, a heavy bill, and black plumage with white wing patches. The male and female are similar in appearance. Three subspecies are recognised, one of which, Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island, is vulnerable to extinction.
Within its range, the black currawong is generally sedentary, although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months. The habitat includes densely forested areas as well as alpine heathland. It is rare below altitudes of . Omnivorous, its diet includes a variety of berries, invertebrates, and small vertebrates. Less arboreal than the pied currawong, the black currawong spends more time foraging on the ground. It roosts and breeds in trees.
Taxonomy
The black currawong was first described by ornithologist John Gould in 1836 as Cracticus fuliginosus, and in 1837 as Coronica fuliginosa. The specific epithet is the Late Latin adjective fuliginosus "sooty" from Latin fūlīgo "soot", and refers to the black plumage. American ornithologist Dean Amadon regarded the black currawong as a subspecies of the pied currawong (Strepera graculina), seeing it as part of a continuum with subspecies ashbyi of the latter species, the complex having progressively less white plumage as one moves south. Subsequent authors have considered it a separate species, although Richard Schodde and Ian Mason describe it as forming a superspecies with the pied currawong. A 2013 genetic analysis by Anna Kearns and colleagues gave some indication that the black currawong lineage diverged from a common ancestor of the grey and pied currawongs (though sampling was limited and not the focus of the study).
Common names include black currawong, sooty currawong, black bell-magpie, black or mountain magpie, black or sooty crow-shrike, and muttonbird. Black jay is a local name applied to the species within Tasmania. The species is often confused with the local dark-plumaged subspecies of the grey currawong (S. versicolor), known as the clinking currawong or hill magpie.
There are three subspecies of the black currawong: the nominate form Strepera fuliginosa fuliginosa of Tasmania; Strepera fuliginosa parvior of Flinders Island, described by Schodde and Mason in 1999; and Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island, described by Gregory Mathews in 1916. The two island subspecies have identical plumage to the nominate, but are slightly smaller with shorter wings and tails, subspecies colei having a shorter tail than parvior.
Together with the pied and grey currawong, the black currawong forms the genus Strepera. Although crow-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and are instead closely related to the Australian magpie and the butcherbirds. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade, which later became the family Artamidae.
Description
The black currawong is about long with an wingspan. The male is somewhat larger and heavier than the female; males of the nominate subspecies average to females' . Male wings average around and tails , while female wings average and tails . Data for the two island subspecies is limited, but males of subspecies colei have been measured at with wings on average, and a female at with a wing, and subspecies parvior at for males with wings on average, and and wing for a female. The sexes are similar in plumage, which is all black except for white patches at the tips of the wings and tail feathers. The bill and legs are black and the eyes bright yellow. The white tips line the trailing edges of the wings in flight, and a paler arc across the bases of the primary flight feathers is also visible on the underwing. Although there is no seasonal variation to the plumage, the black may fade a little to a dark brown with wear. Immature birds have browner-tinged plumage, and a yellow gape until they are two years old. The oldest recorded age of a black currawong has been 15 years; a bird was sighted in July 2004 near Fern Tree, Tasmania, less than from where it had been banded in July 1989.
Voice
The black currawong is a loud and vocal species, and makes a variety of calls. Its main call is markedly different from the pied or grey currawongs and has been described as a combination of alternating kar and wheek sounds, killok killok, or even akin to part song and part human laughter. Although often noisy when flying in flocks, it can be silent when seeking prey or thieving food. Before or around dawn and at nightfall appear to be periods of increased calling, and birds are reported to be more vocal before rain or storms. Parents also make a long fluting whistle to summon their young.
Similar species
The black currawong is commonly confused with the clinking currawong, but the latter species has a white rump and larger white wing patches. The black currawong has a heavier bill and a characteristic call unlike the clink-clink call of the clinking. The forest and little ravens are similar in size but lack the white wing patches, and instead have entirely black plumage and white, rather than yellow eyes. The black currawong is unlikely to be mistaken for the closely related pied currawong as the latter does not reach Tasmania, but it has a longer and deeper bill and lacks the white rump and undertail coverts.
Distribution and habitat
The black currawong is endemic to Tasmania where it is widespread, although it is uncommon or absent from areas below altitude. It breeds mainly in the Central Highlands, with scattered records elsewhere in Tasmania. Reports of breeding are rare from the northeast. It is found on many islands of Bass Strait, including the Hunter and Furneaux Groups. It was recorded historically from the Kent Group, but its status there is unknown. Within its range it is largely sedentary, although some populations at higher altitudes may move to lower altitudes during winter. Flocks have also been recorded making the long journey across water from Maria Island to the mainland in the morning and returning at nightfall, as well as moving between islands in the Maatsuyker group. The black currawong has expanded into the northeast corner of the island, to Musselroe Bay and Cape Portland.
The black currawong is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. One of its subspecies, Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island, has declined over much of its range on King Island, possibly due to clearing of its forest habitat, and has been listed as Vulnerable. There are estimated to be around 500 birds. It is unclear whether competition with the more numerous forest raven is impacting on the subspecies there.
The black currawong is generally found in wetter eucalypt forests, dominated by such species as alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), messmate (E. obliqua), and mountain gum (E. dalrympleana), sometimes with a beech (Nothofagus) understory. It also frequents cool rainforest of beech, king billy pine (Athrotaxis selaginoides). In lowlands it is more restricted to denser forests and moist gullies, while it also occurs in alpine scrubland and heathland at altitude. In dryer more open forest, it is replaced by the clinking currawong, although the two may co-occur in places such as the Central Highlands and Eastern Tiers. Both the Flinders and King island subspecies are found across their respective islands, but prefer more forested habitats there. The black currawong has been recorded in gardens in Hobart in Tasmania's southeast, and around Mount Wellington, on Hobart's outskirts, in winter. Some remained to breed in Hobart in 1994 after a year of severe weather.
Behavior
Black currawongs are found singly or in pairs, but may gather into groups of 20 to 80 birds. Birds have been observed digging wet yellow clay out of a drain and applying it all over their plumage. Wiping the carpal areas of wings in particular with their bills, they did not appear to wash afterwards, using the procedure as a form of dirt bath. The black currawong has an undulating flight pattern in time with its wing beats, and often cocks its tail in the air for balance when it lands. Play behaviour has been observed, particularly with subadult individuals. Black currawongs have been observed wrestling with each other, where a bird would attempt to force its opponent on its back, at Maydena, Tasmania, while others have been reported rolling on their backs and juggling with food items such as pears with their feet.
One species of chewing lice, Australophilopterus curviconus, has been recovered and described from a black currawong near Launceston.
Breeding
Breeding occurs from August to December. Like all currawongs, it builds a large cup-nest out of sticks, lined with softer material, and placed in the fork of a tree from high. Old nests are sometimes tidied up and reused in following years. A typical clutch has two to four pale grey-brown, purplish-buff, spotted, blotched red-brown or purplish-brown eggs. As in all passerines, the chicks are born naked, and blind (altricial), and remain in the nest for an extended period (nidicolous). Both parents feed the young, but the male feeds them alone after leaving the nest and as they become more independent, and also moves from giving food directly to them to placing it on the ground near them so they learn to eat for themselves.
Feeding
No systematic studies have been done on the diet of the black currawong, but it is known to be omnivorous, feeding on a wide variety of foodstuffs including insects and small vertebrates, carrion, and berries. Birds forage on the ground most often, but also in tree canopies. They use their bills to probe the ground or turn over clods of earth or small rocks looking for food. Birds have been seen using walking tracks to forage along. A group of ten birds were observed trying to break open ice on a frozen lake. They have been recorded foraging along the beach for fly larvae in beached kelp. Most commonly, black currawongs forage in pairs, but they may congregate in larger groups—flocks of 100 birds have descended on orchards to eat apples or rotten fruit. The species has been observed in a mixed-species flocks with forest ravens (Corvus tasmanicus), and silver gulls (Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae), white-faced herons (Egretta novaehollandiae), white-fronted chats (Epthianura albifrons), and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) on the beach at Sundown Point. They have been observed securing dead larger prey to ease subsequent dismemberment; a parent currawong had wedged a dead chicken's wings under a log to facilitate pulling off portions such as legs and entrails to feed to its young, and another time hooked a dead rabbit on a spur of a log to rip it into pieces.
The black currawong consumes the berries of the species in the heath genus Leptecophylla, as well as Astroloma humifusum, and the native sedge Gahnia grandis, as well as domestic pea, and apples. Invertebrates consumed include earthworms (Lumbricidae) and many types of insects, such as ants, moths, flies, crickets, grasshoppers and beetles like weevils, scarabs and leaf beetles. It is adaptable, and has learnt to eat the introduced European wasp (Vespula germanica). A bird that was being harassed by three scarlet robins (Petroica boodang) was seen to suddenly turn on them and catch and eat one. Other vertebrates recorded as prey include the house mouse (Mus musculus), small lizards, tadpoles, chickens, ducklings, the young of domestic turkey, Tasmanian nativehen (Gallinula mortierii), flame robin (Petroica phoenicea) and rabbit.
It can become quite bold and tame, much like its close relative, the pied currawong on the Australian mainland, especially in public parks and gardens where people make a habit of feeding it. Black currawongs have been recorded taking young peas from pods, raiding orchards, seizing chickens from poultry yards, and entering barns in search of mice.
Black currawongs are very common around picnic areas in Tasmania's two most popular National Parks, Freycinet and Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair, and are often fed by tourists there. The National Parks Authority tolerated this practice until 1995, when they found the birds were becoming a nuisance and began discouraging people from feeding wildlife. However, the agile currawongs are adept at snatching fragments of food left by picnickers so the birds may only ultimately be discouraged by an (impractical) ban on food in National Parks. Birds also take other items such as soap or cutlery from campsites to examine.
References
Citations
Cited texts
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet
Drawing of black magpie
black currawong
Endemic birds of Tasmania
black currawong
Taxa named by John Gould | [
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221167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied%20currawong | Pied currawong | The pied currawong (Strepera graculina) is a medium-sized black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island. One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae. Six subspecies are recognised. It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around in length, black or sooty grey-black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches, yellow irises, and a heavy bill. The male and female are similar in appearance. Known for its melodious calls, the species' name currawong is believed to be of indigenous origin.
Within its range, the pied currawong is generally sedentary, although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months. It is omnivorous, with a diet that includes a wide variety of berries and seeds, invertebrates, bird eggs, juvenile birds and young marsupials. It is a predator which has adapted well to urbanization and can be found in parks and gardens as well as rural woodland. The habitat includes every kind of forested area, although mature forests are preferred for breeding. Roosting, nesting and the bulk of foraging take place in trees, in contrast with the ground-foraging behaviour of its relative, the Australian magpie.
Taxonomy
The pied currawong was first described by English ornithologist George Shaw in 1790 as Coracias strepera, although Strepera was adopted as a generic name. Its binomial names were derived from the Latin strepera, meaning "noisy", and graculina for resembling a jackdaw. Pied crow-shrike is an old vernacular name from colonial days, and the term "pied" refers to two or more colors in blotches. Other common names include pied chillawong, currawang, charawack, kurrawack, tallawong, tullawong, mutton-bird, Otway forester, and pied afternoon-tea bird. The onomatopoeic term currawong itself is derived from the bird's call. However, the exact origin of the term is unclear; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the indigenous Jagera language from the Brisbane region, although the Darug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility. Yungang as well as Kurrawang and Kurrawah are names from the Tharawal people of the Illawarra region.
Its closest relative is the black currawong (S. fuliginosa) of Tasmania, which has sometimes been considered a subspecies. Together with the larger grey currawong (S. versicolor), they form the genus Strepera. Although crow-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and instead belong to the family Artamidae, together with the closely related Australian magpie and the butcherbirds. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and butcherbirds in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade, which became the family Artamidae.
Subspecies
Six subspecies are currently recognised, characterised principally by differences in size and plumage. There is a steady change to the birds' morphology and size the further south they are encountered, with lighter and more greyish plumage, larger body size, and a shorter bill. Southerly populations also show more white plumage in the tail, with less whiteness on the wing.
Strepera graculina graculina is the nominate form, found from the Sydney region north to the Burdekin River in northern Queensland.
Strepera graculina ashbyi, (critically endangered), the western Victorian pied currawong, was described by Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews in 1913. It is threatened by hybridization with the neighbouring subspecies nebulosa whose range is expanding westwards. A 2000 estimate placed the number of breeding birds at around 250. It resembles subspecies nebulosa, with sooty plumage, a long tail and a short bill. There is some doubt over whether ashbyi, which is little known, is a distinct subspecies or a colour morph of nebulosa. It is thought to have evolved after the two populations became separated by basalt plains in western Victoria, with the return of trees after the abandonment of regular Aboriginal burning in the late 18th century contributing to the remixing of populations. Hybrid forms have been identified in the Grampians and Yarra Valley. Further investigation in 2017 by Peter Menkhorst and Craig Morley established that the type specimen was an immature bird and that its collection point and characteristics placed it within subspecies nebulosa. They also observed there is a population that is abundant (rather than endangered) in the Otway Ranges that has a smaller speculum (wingpatch) than nebulosa and that Mathews had mistaken this for a subspecies of grey currawong, naming it Neostrepera versicolor riordani. They proposed renaming S. g. nebulosa to S. g. ashbyi and the other population as S. g. riordani.
Strepera graculina crissalis, (vulnerable) the Lord Howe currawong was described by English naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877. It appears to have adapted well to human habitation on Lord Howe Island, though the population is small overall, somewhere around 70–80 birds. Although regarded as a subspecies, it has yet to be studied with molecular DNA techniques, which may lead to it being reclassified as a separate species.
Strepera graculina magnirostris is found on the Cape York Peninsula to the Normanby River in northern Queensland. First described by Henry Lake White in 1923, it has a longer and heavier bill and shorter tail than the nominate subspecies. It has been little studied to date.
Strepera graculina robinsoni is found on the Atherton Tableland in northeastern Queensland. First described by Gregory Mathews in 1912, it is combined with magnirostris by some authors. Little researched, it appears to be smaller than other subspecies.
Strepera graculina nebulosa, found in southeastern New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and central Victoria, is very similar to the nominate subspecies but has a shorter bill, longer tail and larger wing. Its upperparts are sooty black, a little paler than the nominate subspecies, and underparts sooty black to slate-grey. The white patch on the primary flight feathers is also smaller. It was first defined in 1999 by ornithologists and bird taxonomists Richard Schodde and Ian Mason. There is a hybrid zone with subspecies graculina in southern and central New South Wales, from Eden north to the Illawarra region and stretching northwest to the Blue Mountains.
Description
The pied currawong is generally a black bird with white in the wing, undertail coverts, the base of the tail and most visibly, the tip of the tail. It has yellow eyes. Adult birds are in length, with an average of around ; the wingspan varies from , averaging around . Adult males average around , females . The wings are long and broad. The long and heavy bill is about one and a half times as long as the head and is hooked at the end. Juvenile birds have similar markings to adults but have softer and brownish plumage overall, although the white band on the tail is narrower. The upperparts are darker brown with scallops and streaks over the head and neck, and the underparts lighter brown. The eyes are dark brown and the bill dark with a yellow tip. The gape is a prominent yellow. Older birds grow darker until adult plumage is achieved, but juvenile tail markings only change to adult late in development. Birds appear to moult once a year in late summer after breeding. The pied currawong can live for over 20 years in the wild.
Voice
Pied currawongs are vocal birds, calling when in flight and at all times of the day. They are noisier early in the morning and in the evening before roosting, as well as before rain. The loud distinctive call has been translated as Kadow-Kadang or Curra-wong, akin to a croak. They also have a loud, high-pitched, wolf-like whistle, transcribed as Wheeo. The endemic Lord Howe Island subspecies has a distinct, more melodious call.
Similar species
The smaller white-winged chough has similar plumage but has red eyes and is found mainly on the ground. Australian crow and raven species have white eyes and lack the white rump, and the similar-sized Australian magpie has red eyes and prominent black and white plumage. The larger grey currawong is readily distinguished by its lighter grey overall plumage and lack of white feathers at the base of the tail. In northwestern Victoria, the black-winged currawong (subspecies melanoptera of the grey) does have a darker plumage than other grey subspecies, but its wings lack the white primaries of the pied currawong.
Distribution and habitat
The pied currawong is common in both wet and dry sclerophyll forests, rural and semi-urban environments throughout eastern Australia, from Cape York Peninsula to western Victoria and Lord Howe Island, where it occurs as an endemic subspecies. It has more recently become prevalent in South-East South Australia, in and around Mount Gambier. It has adapted well to European presence, and has become more common in many areas of eastern Australia, with surveys in Nanango, Queensland, Barham, New South Wales, Geelong, Victoria, as well as the Northern Tablelands and South West Slopes regions in New South Wales, all showing an increase in population. This increase has been most marked, however, in Sydney and Canberra since the 1940s and 1960s, respectively. In both cities, the species had previously been a winter resident only, but now remains year-round and breeds there. They are a dominant species and common inhabitant of Sydney gardens.
In general, the pied currawong is sedentary, although some populations from higher altitudes move to areas of lower elevation in winter. However, evidence for the extent of migration is conflicting, and the species' movements have been little studied to date. More recently still, a survey of the population of pied currawongs in southeastern Queensland between 1980 and 2000 had found the species had become more numerous there, including suburban Brisbane. One 1992 survey reported the total number of pied currawongs in Australia had doubled from three million birds in the 1960s to six million in the early 1990s.
The pied currawong is able to cross bodies of water of some size, as it has been recorded from Rodondo Island, which lies off the coast of Wilsons Promontory in Victoria, as well as some offshore islands in Queensland. It has disappeared from Tryon, North West, Masthead and Heron Islands in the
Capricorn Group on the Great Barrier Reef. The presence of the Lord Howe subspecies is possibly the result of a chance landing there.
The pied currawong's impact on smaller birds that are vulnerable to nest predation is controversial: several studies have suggested that the species has become a serious problem, but the truth of this widely held perception was queried in a 2001 review of the published literature on their foraging habits by Bayly and Blumstein of Macquarie University, who observed that common introduced birds were more affected than native birds. However, predation by pied currawongs has been a factor in the decline of Gould's petrel at a colony on Cabbage Tree Island, near Port Stephens in New South Wales; currawongs have been reported preying on adult seabirds. Their removal from the islands halted a decline of the threatened petrels. Furthermore, a University of New England study published in 2006 reported that the breeding success rates for the eastern yellow robin (Eopsaltria australis) and scarlet robin (Petroica boodang) on the New England Tablelands were improved after nests were protected and currawongs culled, and some yellow robins even re-colonised an area where they had become locally extinct. The presence of pied currawongs in Sydney gardens is negatively correlated with the presence of silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis).
The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed. In the first half of the twentieth century, pied currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops, as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear. They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens. However, they are seen as beneficial in forestry as they consume phasmids, and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth.
Behaviour
Pied currawongs are generally tree-dwelling, hunting and foraging some metres above the ground, and thus able to share territory with the ground-foraging Australian magpie. Birds roost in forested areas or large trees at night, disperse to forage in the early morning and return in the late afternoon. Although often solitary or encountered in small groups, the species may form larger flocks of fifty or more birds in autumn and winter. On the ground, a pied currawong hops or struts.
During the breeding season, pied currawongs will pair up and become territorial, defending both nesting and feeding areas. A 1994 study in Sydney's leafy northern suburbs measured an average distance of between nests, while another in Canberra in 1990 had three pairs in a segment of pine-tree lined street. Territories have been measured around 0.5–0.7 ha in Sydney and Wollongong, although these were restricted to nesting areas and did not include a larger feeding territory, and 7.9 ha in Canberra. Pied currawongs vigorously drive off threats such as ravens, and engage in bill-snapping, dive-bombing and aerial pursuit. They adopt a specific threat display against other currawongs by lowering the head so the head and body are parallel to the ground and pointing the beak out forward, often directly at the intruder. The male predominates in threat displays and territorial defence, and guards the female closely as she builds the nest.
Flocks of birds appear to engage in play; one routine involves a bird perching atop a tall tree, pole or spire, and others swooping, tumbling or diving and attempting to dislodge it. A successful challenger is then challenged in its turn by other birds in the flock.
The pied currawong bathes by wading into water up to deep, squatting down, ducking its head under, and shaking its wings. It preens its plumage afterwards, sometimes applying mud or soil first. The species has also been observed anting.
Breeding
Although found in many types of woodland, the pied currawong prefers to breed in mature forests. It builds a nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees in spring; generally eucalypts are chosen and never isolated ones. It produces a clutch of three eggs; they are a light pinkish-brown colour (likened by one author to that of silly putty) with splotches of darker pink-brown and lavender. Tapered oval in shape, they measure about . The female broods alone. The incubation period is not well known, due to the difficulty of observing nests, but observations indicate around 30 days from laying to hatching. Like all passerines, the chicks are born naked, and blind (altricial), and remain in the nest for an extended period (nidicolous) They quickly grow a layer of ashy-grey down. Both parents feed the young, although the male does not begin to feed them directly until a few days after birth.
The channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) parasitizes pied currawong nests, laying eggs which are then raised by the unsuspecting foster parents. The eggs closely resemble those of the currawong hosts. Pied currawongs have been known to desert nests once cuckoos have visited, abandoning the existing currawong young, which die, and a channel-billed cuckoo has been recorded decapitating a currawong nestling. The brown goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus) and lace monitor (Varanus varius) have also been recorded taking nestlings.
Feeding
The pied currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, eating fruit and berries as well as preying on many invertebrates, and smaller vertebrates, mostly juvenile birds and bird eggs, although they may take healthy adult birds up to the size of a crested pigeon on occasion. Currawongs will hunt in trees, snatching birds and eggs from nests, as well as insects and berries from trees. They also hunt in the air and on the ground. Insects predominate in the diet during summer months, and fruit during the winter. They will often scavenge, eating scraps and rubbish and can be quite bold when seeking food from people, lingering around picnic areas and bird-feeding trays. Beetles and ants are the most common types of insects consumed. Pied currawongs have been recorded taking mice, as well as chickens and turkeys from farms. The pied currawong consumes fruit, including a wide variety of figs, such as the Moreton Bay (Ficus macrophylla), Port Jackson (F. rubiginosa), Banyan (F. virens) and Strangler fig (F. watkinsiana), as well as lillypillies (Syzygium species), white cedar (Melia azedarach), plum pine (Podocarpus elatus), and geebungs (Persoonia species). Other fruit is also sought after, and currawongs have been known to raid orchards, eating apples, pears, strawberries, grapes, stone fruit, citrus, and corn. Pied currawongs have been responsible for the spread of the invasive ornamental Asparagus aethiopicus (often called A. densiflorus) in the Sydney area, the weedy privet species Ligustrum lucidum and L. sinense, and firethorn species Pyracantha angustifolia and P. rogersiana around Armidale.
Birds forage singly or in pairs in summer, and more often in larger flocks in autumn and winter, during which time they are more likely to loiter around people and urban areas. They occasionally associate with Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) or common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) when foraging. Birds have also been encountered with grey currawongs (S. versicolor) and satin bowerbirds (Ptilinorhynchus violaceus). The species has been reported stealing food from other birds such as the Australian hobby (Falco longipennis), collared sparrowhawk (Accipiter cirrocephalus), and sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita). Pied currawongs will also harass each other. A 2007 study conducted by researchers from the Australian National University showed that white-browed scrubwren (Sericornis frontalis) nestlings became silent when they heard the recorded sound of a pied currawong walking through leaf litter.
References
Cited texts
External links
pied currawong
Birds of Queensland
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
pied currawong
Taxa named by George Shaw | [
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221181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20compositions%20by%20Juan%20Mar%C3%ADa%20Solare | List of compositions by Juan María Solare | This is a list of works by composer and pianist Juan María Solare.
Ligia Lieder (1993–94)
Arriba los de abajo
Black Bart
Diez Estudios Escénicos
Epiclesis
FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)
Gestenstücke
Panther
Pasaje Seaver
Passacaglia über Heidelberg
Point of No Return
Pope
Schwächen
Seis bagatelas
Solidità della nebbia
Two Still Lives in Free Fall
Veinticinco de agosto, 1983
Zugzwang
References
External links
"Juan María Solare" Works Catalogue, page 63 from University of Bremen
60x60 (2003) Concert Program
Capstone Records 60x60 (2003) CD
60x60 (2003) Concert Program
Solare, Juan Maria | [
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221182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Bradshaw | Ben Bradshaw | Benjamin Peter James Bradshaw (born 30 August 1960) is a British politician who served as Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport from 2009 to 2010. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Exeter since 1997. Before entering politics he worked as a BBC Radio reporter.
Early life and career in journalism
Bradshaw is the son of a former Anglican vicar of Norwich Cathedral Canon Peter Bradshaw and his wife Daphne Murphy. Bradshaw was educated at Thorpe Grammar School, followed by the University of Sussex where he read for a degree in German. He also attended the University of Freiburg in Germany while an undergraduate. Between 1982 and 1983, Bradshaw taught English at the Technikum, a school of technology in Winterthur in the Zurich canton of Switzerland.
Bradshaw became a reporter with the Exeter Express and Echo in 1984 and subsequently joined the Eastern Daily Press in Norwich as a reporter in 1985. In 1986 he joined the staff of BBC Radio Devon and became the Berlin correspondent for BBC Radio in 1989 and was working in the city when the Berlin Wall fell. In 1991, he became a reporter with BBC Radio's The World At One, contributing to the programme until his election to Westminster. He won the Sony News Reporter Award in 1993.
Parliamentary career
Election and first term as an MP
Bradshaw was selected to contest the marginal parliamentary seat of Exeter at the 1997 general election after the first choice candidate was deselected by the local Labour party on instructions from Labour party headquarters.
The sitting Conservative MP, John Hannam had retired and the Conservatives chose Adrian Rogers to be their candidate. While Bradshaw is openly gay, Rogers is a leading member of the religious right. The campaign was vitriolic and bitter with allegations of homophobia and sin. The result, however, was not close, and Bradshaw was elected as the Labour MP for Exeter with a majority of 11,705. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 4 July 1997. He was the second British MP who was openly gay at the time of first election, 21 minutes after Stephen Twigg.
In the Commons, Bradshaw introduced the Pesticides Act in 1998, which gave more powers to inspectors. He became a Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of State at the Department of Health John Denham in 2000.
Initial ministerial posts
After the 2001 general election Bradshaw entered Tony Blair's government as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Only days after being appointed to the Foreign Office, he had to answer questions following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. On 6 March 2002, while answering Parliamentary Questions, Bradshaw accused George Galloway of "being not just an apologist but a mouthpiece for the Iraqi regime over many years". Galloway responded by accusing Bradshaw of being a liar, though after a suspension of the Commons sitting, both men withdrew their comments.
Bradshaw became the Deputy to the Leader of the House of Commons Robin Cook in 2002, and was an Under Secretary of State at the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs from 2003 until 2006, when he was made a Minister of State at the same department. During this period, he was sent to Brussels to negotiate changes to the Common Fisheries Policy on behalf of the British in-shore fishing fleet.
In 2003, Bradshaw supported government's stance on Iraq and voted for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In 2005, Bradshaw supported the detention of terror suspects without trial and voted for the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.
Health minister
On 28 June 2007, he was moved to become a Minister of State in the Department of Health and, in addition, was given the Minister for the South West portfolio.
Bradshaw was the subject of controversy while Minister for Health. His responses to questioning on Radio 4 about the shortfall in NHS dentistry leading to patients unable to access NHS dentists and even resorting to treating themselves was to claim that those needing urgent treatment should go to see their GP, which prompted the British Medical Association to observe that a General Practitioner was no substitute for a qualified dentist.
Bradshaw also claimed that GPs were operating "gentlemen's agreements" to ensure patients didn't move between surgeries, claims dismissed as "absolute nonsense" by doctors' leaders.
On the subject of the National Programme for IT, a scheme dogged by cost overruns, delays, and doubts over its benefit to patients, he commented: "Our use of computer technology in the NHS is becoming the envy of the world. It is saving lives, saving time and saving money. If you talk to health and IT experts anywhere in the world they point to Britain as example of computer technology being used successfully to improve health services to the public."
He was also criticised for defending car parking fees at NHS hospitals at a time when Wales was removing parking fees. The BMA called such charges "a tax on the sick", and questioned the legitimacy of trusts making up to £248,000 a month in parking fees. Bradshaw's claims that such charges were necessary to pay for patient care were dismissed by a shadow health spokesman, who commented that it did "not add up" for the government to make such claims in the light of an NHS surplus of £1.8bn.
His plan to introduce private management of some NHS trusts was also heavily criticised. The BMA called it a step towards privatising the NHS. Dr. Jonathan Fielden observed that there was no evidence private management was better than public sector management. Professor Allyson Pollock, head of the Centre for International Public Health Policy at the University of Edinburgh, said: "Bringing private management in will simply accelerate the process of privatisation of services which will have catastrophic effects for the patients and the public at large. It will mean less care for everyone, and more money for profits and shareholders". Nigel Edwards, of the NHS Confederation, said the government had tried drafting in private sector management before, at the Good Hope Hospital in Sutton Coldfield in 2003, which was not successful. He commented: "What it revealed is that the reason that hospitals tend to fail is often much more complicated and much more difficult than just poor management".
Expenses and period as Culture Secretary
It was claimed in May 2009 that he exploited the MPs' expenses system by claiming the entire interest bill on a property he shares with his partner in west London. Bradshaw has said claims made about his expenses were factually wrong.
On 5 June 2009 he was appointed Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport. He held this position until the 2010 United Kingdom general election and served as Shadow Culture Secretary until the 2010 Labour Party (UK) Shadow Cabinet election.
In opposition
On 7 October 2010 the Labour Party announced that he had failed to be elected to one of the 19 available places in the first Shadow Cabinet of new leader Ed Miliband. In 2011, Bradshaw voted for the NATO-led military intervention in Libya. On 5 February 2013, he voted in favour in the House of Commons Second Reading vote on the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill.
Following Labour's defeat in the 2015 general election, and the resignation of both Miliband and deputy leader Harriet Harman, Bradshaw announced his intention on 15 May to stand in the Labour Party deputy leadership election. He later gained the minimum 35 nominations required to stand in the ballot with the other candidates. Bradshaw came last in the election.
Bradshaw is a former critic of Jeremy Corbyn, whom he accused in a September 2016 article of being a "destructive combination of incompetence, deceit and menace". This comment was after Bradshaw was included on an internal Labour list of MPs, issued by mistake, who were implicated in "abusing" Corbyn and his supporters. He supported Owen Smith in the failed attempt to replace Jeremy Corbyn in the 2016 Labour Party (UK) leadership election. However, Bradshaw later changed his position on Jeremy Corbyn, praising his 2017 election performance.
In November 2016, Bradshaw opposed a motion in Parliament for the UK to withdraw support for the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. George Galloway accused Bradshaw of supporting Saudi Arabia's regime where men like Bradshaw "are beheaded."
Bradshaw claimed during a Commons debate in December 2016 that it is "highly probable" that the result of the 2016 Brexit referendum was manipulated by Vladimir Putin. Bradshaw saw this as fitting a pattern of interfering in the business of other nations after the CIA accused Russian hackers of trying to influence US elections. Bradshaw also maintains that the Russians sent him an e-mail with sophisticated malware and maintains this was a cyberattack. Bradshaw said, "The email came to my gmail account, which is more vulnerable than my parliamentary one. What the sender was claiming was potentially extremely useful and political dynamite. It was drafted in a clever way to make it tempting to open." Bradshaw added, "I was the first MP to raise Russia's role in the Brexit vote in 2016. Ever since I have been asking questions about the Kremlin's subversion of our democracy."
In October 2019, Bradshaw attracted controversy for saying that Michael Gove had been heckled by cries of "humbug" and "nonsense" at an event held by the German embassy. An audio recording later revealed that it was Bradshaw himself who had been the heckler.
On 3 February 2022, Bradshaw announced he would not be standing in the next general election.
Other activities
In 2009, Ben Bradshaw won the Stonewall Politician of the Year Award in 2009 for his work to support equality for lesbian, gay and bisexual people. He was given a score of 100% in favour of lesbian, gay and bisexual equality by Stonewall. Bradshaw was sworn in as a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 2009, giving him the right to the honorific prefix "The Right Honourable".
Bradshaw is a member of the Henry Jackson Society Advisory Council.
Personal life
On 24 June 2006, Bradshaw and his partner Neal Dalgleish, who is a BBC producer, registered a civil partnership. He was one of the first MPs to do so, and he was the first Cabinet Minister to be in a civil partnership. Bradshaw has asked the Church of England to clarify whether a member of the Church of England clergy who married a same sex partner would be disciplined or defrocked.
Bradshaw's brother is Jonathan Bradshaw, CBE, Professor Emeritus of Social Policy at the University of York.
See also
Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum
References
External links
Ben Bradshaw MP official constituency website
Pesticides Act 1998
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1960 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Sussex
BBC newsreaders and journalists
English Anglicans
People from Westminster
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Exeter
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
LGBT Anglicans
Gay politicians
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
LGBT politicians from England
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
UK MPs 2019–present
21st-century LGBT people | [
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221183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsiang%E2%80%93Lawson%27s%20conjecture | Hsiang–Lawson's conjecture | In mathematics, Lawson's conjecture states that the Clifford torus is the only minimally embedded torus in the 3-sphere S3. The conjecture was featured by the Australian Mathematical Society Gazette as part of the Millennium Problems series.
In March 2012, Simon Brendle gave a proof of this conjecture, based on maximum principle techniques.
References
Geometric topology
Theorems in differential geometry
Conjectures that have been proved
Theorems in topology | [
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221185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letterist%20International | Letterist International | The Letterist International (LI) was a Paris-based collective of radical artists and cultural theorists between 1952 and 1957. It was created by Guy Debord and Gil J. Wolman rejoined by Jean-Louis Brau and Serge Berna as a schism from Isidore Isou's Letterist group. The group went on to join others in forming the Situationist International, taking some key techniques and ideas with it.
'Letterist' was the form the group themselves used, as in their 1955 sticker: 'If you believe you have genius, or if you think you have only a brilliant intelligence, write the letterist internationale.' Though the spelling 'Lettrist' is also common in English, authors and translators such as Donald Nicholson-Smith, Simon Ford, Sadie Plant and Andrew Hussey use the 'Letterist International' spelling.
The group was a motley assortment of novelists, sound poets, painters, film-makers, revolutionaries, bohemians, alcoholics, petty criminals, lunatics, under-age girls and self-proclaimed failures. In the Summer of 1953, their average age was a mere twenty years old, rising to twenty nine and a half in 1957. In their blend of intellectualism, protest and hedonism—though differing in other ways, for instance in their total rejection of spirituality—they might be viewed as French counterparts of the American Beat Generation, particularly in the form it took during exactly the same period, i.e. before anyone from either group achieved notoriety, and were still having the adventures that would inform their later works and ideas.
History and theory
The LI was the first breakaway faction from Isidore Isou's Letterists. (They would be followed in turn by the Ultra-Letterists). The schism developed when the 'left-wing' of the Letterist group disrupted a Charlie Chaplin press conference for Limelight at the Hôtel Ritz Paris in October 1952. They distributed a polemic entitled "No More Flat Feet", which concluded: "The footlights have melted the make-up of the supposedly brilliant mime. All we can see now is a lugubrious and mercenary old man. Go home Mister Chaplin." Isou was keen to distance himself from his younger acolytes' tract. His own attitude was that Chaplin deserved respect as one of the great creators of the cinematic art. The breakaway group felt that he was no longer relevant, and they turned Isou's own words back against him: "We appreciated the importance of Chaplin's work in its own time, but we know that today novelty lies elsewhere, and 'truths which no longer entertain become lies' (Isou)." As they proceeded to explain, "the most urgent exercise of liberty is the destruction of idols".
Although the LI had in fact already been covertly formed by Guy Debord and Gil J. Wolman in June 1952, even before the Chaplin intervention and the public split from Isou, it was not formally established until 7 December 1952. The four signatories of the Chaplin tract (Debord and Wolman, together with Jean-Louis Brau and Serge Berna) agreed on a constitution for the group during a visit to Aubervilliers (where Brau's father lived). Anyone collaborating with 'Isouian activities', they declared, would be automatically excluded, even if this was being done in defence of the LI. 'It is in the transcendence of arts that everything has yet to be done.' The official base of the group was at 32, Rue de la Montagne-Sainte-Geneviéve, Paris, subsequently to become the official base of the Situationist International (but invariably referred to by both groups as "Rue de la Montagne-Geneviéve", signalling their disdain for religion). This was in fact the address of a bar, Tonneau d'Or, and indeed most of their time was spent either drinking in a number of bars in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, principally at Chez Moineau on the Rue du Four, or else simply walking the streets.
There was a serious purpose behind their ambulation. They developed the dérive, or drift, where they would wander like clouds through the urban environment for hours or sometimes even days on end. During their wanderings in the Summer of 1953, an "illiterate Kabyle" suggested to them the term "Psychogeography", to designate what they saw as a pattern of emotive force-fields that would permeate a city. The dérive would enable them to map out these forces, and these results could then be used as a basis upon which to build a system of unitary urbanism. Among their most important texts on these matters were Debord's "Theory of the Dérive" (published in the Belgian surrealist magazine Les Lèvres Nues, no. 9, November 1956), and Ivan Chtcheglov's "Formulary for a New Urbanism" (written October 1953, but not published until June 1958 in the first issue of the journal Internationale Situationniste). In the latter, Chtcheglov advocated a new city where, as he wrote, "each person will live in his own personal 'cathedral'. There will be rooms that produce dreams better than drugs, and houses where it will be impossible to do anything but love." He declared, "The Hacienda must be built", a remark which would later inspire the name of the famous Manchester night-club. In "Introduction to a Critique of Urban Geography" (Les Lèvres Nues, no. 6, September 1955), Debord described a colleague's drift through the Harz region of Germany, blindly following a map of London. This is still a favourite methodology amongst psychogeographers. They produced a broad range of proposals: the abolition of museums and the placing of art in bars, keeping the Metro open all night, opening the roofs of Paris like pavements with escalators to help gain access.
Another important notion developed by the LI, was that of détournement, a technique of reutilising plagiarised material (literary, artistic, cinematic, etc.) for a new and usually radical purpose. The defining LI text here was the 1956 "A User's Guide to Détournement", by Debord and Wolman, from Les Lèvres Nues no. 8. They argued: "In truth, it is necessary to do away with the whole notion of personal property in this area. The emergence of new demands renders earlier 'great works' obsolete. They become obstacles, bad habits. It is not a question of whether we like them or not. We must pass them by." These techniques were subsequently used extensively by the Situationists. In addition, such characteristically situationist concepts as the construction of situations and the supersession of art were first developed by the LI.
In addition to the central Parisian group, an Algerian section of the LI was established in April 1953 by Hadj Mohamed Dahou, Cheik Ben Dhine and Ait Diafer. Based at Orléansville ('the most letterist city in the world' according to Potlatch no. 12), they were hit hard by an earthquake there on 9 September 1954, although initial reports that most of them had been killed turned out to be unfounded (Potlatch no. 13). A Swiss section was also established in late 1954, but were almost immediately excluded (Potlatch no. 15).
In September 1956, Wolman represented the LI at the World Congress of Artists in Alba, Italy. This conference had been organised by Asger Jorn and Pinot-Gallizio of the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus (IMIB), and important links between the two groups were consolidated. Wolman himself was excluded from the LI shortly afterwards, but the remaining members, Debord and Michèle Bernstein, subsequently visited Cosio d'Arroscia where, on 28 July 1957, the LI officially fused with the IMIB and the London Psychogeographical Association to form the Situationist International.
Adventures
Besides the Charlie Chaplin protest, some of the more noteworthy/startling activities of the LI include:
Ivan Chtcheglov's plan to blow up the Eiffel Tower, on no other grounds than that its lights were shining through his bedroom window and keeping him awake at night.
Debord's legendary 1953 graffito, "Ne travaillez jamais!" ("Never work!"), inscribed on a wall at the corner of the Rue de Mazarine and Rue de Seine. The slogan would later reappear in May 1968, and summed up the ethos of both the LI and the Situationist International after them.
Although pre-dating the formation of the LI (but directly involving Serge Berna, and inspiring the others), one might also mention:
A 1950 letterist attempt at the "liberation" of a Catholic orphanage at Auteuil, causing a small-scale riot in protest at how "youth suffers in slavery, or is super-exploited by the seniority system."
The Notre-Dame Affair of Easter Sunday, 1950, where Michel Mourre, dressed in a Dominican's habit, took to the pulpit and began to address the congregation, informing them, before anyone realised that anything was amiss, that God was dead, and that the Catholic Church was "appropriating our life force in the name of an empty heaven", and "infecting the world with its morality of death".
An extract from a letter of Gil Wolman to Jean-Louis Brau, of 20 July 1953, gives a clear impression of what the group and their associates tended to get up to from day to day:
I am back! ... Where were things when you left? Joël [Berlé] has been out for a long time, on probation. Jean-Michel [Mension] and Fred [Auguste Hommel] are now free, too (for stealing from parked cars—and under the influence, naturally). Little Eliane [Papaï] got out of police custody last week after a dramatic arrest in a maid's room somewhere in Vincennes with Joël and Jean-Michel; they were drunk, needless to say, and refused to open up to the police, who left and came back with reinforcements. In the confusion they lost the seal of the Letterist International. Linda [Fried] not sentenced yet. Sarah [Abouaf] still in the reformatory—but her sister, sixteen and a half, has taken her place. There have been other arrests, for narcotics, for who knows what else. It's getting very tiresome. There is G[uy]-E[rnest Debord], who has just spent ten days in a nursing home where his parents sent him following a failed attempt to gas himself. He's back in the neighbourhood now. Serge [Berna?] is due out on 12 May. The day before yesterday I threw up royally outside Moineau's. The latest diversion in the neighbourhood is spending the night in the Catacombs—another of Joël's bright ideas. I have a good many projects which are liable to remain just that—projects. ...
Decades later, Debord would nostalgically (though also somewhat ambiguously) sum up the spirit of the times in his Panegyric (1989): "Between the rue du Four and the rue de Buci, where our youth so completely went astray as a few glasses were drunk, one could feel certain that we would never do any better."
Membership
Guy Debord (1931–1994) (generally using the name 'Guy-Ernest' during this period).
Gil J. Wolman (1929–1995). Excluded 1957.
Michèle Bernstein (1932–). Joined 1954.
Alexander Trocchi (1925–1984). Joined 1955.
Hadj Mohamed Dahou (1926-2010) (aka Midhou or just Mohamed Dahou) Joined 1953.
Ivan Chtcheglov (1933–1998) (known as "Gilles Ivain"). Excluded 1954.
Serge Berna (1925?–?). Excluded 1953.
Patrick Straram (1934–88). Joined 1953, quit 1954.
Jean-Michel Mension. (1934–2006). Excluded 1954.
Jean-Louis Brau (1930–1985) (known as "Bull Dog Brau"). Excluded 1953.
Several others also passed through the LI during its five years of existence, including André-Frank Conord, Jacques Fillon, Abdelhafid Khatib, Henry de Béarn and Gaëtan M. Langlais. In addition, the central members (almost all of them men), would sometimes include their girlfriends' names (usually first names only) among the signatories to their texts. Worthy of special mention among these girlfriends is Eliane Papaï (1935–?). An alumna of the same Auteuil orphanage the letterists had attempted to liberate, she was first the girlfriend of Debord, then the wife of Mension, and finally the wife of Brau. Debord recalled her fondly in many of his later films and writings, and she herself (as Eliane Brau) produced a book on the Situationists in 1968, Le situationnisme ou la nouvelle internationale.
Jean-Louis Brau, Gil Wolman and François Dufrêne founded a Second Letterist International (D.I.L., Deuxième Internationale Lettriste) in 1964.<ref>Figures de la négation (Musée D'Art Moderne, Saint-Etienne Métropole, 2004), p. 76.</ref> The New Lettrist International was founded more recently and is independent of (though inspired by) the earlier group.
Publications
The LI published four issues of the Internationale Lettriste bulletin between 1952 and 1954, followed by twenty eight issues of Potlatch from 1954 to 1957. A further two issues of Potlatch appeared in November 1957 and July 1959, now with the revised subtitle "Information bulletin of the Situationist International". Each issue comprised between one and four mimeographed sheets. Les Lèvres Nues, though not an LI publication, published some of their most important articles. All of these texts, together with a few other miscellaneous tracts, are reprinted in Documents Relatifs A La Fondation De L'Internationale Situationniste (Editions Allia, 1985).
Debord's 1959 collaboration with Asger Jorn, Mémoires, was directly concerned with the early days of the LI. The new Gallimard edition of his Oeuvres gathers many LI texts, including some never before published. Michèle Bernstein's novels, Tous les chevaux du roi (1960) and La Nuit (1961), present fictionalised accounts of her life with Debord during this period. Patrick Straram's Les bouteilles se couchent was a semi-fictionalised contemporary account of the scene, written in 1953 but lost until recently: it was published by Editions Allia in 2006. Also recently published by the same house are a biography of Ivan Chtcheglov and a separate collection of his writings. In October 2010, an unpublished text from the LI has just been released that recalls the adventures of the letterists between 1945 and February 1953 : Visages de l'avant-garde (Paris: Jean-Paul Rocher, éditeur, 2010).
Sources in English
Mension, Jean-Michel. The Tribe (London: Verso, 2002). The most compendious source of information on the LI.
Marcus, Greil. Lipstick Traces (London: Penguin, 1989).
Home, Stewart. The Assault on Culture (Stirling: Ak Press, 1991).
Hussey, Andrew. The Game of War (London: Jonathan Cape, 2001).
van der Elsken, Ed. Love on the Left Bank (Stockport: Dewi Lewis Publishing, 1999). Ed van der Elsken was a Dutch photographer, who captured the scene around Moineau's during the period. Included among the people depicted in this book (first published 1956) are a few members and associates of the LI (particularly Mension and Papaï).
Wark, Mckenzie. The Beach Beneath the Street: The Everyday Life and Glorious Times of the Situationist International. (New York: Verso, 2011)
Other Sources
Vachon, Marc L'arpenteur de la ville: L'utopie situationniste et Patrick Straram''. (Les Éditions Triptyque, Montreal, 2003) .
See also
Anti-art
Notes
External links
A few LI texts in English
Debord and Wolman's 'Why Letterism'
Lettrism
Situationist International
Psychogeography
French art movements
Walking art | [
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221186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV%20Westcountry | ITV Westcountry | ITV Westcountry, formerly known as Westcountry Television and Carlton Westcountry, was the ITV franchise holder for the south west of England, covering Cornwall, Devon, Isles of Scilly, southern and western Somerset and western Dorset. The company replaced its predecessor, TSW (Television South West), from 1 January 1993. The station was owned and operated by ITV plc under the licensee of ITV Broadcasting Limited (formerly Westcountry Television Limited).
ITV West Country incorporating the former ITV Westcountry ("West") and ITV West ("East") regions was (until 31 December 2013) a non-franchise ITV regional station covering south west England. With the formal split of the Wales and West Channel 3 licence in January 2014, a separate licence was created for Wales with the West licence merged with that of West Country. ITV West Country thus became a franchise region. Both companies which make up the new regional licence still legally exist. ITV Wales & West Ltd, ITV Wales & West Group Ltd and Westcountry Television Ltd are each, along with most other regional companies owned by ITV plc, listed on www.companieshouse.gov.uk as a "Dormant company". This article however, covers the Westcountry Television part of the franchise.
History
Franchise award
Westcountry Television was one of two rival consortia bidding against the incumbent TSW when the ITV franchises were put to tender early in 1991. Two of Westcountry's original shareholders were Brittany Ferries and South West Water; the latter investor attracted criticism as only three years earlier it had been responsible for one of the worst water pollution incidents in the United Kingdom and which had occurred within the franchise area at Camelford. On 16 October 1991, Westcountry was announced as the winner, bidding £7 million a year against TSW's bid of £16 million a year. Several local MPs were concerned that South West Water's involvement would lead to partiality in news items concerning the local water firm.
TSW launched a legal challenge to the franchise award, and after initially being refused permission to do so in the High Court, a legal action began which would last almost three months and went all the way to the House of Lords. In February 1992 the legal process found in favour of Westcountry and while it could now finally sign the franchise agreement, its original programme plans were hit by the delay. Following discussions with the Independent Television Commission, Westcountry announced on 1 April 1992 it had abandoned the plans to build new studios on the Plymouth waterfront, opting instead to convert an industrial unit at Langage Science Park, Plymouth. It also reduced its planned staffing levels – already far fewer than those of TSW – leading to an expression of disappointment by TSW's managing director Harry Turner. Of the 297 TSW employees, only 16 found work at Westcountry at the start of the franchise. Around 112 staff were employed by Westcountry at the time of the station's launch.
Franchise operation
Westcountry replaced TSW at 00:00 GMT on 1 January 1993. The channel's launch sequence was a two-minute promo voiced by Bruce Hammal and Trish Bertram (two of Westcountry's first trail voiceovers) welcoming viewers to Westcountry and trailing its forthcoming regional programmes. The promo was followed by the Eddie Murphy and Dudley Moore film Best Defense. The new station promised an increase to 11 hours a week of regional programming of mixed genres.
Six months after the launch, the company joined up with Meridian Broadcasting, HTV, Channel Television and S4C to create a joint advertising sales operation.
During the summer of 1996, Westcountry prepared to float the company on the stock market, which resulted in HTV, United News & Media, Carlton Communications and Canwest bidding to buy out Westcountry. In October 1996 GWR, the radio group, made a bid of £70m for Westcountry TV, outbidding both HTV and Carlton, but within a few weeks United News & Media increased its offer and was expected to acquire the company, But Westcountry owners had become increasingly frustrated at the slow progress of talks and criticised United boss Lord Hollick's "nickel and dime" tactics over negotiations, opting instead to sell to Carlton Communications for £10m higher than United's offer of around £75m, around 25 November 1996. Hollick was described as "disappointed but far from livid" at the outcome. Subsequently, Westcountry was re-branded as Carlton Westcountry in September 1999, although only referred on screen as Carlton. On 27 October 2002, Carlton Westcountry lost its regional identity, and became known as ITV1 Carlton prior to regional programmes only, while being known as ITV1 at all other times. The franchise briefly became ITV1 for the Westcountry in 2003, before being renamed onscreen as ITV1 Westcountry upon the ITV plc merger of 2004, and officially taking this name two years later. ITV1 Westcountry was used for a time after this, although from 13 November 2006, the regional name was only verbally mentioned before any locally produced programming.
ITV West Country
Following a speech by Michael Grade about regional broadcasting post-switchover at the 2007 Nations and Regions conference in Cardiff, there was speculation that ITV West and ITV Westcountry could merge news operations, as part of further streamlining of regional operations. Rumours suggested that, while a newsroom (and separate regional identity) would be retained in the south west, the main Westcountry Live programme would move to a studio alongside The West Tonight at ITV West in Bristol (akin to the Meridian and Thames Valley news services at Whiteley). On 12 September 2007, ITV issued a statement to the City of London, saying that it wished to reduce the number of news studios from 17 to just nine. This included merging ITV West with ITV Westcountry to form a non-franchise region, ITV West and Westcountry, from February 2009.
Shortly after the broadcasting regulator OFCOM gave final approval to the changes, the regional news service was phased out with the final broadcast from Plymouth aired on Sunday 15 February 2009. A new programme entitled The West Country Tonight replaced the Westcountry Live on Monday 16 February 2009 but included separate opt-out news bulletins (some of which were pre-recorded depending on the day's news) and weather forecasts for the Westcountry region during the main 6pm programme and in the weekday late bulletin after News at Ten. Separate daytime bulletins for the region were reintroduced in September 2011.
On 14 January 2013, the region became known as ITV West Country. In September 2013, the south west opt-out within the main 6pm news programme ITV News West Country was extended to at least 20 minutes. Separate weekend bulletins were also reintroduced, effectively restoring a full regional news service for the former Westcountry region.
Studios
Westcountry was originally based at Brittany Ferries' offices in Millbay Docks, Plymouth with a view to constructing a purpose-built studio centre on the Plymouth waterfront. However, following the delay caused by TSW's legal proceedings, these plans were scrapped. The company opted instead to convert an industrial unit at Langage Science Park in Plympton, which was backed up by a network of seven local newsrooms and studios in Torbay, Penzance, Truro, Exeter, Barnstaple, Weymouth and Taunton.
Although Westcountry's headquarters were in Plymouth, transmission for the channel was outsourced and run by HTV Wales staff at HTV's presentation centre in Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff with continuity announcers based at the Plymouth studios. This arrangement lasted from the first day of broadcasting until shortly after regional continuity was abandoned in October 2002.
Following the merger to form ITV West Country, most of Westcountry's operations were transferred to HTV's West headquarters in Bristol, where production of the regional news service is now based. The only operation left in Plymouth is a newsroom and sales office, alongside two newsrooms in Truro and Exeter.
Sub-regions
Up until early 2009, Westcountry ran four sub-regional services, each providing short opt-out bulletins for their area during the flagship news programme Westcountry Live and the late bulletin after News at Ten. The opt-outs were broadcast from Westcountry's studios in Barnstaple (covering north Devon), Exeter (serving east Devon and parts of Somerset), Plymouth (south Devon & parts of east Cornwall) and Truro (Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly). Westcountry was the first and only ITV company to produce four opt-outs for its region.
Identity
Between 1 January 1993 and 5 September 1999, Westcountry's presentation featured that of a large 'W' shape on a frosted screen over a background video of a nature scene. The idents were made so that the scene could only be seen clearly through the 'W' shape. Accompanying the video was a five-note jingle featuring string and flute instruments. This presentational package lasted throughout the whole period, with the only change on 8 September 1997 that of a form-up added made out of diagonal lines.
From 6 September 1999 however, the look changed drastically, as the Carlton 'Star' ident package was launched on the network. The look, featuring a start up film involving hearts would flash out to reveal the Carlton name over a spinning star background. The Westcountry name was only used on the news programme Westcountry Live. This package lasted until 28 October 2002, when regional continuity was lost.
In its place, a national ITV1 branding package, with local idents featuring the ITV1 logo on the left hand side of the screen with Carlton logo below. This remained until late 2003, when the Carlton name was removed from regional idents, which instead featured four colour cubes randomly located in a scene from the region. The ITV1 logo was located in the bottom right corner with the caption ITV1 for the Westcountry located beneath. Following the 2004 ITV rebranding, the new local ident featured the national ident of three cubes containing the letters 'ITV' above a large cube '1', with the addition of the region name below. A few blunders occurred however. To begin with, Westcountry's local ident had the word West beneath which was later replaced as West Country. The ident was finally amended to show the right name at approximately the same time that regional idents were abandoned. In 2006 and 2009, the Westcountry brand completely disappeared from continuity and the news service respectively. The station would now be known on-air as just ITV1 at all times.
On 14 January 2013, the station's on-air identity was changed to ITV, along with all other ITV plc-owned franchises.
Programmes
Westcountry's programme offerings were primarily aimed at a regional market as opposed to gaining network slots. Westcountry's flagship programme was the regional news magazine Westcountry Live, which ran between Westcountry's launch in 1993 until the merger in 2009. Other regional programmes included:
Bendell at Bedtime – Topical debate (2004)
Birthday People – Birthday slot for children (1993–2005)
Blooming Marvelous – (1994–96)
Brief Encounters – Feature series about unusual pastimes (1993–94)
Energize! – A Saturday Children's magazine programme (1996–2000)
Little River Journeys – A look at the Westcountry region's waterways, later aired by Channel 4 (1995)
On the Road to the Islands – Jack Pizzey's tour of islands in the south west, later aired by Channel 4 (1993)
Richard Digance: For One Night Only – Local entertainment series (1997–98)
Special Report – current affairs programme
The L.A.D.S. – A rare partly network commission, A magazine programme for men. (1996)
Ruth Meets The Entertainers – (1995)
The West At Work – (1993–96)
Westcountry Focus – Westcountry's first regular current affairs series
Westcountry Life – Short 30-second films reflecting aspects of life in the region (1993–96)
Westcountry Soccer Night – Local football magazine show (2004–08)
Westcountry Update – Weekly news review for the deaf and hard of hearing (1993–2004)
West Wise – Short-lived inter-town quiz, one of Westcountry's first local programmes (1993)
In its annual reports, the Independent Television Commission (ITC) commented on Westcountry's programming and performance; in 1995 it said that Westcountry had a "good news service and regional programming", despite a difficult first year. Two years later in 1997 the ITC again noted its "strong, high quality regional programming" and that it had "scored a major network success with Christmas with the Royal Navy, a series of five live programmes". In 1999 the ITC again commented that Westcountry provided a "regional service of generally high quality" and that overall its range of regional programmes was "wide and included some strong factual material", also noting that one of its children's programmes had been supplied to the network.
See also
ITV Wales & West
Television South West
ITV (TV network)
References
External links
Carlton Television
Westcountry
Mass media in Cornwall
Mass media in Dorset
Television channels and stations established in 1993
Television
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2013 | [
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221188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage%20%28disambiguation%29 | Cage (disambiguation) | A cage is a structure made of mesh, bars or wires.
Cage or CAGE may also refer to:
Structures
Cage (bearing), a component of a rolling-element bearing
Cage, a separated enclosure in a computer colocation centre
Batting cage (or tunnel), an enclosure for baseball or softball batting practice
Faraday cage, or Faraday shield, an enclosure used to block electromagnetic fields
Rib cage, a part of the skeleton
Places
Cage (Srebrenik), a village in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Cage, Croatia, a village
People
Cage (rapper) (born 1973), stage name of American rapper Chris Palko
Brian Cage (born 1984), ring name of American professional wrestler Brian Button
Buddy Cage (1946–2020), American pedal steel guitarist
Byron Cage (born 1962), African-American gospel recording artist
Christian Cage (born 1973), ring name of Canadian-American professional wrestler Jason Reso
David Cage (born 1969), French video game designer
Harry Cage (1795–1859), antebellum U.S. Congressman
John Cage (1912–1992), American experimental composer
Michael Cage (born 1962), American basketball player
Nicolas Cage (born 1964), American actor
Stuart Cage (born 1973), English golfer
Wayne Cage (born 1951), American baseball player
William Cage (disambiguation)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional entities
Cage, in the video game Twisted Metal: Black
John Cage (character), in the television show Ally McBeal
Johnny Cage, a fictional character from the Mortal Kombat video games
Luke Cage, a fictional character portrayed in Marvel Comics
Xander Cage, the protagonist in the film XXX
Cage Midwell, the protagonist of the video game Zone of the Enders: The Fist of Mars
Music
Cage (band), an American heavy metal band
Cage the Elephant, an American alternative rock band
"Cage", a song by Dir En Grey from the album Gauze
"Cage", a song by Manafest from the album The Moment
"Cages", a song by Deas Vail from the album Birds and Cages
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Cage (film), a 1989 action film and its 1994 sequel Cage II
"Cage" (Law & Order: Special Victims Unit), a television episode
Science and technology
Cage (graph theory), a type of mathematical graph
CAGE questionnaire, a screening tool for determining alcoholism
Cap analysis gene expression, a molecular biology technique
Other uses
CAGE (organisation), a London-based advocacy organization
Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) Code
Iron cage, a sociological term
See also
Caging (disambiguation)
Gabion, a cage filled with coarse gravel or rock
La Cage (disambiguation)
La Cage aux Folles (disambiguation)
The Cage (disambiguation)
The Gilded Cage | [
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221190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Guastavino | Carlos Guastavino | Carlos Guastavino (5 April 1912 – 29 October 2000) was an Argentine composer, considered one of the foremost composers of his country. His production amounted to over 500 works, most of them songs for piano and voice, many still unpublished. His style was quite conservative, always tonal and lushly romantic. His compositions were clearly influenced by Argentine folk music. His reputation was based almost entirely on his songs, and Guastavino has sometimes been called "the Schubert of the Pampas". Some of his songs, for example Pueblito, mi pueblo, La rosa y el sauce ("The Rose and the Willow") and Se equivocó la paloma ("The Dove Was Wrong"), became national favorites. Unlike most other composers, at any time or place, Guastavino earned enough from his royalties and performing rights that he had little need for other income.
Many famous performers, such as Teresa Berganza, Martha Argerich, Gidon Kremer, José Carreras, Kiri Te Kanawa, Patricia Caicedo, Bernarda Fink, Cecilia Pillado, María Isabel Siewers, Jorge Chaminé, Agathe Martel, Karina Gauvin,Julie Nesrallah and José Cura have included works of Guastavino on their programs or recordings.
Life
Carlos Guastavino was born in Santa Fe Province, Argentina. He studied music in Santa Fe with Esperanza Lothringer and Dominga Iaffei, and in Buenos Aires with Athos Palma. A talented pianist, he performed his piano works in London in 1947, 1948, and 1949, invited by the BBC, and as a recipient of a scholarship from the British Council. During these years, the BBC Symphony Orchestra premiered the orchestral version of his Tres Romances Argentinos, under the baton of Walter Goehr. Later, in 1956, Guastavino toured the USSR and China, performing his pieces for voice and piano.
Compositional style
Guastavino's musical style marked a stark contrast with the works of his 20th-century Argentine contemporaries such as Alberto Ginastera and reveals the influence of European composers such as Albéniz, Granados, Rachmaninoff, Chabrier, Falla, Debussy, and Ravel, but also is clearly inherited from the luminaries of 19th-century Argentine nationalist composers, such as Alberto Williams, Ernesto Drangosch, Francisco Hargreaves, Eduardo García Mansilla and Julián Aguirre. Aguirre's delicate and intimate piano writing is an especially evident influence on Guastavino. Guastavino's stylistic isolation from the modernist and avant-garde movements going on around him, and the self-consciously nationalist content of his songs made him a model for Argentine popular and folk musicians in the 1960s.
Guastavino published more than 150 songs for voice and piano, numerous piano solo pieces, choral works, school songs, and chamber music. The poets whose works he set to music included Rafael Alberti, Leon Benarós, Hamlet Lima Quintana, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Pablo Neruda, Gabriela Mistral, and Jorge Luis Borges. A small number of his songs are settings of his own texts. His works for orchestra included Divertissement; fue una vez, commissioned by Colonel W. de Basil for his original Ballet Russe and premiered at the Teatro Colón, in Buenos Aires, in 1942; and Suite Argentina which was performed in London, Paris, Barcelona, and Havana by the Ballet Español of Isabel Lopez. He also wrote three Sonatas for guitar.
Awards
Guastavino received important awards and recognition, such as the Municipal Prize from the city of Buenos Aires for his chamber songs, a prize from the Justice Ministry of Argentina, Prize of the Cultural Commission of Santa Fe Province for his songs, "Vosotras" magazine Prize for his "Canción de Navidad", and a Prize from the Organization of American States and the Inter-American Music Council as recognition of his outstanding creative activity.
Selected discography
Carlos Guastavino: Melodías Argentinas. Marcela Roggeri, piano Florent Héau, clarinet. Transart Live Records. France
Carlos Guastavino: The Complete Piano Music, Martin Jones, piano. Nimbus, NI 5818/20 (2008).
Carlos Gustavino: Tres Romances argentinos op.2; Martha Argerich & Mauricio Vallina, 2 pianos. EMI "Martha Argerich EDITION: Solo & Duos 50999 0 94044 2 7 (6 CD 2011)<(live recording 14.VI.2005 Auditorio Stello Molo, Lugano)>
Flores Argentinas, Desiree Halac, mezzo-soprano; Dalton Baldwin, piano. Albany Records (2008).
Art Songs of Latin-America. Patricia Caicedo, soprano & Pau Casan, piano. Albert Moraleda Records, Barcelona (2001).
A mi ciudad nativa (To my native city), Art Songs of Latin-America, Vol. II, Patricia Caicedo, soprano; Eugenia Gassull, piano. Mundo Arts Records, Barcelona (2006).
Flores Argentinas: Canciones de Ginastera y Guastavino, Inca Rose Duo: Annelise Skovmand, voice; Pablo González Jazey, guitar. Cleo Productions, Cleo Prod, 1002 (2007).
Canciones Argentinas, Bernarda Fink, mezzo-soprano; Marcos Fink, bass-baritone; Carmen Piazzini, piano. Harmonia Mundi, HMC 901892 (2006).
Cuántas Estrellas!: Argentine Piano Music vol. 2 , Cecilia Pillado, piano. Berlin Classics, 0011852BC (TaMa 261219302) (1999).
Tango Malambo: Argentine Piano Music vol. 1 , Cecilia Pillado, piano. Berlin Classics, 0011802BC (TaMa 261219301) (1998).
Vai Azulão, Agathe Martel, soprano; Marc Bourdeau, piano. Marquis Classic, MAR 285 (2002).
Canciones Amatorias, Bernarda Fink, mezzo-soprano; Roger Vignoles, piano. Hyperion, CDA 67186 (2002).
Flores Argentinas, Marcos Fink, bass-baritone; Luis Ascot, piano. Cascavelle, VEL1059 (1996).
Mélodies, Jorge Chaminé, baritone; Marie-Françoise Bucquet, piano. Lyrinx, 149 (882 149) (1995).
Argentinian Songs, Raúl Giménez, tenor; Nina Walker, piano. Nimbus Records, NI 5107 (1987).
Classics of the Americas, vol. 2, Margot Pares-Reyna, soprano; Georges Rabol, piano. Opus 111, OPS 30-9002 (1990).
South American Songs, Teresa Berganza, mezzo-soprano; Juan-Antonio Alvarez-Parejo, piano. Claves, CD 50-8401 (1984).
Canciones populares argentinas Juan Carlos Taborda, tenor; Carlos Guastavino, piano – ANTAR, 1964
Guitar Music of Argentina, vol. 1, Victor Villandagos, guitar. Naxos Classical, 8-555058 (2002).
Guitar Music of Argentina, vol. 2, Victor Villandagos, guitar. Naxos Classical, 8-557658 (2002).
Carlos Guastavino: Piano Music, Hector Moreno, piano; Norberto Capelli, piano. Marco Polo, 8-223462 (1992).
Carlos Guastavino: Las Puertas de la Mañana, Ulises Espaillat, tenor; Pablo Zinger, piano. New Albion, NA058 (1993).
Carlos Guastavino: Guitar and Chamber Music, María Isabel Siewers, guitar; Stamitz Quartet. London, ASV 933 (1991).
Fantasia Sul America: Clarinet Masterworks from South America, Luis Rossi, clarinet; Diana Schneider. Giorgina Records. NR 1104 (199?).
Carlos Guastavino: Obras para guitarra y música de cámara María Isabel Siewers,guitar; Stamic Quartet, Acqua Records 275
References
External links
Obituary in The Guardian
1912 births
2000 deaths
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Argentine musicians
20th-century male musicians
Argentine classical composers
Male classical composers
Guastivino, Carlos | [
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221191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut%20Lachenmann | Helmut Lachenmann | Helmut Friedrich Lachenmann (born 27 November 1935) is a German composer of contemporary classical music. His work has been associated with "instrumental musique concrète".
Life and works
Lachenmann was born in Stuttgart and after the end of the Second World War (when he was 11) started singing in his local church choir. Showing an early aptitude for music, he was already composing in his teens. He studied piano with Jürgen Uhde and composition and theory with Johann Nepomuk David at the Musikhochschule Stuttgart from 1955 to 1958 and was the first private student of the Italian composer Luigi Nono in Venice from 1958 to 1960. He also worked briefly at the electronic music studio at the University of Ghent in 1965, composing his only published tape piece Szenario during that period, but thereafter focused almost exclusively on purely instrumental music. The brutality of his music led Francisco Estévez to compare his work to the paintings of Francis Bacon.
Lachenmann has referred to his compositions as musique concrète instrumentale, implying a musical language that embraces the entire sound-world made accessible through unconventional playing techniques. According to the composer, this is music in which the sound events are chosen and organized so that the manner in which they are generated is at least as important as the resultant acoustic qualities themselves. Consequently those qualities, such as timbre, volume, etc., do not produce sounds for their own sake, but describe or denote the concrete situation: listening, you hear the conditions under which a sound- or noise-action is carried out, you hear what materials and energies are involved and what resistance is encountered.
His music is therefore primarily derived from the most basic of sounds, which through processes of amplification serve as the basis for extended works. His scores place enormous demands on performers, due to the plethora of techniques that he has invented for wind, brass and string instruments.
His more important works include his opera Das Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern (The Little Match Girl) (1990–96, after Hans Christian Andersen, Leonardo da Vinci and Gudrun Ensslin), the orchestral pieces Schwankungen am Rand (1974–75, for eight brass, two electric guitars, two pianos, four thunder sheets, and 34 strings), Accanto (1975–76, for clarinet, large orchestra and tape) and NUN (1997–99, for flute, trombone, male chorus, and large orchestra), the ensemble works Mouvement (- vor der Erstarrung) (1982–84, for three ad hoc players and 14 players) and "...zwei Gefühle...", Musik mit Leonardo (1992, (later incorporated in opera Das Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern), after Leonardo da Vinci, for two speakers and 22 players) and three string quartets (Gran Torso, 1971, revised 1976, 1988; Reigen seliger Geister, 1989; Grido, 2001), as well as other orchestral, ensemble and chamber works and six piano pieces.
He has regularly lectured at Darmstadt since 1978. From 1976 to 1981 he taught music theory, ear training and composition at the Musikhochschule Hannover, from 1981 to 1999 composition at the Musikhochschule Stuttgart.
He is also noted for his articles, essays and lectures, many of which appear in Musik als existentielle Erfahrung (Music as Existential Experience) (Breitkopf & Härtel, Wiesbaden, 1996).
Lachenmann has received many distinguished awards such as the Bach Prize of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg in 1972, the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize in 1997 and the 2010 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Contemporary Music Category.
He is married to Japanese pianist Yukiko Sugawara.
List of works
The list below is sourced from Breitkopf & Härtel, Lachenmann's publisher.
Fünf Variationen über ein Thema von Franz Schubert (Walzer cis-moll, D643) for piano (1956)
Rondo for two pianos (1957)
Souvenir for 41 instruments (1959)
Due Giri, two studies for orchestra (1960)
Tripelsextett for 18 instruments (1960–61, lost)
Fünf Strophen for 9 instruments (1961, withdrawn)
Echo Andante for piano (1961–62)
Angelion for 16 instruments (1962–63, withdrawn)
Wiegenmusik for piano (1963)
Introversion I for 18 instruments (1963, withdrawn)
Introversion II for 8 instruments (1964. withdrawn)
Scenario for tape (1965)
Streichtrio I for violin, viola and cello (1965)
Intérieur I for one percussionist (1966)
Notturno for small orchestra and solo cello (1966/67)
Trio fluido for clarinet, viola and percussion (1966/68)
Consolations I for 12 voices and percussion (1967)
temA for flute, voice and cello (1968)
Consolations II for 16 voices (1968)
Air, music for large orchestra with percussion solo (1968–69)
Pression for cello (1969–70, revised 2010)
Dal niente (Interieur III) for clarinet (1970)
Guero, piano study (1970)
Kontrakadenz for large orchestra (1970–71)
Montage for clarinet, cello and piano (1971)
Klangschatten – mein Saitenspiel for three Konzertflügel (pianoforte) and string ensemble (1972)
Gran Torso, music for string quartet (1972)
Fassade for large orchestra (1973)
Schwankungen am Rand, for sheet metal and strings (1974–75)
Zwei Studien for violin (1974)
Accanto, music for solo clarinet and orchestra (1975–76)
Les Consolations for choir and orchestra (1976–78)
Salut für Caudwell, music for two guitarists (1977)
Tanzsuite mit Deutschlandlied, music for orchestra and string quartet (1979–80)
Ein Kinderspiel, seven little pieces for piano (1980)
Harmonica, music for large orchestra and solo tuba (1981–83)
Mouvement (- vor der Erstarrung) for ensemble (1982/84)
Ausklang for piano and orchestra (1984–85)
Dritte Stimme zu J.S. Bachs zweistimmiger Invention d-moll BWV775 for three instruments (1985)
Staub for orchestra (1985–87)
Toccatina, violin study (1986)
Allegro sostenuto, music for clarinet, cello and piano (1986–88)
Tableau for orchestra (1988)
Reigen seliger Geister, string quartet (1989)
"...zwei Gefühle...", Musik mit Leonardo for speaker and ensemble (1992)
Das Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern Musik mit Bildern (Musiktheater), music with images – theatre music for very large orchestra and soloists (1988–96)
Serynade for piano (1998)
NUN for flute, trombone, male choir and orchestra (1999)
Sakura-Variationen for saxophone, percussion and piano (2000)
3. Streichquartett "Grido", string quartet (2001)
Schreiben for orchestra (2003)
Double (Grido II) for string orchestra (2004)
Concertini for large ensemble (2005)
...got lost..., music for soprano and piano (2008)
Sakura mit Berliner Luft for saxophone, piano and percussion (2008)
Marche fatale for piano (2016–17)
Berliner Kirschblüten for piano (2016–17)
Marche Fatale for orchestra (2017)
My Melodies for eight horns and orchestra (2012–18)
References
Further reading
An interview with Lachenmann appeared in issue 228 (February 2003) of The Wire
Weeks, James. "Liberating Perception and Entering Lion Cages: An Interview with Helmut Lachenmann". New Notes (November 2006).
External links
Interview in new notes magazine. November 2006
Publisher Breitkopf & Härtel page
Living Composers Project (biography, work list, discography)
Helmut Lachenmann's The 'Beautiful' in Music Today
Recording of Lachenmann in conversation about his music, 2008
Helmut Lachenmann website
1935 births
Living people
Musicians from Stuttgart
Harvard University staff
20th-century classical composers
German classical composers
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg
Conservatoire de Paris faculty
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover faculty
Pupils of Karlheinz Stockhausen
State University of Music and Performing Arts Stuttgart alumni
German male classical composers
20th-century German composers
Ernst von Siemens Music Prize winners
20th-century German male musicians | [
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