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220207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taig | Taig | Taig, and (primarily formerly) also Teague, are anglicisations of the Irish-language male given name Tadhg, used as ethnic slurs for a stage Irishman. Taig in Northern Ireland is most commonly used as a derogatory term by loyalists to refer to Catholics.
Tadhg was once so common as an Irish name that it became synonymous with the typical person, with phrases like ("Tadhg of the market") akin to "the man on the Clapham omnibus" or "average Joe". In the late 1680s, the satirical Williamite ballad Lillibullero includes the line: "Ho brother Taig hast thou heard the decree?" Conversely, the Irish-language name is used defiantly in a Jacobite poem written in the 1690s: "Who goes there" does not provoke fear / "I am Tadhg" is the answer given. In 1698, John Dunton wrote a mocking account of Ireland, titled Teague Land – or A Ramble with the Wild Irish.
Although the term has rarely been used in North America, a notable example of such use was when John Adams successfully defended the British soldiers responsible for the 1770 Boston Massacre by pleading to the jury that the soldiers were being attacked by:
... most probably a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish Teagues and outlandish jack tarrs. —And why we should scruple to call such a set of people a mob, I can't conceive, unless the name is too respectable for them?
In the context of segregation in Northern Ireland and sectarianism in Glasgow, the term "Taig" is used as a derogatory term for a Roman Catholic, used by Northern Irish Protestants and Ulster loyalists. In this sense, it is used in a similar way to the word Fenian, but is more ethnic in terms of abuse against people of Gaelic descent than "Fenian", which more commonly signifies Irish republican. Extremist loyalists have also used slogans such as "Kill All Taigs" (KAT) and "All Taigs Are Targets" in graffiti.
References
External links
Dictionary definition of "Taig"
Anti-Catholic slurs
Anti-Irish sentiment
The Troubles (Northern Ireland) | [
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|
220211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%20Seven%20%28disambiguation%29 | Group of Seven (disambiguation) | The Group of Seven (G7) is an international forum consisting of the seven nations with the largest advanced economies – Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States – and the European Union.
Group of Seven may also refer to:
Group of Eight, the name used by the G7 forum before the expulsion of Russia
Group of Seven (artists), a group of Canadian landscape painters 1920 to 1933, originally including Franklin Carmichael, Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Frank Johnston, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley
Group of Seven, or Metcalf Chateau, a group of American artists with ties to Honolulu, including Satoru Abe, Bumpei Akaji, Edmund Chung, Tetsuo Ochikubo, Jerry T. Okimoto, James Park, and Tadashi Sato
Group 7 element, a group of elements in the periodic table
See also
G7 (disambiguation) | [
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|
220212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate%20Memorial%20Day | Confederate Memorial Day | Confederate Memorial Day (called Confederate Heroes Day in Texas and Florida, and Confederate Decoration Day in Tennessee) is a cultural holiday observed in several Southern U.S. states on various dates since the end of the Civil War to remember the estimated 258,000 Confederate soldiers who died fighting against the Union.
It is an official state holiday in Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina; while it is commemorated in Kentucky, Florida, North Carolina, Texas, and Tennessee. It was also formerly recognized in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia. Several states celebrate it on or near April 26, when the last major Confederate field army surrendered at Bennett Place, North Carolina in 1865.
Origins
In the spring of 1866 the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus, Georgia, passed a resolution to set aside one day annually to memorialize the Confederate war dead. Mary Ann Williams, the association secretary, was directed to pen a letter inviting ladies associations in every former Confederate state to join them in the observance. Their invitation was written in March 1866 and sent to all of the principal cities in the former Confederacy, including Atlanta; Macon; Montgomery; Memphis; Richmond; St. Louis; Alexandria; Columbia; and New Orleans, as well as smaller towns like Staunton, Virginia; Anderson, South Carolina; and Wilmington, North Carolina. The actual date for the holiday was selected by Elizabeth Rutherford Ellis. She chose April 26, the first anniversary of Confederate General Johnston's surrender to Union Major General Sherman at Bennett Place. For many in the Confederacy, that date in 1865 marked the end of the Civil War.
In their book, The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America, Bellware and Gardiner assert that the national Memorial Day holiday is a direct offshoot of the observance begun by the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus, Georgia in 1866. In a few places, most notably Columbus, Mississippi and Macon, Georgia, Union graves were decorated during the first observance. The day was even referred to as Memorial Day by The Baltimore Sun on May 8, 1866, after the ladies organization that started it. The name Confederate Memorial Day was not used until the Northern observance was initiated in 1868.
While initially cool to the idea of a Northern version of the holiday, General John A. Logan was eventually won over. His General Order No. 11, issued May 5, 1868, commanded the posts of Grand Army of the Republic to strew flowers on the graves of Union soldiers. The Grand Army of the Republic eventually adopted the name Memorial Day at their national encampment in 1882.
Many theories have been offered as to how Logan became aware of the former Confederate tradition he imitated in 1868. In her autobiography, his wife claims she told him about it after a trip to Virginia in the spring of that year. His secretary and his adjutant also claim they told him about it. John Murray of Waterloo, New York, claims it was he who inspired Logan in 1868. Bellware and Gardiner, however, offer proof that Logan was aware of the Southern tributes long before any of them had a chance to mention it to him. In a speech to veterans in Salem, Illinois, on July 4, 1866, Logan referred to the various dates of observance adopted in the South for the practice saying "…traitors in the South have their gatherings day after day, to strew garlands of flowers upon the graves of Rebel soldiers..."
The first official celebration as a public holiday occurred in 1874, following a proclamation by the Georgia legislature. By 1916, ten states celebrated it, on June 3, the birthday of CSA President Jefferson Davis. Other states chose late April dates, or May 10, commemorating Davis' capture.
Statutory holidays
Confederate Memorial Day is a statutory holiday in Alabama on the fourth Monday in April, in Mississippi on the final Monday in April, and in South Carolina on May 10. In all of these states, state offices are closed on this day.
In Georgia, the fourth Monday in April was formerly celebrated as Confederate Memorial Day, but beginning in 2016, in response to the Charleston church shooting, the names of Confederate Memorial Day and Robert E. Lee's Birthday were struck from the state calendar and the statutory holidays were designated simply as "state holidays." Florida also continues to officially designate Confederate Memorial Day on the fourth Monday in April, although state offices remain open.
North Carolina also designates the holiday on May 10, although state offices remain open and localities may choose whether to observe it.
In Tennessee, an unofficial Confederate Decoration Day is observed on June 3.
Texas
In Texas, Robert E. Lee's birthday (January 19th) was made a state holiday in 1931. In 1973, "Lee Day" was renamed "Confederate Heroes Day". The official state description of the holiday states it is held "in honor of Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, and other Confederate heroes;". State offices remain open but employees may have an optional day off.
See also
Commemoration of the American Civil War
List of Confederate monuments and memorials
References
Further reading
Bellware, Daniel, and Richard Gardiner, PhD. The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America. Columbus, GA: Columbus State U, 2014. Print.
External links
Confederate Memorial Day at NCpedia (ncpedia.org)
1866 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Alabama state holidays
Annual events in the United States
April 1866 events
April observances
Holidays related to the American Civil War
January observances
June observances
May observances
Mississippi state holidays
Observances in the United States
October observances
Recurring events established in 1866
Texas state holidays | [
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|
220213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow%20%28music%29 | Bow (music) | In music, a bow is a tensioned stick which has hair (usually horse-tail hair) coated in rosin (to facilitate friction) affixed to it. It is moved across some part of a musical instrument to cause vibration, which the instrument emits as sound. The vast majority of bows are used with string instruments, such as the violin, although some bows are used with musical saws and other bowed idiophones.
Materials and manufacture
A bow consists of a specially shaped stick with other material forming a ribbon stretched between its ends, which is used to stroke the string and create sound. Different musical cultures have adopted various designs for the bow. For instance, in some bows a single cord is stretched between the ends of the stick. In the Western tradition of bow making—bows for the instruments of the violin and viol families—a hank of horsehair is normally employed.
The manufacture of bows is considered a demanding craft, and well-made bows command high prices. Part of the bow maker's skill is the ability to choose high quality material for the stick. Historically, Western bows have been made of pernambuco wood from Brazil. However, pernambuco is now an endangered species whose export is regulated by international treaty, so makers are currently adopting other materials: woods such as Ipê (Tabebuia) and synthetic materials, such as carbon fiber epoxy composite and fiberglass. Carbon fiber bows have become very popular, and some of the better carbon fiber bows are now comparable to fine pernambuco sticks.
For the frog, which holds and adjusts the near end of the horsehair, ebony is most often used, but other materials, often decorative, were used as well, such as ivory and tortoiseshell. Materials such as mother of pearl or abalone shell are often used on the slide that covers the mortise, as well as in round decorative "eyes" inlaid on the side surfaces. Sometimes "Parisian eyes" are used, with the circle of shell surrounded by a metal ring. The metal parts of the frog, or mountings, may be used by the maker to mark various grades of bow, ordinary bows being mounted with nickel silver, better bows with silver, and the finest being gold-mounted. (Not all makers adhere uniformly to this practice.) Near the frog is the grip, which is made of a wire, silk, or "whalebone" wrap and a thumb cushion made of leather or snakeskin. The tip plate of the bow may be made of bone, ivory, mammoth ivory, or metal, such as silver.
A bow maker or typically uses between 150 and 200 hairs from the tail of a horse for a violin bow. Bows for other members of the violin family typically have a wider ribbon, using more hairs. There is a widely held belief among string players, neither proven nor disproven scientifically, that white hair produces a "smoother" sound and black hair (used mainly for double bass bows) is coarser and thus produces a "rougher" sound. Lower quality (inexpensive) bows often use nylon or synthetic hair, and some use bleached horse hair to give the appearance of higher quality. Rosin, or colophony, a hard, sticky substance made from resin (sometimes mixed with wax), is regularly applied to the bow hair to increase friction.
In making a wooden bow, the greater part of the woodworking is done on a straight stick. According to James McKean, "the bow maker graduates the stick in precise gradations so that it is evenly flexible throughout". These gradations were originally calculated by François Tourte, discussed below. To shape the curve or "camber" of the bow stick, the maker carefully heats the stick in an alcohol flame, a few inches at a time, bending the heated stick gradually—using a metal or wooden template to get the model's exact curve and shape.
The art of making wooden bows has changed little since the 19th century. Most modern composite sticks roughly resemble the Tourte design. Various inventors have explored new ways of bow-making. The Incredibow, for example, has a straight stick cambered only by the fixed tension of the synthetic hair.
Types
Slightly different bows, varying in weight and length, are used for the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
These are generally variations on the same basic design. However, bassists use two distinct forms of the double bass bow. The "French" overhand bow is constructed like the bow used with other bowed orchestral instruments, and the bassist holds the stick from opposite the frog. The "German" underhand bow is broader and longer than the French bow, with a larger frog curved to fit the palm of the hand. The bassist holds the German stick with the hand loosely encompassing the frog. The German bow is the older of the two designs, having superseded the earlier arched bow. The French bow became popular with its adoption in the 19th century by virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. Both are found in the orchestra, though typically an individual bass player prefers to perform using one or the other type of bow.
Bowing
The characteristic long, sustained, and singing sound produced by the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass is due to the drawing of the bow against their strings. This sustaining of musical sound with a bow is comparable to a singer using breath to sustain sounds and sing long, smooth, or legato melodies.
In modern practice, the bow is almost always held in the right hand while the left is used for fingering. When the player pulls the bow across the strings (such that the frog moves away from the instrument), it is called a down-bow; pushing the bow so the frog moves toward the instrument is an up-bow (the directions "down" and "up" are literally descriptive for violins and violas and are employed in analogous fashion for the cello and double bass). Two consecutive notes played in the same bow direction are referred to as a hooked bow; a down-bow following a whole down-bow is called a retake.
Generally, the player uses down-bow for strong musical beats and up-bow for weak beats. However, this is reversed in the viola da gamba—players of violin family instruments look like they are "pulling" on the strong beats, where gamba players look like they are "stabbing" on the strong beats. The difference may result from the different ways player hold the bow in these instrument families: violin/viola/cello players hold the wood part of the bow closer to the palm, whereas gamba players use the opposite orientation, with the horsehair closer. The orientation appropriate to each instrument family permits the stronger wrist muscles (flexors) to reinforce the strong beat.
String players control their tone quality by touching the bow to the strings at varying distances from the bridge, emphasizing the higher harmonics by playing sul ponticello ("on the bridge"), or reducing them, and so emphasizing the fundamental frequency, by playing sul tasto ("on the fingerboard").
Occasionally, composers ask the player to use the bow by touching the strings with the wood rather than the hair; this is known by the Italian phrase col legno ("with the wood"). Coll'arco ("with the bow") is the indication to use the bow hair to create the sound in the normal way.
History
Origin
The question of when and where the bow was invented is of interest because the technique of using it to produce sound on a stringed instrument has led to many important historical and regional developments in music, as well as the variety of instruments used.
Pictorial and sculptural evidence from early Egyptian, Indian, Hellenic, and Anatolian civilizations indicate that plucked stringed instruments existed long before the technique of bowing developed. In spite of the ancient origins of the bow and arrow, it would appear that bowed string instruments only developed during a comparatively recent period.
Eric Halfpenny, writing in the 1988 Encyclopædia Britannica, says, "bowing can be traced as far back as the Islamic civilization of the 10th century ... it seems likely that the principle of bowing originated among the nomadic horse riding cultures of Central Asia, whence it spread quickly through Islam and the East, so that by 1000 it had almost simultaneously reached China, Java, North Africa, the Near East and Balkans, and Europe." Halfpenny notes that in many Eurasian languages the word for "bridge" etymologically means "horse," and that the Chinese regarded their own bowed instruments (huqin) as having originated with the "barbarians" of Central Asia.
The Central Asian theory is endorsed by Werner Bachmann, writing in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Bachmann notes evidence from a 10th-century Central Asian wall painting for bowed instruments in what is now the city of Kurbanshaid in Tajikistan. (see Persian Rubab)
Circumstantial evidence also supports the Central Asian theory. All the elements that were necessary for the invention of the bow were probably present among the Central Asian horse riding peoples at the same time:
In a society of horse-mounted warriors (the horse peoples included the Huns and the Mongols), horsehair obviously would have been available.
Central Asian horse warriors specialized in the military bow, which could easily have served the inventor as a temporary way to hold horsehair at high tension.
To this day, horsehair for bows is taken from places with harsh cold climates, including Mongolia, as such hair offers a better grip on the strings.
Rosin, crucial for creating sound even with coarse horsehair, is used by traditional archers to maintain the integrity of the string and (mixed with beeswax) to protect the finish of the bow.
(From this information it can be imagined the invention of the bow originates from a Mongol warrior, having just used rosin on his equipment, idly stroking his harp or lyre with a rosin-dusted finger, producing a brief continuous sound, thus inspiring them to restring their bow with horsehair, leading to the earliest example of the bow)
However the bow was invented, it spread quickly and widely. The Central Asian horse peoples occupied a territory that included the Silk Road, along which merchants and travelers transported goods and innovations rapidly for thousands of miles (including, via India, by sea to Java). This would account for the near-simultaneous appearance of the musical bow in the many locations cited by Halfpenny.
Arabic rabāb
The Arabic rabāb is a type of a bowed string instrument so named no later than the 8th century and spread via Islamic trading routes over much of North Africa, the Middle East, parts of Europe, and the Far East. It is the earliest known bowed instrument, and the ancestor of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, lyra and violin.
Modern Western bow
The kind of bow in use today was brought into its modern form largely by the bow maker François Tourte in 19th-century France. Pernambuco wood, which was imported into France to make textile dye, was found by the early French bow masters to have just the right combination of strength, resiliency, weight, and beauty. According to James McKean, Tourte's bows, "like the instruments of Stradivari, are still considered to be without equal."
Historical bows
The early 18th-century bow referred to as the Corelli-Tartini model is also referred to as the Italian 'sonata' bow. This basic Baroque bow supplanted by 1725 an earlier French dance bow that was short with a little point. The French dance bow was held with the thumb under the hair and played with short, quick strokes for rhythmic dance music. The Italian sonata bow was longer, from 24 to 28 inches (61–71 cm.), with a straight or slightly convex stick. The head is described as a pike's head, and the frog is either fixed (the clip-in bow) or has a screw mechanism. The screw is an early improvement, indicative of further changes to come. As compared to a modern Tourte-style bow, the Corelli-Tartini model is shorter and lighter, especially at the tip, the balance point is lower down on the stick, the hair more yielding, and the ribbon of hair narrower—about 6 mm wide.
In the early bow (the Baroque bow), the natural bow stroke is a non-legato norm, producing what Leopold Mozart called a "small softness" at the beginning and end of each stroke.
A lighter, clearer sound is produced, and quick notes are cleanly articulated without the hair leaving the string.
A truly great example of such a bow, described by David Boyden, is part of the Ansley Salz Collection at the University of California at Berkeley. It was made around 1700, and is attributed to Stradivari.
Towards the middle of the century (18th century), there was a move into the Transitional period, the separation of hair from stick became greater, particularly at the head. This greater separation is necessary because the stick becomes longer and straighter, approaching a concave shape.
Up until the advent of the bow by Tourte, there was absolutely no standardization of bow features during this Transitional period, and every bow was different in weight, length and balance.
In particular, the heads varied enormously by any given maker.
Another transitional type of bow may be called the Cramer bow, after the violinist Wilhelm Cramer (1746–99) who lived the early part of his life in Mannheim (Germany) and, after 1772, in London. This bow and models comparable to it in Paris, generally prevailed between the gradual demise of the Corelli-Tartini model and the birth of the Tourte—that is, roughly 1750 until 1785.
In the view of top experts, the Cramer bow represents a decisive step towards the modern bow.
The Cramer bow and others like it were gradually rendered obsolete by the advent of François Tourte's standardized bow. The hair (on the Cramer bow) is wider than the Corelli model but still narrower than a Tourte, the screw mechanism becomes standard, and more sticks are made from pernambuco, rather than the earlier snakewood, ironwood, and china wood, which were often fluted for a portion of the length of the stick.
Fine makers of these Transitional models were Duchaîne, La Fleur, Meauchand, Tourte père, and Edward Dodd.
The underlying reasons for the change from the old Corelli-Tartini model to the Cramer and, finally, to the Tourte were naturally related to musical demands on the part of composers and violinists.
Undoubtedly the emphasis on cantabile, especially the long drawn out and evenly sustained phrase, required a generally longer bow and also a somewhat wider ribbon of hair. These new bows were ideal to fill the new, very large concert halls with sound and worked great with the late classical and the new romantic repertoire.
Today, with the rise of the historically informed performance movement, string players have developed a revived interest in the lighter, pre-Tourte bow, as more suitable for playing stringed instruments made in pre-19th-century style.
Stradivarius bows
A Stradivari bow, The King Charles IV Violin Bow attributed to the Stradivari Workshop, is currently in the collection of the National Music Museum Object number: 04882, at the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, South Dakota. The Rawlins Gallery violin bow, NMM 4882, is attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari, Cremona, 1700.
This bow is one of two bows (the other in a private collection in London) attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari.
Other types of bow
The Chinese yazheng and yaqin, and Korean ajaeng zithers are generally played by "bowing" with a rosined stick, which creates friction against the strings without any horsehair. The hurdy-gurdy's strings are similarly set into vibration by means of a "rosin wheel," a wooden wheel that contacts the strings as it is rotated by means of a crank handle, creating a "bowed" tone.
Maintenance
Careful owners always loosen the hair on a bow before putting it away. James McKean recommends that the owner "loosen the hair completely, then bring it back just a single turn of the button." The goal is to "keep the hair even but allow the bow to relax." Over-tightening the bow, however, can also be damaging to the stick and cause it to break.
Since hairs may break in service, bows must be periodically rehaired, an operation usually performed by professional bow makers rather than by the instrument owner.
Bows sometimes lose their correct camber (see above), and are recambered using the same heating method as is used in the original manufacture.
Lastly, the grip or winding of the bow must occasionally be replaced to maintain a good grip and protect the wood.
These repairs are usually left to professionals, as the head of the bow is extremely fragile, and a poor rehair, or a broken ivory plate on the tip, can lead to ruining the bow.
Nomenclature
In vernacular speech, the bow is occasionally called a fiddlestick. Bows for particular instruments are often designated as such: violin bow, cello bow, and so on.
See also
Bariolage
Bowed guitar
Curved bow
References
Sources
Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Baroque music today: music as speech. Amadeus Press, c. 1988.
Saint-George, Henry (1866–1917). The Bow (London, 1896; 2: 1909).
Seletsky, Robert E., "New Light on the Old Bow," Part 1: Early Music 5/2004, pp. 286–96; Part 2: Early Music 8/2004, pp. 415–26.
Notes
Further reading
Bachmann, Werner. The Origins of Bowing and the Development of Bowed Instruments Up to the Thirteenth Century. London, Oxford U.P., 1969.
Saint-George, Henry, The Bow, Its History, Manufacture and Use
Templeton, David. "Fresh Prince: Joshua Bell on composition, hyperviolins, and the future". Strings no. 105 (October 2002).
Young, Diana. A Methodology for Investigation of Bowed String Performance Through Measurement of Violin Bowing Technique. PhD Thesis. M.I.T., 2007.
External links
Article about horse hair.
Commissioning a bow.
Mastering New Materials: Commissioning an Amber Bow, no.65
Production of a carbon fiber bow
eNotes article on the history and making of bows.
The violin bow: a brief depiction of its history
Bows used in traditional music (Polish folk musical instruments)
Musical instrument parts and accessories
Iranian inventions
Arab inventions
Mongolian inventions
Turkish inventions | [
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|
220221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20McGough | Roger McGough | Roger Joseph McGough (; born 9 November 1937) is an English poet, performance poet, broadcaster, children's author and playwright. He presents the BBC Radio 4 programme Poetry Please, as well as performing his own poetry. McGough was one of the leading members of the Liverpool poets, a group of young poets influenced by Beat poetry and the popular music and culture of 1960s Liverpool. He is an honorary fellow of Liverpool John Moores University, fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and President of the Poetry Society.
Early life
McGough was born in Litherland, Lancashire, on the outskirts of Liverpool, to Roger Francis, a docker, and Mary (McGarry) McGough. His ancestry is Irish and he was raised in the Roman Catholic faith. He was a pupil at St Mary's College in Crosby with Laurie Taylor, future sociologist and criminologist, before going on to study French and Geography at the University of Hull. McGough lived in one of the university residences, Needler Hall, for three years from 1955 and served as hall librarian. Contemporaneously, the poet Philip Larkin became the university's librarian; newly arrived at Hull, he served as a sub-warden at Needler Hall, though he lived in private accommodation nearby. Several years later McGough corresponded with Larkin about poetry, sending him some of his own poems as he still lacked the confidence to approach the man directly. Larkin replied, thanking McGough for the poetry, which he had enjoyed reading. He added that he believed that McGough walked an impressionistic tightrope which, though exhilarating, meant that on occasion he fell off.
The Scaffold and Grimms
Returning to Merseyside in the early 1960s, he worked as a French teacher and, with John Gorman, organised arts events. McGough and Gorman later met Mike McGear (Mike McCartney) and together formed the trio The Scaffold; they worked the Edinburgh Festival Fringe until they were signed to Parlophone records in 1966. The Scaffold performed a mixture of comic songs, comedy sketches and the poetry of McGough. The group scored several hit records, reaching number one in the UK Singles Chart in 1968 with their version of "Lily the Pink". McGough wrote the lyrics for many of the group's songs and also recorded the musical comedy/poetry album McGough and McGear.
In 1971 Grimms was formed, originally as a merger of the Scaffold, the Bonzo Dog Band and the Liverpool Scene. Group member Neil Innes said about the formation of the group: "I don't know what attracted the Scaffold to the Bonzos; we were incredibly anarchic, which was probably something shared by the Scaffold as well."
Poetry
As a poet, McGough came to national prominence through the publication of The Mersey Sound in 1967. The Mersey Sound is an anthology of poetry by three Liverpool poets: McGough, Brian Patten, and Adrian Henri. It went on to sell over 500,000 copies, becoming one of the bestselling poetry anthologies of all time; remaining in continuous publication, it was revised in 1983 and again in 2007. The title of the anthology was a conscious association of the three Liverpool poets with the musical phenomenon caused by the eruption of the Beatles and associated bands from the same city, known collectively as the "Merseybeat", on the world. McGough's personal connection with the Beatles was referenced in a much later comic poem, "To Macca's Trousers", contained in the book That Awkward Age (2009). McGough discovered a long forgotten pair of Paul McCartney's blue mohair trousers in his attic; the trousers had been given to him, via McCartney's brother Mike, in the early 1960s.
One of McGough's early poems, Let Me Die a Youngman's Death (but not, as the poem states, before the poet reaches 73, 91 or 104 years of age), was included in a BBC anthology of the British nation's hundred favourite poems. McGough has been nicknamed "the patron saint of poetry" by Carol Ann Duffy.
Philip Larkin included McGough's poetry in The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse, which he edited in 1973. Writing to McGough in 1980, Larkin congratulated him on the well-thumbed state of the copies of his books in Hull University's library, when compared to Larkin's own.
Possibly his shortest, most memorable and overtly political poem, was entitled "Conservative Government Unemployment Figures". The text of poem repeats the words of the title, with layout and punctuation resulting in an arch critique. The poem was referenced in a parliamentary debate in the House of Commons in 2004.
The poetry of McGough has been the subject of academic study. It has been characterised, at least from its early examples, as being reliant on play with words and their meanings. It has also been noted to exhibit a stylised wit, and, at times, a sadness based on themes of lost youth, unfulfilled relationships, and the downside of city life. The form of some of his verse, it has been claimed, has been influenced by his experience of writing song lyrics. A major critical examination of McGough's poetry, by American academic Ben Wright, was published in 2006. The author's stated aim was "to examine and evaluate the accessibility of Roger McGough's message to a wide, general readership, as well as appraising it by the most rigorous literary standards". McGough's popularity, commercial success, use of humour, and the lack of pretension of his verse has tended to restrict appreciation of his work as "serious poetry". Wright's study challenges this under-appreciation.
Other activities
McGough was responsible for much of the humorous dialogue in the Beatles' animated film Yellow Submarine, although he did not receive an on-screen credit.
On 2 March 1978, McGough appeared in All You Need Is Cash, a mockumentary detailing the career of a Beatles-like group called the Rutles. Interviewed by Eric Idle, the introduction of McGough takes so long that he is only asked one question, "Did you know the Rutles?" to which McGough cheerfully responds "Oh yes", before the documentary is forced to move along to other events. In 1980 he recited a high-speed one-minute version of Longfellow's poem "The Wreck of the Hesperus", complete with sound effects, on the album Miniatures produced by Morgan Fisher.
One of McGough's more unusual compositions was created in 1981, when he co-wrote an "electronic poem" called Now Press Return with the programmer Richard Warner for inclusion with the Welcome Tape of the BBC Micro home computer. Now Press Return incorporated several novel themes, including user-defined elements to the poem, lines which changed their order (and meaning) every few seconds, and text which wrote itself in a spiral around the screen. He made a programme in 1991 for Channel 4 called Equinox: The Elements about the elements. He made a guest appearance on quiz panel show QI in 2006.
Three plays written by the 17th-century French playwright Molière have been translated by McGough and directed by Gemma Bodinetz. Tartuffe premièred at the Liverpool Playhouse in May 2008 and transferred subsequently to the Rose Theatre, Kingston. The Hypochondriac (The Imaginary Invalid) was staged at the Liverpool Playhouse in July 2009. The Misanthrope was staged at the Liverpool Playhouse in February–March 2013 before touring with the English Touring Theatre.
McGough has also done some voiceover work narrating The Very Hungry Caterpillar and Other Stories by Eric Carle, and TV advertisements for the supermarket chain Waitrose.
He is a patron of Barnes Literary Society. In 2019 he became the President of Arts Richmond for one year.
Awards
McGough won a Cholmondeley Award in 1998, and was appointed an Officer (OBE) in 1997, and later, in 2004, Commander (CBE) of the Order of the British Empire.
He holds an honorary MA from Nene College of Further Education, and honorary Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) degrees from the University of Hull (2004), Roehampton University (2006), and the University of Liverpool (2006). He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2004.
Academic posts
McGough was Fellow of Poetry at Loughborough University (1973–75), Honorary Fellow at John Moores University, and Honorary Professor at Thames Valley University (1993).
Personal life
In 1970, McGough married Thelma Monaghan, and they had two children; they divorced in 1980. He married Hilary Clough in December 1986, with whom he has two children. He lives in Barnes, south west London; he and Clough previously lived on Portobello Road in Notting Hill Gate.
Books
Poetry collections
Young Commonwealth Poets '65, Heinemann, 1965
The Mersey Sound (with Adrian Henri and Brian Patten), Penguin, 1967
Frinck, A Life in the Day of, and Summer with Monika: Poems, Joseph, 1967
Watchwords, Cape, 1969
After the Merrymaking, Cape, 1971
Out of Sequence, Turret Books, 1972
Gig, Cape, 1973
Sporting Relations, Eyre Methuen, 1974
In the Glassroom, Cape, 1976
Mr Noselighter, André Deutsch, 1976
Holiday on Death Row, Cape, 1979
Unlucky for Some, Bernard Stone, 1980
Waving at Trains, Cape, 1982
Crocodile Puddles, New Pyramid Press, 1984
Sky in the Pie, Puffin, 1985 (children's)
Melting into the Foreground, Viking, 1986
Noah's Ark, Dinosaur, 1986
Worry, Toni Savage, 1987
Nailing the Shadow, Viking Kestrel, 1987
Counting by Numbers, Viking Kestrel, 1989
Selected Poems, 1967–1987, Cape, 1989
You at the Back: Selected Poems, 1967–87, Cape, 1991
Defying Gravity, Viking, 1992
Pen Pals: A New Poem, Prospero Poets, 1994
Ferens, the Gallery Cat, Ferens Art Gallery, 1997
Todays Yodal, Over years ago, 1999
Until I Met Dudley, Frances Lincoln, 1997
The Way Things Are, Viking, 1999
Dotty Inventions, Francis Lincoln, 2002
Everyday Eclipses, Viking, 2002
Collected Poems, Viking, 2003
That Awkward Age, Penguin, 2009
As Far As I Know, Penguin, 2012
Joinedupwriting, Viking, 2019
Plays
Tartuffe (English adaptation of Molière's play)
The Hypochondriac (English adaption of Molière's play)
The Misanthrope (English adaptation of Molière's play)
Autobiography
Said And Done, Random House, 2005
See also
Liverpool poets
References
External links
Profile and poems written and audio at Poetry Archive
Interview with Roger McGough about 40 years of the Mersey Poets
BBC Radio 4 archive 4 October 1981 (Audio, 12 minutes). BBC profile.
James Campbell, "A life in poetry: Roger McGough", The Guardian, 22 August 2009
National Portrait gallery
Shahesta Shaitly, Roger McGough: This much I know, The Observer, 4 November 2012
Scaffold and the Grimms history
People from Litherland
Alumni of the University of Hull
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
People associated with Loughborough University
20th-century English poets
20th-century British poets
1937 births
Living people
Poets from Liverpool
People educated at St Mary's College, Crosby
English people of Irish descent
The Scaffold members
Grimms members
English autobiographers | [
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220222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwenzori%20Mountains | Rwenzori Mountains | The Ruwenzori, also spelled Rwenzori and Rwenjura, are a range of mountains in eastern equatorial Africa, located on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The highest peak of the Ruwenzori reaches , and the range's upper regions are permanently snow-capped and glaciated. Rivers fed by mountain streams form one of the sources of the Nile. Because of this, European explorers linked the Ruwenzori with the legendary Mountains of the Moon, claimed by the Greek scholar Ptolemy as the source of the Nile. Virunga National Park in eastern DR Congo and Rwenzori Mountains National Park in southwestern Uganda are located within the range.
Geology
The mountains formed about three million years ago in the late Pliocene epoch and are the result of an uplifted block of crystalline rocks including gneiss, amphibolite, granite and quartzite.
The Rwenzori mountains are the highest non-volcanic, non-orogenic mountains in the world.
This uplift divided the paleolake Obweruka and created three of the present-day African Great Lakes: Lake Albert, Lake Edward, and Lake George.
The range is about long and wide. It consists of six massifs separated by deep gorges: Mount Stanley (), Mount Speke (), Mount Baker (), Mount Emin (), Mount Gessi () and Mount Luigi di Savoia (). Mount Stanley has several subsidiary summits, with Margherita Peak being the highest point.
Human history
The mountains are occasionally identified with the legendary "Mountains of the Moon", depicted in antiquity as the source of the Nile River.
Photographer Vittorio Sella took a number of photographs of the Ruwenzori Mountains during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, documenting the retreat of the range's glaciers. Sella's photographic work is conserved at the Museo Nazionale della Montagna in Turin and at the Istituto di Fotografia Alpina Vittorio Sella in Biella, both in Italy. The Makerere University, Uganda, also has a selection of his images.
The first traverse of the six massifs of the Ruwenzori was done in 1975, starting on 27 January and ending on 13 February. The traverse was done by Polish climbers Janusz Chalecki, Stanisław Cholewa and Leszek Czarnecki, with Mirosław Kuraś accompanying them on the last half of the traverse.
Since Uganda's independence from the British Empire, the Rwenzori Mountains have repeatedly become sanctuaries to rebel groups. The secessionist Rwenzururu movement fought an insurgency in the mountains in the 1960s. In course of the Ugandan Bush War, the Rwenzururu movement reemerged and continued its struggle until signing a peace deal with Ugandan President Milton Obote's government. In the Bush War's later stages, the National Resistance Army (NRA) rebel force operated in the mountains. After the NRA seized power in Uganda in 1986, another civil war broke out. This time, the Rwenzori Mountains hosted the bases of the National Army for the Liberation of Uganda (NALU) and the "Partie de Liberation Congolaise" (PLC), an anti-Mobutu rebel group. In the early 1990s, a Congolese rebel group known as the National Council of Resistance for Democracy (Conseil National de Résistance pour la Démocratie, CNRD) led by André Kisase Ngandu began to wage an insurgency against Mobutu from the Rwenzori Mountains.
Militias aligned with the old Rwenzururu movement's ideology occupied the Rwenzori Mountains from 1997 to June 2001. In 2020, after being defeated across the border by the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, some elements of the Allied Democratic Forces moved into the Rwenzori Mountains.
Natural history
Flora
The Ruwenzori are known for their vegetation, ranging from tropical rainforest through alpine meadows to snow. The range supports its own species and varieties of giant groundsel and giant lobelia and even has a tall heather covered in moss that lives on one of its peaks. Most of the range is now a World Heritage Site and is covered jointly by Rwenzori Mountains National Park in southwestern Uganda and the Virunga National Park in the eastern Congo.
There is no water shortage in the Ruwenzori; yet, several members of the afro-alpine family resemble species that normally thrive in desert climates. The reason lies in their similar water economy. Water is not always readily available to the afroalpine plants when they need it. In addition, nightly frosts affect the sap transport in the plants and the intake of water by its roots. As the day begins, the air temperature and radiation level rise rapidly, putting strenuous demands on the exposed parts of the plants as they try to meet the transpiration demands of the leaves and maintain a proper water balance. To counter the effects of freezing, the afro-alpine plants have developed the insulation systems that give them such a striking appearance. These adaptations become more prominent as the elevation increases.
There are five overlapping vegetation zones in the Ruwenzori: the evergreen forest zone (up to ); the bamboo zone (); the heather zone (); the alpine zone (); and, the nival zone (). At higher elevations, some plants reach an unusually large size, such as lobelia and groundsels. The vegetation in the Ruwenzori is unique to equatorial alpine Africa.
Sources:
Glacial recession
An ongoing concern is the impact of climate change on the Ruwenzori's glaciers. In 1906, forty-three named glaciers were distributed over six mountains with a total area of , about half the total glacier area in Africa. By 2005, less than half of these were still present, on only three mountains, with an area of about . Recent scientific studies, such as those by Richard Taylor of University College London, have attributed this retreat to global climate change and have investigated the impact of this change on the mountain's vegetation and biodiversity.
See also
1966 Toro earthquake
Notes
References
Glaciers of the Middle East and Africa, Williams, Richard S., Jr. (editor) In: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1991, pp.G1-G70
Guide to the Ruwenzori, Osmaston,H.A., Pasteur,D. 1972, Mountain Club of Uganda. 200 p.
Recession of Equatorial Glaciers. A Photo Documentation, Hastenrath, S., 2008, Sundog Publishing, Madison, WI, , 144 pp.
Tropical Glaciers, Kaser, G., Osmaston, H.A. 2002, Cambridge University Press, UK. 207 p.
Ruwenzori, De Filippi, F. 1909. Constable, London. 408 p.
Greenpeace article "The Death of the Ice Giants"
BBC Article "Fabled ice field set to vanish"
Dr Taylor's Homepage, with information about the impact of climate change on Ruwenzori.
Kaser et al. 2006, in International Book of Climatology 24: 329–339 (2004)
External links
UWM.edu: 1937 aerial photographs of Rwenzori Mountains — University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries Digital Collections.
Albertine Rift montane forests
Mountain ranges of Uganda
Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Great Rift Valley
Kasese District
North Kivu | [
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|
220224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruwenzori | Ruwenzori | Ruwenzori may refer to:
Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ruwenzori (commune), part of the town of Beni, Nord-Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo | [
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|
220225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20performance%20poets | List of performance poets | The following is a partial list of performance poets.
Africa
Nigeria
Sage Hasson
Eva Alordiah
Sticky ya Bongtur
Titilope
South Africa
Phillippa Yaa de Villiers
Lebogang Mashile
Isabella Motadinyane
Lesego Rampolokeng
North America
Canada
Lillian Allen
Afua Cooper
Shane Koyczan
Brendan McLeod
Susan McMaster
Chris Tse
Mustafa the Poet
Dwayne Morgan
Leah Lakshmi Piepzna-Samarasinha
Sheri-D Wilson
Kaie Kellough
Boonaa Mohammed
United States
A-E
Taalam Acey
Alurista
David Antin
Craig Arnold
Robert Ashley
Amiri Baraka
John M. Bennett
Buddy Wakefield
Big Poppa E
Nicole Blackman
Brother Dash
Derrick Brown
B. Dolan
Roger Bonair-Agard
Giannina Braschi
Lisa Buscani
Clint Catalyst
Richard Cambridge
Staceyann Chin
Jim Cohn
Allison Hedge Coke
Jamie DeWolf
Maggie Estep
F-J
Karen Finley
Shaggy Flores
Kip Fulbeck
Andrea Gibson
Allen Ginsberg
John Giorno
Jesse Glass
Gary Glazner
Guillermo Gómez-Peña
Roxy Gordon
Hedwig Gorski
John S. Hall
Suheir Hammad
Montice Harmon
Matt Harvey
Bradley Hathaway
M. Ayodele Heath
Neil Hilborn
Jackie Hill-Perry
Bob Holman
Detrick Hughes
J. Ivy
David Jewell
K-P
Sarah Kay
Kealoha
Nomy Lamm
The Last Poets
Al Letson
Lydia Lunch
Taylor Mali
Jeffrey McDaniel
Mighty Mike McGee
Karyna McGlynn
Douglas A. Martin
Kevin Max
Boonaa Mohammed
Lenelle Moïse
Anis Mojgani
José Montoya
Jessica Care Moore
Alix Olson
Robert Peters
Jason Petty
Lynne Procope
R-Z
John Rives
Ursula Rucker
Carl Hancock Rux
Michael Salinger
Bryan Lewis Saunders
Jill Scott
Gil Scott-Heron
Beau Sia
Otep Shamaya
Marc Smith
Patricia Smith
Patti Smith
Rod Smith
Sekou Sundiata
Taco Shop Poets
Quincy Troupe
George Watsky
Buddy Wakefield
Anne Waldman
Saul Williams
Europe
France
Léo Ferré
Italy
Massimo Volume
Offlaga Disco Pax
Germany
Kurt Schwitters
Ireland
Russia
Konstantyn K. Kuzminsky
Spain
Carlos Oroza
El Chojin
United Kingdom
Daniel Beaty
Attila the Stockbroker
Francesca Beard
Pete Brown
Craig Charles
Muslim Belal
Paula Claire
John Cooper Clarke
Jegsy Dodd
Matt Harvey
John Hegley
Adrian Henri
Michael Horovitz
Linton Kwesi Johnson
Anthony Joseph
Liverpool Poets
Roger McGough
Hollie McNish
The Medway Poets
Ted Milton
Andrew Motion
Brian Patten
Jeremy Reed
Lemn Sissay
Rod Summers
Jim Templeton
Nick Toczek
Seething Wells
Gez Walsh
Luke Wright
Peter Wyton
Murray Lachlan Young
Benjamin Zephaniah
Scroobius Pip
Salena Godden
Kae Tempest
Byron Vincent
Brandon leake
Australia
Jas H. Duke
Jayne Fenton Keane
Luka Lesson
Chris Mansell
Pi O
Les Wicks
Amanda Stewart
Billy Marshall Stoneking
Komninos Zervos
Max-Mo
New Zealand
Tusiata Avia
Miriam Barr
Ben Fagan
Sam Hunt
Craig Ireson
Michael Rudd
Apirana Taylor
Performance poets | [
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|
220228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape%20crow | Cape crow | The Cape crow or black crow (Corvus capensis) is slightly larger (48–50 cm in length) than the carrion crow and is completely black with a slight gloss of purple in its feathers. It has proportionately longer legs, wings and tail too and has a much longer, slimmer bill that seems to be adapted for probing into the ground for invertebrates. The head feathers have a coppery-purple gloss and the throat feathers are quite long and fluffed out in some calls and displays.
Distribution and habitat
This species occurs in two large separate regions of the African continent. One form ranges from the Cape at the southern tip of Africa up to southern Angola and across to the east coast of Mozambique. The other population occurs in a large area from South Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Kenya in central east Africa. The more northern population is on average slightly smaller than the southern. It inhabits open grassland, moorland, agricultural areas with some trees or woodland in the vicinity for nesting. It seems to thrive especially in agricultural areas.
Behaviour
Diet
As far as feeding is concerned, it eats grain and other seeds, invertebrates which it digs for with powerful downward stabs of its long bill. It opens corncob kernels before they are fully ripe, bulbs and fleshy roots of certain plants, frogs and small reptiles, fruits and berries. It takes the eggs and chicks of ground nesting birds and has been known to kill birds of up to a pound in weight (especially domestic poultry). It turns over the droppings of mammals for insects.
Nesting
Nesting is always in trees, usually near the top. It has been known to nest in shrubs but much less frequently. There are usually 3-4 eggs incubated over 18–19 days and fledged by around 38 days. Usually only 3 nestlings survive.
Voice
The voice is described as a "krrah.....krrah.....krrah" or a quicker "kah-kah-kah". It also makes very loud, liquid bubbling sounds that carry quite a distance and also gives throaty chuckles. There is evidence that vocal mimicry is practised too.
References
External links
(Black Crow = ) Cape Crow - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Photo Image Links
Good profile shot
Cape Crow or Black Crow
Cape Crow or Black Crow in ploughed field
Video Links
Cape Crow videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Corvus
Birds of East Africa
Birds of Southern Africa
Birds described in 1823 | [
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220230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardino%20of%20Siena | Bernardino of Siena | Bernardino of Siena (also known in English as Bernardine; 8 September 138020 May 1444) was an Italian priest and Franciscan missionary. He was a systematizer of Scholastic economics. His popular preaching made him famous during his own lifetime because it was frequently directed against sorcery, gambling, infanticide, witchcraft, homosexuality, Jews, and usury. Bernardino was later canonised by the Catholic Church as a saint – where he is also referred to as "the Apostle of Italy" – for his efforts to revive the country's Catholic faith during the 15th century.
Sources
Two hagiographies of Bernardino of Siena were written by two of his friends; the one the same year in which he died, by Barnaba of Siena; the other by humanist Maffeo Veggio. Another important contemporary biographical source is that written by Sienese diplomat, Leonardo Benvoglienti, who was another personal acquaintance of Bernardino. However, as historian Franco Mormando notes, "The first works to be produced about Bernardino right after his death [in 1444] were biographical: by the year 1480, there were already over a dozen written accounts of the preacher's life."
Life
Early life
Bernardino was born in 1380 to the noble Albizzeschi family in Massa Marittima (Tuscany), a Sienese town of which his father, Albertollo degli Albizzeschi, was then governor. Left orphaned at six, he was raised by a pious aunt. In 1397, after a course of civil and canon law, he joined the Confraternity of Our Lady attached to the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala church. Three years later, when the plague visited Siena, he ministered to the plague-stricken, and, assisted by ten companions, took upon himself for four months entire charge of this hospital. He escaped the plague but was so exhausted that a fever confined him for several months. In 1403 he joined the Observant branch of the Order of Friars Minor (the Franciscan Order), with a strict observance of St. Francis' Rule. Bernardino was ordained a priest in 1404 and was commissioned as a preacher the next year. About 1406 St. Vincent Ferrer, a Dominican friar and missionary, while preaching at Alessandria in the Piedmont region of Italy, allegedly foretold that his mantle should descend upon one who was then listening to him, and said that he would return to France and Spain, leaving to Bernardino the task of evangelizing the remaining peoples of Italy.
Bernardino as preacher
Preaching style
Before Bernardino, most preachers either read a prepared speech or recited a rhetorical oration. Instead of remaining cloistered and preaching only during the liturgy, Bernardino preached directly to the public. For more than 30 years, he preached all over Italy and played a great part in the religious revival of the early fifteenth century. Although he had a weak and hoarse voice, he is said to have been one of the greatest preachers of his time. His style was simple, familiar, and abounding in imagery. Cynthia Polecritti, in her biography of Bernardino, notes that the texts of his sermons “are acknowledged masterpieces of colloquial Italian.” He was an elegant and captivating preacher, and his use of popular imagery and creative language drew large crowds to hear his reflections. Invitations were often extended by the civil authorities rather than the ecclesiastical, as sometimes the towns would make money from the crowds that came to hear him.
Unlike many of his contemporaries, Bernardino chose his themes not from the daily liturgy, but from the ordinary lives of the people of Siena. He selected biblical themes to focus on the immediate interests of his audience. This proved effective in drawing their attention. Women comprised the majority of listeners, and the size of the crowd varied according to the day, time, and topic of the sermon. Polecritti notes, the subject matter of his sermons reveals much about the contemporary context of 15th-century Italy.
He travelled from place to place, remaining nowhere more than a few weeks. These journeys were all made on foot. In the towns, the crowds assembled to hear him were at times so great that it became necessary to erect a pulpit on the market-place. Like Vincent Ferrer, he usually preached at dawn. His hearers, so as to ensure themselves standing room, would arrive beforehand, many coming from far-distant villages. The sermons often lasted three or four hours. He was invited to Ferrara in 1424, where he preached against the excess of luxury and immodest apparel. In Bologna, he spoke out against gambling, much to the dissatisfaction of the card manufacturers and sellers. Returning to Siena in April 1425, he preached there for 50 consecutive days. His success was claimed to be remarkable. "Bonfires of the Vanities" were held at his sermon sites, where people threw mirrors, high-heeled shoes, perfumes, locks of false hair, cards, dice, chessmen, and other frivolities to be burned. Bernardino enjoined his listeners to abstain from blasphemy, indecent conversation, and games of hazard, and to observe feast days.
Bernardino was not universally popular. In L'Aquila someone once sawed the legs of the pulpit causing him to fall into the crowd.
In 1427, he was called to Siena to allay factional strife. However, Bernardino preferred preaching rather than being an arbitrator. When he spoke against factions and vendettas, he was uncharacteristically tactful. To Policretti, this suggests that the situation could have become violent at the least provocation.
Both while he was alive and after his death (the first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, was printed at Lyon in 1501), Bernardino's legacy was far from tame: of a strict, moral temper, he preached fiery sermons against many classes of people and these were riddled with denunciations. He characterized some women as "witches", and called for sodomites to be ostracized or otherwise removed from the human community. He thus was a champion of what historian Robert Moore called "the persecuting society" of late medieval Christian Europe.
On women
As historian Franco Mormando points out, in the twenty large volumes of Bernardino's extant printed works, Bernardino has much to say about women and to women, "married, unmarried, widowed, and those enclosed in nunneries." However, at the end of his exhaustive study, "Bernardino of Siena: 'Great Defender' or 'Merciless Betrayer' of Women?,'" Mormando concludes: "...despite his sincere moments of greater empathy with women, Bernardino proves to be very much in the mainstream of writings on women of the Trecento and Quattrocento....Though, in his compassion for her, Bernardino would have the woman's domestic and social 'cage' be as comfortable and as humane as possible, it is there in the same traditional cage that Bernardino nonetheless wants her to remain, under the guard of father, brother, husband, or parish priest."
Bernardino presented the Virgin Mary as an example for women. He advised girls never to talk to a man unless one of their parents was present. In one sermon Bernardino cautions women about marrying men who care more for their dowries than for them. On one occasion he asked mothers to come to church with their daughters alone so that he speak to them frankly about sexual abuse in marriage. He also spoke against the confinement of unwilling girls to convents. He presented Saint Joseph as an example for men, while emphasizing Mary's obedience to her husband.
Against sodomy and homosexuality
On sodomy (predominantly directed towards homosexual men), Bernardino keenly pointed out the reputation of the Italians beyond their own borders. He particularly decried Florentine lenience to men having sex with men; in Verona, he approvingly reminded listeners that a man was quartered and his limbs hung from the city gates for homosexual intercourse; in Genoa, men were regularly burned if found guilty of sodomy; and in Venice a sodomite had been tied to a column along with a barrel of pitch and brushwood and set to fire. He advised the people of Siena to do the same. In 1424 he dedicated three consecutive sermons in Florence to the subject, in the course of a Lenten sermon preached in Santa Croce, he admonished his hearers:
"Whenever you hear sodomy mentioned, each and every one of you spit on the ground and clean your mouth out as well. If they don't want to change their ways by any other means, maybe they will change when they're made fools of. Spit hard! Maybe the water of your spit will extinguish their fire."
In Siena he preached a full sermon against sodomy (including homosexuality) in 1425 and then 1427; linking it directly with fears about the depopulation as it did not lead to children and was therefore unproductive: "You don't understand that [sodomy] is the reason you have lost half your population over the last twenty-five years". Over time his teachings helped mould public sentiment and dispel indifference over controlling sodomy and homosexual conduct more vigorously. Everything unpredictable or calamitous in human experience he attributed to sodomy, including floods and the plague, as well as linking the practice to local population decline. After one of his sermons in Siena four "irate sodomites" attempted to beat him with clubs.
Trial in Rome
Especially known for his devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus, previously associated with John of Vercelli and the Dominican order, Bernardino devised a symbol—IHS—the first three letters of the name of Jesus in Greek, in Gothic letters on a blazing sun. This was to displace the insignia of factions (for example, Guelphs and Ghibellines). The devotion spread, and the symbol began to appear in churches, homes and public buildings. Opponents thought it a dangerous innovation.
In 1426 Bernardino was summoned to Rome to stand trial on charges of heresy himself for his promotion of this devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus Theologians including Paulus Venetus gave their opinions. Bernardino was found innocent of heresy, and he impressed Pope Martin V sufficiently that Martin requested he preach in Rome. He thereupon preached every day for 80 days. Bernardino's zeal was such that he would prepare up to four drafts of a sermon before starting to speak. That same year, he was offered the bishopric of Siena, but declined in order to maintain his monastic and evangelical activities. In 1431, he toured Tuscany, Lombardy, Romagna, and Ancona before returning to Siena to prevent a war against Florence. Also in 1431, he declined the bishopric of Ferrara, and in 1435 he declined the bishopric of Urbino.
John Capistran (Giovanni da Capistrano) was his friend, and James of the Marches (Giacomo della Marca) was his disciple during these years. Cardinals urged both Pope Martin V and Pope Eugene IV to condemn Bernardino, but both almost instantly acquitted him. A trial at the Council of Basel also ended with an acquittal. Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund sought Bernardino's counsel and intercession and Bernardino accompanied him to Rome in 1433 for his coronation.
On Contracts and Usury
Economic theory
Bernardino was the first theologian after Pierre de Jean Olivi to write an entire work systematically devoted to Scholastic economics. His greatest contribution to economics was a discussion and defense of the entrepreneur. His book, On Contracts and Usury, written during the years 1431–1433, dealt with the justification of private property, the ethics of trade, the determination of value and price, and the usury question.
One of his contributions was a discussion on the functions of the business entrepreneur, whom Bernardino saw as performing the useful social function of transporting, distributing, or manufacturing goods. According to Murray Rothbard, Bernardino's insight in determining just value prefigured "...the Jevons/Austrian analysis of supply and cost over five centuries later." He extended this to a theory of the "just wage", which would be determined by the demand for labor and the available supply. Wage inequality is a function of differences of skill, ability and training. Skilled workers are scarcer than unskilled, so that the former will command a higher wage.
Usury
Usury was one of the principal objects of his attacks, and he did much to prepare the way for the establishment of the beneficial loan societies, known as Monti di Pietà.
Bernardino followed earlier scholastic philosophers Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas (who quotes Aristotle) in condemning the practice of usury, which they defined as charging interest on a loan. Scholastic analysis of usury, based in part on Roman law, was both complex and, in some instances, seemingly contradictory. Interest on delayed payment was deemed valid as it was considered compensation for damages suffered by the creditor being deprived of his property.
Bernardino saw usury as concentrating all the money of the city into a few hands. However, he did accept the theory of lucrum cessans, interest charged to compensate for profits foregone in lieu of capital investment. A distinction was also drawn for joint ventures, in which the creditor assumed some portion of the risk.
In Milan, he was visited by a merchant who urged him to inveigh strenuously against usury, only to find that his visitor was himself a prominent usurer, whose activities were prompted by a wish to lessen competition.
Anti-Semitism
Bernardino is particularly regarded today as being a "major protagonist of Christian anti-semitism"
In January 1427 he was in Orvieto, where he preached on the topic of usury, urging the executive to take stringent steps against all such as were addicted to this business, many of whom were Jews. Blaming the poverty of local Christians on Jewish usury, his call for Jews to be banished and isolated from their wider communities led to segregation. His audiences often used his words to reinforce actions against Jews, and his preaching left a legacy of resentment on the part of Jews.
Franciscan Vicar General
Soon thereafter, he withdrew again to Capriola to compose a further series of sermons. He resumed his missionary labours in 1436, but was forced to abandon them when he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans in Italy in 1438.
Bernardino had worked to grow the Observants from the outset of his religious life: although he was not in fact its founder (the origins of the Observants, or Zelanti, can be traced back to the middle of the fourteenth century). Nevertheless, Bernardino became to the Observants what St. Bernard had been to the Cistercians, their principal support and indefatigable propagator. Instead of one hundred and thirty Friars constituting the Observance in Italy at Bernardino's reception into the order, it counted over four thousand shortly before his death. Bernardino also founded, or reformed, at least three hundred convents of Friars. Bernardine sent missionaries to different parts of Asia, and it was largely through his efforts that many ambassadors from different schismatical nations attended the Council of Florence in which we find the saint addressing the assembled Fathers in Greek.
Being Vicar General inevitably cut back his opportunities to preach, but he continued to speak to the public when he could. Having in 1442 persuaded the pope to finally accept his resignation as vicar-general so that he might give himself more undividedly to preaching, Bernardino again resumed his missionary work. Despite a Papal Bull issued by Pope Eugene IV in 1443 which charged Bernardino to preach the indulgence for the Crusade against the Turks, there is no record of his having done so. In 1444, notwithstanding his increasing infirmities, Bernardino, desirous that there should be no part of Italy which had not heard his voice, set out to the Kingdom of Naples.
He died that year at L'Aquila in the Abruzzi and is buried in the Basilica of San Bernardino. According to tradition, his grave continued to leak blood until two factions of the city achieved reconciliation.
Canonisation and iconography
Reports of miracles attributed to Bernardino multiplied rapidly after his death, and Bernardino was canonized as a saint in 1450, only six years after his death, by Pope Nicholas V. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is on 20 May, the day of his death.
As historian Franco Mormando observes, "Bernardino's lifetime coincided with the blossoming not only of art in general but also of full-fledged, realistic portraiture as a distinct genre. This may explain why Bernardino, it seems, has the distinction of being the first saint in Church history for whom we have an indisputably authentic portrait in art. Many of the earliest portraits were presumably based on his death mask..." Bernardino also lived into the early days of the print and was the subject of portraits in his lifetime, as well as a death-mask, which were copied to make prints, so that he is one of the earliest saints to have a fairly consistent appearance in art; though many Baroque images, such as that by El Greco, are idealized compared to the realistic ones made in the decades after his death.
After his death, the Franciscans promoted an iconographical program of diffusion of images of Bernardino, which was second only to that of the founder of the order. As such, he is one of the earliest saints whose appearance was given a distinct and readily recognisable iconography. Artists of the late medieval and Renaissance periods often represented him as small and emaciated, with three mitres at his feet (representing the three bishoprics which he had rejected) and holding in his hand the IHS monogram with rays emanating from it (representing his devotion to the "Holy Name of Jesus"), which was his main attribute. He appears to have been a favourite in the works of Luca della Robbia, and one of the finest examples of Renaissance art includes relief carvings of the saint, which can be seen in the oratory of Perugia Cathedral.
A portrait is known to have circulated in Siena just after Bernardino's death which, on the basis of physiognomic similarities with his death mask at L'Aquila, is believed to have been a good likeness. It is thought probable that many subsequent depictions of the saint derive from this portrait.
The most famous depictions of Bernardino are found in the cycle of frescoes of his life, which were executed towards the end of the fifteenth century by Pinturicchio in the Bufalini Chapel of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome.
Veneration
Saint Bernardino is the Roman Catholic patron saint of advertising, communications, compulsive gambling, respiratory problems, as well as any problems involving the chest area. He is the patron saint of Carpi, Italy; the Philippine barangays of Kay-Anlog in Calamba, Laguna and Tuna in Cardona, Rizal; and the diocese of San Bernardino, California, USA. Siena College, a Franciscan Catholic liberal arts college in New York, USA, was named after him and placed under his spiritual patronage. The mountain pass in the Alps, Il Passo di San Bernardino, is named in honor of the saint, whose fame reached well into northern Italy and southern Switzerland.
His cult also spread to England at an early period, and was particularly promulgated by the Observant Friars, who first established themselves in the country in Greenwich, in 1482, not forty years after his death, but who were later suppressed.
See also
Santa Maria delle Grazie (Arezzo)
Saint symbolism
List of Catholic saints
Saint Bernardino of Siena, patron saint archive
Notes
References
Polecritti, Cynthia, Preaching Peace in Renaissance Italy: San Bernardino of Siena and His Audience, (UC Berkeley, 1988)
External links
Saint Bernardino of Siena at the Christian Iconography web site.
Saint Bernardino of Siena and his Basilica in L’Aquila, Italy
Saint Bernardine of Siena, "Sermons"
1380 births
1444 deaths
Evangelists
Italian Friars Minor
Franciscan saints
People from Massa Marittima
15th-century Christian saints
Economic history of the Holy See
Medieval Italian saints
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|
220232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Satellite%20Broadcasting | British Satellite Broadcasting | British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) was a television company, headquartered in London, that provided direct broadcast satellite television services to the United Kingdom. They started broadcasting on 25 March 1990. The company was merged with Sky Television plc on 2 November 1990 to form British Sky Broadcasting.
History
Development
In January 1977, the World Administrative Radio Conference assigned each country to create five high-powered direct broadcast by satellite channels for domestic use. Between 25 February and 5 March 1982, after being awarded two of the channels as the BBC proposed its own satellite service, but the government imposed two conditions on it:
Used built by United Satellite, a consortium of British Aerospace and Matra Marconi Space (the former Marconi Space merged with Matra Espace, the latter's space divisions later to become part of Astrium and then Airbus Defence and Space) with costs estimated at £24 million per year.
A supplementary charter was agreed in May 1983 which allow the BBC to borrow up to £225 million to cover the cost of the project as it was not be allowed to call on public funds, nor use existing sources of revenue to fund the project.
During Autumn 1983, the cost of Unisat was found to be greatly underestimated and the new Home Secretary announced the three remaining channels would be given to the Independent Broadcasting Authority to allow the private sector to compete against the BBC in satellite broadcasting. Within a few months, the BBC started talking with the IBA about a joint project to help cover the cost. Subsequently, the government allowed the IBA to bring in private companies to help cover the costs (dubbed as the "Club of 21"):
BBC – 50%
ITV franchises – 30%
Virgin/Thorn EMI/Granada TV Rental/Pearson Longman and Consolidated Satellite Broadcasting – 20%
Within a year, the consortium made it clear that the original launch date of 1986 would be delayed to 1989, while also asking the government to allow them to tender out the building of the new satellite system to help reduce cost. On 15 June 1985, the project failed when consortium concluded that the cost of set-up was not justifiable as the BBC stated the costs were prohibitive, because the government insisted that the "Club of 21" should pay for the costs of constructing and launching a dedicated satellite.
IBA satellite franchise
On 2 April 1986, the IBA convinced the Home Secretary to revive the DBS project but under different conditions broadly based on a report drawn up by John Jackson, invite the private-sector companies to apply for a new television franchise via satellite to provide a commercial service on the IBA's three DBS channels (of the five in total allocated to the United Kingdom). One of the conditions imposed on applicants by the IBA was that they use a new untried transmission standard, D-MAC. This was part of the European Communities' support for the HD-MAC high-definition television standard which was being developed by Philips and other European companies. The technology was still at the laboratory stage and was incompatible with previous standards: HD-MAC transmissions could not be received by existing television sets which used PAL or SECAM standards. The condition to use a high-power (230 watt) satellite was dropped, and no winner was precluded from buying a foreign satellite system.
The IBA received five major contenders with serious bids for the direct broadcast satellite franchises, it also received submissions from The Children's Channel and ITN to make sure their programmes were used on any successful bid:
Winning bid
British Satellite Broadcasting won the 15-year franchise on 11 December 1986 to operate the DBS system, with a licence to operate three channels. BSB forecast 400,000 homes would be equipped during its first year, but some doubts were cast whether this was possible. The Cable Authority welcomed the service believing it would encourage more users, especially with its dedicated movie service. The original four satellite channels were:
Preparations for launch
Around the time of the licence award, Amstrad withdrew its backing, as they believed it was not possible to sell a satellite dish and D-MAC standard receiver for £250. Australian businessman Alan Bond joined the consortium along with Reed Elsevier, Chargeurs, Next and London Merchant Securities, amongst others. BSB earmarked the bulk of the first round of financing for buying and launching two satellites (for redundancy and provision of further channels later), and planned a second round close to the commencement of broadcasting operations. It commissioned the Hughes Aircraft Company to provide two high-powered satellites using launch vehicles from McDonnell Douglas (later United Launch Alliance). Both companies were American and had established reputations for reliability. Hughes was the main contractor and offered a commercial space industry as the first "in-orbit delivery" on 6 August 1987, whereby BSB's risk was reduced because payments became due only after the satellites were launched and operational.
On 8 June 1988, rival tycoon Rupert Murdoch having failed to gain regulatory approval for his own satellite service to become part of the BSB consortium, announced that his pan-European television station Sky Channel, would be relaunched as a four-channel, United Kingdom-based service called Sky Television, using the Astra system and broadcast in PAL with analogue sound. BSB had been aware of the impending launch of Astra when it submitted its proposal to the IBA in 1986, but had discounted it, partly on advice from the IBA that it would not have been possible for Sky to securely scramble an analogue PAL signal, and a prediction that satisfactory reception from a medium-powered satellite such as Astra would not be possible with a dish of under 1.2 metres, which would require individual planning permission for each customer. Lazard Brothers, the Pearson subsidiary responsible for BSB's first fundraising memorandum, reportedly regarded Astra as technology-led rather than programming-led and, therefore, an unlikely threat.
The stage was set for a dramatic confrontation: BSB, expecting to be the United Kingdom's only satellite service, was faced with an aggressive drive by Murdoch's Sky to be the first service to launch. As Britain's official satellite television provider, BSB had high hopes as the company planned to provide a mixture of highbrow programming and popular entertainment, from arts and opera to blockbuster movies and music videos. The service would also be technically superior, broadcasting in the D-MAC (Multiplexed Analogue Components type D) system dictated by the European Union regulations with potentially superior picture sharpness, digital stereo sound and the potential to show widescreen programming; rather than the existing PAL system. BSB claimed that Sky's PAL pictures would be too degraded by satellite transmission, and that in any case, BSB would broadcast superior programming. SES (later operators of the O3b data satellites and others with names including AMC, Ciel, NSS, QuetzSat, YahSat and SES, and formerly at that time, the Astra TV satellite operator), had no regulatory permission to broadcast, had plans (initially) for only one satellite with no backup, and the European satellite launch vehicle Ariane suffered repeated failures. However, SES used the resulting delay time to re-engineer the satellite to reduce the dish size needed, which would otherwise have been larger than 60 cm (24").
To distance itself from Sky and its dish antennas, BSB announced a new type of flat-plate satellite antenna called a "squarial" (i.e., "square aerial"). The illustrative model shown to the press was a dummy and BSB commissioned a working version which was under 45 cm (18") wide. A conventional dish of the same diameter was also available. The company had serious technical problems with the development of ITT's D-MAC silicon chips needed for its MAC receivers. BSB was still hoping to launch in September 1989, but eventually had to admit that the launch would be delayed.
By 22 July 1988 in a bid to gain more viewers, BSB and the BBC prepared a bid for a four-year deal for the rights to broadcast top league football, outbidding ITV's £44 million offer. BSB had also committed about £400 million to tying up the film libraries of Paramount, Universal, Columbia and MGM/United Artists, with total up-front payments of about £85 million.
On 1 February 1989, BSB's costs had started to climb reaching £354 million, while chief executive Anthony Simonds-Gooding denied that BSB had gone over budget and would require more than the planned £625 million it required to operate up to 1993. Virgin pulled out of the BSB consortium in December 1988, ostensibly because it was going private again and become increasingly concerned about BSB's mounting costs. The film-rights battle proved to be the final straw for Virgin, since it would necessitate a "supplementary first round" of financing of £131 million in January earlier that year in addition to the initial £222.5 million. After unsuccessfully offering its stake in BSB to the remaining founders, Virgin sold it to the Bond Corporation, already BSB's largest shareholder for a nominal profit.
Despite the delayed launch, BSB continued to invest heavily for marketing in 1989 to minimize the effects of Sky's timing advantage. BSB also received a needed boost in June 1989 when it won the franchises for the two remaining British high-powered DBS channels, beating six other bidders when the BBC dropped all plans for use of its allocated channels. BSB revised its line-up to include separate channels for films, sports, pop music, general entertainment and current affairs. Unfortunately, this increased the size of the dishes which the public had to purchase from 25 to 35–40 centimetres; subsidies from BSB helped maintain retail prices at £250.
Launch of five-channel service
There were five satellite channels for the general public with a sixth part-time service on subscription for business users, as BSB Datavision was a subsidiary of the company which offered encrypted television sets and data reception through domestic receivers. The channel line-up launched over five consecutive days in one at a time was:
The Movie Channel (25 March 1990)
Galaxy (26 March 1990)
The Sports Channel (27 March 1990)
Now (28 March 1990)
The Power Station (29 March 1990)
The Computer Channel (28 June 1990; Defunct: 29 November 1990)
BSB launched its service on 25 March 1990, with the slogan It's Smart to be Square. The launch, six months late, came 13 months after Sky's launch. BSB was due to start broadcasting in September 1989 but was delayed by problems with the supply of receiving equipment and because BSB wanted to avoid Sky's experience of launching when most shops had no equipment to sell.
BSB claimed to have around 750,000 subscriptions while Sky had extended its reach into more than 1.5 million homes. It was believed both companies could break even if subscriptions reached three million households, with most analysts expecting this to be reached in 1992.
Competition and merger
Sky's head start over BSB proved that the PAL system would give adequate picture quality, and that many viewers would be happy to watch Sky's more populist output as opposed to waiting for the promised quality programming pledged by BSB. Sky had launched its multichannel service from studios at an industrial estate in Isleworth, with a ten-year lease on SES transponders for an estimated £50 million without backup. BSB on the other hand, would operate from more expensive headquarters at Marco Polo House in Battersea, with construction and launch of its own satellites costing an estimated £200 million as the second of which was a backup.
When BSB finally went on air in March 1990 (13 months after Sky), the company's technical problems were resolved and its programming was critically acclaimed. However, its D-MAC receivers were more expensive than Sky's PAL equivalents and incompatible with them. Many potential customers compared the competition between the rival satellite companies to the format war between VHS and Betamax recorders, and chose to wait and see which company would win outright in order to avoid buying potentially obsolete equipment. Both BSB and Sky had begun to struggle with the burden of huge losses, rapidly increasing debts and ongoing startup costs. On 2 November 1990, a 50:50 merger was announced to form a single company called British Sky Broadcasting (marketed as "Sky").
Following the merger, BSkyB moved quickly to rationalise the combined channels it now owned:
Outcomes
BSB's shareholders and Murdoch's News International made huge profits on their investments, the 50:50 merged venture having an effective quasi-monopoly on British satellite pay-television. From a United Kingdom perspective, British Satellite Broadcasting's existence prevented 100% of these profits being made by News International, reducing Murdoch's ability to influence government policy. At one stage of the saga, News International was facing dismemberment at the hands of its bankers.
Following the takeover of Sky by Comcast in October 2018, Murdoch was no longer involved in British television but retained his newspaper assets through News Corp.
Regulatory context
A new television transmission system, Multiplexed Analogue Components, was originally developed for high-definition television but European manufacturers developed patented variants and successfully lobbied regulators such that it was adopted by the Commission of the European Communities as the standard for all direct broadcast satellites. This had the effect that the low-cost non-European manufacturers would not only have to pay royalties to the manufacturers, but would also not have direct access to the technology, and hence would always be behind with new developments.
In the United Kingdom, the Independent Broadcasting Authority developed a variant, D-MAC, which had marginal audio channel improvements, and insisted on its use by the satellite service to be licensed by itself. In the rest of Europe, satellite television manufacturers standardised on another variant, D2-MAC, which used less bandwidth and was compatible with the extensive existing European cable systems. With the launch of BSB, the IBA became a member of the secret "MAC Club" of European organisations which owned patents on MAC variants and had a royalty sharing agreement for all television and set top boxes sold.
The IBA was not directed to be an "economic regulator", so the free market in lower power satellite bandwidth satellites (such as SES Astra) leveraged the benefits of the existing lower cost PAL transmissions with pre-existing set-top box technology. The IBA was rendered helpless and Murdoch made a voluntary agreement to adhere to those Broadcasting Standards Commission rules relating to non-economic matters, such as the technology used. Ironically the past-deadline encryption system in the D-MAC silicon chip technology was one primary reason for BSB having to merge with Sky, and hence the Far Eastern television manufacturers had largely unfettered access to the market when MAC was wound down in favour of PAL.
Location and satellites
The Marco Polo House headquarters were vacated, leading to redundancy for most BSB staff with only a few moving to work at Sky's headquarters in Isleworth. The building was retained by the new company and from 1 October 1993 became the home of shopping channel QVC when its British version launched. Broadcasting platform ITV Digital moved into part of the building as part of the settlement that saw Sky forced out of the original company. The building was demolished on 8 March 2014, it has been replaced by several blocks of luxury apartments in Chelsea Bridge.
As the company focused on the Astra system which was not subject to IBA regulation, the Marcopolo satellites were eventually withdrawn and later sold (Marcopolo 1 on 21 December 1993 to NSAB of Sweden and Marcopolo 2 on 1 July 1992 to Telenor of Norway) within the former satellites were renamed Thor. NSAB operated Marcopolo 1 (as Sirius 1) until successfully sending it to a safe disposal orbit in 2003 as it reached the normal end of its operational life when fuel ran out. Marcopolo 2 was operated (as Thor 1) until January 2002 and disposed successfully.
After the merger, BSB D-MAC receivers were sold off cheaply and some enthusiasts modified them to allow reception of D2-MAC services available on other satellites. BSB receivers, Ferguson in particular, could be modified by replacing a microprocessor. Upgrade kits from companies such as Trac Satellite allowed re-tuning whilst other kits allowed fully working menu systems and decoding of 'soft' encrypted channels, although this required the receiver to have one of the later MAC chipsets. Some kits even included smart card readers and full D2-MAC decoding capability.
Sources
Further reading
New York Times, 20 December 1990; Murdoch's Time of Reckoning
Peter Chippindale, Suzanne Franks and Roma Felstein, Dished!: Rise and Fall of British Satellite Broadcasting, (London: Simon & Schuster Ltd, 1991).
Broadcasting and New Media Policies in Western Europe Kenneth H. F. Dyson, Peter Humphreys , 9780415005098
References
External links
Sky Group
Direct broadcast satellite services
Defunct mass media companies of the United Kingdom
Mass media companies established in 1986
Mass media companies disestablished in 1990
1990 mergers and acquisitions
British companies disestablished in 1990
British companies established in 1986 | [
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|
220234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slowpoke%20Rodriguez | Slowpoke Rodriguez | Slowpoke Rodríguez ("Lento Rodríguez" in Spanish, though some more recent translations call him "Tranquilino") is a fictional animated cartoon mouse, part of the Looney Tunes' cast.
History and personality
He is described as "the slowest mouse in all México" from the countryside of Mexico, and is a cousin to Speedy Gonzales, who is known as the fastest. However, he mentions to his cousin that while he may be best known for his slow feet, he's not slow in "la cabeza" (the head). He speaks in a monotone voice and seems to never be surprised by anything. Due to being slow he is generally, unlike Speedy, unable to outrun the pursuing cats who try to capture the both of them, but he is shown to have alternative (more effective) methods of resistance such as his possession of a gun.
Cartoon appearances
Slowpoke only appeared in two cartoons alongside his cousin. The first, "Mexicali Shmoes" (1959), ends with two lazy cats, José and Manuel, the former learning the hard way that Slowpoke carries a gun (though the gun bit has been edited out of this cartoon in recent years). The second, "Mexican Boarders" (1962), revolves around Speedy trying to protect Slowpoke from Sylvester the Cat, but in the end, Slowpoke demonstrates his ability to hypnotize Sylvester into becoming his slave. The other mice comment at this point that "Slowpoke Rodríguez may be the slowest mouse in all Mexico, but he has the Evil Eye!"
Other appearances
Slowpoke appears in the Robot Chicken episode "Werewolf vs. Unicorn", voiced by Seth Green. In a segment satirizing California's immigration issue, Arnold Schwarzenegger, mistaking Slowpoke for Speedy Gonzales, criticizes him for taking an hour to fetch a glass of water. Schwarzenegger then orders Rodríguez's deportation, which Rodríguez fears will cause his execution.
Slowpoke makes an appearance as a plot catalyst in the Super NES video game Speedy Gonzales: Los Gatos Bandidos.
Slowpoke also appears alongside Speedy in a commercial for Virgin Media's broadband service in the UK, voiced by Kerry Shale.
Slowpoke appears in The Looney Tunes Show episode "The Black Widow", voiced by Hugh Davidson. While his relation to Speedy Gonzales remains intact, he is depicted as the Sheriff of Tacapulco. After Daffy Duck and Porky Pig are arrested for streaking, Sheriff Slowpoke Rodríguez allows them to make a call. As Daffy Duck was unable to get through to Bugs Bunny (who was helping Lola Bunny return a diamond that she unintentionally stole from the museum at the time), he asks Sheriff Slowpoke if he would mind that he tries to call someone else. Daffy gets through to Speedy Gonzales who speeds all the way to Tacapulco to negotiate their release. Once that was done, Sheriff Slowpoke invites Daffy, Porky, and Speedy to join in Tacapulco's fiesta.
References
Fictional mice and rats
Looney Tunes characters
Fictional Mexican people
Male characters in animation
Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino people
Ethnic humour
Film characters introduced in 1959
Animated characters introduced in 1959 | [
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220238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Lueger | Karl Lueger | Karl Lueger (; 24 October 1844 – 10 March 1910) was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The populist and antisemitic politics of his Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazism.
Life and early career
Karl Lueger came from a modest background, born at Wieden (since 1850 the 4th district of Vienna) to Leopold Lueger of Neustadtl an der Donau and his wife Juliane. His birthplace is now the western part of the main building of the Vienna University of Technology at Karlsplatz where Lueger's father worked as an usher at the Vienna Polytechnic.
He nevertheless was able to attend the renowned Theresianum boarding school (Theresianische Ritterakademie) as a day student. He studied law at the University of Vienna, receiving his doctorate in 1870. While at the university he was a member of the Catholic Student Association (Katholische akademische Verbindung Norica Wien, K.A.V. Norica Wien), part of the Österreichische Cartellverband (ÖCV) fraternities.
He established his own lawyer's office in Vienna in 1874 and soon became known as a "little people's" („kleine Leute“) advocate. In this position, his role model and mentor was the popular Jewish physician and local politician Ignaz Mandl, known as "God of the Little People" in Lueger's district of Landstraße (Third District), whom he followed into political life. The association ended when Lueger became identified with antisemitism. He died in 1910.
Political career
Lueger played a part in many political spheres, including Vienna City Council where he eventually became mayor, the federal Austrian parliament, and the state parliament of Lower Austria.
Viennese municipal politics
In 1875, he was elected to Vienna's City Council (Gemeinderat), initially as a liberal. He would serve on the council until his death, save for a two-year break from 1876 to 1878. He campaigned against the government of liberal mayor Cajetan Felder and achieved popularity as a campaigner against corruption.
In 1888 he brought together the German National (Deutschnationale) and Christian Social factions at City Hall to form a group that later became known as the United Christians (Vereinigte Christen).
After the 1895 elections for the Vienna Gemeinderat, the Christian Socials won two thirds of the seats, ending the long Liberal rule. The Christian Social supermajority subsequently elected Lueger as mayor. However, during imperial times, mayors had to be confirmed in office by Emperor Franz Joseph. The emperor allegedly loathed Lueger as a person and considered him a dangerous revolutionary. He was also concerned about Lueger's antisemitism. With the support of Prime Minister Kasimir Felix Badeni, Franz Joseph refused to confirm Lueger as mayor. The Christian Socials retained a large majority in the council, and reelected Lueger as mayor three more times, only to have Franz Joseph refuse to confirm him each time. He was elected mayor for a fifth time in 1897, and after a personal intercession by Pope Leo XIII, his election was finally sanctioned later that year.
He was a zealous Catholic and wished to “capture the university” for the Church. He would have neither Social Democrats nor Pan-Germans nor Jews in the municipal administration. He secured good treatment for Czech immigrants.
He planned to make Vienna one of the most beautiful of garden cities.
In his incumbency, Lueger is credited with the extension of the public water supply by its second main aquifer (Hochquellwasserleitung), which provides tap water of mineral-water quality to large parts of the city. He also pursued the municipalization of gas and electricity works as well as the establishment of a public transport system, introducing streetcars (trams), and of numerous institutions of social welfare, most of which strongly relied on debt financing. He incorporated the suburbs, and built parks, gardens, hospitals, and schools.
Der schöne Karl ("handsome Karl") achieved tremendous popularity among the citizens. During his tenure, Vienna ultimately changed its appearance as the capital of a great power of the pre-World War I era—a heritage that remained even in Red Vienna after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918. A significant part of the infrastructure and organisations that are responsible for the high standard of living in the contemporary city were created during his terms of office.
Lueger served as mayor of Vienna until his early death from diabetes mellitus in 1910. He was buried in the crypt of the newly erected St. Charles Borromeo Church at the Zentralfriedhof (also called Dr. Karl Lueger Memorial Church), whose groundbreaking ceremony he had performed.
Christian Social movement
Lueger's early political life was associated with Georg von Schönerer and the German National Party, which was antisemitic. From the late 1880s onwards Lueger was a regular attendee at the influential circles of clerical social conservative politicians around Karl von Vogelsang, Prince Aloys Franz de Paula Maria of Liechtenstein, and the theologian Franz Martin Schindler. In view of the rising labour movement, the participants on the basis of Catholic social teaching developed ideas to overcome social polarisation by several measures of social security legislation and the common Catholic faith. Moreover, after an 1882 electoral reform had expanded the electorate suffrage, Lueger focussed on petty bourgeois tradespersons, who assumed the Jewish competition to be the underlying cause of their precarious situation, and discovered that raising the "Jewish Question" earned him enormous popularity.
In 1885 he was elected to the lower house (Abgeordnetenhaus) of the Austrian Imperial Parliament (Reichsrat), representing the Fifth District of Vienna, and was returned in the 1891 election. From 1890 he was also a member of the Lower Austria parliament (Landtag).
Lueger, Prince Liechtenstein, Vogelsang and Schindler met regularly at the Hotel Zur goldenen Ente (Golden Duck, Riemergasse 4) in Vienna's First District, and would refer to their meetings as Enten-Abende (Duck Evenings). This working group became the focus for social reform, and they organised the Second Austrian Katholikentag in 1889. From this Schindler developed the platform of the fledgling Christian Social Party (Christlichsoziale Partei, CS). Lueger was to found and lead the party in 1893, which quickly rivaled the Social Democrats (Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs, SPÖ). He remained one of its most effective leaders till his death and developed his party's federation policy as a means of dealing with the monarchy's issues of multiple nationalities.
Much of Lueger's popularity stemmed from his appeal to women; his female followers were variously known as "Lueger's Amazons", "the Lueger Garde" or "Lueger Gretls" and were organised in the Christian Social Women's League. Although women could not vote, he calculated that they could significantly influence how their menfolk voted, and they also inculcated the party ideology in their children. To maintain his female following, Lueger remained a bachelor and publicly disavowed any private life, claiming that he was too busy because he belonged totally to "my Viennese". After his death there was a scandal when his long-time mistress, Marianne Beskiba, published a tell-all memoir including facsimiles of love letters from him; the book provides useful information about his political tactics and how the party was run.
Antisemitism
Lueger was known for his antisemitic rhetoric and referred to himself as an admirer of Edouard Drumont, who founded the Antisemitic League of France in 1889. Decades later, Adolf Hitler, an inhabitant of Vienna from 1907 to 1913, saw him as an inspiration for his own views on Jews. Though not an explicit pan-Germanist, Lueger advocated racist policies against non-German speaking minorities in Austria-Hungary and in 1887 voted for a bill proposed by his long-time opponent Georg von Schönerer to restrict the immigration of Russian and Romanian Jews. He also overtly supported the völkisch movement of Guido von List and created the pun "Judapest", referring to supposed Jewish domination of the Hungarian capital, Budapest. The historian Léon Poliakov wrote in The History of Anti-Semitism:
It soon became apparent that especially in Vienna any political group that wanted to appeal to the artisans had no chance of success without an anti-Semitic platform. [...] It was at that time that a well-known phrase was coined in Vienna: "Anti-Semitism is the socialism of fools." The situation was exploited by the Catholic politician Karl Lueger, the leader of Austrian Christian-Social party with a program identical to that of the Berlin party of the same name led by Pastor Stoeker. In 1887, Lueger raised the banner of anti-Semitism. [...] However, the enthusiastic tribute that Hitler paid him in Mein Kampf does not seem justified, for the Jews did not suffer under his administration.
Other observers contend that Lueger's public racism was in large part a pose to obtain votes, being one of the first who made use of populism as a political tool. Historian William L. Shirer wrote that "his opponents, including the Jews, readily conceded that he was at heart a decent, chivalrous, generous and tolerant man."
According to Amos Elon, "Lueger's anti-Semitism was of a homespun, flexible variety—one might almost say gemütlich. Asked to explain the fact that many of his friends were Jews, Lueger famously replied, 'I decide who is a Jew.' " Viennese Jewish writer Stefan Zweig, who grew up in Vienna during Lueger's term of office, recalled that "His city administration was perfectly just and even typically democratic."
German nationalism
Lueger expressed some scepticism about German nationalism, but as with his antisemitism was quick to exploit the sentiments for his own political purposes. He opposed Austro-Hungarian dualism in favour of federalism and the equality of all the nations making up the empire.
Further influences
His general style of politics later inspired some of the right-wing leaders of the First Austrian Republic in 1918–1933, such as Ignaz Seipel, Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg, who led the Austrian society towards Austrofascism. Unlike Hitler, he did not so much inspire antisemitism in them (none of these three were particularly antisemitic), but rather provided one important role model for their generally combative, unrelenting stance towards ideological political opponents, which ultimately proved to be detrimental to the cohesion of the Austrian state.
In Vienna, Lueger has a square named after him, at least two statues were erected in his honour, and until April 2012 a section of the Ringstraße bore his name. It has been very difficult to decide what to do with monuments honouring historical figures whose reputation has been widely called into question as Europeans (and others) reflect on the historical background to the holocaust. With the Anschluss of Austria in 1938 street names carrying Jewish names or the names of pacifists were changed. After World War II, Austria started a full-scale program of de-Nazification on both cultural and topographical levels. Nazified street signs were torn down and their names changed back from Nazi to Habsburg heroes.
Lueger's monuments present a difficult case because they are genuinely local, yet he was inspirational for the Nazis.
For some, the Lueger monuments show that Vienna has neglected its obligations to the victims of the Holocaust in order to keep its nostalgic appeal as the grand Imperial City. For example, when Austrian-born neurobiologist Eric Kandel won the Nobel Prize in 2000, he "stuck it to the Austrians" by saying it was certainly not an Austrian Nobel; it was a Jewish-American Nobel. He was subsequently telephoned by the Austrian president Thomas Klestil who asked him, "How can we put things right?" Kandel said that first, Dr.-Karl-Lueger-Ring should be renamed. Kandel was offended that the address of the University of Vienna is on that street.
After yearlong debates, the Ring was renamed to Universitätsring in April 2012. The monument to Lueger at Dr. Karl Lueger Platz at the Stubenring as well as the memorial plaque at the TU Wien have since been contextualized by descriptions highlighting Lueger's antisemitism and his influence on National Socialism.
Lueger was the subject of a 1943 biopic Vienna 1910, in which he was played by Rudolf Forster.
Honours
He received the following orders and decorations:
References
Further reading
Connolly, P. J. "Karl Lueger: Mayor of Vienna." Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review (1915): 226-249. online
Geehr, Richard S. Karl Lueger: Mayor of Fin de Siècle Vienna (Wayne State University Press, 1990)
Schorske, Carl E. Fin-de-siècle Vienna: politics and culture (1979)
Wistrich, Robert S. "Karl Lueger and the Ambiguities of Viennese Antisemitism." Jewish Social Studies 45.3/4 (1983): 251-262. online
External links
Photo of monument Dr. Karl Lueger Platz, Vienna
Karl Lueger And The Twilight Of Imperial Vienna
Pressure group to transform the Karl Lueger statue into a monument against anti-Semitism and racism in Austria
19th-century Austrian people
Mayors of Vienna
Lawyers from Vienna
Christian Social Party (Austria) politicians
Austrian Roman Catholics
Antisemitism in Austria
Jewish Austrian history
Anti-Hungarian sentiment
People from Wieden
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
1844 births
1910 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph
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Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 1st class
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Honorary Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order | [
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|
220240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala%20Education%20Act%201958%20%28Act%206%20of%201959%29 | Kerala Education Act 1958 (Act 6 of 1959) | The Education Bill was introduced in the Kerala assembly by Professor Joseph Mundasseri, who was then the education minister for the first elected (1957) Communist Party of India government. This bill was aimed at eradicating the malpractices prevalent in the private sector educational institutes,and attempted to regulate the educational institutions' function, including standardizing syllabi and pay structures. The Syrian Christian church and Nair Service Society, along with opposition parties, including Indian National Congress, started the liberation struggle to overthrow the E. M. S. Namboodiripad government.
The Education Bill sought to regulate appointments and conditions of teachers. Salaries of teachers were to be paid through the treasury. There was a provision of takeover of management of educational institutions, which arguably violated the constitution. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court rejected the appeal and the bill received the assent of the president of India.
Even though the Education Bill failed to pass through the Assembly, many of its provisions were later implemented by subsequent governments with amendments.
References
Educational administration
History of Kerala (1947–present)
Education law in India
Kerala state legislation
Education in Kerala | [
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|
220241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratincole | Pratincole | The pratincoles or greywaders are a group of birds which together with the coursers make up the family Glareolidae. They have short legs, very long pointed wings and long forked tails.
Description
Their most unusual feature for birds classed as waders is that they typically hunt their insect prey on the wing like swallows, although they can also feed on the ground. Their short bills are an adaptation to aerial feeding.
Their flight is fast and graceful like a swallow or a tern, with many twists and turns to pursue their prey. They are most active at dawn and dusk, resting in the warmest part of the day.
Like the coursers, the pratincoles are found in warmer parts of the Old World, from southern Europe and Africa east through Asia to Australia. Species breeding in temperate regions are long-distance migrants.
Their two to four eggs are laid on the ground in a bare scrape.
The downy pratincole chicks are able to run as soon as they are hatched.
The Australian pratincole, the only species not in the genus Glareola, is more terrestrial than the other pratincoles, and may be intermediate between this group and the coursers.
The name "pratincole" comes from the term pratincola coined by German naturalist Wilhelm Heinrich Kramer from the Latin words prātum meadow and incola resident.
Species list
Genus Stiltia
Australian pratincole Stiltia isabella
Genus Glareola
Collared pratincole Glareola pratincola
Oriental pratincole Glareola maldivarum
Black-winged pratincole Glareola nordmanni
Madagascar pratincole Glareola ocularis
Rock pratincole Glareola nuchalis
Grey pratincole Glareola cinerea
Small pratincole Glareola lactea
References
Shorebirds by Hayman, Marchant and Prater
Birds Korea - conserving birds and habitats in South Korea and the Yellow Sea eco-region
Glareolidae
Bird common names | [
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|
220243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courser | Courser | The coursers are a group of birds which together with the pratincoles make up the family Glareolidae. They have long legs, short wings and long pointed bills which curve downwards. Their most unusual feature for birds classed as waders is that they inhabit deserts and similar arid regions.
They have cryptic plumage and crouch down when alarmed to avoid detection by predators.
Like the pratincoles, the coursers are found in warmer parts of the Old World. They hunt insects by running.
Their 2–3 eggs are laid on the ground.
Species in taxonomic order
Cream-colored courser Cursorius cursor
Somali courser Cursorius somalensis
Temminck's courser Cursorius temminckii
Indian courser Cursorius coromandelius
Burchell's courser Cursorius rufus
Double-banded courser or two-banded courser, Rhinoptilus africanus
Three-banded courser or Heuglin's courser, Rhinoptilus cinctus
Bronze-winged courser or violet-tipped courser, Rhinoptilus chalcopterus
Jerdon's courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus
References
Hayman, Marchant and Prater, Shorebirds
Glareolidae
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|
220244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlioz%20%28disambiguation%29 | Berlioz (disambiguation) | Hector Berlioz (1803–1869) was a French Romantic composer.
Berlioz may also refer to:
Berlioz (surname)
Berlioz Point, a headland of Antarctica
69288 Berlioz, an asteroid
MS Berlioz, a ship owned by Eurotunnel operated by MyFerryLink
Berlioz (The Aristocats), a fictional grey kitten from The Aristocats | [
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|
220250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber%20Benson | Amber Benson | Amber Nicole Benson (born January 8, 1977) is an American actress, singer, writer, director, and producer. She is best known for her role as Tara Maclay on the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and has also directed, produced and starred in her own films Chance (2002) and Lovers, Liars & Lunatics (2006). She also co-directed the film Drones with fellow Buffy cast member Adam Busch. Benson also starred as a waitress in the horror movie The Killing Jar.
Early life
Benson was born January 8, 1977, in Birmingham, Alabama, the daughter of Diane and Edward Benson, a psychiatrist. She has a younger sister, Danielle, who is an artist. Her father is Jewish and her mother was raised Southern Baptist; Benson grew up attending a Reform synagogue in Alabama.
As a child, Benson studied music and dance, and performed in the Birmingham Children's Ballet, as well as in local theater. She attended high school (one of her classmates being Joey Fatone) in Orlando, Florida, after her family moved there, in part to help Amber pursue acting opportunities, the most prominent of which was an unsold television series called Kids' News, in which Amber was to have been one of two main anchors. The Bensons then relocated to Los Angeles, and Amber very quickly began to land roles in films and on television.
Career
Benson was 14 when she made her feature film debut in the Steven Soderbergh film King of the Hill.
Benson is best known for her recurring role as Tara Maclay on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The character first appeared in the season 4 episode "Hush" and soon became the girlfriend of Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan). Benson remained with the series until season 6 when her character was killed off. In her final episode, Benson was credited for the only time as a regular cast member.
Benson sang in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer musical episode "Once More, with Feeling". She provided vocals for the songs "I've Got a Theory/ Bunnies/If We're Together", "Under Your Spell" (her solo), "Walk Through the Fire", "Standing/Under Your Spell (Reprise)", and "Where Do We Go from Here?" In 2002, she performed two songs on Buffy colleague Anthony Stewart Head's album Music for Elevators. She also sang "Toucha Toucha Touch Me" (aka "Creature of the Night") at VH-1's celebrity karaoke tribute to The Rocky Horror Picture Show.
While still working on Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Benson co-wrote the movie The Theory of the Leisure Class with director Gabriel Bologna, released in 2001, and directed, produced, edited, and acted in a digital video feature called Chance (2002) which also featured her Buffy co-star James Marsters. She also collaborated with director James Kerwin in 2003 to produce her play Albert Hall in Hollywood.
In 2001, Benson worked with Golden, Terry Moore, and Eric Powell of Dark Horse Comics to create the Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow and Tara comic book titled "WannaBlessedBe". The following year (2002), she worked with Christopher Golden and AJ (Ajit Jothikaumar) of Dark Horse Comics to create the Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow and Tara comic books titled Wilderness #1 and Wilderness #2.
Benson and Christopher Golden produced and began a series of animated fantasy films for the BBC with the animation studio Cosgrove Hall. Ghosts of Albion: Legacy (2003) and its sequels are available on the BBC Cult website. Benson and Golden have also collaborated on two supernatural thrillers: Ghosts of Albion: Accursed and Ghosts of Albion: Witchery. These books follow the fortunes of Tamara and William Swift, who first appeared in the BBC computer animated web movie Ghosts of Albion: Legacy.
In 2003, she had a supporting role in Latter Days as Traci Levine, alongside Steve Sandvoss and Wes Ramsey.
In 2005, Benson collaborated with artist Jamie McKelvie on a short story within the Image Comics collection Four Letter Worlds. In 2006, Benson collaborated with artist Ben Templesmith on Demon Father John's Pinwheel Blues published by IDW as a four-part split-book, Shadowplay (with work by Ashley Wood and Christina Z.
In 2006, Benson released her second independent feature film Lovers, Liars & Lunatics through her own production company, Benson Entertainment. The film was shot on film and was partly financed by the sale of limited edition "Triangle" Tara Buffyverse action figure. The project, initially called "The Dirty Script," was ultimately titled Lovers, Liars and Lunatics by producer Diane Benson, Amber's mother.
In 2006, Benson also portrayed the "vegetarian" vampiress Lenore on the TV series Supernatural.
In December 2006, Benson and Golden released yet another collaboration, the short novel The Seven Whistlers which is distributed through Subterranean Press in a limited number of signed copies. In September 2007, Benson signed a three-book deal with Ginjer Buchanan of Penguin Books. Death's Daughter, was released by Ace Books on February 24, 2009; Cat's Claw, on February 23, 2010; and Serpent's Storm, in February 2011. On February 28, 2012, the fourth book in the series, How to Be Death was released.
Benson is the co-director with Adam Busch of the 2010 comedy film Drones.
In 2012, Benson played a young Judith Collins in the Dark Shadows audio drama "Dress Me in Dark Dreams". She guest starred in the second season of the Jane Espenson scripted romantic comedy web series, Husbands.
In June 2013, it was announced that Benson has been attached to star in the web TV series adaptation of The Morganville Vampires as Amelie, the founder of Morganville.
Benson narrated the 2014 audiobook Lock In by John Scalzi. In October 2014 published her fantasy book The Witches of Echo Park.
Activism
During the 2008 campaign season, Benson was featured in a Barack Obama advertisement sponsored by MoveOn.org.
In February 2021, Benson spoke out in support of Buffy The Vampire Slayer co-star Charisma Carpenter's accusation of unprofessional and abusive behavior on the part of Buffy creator Joss Whedon, corroborating Carpenter's account by relating that the set of that series was a "toxic environment" whose traumatic effects upon those who worked there were long-lasting.
Personal life
As of 2007, Benson resided in Los Angeles. She described herself as a "lapsed vegetarian".
From 2002 to 2009, she dated Adam Busch, who played Warren Mears on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The two have remained close friends.
Filmography
Film
Television
Bibliography
Books
Ghosts of Albion
with Christopher Golden
Calliope Reaper-Jones
Death's Daughter (February 24, 2009)
Cat's Claw (February 23, 2010)
Serpent's Storm (February 22, 2011)
How to be Death (February 28, 2012)
The Golden Age of Death (Feb 2013)
The Witches of Echo Park
The Last Dream Keeper (Jan 2016)
The End of Magic (May 2017)
Other books
The Seven Whistlers (with Christopher Golden. 2006)
Star and Marco's Guide to Mastering Every Dimension (with Dominic Bisignano, Disney Press, 2017)
Anthologies and collections
Comics
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
WannaBlessedBe (Willow & Tara with Christopher Golden. 2003)
Wilderness (with Christopher Golden)
"The Innocent" in Tales of the Slayers
Other comics
Shadowplay #1–4 (with Ben Templesmith. 2005)
Among the Ghosts (with Sina Grace, illustrator. August 2010)
Clueless: Senior Year (with Sarah Kuhn)
Clueless: One Last Summer (with Sarah Kuhn)
Other media
Illusions (with Christopher Golden. Animated feature, directed by Benson, available on the BBC website)
The Ghosts of Albion Roleplaying Game (with Timothy S. Brannan and Christopher Golden. Eden Studios, 2007)
Middlegame by Seanan McGuire, narrated by Benson
Walkaway by Cory Doctorow, narrated by Benson
Lock In by John Scalzi, narrated by Benson
Head On by John Scalzi, narrated by Benson
Swarm by Scott Westerfeld, narrated by Benson
Zeroes by Scott Westerfeld, narrated by Benson
References
External links
Bean, Krista (May 6, 2012). "Podcast #5: Amber Benson". Scripts & Scribes.
http://www.amberbenson.tv/
1977 births
Actresses from Birmingham, Alabama
Actresses from Orlando, Florida
American comics writers
American film actresses
American women film directors
American television actresses
Female comics writers
Living people
Jewish American actresses
Jewish American screenwriters
American women screenwriters
American fantasy writers
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Film directors from Alabama
21st-century American novelists
American women novelists
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
21st-century American women writers
American people of Jewish descent
Screenwriters from Alabama
Novelists from Alabama
Screenwriters from Florida
American women film producers
Film producers from Florida
21st-century American screenwriters
Activists from Los Angeles
21st-century American Jews | [
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220253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Institute%20in%20Taiwan | American Institute in Taiwan | The American Institute in Taiwan (AIT; ) is the de facto Embassy of the United States of America in Taiwan. The AIT institution is a wholly owned subsidiary of the federal government of the United States in Taiwan with Congressional oversight. The AIT was officially created as a U.S. government-sponsored non-profit, private corporation established under the auspices of the U.S. government to serve its interests in Taiwan. Primarily staffed by employees of the United States Department of State and local workers, the AIT provides consular services normally offered by normal United States diplomatic missions, with the Great Seal of the State Department hung at AIT's main office in Taipei. The establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1979 required acknowledgment of the "one-China policy" and subsequent termination of diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). The AIT now serves to assist and protect U.S. interests in Taiwan in a quasi-official manner, and also processes US visas and provides consular services to U.S. expatriates. Following the swift passage of the 2018 Taiwan Travel Act by the United States, it now serves as a high-level representative bureau on behalf of United States in Taiwan. It receives full protection from the United States Marine Corps as do all US Embassies.
American Institute in Taiwan Kaohsiung Branch Office is a division of the AIT institution located in southern Taiwan.
Overview
AIT is a non-profit corporation incorporated in the District of Columbia on 16 January 1979 after the US established full diplomatic relations with the PRC on January 1, 1979. This model, with an alternative form of American representative office established in Taiwan after the diplomatic relations were severed, was based on the AIT's Japanese counterpart stationed in Taipei since 1972, and was therefore referred to as the .
Following the authorization of the Taiwan Relations Act, the Department of State, through a semi-official contract with AIT, provides guidance and some funding in its operations. Like other U.S. missions abroad, AIT is staffed by employees of the Department of State and other agencies of the United States, as well as by locally hired staff. Prior to a 2002 amendment to the Foreign Service Act (Section 503 of the Foreign Service Act of 1980, as amended by the Department of State Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 2003), United States government employees were required to resign from government service for their period of assignment to AIT. According to Section 12 (a) of the Taiwan Relations Act, agreements conducted by AIT have to be reported to Congress, just as other international agreements concluded by United States and governments with which it has diplomatic relations. Thus, while relations between the US and Taiwan through AIT are conducted on an informal basis, the US government still treats the relationship within the same confines as with other states with formal diplomatic relations.
AIT has a small headquarters office in Arlington County, Virginia with its largest office located in Taipei, Taiwan. The organization also has a branch office in Taiwan's strategic southern port city of Kaohsiung. These three bureaus are referred to as AIT/Washington (AIT/W), AIT/Taipei (AIT/T) and AIT/Kaohsiung (AIT/K), respectively.
The AIT office complex at No. 100 Jin Hu Road, Neihu District, Taipei, was inaugurated in 2019. AIT/Taipei was previously located in the Daan District on the former site of the U.S. Military Advisory Group headquarters before 1979.
For the purposes of remuneration and benefits, directors of the AIT hold the same rank as ambassador and, in Taiwan, are accorded diplomatic privileges in their capacity as directors.
Its counterpart in the United States is the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office.
From 1953 to 1979, the United States Ambassador to the Republic of China was based in Taipei.
New compound in Taipei
A new $250 million compound for the American Institute in Taiwan was unveiled in June 2018, accompanied by a "low-key" U.S. delegation and several mid-level diplomats. According to the AIT the new complex represents “the United State’s brick-and-mortar commitment to Taiwan.”
In 2019 director Christensen buried a time capsule at the new AIT complex in Neihu. The time capsule is not to be unearthed for 50 years.
Principal officers
List of directors
Charles T. Cross 1979 – 1981
James R. Lilley 1981 – 1984
Harry E. T. Thayer 1984 – 1986
1987 – 1989
Thomas S. Brooks 1990 – 1993
B. Lynn Pascoe 1993 – 1996
Darryl Norman Johnson 1996 – 1999
Raymond Burghardt 1999 – 2001, received the Order of Propitious Clouds
Douglas H. Paal 2002 – 2006
Stephen Young 2006 – 2009
William A. Stanton 2009 – 2012
Christopher J. Marut 2012 – 2015
Kin W. Moy 2015 – 2018
Brent Christensen 2018 – 2021
Sandra Oudkirk 2021 – present
List of deputy directors
William A. Brown 1979
William Wayt Thomas Jr. 1979 – 1981
Thomas S. Brooks 1981 – 1983
Jerome C. Ogden 1983 – 1986
Scott S. Hallford 1986 – 1991
James A. Larocco 1991 – 1993
Christopher J. LaFleur 1993 – 1997
Lauren K. Moriarty 1997 – 1998
Stephen Young 1998 – 2001
Pamela J. H. Slutz 2001 – 2003
David J. Keegan 2003 – 2006
Robert S. Wang 2006 – 2009
Eric H. Madison 2009 – 2012
Brent Christensen 2012 – 2015
Robert W. Forden 2015 – 2018
Raymond F. Greene 2018 – 2021
Jeremy A. Cornforth 2021 – present
List of political section chiefs
The Political Section, originally known as the General Affairs Section (GAS), is led by a chief which is similar to a political counselor in other embassies.
Chiefs, General Affairs Section
Mark S. Pratt 1979 – 1981
Stanley R. Ifshin 1981 – 1983
David E. Reuther 1983 – 1985
Joseph J. Borich 1985 – ?
Thomas V. Biddick 1989 –
Douglas G. Spelman
James F. Moriarty 1995 – 1998
Eunice Reddick 1997 – 2000
Chiefs, Political Section
Joseph R. Donovan Jr. 2000 – 2003
Melvin T. L. Ang 2003 – 2004
James L. Huskey 2004 – 2008
David H. Rank 2008 – 2010
Daniel Turnbull 2010 – 2013
William Klein 2013 – 2016
Christian M. Marchant 2016 – 2019
Bradley S. Parker 2019 – present
List of commercial officers
William D. McClure 1981 – 1986
Raymond Sander 1987 – 1997
William Brekke 1997 – 2000
Terry Cooke 2000 – 2003
Gregory Loose 2003 – 2006
Gregory Wong 2006 – 2010
Helen Hwang 2010–
Scott Pozil 2011 – 2013
Amy Chang 2010 – 2013
Robert Leach (Kaohsiung) 2000 – 2003
Steve Green (Kaohsiung) 2009 – 2011
Gregory Harris (Kaohsiung) 2011 –
See AIT Commercial Section
List of chairmen
David Dean 1979 – 1986
David N. Laux 1986 – 1990
Natale H. Bellocchi 1990 – 1995
James C. Wood Jr. 1996 – 1997
Richard C. Bush 1997 – 2002
Therese Shaheen 2002 – 2004
William A. Brown 2004 – 2006 (Acting)
Raymond Burghardt 2006 – October 2016
James F. Moriarty October 2016 – present
See also
De facto embassy
Taiwan–United States relations
Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States, its counterpart
Foreign relations of Taiwan
Foreign relations of the United States
Foreign policy of the United States
Political status of Taiwan
References
External links
Taiwan–United States relations
1979 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Representative Offices in Taipei
Taipei
1979 establishments in Taiwan
Diplomatic missions in Washington, D.C. | [
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220255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersexuality | Hypersexuality | Hypersexuality is extremely frequent or suddenly increased libido. It is controversial whether it should be included as a clinical diagnosis used by mental healthcare professionals. Nymphomania and satyriasis were terms previously used for the condition in women and men, respectively.
Hypersexuality may be a primary condition, or the symptom of another medical disease or condition; for example, Klüver-Bucy syndrome or bipolar disorder. Hypersexuality may also present as a side effect of medication such as drugs used to treat Parkinson's disease.
Clinicians have yet to reach a consensus over how best to describe hypersexuality as a primary condition, or to determine the appropriateness of describing such behaviors and impulses as a separate pathology.
Hypersexual behaviours are viewed variously by clinicians and therapists as a type of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or "OCD-spectrum disorder", an addiction, or a disorder of impulsivity. A number of authors do not acknowledge such a pathology and instead assert that the condition merely reflects a cultural dislike of exceptional sexual behavior.
Consistent with there not being any consensus over what causes hypersexuality, authors have used many different labels to refer to it, sometimes interchangeably, but often depending on which theory they favor or which specific behavior they were studying. Contemporary names include compulsive masturbation, compulsive sexual behavior, cybersex addiction, erotomania, "excessive sexual drive", hyperphilia, hypersexuality, hypersexual disorder, problematic hypersexuality, sexual addiction, sexual compulsivity, sexual dependency, sexual impulsivity, "out of control sexual behavior", and paraphilia-related disorder.
Causes
There is little consensus among experts as to the causes of hypersexuality. Some research suggests that some cases can be linked to biochemical or physiological changes that accompany dementia. Psychological needs also complicate the biological explanation, which identifies the temporal/frontal lobe of the brain as the area for regulating libido. Persons suffering from injuries to this part of the brain are at increased risk for aggressive behavior and other behavioral problems including personality changes and socially inappropriate sexual behavior such as hypersexuality. The same symptom can occur after unilateral temporal lobotomy. There are other biological factors that are associated with hypersexuality such as premenstrual changes, and the exposure to virilising hormones in childhood or in utero.
Physiology
In research involving the use of antiandrogens to reduce undesirable sexual behaviour such as hypersexuality, testosterone has been found to be necessary, but not sufficient, for sexual drive. Other proposed factors include a lack of physical closeness and forgetfulness of the recent past.
Pathogenic overactivity of the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway in the brain—forming either psychiatrically, during mania, or pharmacologically, as a side effect of dopamine agonists, specifically D3-preferring agonists—is associated with various addictions and has been shown to result among some in overindulgent, sometimes hypersexual, behavior. HPA axis dysregulation has been associated with hypersexual disorder.
The American Association for Sex Addiction Therapy acknowledges biological factors as contributing causes of sex addiction. Other associated factors include psychological components (which affect mood and motivation as well as psychomotor and cognitive functions), spiritual control, mood disorders, sexual trauma, and intimacy anorexia as causes or type of sex addiction.
As a symptom
Hypersexuality is known to present itself as a symptom in connection to a number of mental and neurological disorders. Some people with borderline personality disorder (sometimes referred to as BPD) can be markedly impulsive, seductive, and extremely sexual. Sexual promiscuity, sexual obsessions, and hypersexuality are very common symptoms for both men and women with BPD. On occasion for some there can be extreme forms of paraphilic drives and desires. "Borderline" patients, due in the opinion of some to the use of splitting, experience love and sexuality in unstable ways.
People with bipolar disorder may often display tremendous swings in sex drive depending on their mood. As defined in the DSM-IV-TR, hypersexuality can be a symptom of hypomania or mania in bipolar disorder or schizoaffective disorder. Pick's disease causes damage to the temporal/frontal lobe of the brain; people with Pick's disease show a range of socially inappropriate behaviors.
Several neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, autism, ADHD, various types of brain injury, Klüver–Bucy syndrome, Kleine–Levin syndrome, and many more neurodegenerative diseases can cause hypersexual behavior. Sexually inappropriate behavior has been shown to occur in 7–8% of Alzheimer's patients living at home, at a care facility or in a hospital setting. Hypersexuality has also been reported to result as a side-effect of some medications used to treat Parkinson's disease. Some recreationally used drugs, such as methamphetamine, may also contribute to hypersexual behavior.
A positive link between the severity of dementia and occurrence of inappropriate behavior has also been found. Hypersexuality can be caused by dementia in a number of ways, including disinhibition due to organic disease, misreading of social cues, understimulation, the persistence of learned sexual behaviour after other behaviours have been lost, and the side-effects of the drugs used to treat dementia. Other possible causes of dementia-related hypersexuality include an inappropriately expressed psychological need for intimacy and forgetfulness of the recent past. As this illness progresses, increasing hypersexuality has been theorized to sometimes compensate for declining self-esteem and cognitive function.
Symptoms of hypersexuality are also similar to those of sexual addiction in that they embody similar traits. These symptoms include the inability to be intimate (intimacy anorexia), depression and bipolar disorders. The resulting hypersexuality may have an impact in the person's social and occupational domains if the underlying symptoms have a large enough systemic influence.
As a disorder
, a proposal to add Sexual Addiction to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) system has failed to get support of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The DSM does include an entry called Sexual Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Sexual Disorder NOS) to apply to, among other conditions, "distress about a pattern of repeated sexual relationships involving a succession of lovers who are experienced by the individual only as things to be used".
The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) of the World Health Organization (WHO), includes two relevant entries. One is "Excessive Sexual Drive" (coded F52.7), which is divided into satyriasis for males and nymphomania for females. The other is "Excessive Masturbation" or "Onanism (excessive)" (coded F98.8).
In 1988, Levine and Troiden questioned whether it makes sense to discuss hypersexuality at all, arguing that labeling sexual urges "extreme" merely stigmatizes people who do not conform to the norms of their culture or peer group, and that sexual compulsivity be a myth. However, and in contrast to this view, 30 years later in 2018, the ICD-11 created a new condition classification, compulsive sexual behavior, to cover "a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour". It classifies this "failure to control" as an abnormal mental health condition.
Treatment
Hypersexuality may negatively impact an individual. The concept of hypersexuality as an addiction was started in the 1970s by former members of Alcoholics Anonymous who felt they experienced a similar lack of control and compulsivity with sexual behaviors as with alcohol.
Multiple 12-step style self-help groups now exist for people who identify as sex addicts, including Sex Addicts Anonymous, Sexaholics Anonymous, Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous, and Sexual Compulsives Anonymous. Some hypersexual men may treat their condition with the usage of medication (such as Cyproterone acetate) or consuming foods considered to be anaphrodisiacs. Other hypersexuals may choose a route of consultation, such as psychotherapy, self-help groups or counselling.
Terminology
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines hypersexual as "exhibiting unusual or excessive concern with or indulgence in sexual activity". Sexologists have been using the term hypersexuality since the late 1800s, when Krafft-Ebing described several cases of extreme sexual behaviours in his seminal 1886 book, Psychopathia Sexualis. The author used the term "hypersexuality" to describe conditions that would now be termed premature ejaculation. Terms to describe males with the condition include donjuanist, satyromaniac, satyriac and satyriasist, for women clitoromaniac, nympho and nymphomaniac, for teleiophilic (attracted to adults) heterosexual women andromaniac, while hypersexualist, sexaholic, onanist, hyperphiliac and erotomaniac are gender neutral terms.
Other, mostly historical, names include Don Juanism, the Messalina complex, sexaholism, hyperlibido and furor uterinus.
See also
Erotophilia
Persistent genital arousal disorder
Pornography addiction
Sexual Compulsivity Scale
Hypersexual disorder
References
External links
WikiSaurus:libidinist
Sexual dysfunctions
Casual sex
Human sexuality
Sexual addiction
Sexual arousal
Sexual health
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|
220262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val%20McDermid | Val McDermid | Val McDermid, (born 4 June 1955) is a Scottish crime writer, best known for a series of novels featuring clinical psychologist Dr. Tony Hill in a grim sub-genre that McDermid and others have identified as Tartan Noir.
Biography
McDermid comes from a working-class family in Fife. She studied English at St Hilda's College, Oxford, where she was the first student to be admitted from a Scottish state school.
After graduation she became a journalist and began her literary career as a dramatist. Her first success as a novelist, Report for Murder: The First Lindsay Gordon Mystery occurred in 1987.
McDermid was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Sunderland in 2011. She is co-founder of the Harrogate Crime Writing Festival and the Theakston's Old Peculier Crime Novel of the Year Award, part of the Harrogate International Festivals. In 2016 she captained a team of St Hilda's alumnæ to win the Christmas University Challenge. In 2017, McDermid was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, as well as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
Work
McDermid's works fall into four series: Lindsay Gordon, Kate Brannigan, Tony Hill and Carol Jordan, and Inspector Karen Pirie. Her characters include a journalist, Lindsay Gordon; a private investigator, Kate Brannigan; a clinical psychologist, Tony Hill; and DCI Karen Pirie working out of Fife, Scotland. The Mermaids Singing, the first book in the Hill/Jordan series, won the Crime Writers' Association Gold Dagger for Best Crime Novel of the Year. The Hill/Jordan series has been adapted for television under the name Wire in the Blood, starring Robson Green.
McDermid has stated that Jacko Vance, a TV celebrity with a secret lust for torture, murder and under-age girls, who was featured in the Wire in the Blood and two later books, is based on her direct personal experience of interviewing Jimmy Savile. In 2010, McDermind received the Cartier Diamond Dagger from the Crime Writers' Association for "outstanding achievement in the field of crime writing".
McDermid considers her work to be part of the "Tartan Noir" Scottish crime fiction genre. In addition to writing novels, McDermid contributes to several British newspapers and often broadcasts on BBC Radio 4 and BBC Radio Scotland. Her novels, in particular the Tony Hill series, are known for their graphic depictions of violence and torture.
Raith Rovers
McDermid was a lifelong Raith Rovers fan, her father having worked as a scout for the club. In 2010, she sponsored the McDermid Stand at Stark's Park, the club's ground in Kirkcaldy, in honour of her father.
A year after sponsoring the stand, she became a board member of the club, and starting in 2014 her website became Raith's shirt sponsor.
In February 2022, McDermid said she would be withdrawing her support and sponsorship from Raith Rovers after the club signed striker David Goodwillie, who had been ruled to have raped a woman and made to pay damages in a civil case in 2017.
Ink attack
On 6 December 2012 a woman poured ink over McDermid during an event at the University of Sunderland. McDermid was signing books, and a woman asked her to autograph a Top of the Pops annual which contained a picture of the disgraced late TV presenter Jimmy Savile. After McDermid reluctantly agreed the woman threw ink at her and ran out of the room. McDermid said the incident would not stop her from doing signings.
Northumbria Police arrested Sandra Botham, a 64-year-old woman from the Hendon area of Sunderland, on suspicion of assault. Botham was convicted of common assault on 10 July 2013, received a 12-month community order with supervision and was made to pay £50 compensation and a £60 victim surcharge. She was also given a restraining order forbidding her from contacting McDermid for an undefined period of time. The Northern Echo reported that Botham's actions were motivated by McDermid's 1994 non-fiction book, A Suitable Job for a Woman, as Botham claimed that the book contained a passage that besmirched her and her family.
Personal life
McDermid formerly lived in both Stockport and near Alnmouth in Northumberland with three cats and a border terrier dog. Since early 2014 she has lived in Stockport and Edinburgh.
In 2016, McDermid captained a team of crime writer challengers on the TV quiz Eggheads, beating the Eggheads and winning £14,000.
In 2010, she was still living between Northumberland and Manchester with publisher Kelly Smith, with whom she had entered into a civil partnership in 2006.
On 23 October 2016 McDermid married her partner of two years, Jo Sharp, a professor of geography at the University of Glasgow.
McDermid is a radical feminist and socialist. She has incorporated feminism into some of her novels.
Works
Lindsay Gordon series
Report for Murder (1987)
Common Murder (1989)
Final Edition (1991) US Titles: Open and Shut, Deadline for Murder
Union Jack (1993), US Title: Conferences Are Murder
Booked for Murder (1996)
Hostage to Murder (2003)
Kate Brannigan series
Dead Beat (1992)
Kick Back (1993)
Crack Down (1994)
Clean Break (1995)
Blue Genes (1996)
Star Struck (1998) (awarded Grand Prix des Romans d’Aventure in 1998)
Tony Hill and Carol Jordan series
The Mermaids Singing (1995) (Crime Writers' Association Gold Dagger for Best Crime Novel of the Year in 1995)
The Wire in the Blood (1997)
The Last Temptation (2002)
The Torment of Others (2004)
Beneath the Bleeding (2007)
Fever of the Bone (2009)
The Retribution (2011)
Cross and Burn (2013)
Splinter the Silence (2015)
Insidious Intent (2017)
How the Dead Speak (2019)
Inspector Karen Pirie series
The Distant Echo (2003)
A Darker Domain (2008)
The Skeleton Road (2014)
Out of Bounds (2016)
Broken Ground (2018)
Still Life (2020)
Allie Burns series
1979 (2021)
The Austen Project
Northanger Abbey (2014)
Other books
The Writing on the Wall (1997); short stories, limited edition of 200 copies
A Place of Execution (1999)
Killing the Shadows (2000)
Stranded (2005); short stories
Cleanskin (2006)
The Grave Tattoo (2006)
Trick of the Dark (2010) dedicated to Mary Bennett (1913-2003) & Kathy Vaughan Wilkes (1946-2003)
The Vanishing Point (2012)
Children's books
My Granny is a Pirate (2012)
The High Heid Yin's New Claes, published in The Itchy Coo Book o Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales in Scots (2020)
Non-fiction
A Suitable Job for a Woman (1995)
Bodies of Evidence (2014)
Forensics – The Anatomy of Crime (2014)
Forensics: What Bugs, Burns, Prints, DNA, and More Tell Us About Crime (2015)
References
External links
Val McDermid talks about the novels that have influenced her in the Guardian bookshop challenge, 7 June 2010.
Jane Graham, Val McDermid: "There were no lesbians in Fife in the 1960s", The Big Issue, 7 February 2018.
1955 births
Living people
People from Kirkcaldy
People educated at Kirkcaldy High School
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Scottish crime fiction writers
Scottish mystery writers
Scottish women novelists
Scottish lesbian writers
Members of the Detection Club
Lambda Literary Award winners
Anthony Award winners
Macavity Award winners
Barry Award winners
Dilys Award winners
Radical feminists
Scottish socialists
Women mystery writers
Scottish LGBT novelists
20th-century Scottish novelists
21st-century Scottish novelists
20th-century Scottish women writers
21st-century Scottish women writers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Tartan Noir writers
People from Alnmouth
Cartier Diamond Dagger winners | [
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|
220266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan-tailed%20raven | Fan-tailed raven | The fan-tailed raven (Corvus rhipidurus) is a passerine bird of the crow family native to Eastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.
Description
The fan-tailed raven is completely black including bill, legs and feet and the plumage has a purplish-blue gloss in good light. Worn plumage is slightly coppery-brown. The base of the feathers on the upper neck are white and only seen if the bird is inspected or a strong gust blows them the wrong way. The throat hackles are shorter than in most other ravens. One of the smaller raven species, it is about the same size or slightly larger than the carrion crow, at 47–51 cm, but with a much thicker bill, shorter tail and much larger wings.
The voice is described as guttural croaks mixed with the sound of frog-call. Like all corvids, the fan-tailed raven is capable of vocal mimicry; however, this behavior is mostly recorded in captivity and, very rarely, in the wild.
Distribution and habitat
It occurs in the Middle East, North Africa, Arabia, and south to Sudan and Kenya. It also ranges across the Aïr Massif in the southern Sahara. It lives in desert or open dry country that includes crags for nesting. It is one of the most aerial of birds traveling huge distances in search of food, its large wings being adapted to gliding on thermals in a rather vulture-like way.
Behaviour
Diet
Food is invariably taken on the ground and includes all manner of insects and other invertebrates, grain taken from animal dung, carrion and scraps of human food. It has also been seen taking skin parasites from camels and, where not persecuted, scavenges around rubbish dumps and camp sites. Fruits of all types are eaten readily. It soars and plays in thermals even more so than other raven species and often associates with the brown-necked raven roosting in the same tree as it.
Nesting
This species nests on rock ledges and in cavities in cliffs though very rarely in Somalia it has been known to nest in trees. There are usually 2–4 eggs laid. The great-spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) sometimes uses this species as a brood host.
References
fan-tailed raven
fan-tailed raven
Birds of East Africa
Birds of the Middle East
fan-tailed raven
fan-tailed raven | [
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|
220267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Line | Wallace Line | The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and named by English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley that separates the biogeographical realms of Asia and Wallacea, a transitional zone between Asia and Australia. West of the line are found organisms related to Asiatic species; to the east, a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin is present. Wallace noticed this clear division during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century.
The line runs through Indonesia, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes), and through the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. The distance between Bali and Lombok is small, about . The distributions of many bird species observe the line, since many birds do not cross even the shortest stretches of open ocean water. Some bats have distributions that cross the line, but larger terrestrial mammals are generally limited to one side or the other; exceptions include macaques, pigs and tarsiers on Sulawesi. Other groups of plants and animals show differing patterns, but the overall pattern is striking and reasonably consistent. Flora do not follow the Wallace Line to the same extent as fauna. One genus of plants that does not cross the Line is the Australasian genus Eucalyptus, except for one species, Eucalyptus deglupta, which naturally occurs on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines.
Historical context
The Venetian explorer Antonio Pigafetta had recorded the biological contrasts between the Philippines and the Maluku Islands (Spice Islands) (on opposite sides of the line) in 1521 during the continuation of the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan, after Magellan had been killed on Mactan. Moreover, as noted by Wallace himself, the observations in faunal differences between the two regions had already been made earlier by English navigator George Windsor Earl. In Wallace's pamphlet On the Physical Geography of South-Eastern Asia and Australia, published in 1845, he described how shallow seas connected islands on the west (Sumatra, Java, etc.) with the Asian continent and with similar wildlife, and islands on the east such as New Guinea were connected to Australia and were characterised by the presence of marsupials. Wallace used his extensive travel in the region to propose a line to the east of Bali since "all the islands eastward of Borneo and Java formed part of an Australian or Pacific Continent, from which they were separated." The name 'Wallace's Line' was first used by Thomas Huxley in an 1868 paper to the Zoological Society of London, but showed the line to the west of the Philippines. Wallace's studies in Indonesia demonstrated the emerging theory of evolution, at about the same time as Joseph Dalton Hooker and Asa Gray published essays also supporting Darwin's hypothesis.
Biogeography
Understanding of the biogeography of the region centers on the relationship of ancient sea levels to the continental shelves. Wallace's Line is visible geographically when the continental shelf contours are examined; it can be seen as a deep-water channel that marks the southeastern edge of the Sunda Shelf which links Borneo, Bali, Java, and Sumatra underwater to the mainland of southeastern Asia. Australia is likewise connected by the Sahul Shelf to New Guinea. The biogeographic boundary known as Lydekker's Line, which separates the eastern edge of Wallacea from the Australian region, has a similar origin to the Wallace line.
During ice age glacial advances, when the ocean levels were up to lower, both Asia and Australia were united with what are now islands on their respective continental shelves as continuous land masses, but the deep water between those two large continental shelf areas was, for over 50 million years, a barrier that kept the flora and fauna of Australia separated from those of Asia. Wallacea consists of islands that were not recently connected by dry land to either of the continental land masses, and thus were populated by organisms capable of crossing the straits between islands. "Weber's Line" runs through this transitional area (to the east of centre), at the tipping point between dominance by species of Asian against those of Australian origin.
It can reasonably be concluded it was an ocean barrier preventing species migration because the physical aspects of the separated islands are very similar. Species found only on the Asian side include tigers and rhinoceroses, while marsupials and monotremes are only found on the eastern side of the Line.
See also
Citation and notes
References
with the original paper
Further reading
van Oosterzee, Penny (1997). Where Worlds Collide: the Wallace Line.
Dawkins, Richard (2004). The Ancestor's Tale. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. . Chapter 14 - Marsupials.
Abdullah, M. T. (2003). Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis in Southeast Asia. PhD thesis. The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia.
Hall, L. S., Gordon G. Grigg, Craig Moritz, Besar Ketol, Isa Sait, Wahab Marni and M. T. Abdullah (2004). "Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia". Sarawak Museum Journal LX(81):191-284.
Wilson D. E., D. M. Reeder (2005). Mammal species of the world. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
External links
Too Many Lines; The Limits of the Oriental and Australian Zoogeographic Regions George Gaylord Simpson, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 121, No. 2 (Apr. 29, 1977), pp. 107–120
Wallacea Research Group
Map of Wallace's, Weber's and Lydekker's lines
Pleistocene Sea Level Maps
Wallacea - a transition zone from Asia to Australia, specially rich in marine life and on land
Australasian realm biota
Biogeography
Celebes Sea
Ecoregions of Indonesia
Indomalayan realm biota
Natural history of Indonesia
Wallacea | [
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220271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius%20Baker | Julius Baker | Julius Baker (September 23, 1915 – August 6, 2003) was one of the foremost American orchestral flute players. During the course of five decades he concertized with several of America's premier orchestral ensembles including the Chicago Symphony and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.
Background
Baker was born in Cleveland, Ohio, and at age nine started flute lessons with his Jewish-Russian immigrant father. Later he studied with August Caputo and local flautist Robert Morris. He attended the Eastman School of Music, where he was pupil of Leonardo De Lorenzo, and the Curtis Institute, where he studied with William Kincaid and had classes with Marcel Tabuteau. Upon graduation in 1937, Baker returned to Cleveland to play second flute in the Cleveland Orchestra, conducted by Artur Rodziński, and in the section led by Maurice Sharp. He went on to a distinguished and long tenure as principal flute in the New York Philharmonic.
Career
Teaching, performing
Julius Baker was well known as a teacher and served as a faculty member at the Juilliard School, Curtis Institute of Music, and Carnegie Mellon University. He made many recordings with conductors such as Bruno Walter and Leonard Bernstein, and played second flute with the Cleveland Orchestra from 1937-1941.
Baker emerged as principal flautist with the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra under Fritz Reiner from 1941–1943, with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra under Rafael Kubelik from 1951–1953, and subsequently with the New York Philharmonic for 18 years, beginning in 1965 under such legendary conductors as: Leonard Bernstein, Pierre Boulez and Zubin Mehta. During that time he also played in the Columbia Symphony Orchestra.
Baker loved chamber music and was one of the founding members of the Bach Aria Group, with whom he played from 1946 to 1964. Baker also performed on several notable film scores, including The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast and Lovesick. He appeared opposite violinist Oscar Shumsky in filming Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 5, with pianist Glenn Gould on harpsipiano. Baker also collaborated with Glenn Gould, the violinist Rafael Druian and members of the New York Philharmonic in a recording of Johann Sebastian Bach's Brandenberg Concerto No. 4 in G Major, BWV 1049.
In addition to film, Baker was also featured on network television in such noted programs as: The Dick Cavett Show in 1971 and the Public Broadcasting Service series Great Performances in 1995.
Baker gave the first American performance with orchestra of the Ibert Flute Concerto in 1948 with the CBS Symphony, and that concert was later issued on his own label, Oxford Records. Baker also collaborated with John Serry, Sr. during his tenure at CBS and produced a demonstration recording in 1950 of Mr. Serry's compositions for flute and accordion entitled La Culebra and Desert Rumba, both of which were dedicated to Baker.
Baker retired from the New York Philharmonic in 1983 in order to devote himself to playing recitals programs and concertos around the United States, Europe and Asia.
In 1997 and 1999 he was jury member at the International Flute Competition "Leonardo De Lorenzo", held every two years in Viggiano, Italy.
The Oxford Recording Company
Baker was also an electronics buff and amateur ham radio operator. He built audio equipment upon which he taped his early solo recordings. The Flute Talk article explained, "His interest in electronics developed into The Oxford Recording Company, a mail-order business he ran out of his home and which produced five of his flute recordings between 1946 and 1951.
Notable pupils
Paula Robison, a well-known soloist and chamber musician who is now on the faculty of the New England Conservatory
Jeffrey Khaner, currently principal flutist of the Philadelphia Orchestra
Mimi Stillman, soloist, chamber musician, and Artistic Director of Dolce Suono Ensemble
John Curran of the Rhode Island Philharmonic Orchestra and Brown University.
Gary Schocker, a flute soloist and composer
Jeanne Baxtresser, who succeeded him as principal flutist of the New York Philharmonic and recently retired to devote herself to teaching at Carnegie Mellon School of Music
Jasmine Choi, former principal flutist of the Vienna Symphony Orchestra
Valerie Coleman, flutist, composer, and founder of Imani Winds
Eugenia Zukerman
Marina Piccinini, international soloist and chamber musician, faculty of Peabody Institute and Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover
Hubert Laws, Jazz and Classical virtuoso.
Trudy Kane, former principal flutist of the New York Metropolitan Opera and Professor of Flute at the University of Miami
Demarre McGill, principal flutist of the Seattle Symphony Orchestra
Death
Julius Baker died in 2003, aged 87.
Discography
Serenade In D Major, Op. 25 and Trio In C Minor Op. 9, No. 3 (Decca, 1953)
Poem For Flute And Orchestra and A Night Piece For Flute And String Quartet (Decca, 1952)
Eighteenth Century Flute Duets with Jean-Pierre Rampal (1959)
The Virtuoso Flute with the Vienna State Opera Orchestra (Vanguard, 1967)
The Art of Julius Baker (Desmar, 1977)
Julius Baker in Recital (VAI 1993)
The Virtuoso Flute Vol. 2 (1996)
With Coleman Hawkins
The Hawk in Hi Fi (RCA Victor, 1956)
See also
References
External links
Julius Baker on imdb.com
Obituary at The New York Times
Julius Baker Music Collection at The Juilliard School of Music - Lila Acheson Wallace Library
Audio recording of Debussy: Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un faune (Baker w/piano) (1982)- Baker in performance with Lisa Emenheiser Logan (piano) on Archive.org
Audio recording of - Vivaldi: Flute-Basson Concerto in G minor (La Notte) (Baker, Janigro) (1964) Baker in performance with Karl Hoffmann (bassoon) and Herbert Tachezi (harpsichord) with I Solisti di Zagreb conducted by Antonio Janigro on Archive.org
1915 births
2003 deaths
American classical flautists
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Curtis Institute of Music faculty
Juilliard School faculty
People from Danbury, Connecticut
Musicians from Cleveland
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical musicians
New York Philharmonic
Classical musicians from Connecticut
Classical musicians from Ohio
American people of Russian descent | [
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220272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs%20Dalloway | Mrs Dalloway | Mrs Dalloway (published on 14 May 1925) is a novel by Virginia Woolf that details a day in the life of Clarissa Dalloway, a fictional high-society woman in post–First World War England. It is one of Woolf's best-known novels.
The working title of Mrs Dalloway was The Hours. The novel began as two short stories, "Mrs Dalloway in Bond Street" and the unfinished "The Prime Minister". It describes Clarissa's preparations for a party she will host in the evening, and the ensuing party. With an interior perspective, the story travels forward and back in time and in and out of the characters' minds to construct an image of Clarissa's life and of the inter-war social structure. In October 2005, Mrs Dalloway was included on Times list of the 100 best English-language novels written since Time debuted in 1923.
Plot summary
Clarissa Dalloway goes around London in the morning, getting ready to host a party that evening. The nice day reminds her of her youth spent in the countryside in Bourton and makes her wonder about her choice of husband; she had married the reliable Richard Dalloway instead of the enigmatic and demanding Peter Walsh, and she "had not the option" to be with a female romantic interest, Sally Seton. Peter reintroduces these conflicts by paying a visit that morning.
Septimus Warren Smith, a First World War veteran suffering from deferred traumatic stress, spends his day in the park with his Italian-born wife Lucrezia, where Peter Walsh observes them. Septimus is visited by frequent and indecipherable hallucinations, mostly concerning his dear friend Evans who died in the war. Later that day, after he is prescribed involuntary commitment to a psychiatric hospital, he commits suicide by jumping out of a window.
Clarissa's party in the evening is a slow success. It is attended by most of the characters she has met throughout the book, including people from her past. She hears about Septimus' suicide at the party and gradually comes to admire this stranger's act, which she considers an effort to preserve the purity of his happiness.
Characters
Sir William Bradshaw
Sir William Bradshaw is a famous psychiatrist to whom Septimus' physician, Dr
Holmes, refers Septimus. Bradshaw notes that Septimus has had a complete nervous breakdown and suggests spending time in the country as a cure.
Clarissa Dalloway
Clarissa Dalloway is the 51-year-old protagonist of the novel. She is Richard's wife and Elizabeth's mother, and, while reminiscing about her past, spends the day organising a party that will be held that night. She is self-conscious about her role in London high society.
Elizabeth Dalloway
Elizabeth Dalloway is Clarissa and Richard's 17-year-old daughter. She is said to look "oriental" and has great composure. Compared to her mother, she takes great pleasure in politics and modern history, hoping to be either a doctor or farmer in the future. She would rather spend time in the country with her father than at her mother's party.
Richard Dalloway
Richard Dalloway is Clarissa's practical, "simple" husband, who feels disconnected from his wife. He is immersed in his work in government.
Miss Kilman
Miss Doris Kilman, originally "Kiehlman", is Elizabeth's schoolmistress for history and is a born-again Christian. She has a degree in history and during the Great War was dismissed from her teaching job because "Miss Dolby thought she would be happier with people who shared her views about the Germans". She has a German ancestry and wears an unattractive mackintosh coat because she is uninterested in dressing to please others. She dislikes Clarissa intensely but loves to spend time with Elizabeth.
Sally Seton
Sally Seton is a love interest of Clarissa's, with whom she shared a kiss, who is now married to Lord Rosseter and has five boys. Sally had a strained relationship with her family and spent substantial time with Clarissa's family in her youth. She once could be described as feisty as well as a youthful ragamuffin, although she has become more conventional with age.
Lucrezia "Rezia" Warren Smith
Lucrezia "Rezia" Warren Smith is Septimus' Italian wife. She is burdened by his mental illness and believes she is judged because of it. During most of the novel she is homesick for her family and country, which she left to marry Septimus after the Armistice.
Septimus Warren Smith
Septimus Warren Smith is a World War I veteran who suffers from "shell shock" and hallucinations of his deceased friend, Evans. Educated and decorated in the war, he is detached from society and believes himself to be unable to feel. He is married to Lucrezia, from whom he has grown distant.
Peter Walsh
Peter Walsh is an old friend of Clarissa's who has failed at most of his ventures in life. In the past, Clarissa rejected his marriage proposal. Now he has returned to England from India and is one of Clarissa's party guests. He plans to marry Daisy, a married woman in India, and has returned to try to arrange a divorce for his current wife.
Hugh Whitbread
Hugh Whitbread is a pompous friend of Clarissa's, who holds an unspecified position in the British Royal household. Like Clarissa, he places great importance on his place in society. Although he believes he is an essential member of the British aristocracy, Lady Bruton, Clarissa, Richard, and Peter find him obnoxious.
Style
In Mrs Dalloway, all of the action, aside from the flashbacks, takes place on a day in "the middle of June" of 1923. It is an example of stream of consciousness storytelling: every scene closely tracks the momentary thoughts of a particular character. Woolf blurs the distinction between direct and indirect speech throughout the novel, freely alternating her mode of narration between omniscient description, indirect interior monologue, and soliloquy. The narration follows at least twenty characters in this way, but the bulk of the novel is spent with Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus Smith.
Woolf laid out some of her literary goals with the characters of Mrs Dalloway while still working on the novel. A year before its publication, she gave a talk at Cambridge University called "Character in Fiction", revised and retitled later that year as "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown".
Comparisons with Joyce's Ulysses
Because of structural and stylistic similarities, Mrs Dalloway is commonly thought to be a response to James Joyce's Ulysses, a text that is often considered one of the greatest novels of the twentieth century (though Woolf herself, writing in 1928, denied any deliberate "method" to the book, saying instead that the structure came about "without any conscious direction"). In her essay "Modern Fiction", Woolf praised Ulysses, saying of the scene in the cemetery, "on a first reading at any rate, it is difficult not to acclaim a masterpiece." At the same time, Woolf's personal writings throughout her reading of Ulysses are abundant in criticisms. While in the initial reading process, she recorded the following response to the aforementioned passages,
I ... have been amused, stimulated, charmed interested by the first 2 or 3 chapters—to the end of the Cemetery scene; & then puzzled, bored, irritated, & disillusioned as by a queasy undergraduate scratching his pimples. And Tom, great Tom, thinks this on a par with War & Peace! An illiterate, underbred book it seems to me: the book of a self-taught working man, & we all know how distressing they are, how egotistic, insistent, raw, striking, & ultimately nauseating. When one can have cooked flesh, why have the raw? But I think if you are anaemic, as Tom is, there is glory in blood. Being fairly normal myself I am soon ready for the classics again. I may revise this later. I do not compromise my critical sagacity. I plant a stick in the ground to mark page 200
—D 2: 188–89
Woolf's distaste for Joyce's work only solidified after she finished reading it. She summed up her thoughts on the work as a whole:
I finished Ulysses, & think it is a mis-fire. Genius it has I think; but of the inferior water. The book is diffuse. It is brackish. It is pretentious. It is underbred, not only in the obvious sense, but in the literary sense. A first rate writer, I mean, respects writing too much to be tricky; startling; doing stunts. I’m reminded all the time of some callow board schoolboy, say like Henry Lamb, full of wits & powers, but so self-conscious and egotistical that he loses his head, becomes extravagant, mannered, uproarious, ill at ease, makes kindly people feel sorry for him, & stern ones merely annoyed; & one hopes he’ll grow out of it; but as Joyce is 40 this scarcely seems likely. I have not read it carefully; & only once; & it is very obscure; so no doubt I have scamped the virtue of it more than is fair. I feel that myriads of tiny bullets pepper one & spatter one; but one does not get one deadly wound straight in the face—as from Tolstoy, for instance; but it is entirely absurd to compare him with Tolstoy
—D 2: 199–200.
The Hogarth Press, run by her and her husband Leonard, had to turn down the chance to publish the novel in 1919 because of the obscenity law in England, as well as the practical issues regarding publishing such a substantial text.
Themes
The novel has two main narrative lines involving two separate characters (Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus Smith); within each narrative there is a particular time and place in the past that the main characters keep returning to in their minds. For Clarissa, the "continuous present" (Gertrude Stein's phrase) of her charmed youth at Bourton keeps intruding into her thoughts on this day in London. For Septimus, the "continuous present" of his time as a soldier during the "Great War" keeps intruding, especially in the form of Evans, his fallen comrade.
Time and secular living
Time plays an integral role in the theme of faith and doubt in Mrs Dalloway. The overwhelming presence of the passing of time and the impending fate of death for each of the characters is felt throughout the novel. As Big Ben towers over the city of London and rings for each half-hour, characters cannot help but stop and notice the loss of life to time in regular intervals throughout the story. For Septimus, who has experienced the vicious war, the notion of death constantly floats in his mind as he continues to see his friend Evans talking of such things. The constant stream of consciousness perspective of the characters, especially Clarissa, serves as a distraction from this passing of time and the ultimate march towards death, but each character is constantly reminded of the inevitability of these facts. Further emphasizing the passage of time is the time-frame of the novel, which takes place in the course of a single day, like Joyce's Ulysses.
The idea that there can be meaning in every detail of life, and a deeper appreciation of life as a result, is emphasized by the constant connection of characters to memories and to simple ideas and things. Clarissa even feels that her job (throwing her parties) is to offer "the gift" of connectedness to the inhabitants of London. Woolf's writing style crosses the boundaries of the past, present and future, emphasizing her idea of time as a constant flow, connected only by some force (or divinity) within each person. An evident contrast can be found between the constant passing of time—symbolized by Big Ben—and the seemingly random crossings of time-lines in Woolf's writing. Yet, although these crossings seem random, they only demonstrate the infinite possibilities that the world can offer once it is interconnected by the individual character of each person.
Mental illness
Septimus, as the shell-shocked war hero, operates as a pointed criticism of the treatment of mental illness and depression. Woolf criticises medical discourse through Septimus' decline and suicide; his doctors make snap judgments about his condition, talk to him mainly through his wife, and dismiss his urgent confessions before he can make them. Rezia remarks that Septimus "was not ill. Dr Holmes said there was nothing the matter with him."
Woolf goes beyond commenting on the treatment of mental illness. Using the characters of Clarissa and Rezia, she makes the argument that people can only interpret Septimus' shell shock according to their cultural norms. Throughout the course of the novel Clarissa does not meet Septimus. Clarissa's reality is vastly different from that of Septimus; his presence in London is unknown to Clarissa until his death becomes the subject of idle chatter at her party. By never having these characters meet, Woolf is suggesting that mental illness can be contained to the individuals who suffer from it without others, who remain unaffected, ever having to witness it. This allows Woolf to weave her criticism of the treatment of the mentally ill with her larger argument, which is the criticism of society's class structure. Her use of Septimus as the stereotypically traumatised veteran is her way of showing that there were still reminders of the First World War in London in 1923. These ripples affect Mrs. Dalloway and readers spanning generations. Shell shock, or post traumatic stress disorder, is an important addition to the early 20th century canon of post-war British literature.
There are similarities in Septimus' condition to Woolf's struggles with bipolar disorder. Both hallucinate that birds sing in Greek, and Woolf once attempted to throw herself out of a window as Septimus does. Woolf had also been treated for her condition at various asylums, from which her antipathy towards doctors developed. Woolf committed suicide by drowning, sixteen years after the publication of Mrs Dalloway.
Woolf's original plan for her novel called for Clarissa to kill herself during her party. In this original version, Septimus (whom Woolf called Mrs. Dalloway's "double") did not appear at all.
Existential issues
When Peter Walsh sees a girl in the street and stalks her for half an hour, he notes that his relationship to the girl was "made up, as one makes up the better part of life." By focusing on characters' thoughts and perceptions, Woolf emphasizes the significance of private thoughts on existential crisis rather than concrete events in a person's life. Most of the plot in Mrs Dalloway consists of realizations that the characters subjectively make.
Clarissa Dalloway is depicted as a woman who appreciates life. Her love of party-throwing comes from a desire to bring people together and create happy moments. Her charm, according to Peter Walsh, who loves her, is a sense of joie de vivre, always summarized by the sentence: "There she was." She interprets Septimus Smith's death as an act of embracing life and her mood remains light, even though she hears about it in the midst of the party.
Feminism
As a commentary on inter-war society, Clarissa's character highlights the role of women as the proverbial "Angel in the House" and embodies sexual and economic repression and the narcissism of bourgeois women who have never known the hunger and insecurity of working women. She keeps up with and even embraces the social expectations of the wife of a patrician politician, but she is still able to express herself and find distinction in the parties she throws.
Her old friend Sally Seton, whom Clarissa admires dearly, is remembered as a great independent woman – she smoked cigars, once ran down a corridor naked to fetch her sponge-bag, and made bold, unladylike statements to get a reaction from people. When Clarissa meets her in the present day, Sally turns out to be a perfect housewife, having accepted her lot as a rich woman ("Yes, I have ten thousand a year"-whether before the tax was paid, or after, she couldn't remember...), married, and given birth to five sons.
Homosexuality
Clarissa Dalloway is strongly attracted to Sally Seton at Bourton. Thirty-four years later, Clarissa still considers the kiss they shared to be the happiest moment of her life. She feels about Sally "as men feel," but she does not recognise these feelings as signs of same-sex attraction.
Similarly, Septimus is haunted by the image of his dear friend Evans. Evans, his commanding officer, is described as being "undemonstrative in the company of women." The narrator describes Septimus and Evans behaving together like "two dogs playing on a hearth-rug" who, inseparable, "had to be together, share with each other, fight with each other, quarrel with each other...." Jean E. Kennard notes that the word "share" could easily be read in a Forsteran manner, perhaps as in Forster's Maurice, which shows the word's use in this period to describe homosexual relations. Kennard is one to note Septimus' "increasing revulsion at the idea of heterosexual sex," abstaining from sex with Rezia and feeling that "the business of copulation was filth to him before the end."
Film adaptation
Dutch film director Marleen Gorris made a film version of Mrs Dalloway in 1997. It was adapted from Woolf's novel by British actress Eileen Atkins and starred Vanessa Redgrave in the title role. The cast included Natascha McElhone, Lena Headey, Rupert Graves, Michael Kitchen, Alan Cox, Sarah Badel, and Katie Carr.
A related 2002 film, based on Michael Cunningham's novel of the same name, is The Hours, starring Meryl Streep as New York editor Clarissa, Julianne Moore as Los Angeles housewife Laura, and Nicole Kidman as Virginia Woolf. The Hours is about a single day in the lives of three women of different generations who are affected by Mrs Dalloway: Woolf is writing it, Laura is reading it, and Clarissa is living it out. Cunningham titled the novel The Hours after Woolf's working title for Mrs Dalloway.
Other appearances
Mrs Dalloway also appears in Virginia Woolf's first novel, The Voyage Out, as well as five of her short stories, in which she hosts dinner parties to which the main subject of the narrative is invited:
"The New Dress": a self-conscious guest has a new dress made for the event
"The Introduction": whose main character is Lily Everit
"Together and Apart": Mrs Dalloway introduces the main protagonists
"The Man Who Loved His Kind": Mrs Dalloway's husband, Richard, invites a school friend, who finds the evening uncomfortable in the extreme
"A Summing Up": a couple meet in her garden
The stories (except for "The Introduction") all appear in the 1944 collection A Haunted House and Other Short Stories, and in the 1973 collection Mrs Dalloway's Party.
References
External links
Mrs. Dalloway at SparkNotes
Mrs. Dalloway at the British Library
Character in Fiction
1925 British novels
1920s LGBT novels
Books with atheism-related themes
British novels adapted into films
Hogarth Press books
Modernist novels
Novels by Virginia Woolf
Novels set in London
Dalloway
Dalloway
Novels set in one day
British LGBT novels
Novels about post-traumatic stress disorder
Novels about suicide
Novels with bisexual themes
Stream of consciousness novels | [
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220282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20reform%20in%20Kerala | Land reform in Kerala | Due to the ancient land relations and taxation and regulation under the British Raj, at the time of independence, India inherited a semi-feudal agrarian system, with ownership of land concentrated in the hands of a few individual landlords. Since independence, there has been voluntary and state initiated/mediated land reforms in several states. The most notable and successful example of land reforms are in the states of West Bengal and Kerala. The Land Reforms Ordinance was a law in the state of Kerala, India by K. R. Gowri Amma minister in the first EMS government.
The EMS government was the first communist state government popularly elected to power in India, in the southern state of Kerala. Soon after taking its oath of office in 1957, the government introduced the controversial Land Reforms Ordinance, which was later made into an act. This, along with an Education Bill, raised a massive uproar from the landlord classes. The popular slogan for the radical socialists was "the land for tillers", which sent shock-waves through the landlord classes in the country. The ordinance set an absolute ceiling on the amount of land a family could own. The tenants and hut dwellers received a claim in the excess land, on which they had worked for centuries under the feudal system. In addition, the law ensured fixity of tenure and protection from eviction.
These ground-breaking measures caused the premature death of the state government, as the central government, under Jawaharlal Nehru, used article 356 to dismiss it, alleging the breakdown of law and order. The land reforms in Kerala imparted drastic changes to the political, economic and social outlook.
Different types of feudal relations existed in Travancore-Cochin and Malabar at the time of the formation of the state. The landless farmers and those who were evicted from their land wanted to get their grievances redressed. The clamour for changes gathered strength. The government which came to power in 1957 introduced the Land Reforms Bill in the Legislative Assembly. The Agrarian Relations Bill introduced in 1958 was passed with minor amendments. The legislature passed subsequent land reform bills in 1960, 1963, and 1964. But the historical land reform act, Kerala Land Reforms (Amendment) Act, 1969 by C. Achutha Menon government which put an end to the feudal system and ensured the rights of the tenants on land, came into force on 1 January 1970. However, cash crop plantations had been exempted from its purview. There have been many amendments to the act since, the latest having been in 2012.
Main objectives
To bestow on tenants ownership of a minimum of ten cents of land
To end the old feudal relations by legitimizing the right of real peasants to own the land they cultivate
To introduce land ceiling and distribute excess land among the landless agricultural labourers
To abolish exploitation and inequalities in the agrarian sector
To ensure the consistent progress and transformation of society
To achieve economic development and modernisation
To end the era of feudalism
Impact
Leasing of land became unlawful.
The Jenmis who lived by collecting lease became extinct.
The lease holders were given ownership of the land.
A few big farmers who had cultivated on the leased lands also became owners of that land.
Land owners sold their excess land.
Hundreds of thousands of people got dwelling places of their own.
The labour market was enlarged as former serfs entered it.
References
History of Kerala (1947–present)
India, Kerala
Real property law
Kerala, Land Reform
Reform in India | [
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|
220285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20Reform%20Ordinance | Land Reform Ordinance | Land Reform Ordinance may refer to:
Kerala State, India, a 1957 proposed act, and a number of subsequent acts in Land reform in Kerala
Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003,
Zimbabwe's 1992 Land Acquisition Act, Land reform in Zimbabwe#Compulsory acquisition
See also
Land reforms by country
Land Ordinance (disambiguation)
Ordinance (disambiguation) | [
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|
220289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown-necked%20raven | Brown-necked raven | The brown-necked raven (Corvus ruficollis) is a larger bird (52–56 cm in length) than the carrion crow though not as large as the common raven. It has similar proportions to the common raven but the bill is not so large or deep and the wings tend to be a little more pointed in profile. The head and throat are a distinct brownish-black giving the bird its English name, while the rest of the plumage is black glossed with purple, blue or purplish-blue. Like the Common raven, Thick-billed raven and White-necked raven, it is one of the larger raven species. The smaller raven species are the Australian raven, Forest raven, Little raven, Fan-tailed raven and Chihuahuan raven with the Thick-billed raven being the world's largest raven species and the Chihuahuan raven being the smallest. The feathers of this species often fade quite quickly to a brownish black (even the truly black feathers) and the bird can look distinctly brown by the time it moults. The feet, legs and bill are black. The dwarf raven was formerly considered a subspecies (Corvus ruficollis edithae) but this bird now appears to be closer to the pied crow (C. albus) than this species.
Distribution and habitat
This species has a wide range across virtually the whole of North Africa, down as far as Kenya, the Arabian Peninsula and up into the Greater Middle East and southern Iran. It lives in a predominantly desert environment visiting oases and palm groves.
Food consists of a wide range of items, including carrion, snakes, locusts and other grasshoppers, stranded fish (in coastal areas), grain stolen from bags, dates and other fruits. It is quite fearless when not persecuted but is quick to become wary and shy if too much attention is paid to it. A 2009 Israeli study showed the species to cooperatively hunt lizards, with birds blocking exits while others hunted.
Nesting
The nest is very much like the common raven's, and may be found in trees, on cliffs or in old and ruined buildings. The dwarf raven seems to prefer thorn trees for its nest building. There are usually 4-5 eggs laid and incubated over 20–22 days. The young usually leave the nest by the 37th or 38th day and can fly well by 42–45 days.
Vocalisation
The voice is very similar to the common raven's consisting mainly of croaks, though higher in pitch; and a harsh "karr-karr-karr". In flight, it will utter a "kuerk-kuerk" call. Like all corvids, the Brown-necked raven is capable of vocal mimicry, however this behavior is mostly recorded in captivity and, although rarely, in the wild.
References
External links
brown-necked raven videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
brown-necked raven
brown-necked raven
Birds of East Africa
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of the Middle East
Birds of North Africa
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|
220304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20holidays%20in%20the%20United%20States | Federal holidays in the United States | Federal holidays in the United States are calendar dates that are designated by the U.S. government as holidays. On U.S. federal holidays, non-essential federal government offices are closed and federal government employees are paid for the holiday. There are a total of 11 federal holidays.
Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code (). Congress only has authority to create holidays for federal institutions (including federally-owned properties), employees, and the District of Columbia. Although not required, as a general rule of courtesy, other institutions, such as banks, businesses, and schools, and the stock market may be closed on federal holidays. In various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed concurrently with federal holidays.
History
The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28, 1870, when Congress created federal holidays "to correspond with similar laws of States around the District ... and ... in every State of the Union." Although at first applicable only to federal employees in the District of Columbia, Congress extended coverage in 1885 to all federal employees.
The original four holidays were:
New Year's Day
Independence Day
Thanksgiving Day
Christmas Day
George Washington's Birthday became a federal holiday in 1879. In 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day (now Memorial Day) and Labor Day were created. In 1938, Armistice Day (now Veterans Day) was created to mark the end of World War I. The scope and the name of the holiday was expanded in 1954 to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War.
In 1968, the Uniform Monday Holiday Act shifted several holidays to always fall on a Monday and saw the establishment of Columbus Day.
In 1983, Ronald Reagan signed Martin Luther King Jr. Day into law, and it was first observed three years later, although some states resisted. It was finally celebrated by all 50 states in 2000. Senators Jesse Helms of North Carolina and John McCain of Arizona opposed the creation of the federal holiday for the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. when it was approved in the Senate 78-22 in 1983.
Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is also sometimes objected to by various sources, usually due to its ties with the Christian religion. In December 1999, the Western Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, in the case Ganulin v. United States, denied the charge that Christmas Day's federal status violated the Establishment Clause of the Constitution, ruling that "the Christmas holiday has become largely secularized", and that "by giving federal employees a paid vacation day on Christmas, the government is doing no more than recognizing the cultural significance of the holiday".
On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021.
List of federal holidays
Most of the 11 U.S. federal holidays are also state holidays. A holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday (e.g. a holiday falling on a Saturday is observed on the preceding Friday, while a holiday falling on a Sunday is observed on the succeeding Monday). The official names come from the statute that defines holidays for federal employees.
New Year's Day, Juneteenth, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year, irrespective of the day of the week. When a holiday falls on a Saturday, federal employees who work Monday to Friday observe the holiday on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday observe the holiday on Saturday and, for them, Friday is a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a specific day of the week.
Inauguration Day, held on January 20 every four years following a quadrennial presidential election, is considered a paid holiday for federal employees in the Washington, D.C., area by the Office of Personnel Management. However, it is not considered a federal holiday in the United States equivalent to the eleven holidays mentioned above.
Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, the federal government cannot enact laws to compel them to do so. Furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. For example, the State of Texas recognizes all federal holidays except Columbus Day, and in addition recognizes the Friday after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and the day after Christmas as state holidays. Furthermore, Texas does not follow the federal rule of closing either the Friday before if a holiday falls on a Saturday, or the Monday after if a holiday falls on a Sunday (offices are open on those Fridays or Mondays), but does have "partial staffing holidays" (such as March 2, which is Texas Independence Day) and "optional holidays" (such as Good Friday).
Private employers also are not required to observe federal or state holidays, the key exception being federally chartered banks. Some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time-and-a-half or double-time to employees who work on some federal holidays. However, employees not specifically covered by a union contract might only receive their standard pay for working on a federal holiday, depending on the company policy.
Legal holidays due to presidential proclamation
Federal law also provides for the declaration of other public holidays by the President of the United States. Generally the president will provide a reasoning behind the elevation of the day, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day "with appropriate ceremonies and activities." Examples of presidentially declared holidays were the days of the funerals for former Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and Gerald Ford; federal government offices were closed and employees given a paid holiday.
Proposed federal holidays
Many proposed federal holidays have come up over time. According to an article from CBS, federal holidays are generally "expensive" and they only allow federal workers to take the day off. As the U.S. federal government is a large employer, the holidays are expensive. If a holiday is controversial, opposition will generally prevent bills enacting them from passing. For example, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, marking King's birthday, took a lot of effort to pass. And once it did pass, it took more effort for all states to eventually recognize it. It was not until 2000 that this holiday was officially observed in all 50 states.
The following list is an example of holidays that have been proposed and have reasons why they are not observed at the federal level today. Some of these holidays are observed at the state level.
Controversy
Protests by the Native American community support the abolition of Columbus Day, mainly due to its ideology in forcefully conquering and converting whole populations with another and encouraging imperialism and colonization. Glenn Morris of The Denver Post wrote that Columbus Day "... is not merely a celebration of Columbus the man; it is the celebration of a racist legal and political legacy—embedded in official legal and political pronouncements of the U.S.—such as the doctrine of discovery and manifest destiny."Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, New Mexico, Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin do not recognize Columbus Day, though other states such as Hawaii and South Dakota mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. South Dakota is the only state to recognize Native American Day as an alternate. Hawaii recognizes Discoverer's Day. Other states such as Maine, Nevada, Washington and Wisconsin instead recognize Indigenous Peoples' Day as an alternative holiday.
See also
List of observances in the United States by presidential proclamation
Public holidays in the United States
References
External links
Federal Holidays: Evolution and Application, CRS Report for Congress, 98-301 GOV, updated February 8, 1999, by Stephen W. Stathis
United States Code: Federal Holidays (5 USC 6103)
Official US Federal Holiday calendar
US Federal Holiday & Special Occasions Calendar
federal
Federal government of the United States | [
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|
220306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20almanacs | List of almanacs | This article gives a list of various almanacs. Note that almanac can also be spelled almanack, and some of the publications listed use this form.
Wikipedia almanac-type data
List of reference tables
Printed almanacs
Barbanera Almanac (1762–present)
Canadian Almanac & Directory, Grey House Publishing Canada, a comprehensive resource
Canadian Global Almanac (1992–2005), a book of facts about Canada and the world
Deventer Almanak
Encyclopædia Britannica Almanac (not the Yearbook, which is an annual update to the multi-volume encyclopedia; the almanac is a standalone publication)
Enkhuizer Almanak (founded in 1595, and the oldest known copy of it dates back to 1596)
Farmers' Almanac (1818–present)
Kalnirnay – the world's largest yearly published almanac (1973–present)
The New York Times Almanac (1969–2011)
Nieropper Almanak
O Verdadeiro Almanaque Borda D'Água (1929–present)
Old Farmer's Almanac (1792–present)
Schott's Almanac
TIME Almanac with Information Please, formerly Information Please Almanac (1947–2013)
Wall Street Journal Almanac (1998 and 1999)
Whitaker's Almanack (1868–present)
The World Almanac and Book of Facts (1868–1876, 1886–present)
Online almanacs
American Almanac, a traditional almanac presented as a mobile app
Canadian Almanac & Directory, Grey House Publishing Canada, an online searchable database
CIA World Factbook
Information, Please!
Sri Lanka Almanac Vidhyuth Koshaya
Special-purpose almanacs
The Almanac for Farmers & City Folk
Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 (1473)
Baer's Agricultural Almanac (1825–present)
Blum's Farmer's and Planter's Almanac (1828–present)
Grier's Almanac (1807–present)
Harris' Farmer's Almanac (1692–present)
J. Gruber's Hagerstown Town & Country Almanack (1797–present)
Jewish Year Book (1896–present)
Kulavruttanta (1915–present)
Old Moore's Almanack (1699–present)
Places Rated Almanac (1982–present)
Poor Richard's Almanack (1733–1758)
Thackers Indian Directory (1864–1960)
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (1864–present)
Your Name Almanac (1934–present)
Astronomical almanacs
Air Almanac
Astronomical Almanac
Astronomical Phenomena
The Astronomical Pocket Diary (1987–present)
Multiyear Interactive Computer Almanac
The Nautical Almanac (1767–present under various titles; prepared by U.S. Naval Observatory and Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office since 1958)
Star Almanac for Land Surveyors
Astrological almanacs
Panjika: name of a number of Jyotisha almanacs:
Vishuddha Siddhanta Panjika
Gupta Press Panjika
Raphael's Ephemeris, W. Foulsham & Company Limited
Fictional almanacs
Ankh-Morpork Almanack and Book of Days, from various Discworld novels (a version has been published as The Discworld Almanak)
Gray's Sports Almanac, featured in Back to the Future Part II
Klepp's Almenak, a travel guide to the islands of the Abarat from The Books of Abarat novels by Clive Barker
Almanac calculators
Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad
Jacob de Gelder
Isaac Haringhuysen
Dirck Jansz van Dam
J. van Dam
Jan Albertsz van Dam
Meyndert van Dam
Dirck Rembrantsz van Nierop
Pieter Rembrantsz van Nierop
Mattheus van Nispen
Satirical almanacs
The Areas of My Expertise (2005)
Sports almanacs
Athletic Almanac by Spalding Athletic Library
See also
American almanacs
References
Almanacs
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220314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction%20pipelining | Instruction pipelining | In computer science, instruction pipelining is a technique for implementing instruction-level parallelism within a single processor. Pipelining attempts to keep every part of the processor busy with some instruction by dividing incoming instructions into a series of sequential steps (the eponymous "pipeline") performed by different processor units with different parts of instructions processed in parallel.
Concept and motivation
In a pipelined computer, instructions flow through the central processing unit (CPU) in stages. For example, it might have one stage for each step of the von Neumann cycle: Fetch the instruction, fetch the operands, do the instruction, write the results. A pipelined computer usually has "pipeline registers" after each stage. These store information from the instruction and calculations so that the logic gates of the next stage can do the next step.
This arrangement lets the CPU complete an instruction on each clock cycle. It is common for even numbered stages to operate on one edge of the square-wave clock, while odd-numbered stages operate on the other edge. This allows more CPU throughput than a multicycle computer at a given clock rate, but may increase latency due to the added overhead of the pipelining process itself. Also, even though the electronic logic has a fixed maximum speed, a pipelined computer can be made faster or slower by varying the number of stages in the pipeline. With more stages, each stage does less work, and so the stage has fewer delays from the logic gates and could run at a higher clock rate.
A pipelined model of computer is often the most economical, when cost is measured as logic gates per instruction per second. At each instant, an instruction is in only one pipeline stage, and on average, a pipeline stage is less costly than a multicycle computer. Also, when made well, most of the pipelined computer's logic is in use most of the time. In contrast, out of order computers usually have large amounts of idle logic at any given instant. Similar calculations usually show that a pipelined computer uses less energy per instruction.
However, a pipelined computer is usually more complex and more costly than a comparable multicycle computer. It typically has more logic gates, registers and a more complex control unit. In a like way, it might use more total energy, while using less energy per instruction. Out of order CPUs can usually do more instructions per second because they can do several instructions at once.
In a pipelined computer, the control unit arranges for the flow to start, continue, and stop as a program commands. The instruction data is usually passed in pipeline registers from one stage to the next, with a somewhat separated piece of control logic for each stage. The control unit also assures that the instruction in each stage does not harm the operation of instructions in other stages. For example, if two stages must use the same piece of data, the control logic assures that the uses are done in the correct sequence.
When operating efficiently, a pipelined computer will have an instruction in each stage. It is then working on all of those instructions at the same time. It can finish about one instruction for each cycle of its clock. But when a program switches to a different sequence of instructions, the pipeline sometimes must discard the data in process and restart. This is called a "stall."
Much of the design of a pipelined computer prevents interference between the stages and reduces stalls.
Number of steps
The number of dependent steps varies with the machine architecture. For example:
The 1956–61 IBM Stretch project proposed the terms Fetch, Decode, and Execute that have become common.
The classic RISC pipeline comprises:
Instruction fetch
Instruction decode and register fetch
Execute
Memory access
Register write back
The Atmel AVR and the PIC microcontroller each have a two-stage pipeline.
Many designs include pipelines as long as 7, 10 and even 20 stages (as in the Intel Pentium 4).
The later "Prescott" and "Cedar Mill" Netburst cores from Intel, used in the last Pentium 4 models and their Pentium D and Xeon derivatives, have a long 31-stage pipeline.
The Xelerated X10q Network Processor has a pipeline more than a thousand stages long, although in this case 200 of these stages represent independent CPUs with individually programmed instructions. The remaining stages are used to coordinate accesses to memory and on-chip function units.
As the pipeline is made "deeper" (with a greater number of dependent steps), a given step can be implemented with simpler circuitry, which may let the processor clock run faster. Such pipelines may be called superpipelines.
A processor is said to be fully pipelined if it can fetch an instruction on every cycle. Thus, if some instructions or conditions require delays that inhibit fetching new instructions, the processor is not fully pipelined.
History
Seminal uses of pipelining were in the ILLIAC II project and the IBM Stretch project, though a simple version was used earlier in the Z1 in 1939 and the Z3 in 1941.
Pipelining began in earnest in the late 1970s in supercomputers such as vector processors and array processors. One of the early supercomputers was the Cyber series built by Control Data Corporation. Its main architect, Seymour Cray, later headed Cray Research. Cray developed the XMP line of supercomputers, using pipelining for both multiply and add/subtract functions. Later, Star Technologies added parallelism (several pipelined functions working in parallel), developed by Roger Chen. In 1984, Star Technologies added the pipelined divide circuit developed by James Bradley. By the mid-1980s, pipelining was used by many different companies around the world.
Pipelining was not limited to supercomputers. In 1976, the Amdahl Corporation's 470 series general purpose mainframe had a 7-step pipeline, and a patented branch prediction circuit.
Hazards
The model of sequential execution assumes that each instruction completes before the next one begins; this assumption is not true on a pipelined processor. A situation where the expected result is problematic is known as a hazard. Imagine the following two register instructions to a hypothetical processor:
1: add 1 to R5
2: copy R5 to R6
If the processor has the 5 steps listed in the initial illustration (the 'Basic five-stage pipeline' at the start of the article), instruction 1 would be fetched at time t1 and its execution would be complete at t5. Instruction 2 would be fetched at t2 and would be complete at t6. The first instruction might deposit the incremented number into R5 as its fifth step (register write back) at t5. But the second instruction might get the number from R5 (to copy to R6) in its second step (instruction decode and register fetch) at time t3. It seems that the first instruction would not have incremented the value by then. The above code invokes a hazard.
Writing computer programs in a compiled language might not raise these concerns, as the compiler could be designed to generate machine code that avoids hazards.
Workarounds
In some early DSP and RISC processors, the documentation advises programmers to avoid such dependencies in adjacent and nearly adjacent instructions (called delay slots), or declares that the second instruction uses an old value rather than the desired value (in the example above, the processor might counter-intuitively copy the unincremented value), or declares that the value it uses is undefined. The programmer may have unrelated work that the processor can do in the meantime; or, to ensure correct results, the programmer may insert NOPs into the code, partly negating the advantages of pipelining.
Solutions
Pipelined processors commonly use three techniques to work as expected when the programmer assumes that each instruction completes before the next one begins:
The pipeline could stall, or cease scheduling new instructions until the required values are available. This results in empty slots in the pipeline, or bubbles, in which no work is performed.
An additional data path can be added that routes a computed value to a future instruction elsewhere in the pipeline before the instruction that produced it has been fully retired, a process called operand forwarding.
The processor can locate other instructions which are not dependent on the current ones and which can be immediately executed without hazards, an optimization known as out-of-order execution.
Branches
A branch out of the normal instruction sequence often involves a hazard. Unless the processor can give effect to the branch in a single time cycle, the pipeline will continue fetching instructions sequentially. Such instructions cannot be allowed to take effect because the programmer has diverted control to another part of the program.
A conditional branch is even more problematic. The processor may or may not branch, depending on a calculation that has not yet occurred. Various processors may stall, may attempt branch prediction, and may be able to begin to execute two different program sequences (eager execution), each assuming the branch is or is not taken, discarding all work that pertains to the incorrect guess.
A processor with an implementation of branch prediction that usually makes correct predictions can minimize the performance penalty from branching. However, if branches are predicted poorly, it may create more work for the processor, such as flushing from the pipeline the incorrect code path that has begun execution before resuming execution at the correct location.
Programs written for a pipelined processor deliberately avoid branching to minimize possible loss of speed. For example, the programmer can handle the usual case with sequential execution and branch only on detecting unusual cases. Using programs such as gcov to analyze code coverage lets the programmer measure how often particular branches are actually executed and gain insight with which to optimize the code.
In some cases, a programmer can handle both the usual case and unusual case with branch-free code.
Special situations
Self-modifying programs
The technique of self-modifying code can be problematic on a pipelined processor. In this technique, one of the effects of a program is to modify its own upcoming instructions. If the processor has an instruction cache, the original instruction may already have been copied into a prefetch input queue and the modification will not take effect. Some processors such as the Zilog Z280 can configure their on-chip cache memories for data-only fetches, or as part of their ordinary memory address space, and avoid such difficulties with self-modifying instructions.
Uninterruptible instructions
An instruction may be uninterruptible to ensure its atomicity, such as when it swaps two items. A sequential processor permits interrupts between instructions, but a pipelining processor overlaps instructions, so executing an uninterruptible instruction renders portions of ordinary instructions uninterruptible too. The Cyrix coma bug would hang a single-core system using an infinite loop in which an uninterruptible instruction was always in the pipeline.
Design considerations
Speed
Pipelining keeps all portions of the processor occupied and increases the amount of useful work the processor can do in a given time. Pipelining typically reduces the processor's cycle time and increases the throughput of instructions. The speed advantage is diminished to the extent that execution encounters hazards that require execution to slow below its ideal rate. A non-pipelined processor executes only a single instruction at a time. The start of the next instruction is delayed not based on hazards but unconditionally.
A pipelined processor's need to organize all its work into modular steps may require the duplication of registers, which increases the latency of some instructions.
Economy
By making each dependent step simpler, pipelining can enable complex operations more economically than adding complex circuitry, such as for numerical calculations. However, a processor that declines to pursue increased speed with pipelining may be simpler and cheaper to manufacture.
Predictability
Compared to environments where the programmer needs to avoid or work around hazards, use of a non-pipelined processor may make it easier to program and to train programmers. The non-pipelined processor also makes it easier to predict the exact timing of a given sequence of instructions.
Illustrated example
To the right is a generic pipeline with four stages: fetch, decode, execute and write-back. The top gray box is the list of instructions waiting to be executed, the bottom gray box is the list of instructions that have had their execution completed, and the middle white box is the pipeline.
The execution is as follows:
Pipeline bubble
A pipelined processor may deal with hazards by stalling and creating a bubble in the pipeline, resulting in one or more cycles in which nothing useful happens.
In the illustration at right, in cycle 3, the processor cannot decode the purple instruction, perhaps because the processor determines that decoding depends on results produced by the execution of the green instruction. The green instruction can proceed to the Execute stage and then to the Write-back stage as scheduled, but the purple instruction is stalled for one cycle at the Fetch stage. The blue instruction, which was due to be fetched during cycle 3, is stalled for one cycle, as is the red instruction after it.
Because of the bubble (the blue ovals in the illustration), the processor's Decode circuitry is idle during cycle 3. Its Execute circuitry is idle during cycle 4 and its Write-back circuitry is idle during cycle 5.
When the bubble moves out of the pipeline (at cycle 6), normal execution resumes. But everything now is one cycle late. It will take 8 cycles (cycle 1 through 8) rather than 7 to completely execute the four instructions shown in colors.
See also
Wait state
Classic RISC pipeline
Notes
References
External links
Branch Prediction in the Pentium Family (Archive.org copy)
ArsTechnica article on pipelining
Counterflow Pipeline Processor Architecture
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|
220318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochem-Zell | Cochem-Zell | Cochem-Zell (German: Landkreis Cochem-Zell) is a district (Kreis) in the north-west of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are Mayen-Koblenz, Rhein-Hunsrück, Bernkastel-Wittlich, and Vulkaneifel.
History
In 1816 the districts Cochem and Zell were created, after the area went to Prussia. In 1969 the Zell district was dissolved and its northern and middle parts were added to the Cochem district, which was renamed Cochem-Zell. In 2014 the municipalities Lahr, Mörsdorf and Zilshausen were assigned to the Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis.
Geography
The district consists of three different landscapes. The Moselle valley with its vineyards, and the mountains of the Hunsrück in the east and the Eifel in the north and west. The highest elevation is the Höchstberg at 616 m above sea level, located in the Eifel.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: Schräglinks geteilt: vorne in Silber ein durchgehendes rotes Kreuz, belegt mit einem silbernem Hifthorn mit goldenem Riemen; hinten in Schwarz ein wachsender, rot bewehrter, gezungter und gekrönter goldener Löwe.
This might in English heraldic language be rendered thus: Per bend sinister argent a cross gules surmounted by a bugle-horn of the first, the bell to sinister, stringed Or, and sable issuant from base a lion rampant, his dexter paw couped at the line of partition, of the third armed, langued and crowned of the second.
The upper part of the coat of arms shows the main charge of the coat of arms of the Zell district, the cross of Trier, as the Bishops of Trier had a castle at Zell. The horn stands for the territory of Beilstein. The lion in the bottom is the symbol of the Electorate of the Palatinate; the Counts Palatine had a castle at Cochem.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate | [
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|
220321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hester%20Thrale | Hester Thrale | Hester Lynch Thrale Piozzi (née Salusbury; later Piozzi; 27 January 1741 or 16 January 1740 – 2 May 1821), a Welsh-born diarist, author and patron of the arts, is an important source on Samuel Johnson and 18th-century English life. She belonged to the prominent Salusbury family, Anglo-Welsh landowners, and married first a wealthy brewer, Henry Thrale, then a music teacher, Gabriel Mario Piozzi. Her Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson (1786) and her diary Thraliana, published posthumously in 1942, are the main works for which she is remembered. She also wrote a popular history book and a dictionary. She has been seen as a protofeminist.
Early years
Hester Lynch Salusbury was born at Bodvel Hall, Caernarvonshire, Wales, the only daughter of Hester Lynch Cotton and Sir John Salusbury. As a member of the powerful Salusbury family, she belonged to one of the most illustrious Welsh land-owning dynasties of the Georgian era. Through her father's line, she was a direct descendant of Katheryn of Berain.
Hester enjoyed the devoted attention of her uncles and was educated to a high level for a young woman. She would later describe that "they had taught me to read and speak and think and translate from the French, till I was half a prodigy."
Career
First marriage
After her father had gone bankrupt in an attempt to invest in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Hester married the rich brewer Henry Thrale on 11 October 1763, at St Anne's Chapel, Soho, London. They had twelve children and lived at Streatham Park. However, the marriage was often strained: her husband frequently felt slighted by members of the court and may well have married to improve his social status. The Thrales' eldest daughter, Hester, became a viscountess as the wife of George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith.
After her marriage, Thrale was free to associate with whom she pleased. Due to her husband's financial status, she was able to enter London society, as a result of which she met Samuel Johnson, James Boswell, Bishop Thomas Percy, Oliver Goldsmith, and other literary figures, including the young Frances Burney, whom she took with her to Gay Street, Bath.
In July 1774 Johnson visited Wales in Thrale's company, during which time they visited Hester's uncle Sir Lynch Cotton at Combermere in Denbighshire. Frances, the wife of Sir Lynch's son Robert "found Johnson, despite his rudeness, at times delightful, having a manner peculiar to himself in relating anecdotes that could not fail to attract old and young. Her impression was that Thrale was very vexatious in wishing to engross all his attention, which annoyed him much."
Johnson wrote two verses for Thrale in 1775, the first to celebrate her 35th birthday, and another in Latin to honour her.
Frances Burney, in her diary, describes the conversations at several of Thrale's soirées, including one in 1779 about a young woman named Miss Sophy Streatfeild (1755–1835), who was a favourite of Mr Johnson and Mr Thrale, rather to the chagrin of Hester, who commented that Sophy "had a power of captivation that was irresistible... her beauty joined to her softness, her caressing manners, her tearful eyes, and alluring looks, would insinuate her into the heart of any man she thought worth attacking." The touch of understandable spite here revealed in Thrale's nature is tempered by her wry humour in remarking (after another of her male guests had professed devotion to Sophy and the desire to "soothe" her): "I would ensure her power of crying herself into any of your hearts she pleased. I made her cry to Miss Burney, to show how beautiful she looked in tears" and (on being rebuked about this) "Oh but she liked it... Miss Burney would have run away but she came forward on purpose to show herself. Sophy Streatfeild is never happier than when tears trickle down from her fine eyes in company."
The Thrales were in Bath in 1780 at the time of the Gordon Riots, when a Roman Catholic chapel was set on fire, although the greater worry was whether Thrale's brewery in Southwark would escape being ransacked, which it narrowly did.
Burney records Thrale's distress on losing her husband (4 April 1781), referring to her as "sweet Mrs. Thrale" and sympathising with the "agitation" she was under in having to sell the brewery and wind up his affairs. Burney was there to congratulate and cheer Thrale when the business was concluded.
Second marriage
During the ensuing years, Thrale fell in love with Gabriel Mario Piozzi, an Italian music teacher who had taught the Thrale's children, and married him on 25 July 1784. She complained: "I see the English newspapers are full of gross Insolence towards me," with one commenting how Thrale could not have imagined "his wife's disgrace, by eventually raising an obscure and penniless Fiddler into sudden Wealth." This caused a rift with Johnson, which was only perfunctorily mended shortly before his death. The levelling marriage also earned her the disapproval of Burney (who would herself marry in 1793 the impoverished, Catholic émigré Alexandre D'Arblay) and her cousins the Cottons. With her second husband, Hester retired to Brynbella, a specially built country house on her Bach y Graig estate in the Vale of Clwyd, near Tremeirchion in north Wales in 1795.
Written works
After Johnson's death, she published Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson (1786) and their letters to each other (1788). Frances Burney, who considered both Johnson and Thrale to be among her dearest friends, read the unpublished manuscript with much interest, but disapproved of the decision to publish, noting, "She has given all – every word – and thinks that, perhaps, a justice to Dr Johnson, which, in fact, is the greatest injury to his memory." Together with Thrale's diaries, which were known as Thraliana and not published until 1942, these sources help to fill out the biased picture of Johnson often presented in James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson. Johnson often stayed with the Thrale household and had his own room above the library at Streatham, in which he worked. The friendship between Johnson and Thrale was emotionally intimate, and after John Thrale died in 1781 "Johnson's circle took it for granted that he would marry Hester." Based upon two letters Johnson wrote to Thrale in French and a passage in Thrale's Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson, Thrale's biographer Ian McIntyre and Johnson's biographers Peter Martin and Jeffrey Meyers have suggested that Thrale and Johnson had a sadomasochistic relationship in which Thrale whipped Johnson.
Her Retrospection... (1801) was an attempt at a popular history of that period, but was not received well by critics, some of whom patently resented female intrusion into what was then the male preserve of history. Reviewers also coupled sexism with ageism in dismissing her work. One reviewer called it "a series of dreams by an old lady." Posterity has been kinder. According to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, "it has since been seen as a feminist history, concerned to show changes in manners and mores in so far as they affected women; it has also been judged to anticipate Marxian history in its keen apprehension of reification: 'machines imitated mortals to unhoped perfection, and men found out they were themselves machines.'"
A lexicographer in her own right, Mrs Piozzi's British synonymy, or, An attempt at regulating the choice of words in familiar conversation was published in 1794 by G. G. & J. Robinson of London, ten years after Dr Johnson's death.
Death and legacy
Hester Piozzi died at No. 10 (now 20) Sion Row, Clifton, Bristol, of complications after a fall, and was buried on 16 May 1821 near Brynbella in the churchyard of Corpus Christi Church, Tremeirchion, next to Piozzi. A marble plaque inside the church was erected in 1909:
Near this place are interred the remains of
Hester Lynch Piozzi.
"Doctor Johnson's Mrs Thrale"
Born 1741. Died 1821.
Witty. Vivacious and Charming. In an Age of Genius
She Ever Held a Foremost Place
This Tablet is Erected by Orlando Butler Fellowes
Grand-Son of Sir James Fellowes. The Intimate Friend of
Mrs. Piozzi and her Executor.
Assisted by Subscriptions
28th April 1909.
Frances Burney eulogised her, going so far as to make a comparison with Germaine de Staël.
From the time of her death almost up to the present, she was referred to by scholars as Johnson had done, as Mrs Thrale or Hester Thrale. Nowadays she is often referred to as Hester Lynch Piozzi or Mrs Piozzi.
Samuel Beckett drew on Thrale's diaries and Anecdotes to dramatize her and Johnson's relationship in one of his earliest plays, Human Wishes. However, he abandoned the play after completing the first act.
Author Lillian de la Torre featured Thrale in the story "The Stolen Christmas Box", part of a series featuring Johnson as a detective.
See also
Salusbury Family
John Salusbury Piozzi Salusbury – adopted son
Lleweni Hall
Further reading
Beryl Bainbridge, According to Queeney, Little Brown & Co., 2001 (novel)
Marianna D'Ezio, "The Advantages of Demi-Naturalization": Hester Piozzi's "Observations and Reflections Made in the Course of a Journey Through France, Italy and Germany" (1789), Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies 33:2 (2010), pp. 165–180
Marianna D'Ezio, Hester Lynch Thrale Piozzi. A Taste for Eccentricity. Newcastle upon Tyne. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010
H. L. Piozzi, E. A. Bloom and L. D. Bloom, The Piozzi letters: Correspondence of Hester Lynch Piozzi, 1784-1821 (formerly Mrs. Thrale). Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989
C. E. Vulliamy, Mrs. Thrale of Streatham. London: Cape, 1936
References
Notes
Bibliography
Francine Prose, The Lives of the Muses. New York: Harper Collins, 2002, pp. 29–56.
External links
Grand Ball in celebration of her 80th birthday
Thrale Piozzi Manuscripts, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester
Dr. Johnson and Mrs. Thrale by Adam Gopnick
Hester Lynch Piozzi at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
1741 births
1821 deaths
18th-century lexicographers
18th-century Welsh women writers
19th-century Welsh women writers
18th-century Welsh writers
19th-century Welsh historians
British salon-holders
Samuel Johnson
Streathamites
Hester
Tremeirchion
People from Caernarfonshire
Deaths from falls
Welsh diarists
Women diarists
British patrons of the arts
Welsh women historians
Welsh lexicographers
Women lexicographers | [
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220337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Peasants%27%20Party | National Peasants' Party | The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party; , or Partidul Național-Țărănist, PNȚ) was an agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania. It was formed in 1926 through the fusion of the Romanian National Party (PNR), a conservative-regionalist group centered on Transylvania, and the Peasants' Party (PȚ), which had coalesced the left-leaning agrarian movement in the Old Kingdom and Bessarabia. The definitive PNR–PȚ merger came after a decade-long rapprochement, producing a credible contender to the dominant National Liberal Party (PNL). National Peasantists agreed on the concept of a "peasant state", which defended smallholding against state capitalism or state socialism, proposing voluntary cooperative farming as the basis for economic policy. Peasants were seen as the first defense of Romanian nationalism and of the country's monarchic regime, sometimes within a system of social corporatism. Regionally, the party expressed sympathy for Balkan federalism and rallied with the International Agrarian Bureau; internally, it championed administrative decentralization and respect for minority rights, as well as, briefly, republicanism. It remained factionalized on mainly ideological grounds, leading to a series of defections.
With its attacks on the PNL establishment, the PNȚ came to endorse an authoritarian monarchy, mounting no resistance to a conspiracy which brought Carol II on the Romanian throne in 1930. Over the following five years, Carol maneuvered against the PNȚ, which opposed his attempts to subvert liberal democracy. PNȚ governments were in power for most of the time between 1928 and 1933, with leader Iuliu Maniu as its longest serving Prime Minister. Supported by the Romanian Social Democrats, they expanded Romania's welfare state, but failed to tackle the Great Depression, and organized clampdowns against radicalized workers at Lupeni and Grivița. This issue brought Maniu into conflict with the outlawed Romanian Communist Party, though the PNȚ, and in particular its left, favored a Romanian popular front. From 1935, most of the centrist wing embraced anti-fascism, outvoting the PNȚ's far-right, which split of as a Romanian Front, under Alexandru Vaida-Voevod; in that interval, the PNȚ set up pro-democratic paramilitary units, or Peasant Guards. However, the party signed a temporary cooperation agreement with the fascist Iron Guard ahead of national elections in 1937, sparking much controversy among its own voters.
The PNȚ was banned under the National Renaissance Front (1938–1940), which also absorbed its centrists. Regrouped under Maniu, it remained active throughout World War II as an underground organization, tolerated by successive fascist regimes, but supportive of the Allied Powers; it also organized protests against the deportation of minorities and for the return of Northern Transylvania. Together with the PNL and the communists, it executed the Coup of August 1944, emerging as the most powerful party of the subsequent democratic interlude (1944–1946). In this final period, National Peasantists were repressed as instigators of anti-communist resistance. The PNȚ was registered as having lost the fraudulent elections in 1946, and was banned following the "Tămădău Affair" of 1947. The communist regime imprisoned its members in large numbers, though some on the pro-communist left were allowed to go free. Both Maniu and his more leftist deputy, Ion Mihalache, died in prison.
PNȚ cells were revived in the Romanian diaspora by youth leaders such as Ion Rațiu, and had representation within the Romanian National Committee. The release of political prisoners also allowed the PNȚ to claim existence inside Romania. Corneliu Coposu emerged as the underground leader of this tendency, which was admitted into the Christian Democrat World Union. Its legal successor, called Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party, was one of the first registered political groups after the December 1989 Revolution.
History
Formation
Future PNȚ leader Maniu had had its first government experience during the union of Transylvania with Romania. In alliance with the Transylvanian Socialists, his PNR had organized a Transylvanian Directorate, which functioned as that region's transitional government to April 1920. This body was explicitly against regional autonomy, and its distinct initiatives were in the field of social welfare. As regional Minister of Social Welfare, the PNR doctor Iuliu Moldovan introduced eugenics, which also appeared as nativism in the political thought a PNR leader, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod. Based in the Romanian Old Kingdom, the Peasants' Party was founded in December 1918 by schoolteacher Ion Mihalache, with assistance from academics such as Virgil Madgearu and Dimitrie Gusti. The group soon established itself in Bessarabia, also recently united with Romania. This was due to it absorbing much of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party, under Pan Halippa and Constantin Stere. In 1921, the PȚ had been joined by Nicolae L. Lupu, formerly of the Labor Party.
In 1919–1920, the PNR was able to outmaneuver the PNL, and, backed by the PȚ, formed Romania's national government, headed by Vaida-Voevod. Mihalache was personally involved in drafting the land reform project, taking a revolutionary stand which greatly increased the proportion of smallholders. Vaida's cabinet was brought down by King Ferdinand I, who openly favored the National Liberals. The PNL's return to power came with the adoption of a new constitution, and with the enactment of land reform, which massively expanded Romania's smallholding class. The latter had an unintended consequence in that it created an electoral pool for the opposition parties; it also gave Peasantists hopes that Romania's economy could still be built around peasant consumers. At this stage, both the PȚ and the PNR were opposed to the Constitution, seeing it as imposed on the Romanian public by the PNL, and arguing that it left the country open to future abuse of power.
The two opposition groups embarked on a long series of negotiations, eventually producing a set of principles for merger. They began in May 1924, as informal talks between Stere and the PNR's Vasile Goldiș, resulting in a preliminary agreement that June. During this process, the PȚ shed much of its radical platform. However, left-wing Peasantists supported their ideologue Stere, who had a controversial past, for a leadership position in the unified body. This proposal was strongly opposed by figures on the PNR's right-wing such as Vaida and Voicu Nițescu. The unification was only made possible once Mihalache "sacrificed" Stere. The two-party collaboration was successfully tested during the August 1925 elections for the Agricultural Chambers, a professional consultative body. In the local election of early 1926, both parties ran a United Opposition Bloc, in conjunction with Alexandru Averescu's People's Party (PP); also joining them was a Peasant Workers' Bloc (BMȚ), which acted as a legal front for clandestine Romanian Communist Party (PCdR). The PP withdrew from this pact once Averescu was called by Ferdinand to take power. Maniu was a first choice, but eventually discarded for his association with Mihalache, whom Ferdinand regarded as a dangerous radical.
Weakened when Goldiș and others defected to the PP, the PNR became "second-fiddle" to the Peasantist caucus. In the subsequent national election of June, the PNR and PȚ formed a National–Peasant Bloc, which took 27% of the vote and 69 seats in the Assembly of Deputies. As the PȚ agreed to a full merger, the PNR lost support from Nicolae Iorga's semi-independent faction, who went on to reestablish itself as a Democratic Nationalist Party. The fusion was enshrined at a PNR–PȚ congress on October 10, 1926. Also then, Maniu was voted in as chairman; Mihalache, Lupu, Vaida-Voevod and Paul Brătășanu were vice presidents, while Madgearu became general secretary and Mihai Popovici cashier. From October 17, 1927, the party central organ became Dreptatea, though the party continued to publish various other periodicals, including Patria. On November 21 of that year, the party was admitted into the International Agrarian Bureau.
The National–Peasantist fusion could not lead to an immediate challenge to the PNL supremacy. The party dropped to 22% and 54 deputies after the June 1927 election. With Ferdinand terminally ill, it reluctantly backed Barbu Știrbey's nominally independent cabinet, which was in practice a National Liberal front. Its leadership also rejected a pact with Averescu's group, pushing it into further into political insignificance. These events also overlapped with a dynastic crisis: after Ferdinand's death in July 1927, the throne went to his minor grandson Michael I—Michael's disgraced father Carol II having been forced to renounce his claim and pushed into exile. The arrangement was resented by both the PNL and the PNR. For different reasons, both groups sketched out plans to depose Michael and turn Romania into a republic.
The unexpected death of PNL chairman Ion I. C. Brătianu pushed the PNȚ back into full-blown opposition: "All hopes [...] focused on the democratic movement of renewal, outstandingly represented by Iuliu Maniu." The party withdrew its elected representatives and pushed citizens to engage in tax resistance. In creating a web of tactical alliances, it reconfirmed its pact with the BMȚ, while still shunning the PP. The PNȚ's first general congress was held on May 6, 1928 at Alba Iulia. It marked an early peak of PNȚ revolutionary activity, gathering between 100,000 and 200,000 supporters. Observers expected that the columns would then "march on Bucharest", by analogy with the March on Rome. This never happened, but the showing impressed the Regents into deposing the PNL cabinet and handing power to Maniu. Carol reportedly watched on as the events unfolded: at the time, Maniu "remain[ed] silent" as to whether he would back him for the throne. In fact, Maniu and Aurel Leucuția promised him the PNȚ's backing if he accepted a set of conditions, including un-divorcing Helen of Greece; Carol reluctantly agreed. Maniu was adamant that Carol's mistress Elena Lupescu stay exiled, and for this reason earned the Prince's eternal enmity.
PNȚ cabinets
Maniu was sworn in as Prime Minister on October 10, 1928, leading the first of eight PNȚ government teams. This saw an extension of the welfare state and the regulation of labor through collective bargaining. Maniu's first cabinet had Moldovan as Labor Minister, using this position to advance his program in "biopolitics". His tenure saw the adoption of laws which set the working day at a maximum 10 hours and limited child labor; the effort to unify social insurance was completed in 1933. Endorsed by the Social Democratic Party (PSDR), this government team was put to the test during the December 1928 elections, which are often recognized as free from abuse and government interference, and which it still won in a landslide—with almost 78% of the vote. This result was partly owed to its alliance with the PSDR, the Jewish National People's Party, the German Party, and the Ukrainian Nationalists. At this early stage, the PNȚ was fully controlled by Maniu, who ordered PNȚ members of Parliament to sign resignations that he would file and enact upon in case of insubordination.
In June 1930, a trans-party group of Carlist supporters engineered a coup against the Regency, which ended with Carol's return and enthronement. The PNȚ briefly divided itself into backers of the coup and those who, like Maniu, remained more cautious. From July 1930, Carlist ideologue Nae Ionescu proposed a National Peasantist "mass dictatorship", which implied dissolving all other parties. Such ideas were contained by Maniu, who spoke out in favor of maintaining and cultivating electoral democracy, and by Carol, who would have rather formed a multi-party coalition. Ionescu's dictatorial optimism was published just as the Carol was antagonizing the PNȚ mainstream. Soon after his victory, the new King informed Maniu that he did not intend to honor his promises, causing a rift between monarch and government; Maniu resigned, was persuaded to return within days, and then resigned for good in October, handing the premiership to party colleague Gheorghe Mironescu.
Historian Barbara Jelavich sees Maniu's resignation as "ill-considered", effectively leaving Romania's electorate without an administration that "best represented [its] option". Carol ultimately asked Mironescu to resign in April 1931, and replaced him with Iorga, who led a minority cabinet. The National Peasantists were defeated by their PNL rivals in the election of June 1931, taking just 15% of the vote. Again called to power, with Vaida at the helm, they had a comeback with the early election of 1932, taking 40%. Carol persuaded Maniu to become Prime Minister in October. He resigned again in January 1933, after a row with Carol, who wanted Mihalache stripped of his post at Internal Affairs. Vaida returned as PNȚ Prime Minister, holding on to that position until November 13. Maniu had stepped down as PNȚ leader in June 1931, leaving Mihalache in charge to July of the following year; he then returned and held on to his seat to January 1933, when he was replaced by Vaida. Maniu and his supporters were now in the minority, issuing reprimands against Vaida's alliance with Carol.
Despite its unprecedented success, the party was pushed into a defensive position by the Great Depression, and failed to enact many its various policy proposals; its support by workers and left-wing militants was affected during the strike actions of Lupeni and Grivița, which its ministers repressed with noted expediency. The former incident in particular was received as a shock by working-class voters. All PNȚ cabinets were also confronted by the rise of revolutionary fascism, heralded by the Iron Guard. The latter's "Captain", Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, took up elements from the PNȚ program and planned ahead for its downfall. National Peasantism also met competition from a hard-right version of itself: the National Agrarian Party, formed by Octavian Goga (a poet and activist, once affiliated with the PNR). From 1931, PNȚ ministers issued regulations banning the Guard, but these proved unsuccessful. This interval witnessed the first clashes between the PNȚ and the Guardists, including one at Vulturu.
A first effort at organizing a self-defense force for PNȚ politicians resulted in the 1928 "civic guards". In 1929, the party had begun organizing another set of squads, called Voinici ("Braves"). Originally integrated with the youth organization, they later became a nucleus for the paramilitary Peasant Guards. However, Maniu's guidelines had eroded left-wing support for the party. In February 1927, Lupu and Ion Buzdugan founded a rival group, the Peasants' Party–Lupu. Stere was finally expelled from the PNȚ after a heated controversy in 1930. In 1931, he established an agrarian socialist group called Democratic Peasants' Party–Stere. Another left-wing dissidence broke away with Grigore Iunian in late 1932, establishing itself as a Radical Peasants' Party (PȚR) in 1933.
Schisms and competition were compensated by recruitment, including in the intellectual sphere. Writer Șerban Cioculescu, who entered in early 1928, described the PNȚ as "the only political factor which may democratize Romania". In the early 1930s, new arrivals included philosophers Petre Andrei and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, linguist Traian Bratu, and painter Rudolf Schweitzer-Cumpăna; also joining were leaders of the Romanian Army, including Nicolae Alevra and Ioan Mihail Racoviță. The PNȚ's left earned endorsements from poet Ion Vinea and his Facla newspaper, as well as from lawyer Haralambie Marchetti, known as a protector of the communists. The PNȚ's more leftist youth published the magazine Stânga, which attracted collaborations from Petru Comarnescu and Traian Herseni. A highly visible left-wing cell was formed at the University of Iași by Bratu and Andrei, gathering new members and sympathizers: Constantin Balmuș, Octav Botez, Iorgu Iordan, Andrei Oțetea, and Mihai Ralea.
Unable to obtain a reduction of the foreign debt, and harangued by an increasingly confident PNL, the Vaida cabinet fell in November 1933. A PNL team under Ion G. Duca took over. The election of December 1933 was a National Liberal sweep, leaving the PNȚ with less than 15% of the votes cast. Duca took on the task of dissolving the Iron Guard, and was murdered by a death squad on December 29; the premiership passed to another PNL man, Gheorghe Tătărescu. The PNȚ viewed Tătărescu's appointment as arbitrary, and protested on the issue. The spread of credible rumors according to which Maniu was slated for assassination by Carol's partisans rekindled the Peasant Guards (now also known as the "Maniu Guards"); they continued to be active throughout most of 1934, until the party leadership asked them to dissolve.
Vaida schism and "popular front"
From March 1933, Lupu began attacking his former colleagues by bringing up alleged government corruption, in what became known as the "Škoda Affair". Maniu dismissed this as Carol's attempt to weaken the PNȚ, though the king's maneuvering permanently damaged the reputation of PNȚ-ists such as Romulus Boilă. Won over by Carol's political vision, Vaida lost the party chairmanship in March 1935, and inaugurated a new schism, creating his very own far-right party, the Romanian Front (FR), during the following month. Maniu also lost his grip on the PNȚ, and Mihalache was voted in for his second term. His relationship with Maniu reached a low point, with Mihalache hinting that he could order the PNR leadership expelled if they did not comply to his agenda. Under his watch, the PNȚ adopted a new statute in 1934, and a new program at the second party congress in April 1935. These pledged the party to a careful selections of cadres from the ranks of peasantry and youth, fully committing them to the project of establishing a "peasant state". The architects were figures on the left of the party—Ralea, Andrei, Mihail Ghelmegeanu, and Ernest Ene—, who worked from drafts first presented in Ralea's Viața Românească. During their ascendancy, in March 1934, Lupu and his followers were welcomed back into the PNȚ. This merger saw the party being joined by historian Ioan Hudiță, who later became one of Maniu's dedicated supporters.
From May 1935, the PNȚ held massive rallies, showcasing Mihalache's ambition of forming a new cabinet. Party unity was enforced by the decision of centrist Transylvanians such as Corneliu Coposu to side with democratic traditions and reject Vaida's penchant for far-right authoritarianism. In 1935, Coposu became leader of the national youth wing, called Tineretul Național Țărănesc (TNȚ), proceeding to purge Vaidists from the various party organizations. Maniu's nephew and potential successor, Ionel Pop, also took a stand against antisemitism, expressing horror at any attempt to align Romania with Nazi Germany. Anti-Nazism was likewise voiced by Facla, causing its editorial offices to be stormed by the National-Christian Defense League (LANC).
The Vaidist dissidence resulted in scuffles throughout Transylvania. In one such incident, PNȚ-ist Ilie Lazăr was reportedly shot in the arm. Only some 10% or 15% of PNȚ cadres were attracted by Vaida's group. Overall, however, the National Peasantist failure to address the economic needs of its own constituents resulted in a steady decrease of its voting share—many peasants switched to supporting the Iron Guard or any of the other far-right parties. The explicitly fascist National Christian Party (PNC), founded as a merger of the LANC and Goga's National Agrarians, was especially adept at canvassing the peasant vote in Bessarabia, veering it toward antisemitism. Alongside the FR, it earned Carol's blessing to establish a "nationalist parliamentary bloc", specifically designed to keep the PNȚ out of power.
The danger was sensed by Mihalache, who presided over massive anti-fascist rally in November 1935, amassing a reported 500,000 participants nation-wide. Following an audience with Carol, he claimed that the PNȚ would be called to power. In December 1935, the PNȚ reinforced discipline against left-wing dissent, expelling from its ranks Dem. I. Dobrescu, who went on to create his own movement, the "Citizen Committees". Overall, however, the party became more sympathetic to left-wing causes. At his arrest in 1936, communist liaison Petre Constantinescu-Iași nominated the PNȚ and PȚR as anti-fascist parties; in 1935, he had tried but failed to forge a PCdR alliance with both groups, as well as with the Social Democrats and the Jewish Party. Communist support and endorsement by the Ploughmen's Front were relevant in ensuring victories for PNȚ candidates Lupu and Ghiță Pop in the Assembly by-elections of Mehedinți and Hunedoara (February 1936). While the PNȚ elite took measures to downplay its far-left connection, left-wingers such as Dobrescu openly celebrated it as a winning combination. As summarized by historian Armin Heinen, PNȚ leftists also refrained from calling it a "popular front", and only viewed socialist groups as subordinate.
The PNȚ, PSDR, PCdR and PȚR created a de facto united front during the county elections of 1936 and early 1937; also signing up where satellite parties: the Ploughmen's Front, the Hungarian People's Union, the Popovici Socialists, the Conservative Party, and Dobrescu's Committees. In Bessarabia, the PCdR made noted efforts of reconciling the PNȚ and PȚR. Wherever the PNC appeared stronger, pacts also involved local PNL chapters. Similar pacts were signed in mid 1936 with the Magyar Party, although the latter withdrew, fearful of association with the communists. Many PNȚ sections also resisted alliances with far-leftist groups, but, even in such cases, the PCdR urged its followers to vote National Peasantist. Mihalache's solution was to impose and vet a single platform for the alliance, which prevented the PCdR from using it as a means to popularize socialism.
At around the same time, Gheorghe Beza, a political conspirator with known links to the Iron Guard, began exposing Codreanu's various secrets, including his erstwhile cultivation by Vaida. From 1936, Beza was a card-carrying PNȚ man, assigned leadership over the Peasant Guards, following their reactivation by Mihalache. The Guards were supervised by a Military Section, comprising Army officials: Admiral Dan Zaharia was a member, alongside generals Ștefan Burileanu, Gheorghe Rujinschi, Gabriel Negrei, and Ioan Sichitiu. Zaharia was directly involved with the Peasant Guards of Muscel County, whom he used to quell violence by the LANC militia, or Lăncieri. Clashes also occurred at Faraoani, where PNC men ambushed a PNȚ column, and at Focșani, where the Peasant Guards were called in to break up an Iron Guard rally. Codreanu's followers were especially incensed by the Guards' creation, and resorted to kidnapping and threatening Madgearu in order to have them called off. At Iași, Bratu narrowly survived a stabbing, for which he blamed the Iron Guard.
1937 crisis
The mid 1930s also consolidated a PNȚ "centrist" wing, represented by Armand Călinescu, and supported by Ghelmegeanu. This faction favored a full clampdown on the Iron Guard, but hoped to achieve its defeat in close alliance with Carol. At the third general congress of April 4–5, 1937, which was to be the PNȚ's last, inner-party stability appeared to be threatened by "intrigue and ambition", although shows of unity were made in various rallies. During that interval, prosecutors brought R. Boilă to trial for his participation in the "Škoda Affair". He and all other defendants were acquitted. Coposu, who attempted to show that the case was instrumented by Carol as revenge against his PNȚ opponents, was found guilty of lèse-majesté and spent three months in prison.
Ahead of legislative elections in December 1937, Carol invited Mihalache to form a cabinet, but also tried to impose some of his own selections as ministers; Mihalache refused to comply. As a result of this failure, Maniu returned as chairman of the PNȚ—he would serve as such uninterruptedly, to July 1947. Immediately after taking over, he proceeded to reinforce party discipline, obtaining promises of compliance from left-wingers Lupu and Madgearu. His return also allowed the formation of a right-wing section in Bucharest. Its leader, Ilariu Dobridor, openly argued for Lupu to be expelled from the party.
The PNȚ completely revised its alliances, agreeing to limited cooperation with the Iron Guard and the Georgist Liberals. The three parties agreed to support "free elections" and still competed against each other; however, the pact's very existence shocked the liberal mainstream, especially after revelations that PNȚ cadres could no longer criticize the Guard. Călinescu and Ghelmegeanu's group was alienated, openly describing the pact as morally unsound, and preferring full cooperation with Carol; Mihalache also dissented, but on democratic grounds. The events caught the PCdR underground by surprise: in November, its leader Ștefan Foriș had urged his colleagues to vote PNȚ, even in preference to the PSDR. A "workers' delegation", made up of PSDR and PCdR activists, visited Maniu and insisted that he should revise the "non-aggression pact". The scandal divided Romania's left-wing press: newspapers such as Adevărul remained committed to Maniu, though communist sympathizers such as Zaharia Stancu and Geo Bogza went back on their support for a PNȚ-led popular front, and switched to endorsing the PȚR.
The election marked a historic impasse, whereby the PNL failed to clearly win elections organized under its watch. It dropped to 152 parliamentary seats, with the PNȚ holding on to 86 (and 20% of the vote); this was just 20 seats ahead of the Guard, which had emerged as Romania's third party. Carol opted to use his royal prerogative and bypassed all groups opposing his policies, handing power to a PNC minority cabinet, under Goga. Goga's arrival signaled Romania's rapprochement toward Germany, which had emerged as a key regional player following the Munich Agreement. Concerns about German re-armament also pushed Maniu into "demand[ing] an alignment with Berlin". However, he punished attempts by other PNȚ figures to collaborate with Goga, and expelled Călinescu, who had accepted a ministerial position. This move lost the PNȚ its party organization in Argeș County, which obeyed Călinescu.
Maniu had a return as the opposition leader, speaking out against Carol and Goga, and promising a "national revolt" against their regime—while making note of his intention to form an "opposition bloc" alongside the Iron Guard. During the early days of 1938, the PNȚ was negotiating with the PNL to also join this alliance. The project was vetoed by Tătărescu, whose "Young Liberals" supported Carol's policies, and by Mihalache, who resented the Maniu–Codreanu rapprochement. Though Mihalache rallied with the party line in calling out the PNC ministers as "scoundrels", he secretly collaborated with Călinescu against Maniu. The latter viewed himself and his fellow defectors as a "pro-government" splinter of the PNȚ, and counted on Mihalache's contextual support.
FRN and National Legionary regimes
An international backlash against Goga's staunch antisemitism had also made Carol reconsider his choices. Initially, he favored creating a new majority coalition with the Iron Guard and the PNȚ (though demanding that Maniu be kept out of any such formula). Goga was deposed on February 10, 1938, when all political groups prepared for repeat elections. The Peasant Guards had been revived in January, taking the name of "Maniu Guards", and were divided into two main commands: Lazăr took over in Transylvania, and General Rujinschi in the Old Kingdom. The project also involved Victor Jinga, tasked by Maniu with supervising the Guards' expansion into the provinces.
At the height of the electoral campaign, the PNȚ and the PNL sought to obtain a new understanding with Carol, fearing that the PNC and the Iron Guard would form a powerful fascist alliance, and then a totalitarian state. Under pressure from the PNȚ base, Maniu revoked the pact with the Iron Guard, leaving that group entirely isolated on the political scene. He had instead initiated talks with the PȚR. This produced a "common constitutional front" before January 18, with negotiations continuing for the PNL's adherence to it. The PNȚ again sought grassroots communist support: in Vâlcea County, it shared a list with the "Democratic Union", assigning eligible positions to a PCdR militant Mihail Roșianu and a communist-sympathizing priest, Ioan Marina.
Carol rejected Maniu's proposals, and used the opportunity for an anti-democratic self-coup. Despite vocal protests by Maniu and the PNL's Dinu Brătianu, he inaugurated a royal dictatorship, leading to the creation of a catch-all National Renaissance Front (FRN). The PNȚ attempted to sabotage the authoritarian Constitution, instructing members to cast a negative vote in the February 24 plebiscite. The attempt was unsuccessful, and the party continued to lose ground over the following months. On March 30, it was outlawed together with all other traditional parties.
The new government integrated much of the PNȚ's center, with Călinescu at Interior Affairs; Andrei, Ghelmegeanu, and Ralea, alongside Grigore Gafencu and Traian Ionașcu, became prominent FRN dignitaries, as did Moldovan. Gusti and Rădulescu-Motru were also co-opted into joining the exodus during late 1938. More junior PNȚ-ists such as Adrian Brudariu abandoned the National Peasantist cause, allegedly joining the FRN for material benefits. Maniu and Popovici could still count on their core Transylvanian constituency, which helped them circulate a December 1938 memorandum calling on Carol to restore civil liberties. Coposu was arrested and detained for distributing copies of that document.
Călinescu tacitly allowed the PNȚ and PNL to preserve parts of their infrastructures, including some local offices. In early 1939, the regime proposed allowing the PNȚ a share of parliamentary mandates, to which Mihalache responded: "Mr Carol would do best to leave us alone." During the sham election of June 1939, the FRN administration took care to prevent interference by "intermediary groups" such as the PNȚ, PNL, PNC and Iron Guard. In May, the PNȚ, PNL and PCdR engaged in talks to form an "opposition parliament" and "united front"; authorities subsequently reported that protest votes had been cast for PNȚ leaders, whereas candidacies of PNȚ defectors such as Alexandru Mîță had been publicly booed. Maniu, Mihalache, Lupu and Iunian still qualified as lifetime Senators, but refused to wear the FRN uniform, and were expelled.
By then, Călinescu had masterminded a nation-wide clampdown against the Iron Guard, including Codreanu's physical liquidation. This resulted in a series of retaliatory attacks, peaking in September 1939, when a Guardist death squad managed to assassinate Călinescu. During November, Carol made one final attempt to establish a "national alliance" around the FRN, inviting Maniu to join in; the offer was dismissed. Mihalache held a seat in the Crown Council in early 1940, possibly because doing so toned down pressures on his friend Madgearu, whom Carol had placed under arrest. A political crisis began in Romania during June 1940, when the FRN government gave in to a Soviet ultimatum and withdrew its administration from Bessarabia. Maniu referred to this as a Soviet invasion, and believed that the Army should have resisted. In August 1940, after reassurances from both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Regency Hungary asked Romania to negotiate territorial cessions in Transylvania. Maniu issued a public protest, demanding no reduction of territorial integrity.
The same month, Carol's regime yielded to Nazi pressures and Romania signed the Second Vienna Award, which divided the region roughly in half, with Northern Transylvania assigned to Hungary. This sparked major unrest, with "huge protest rallies" asking for Maniu to establish a cabinet of "national resistance", which Maniu refused to do. Carol assigned the task of forming a cabinet to General Ion Antonescu, who obtained backing from both the PNȚ and the PNL. Both groups insisted that Antonescu could take over only after Carol agreed to abdicate. This put an end to Carol's rule, bringing the country under an Iron Guard regime—the National Legionary State, with Antonescu as Conducător; though still neutral to 1941, Romania was now openly aligned with the Axis Powers. Widely seen as a German arrangement, the Legionary State was in fact a result of Maniu's refusal to follow Antonescu's ideological command; the Nazis had repeatedly called for a multiparty alliance.
Resisting Antonescu
The PNȚ continued to exist semi-clandestinely, obtaining repeated assurances from Antonescu that the various territorial chapters would not be harassed by the Iron Guard, and complaining whenever he failed to keep them. According to Siguranța reports, it was always more active than the PNL. Its quarters were informally acknowledged as being Ciulei House, an apartment complex located at Sfinților Street 10, Bucharest. From late 1940, Maniu channeled anti-Nazi discontent by forming an association called Pro Transilvania and a newspaper, Ardealul, both of which reminded Romanians that Antonescu was not interested in a reversal of the Vienna Award. The Guardist takeover also pushed some National Peasantists into exile: facing a death sentence at home, Beza made his way to Cairo, where he formed a Free Romania Movement under British supervision. Viorel Tilea and Ion Rațiu opted not to return from England, serving as liaisons between the PNȚ and the British war ministry.
Towards the end of 1940, Antonescu became dissatisfied with the Guard partnership. The Guard organized the Jilava Massacre and various other murders of old-regime politicians, including Madgearu. This caused alarm for other figures of the PNȚ, in particular Mihalache and Lupu; Ghiță Pop took Madgearu's position at the party secretariat. In the aftermath, Maniu pleaded with the Conducător that he should reinstate order and individual security. After a brief civil war in January 1941, the Guard was removed from power and again repressed. German reports identified PNȚ-ist generals as most active in destroying the National Legionary regime; armed PNȚ civilians, including Lupu, assisted the Army at various locations in Bucharest.
Following the events, Antonescu had renewed hopes that he could co-opt the PNȚ and then PNL on his cabinet. Both parties refused the offer. During February, Maniu openly criticized Antonescu for abandoning Northern Transylvania and for previously condoning Guardist abuse. He also argued that a legalized PNȚ would have been a more efficient and legitimate actor in purging the Guard. In April, he attempted to organize a rally against the invasion of Yugoslavia, but called it off when Antonescu warned him that demonstrators would be fired upon. Later that year, Maniu and Coposu engaged in encrypted correspondence with the Western Allies, preparing for an anti-Nazi takeover in Romania; they aligned themselves closely with Britain, seeking to obtain direct advice from Winston Churchill.
The PNȚ and the PNL welcomed Romania's participation in the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union, since it returned Bessarabian lands to Romania. However, both parties protested when Antonescu gave the order to advance beyond interwar borders and annex Transnistria. This period also signaled Romania's participation in the Holocaust, heralded by the Iași pogrom. These crimes were also vocally condemned by the PNȚ and the PNL in letters to Antonescu. Maniu still refused to believe that Antonescu had a genocidal agenda and, when interviewed by American diplomats, played down the pogrom's importance. By 1942, having been informed that Britain and the US intended to assess and punish all antisemitic crimes, he told Romanian ministers that the deportation of Bessarabian Jews risked destroying Romania; Mihalache also added his input, describing deportations as "alien to the humanitarian traditions of our people." Antonescu largely tolerated such insubordination, but also curbed it at regular intervals. In August 1942, he threatened to "castigate in due course" Maniu and others who opposed "cleansing this nation totally of the [Jewish] blight."
In November 1941, Maniu also publicized his complete opposition to war in the East, prompting Antonescu to order a clampdown against Anglophile resistance centers. Communist sources noted a discrepancy in repression statistics: while the elites were allowed to carry out a "paper war" with the regime, regular PNȚ militants risked imprisonment for expressing anti-fascist beliefs. From 1942, the camp in Târgu Jiu accommodated various PNȚ-ists, including Nicolae Carandino, who had published an article critical of Antonescu, and Anton Alexandrescu, who, as leader of the TNȚ, had been approached by the PCdR. Detainees also included a selection of militants from all party factions: Lazăr, Zaharia Boilă, Radu Cioculescu, Victor Eftimiu, Augustin Popa, and Emil Socor. Released before May 1943, these men became vocal supporters of an understanding between Romania and the Soviets. Boilă, Coposu, Ghiță Pop and Virgil Solomon were also rounded up and threatened for having maintained contacts with the Iron Guard on behalf of Maniu. In 1944, government agents caught Augustin Vișa and Rică Georgescu, who had handled radio communications between Maniu and the Allies. Both were imprisoned, with Vișa being put on trial for high treason. The Conducător dismissed Nazi suggestions that he should have Maniu killed, noting that doing so would only push Romania's peasantry into anti-fascist rebellion. By 1944, he was tolerating the transit through Romania of Northern Transylvanian Jews fleeing extermination in Hungary, some of whom were assisted on their journey by a PNȚ-ist network.
By early 1942, Maniu and Brătianu had come to favor an anti-Nazi coup, and had asked for direct British support. The Soviets were informed of this, but fully rejected Maniu's demands for a restoration of Greater Romania. In January 1943, with over 100,000 Romanian soldiers trapped at Stalingrad, PCdR members approached Maniu with concrete offers for collaboration. Hoping to obtain full peace without a Soviet occupation, Maniu still counted on direct contacts with the West, sending Constantin Vișoianu to negotiate with them in Cairo. These "feelers" were again tolerated by Antonescu. However, a "stumbling-block in all subsequent negotiations" was the demand for Romania's unconditional surrender, which Maniu found unpalatable. The PNȚ advised against toppling Antonescu in February 1944, as had been proposed by the pro-Allied King Michael I—Maniu feared that doing so would leave Romania exposed to Nazi retribution.
"Operation Autonomous", a British attempt to mediate between Maniu and the Soviets, ended abruptly when Alfred Gardyne de Chastelain and Ivor Porter were captured in Romania. In the aftermath, Antonescu again protected Maniu, reassuring the Axis that the Romanian opposition had no real contact with the Allies. During March 1944, Voice of America implied that, if PNȚ leaders still refused to take up armed opposition to the regime, they could expect to be bypassed or deposed. In April, Maniu was finally ready to accept Soviet promises that Romania would be allowed to fight the Germans as an equal partner, and that its territory would not be occupied militarily. The same month, Antonescu was sent a peace protest signed by 69 academics, which was "overtly pro-Soviet in sentiment". At least in part, this was a grassroots PNȚ initiative.
1944 revival
In June 1944, the PNȚ and PNL agreed to form a Bloc of Democratic Parties (BPD) alongside the PCdR and Social Democrats, preparing for the "King Michael Coup" of August 23. By then, Coposu and Cezar Spineanu were stockpiling firearms in PNȚ buildings, preparing for a BPD confrontation with the authorities. The Bloc existed largely because Maniu believed he could obtain Soviet lenience toward Romania following an armistice, and "only stood to enhance [the communists'] position". The plot involved statistician Sabin Manuilă, who acted as a PNȚ representative; a disciple of Moldovan, he had been involved with Antonescu's project to persecute Jews and deport Romanies, but also protected some 5,000 Jewish specialists working under his watch. Shortly before the coup, Maniu clashed with PCdR envoy Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, who had wanted the BPD to be joined by Ralea and other FRN eminences. Though largely unaware about any conspiracy, the PNȚ's lower echelons organized a pro-Allied rally at Bellu cemetery on August 20. Meeting with its leaders, Maniu expressed the hope that Antonescu himself would take Romania out of the Axis.
Dreptatea, which had been banned in 1938, reentered print on August 27, 1944. Openly active from September, the PNȚ moved office to Clemenceau Street 6, which would remain its headquarters until dissolution. Maniu was initially offered the premiership, but opted out, arguing that the position should go to a military man for the war's duration. Historian Vlad Georgescu singles this out as Maniu's "real mistake": "[It] deprived the country of the only leadership that could have been strong and popular, the only party that could have rallied the people around a truly democratic program. In refusing to take over in 1944, Maniu [...] caused a power vacuum into which the Communist Party moved." A military-civilian cabinet was formed by General Constantin Sănătescu. Since the National Peasantists and PCdR envoys could not agree on a list of ministers, these were recruited from Michael I's courtiers, with party men serving only as ministers without portfolio; Leucuția and Solomon were the PNȚ's representatives. The promotion of such comparatively minor figures was criticized by the party's youth, leaving Maniu to acknowledge the brain drain which had affected National Peasantism ever since Călinescu and Ralea's defections.
As described by scholar Lucian Boia, from 1945 the PNȚ emerged from the coup "believing itself the country's great party", which made it adopt a policy of "political and moral intransigence". By 1947, it had 2.12 million card-carrying members; as noted by Georgescu, it ranked ahead of all other parties, albeit "neither numbers nor popularity could bring it to power." Maniu preserved regional influence in reconquered Northern Transylvania, organized from September 1944 under a Committee of the Liberated Regions. This was presided upon by Ionel Pop. Commissariat rule often veered into an antimagyarism that was only ever curbed by the Red Army after a "six-week killing spree". Various reports, including oral testimonies by Peasant Guard members and volunteers who answered calls printed in Ardealul, suggest that local Hungarians were victims of numerous lynchings, either tolerated of encouraged by the Commissariat.
By then, the PCdR had sparked a government crisis over Maniu's rejection of its communization programs; in the aftermath, communists spuriously claimed that Maniu had personally masterminded the killing of Transylvanian Hungarians. Upon taking over at Internal Affairs, PNȚ-ist Nicolae Penescu found himself accused of stalling democratization, and was pushed into resigning. After Maniu was again offered the premiership, and again declined, power went to General Nicolae Rădescu. Maniu and his followers agreed with the PCdR on the need for "de-fascization" in Romania, overseeing a purge of Romania's police agencies and appointing Ghiță Pop as PNȚ representative on the Special Committee for the investigation of war crimes. However, as noted by Boia, "curious solidarities" continued to be formed locally by anti-Carol PNȚ-ists and their Guardist counterparts. Noted Guardists who were accepted as PNȚ members include Horațiu Comaniciu and Silviu Crăciunaș. National Peasantists in Transylvania no longer screened against the Iron Guard, whose affiliates joined into the effort to terrorize Hungarians into leaving the area. Any such recruitment drive was curbed by the PCdR, which obtained assurances from leading Guardists that they would prevent their followers from entering the PNȚ.
The PNȚ's vice presidents in the coup's aftermath were Mihalache, Lupu, and Mihai Popovici. Ghiță Pop was a fourth member of this team, but has to resign upon taking up a position in Sănătescu's cabinet. Maniu was additionally assisted by a Permanent Delegation, whose members included Halippa, Hudiță, Lazăr, Teofil Sauciuc-Săveanu, Gheorghe Zane, as well as, with the introduction of women's suffrage, Ella Negruzzi. Overall, the party was seeing a rejuvenation of its leadership, with Coposu and Virgil Veniamin taking over as junior party secretaries. Noted militants included young academics—among them Radu and Șerban Cioculescu, as well as Vladimir Streinu. The party lost its control over the TNȚ, with Alexandrescu favoring a PCdR alliance. Consequently, Maniu ordered Coposu to establish a loyalist youth group, called Organizația M.
On February 3, 1945, the youth wing broke away from the PNȚ as the Alexandrescu Peasantists. It rallied with a communist-run National Democratic Front (FND), established in October 1944, being identified in PNȚ propaganda as "lackeys of the Communist Party". While Alexandrescu's group remained exceedingly small, the PCdR also revived the Ploughmen's Front. This move was specifically intended to destabilize the PNȚ by recruiting smallholders. In November 1944, it absorbed the Socialist Peasants' Party, a small group established by Ralea and Ghelmegeanu. In order to counteract such moves, Maniu also established a PNȚ Workers' Organization, with Lazăr as its overseer. This body was successful in countering FND propaganda. As part of this conflict, the Printers' Syndicate, which was under communist control, imposed censorship on the opposition press: in February 1945, the PNȚ could only print nine newspapers, whereas the PCdR had thirty-one.
Against Groza
Rădescu was toppled following a massacre of communist-and-allied protesters, later revealed as a false flag operation carried out by PCdR militias. In early March 1945, the FND took over in government, with Petru Groza, of the Ploughmen's Front, as Prime Minister. The PNȚ remained in the opposition, viewing the takeover as a coup. Although it sent representatives when Groza celebrated the full recovery and pacification of Northern Transylvania, these were purposefully selected from among the party youth. Groza engineered a takeover of all local administration, only failing to do so in six counties. These were progressively made to submit by selective arrests among the opposition activists and by the institution of political censorship, resulting in the closure of other PNȚ newspapers. Emil Hațieganu reported that 40 party newspapers had been shut down since 1944; Dreptatea itself was banned in March, and could only briefly reemerge in January 1946. A standoff between the King and Groza was saluted by the National Peasantists, who participated in a massive monarchist rally in November 1945. Many, including Coposu, were arrested during the clampdown.
During May 1945, while organizing Antonescu's trial by a Romanian People's Tribunal (with which it hoped to discredit Maniu as a Nazi collaborator), the government also ordered massive arrests among its cadres. A large number of PNȚ regional activists, as well as PNȚ youth who had participated in the November rally, were detained at camps in Caracal and Slobozia, but ultimately released in December 1945. While Maniu dissociated himself from the movement, Groza was supported by the communists' "popular assemblies", which openly called for the PNȚ and PNL to be outlawed and repressed. Churchill's electoral defeat in July was read as an additional bad omen by Maniu, who noted that Labour had no sympathy for Romanian anti-communists. He asked Rațiu not to return from England, but continue to serve as his lobbyist.
Other PNȚ men and women were by then involved in the establishment of an armed anti-communist resistance. Founded by three Ardealul volunteers in 1944, the group Haiducii lui Avram Iancu asked Maniu for assistance. It received no such endorsement, although communist prosecutors would claim that it and all other such units were financed by the party leadership. General Aurel Aldea, who spoke for Haiducii, had credentials as an adversary of the Iron Guard, but also viewed the PNȚ as inefficient and unpatriotic. In early 1945, some PNȚ members had affiliated with the National Resistance Movement, operated by a dissident Iron Guard member, George Manu. Its democratic and fascist wings remained generally hostile to one another. Maniu was still "reluctant to collaborate" with various resistance groups, "since many manifested anti-Semitic and ultra-nationalist sentiments." From April 1946, PNȚ men networked in Suceava County between the Sumanele Negre partisans and an American envoy, Ira Hamilton. This and various other resistance units took in members of the Peasant Guards. In June, the US Central Intelligence Group worked with the PNȚ to set up a sleeper network, tasked with opening up a second front in case of a Soviet attack on Turkey. The local organization was infiltrated by the Soviets and soon after repressed. Dreptatea still published regular praise of the Soviet Union, but did so on the advice of American envoys, and hoping to ensure the party's survival under occupation.
During May 1946, Groza established a new BPD from FND affiliates and other parties, including Alexandrescu's. Later that year, the Border Police of Iași County reported that the local PNȚ branch was experiencing mass desertions, with Iorgu Iordan and Andrei Oțetea reemerging as communists. Maniu's grip on the party was also loosened from January 1946, when Lupu led another schism. His eponymous Democratic Peasants' Party–Lupu (PȚD-L) condemned Maniu as an enemy of the people, but did not support Groza. As the PSDR split into anti- and pro-BPD parties, Lupu ensured contacts between the former group and the mainline PNȚ. Maniu was also able to preserve his "fiefdom" of Sălaj, which saw members of the Ploughmen's Front quitting to join the PNȚ.
Groza yielded to Western demands and included two members of the interwar democratic parties into his cabinet; the PNȚ-reserved seat went to Hațieganu. This moment marked his party's final presence in government, with the PNȚ and the BPD facing each other as adversaries in a "decisive battle" for the general elections in November 1946. In preparation, the government proceeded to modify the electoral list, stripping as many as 80% of PNȚ members of their voting rights; in Bucharest, only 10% of party affiliates were eligible to vote. Groza also drafted legislation that suppressed the Senate, which had traditionally been the more conservative chamber. Maniu attempted to persuade King Michael not to sign it, hoping that the resulting crisis would prompt an Anglo–American intervention. The monarch disagreed, fearing that the attempt would have uncontrollable effects.
On October 21, the PNȚ, PNL, and Constantin Titel Petrescu's Independent Social Democrats signed an "agreement for the defense of democratic freedoms". However, the PNȚ was opposed to creating a single electoral alliance, confident that it could win on its own. By then, National Peasantist electoral agents had found themselves targeted by violence, with especially brutal incidents in Arad and Pitești; four local activists were murdered, while Penescu was heavily injured. At Balinț, the arrival of pro-BPD hecklers to a PNȚ meeting resulted in an altercation, during which a communist was killed. The party was nearly prevented from even entering the race in Năsăud County. Here, its attempt to form a paramilitary resistance led to a clampdown. During the backlash, Lazăr was arrested and neutralized as a threat, with Veniamin replacing him at the Workers' Organization.
1947 clampdown
According to official records, the election was a landslide communist win. In-depth reporting suggests that the scrutiny was falsified by Groza's administration, with the PNȚ taking most votes. PCdR internal documents have the PNȚ and PNL together at 52%, with over 70% reached in Dorohoi, Maramureș, Muscel, Olt, and Rădăuți. The PNȚ claimed 70% of the vote nationally, with the PNL at 10%. Maniu concluded that his party had been invested with full confidence by the Romanian public, and therefore that it should form government. When the official results were published, the PNȚ Central Executive Committee demanded a new vote; its effort to raise awareness was nullified by King Michael, who ratified all parliamentary mandates. The unicameral legislature assigned 377 mandates to Groza's BPD, while the opposition had 37, of which 32 were held by the PNȚ and 2 by the PȚD-L. Among those elected was Mara Lazăr, wife of Ilie, who reportedly won by 93% in her husband's constituency.
Maniu ordered PNȚ deputies not to attend Assembly sessions. During this parliamentary strike, the BPD started its "brutal offensive" and "final assault" against the National Peasantists. In early 1947, Pantelimon Chirilă, who had reorganized the PNȚ branch in Rădăuți County, had to retire from politics after being beaten up. Local activists were by then being re-arrested, though the authorities agreed to spare PNȚ deputies (by then numbering 33 people) and some in the central structures, including Mihalache and Penescu. These events prompted Maniu to publicly ask for American troops to be sent to Romania on a peacekeeping mission. In that context, the regime confiscated leaflets, allegedly sent out by the Peasant Guards, which called for a popular uprising and for "death to the communists", while referring to Antonescu as "an archangel and a martyr". According to police reports, the PNȚ worked with YMCA and the Friends of America Association to build a solid base in Severin County, but was divided over the possibility of recruiting among the Iron Guard's clandestine networks.
Groza's government then staged the "Tămădău Affair", which centered on Mihalache's attempt to leave the country clandestinely on July 14, 1947. The party headquarters was searched by police agents, and Maniu was arrested on July 19, accused of having colluded alongside Mihalache, Grigore Gafencu, and a number of foreign agents. The controversy offered a pretext for outlawing the PNȚ by a parliament act on July 29. Both the PNL and the PȚD-L endorsed this measure, resulting in a 294-to-1 majority. A show trial took place, and sentences were passed against PNȚ cadres, from seniors Maniu and Mihalache (both of whom would die in prison) to the more junior Carandino. Coposu was also arrested, and held without trial until 1956, when he was sentenced for high treason.
The party continued to exist clandestinely, though its structures are hard to reconstruct. A party representation was set up at Reșița by engineer Alexandru Popp, who proposed detonating the Assembly hall as BPD deputies were being sworn in. The Iron Guard's Ion Gavrilă Ogoranu, who took part in the anti-communist resistance, identifies Popp as Maniu's successor, and notes that the PNȚ was thus represented on the movement's "unified command". Also according to Ogoranu, this group already maintained links with the Romanian National Committee (RNC), formed in exile by General Rădescu. The project of merging the Iron Guard and the PNȚ into one major diaspora party was embraced and advocated by Comăniciu and Crăciunaș, who organized an anti-communist base in Austria. Crăciunaș also helped a number of PNȚ leaders to defect abroad—examples include Manuilă, Veniamin, and Romulus Boilă.
From 1947, PNȚ exiles joined Stanisław Mikołajczyk's International Peasants' Union, which, from early 1948, had Grigore Niculescu-Buzești on its Central Committee. Their party's affiliation to the RNC was only formalized in April 1949, when Niculescu-Buzești, Cornel Bianu, and Augustin Popa were included on its leadership board; Vișoianu and Gafencu also joined, but as independents. Unlike Rădescu, Vișoianu and Niculescu-Buzești remained opposed to any alliance with the Iron Guard. Vișoianu would serve as RNC chairman to 1975, when the Committee had dissolved; by then, Manuilă had also been inducted into the RNC.
With the inauguration of Communist Romania in early 1948, and before the formal introduction of a single-party state, the PȚD-L was still allowed to organize, with Nicolae Gh. Lupu as its new president. It ran in the sham election of March 1948, which also saw reports of "reactionary propaganda" in favor of the outlawed PNȚ. Persecution of National Peasantists came in successive waves. In its early months, the regime captured armed PNȚ cells led by Silvestru Fociuc of Iași and Ion Uță of Teregova. In late 1949, a lot comprising A. Popa and Gabriel Țepelea was tried and jailed for "subverting the social order"; Beza was also caught in 1951. Publicly tried by the Soviets, Halippa was moved between the Gulag and Romanian prisons, surviving both. In the Apuseni Mountains, a resistance cell of PNȚ and Guardists was organized by Ioan Bogdan, until being finally put down by the Securitate in 1952. This rapprochement had a utilitarian purpose for the Iron Guard: while in confinement, Ghiță Pop and Ioan Bărbuș assisted Guardist prisoners by transferring them food and medicine, without realizing that the Guardist cells were actually informing the regime on their activities.
The PNȚ had a sizable representation in both armed resistance and the prison population. According to official estimates, at least half of the anti-communist partisans had never had a political affiliation; of the remainder, a plurality were PNȚ-ists. From August 1952, all those who had served as city or county leaders in four traditional parties, including the PNȚ and PNL, were automatically deported to penal colonies; some, like Șerban Cioculescu, were tacitly excepted, while an explicit pardon was granted to all of Alexandrescu's followers. One count suggests that, overall, 272,000 PNȚ members spent time in communist prisons. A parallel phenomenon saw former National Peasantists joining the Communist Party—which had absorbed the PSDR and was known at the time as the "Workers' Party" (PMR). This movement began in July 1947: while regional party leaders went into hiding, large sections of the base enlisted with the BPD parties. The PMR's own estimates suggest that, even after an early wave of expulsions in 1950, its cadres still comprised 5.6% undesirables, including former PNȚ-ists.
Final resurgence
From 1954, with the advent of national communism and Romania's interest in joining the United Nations, violent repression was toned down by unprecedented clemency. As noted at the time by Premier Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the release of political prisoners was a dogwhistle to the National Peasantist diaspora that "they should return home [and] no harm will come to them." Government agencies were by then directly probing into RNC activities. After capturing Crăciunaș, who became a communist double agent, they had direct access to the PNȚ Central Committee; they likewise blackmailed Veniamin into becoming their informant. The RNC remained factionalized: in 1964, Bessarabian PNȚ-ist Anton Crihan withdrew from its presidium over disagreements with other members.
PNȚ cells had continued to be formed in Romanian prisons. One such group was animated by Coposu and reportedly envisaged a democratic cabinet, with Gheorghe Zane as Premier. Although integrated into professional and social life, survivors of political repression were sometimes vocal dissidents. The Bucharest student movement of 1956 came with slogans such as "Down with the communists" and "Long live the National Peasants' Party". During the following year, the regime resumed its persecution, targeting more minor National Peasantists, including a 7-man cell in Ploiești, and arresting on charges that he was plotting to reestablish the party. Though he had been active in the Ploughmen's Front, Adrian Brudariu was arrested in December 1956, and sentenced for his earlier involvement with the PNȚ. Securitate agents noted that a Bessarabian wing of the PNȚ, which included an aged Halippa, was actively networking with other exiles and discussing plans for a post-Soviet Moldova. Also in 1957, Aiud Prison witnessed a hunger strike organized by PNȚ-ist and Guardist prisoners. Towards the end of the decade, the Securitate gathered evidence that a group of Bărăgan deportees, including Cezar Spineanu, were working on a new PNȚ platform.
Under Nicolae Ceaușescu, the PMR, renaming itself Romanian Communist Party (PCR), began extending recognition for interwar underground activists, or "illegalists", who were allowed to join its nomenklatura. Ceaușescu's guidelines resulted in scores of PNȚ leftists being honored with that title. Such overtures were not welcomed by the PNȚ-ist mainstream. Party cells were still being organized by former prisoners after that moment, often resorting to forms of passive resistance. From 1968, the National Peasantist exile recognized Coposu as a leader of the internal underground; his attempt to reorganize the party in the open was curbed by the Securitate in 1970. Meanwhile, Beza, having caused a series of embarrassments for the PCR regime, was allowed to emigrate in 1971. In 1973, several PNȚ-ists, including Coposu, Ionel Pop, Ion Diaconescu, Ion Puiu, and , organized a memorial service for Maniu. The Securitate intervened in force, fearing that as many as 10,000 people would show up. Later that decade, Carandino issued his memoirs of party life in samizdat form, managing to have them published abroad in 1986.
Following the RNC's dissolution in 1975, Penescu established the Romanian National Council of Paris, which he led until his death in 1985, upon which he was replaced by . The 1980s saw the "reappearance of activists of the old political parties that had been banned in 1947", now involved in efforts to expose the communist regime's duplicity on the human rights' issue: "Former leaders of the National Peasant Party managed to recruit some young people, including workers, and to establish a human rights association with mostly young members in Bucharest and in Transylvania." During the election of 1985, with candidacies vetted by the PCR through its Front of Socialist Unity and Democracy, Puiu issued a PNȚ platform calling for political reforms. Puiu also attempted to run, and was consequently imprisoned. Placed under Securitate surveillance, Coposu denied claims that he was the party's new chairman, and even that there was such a thing as an "inner opposition" to the PCR. In 1986, together with Puiu and Carandino, he wrote a manifesto marking the 30th anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution. In other contexts, Coposu also acknowledged the PNȚ's existence and, in February 1987, obtained its recognition and induction by the Christian Democrat World Union. This affiliation was kept secret for almost three years.
Coposu was a direct participant in the Romanian Revolution of 1989, at the end of which democratic rule was formally restored. On December 22, the day of Ceaușescu's toppling, Coposu, Bărbuș, Diaconescu, Puiu and others signed an appeal to the population, as the "Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party", which was distributed the following day. It was registered on January 8, 1990, and viewed itself as a re-legalization or reestablishment of Maniu and Mihalache's movement. In February 1990, Carandino also relaunched Dreptatea as a new series of the pre-1947 newspaper. In 1995, the Supreme Court of Romania overturned all verdicts of treason passed against the PNȚ's defunct leadership.
Ideology
Economic and social outlook
Core stances
Lucian Boia describes the PNȚ as an "eclectic" group "lacking a unified doctrine"; another historian, Damian Hurezeanu, speaks of the 1930s PNȚ as a "wide array spanning the distance between left-wing peasant radicalism and the nationalist right". Early on, the more powerful component of this mix was the former Romanian National Party (PNR). It had been formed in Austria-Hungary, specifically Transylvania, with the goal of channeling the Romanian vote, and following the establishment of Greater Romania in 1918–1922, led the rebellion against PNL centralism. One element which impeded categorization was Maniu's notorious reserve about declaring himself for or against various issues or approaches—leading him to be nicknamed "The Sphinx". Scholar Dimitrie Drăghicescu noted in 1922 that, overall, there was no ideological incompatibility between the PNL and the Transylvanians, proposing that Maniu and his entourage were primarily national liberals of bourgeois extraction, who had no doctrine of their own.
A similar point is made by Heinen, according to whom the PNR was by 1926 a "classic bourgeois-democratic" force, different from the PNL only in that it took up "Transylvanian interests". Stephen Fischer-Galați questions the consensus that Maniu was a liberal, referring to the PNȚ-ist leadership model as a "controlled democracy"; according to the scholar, Maniu and Carol differed only in the emphasis they placed on the premiership and the throne, respectively. Historian Vasile Dobrescu believes that PNR influence was the true conservative current of the unified party. Overall, according to Boia, Maniu "made few investments in ideology, he only had tactical refinements." In one of his pronouncements on the matter, Maniu explained that the PNR was non-ideological, being instead the unified voice of the Transylvanian Romanian community, "with all its centuries-old aspirations".
Through its "Peasantist" legacy, the PNȚ had a connection with the various strains of 19th-century agrarianism. PNL doctrinaire Ștefan Zeletin proposed that this group was a local avatar of "Physiocracy", in that they rejected mercantilism and saw the rural classes as a source for economic advancement. He dismissed such manifestations as typical of "primitive capitalism", and ultimately as doomed. As seen by Drăghicescu, the PȚ blended an Old-Kingdom component, which originated with the peasant associations founded by Constantin Dobrescu-Argeș and Toma Dragu, and a "foreign" component, which was Constantin Stere's Poporanism. Also according to Drăghicescu, the PȚ had managed to absorb the PNL's own agrarian wing (or Labor Party), becoming in part a replica of the latter.
From Poporanism, Mihalache's group inherited the notion of a "peasant state" or "peasant democracy"—a moderate take on the "peasant dictatorship" proposed by the Bulgarian Agrarianists. Some of the core assumptions in interwar Peasantism were also informed by Marxian economics, though contradicting all Marxist assumptions about peasantry as a recessive and reactionary class. The Peasantists were fundamentally anti-bourgeoisie in their outlook, which exposed them to suspicions that they were communists. Early on, the People's Party decried Madgearu as an agitator for "economic Bolshevism". Such inferences, Drăghicescu argues, were groundless: although "tactless" in their occasional "Marxist zeal", Peasantists rejected neither property nor inheritance, being "almost conservative" overall. A similar view is held by scholar Ion Ilincioiu, who sees the PNȚ's agrarian theory as fundamentally conservative, anti-industrial, and romantic. In generic terms, Madgearu favored economic liberalism and championed free trade as the basis for economic stability—in stated contradiction with the PNL's slogan, "ourselves alone".
The PNȚ program featured many of the PȚ's core ideas and promises, but omitted all reference to class conflict, and focused mostly on themes such as "national solidarity". Historian Angela Harre argues that post-Poporanism within the party was toned down even more by the Great Depression: "The resulting economic break-down mercilessly showed the connections between Romanian agriculture and international capitalism and, thus, ended the strategy of leaving capitalism aside and of jumping directly from feudalism into a better (socialist) future." According to Fischer-Galați, PNȚ politicos always subsumed Peasantism to the "greatest interest of the nation", including the "industrial bourgeoisie"; this, he argues, was an inherent flaw. Party doctrinaires paid tribute to various alternative models that could still protect peasants from economic modernity, "looking for a Third Way between liberalism and communism." In programmatic terms, the PNȚ favored "the free circulation of land", but short of land grabbing, proposing upper and lower limits on property purchase. As argued by Jelavich, in the early 1930s National Peasantism remained representative of the peasantry's "more prosperous section", incapable of assisting those "with only dwarf holdings or with no land at all".
Ideological experiments
Seen by Vasile Dobrescu as a "moderator and modulator" of Peasantist thought, one who personally ensured that Poporanist radicals were neutralized, Maniu always professed a belief in multilateralism and class collaboration. In 1924, Maniu argued that such integrative processes were interrelated, and together would create "major social and economic units". Around the same time, Peasantists had come to realize that smallholding units remained economically unviable, and prone to market exclusion. Explicitly complimented by Maniu, the cooperative movement won over Mihalache's Peasantist left. Within this current, the "integral" cooperatism was espoused by Victor Jinga, who believed that the "peasant state" was also the "cooperative state". This faction was specifically interested in Nordic agrarianism and the Danish cooperatives: in 1930, Mihalache sent some of his peasant friends, including writer Nicolae Vucu-Secășanu, for specialization in Denmark.
Cooperative enterprises were nevertheless absent from the party platforms of 1926 and 1935, with Mihalache only promising "organized and rationalized private property", without any details on what this meant. Although the party doctrines remained largely unchanged from that moment on, the following decade saw "vigorous debate" among PNȚ intellectuals, whose various takes on the "peasant state [...] were not always fully identical with the [party's] official views." However, as described by scholar Z. Ornea, Ralea's program in 1935 meant an infusion of center-left ideas into PNȚ policies. At that stage, the anti-industrial consensus was fading away, with developmentalism taking the forefront. Agrarian conservatism now focused on creating a strong industry in harmony with the smallholding units. In this context, some party eminences embraced dirigisme, and, in 1933, Maniu himself proposed that agricultural machinery and infant industries could be nationalized. This was contrasted by the behavior other PNȚ leaders, four of whom were stockholders in multinational companies by 1937.
As "Third Way" advocates, some PNȚ ideologues often veered into explicit support for social corporatism. This built on ideas first circulated by Stere in 1908, and, with Madgearu, became a more complex program for corporate representation. The "solidarist" version, embraced by Transylvanians such as Mihai Popovici, implied "peasant leadership, but without oppressing and marginalizing other social categories." In addition to promoting welfare reform, the PNȚ stood by a minimum wage and, as early as 1926, promoted collective bargaining as the solution to labor disputes. In 1936, Mihalache expressed a measure of sympathy for corporate statism, which he believed had been implemented by Italian fascism. Faced with negative reactions from the left, he revised his positions, noting that, whatever its merits, that particular regime could not be imported to Romania. Harre remarks that talk of a "peasant state" became vaguer ca. 1936, with Mihalache settling on references to "group democracy", which simply prioritized collective interests.
In 1944, Mihalache restated the party's commitments to its 1935 platform, insisting that the PNȚ would fashion a "workers' state" while still adhering to smallholding as the economic norm. In the party manifesto of October 1944, the supremacy of property was qualified by the addition: "land belongs to those who work it"; and by an endorsement of additional land reforms. As noted by Georgescu, the PNȚ was now radicalized along "Peasantist" lines, also promising the nationalization of heavy industry—and thus expanding its electoral base. Among the party intellectuals, Jinga was also pressing for a return to cooperative ideals, which he believed was made possible by postwar conditions. Mihalache's theories were soon challenged from within by younger militants such as Gabriel Țepelea. They argued that singularizing various categories of income into a "peasant class" was a fundamentally flawed approach. The new-generation activists held that the various peasant "strata" shared only a mutual apprehension against both socialism and free-trade liberalism; rather than commanding over a unified category, the PNȚ could form a peasant caucus.
From 1945, Țepelea signaled a trend, also embraced by other Maniu disciples, which identified National Peasantism with Christian democracy, defining social justice as a function of moral theology and personalism. Ideological clarifications were again curbed by other priorities. As noted by Hurezeanu, the "great theme" of PNȚ propaganda during 1944–1947 was the consolidation and preservation of democracy. As formulated by Țepelea, the struggle facing his party in 1945 was "to be, or not to be": "no longer an academic choice between monarchy and republic, but one opposing the defense of national identity with respect for some democratic principles to the acceptance of communist-imposed servitude." Situated more to the left, in 1947 Șerban Cioculescu wrote for Dreptatea: "I had sympathy for the communists while they were oppressed, but ceased liking them once they turned into oppressors."
Nationalism
Main currents
National Peasantism understood cultural nationalism as being compatible with democracy. Especially through its Transylvanian core, which had overseen the union process, the party saw Greater Romania as the product of democratic consultation. According to Maniu, Trianon "did not create, but merely acknowledged for an international public, a union between Transylvania and the Romanian Kingdom." As seen by Maniu, popular sovereignty was always ensured and verified through mass gatherings, replicating the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia of 1918—though he remained skeptical of revolutionary masses. His unusually strict commitment to the democratic process was ridiculed by adversaries as "legalistic frenzy".
Maniu and many other PNR leaders belonged to a religious minority, namely the Greek Catholic Church. Sometimes chided by its bishops for favoring the predominant Eastern Orthodoxy, the PNȚ was still described by missionary priest Rafael Friedrich as "closest to the Catholic Church". The party mainstream stood by the promise of corporate rights for ethnic minorities, all of which would have found their place in the agrarianist state. As noted by Harre, this goal, "as well as the demand for a democratization and decentralization of the country might have calmed down many ethnic conflicts during the interwar period." In addition to sealing pacts with the minority parties, the PNȚ ran openly non-Romanian candidates on its lists; examples include Jews Tivadar Fischer, Mayer Ebner and Salomon Kinsbrunner, as well as Constantin Krakalia and Volodymyr Zalozetsky-Sas, who were Ukrainian. A Jewish steel magnate, Max Auschnitt, financed PNȚ projects both in interwar Romania and in exile.
The PNȚ's governments, with Aurel Vlad as Minister of Arts, were criticized by the Union of Romanian Jews for tolerating discrimination, in particular against Jews and Judaism; Vlad also informed minority leaders that decentralization had been postponed indefinitely. Shortly before the Lupeni debacle of 1929, regional representatives, including Augustin Popa, spoke out in favor of restoring economic nationalism. German Romanians, who had been especially enthusiastic about the PNȚ-ist promise to decentralize Romania, switched to supporting the Nazified German People's Party. Connections between PNȚ-ists and minorities were reactivated after World War II, when the PNȚ registered mass enlistments by non-Romanian anti-communists, including Swabians in Lugoj and Jews in Târgu Neamț.
Cosmopolitanism was supported by the various doctrinaires, including, in the mid 1930s, Ralea and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru. Both argued for non-xenophobic, secular, and conciliatory nationalism in polemics with one-time PNȚ associates such as Nae Ionescu and Nichifor Crainic. In 1937, Madgearu spoke about "Romanianization" as a goal of National Peasantist policies, but argued that this could only be achieved through price controls. A year after, Mihalache made reference to the "Jewish Question" and described the PNȚ as "equally nationalist" to all other parties, but still rejected "negative" antisemitism. The party's Transylvanian circles criticized fascism from a moderate nationalist position: Iuliu Moldovan's "biopolitics" and scientific racism had numerous points of contact with far-right antisemitism, but always remained more democratic than similar programs advanced by Romanian fascists. Ionel Pop argued in 1936 that vandalizing Jewish property was a cowardly act and a deflection, hinting that "Christian parties" would have done better to focus on chasing out an "evil spirit" that lurked in the corridors of power.
Maniu's own anti-fascism was rendered inconsistent his overtures toward the Iron Guard. During his conflict with Elena Lupescu, he emphasized her Jewish origin in what appeared to be an attempt at gaining support from the antisemitic caucus. Albeit limited in impact, Maniu's arrangements for 1937 are seen as a "tactical error", made possible by his "blind hatred" toward Carol. They "stifled the cause of democracy at a time when it was struggling for air", "rendering more respectability to Codreanu's public image". At the height of his conflict with Maniu, Mihalache allegedly noted: "Maniu will be removed from the party once he will join the Iron Guard once and for all". A defense witness at Codreanu's trial in 1938, Maniu insisted that the National Peasantists were neither totalitarian nor antisemitic. He therefore reported a "great difference" of conception between himself and the Guardists, with the only shared goal being returning Romania to a "solid base of Christian morality". As noted by Heinen, he was naive in believing that his national conservatism had common ground with Codreanu, who merely used Maniu.
Pan-nationalism, regionalism, trans-nationalism
Anti-communism as expressed by the PNȚ's mainstream was also motivated by nationalist priorities, with party men such as Grigore Gafencu urging for the strong defense of Bessarabia against Soviet demands and incursions. Although Poporanist traditions included criticism of Romanian "militarism", PNȚ governments were hawkish on this issue, and kept up defense spending. Interwar National Peasantists were also curious about the Moldavian ASSR, created by Romanian-speakers inside Soviet Ukraine, and made oblique references to it as a Romanian irredenta. Concurrently, Maniu's attempt to reduce spending by downsizing intelligence agencies led to allegations that he was serving communist interests. The party's leftist faction was in fact cautious about criticizing the Soviet regime—Victor Eftimiu noted in 1932 that the "capitalist press" was probably overstating Soviet negatives. An overtly pro-Soviet attitude was embraced in 1940 by former PNȚ leftists Alexandru Mîță and Gheorghe Stere.
The party's stances were revised by Maniu in 1941, when he condemned the Soviets while castigating war beyond Bessarabia's border as "aggression". The Bloc of Democratic Parties could only be forged once the Soviet Union dissolved the Comintern, which had opposed the notion of Greater Romania. Maniu's acceptance of the 1944 armistice also excluded Bessarabia from Romania's borders, but this remained a contentious issue inside the party. attempted to persuade Maniu to reconsider, while Halippa went public with his critique of the cession in 1946. Pan-Romanianism remained central in disputes between Halippa and Anton Crihan, even after 1970.
Despite endorsing the nation state, Transylvanian party members remained vexed about PNL centralism, and came to promote regionalism as the alternative. The slogan "Transylvania for the Transylvanians" was taken up by Vaida-Voevod during his early activism with the party; it was also a form of nativism, directed specifically against Old-Kingdom bureaucrats sent into the region. The party's very creation had blocked the PȚ's slow extension into Transylvania, which PNR leaders had found unpalatable. Historian Thomas Gerard Gallagher proposes that Maniu valued political liberties more than "national power", which implied that he resented centralism. As such, the 1928 takeover came with Maniu's promise that he would bridge national cohesion and regional identities, but this objective was left unfulfilled when economic issues took the forefront. Beyond decentralization, regionalism and autonomism made occasional comebacks in National Peasantist discourse during the later interwar. In 1931, party militant Romulus Boilă published a proposal to redivide Romania's administration along regional affiliations, but it was largely ignored by the public.
Hungarian spies claimed in 1940 that Maniu intended to proclaim an autonomous Transylvania under Soviet protection, in order to prevent its partitioning. The accuracy of such reports remains doubtful. Although formally rejecting regionalism in 1944, the PNȚ still advocated a decentralized model during the reintegration of Northern Transylvania: a part-regionalist agenda was a basis for the Commissariat of the Liberated Regions. As a corollary of his support for cooperative endeavors and defense of minority rights, Maniu championed Balkan federalism and Europeanism, both of which were referred to in his speeches of the 1920s and '30s; he viewed himself as agreeing with specific transnational proposals advanced by Nicolae Titulescu and André Tardieu. In part, such tenets reflected the PNȚ-ist stances on Transylvanian autonomy: Maniu regarded István Bethlen's autonomism as a front for Hungarian revisionism, and proposed instead that Hungary and Romania be joined into a Central European Confederation. As envisaged by Maniu, the "Little European" union was also set to include 6 other states, from Austria to Greece. An offer to join was also extended to Italy, seen by Maniu as a military guarantee for the confederation, alongside Poland. His and Mironescu's premierships brought direct talks over transforming the Little Entente into a single market.
Fischer-Galați argues that, of all the Peasantist movements emerging in 1920s Eastern Europe, Romania and Bulgaria's were the only ones which had a tangible chance of succeeding. The PNȚ inherited an international profile from Mihalache's group, which had adhered to a transnational "agrarian league" formed by the Bavarian People's Party. National Peasantists joined the International Agrarian Bureau (IAB) as the Bureau made its first-ever recruitment drive outside Slavic Europe, with an invitation having been first addressed to the PȚ in 1924. In the 1930s, Madgearu was also able to form a "Bloc of Agrarian Countries", which he championed as a reduced version of Maniu's federalism. PNȚ contributions to the International Peasants' Union, which called for a liberation of the Eastern bloc and supported European federalism, were depicted as continuing the IAB affiliation.
PNȚ symbols
Before 1938, the PNȚ used as its electoral symbol a plain circle—which party propaganda also described as a "ring", "wheel", or "sun". Originally used by the Progressive Conservative Party, and then, briefly, by Mihalache's PȚ, it was imposed on the PNR by its allies during the formation of the National–Peasant Bloc in 1926. Coincidentally or not, most of the PNȚ's rivals on the interwar agrarian scene, from the National Agrarian Party and the Romanian Front to the Radical Peasants' Party and the Lupists, used circular icons as their logos. The similarities had various results: while the Front claimed to have lost votes in the resulting confusion, the PȚD-L "would have reportedly taken no mandates had it not used for a sign two overlaid wheels".
The PNȚ made a point of not using any political color. According to a 1936 communique jibing at the rise of fascism, the Peasant Guards could only wear badges showing the Romanian tricolor—"and not signs borrowed from our [country's] centuries-old enemies." Colored symbols were unofficial, but attested from 1928, when PNȚ organizations in Bihor had tens of flags of unspecified shades. Formed the following year, Voinici groups also carried such symbols, and had a hierarchy which included "flag-bearers". Accounts of the period suggest that these carried the Romanian tricolor, or flags inscribed with the party name. Additionally, Voinici appropriated the Roman salute, which became their official greeting.
In 1930, peasant voters from the Bessarabian town of Vaisal are known to have rallied under a red flag with a circle. Months after, the party newspaper Țara de Mâine informed its readers that "the symbolic color of peasant (or agrarian, agricultural etc.) parties is green." This custom was also observed at 1936 marches, during which National Peasantist youths flew a green flag, described in one account as bearing a golden clover. Reports of these rallies also suggest that PNȚ cadres used both the Roman salute, of alleged fascist inspiration, and the raised fist, which had leftist connotations. Unlike Vaida's Front, the PNȚ was not affected by Tătărescu's ordinance of March 1937, which outlawed party colors and political uniforms.
Standardized electoral symbols were themselves outlawed in 1938; during the abortive electoral campaign of that year, parties ran under a "numbered dots" system, which reflected their order of registration. A controversy erupted when the PNȚ was assigned five dots, despite registering third. Maniu fought against the measure and obtained a three-dot symbol. For the ill-fated elections of 1946, the PNȚ used a depiction of the human eye as its logo. In his speeches, Maniu associated this symbol with the need for lucidity, as in: to keep one's eyes wide open. Where the PNȚ was discouraged from participating, hand-painted images of the eye became signals of popular discontent. Following the 1947 clampdown, the symbol was also prohibited, leading overzealous officials in Gorj County to demand that church murals featuring the Eye of Providence (which they read as "Maniu's Eye") be painted over.
Scissions and mergers
Parties seceded from PNȚ
Peasants' Party–Lupu (1927)
Democratic Peasants' Party–Stere (1931)
Radical Peasants' Party (1933)
Romanian Front (1935)
Socialist Peasants' Party (1938)
National Peasants' Party–Alexandrescu (1944)
Democratic Peasants' Party–Lupu (1946)
Parties absorbed by PNȚ
Peasants' Party–Lupu (1937)
Electoral history
Legislative elections
Notes:
1 Almost always the government was named before parliamentary elections and confirmed afterwards.
Notes
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1926 establishments in Romania
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Political parties disestablished in 1947
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Syncretic political movements
Anti-communist parties
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Romania in World War II
Socialist Republic of Romania
Formerly banned political parties | [
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220346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Pirenne | Henri Pirenne | Henri Pirenne (; 23 December 1862 – 24 October 1935) was a Belgian historian. A medievalist of Walloon descent, he wrote a multivolume history of Belgium in French and became a prominent public intellectual. Pirenne made a lasting contribution to the study of cities that was a controversial interpretation of the end of Roman civilization and the rebirth of medieval urban culture. He also became prominent in the nonviolent resistance to the Germans who occupied Belgium in World War I.
Henri Pirenne's reputation today rests on three contributions to European history: for what has become known as the Pirenne Thesis, concerning origins of the Middle Ages in reactive state formation and shifts in trade; for a distinctive view of Belgium's medieval history; and for his model of the development of the medieval city.
Pirenne argued that profound social, economic, cultural, and religious movements in the long term resulted from equally profound underlying causes, and this attitude influenced Marc Bloch and the outlook of the French Annales School of social history. Though Pirenne had his opponents, notably Alfons Dopsch who disagreed on essential points, several recent historians of the Middle Ages have taken Pirenne's main theses, however much they are modified, as starting points.
Biography
Early years
Pirenne was born in Verviers, an industrial city in the Province of Liège in south-east Belgium.
He studied at the University of Liège where he was a student of Godefroid Kurth (1847–1916). He became Professor of History at the University of Ghent in 1886, a post he held until the end of his teaching career in 1930. After World War I he was the most prominent and influential historian in Belgium, receiving numerous honors and committee assignments. He was Rector of the University of Ghent from 1918 to 1921. Pirenne was a close friend of German historian Karl Lamprecht (1856–1915), until they broke during the war when Lamprecht headed a mission to invite Belgians to collaborate with Germany's long-term goals.
Captivity
In 1914, Belgium was invaded by the German Empire and placed under German military occupation. How involved Pirenne was in the Belgian resistance during World War I is not known. What is known is that Pirenne was questioned by German occupiers on 18 March 1916, and subsequently arrested. The occupying army had ordered striking professors at the University of Ghent to continue teaching. Pirenne's son Pierre had been killed in the fighting at the Battle of the Yser in October 1914. The German officer questioning Pirenne asked why he insisted on answering in French when it was known that Pirenne spoke excellent German and had done postgraduate studies at Leipzig and Berlin. Pirenne responded: "I have forgotten German since 3 August 1914," the date of the German invasion of Belgium, part of Germany's war plan to defeat France.
Pirenne was held in Crefeld, then in Holzminden, and finally in Jena, where he was interned from 24 August 1916 until the end of the war. He was denied books, but he learned Russian from soldiers captured on the Eastern Front and subsequently read Russian-language histories made available to him by Russian prisoners. This gave Pirenne's work a unique perspective. At Jena, he began his history of medieval Europe, starting with the fall of Rome. He wrote completely from memory. Rather than a blow-by-blow chronology of wars, dynasties and incidents, A History of Europe presents a big-picture approach to social, political and mercantile trends. It is remarkable not only for its historical insight, but also its objectivity, especially considering the conditions under which it was written.
After the war
After the war, he reflected the widespread disillusionment in Belgium with German culture, while taking a nuanced position which allowed him to criticize German nationalism without excluding German works from the scholarly canon. He attacked race theory and Völkisch nationalism as the underlying causes of German wartime excesses. His earlier belief in the inevitable progress of humanity collapsed, so he began to accept chance or the fortuitous in history and came to acknowledge the significance of single great individuals at certain points in history.
At the conclusion of the war, Henri Pirenne stopped his work on A History of Europe in the middle of the 16th century. He returned home and took up his life. He died at Uccle, Brussels in 1935. His son Jacques Pirenne, who had survived the war to become a historian in his own right, discovered the manuscript. He edited the work by inserting dates for which his father was uncertain in parentheses. Jacques wrote a preface explaining its provenance and published it, with the English translation appearing in 1956. It stands as a monumental intellectual achievement.
Theses and works
On the formation of European towns
Pirenne first expressed ideas on the formation of European towns in articles of 1895; he further developed the idea for the Pirenne Thesis while imprisoned in Germany during World War I. He subsequently published it in a series of papers from 1922 to 1923 and spent the rest of his life refining the thesis with supporting evidence. The most famous expositions appear in Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade (1927, based on a series of lectures of 1922) and in his posthumous Mohammed and Charlemagne (1937), published from Pirenne's first draft.
In brief, the Pirenne Thesis, an early essay in economic history diverging from the narrative history of the 19th century, notes that in the ninth century long-distance trading was at a low ebb; the only settlements that were not purely agricultural were the ecclesiastical, military and administrative centres that served the feudal ruling classes as fortresses, episcopal seats, abbeys and occasional royal residences of the peripatetic palatium. When trade revived in the late tenth and eleventh centuries, merchants and artisans were drawn to the existing centres, forming suburbs in which trade and manufactures were concentrated. These were "new men" outside the feudal structure, living on the peripheries of the established order. The feudal core remained static and inert. A time came when the developing merchant class was strong enough to throw off feudal obligations or to buy out the prerogatives of the old order, which Pirenne contrasted with the new element in numerous ways. The leaders among the mercantile class formed a bourgeois patriciate, in whose hands economic and political power came to be concentrated.
Pirenne's thesis takes as axiomatic that the natural interests of the feudal nobility and of the urban patriciate, which came to well-attested frictions in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, were in their origins incompatible. This aspect of his thesis has been challenged in detail.
Traditionally, historians had dated the Middle Ages from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, a theory Edward Gibbon famously put forward in the 18th century, and which is inexorably linked to the supposition of a Roman "decline" from a previous classic ideal. Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end and he challenged the notion that the end of the Western Roman Empire should be equated with the end of the office of emperor in Europe, which occurred in 476. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and that the Roman way of doing things did not fundamentally change in the time immediately after the "fall" of Rome. Barbarian Goths came to Rome not to destroy it, but to take part in its benefits; they tried to preserve the Roman way of life. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity" emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity, and European archaeology of the first millennium, purposefully undertaken in the later 20th century, even extends the continuity in material culture and patterns of settlement below the political overlay as reaching as late as the eleventh century.
Islam and the Early Middle Ages
According to Pirenne the real break in Roman history occurred in the 8th century as a result of Arab expansion. Islamic conquest of the area of today's south-eastern Turkey, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, Spain and Portugal ruptured economic ties to western Europe, cutting the region off from trade and turning it into a stagnant backwater, with wealth flowing out in the form of raw resources and nothing coming back. This began a steady decline and impoverishment so that, by the time of Charlemagne, western Europe had become almost entirely agrarian at a subsistence level, with no long-distance trade.
In a summary, Pirenne stated that "Without Islam, the Frankish Empire would probably never have existed, and Charlemagne, without Muhammad, would be inconceivable." That is, he rejected the notion that barbarian invasions in the 4th and 5th centuries caused the collapse of the Roman Empire. Instead, the Muslim conquest of north Africa made the Mediterranean a barrier, cutting western Europe off from the east, enabling the Carolingians, especially Charlemagne, to create a new, distinctly western form of government. Pirenne used statistical data regarding money in support of his thesis. Much of his argument builds upon the disappearance from western Europe of items that had to come from outside. For example, the minting of gold coins north of the Alps stopped after the 7th century, indicating a loss of access to wealthier parts of the world. Papyrus, made only in Egypt, no longer appeared in northern Europe after the 7th century; writing reverted to using parchment, indicating its economic isolation.
Pirenne's thesis did not convince most of the historians at the time of its publication, but historians since that time generally agree it has stimulated debate on the Early Middle Ages, and has provided a provocative example of how periodization would work. It continues to inform historical discussion in the 21st century, with more recent debate focusing on whether later archaeological discoveries refute the thesis or demonstrate its fundamental viability.
Belgian history
Pirenne's other major idea concerned the nature of medieval Belgium. Belgium as an independent nation state had appeared in 1830 only a generation before Pirenne's birth; throughout Western history, its fortunes had been tied up with the Low Countries, which now include the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France. Furthermore, Belgium lies across the great linguistic divide between French and Dutch. The unity of the country might appear accidental, something which Pirenne sought to disprove in his History of Belgium (1899–1932) by tracing Belgium's history back to the Roman period. His ideas, promoting a form of Belgian nationalism, have also proved controversial.
Pirenne's Histoire de Belgique, published in seven volumes over 1899–1932, stressed how traditional and economic forces had drawn the Flemish and Walloons together. Pirenne, inspired by patriotic nationalism, presupposed the existence of a unified "Belgian civilisation" – in a social, political, and ethnic sense – which predated its 1830 independence by centuries. Although a liberal himself, his history was written with such balance that Catholics, liberals and socialists across the divides in Belgium's pillarized society could quote from it with equal respect in publications, newspapers, and even in political gatherings. It was also innovative by the standards of contemporary national histories in avoiding the concept of a racially defined Volksgeist (national spirit) but argued that Belgium had developed naturally as a cosmopolitan society to serve as a mediator between Latin and Germanic Europe.
Pirenne's history cemented his reputation as one of Belgium's leading public intellectuals in his lifetime. His thesis remains crucial to the understanding of Belgium's past, but his notion of a continuity of Belgian civilization forming the basis of political unity has lost favor. Some Belgian scholars have argued that the creation of their country was a historical chance. Pirenne's argument that the long Spanish rule in the Low Countries had little continuing cultural impact has likewise fallen, in the face of new research since 1970 in the fields of cultural, military, economic, and political history. Henri Pirenne donated the majority of his personal library to the Academia Belgica in Rome. In 1933, the seventh volume received was awarded the Francqui Prize on Human Sciences.
Medieval Cities
Pirenne was also the author of Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade (1927), a book based on lectures he delivered in the United States in 1922. In this book, he contends that through the period from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, Europe reclaimed control of the Mediterranean from the Muslim world, and opened up sea routes to the Orient. This allowed the formation of a merchant/middle class and the development of that class's characteristic abode, the city.
He argued that capitalism originated in Europe's cities, as did democracy. His "Merchant Enterprise School" opposed Marxism but shared many of Marx's ideas on the merchant class. Pirenne's theory of a commercial renaissance in towns in the 11th century remains the standard interpretation.
A History of Europe
Pirenne wrote a two-volume A History of Europe: From the End of the Roman World in the West to the Beginnings of the Western States, a remarkable but incomplete work which Pirenne wrote while imprisoned in Germany during World War I. It was published by his son in 1936. A translation into English, by Bernard Miall, was first published in Great Britain in 1939 by George Allen and Unwin.
Bibliography
Pirenne, Henri. Histoire de Belgique (7 vols.) (1899–1932)
Pirenne, Henri. Belgian Democracy, Its Early History (1910, 1915) 250 pp. History of towns in the Low Countries online free
Pirenne, Henri. "The Stages in the Social History of Capitalism", The American Historical Review, 19:494, April 1914 in JSTOR
Pirenne, Henri. Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade (1927)
Pirenne, Henri. A History of Europe (1936).
Pirenne, Henri. Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe (1936)
Pirenne, Henri. Mohammed and Charlemagne (1937)
Pirenne, Henri. "Reflexions d'un Solitaire". (edited by Jacques-Henri Pirenne) in Bulletin de la Commission royale d'Histoire 1994 160(3–4): 143–257. . First publication of his wartime prison journal.
| 2014
See also
Paul Fredericq – historian, regarded as the Flemish equivalent of Pirenne
Notes
Sources
Brown, Peter. "Mohammed and Charlemagne by Henri Pirenne." Daedalus 1974 103(1): 25–33.
Cate, James L. "Henri Pirenne (1862–1935)," in S. William Halperin, ed. Some 20th Century Historians-essays on Eminent Europeans, (1961) 1–30.
Frank, Kenneth W. "Pirenne Again: A Muslim Viewpoint," The History Teacher, Vol. 26, No. 3 (May 1993), pp. 371–383 in JSTOR
Ganshof, F. L. "Henri Pirenne and Economic History." Economic History Review 1936 6(2): 179–185. online
Havighurst, Alfred F. ed. The Pirenne Thesis: Analysis, Criticism, and Revision (1958) readings by scholars ,
Hodges, Richard and David Whitehouse (1983). Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the origins of Europe. Cornell University Press. . Influential analysis of the Pirenne Thesis and the role of recent archaeological findings.
Lyon, Bryce. Henri Pirenne: A Biographical and Intellectual Study (1974)
Lyon, Bryce. "The Letters of Henri Pirenne to Karl Lamprecht (1894–1915)." Bulletin De La Commission Royale D'histoire 1966 132(2): 161–231.
Brown, Elizabeth A. R. "Henri Pirenne: a Biographical and Intellectual Study." History and Theory 1976 15(1): 66–76. review of Lyon in Jstor
McCormick, Michael (2001). Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, 300–900. Cambridge University Press. . A reexamination of the Pirenne Thesis.
Powicke, F. M. "Henri Pirenne," The English Historical Review, Vol. 51, No. 201 (January 1936), pp. 79–89 in JSTOR
Tollebeek, Jo. "At the crossroads of nationalism: Huizinga, Pirenne and the Low Countries in Europe," European Review of History (2010) 17#2 pp. 187–215.
External links
"Henry Pirenne". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Digitheque Henri Pirenne
A review of Mohammed and Charlemagne
1862 births
1935 deaths
Belgian historians
Belgian medievalists
Belgian people of World War I
Belgian scientists
Historians of Belgium
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Ghent University faculty
Rectors of Ghent University
People from Verviers
University of Liège alumni
Walloon people
World War I civilian detainees held by Germany
Corresponding Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy | [
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|
220348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEK | SEK | SEK or Sek may refer to:
Organisations
Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches (Schweizerischer Evangelischer Kirchenbund)
SEK Studio, a North Korean animation studio
Stagecoach in East Kent, a transportation company in England
SEK (Germany) (Spezialeinsatzkommando), police tactical units of the German state police forces
Hellenic State Railways (Sidirodromoi Ellinikou Kratous), a former Greek public sector entity
Socialist Workers Party (Greece) (Sosialistikó Ergatikó Kómma), a Greek political party
People
Sek Henry, professional basketball player, 2018 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP
Samuel Edward Konkin III, known as SEK III
Other uses
Swedish krona (ISO 4217 currency code), the currency of Sweden
Sehk or Sek, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
Sewer Evil King, a fictional character in Okage: Shadow King | [
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|
220352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannoy | Tannoy | Tannoy is a British manufacturer of loudspeakers and public address systems. Founded by Guy Fountain in London in 1926 as the Tulsemere Manufacturing Company, today the company is part of the Music Tribe group of brands.
History
Tannoy Ltd is a British manufacturer of loudspeakers and public address (PA) systems. The company was founded by Guy Fountain in London, England, as Tulsemere Manufacturing Company in 1926, and moved to Coatbridge, Scotland in the 1970s.
Tannoy's image is particularly linked to both studio monitors as well as its Prestige range of home speakers. Prestige speakers use Dual Concentric cone speakers and are easily recognisable by their "vintage" design. Tannoy is notable for its 'Dual Concentric' speaker design, which places the tweeter behind the centre of the medium or bass driver. "Dual Concentric" is a trademark although Tannoy is not the only speaker manufacturer to design coaxial speakers.
In 2002, Tannoy was acquired by TC Group, and TC Group was subsequently acquired by Music Group in 2015. Following the Music Group acquisition, it was suggested that the Coatbridge facility would be closed and all related activities would be relocated to Manchester, England. In 2016, however, Music Group confirmed that Tannoy loudspeaker manufacturing would continue in Scotland, with a brand new manufacturing facility planned.
Brand name
The name Tannoy is a syllabic abbreviation of tantalum alloy, which was the material used in a type of electrolytic rectifier developed by the company. The brand was trademarked by 10 March 1932, on which date the Tulsemere Manufacturing Company formally registered as Guy R. Fountain Limited.
Tannoy became a household name as a result of supplying PA systems to the armed forces during World War II, and to Butlins and Pontins holiday camps after the war, each speaker having the Tannoy logo prominently displayed on the speaker grills. As a result, the term "tannoy" is used in British English for any public-address system, and as a verb, to "tannoy", for making an announcement in a public place. That is, although Tannoy is a registered trademark, , it is still often used generically. Because of this, the company's intellectual property department keeps a close eye on the media. To preserve its trademark, it often notifies publications that use its trade name without a capital letter, or as a generic term for a PA system.
Products
Home and Studio speakers:
Reveal Series (Made in China)
Plus Series
70Anniversary Series
Surrey Series
Gold Series
Definition Series
Eclipse Series
Mercury Series
Prestige Series
Classic Monitor
K3838 monitor kit (similar to Classic Monitor)
Super Red Monitor
K3808 monitor kit (similar to Super Red Monitor)
Little Red
Sixes Series
Profile Series
Precision Series
Revolution Series
Dimension Series
Eyris Series
Arena 5.1
Cabinets:
Lancaster
System DMT
PA Systems:
Wildcats (1984)
CPA Series (1990)
T & I Series (1998)
B Series (1998)
V Series (2002)
VS Series (2003)
IQ Series (2004)
VQ & VQNET Series (2009)
VX & VXP Series (2011)
VSX Series (2012)
VSXNET (2015)
Further reading
See also
List of studio monitor manufacturers
References
External links
Tannoy worldwide homepage
Tannoy Monitor Gold website
Tannoy Dual Concentric website
Loudspeaker manufacturers
Electronics companies established in 1926
Manufacturers of professional audio equipment
Manufacturing companies of Scotland
British brands
1926 establishments in England
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United Kingdom | [
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|
220354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles%20of%20Economics%20%28Menger%20book%29 | Principles of Economics (Menger book) | Principles of Economics (; 1871) is a book by economist Carl Menger which is credited with the founding of the Austrian School of economics. It was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility.
Summary
Menger advanced his theory that the marginal utility of goods, rather than labor inputs, is the source of their value. This marginalist theory solved the diamond-water paradox that had been puzzling classical economists: the fact that mankind finds diamonds to be far more valuable than water although water is far more important.
Menger stressed uncertainty in the making of economic decisions, rather than relying on "homo economicus" or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions. This was a deviation from classical and neoclassical economic thought. Menger asserted that such perfect knowledge never exists, and that therefore all economic activity implies risk. The entrepreneurs' role was to collect and evaluate information and to act on those risks.
Menger saw that time was the root of uncertainty within economics. As production takes time then producers have no certainty on the supply or demand for their product. Thus the price of the finished product bears no resemblance to the costs of production, since the two represent market conditions at very different points in time.
The labour theory of value was the explanation that had been reached by Adam Smith among others, and the Marxist school of economics still relies on this theory. The labour theory of value was that the value of an object was reliant on the labour that had gone into producing it, including any training or investment that supplemented the labour.
According to neoclassical economists the labour theory of value could not explain fluctuating values for different kinds of labour, nor did it explain how found goods could be more valuable than extracted goods.
As the price of a commodity is the average cost of production, it includes the fact that a tiny proportion of commodities may be found, although finding goods is hardly typical of modern manufacturing processes.
Marginal utility as the source of value meant that the perceived need for an object was seen to be dictating the value, on an individual rather than a general level. The implication was that the individual mind is the source of economic value.
Although Menger accepted the marginal utility theory, he made deviations from the work of other neoclassical pioneers. Most importantly he fundamentally rejected the use of mathematical methods insisting that the function of economics was to investigate the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena.
Reception
Ludwig von Mises called the book the best introduction to the Austrian School of economics.
See also
History of economic thought
External links
Full text of Principles of Economics in HTML or in PDF format.
1871 books
Economics books
Austrian School publications
1871 in economics | [
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|
220355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaio | Vaio | VAIO is a brand of personal computers and consumer electronics, currently developed by Japanese manufacturer , headquartered in Azumino, Nagano Prefecture.
VAIO () was originally a brand of Sony, introduced in 1996. In February 2014, Sony created VAIO Corporation Inc., a special purpose company with investment firm Japan Industrial Partners, as part of its restructuring effort to focus on mobile devices. Sony maintains a minority stake in the new, independent company, which currently sells computers in the United States, Japan, India, and Brazil, and maintains exclusive marketing agreements in other regions. Sony still holds the intellectual property rights for the VAIO brand and logo.
Etymology
Originally an acronym of Video Audio Integrated Operation, this was amended to Visual Audio Intelligent Organizer in 2008 to celebrate the brand's 10th anniversary. The logo, along with the first of the VAIO computers, were designed by Teiyu Goto, supervisor of product design from the Sony Creative Center in Tokyo. He incorporated many meanings into the logo and acronym: the pronunciation in both English (VAIO) and Japanese () is similar to "bio", which is symbolic of life and the product's future evolution; it's also near "violet", which is why most early Vaios were purple or included purple components. Additionally, the logo is stylized to make the "VA" look like a sine wave and the "IO" like binary digits 1 and 0, the combination representing the merging of analog and digital signals. The sound some Vaio models make when starting up is derived from the melody created when pressing a telephone keypad to spell the letters V-A-I-O.
History
As part of Sony
Although Sony made computers in the 1980s, such as MSX-based HitBit computers mainly for the Japanese market, the company withdrew from the computer business around the beginning of the 1990s. Under the then-new VAIO brand, Sony's re-entry into the global computer market began in 1996. Sony's then-president Nobuyuki Idei thought "there was no point making an ordinary PC", so the VAIO lineup was to focus on Audio Visual (as the VAIO name suggests), portability, and design.
The PCV-90 was the first series of desktops introduced in 1996, and designed with a 3D graphical interface as a novelty for new users. The first VAIO laptop computers followed in 1997 with the US$2,000 PCG-505 "SuperSlim" model, constructed out of a four-panel magnesium body.
Over the years, many audio visual technologies and interfaces pioneered by Sony became a key focus for its VAIO computers, including Memory Stick, i.Link, and even MiniDisc.
In 2001, Steve Jobs presented a Vaio PC running MacOS to Sony executives, suggesting the possibility of collaboration. Sony's Vaio team ultimately turned down the proposal they regarded a "diversion of resources", as the popularity of the Windows-based premium PC brand was growing.
Sony Vaio's later designs were released during a period of low PC sales and included models with innovations such as magnetized stands and the Vaio Tap, which was designed with a completely separate keyboard. The latest models were complemented by the Windows 10 operating system.
Spin-off from Sony
On 4 February 2014, Sony announced that it would sell its Vaio PC business due to poor sales. In March 2014, it was announced that Japan Industrial Partners had purchased a 95% stake in the VAIO division.
The sale was closed on 1 July 2014; on the same day, the company announced refreshed entries in the VAIO Fit and Pro lines. The re-launched products initially distributed in Japan, then later in Brazil. In August 2015, Vaio announced plans to re-enter international markets, beginning with Brazil and the United States. Vaio CEO Yoshimi Ota stated that the company planned to focus more on high-end products in niche segments (such as the creative industries), as they felt Sony was somewhat too focused on attempting to garner a large market share in its PC business. The Canvas Z tablet was released in the United States on 5 October 2015, through Microsoft Store and the Vaio website. On 16 October 2015, Vaio agreed to introduce their products in Brazil through a partnership with a local manufacturer Positivo Informática.
On 2 February 2016, Vaio announced that it would unveil a Windows 10 smartphone. Also that month, it was also reported that Vaio was negotiating with Toshiba and Fujitsu Technology Solutions to consolidate their personal computer businesses together.
On 4 June 2018, Nexstgo Company Limited announced that they will be licensed by VAIO Corporation to oversee the business in Asia. This license agreement between Hong Kong-based Nexstgo and the Japan-based VAIO Corporation will include manufacturing, sales and marketing as well as servicing of VAIO laptops under the VAIO trademark in the Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan markets.
Currently in the US, VAIO business products are sold by Trans Cosmos America, Inc.
Products
Sony VAIO (1996 to 2014)
Sony's VAIO brand included product lines across notebooks, subnotebooks, desktops, media centres, and even Network media solutions.
Computers
Sony's VAIO range of computers consisted of the following lineups:
Desktops
Desktops
PCV series (1996-2005)
Multimedia Desktops
M series (1998-1999)
MX series (2000, built-in FM radio, MiniDisc player and amplifier)
Tablet PC Desktops
LX series (2000-2008)
Media Center PCs
VGX-XL series (2005, audio receiver form factor)
VGX-TP series (2007, cylindrical disc form factor)
All-In-One Computers
VGC series
W series (2002-2006)
VA series (2005-2006, 20", integrated TV tuner)
L series (2006-2013, 15.4" or 19" touchscreen display, integrated TV tuner, Sony's Living Room PC)
Vaio Tap 20 (2013, 20" touchscreen display)
Vaio Tap 21 (2014, 21.5" 1920x1080 touchscreen display)
Notebooks
Ultraportable Premium
505 series (1997-2004, 10.4" or 12.1" display, external floppy and CD drives, originally called SuperSlim)
700 series (1997-1998, 12.1" display, external floppy and CD drives)
800 series (1998-1999, 13.3" display, external floppy and CD drives)
TX series (2005-2007, 11.1" 1366x768 display, first laptop with 16:9 LED backlit display)
TZ series (2007-2008, 11.1" 1366x768 display)
TT series (2008-2010, 11.1" 1366x768 display)
SZ series (2006-2008, 13.3" 1280x800 display, switchable graphics)
Z series (2008-2014, 13.1" display, switchable graphics)
Ultraportable Mainstream
SR series (2001, 10.4” SVGA display, circular trackpad)
SRX series (2001, 10.4” 1024x768 display, circular trackpad)
TR series (2003, 10.6" 1280x768 display)
VX series (2002, 10.4" or 12.1" display)
SR series (2008-2010, 13.3" 1280x800 display)
S series (2010-2013, 13.3" 1600x900 display)
T series (2012-2014, 13.3" 1366x768 display)
Y series (13.3" 1366x768 display, no optical drive)
Ultraportable Netbooks
G series (2007, 12.1" 1024x768 display, Intel Core processor)
M series (2008, 10.1" 1024x600 display, Intel Atom processor)
W series (2009, 10.1" 1366x768 display, Intel Atom processor)
X series (11.1" 1366x768 display, Intel Atom processor)
Consumer, Home & Work
F series (1999-2000, 13.0" or 14.1" 1024x768 display, desktop replacement)
FX/FXA series (2001-2003, 14.1" display, desktop replacement)
XG/XE/XR series (1999-2001, 13.3" or 14.1" 1024x768 display, modular DVD/CD-RW/Floppy/2nd battery/2nd hard drive bay)
QR series (2001, 13.3” 1024x768 display)
FRV series (2003, 15" 1024x768 display, desktop replacement)
GRX series (2002, 15” 1024x768 or 16.1" 1600x1200 display, desktop replacement)
GRZ series (2003, 15” 1024x768 display, desktop replacement)
NV/NVR series (2002-2005, 15" 1024x768 or 1440x1050 display, modular Floppy/MiniDisc/Numeric Keypad/Compact Subwoofer bay)
B series (2004)
BX series (2005, 14.1" display)
FJ series (2005, 14.1" display)
C series (13.3" 1280x800 display, choice of colors)
NR series (2007, 15" 1280x800 display)
E series (2010, 15.5" or 17.3" display, choice of colors)
XE series (2011, 15.5" 1920x1080 display)
Vaio Fit 14 & 15 (2013, 14" or 15" touchscreen laptop, SVF)
Vaio Duo (2013, 13.3" hybrid touchscreen laptop, SVD)
Vaio Tap 11 (2013, 11.6" touchscreen convertible, SVT)
Multimedia
A series (2004, 17" 1920x1200 display)
AX series (2005, 17" 1440x900 display)
AR series (2006, 17" 1440x900 or 1920x1200 display, first with BD-R drive)
AW series (2008, 18.4" 1680x945 or 1920x1200 display)
Portable Entertainment
FS series (2005-2006, 15.4" 1280x800 display)
FE series (2006-2007, 15.4" 1280x800 display)
FZ series (2007-2008, 15.4" 1280x800 display)
FW series (2008-2010, 16.4" 1920x1080 display)
F series (2010, 16.4" 1920x1080 display)
NW series (2009, 15.4" 1366x768 display)
Lifestyle & UMPC Subnotebooks
C1 series (1998-2003, 8.9" 1024x480 display, branded as PictureBook)
GT series (2001, Japan only, 6.4" display, built-in digital camera)
U series (2002-2004, 6.4" or 7.1" 1024x768 display)
UX series (2006, 4.5" 1024x600 display, Sony's first UMPC)
P series (2009-2010, 8" 1600x768 display)
Experience
Included as part of the out-of-box experience are prompts to register at Club Vaio, an online community for Vaio owners and enthusiasts, which also provides automatic driver updates and technical support via email, along with exclusive desktop wallpapers and promotional offers. From 1997 to 2001 in Japan, the SAPARi program was also pre-installed on Vaio machines. On later models, the customer is also prompted to register the installed trial versions of Microsoft Office 2010 and the antivirus software (Norton AntiVirus on older models, and McAfee VirusScan or TrendMicro on newer ones) upon initial boot.
Vaio computers come with components from companies such as Intel processors, Seagate Technology, Hitachi, Fujitsu or Toshiba hard drives, Infineon or Elpida RAM, Atheros and Intel wireless chipsets, Sony (usually made by Hitachi) or Matsushita optical drives, Intel, NVIDIA or AMD graphics cards and Sony speakers. Recent laptops have been shipped with Qimonda RAM, HP speakers with Realtek High Definition Audio Systems, and optional Dolby Sound Room technology.
A selection of media centres were added to the Vaio range in 2006. These monitorless units (identified by a product code prefixed by VGX rather than VGN) are designed to form part of a home entertainment system. They typically take input from a TV tuner card, and output video via HDMI or composite video connection to an ideally high-definition television. The range included the XL and TP lines. The VGX-TP line is visually unique, featuring a circular, 'biscuit-tin' style design with most features obscured behind panels, rather than the traditional set-top box design.
In 2013, Sony Vaio's range comprised seven products. The most basic were the E, T and S series while the high end models, the F and Z Series, were discontinued. Sony also had a range of hybrid tablet computers, with models called Vaio Duo 11/13, Vaio Tap 11/20 and Vaio Fit multi-flip, as well as a desktop computer under the L series. These models use Windows systems and Intel processors, as described above.
Portable music players
Sony released some of their early digital audio players (DAP) under the Vaio line. The first model, the "VAIO Music Clip", was released in 1999, powered by an AA battery and featuring 64 MB of internal memory. It differed from Sony's players in the "Network Walkman" line which used external Memory Stick medium instead at the time. Succeeding models were also released, but it was mainly sold domestically, with Walkman-branded players more widespread internationally. In 2004 the brand made a comeback with the VAIO Pocket (model VGF-AP1L), featuring a 40 GB hard disk drive for up to 26,000 songs, and a 2.0-inch color LCD display. Like Walkman DAPs it used SonicStage software.
Music streamers
Sony had also released several other products under the VAIO lineup, including the VAIO WA1 wireless digital music streamer, essentially a portable radio and speaker.
VAIO (2014 to present)
The current lineup of Vaio computers, developed by VAIO Corporation, continues the same product line naming, and currently include:
Vaio Z
Vaio SX14
Vaio SX12
Vaio FH14
Z Canvas
The first new VAIO computer developed by VAIO corporation was the Vaio Z Canvas 2-in-1 PC, which began sales on 23 September 2015 starting from $2,199 in the USA. The Z Canvas is focused on creative professionals as its target audience. Graphic artists, illustrators, animators, etc. With a 12.3-inch LCD WQXGA+ 2560 x 1704 IPS multi-touch display with digitizer stylus (pen) capability, the Z Canvas looks similar in design to the Microsoft Surface Pro 3, but comes with Windows 10 Pro and is available as a Microsoft Signature PC. It has an Intel Core i7 processor, an Intel Iris Pro Graphics 5200, a 2nd generation PCIe SSD with PCIe Gen.3 compatibility (up to 1 TB) or SATA/M.2 for the 256 GB model, and up to 16 GB of memory.
Smartphones
In February 2016, Vaio announced the Vaio Phone Biz which is a premium built mid-range Windows 10 Mobile device. This is Vaio's first Windows smartphone. In March 2017, Vaio announced Vaio Phone A, which have look of Vaio Phone Biz, but used Android operating system instead.
Technology
Innovations
Over the years, the Sony VAIO lineup has been responsible for many 'firsts' in desktops and laptops, as well as for setting trends for what would now be considered standard equipment.
Integrated webcam
The Sony VAIO C1 PictureBook subnotebook, first released in 1998, was among the first to feature a built in web-cam, at 0.27 megapixels, and could swivel around to capture photos on both sides.
Chiclet keyboards
The Sony VAIO X505 laptop, released in 2004, popularized the chiclet keyboard in laptops.
Displays
Some Sony Vaio models come with Sony's proprietary XBRITE (known as ClearBright in Japan and the Asia-Pacific region) displays. The first model to introduce this feature was the Vaio TR series, which was also the first consumer product to utilize such technology. It is a combination of smooth screen, anti-reflection (AR) coating and high-efficiency lens sheet. Sony claims that the smooth finish provides a sharper screen display, the AR coating prevents external light from scattering when it hits the screen, and the high-efficiency lens sheet provides 1.5 times the brightness improvement over traditional LCD designs. Battery life is also extended through reduced usage of the LCD backlight. The technology was pioneered by Sony engineer Masaaki Nakagawa, who is in charge of the Vaio TR development.
The TX series, introduced in September 2005, was the first notebook to implement a LED back-lit screen, which provides lower power consumption and greater color reproduction. This technology has since been widely adopted by many other notebook manufacturers. The TX series was also the first to use a 16:9 aspect ratio screen with 1366x768 resolution. The successor to the TX series was the TZ series in May 2007. This new design featured an optional 32 or 64GB Solid State Drive (SSD) for rapid boot-up times, quicker application launches and greater durability. If selected, a 250 GB Hard Drive could also have been included in place of the built-in CD/DVD drive to provide room for additional storage. For security, this model included a biometric fingerprint sensor and Trusted Platform Module. The TZ offered a built-in highly miniaturized Motion Eye camera built into the LCD panel for video conferencing. Additional features included the XBRITE LCD, integrated Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) technology and Bluetooth technology.
Switchable graphics
The SZ series was the first to use switchable graphics – the motherboard contained an Intel GMCH (Graphics Memory Controller Hub) featuring its own in-built graphics controller (complete memory hub controller and graphics accelerator on the one die) and a separate NVIDIA graphics accelerator chipset directly interfaced with the GMCH. The GMCH could be used to reduce power consumption and extend battery life whereas the NVIDIA chipset would be used when greater graphics processing power was needed. A switch is used to toggle between the graphics options but required the user to preselect the mode to be used before the motherboard could initialize. The Z series, which replaced the SZ series, can change graphics modes "on the fly" on Windows Vista, and does not require a restart of the system. This feature has subsequently been used by other manufacturers, including Apple, Asus and Alienware.
Blu-ray
The AR Series was the first to incorporate a Blu-ray Disc burner, at the height of the Blu-Ray vs. HD-DVD format war. This series was designed to be the epitome of high-definition products including a 1080p capable WUXGA (1920 × 1200 pixels) screen, HDMI output and the aforementioned Blu-ray burner. The AR series also includes an illuminated logo below the screen. Blu-ray/HDMI capable models have been the subject of intense promotion since mid-2007, selling with a variety of bundled Blu-ray Discs. The AR series was subsequently replaced by the AW series, and in 2011, replaced by the F Series, which incorporates all of these features in a 16.4" 16:9 display.
Startup Chime
The chime heard when a VAIO computer is booted are the DTMF notes corresponding to V-A-I-O (8-2-4-6) dialed on a telephone keypad.
Bundled Software
Sony has been criticized for loading its Vaio laptops with bloatware, or ineffective and unrequested software that supposedly allows the user to immediately use the laptop for multimedia purposes. This includes trial versions of Adobe Premiere Elements & Adobe Photoshop Elements with Vaio Media Gate and XMB. Sony later offered a "Fresh start" option in some regions with several of their business models. With this option, the computer is shipped only with a basic Windows operating system and very little trial software already installed.
The default webcam software in Vaio notebooks is ArcSoft WebCam Companion. It offers a set of special effects called Magic-i visual effects, through which users can enhance the images and videos taken through the webcam. It also features a face detection feature. Certain other Sony proprietary software such as Click to Disc Editor, Vaio Music Box, Vaio Movie Story, Vaio Media Plus are also included with recent models. Those shipped with ATI Radeon Video cards feature the Catalyst Control Centre, which enables control of brightness, contrast, resolution etc., and also enables connection to an external display the best laptop.
Recovery Media
Early Sony VAIO models included recovery media in the form of CDs and/or DVDs.
Beginning in mid-2005, a hidden partition on the hard drive, accessible at boot via the BIOS or within Windows via a utility was used instead. Pressing [F10] at the Vaio logo during boot-up will cause the notebook to boot from the recovery partition; where the user has the choice of either running hardware diagnostics without affecting the installed system, or restoring (re-imaging) the hard drive to factory condition – an option that destroys all user installed applications and data). The first time a new VAIO PC is started up, users are prompted to create their own recovery media. This physical media would be required in case of hard disk failure and/or replacement. In cases where the system comes with Windows 7 64-bit pre-installed, the provided recovery media restores the system to Windows 7 32- or 64-bit.
Explanatory notes
See also
Sony NEWS
Splashtop covers Vaio Quick Web Access
References
External links
Official Website (Japan)
Official Website (United States)
Sony US VAIO Product Support
Sony VAIO UK
Sony VAIO India
Official Website (Hong Kong)
Official Website (Taiwan)
Official Website (Singapore)
Official Website (Malaysia)
Sony products
Consumer electronics brands
Computer-related introductions in 1996
Electronics companies established in 2014
Computer companies established in 2014
Japanese companies established in 2014
Companies based in Nagano Prefecture
Corporate spin-offs
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220358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20imperial%20city | Free imperial city | In the Holy Roman Empire, the collective term free and imperial cities (), briefly worded free imperial city (, ), was used from the fifteenth century to denote a self-ruling city that had a certain amount of autonomy and was represented in the Imperial Diet. An imperial city held the status of Imperial immediacy, and as such, was subordinate only to the Holy Roman Emperor, as opposed to a territorial city or town () which was subordinate to a territorial prince – be it an ecclesiastical lord (prince-bishop, prince-abbot) or a secular prince (duke (), margrave, count (), etc.).
Origin
The evolution of some German cities into self-ruling constitutional entities of the Empire was slower than that of the secular and ecclesiastical princes. In the course of the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities were promoted by the emperor to the status of Imperial Cities (; ), essentially for fiscal reasons. Those cities, which had been founded by the German kings and emperors in the 10th through 13th centuries and had initially been administered by royal/imperial stewards (), gradually gained independence as their city magistrates assumed the duties of administration and justice; some prominent examples are Colmar, Haguenau and Mulhouse in Alsace or Memmingen and Ravensburg in upper Swabia.
The Free Cities (; ) were those, such as Basel, Augsburg, Cologne or Strasbourg, that were initially subjected to a prince-bishop and, likewise, progressively gained independence from that lord. In a few cases, such as in Cologne, the former ecclesiastical lord continued to claim the right to exercise some residual feudal privileges over the Free City, a claim that gave rise to constant litigation almost until the end of the Empire.
Over time, the difference between Imperial Cities and Free Cities became increasingly blurred, so that they became collectively known as "Free Imperial Cities", or "Free and Imperial Cities", and by the late 15th century many cities included both "Free" and "Imperial" in their name. Like the other Imperial Estates, they could wage war, make peace, and control their own trade, and they permitted little interference from outside. In the later Middle Ages, a number of Free Cities formed City Leagues (), such as the Hanseatic League or the Alsatian , to promote and defend their interests.
In the course of the Middle Ages, cities gained, and sometimes — if rarely — lost, their freedom through the vicissitudes of power politics. Some favored cities gained a charter by gift. Others purchased one from a prince in need of funds. Some won it by force of arms during the troubled 13th and 14th centuries and others lost their privileges during the same period by the same way. Some cities became free through the void created by the extinction of dominant families, like the Swabian . Some voluntarily placed themselves under the protection of a territorial ruler and therefore lost their independence.
A few, like Protestant , which in 1607 was annexed to the Catholic Duchy of Bavaria, were stripped by the Emperor of their status as a Free City — for genuine or trumped-up reasons. However, this rarely happened after the Reformation, and of the sixty Free Imperial Cities that remained at the Peace of Westphalia, all but the ten Alsatian cities (which were annexed by France during the late 17th century) continued to exist until the mediatization of 1803.
Distinction between free imperial cities and other cities
There were approximately four thousand towns and cities in the Empire, although around the year 1600 over nine-tenths of them had fewer than one thousand inhabitants. During the late Middle Ages, fewer than two hundred of these places ever enjoyed the status of Free Imperial Cities, and some of those did so only for a few decades. The Imperial military tax register () of 1521 listed eighty-five such cities, and this figure had fallen to sixty-five by the time of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. From the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 to 1803, their number oscillated at around fifty.
Unlike the Free Imperial Cities, the second category of towns and cities, now called "territorial cities" were subject to an ecclesiastical or lay lord, and while many of them enjoyed self-government to varying degrees, this was a precarious privilege which might be curtailed or abolished according to the will of the lord.
Reflecting the complex constitutional set-up of the Holy Roman Empire, a third category, composed of semi-autonomous cities that belonged to neither of those two types, is distinguished by some historians. These were cities whose size and economic strength was sufficient to sustain a substantial independence from surrounding territorial lords for a considerable time, even though no formal right to independence existed. These cities were typically located in small territories where the ruler was weak. They were nevertheless the exception among the multitude of territorial towns and cities. Cities of both latter categories normally had representation in territorial diets, but not in the Imperial Diet.
Organization
Free imperial cities were not officially admitted as own Imperial Estates to the Imperial Diet until 1489, and even then their votes were usually considered only advisory () compared to the Benches of the electors and princes. The cities divided themselves into two groups, or benches, in the Imperial Diet, the Rhenish and the Swabian Bench.
These same cities were among the 85 free imperial cities listed on the Reichsmatrikel of 1521, the imperial civil and military tax-schedule used for more than a century to assess the contributions of all the Imperial Estates in case of a war formally declared by the Imperial Diet. The military and monetary contribution of each city is indicated in parenthesis (for instance Cologne (30-322-600) means that Cologne had to provide 30 horsemen, 322 footmen and 600 gulden). These numbers are equivalent to one simplum. If need be, the Diet could vote a second and a third simplum, in which case each member's contribution was doubled or tripled. At the time, the Free imperial cities were considered wealthy and the monetary contribution of Nuremberg, Ulm and Cologne for instance were as high as that of the Electors (Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Palatinate, Saxony, Brandenburg) and the Dukes of Württemberg and of Lorraine.
The following list contains the 50 Free imperial cities that took part in the Imperial Diet of 1792. They are listed according to their voting order on the Rhenish and Swabian benches.
Rhenish Bench
Swabian Bench
By the time of the Peace of Westphalia, the cities constituted a formal third "college" and their full vote () was confirmed, although they failed to secure parity of representation with the two other colleges. To avoid the possibility that they would have the casting vote in case of a tie between the Electors and the Princes, it was decided that these should decide first and consult the cities afterward.
Despite this somewhat unequal status of the cities in the functioning of the Imperial Diet, their full admittance to that federal institution was crucial in clarifying their hitherto uncertain status and in legitimizing their permanent existence as full-fledged Imperial Estates. Constitutionally, if in no other way, the diminutive Free Imperial City of Isny was the equal of the Margraviate of Brandenburg.
Development
Having probably learned from experience that there was not much to gain from active, and costly, participation in the Imperial Diet's proceedings due to the lack of empathy of the princes, the cities made little use of their representation in that body. By about 1700, almost all the cities with the exception of Nuremberg, Ulm and Regensburg (where by then the Perpetual Imperial Diet was located), were represented by various Regensburg lawyers and officials who often represented several cities simultaneously. Instead, many cities found it more profitable to maintain agents at the Aulic Council in Vienna, where the risk of an adverse judgment posed a greater risk to city treasuries and independence.
The territory of most Free Imperial Cities was generally quite small but there were exceptions. The largest territories formed in what is now Switzerland with cities like Bern, Zürich and Luzern, but also cities like Ulm, Nuremberg and Hamburg in what is now Germany possessed substantial hinterlands or fiefs that comprised dozens of villages and thousands of subject peasants who did not enjoy the same rights as the urban population. At the opposite end, the authority of Cologne, Aachen, Worms, Goslar, Wetzlar, Augsburg and Regensburg barely extended beyond the city walls.
The constitution of Free and Imperial Cities was republican in form, but in all but the smallest cities, the city government was oligarchic in nature with a governing town council composed of an elite, hereditary patrician class, the so-called town council families (). They were the most economically significant burgher families who had asserted themselves politically over time.
Below them, with a say in the government of the city (there were exceptions, such as Nuremberg, where the patriciate ruled alone), were the citizens or burghers, the smaller, privileged section of the city's permanent population whose number varied according to the rule of citizenship of each city. To the common town dweller – whether he lived in a prestigious Free Imperial City like Frankfurt, Augsburg or Nuremberg, or in a small market town such as there were hundreds throughout Germany – attaining burgher status () could be his greatest aim in life. The burgher status was usually an inherited privilege renewed pro-forma in each generation of the family concerned but it could also be purchased. At times, the sale of burgher status could be a significant item of town income as fiscal records show. The was local and not transferable to another city.
The burghers were usually the lowest social group to have political power and privilege within the Holy Roman Empire. Below them was the disenfranchised urban population, maybe half of the total in many cities, the so-called "residents" () or "guests": smaller artisans, craftsmen, street venders, day laborers, servants and the poor, but also those whose residence in the city was temporary, such as wintering noblemen, foreign merchants, princely officials, and so on.
Urban conflicts in Free Imperial Cities, which sometimes amounted to class warfare, were not uncommon in the Early Modern Age, particularly in the 17th century (Lübeck, 1598–1669; Schwäbisch Hall, 1601–1604; Frankfurt, 1612–1614; Wezlar, 1612–1615; Erfurt, 1648–1664; Cologne, 1680–1685; Hamburg 1678–1693, 1702–1708). Sometimes, as in the case of Hamburg in 1708, the situation was considered sufficiently serious to warrant the dispatch of an Imperial commissioner with troops to restore order and negotiate a compromise and a new city constitution between the warring parties.
The number of Imperial Cities shrank over time until the Peace of Westphalia. There were more in areas that were very fragmented politically, such as Swabia and Franconia in the southwest, than in the North and the East where the larger and more powerful territories, such as Brandenburg and Saxony, were located, which were more prone to absorb smaller, weaker states.
In the 16th and 17th century, a number of Imperial Cities were separated from the Empire due to external territorial change. Henry II of France seized the Imperial Cities connected to the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun and Toul. Similarly, Louis XIV seized many cities based on claims produced by his Chambers of Reunion. That way, Strasbourg and the ten cities of the were annexed. Also, when the Old Swiss Confederacy gained its formal independence from the Empire in 1648 (it had been de facto independent since 1499), the independence of the Imperial Cities of Basel, Bern, Lucerne, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Solothurn, and Zürich was formally recognized.
With the rise of Revolutionary France in Europe, this trend accelerated enormously. After 1795, the areas west of the Rhine were annexed to France by the revolutionary armies, suppressing the independence of Imperial Cities as diverse as Cologne, Aachen, Speyer and Worms. Then, the Napoleonic Wars led to the reorganization of the Empire in 1803 (see German Mediatisation), where all of the free cities but six — Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Frankfurt, Augsburg, and Nuremberg — lost their independence and were absorbed into neighboring territories. Finally, under pressure from Napoleon, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806. By 1811, all of the Imperial Cities had lost their independence — Augsburg and Nuremberg had been annexed by Bavaria, Frankfurt had become the center of the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, a Napoleonic puppet state, and the three Hanseatic cities had been directly annexed by France as part of its effort to enforce the Continental Blockade against Britain. Hamburg and Lübeck with surrounding territories formed the département of , and Bremen the .
When the German Confederation was established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, and Frankfurt were once again made Free Cities, this time enjoying total sovereignty as all the members of the loose Confederation. Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia in consequence of the part it took in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The three other Free Cities became constituent states of the new German Empire in 1871 and consequently were no longer fully sovereign as they lost control over defence, foreign affairs and a few other fields. They retained that status in the Weimar Republic and into the Third Reich, although under Hitler it became purely notional. Due to Hitler's distaste for Lübeck and its liberal tradition, the need was devised to compensate Prussia for territorial losses under the Greater Hamburg Act, and Lübeck was annexed to Prussia in 1937. In the Federal Republic of Germany which was established after the war, Bremen and Hamburg, but not Lübeck, became constituent states, a status which they retain to the present day. Berlin, which had never been a Free City in its history, also received the status of a state after the war due to its special position in divided post-war Germany.
Regensburg was, apart from hosting the Imperial Diet, a most peculiar city: an officially Lutheran city that nevertheless was the seat of the Catholic prince-bishopric of Regensburg, its prince-bishop and cathedral chapter. The Imperial City also housed three Imperial abbeys: St. Emmeram, and . They were five immediate entities fully independent of each other existing in the same small city.
Image gallery
See also
Free city (antiquity)
Imperial immediacy
List of Free Imperial Cities
Lübeck law
Royal free city
Notes
Citations
References
Legal history of the Holy Roman Empire
Types of administrative division | [
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|
220359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Sotos | Peter Sotos | Peter Sotos (born April 17, 1960) is an American writer and musician. In his books, Sotos examines sadistic sexual criminals and sexually violent pornography, particularly involving children. His writings are interpreted by some as commenting on media hypocrisy around these issues. His books are often first person narratives, taking on the point of view of the sexual predator in order to explore sadistic and pedophilic sexual impulses.
Early life
Sotos is a graduate of Holy Cross High School. He attended Northern Illinois University for one year and studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago for four years.
Pure magazine and after
In 1984, while the day care sex abuse hysteria phenomenon was sweeping the nation and while attending the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Sotos began producing the controversial magazine Pure, notable as the first zine dedicated to serial killer lore. The original publications are now collectors' items.
In addition to offering many details about the crimes of serial killers and Nazis, the text in the magazine praises them, describing them using such terms as "genius", "glorious", "exemplary", and "illustrious". The text is juxtaposed with pictures and newspaper clippings relevant to the crimes discussed, showing that the media also abuses the victims. A short manifesto introducing the first issue says the magazine "satiates and encourages true lusts."
A photocopy from a magazine of child pornography was used as the cover of issue #2 of Pure which led to Sotos pleading guilty to possession of child pornography, receiving a suspended sentence. A copy of the magazine was found by Scotland Yard in Edinburgh, in the home of a suspect in a series of child abductions, murders and grave robbings, which led to Sotos' arrest.
Despite his early legal troubles, Sotos continues to garner support for his ideas and literary output: in the foreword to the French edition of Index (1999) the publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert compared him to Marquis de Sade; the American author Bruce Benderson has been analyzing his writings for La Nouvelle Revue Française; in 2012 Sotos joined Dennis Cooper for a lecture at the Centre Georges Pompidou; in 2015 the German contemporary art magazine Texte zur Kunst published “Proxy: Peter Sotos in Conversation”.
Books
Lazy (1999) examines the public fascination with sex crimes, and their influence on artworks such as the painting Myra by Marcus Harvey.
Selfish, Little (2004) recounts the murder of Lesley Ann Downey by British Moors Murderers Ian Brady and Myra Hindley in 1964.
Predicate (2005) explores the Dunblane Massacre in Scotland in 1996 and the motives and life of its perpetrator Thomas Watt Hamilton. Other topics covered include Operation Ore, the Wonderland murders, Russian orphanages, Megan's Law, and non-nude teen websites.
Comfort and Critique (2005) explores the hidden motives of reporters and citizens as shown by their reactions to sexual crimes.
Show Adult (2007) investigates the experience of pornography. The book also analyzes the TV shows Supernanny and To Catch a Predator as publicly acceptable forms of child pornography.
Lordotics (2008) deals with sex offenders and the art of photography.
Pure Filth (2012) details transcripts of the gonzo movies porn star Jamie Gillis produced during the 1990s. Gillis adds an introduction to each transcript. Sotos, who was a friend of Gillis, brings his own perspective to these records. The book was completed a few days before Gillis died in February 2010.
Desistance (2014) is focused on the works of French photographer Antoine D'Agata.
Ingratitude (2018) is a monologue.
Lionel Maunz Peter Sotos (2021) is a collaboration with the titular contemporary artist.
Musical career
From 1983 to Bird Seed released in 2003, Sotos was a member of the British power electronics group Whitehouse.
In 1992, Sotos released the solo album Buyer's Market, which consisted of sound collages of spoken word samples from parents, law-enforcement officers and victims of sex crimes. The album was produced by Steve Albini. Sotos then released Proxy and Waitress in 2005.
Jamie Stewart from Xiu Xiu often mentions Sotos as an influence.
Discography
Art
Peter Sotos makes video collages. He notably presented Waitress I, II and III at the Palais de Tokyo in April 2005.
A selection of Sotos' paper archives has been shown for the first time in 2017 at the New Galerie in Paris.
In popular culture
In his movie Love (2015), the Argentine film director Gaspar Noé shows Lazy, one of Sotos' books, in the hero's bookshelves. The American writer is also thanked in the closing credits.
Works
Pure, 1984-1985, Self-published and released two issues, with a third having been completed before controversy of publication led to a now-infamous trial.
Parasite, 1993-1995, Self-published twenty issues.
Total Abuse: Collected Writings, 1984-1995: Pure, Tool, Parasite, 1995 (Goad to Hell Enterprises, )
Index, 1996, Printed in 1998 (Creation Books, )
Special, 1998 (Rude Shape, )
Lazy, 1999 (Creation Books, )
Tick, 2000 (Creation Books, )
Selfish, Little: The Annotated Lesley Ann Downey, 2004 (Void Books, )
Proxy: Peter Sotos Pornography 1991-2000, 2005 (Creation Books, ). A compendium of five of Sotos' works (Tool, Special, Tick, Index and Lazy). First edition, with CD by Sotos and Steve Albini.
Comfort and Critique, 2005 (Void Books, )
Predicate, 2005 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2005 (Creation Books). Came as an extra for those who preordered a copy of Predicate from Creation Books.
Show Adult, 2007 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2007 (Creation Books). Separate volume from the one included with Predicate. Came with orders of Show Adult in hardcover.
Lordotics, 2008 (Creation Books, )
Perfect: The Collected Peter Sotos Volume One, 2009 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2009 (Creation Books). Third in a series of additional material offered in limited editions from Creation. Came with pre orders of Perfect.
Public: The Collected Peter Sotos Volume Two, 2009 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2009 (Creation Books) Fourth in a series of additional material offered in limited editions from Creation. Came with pre orders of Public.
Private: The Collected Peter Sotos Volume Three, 2009 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2009 (Creation Books). Fifth in a series of additional material offered in limited editions from Creation. Came with pre orders of Private.
Kept: The Collected Peter Sotos Volume Four, 2010 (Creation Books, )
Waitress, 2010 (Creation Books). Sixth in a series of additional material offered in limited editions from Creation. Came with pre orders of Kept.
Mine, 2011 (Creation Books, reprinted in paperback by Nine-Banded Books in 2013, )
Pure Filth, 2012 (Feral House, ) with Jamie Gillis.
Tool, 2013 (Nine-Banded Books, ). First printing as a stand-alone volume.
Home, 2013 (Kiddiepunk) with images by Michael Salerno.
Desistance, 2014 (Nine-Banded Books, )
Ingratitude, 2018 (Nine-Banded Books, )
Lionel Maunz Peter Sotos, 2021 (Nine-Banded Books & Amphetamine Sulphate, )
Texts featuring Peter Sotos
Apocalypse Culture, edited by Adam Parfrey, interview with Peter Sotos by Paul Lemos (Amok Press, 1987, )
Apocalypse Culture II, edited by Adam Parfrey, chapter by Peter Sotos (Feral House, 2000, )
The Gates of Janus by Ian Brady, afterword by Peter Sotos (Feral House, 2001, )
Straight to Hell: 20th Century Suicides, edited by Namida King, contributed to by Peter Sotos (Creation Books, 2003, )
.45 Dangerous Minds: The Most Intense Interviews from Seconds Magazine, edited by Steven Blush and George Petros (Creation Books, 2005, )
Pornocracy by Catherine Breillat, afterword by Peter Sotos (Semiotext(e), 2008, )
The Gates of Janus: Expanded Edition by Ian Brady, new afterword by Peter Sotos: Bait (Feral House, 2015, )
References
External links
Nine-Banded Books
Feral House
Laurence Viallet
Peter Sotos: A Case Study in Lust and the Unconditioned by Michael Lujan
Fucked in the Head by Travis Jeppesen
Peter Sotos : Aucun autre crime que l'amour du crime by Christophe Bourseiller
Instinct, Drive, and Reality: An Interview with Peter Sotos (The Hoover Hog)
Peter Sotos Day by Dennis Cooper
Interview with Peter Sotos by Brandon Stosuy (Fanzine)
Tesco Fest 2011, Brooklyn NY
Natt&Dag (May 2011)
The Putrid Voyeurisms of Peter Sotos by Blake Butler (Vice)
Basilica Soundscape 2013, Hudson NY (Pitchfork)
1960 births
Living people
American crime writers
Musicians from Chicago
Writers from Chicago
School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni
American writers of Greek descent
Obscenity controversies in literature
American industrial musicians
American noise musicians
American sound artists
Northern Illinois University alumni
Music controversies
Whitehouse (band) members | [
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220361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar%20Aficionado | Cigar Aficionado | Cigar Aficionado is an American magazine that is dedicated to enjoying the good life and the world of cigars. Published since September 1992, the magazine is known for its profiles on celebrities including Michael Jordan, Jack Nicholson, The Rock, Demi Moore, Robert De Niro, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Usher, Nick Jonas, Tom Selleck, Hugh Jackman, Wayne Gretzky, Charles Barkley, and for its articles and blind tastings about handrolled, premium cigars, along with stories about golf, travel and luxury goods and experiences. The magazine was launched by Marvin R. Shanken's M. Shanken Communications, the publisher of Wine Spectator magazine since 1976. The current executive editor is David Savona.
Publication history
Origins
Cigar Aficionado magazine debuted in the fall of 1992, launched in New York City by Marvin R. Shanken, longtime publisher of Wine Spectator magazine. Prior to launching the publication, Shanken engaged in extensive market research, collecting more than 1,300 four-page surveys of cigar smokers which detailed their occupation, income, net worth, travel tendencies, as well as their drinking and smoking habits. Survey results revealed a well-heeled and dedicated male demographic, with survey respondents professing an average household income of $194,000 and a net worth of $1.54 million and claiming to smoke on average ten cigars per week. Shanken launched a large-format glossy magazine aimed at corralling these readers and advertisers of products targeted to this audience.
Cigar Aficionado began as a lifestyle magazine, including coverage of wine, spirits, travel, gambling, and antiques, in addition to interviews with leading personalities in the cigar industry and feature articles relating to the cigarmaking industry. From the beginning the magazine emphasized interviews with celebrity cigar smokers, including cover stories on Rush Limbaugh, Jack Nicholson, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. The new magazine's successful blending of lifestyle reports and celebrity glitz has been credited with contributing to the 1990s cigar boom.
The publication scored its first great journalistic coup on February 4, 1994, when editor and publisher Shanken met Fidel Castro in Havana for a two-hour interview. During this interview Castro recounted the story behind the establishment of the Cohiba brand, told stories of the importance of cigars to his life as a revolutionary in the mountains of Cuba, and explained his decision to give up cigar smoking in August 1986 as part of a national campaign against tobacco use. In addition to these topics of special interest to cigar smokers, the interview touched upon bilateral relations between the United States and Cuba, during the course of which Castro accused the United States of repeatedly "moving the goalposts back" for ending the Cuban economic embargo and said that "no other country has as unblemished behavior about human rights" as Cuba.
Ratings
From its inception, Cigar Aficionado has made use of blind taste testing of cigars, comparing the merits of one brand to another, expressed on the basis of a 100-point scale similar to the one successfully used in sister publication Wine Spectator.
Cigar of the Year
See also
Cigars
Tobacco
References
External links
Cigar Aficionado web site
Lifestyle magazines published in the United States
Cigars
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1992
Magazines published in New York City | [
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220362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical%20school%20of%20economics | Historical school of economics | The historical school of economics was an approach to academic economics and to public administration that emerged in the 19th century in Germany, and held sway there until well into the 20th century. The professors involved compiled massive economic histories of Germany and Europe. Numerous Americans were their students. The school was opposed by theoretical economists. Prominent leaders included Gustav von Schmoller (1838–1917), and Max Weber (1864–1920) in Germany, and Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950) in Austria and the United States.
Tenets
The historical school held that history was the key source of knowledge about human actions and economic matters, since economics was culture-specific, and hence not generalizable over space and time. The school rejected the universal validity of economic theorems. They saw economics as resulting from careful empirical and historical analysis instead of from logic and mathematics. The school also preferred reality, historical, political, and social, as well as economic, to mathematical modelling.
Most members of the school were also Sozialpolitiker (social policy advocates), i.e. concerned with social reform and improved conditions for the common man during a period of heavy industrialization. They were more disparagingly referred to as Kathedersozialisten, rendered in English as "socialists of the chair" (compare armchair revolutionary), due to their positions as professors.
The historical school can be divided into three tendencies:
the Older, led by Wilhelm Roscher, Karl Knies, and Bruno Hildebrand;
the Younger, led by Gustav von Schmoller, and also including Etienne Laspeyres, Karl Bücher, Adolph Wagner, Georg Friedrich Knapp and to some extent Lujo Brentano;
the Youngest, led by Werner Sombart and including, to a very large extent, Max Weber.
Predecessors included Friedrich List.
The historical school largely controlled appointments to chairs of economics in German universities, as many of the advisors of Friedrich Althoff, head of the university department in the Prussian Ministry of Education 1882–1907, had studied under members of the school. Moreover, Prussia was the intellectual powerhouse of Germany, so dominated academia, not only in central Europe, but also in the United States until about 1900, because the American economics profession was led by holders of German PhDs. The historical school was involved in the Methodenstreit ("strife over method") with the Austrian school, whose orientation was more theoretical and aprioristic.
Influence in Britain and the United States
The historical school had a significant impact on Britain, 1860s–1930s. Thorold Rogers (1823–1890) was the Tooke Professor of Statistics and Economic Science at King's College London, from 1859 until his death. He is best known for compiling the monumental A History of Agriculture and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793 (7 vol. 1866–1902), which is still useful to scholars. William Ashley (1860–1927) introduced British scholars to the historical school as developed in Germany. In the United States the school influenced the institutional economists, such as Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929) and especially the Wisconsin school of labor history led by John R. Commons (1862–1945). More importantly, numerous aspiring economists undertook graduate studies at German universities, including John Bates Clark, Richard T. Ely, Jeremiah Jenks, Simon Patten, and Frank William Taussig.
Canadian scholars influenced by the school were led by Harold Innis (1894–1952) at Toronto. His staples thesis holds that Canada's culture, political history and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of "staples" such as fur, fishing, lumber, wheat, mined metals and coal. The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s–1960s, and is still used by some.
After 1930 the historical school declined or disappeared in most economics departments. It lingered in history departments and business schools. The major influence in the 1930s and 1940s was Joseph Schumpeter with his dynamic, change-oriented, and innovation-based economics. Although his writings could be critical of the school, Schumpeter's work on the role of innovation and entrepreneurship can be seen as a continuation of ideas originated by the historical school, especially the work of von Schmoller and Sombart. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. (1918–2007), had a major impact on approaching business issues through historical studies.
Members of the school
Karl Bücher
Bruno Hildebrand
Georg Friedrich Knapp
Karl Knies
Étienne Laspeyres
Wilhelm Roscher
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
Gustav von Schmoller
Werner Sombart
Adolph Wagner
Max Weber
Karl Polanyi
Joseph Schumpeter
English school
Although not nearly as famous as its German counterpart, there was also an English historical school, whose figures included Francis Bacon and Herbert Spencer. This school heavily critiqued the deductive approach of the classical economists, especially the writings of David Ricardo. This school revered the inductive process and called for the merging of historical fact with those of the present period. Included in this school are: William Whewell, Richard Jones, Walter Bagehot, Thorold Rogers, Arnold Toynbee, and William Cunningham, to name a few.
See also
Freiburg school
Historism
Institutional economics, a related school developed in the United States
German Historical School of Law
Productivity improving technologies (historical)
References
Further reading
Avtonomov, Vladimir, and Georgy Gloveli. (2015) "The influence of the German Historical School on economic theory and economic thought in Russia." The German Historical School and European Economic Thought: 185+.
.
Bücher, Karl (1927). Industrial Evolution. 6th ed. New York, NY: Holt.
Backhaus, Jürgen G. (1994), ed. "Gustav Schmoller and the Problems of Today". History of Economic Ideas, vols. I/1993/3, II/1994/1.
Backhaus, Jürgen G. (1997), ed. Essays in Social Security and Taxation. Gustav von Schmoller and Adolph Wagner Reconsidered. Marburg: Metropolis.
Backhaus, Jürgen G. (2000), ed. Karl Bücher: Theory – History – Anthropology – Non Market Economies. Marburg: Metropolis.
Balabkins, Nicholas W. (1988). Not by theory alone...: The Economics of Gustav von Schmoller and Its Legacy to America. (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot).
Campagnolo, Gilles, and Christel Vivel. "Before Schumpeter: forerunners of the theory of the entrepreneur in 1900s German political economy – Werner Sombart, Friedrich von Wieser." European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 19.6 (2012): 908–43.
Chang, Ha-Joon (2002). Kicking Away the Ladder. Development Strategy in Historical Perspective. London: Anthem.
Dorfman, Joseph. "The role of the German historical school in American economic thought." American Economic Review (1955): 17–28. in JSTOR
Grimmer-Solem, Erik (2003). The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 1864–1894. (Oxford University Press).
Grimmer-Solem, Erik, and Roberto Romani. "The historical school, 1870–1900: A cross-national reassessment." History of European Ideas 24.4–5 (1998): 267–99.
Hauk, A. M. (2012) Methodology of the Social Sciences, Ethics, and Economics in the Newer Historical School: From Max Weber and Rickert to Sombart and Rothacker Ed. Peter Koslowski. Springer Science & Business Media.
Hodgson, Geoffrey M. (2001). How economics forgot history. The problem of historical specificity in social science. London – New York: Routledge.
Kadish, Alon (2012). Historians, Economists, and Economic History pp. 3–35 excerpt
Koslowski, Peter, ed. (2013). The Theory of Capitalism in the German Economic Tradition: Historism, Ordo-Liberalism, Critical Theory, Solidarism. Springer Science & Business Media.
Lindenfeld, David F. (1993). "The Myth of the Older Historical School of Economics." Central European History 26#4: 405–16.
Pearson, Heath. "Was there really a German historical school of economics?." History of Political Economy 31.3 (1999): 547–62.
Reinert, Erik (2007). How Rich Countries Got Rich ... and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers.
Roscher, Wilhelm. Principles of Political Economy. 2 vols. From the 13th (1877) German edition. Chicago: Callaghan.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1984). "History of Economic Analysis". London: Routledge.
Seligman, Edwin A. (1925). Essays in Economics. New York: Macmillan.
Shionoya, Yuichi (2001), ed. The German Historical School: The Historical and Ethical Approach to Economics. (Routledge).
Shionoya, Yuichi (2005), The Soul of the German Historical School. Springer.
Tribe, Keith (1988) Governing Economy. The Reformation of German Economic Discourse (Cambridge University Press).
Tribe, Keith (1995) Strategies of Economic Order. German Economic Discourse 1750–1950 (Cambridge University Press) (Republished 2006)
External links
New School for Social Research
19th-century economic history | [
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|
220363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TI | TI | TI, ti, and variants may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Ti/Si, the seventh syllable in the solfège technique
The International (Dota 2), an annual esports tournament for the video game, Dota 2
Twilight Imperium, a game
Businesses and organizations
TI-class supertankers, ultra-large tanker ships operated by Tankers International
Texas Instruments, an American electronics company
TI Group, previously Tube Investments, an English engineering company
Therapeutics Initiative, an evidence based medication evaluation organization
Tiger Inn, a Princeton University eating club
Toastmasters International, an international public speaking organization
Tol Air (IATA airline designator TI)
Tailwind Airlines, IATA code
Transparency International, an international organisation devoted to fighting corruption
Treasure Island Hotel and Casino, an American hotel and casino resort on the Las Vegas Strip
People
Ti, a high-status official during the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Ti. for Tiberius, a Roman given name shared by several people
T.I. (born 1980), American rapper and actor; real name Clifford Harris
Stephen Michael, Australian rules footballer
TI or Targeted individual, self-name for the category of delusional people who claim to be targets of electronic harassment
Ti, Bonnie Nettles, religious leader
Places
Ti, Oklahoma, US
Thursday Island, Torres Strait
Ticino, a canton (federated state) of Switzerland
Science, technology, and mathematics
Biology and medicine
Cabbage tree (New Zealand), called "tī kouka"
Terminal ileum, the last part of the small intestine
Ti or Tī, a generic name in Polynesian languages for plants of the genus Cordyline, including:
Cordyline fruticosa, Tī, Tī pore (Māori), Kī (Hawaiian), a widely cultivated plant throughout Polynesia
Cordyline australis (Tī kōuka or Cabbage tree, New Zealand)
Cordyline banksii (Tī ngahere or Forest cabbage tree, New Zealand)
Cordyline indivisa (Tī toī, tōī or Mountain cabbage tree, New Zealand)
Cordyline obtecta (Tī, Norfolk Island cabbage tree, Three Kings cabbage tree, Norfolk Island and New Zealand)
Cordyline pumilio (Tī rauriki, Tī koraha or Dwarf cabbage tree, New Zealand)
Therapeutic index
Tricuspid insufficiency, a leakage of blood within the heart
Computing
Ti (prefix symbol), the prefix symbol of the binary unit prefix tebi
Technical informatics, a subclass of computer engineering
Acronis True Image, a disk imaging program
Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
Topological insulator
Thermal instability
Thermodynamic integration
Titanium (Ti), the chemical element of atomic number 22
Truncated icosahedron
Other uses
Ti (concept), a term meaning "substance" (體) in Chinese
TI (cuneiform), a sign in cuneiform writing
Ti, Old Swedish spelling of Týr, deity of Norse mythology
Tigrinya language (ISO 639-1 code "ti")
Tenant inducement, in commercial real estate
See also
Di (disambiguation) for several Chinese concepts; "Ti" is the Wade–Giles equivalent of "Di"
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|
220366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodenstreit | Methodenstreit | Methodenstreit (German for "method dispute"), in intellectual history beyond German-language discourse, was an economics controversy commenced in the 1880s and persisting for more than a decade, between that field's Austrian School and the (German) Historical School. The debate concerned the place of general theory in social science and the use of history in explaining the dynamics of human action. It also touched on policy and political issues, including the roles of the individual and state. Nevertheless, methodological concerns were uppermost and some early members of the Austrian School also defended a form of welfare state, as prominently advocated by the Historical School.
When the debate opened, Carl Menger developed the Austrian School's standpoint, and Gustav von Schmoller defended the approach of the Historical School.
(In German-speaking countries, the original of this Germanism is not specific to the one controversy—which is likely to be specified as Methodenstreit der Nationalökonomie, i.e. "Methodenstreit of economics".)
History
Background
The Historical School contended that economists could develop new and better social laws from the collection and study of statistics and historical materials, and distrusted theories not derived from historical experience. Thus, the German Historical School focused on specific dynamic institutions as the largest variable in changes in political economy. The Historical School were themselves reacting against materialist determinism, the idea that human action could, and would (once science advanced enough), be explained as physical and chemical reactions.
The Austrian School, beginning with the work of Carl Menger in the 1860s, argued against this (in Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre, English title: Principles of Economics), that economics was the work of philosophical logic and could only ever be about developing rules from first principles — seeing human motives and social interaction as far too complex to be amenable to statistical analysis — and purporting to deduce universally valid precepts from human actions.
Menger and the German Historical School
The first move was when Carl Menger attacked Schmoller and the German Historical School, in his 1883 book Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences, with Special Reference to Political Economics (Untersuchungen über die Methode der Socialwissenschaften, und der politischen Ökonomie insbesondere). Menger thought the best method of studying economics was through reason and finding general theories which applied to broad areas. Menger, as did the other Austrians, concentrated upon the subjective, atomistic nature of economics. He emphasized the subjective factors. He said the grounds for economics were built upon self-interest, evaluation on the margin, and incomplete knowledge. He said aggregative, collective ideas could not have adequate foundation unless they rested upon individual components.
The direct attack on the German Historical School lead Schmoller to respond quickly with an unfavourable and quite hostile review of Menger's book. Menger accepted the challenge and replied in a passionate pamphlet, written in the form of letters to a friend, in which he (according to Hayek) "ruthlessly demolished Schmoller's position". The encounter between the masters was soon imitated by their disciples. A degree of hostility not often equaled in scientific controversy developed.
Consequences
The term "Austrian school of economics" came into existence as a result of the Methodenstreit, when Schmoller used it in an unfavourable review of one of Menger's later books, intending to convey an impression of backwardness and obscurantism of Austria compared to the more modern Prussians. A serious consequence of the hostile debate was that Schmoller went so far as to declare publicly that members of the "abstract" school were unfit to fill a teaching position in a German university, and his influence was quite sufficient to make this equivalent to a complete exclusion of all adherents to Menger's doctrines from academic positions in Germany. The result was that even thirty years after the close of the controversy Germany was still less affected by the new ideas now spreading elsewhere, than any other academically important country in the world.
See also
Economic methodology
Philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of science
Positive economics
Unreasonable ineffectiveness of mathematics
Positivismusstreit
Werturteilsstreit
References
External links
Principles of Economics by Carl Menger
Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics by Carl Menger
Epistemological Problems of Economics by Ludwig von Mises
The Historical Setting of the Austrian School of Economics by Ludwig von Mises
Economic controversies
Ideological rivalry
Austrian School
Historical school of economics | [
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|
220368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muenster | Muenster | Muenster may refer to:
Münster, Germany
Muenster, Saskatchewan
Muenster, Texas
Muenster cheese
See also
Munster (disambiguation) | [
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220369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacio%20Zaragoza | Ignacio Zaragoza | Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín (; March 24, 1829 – September 8, 1862) was a Mexican general and politician. He led the Mexican army of 600 men that defeated 6,500 invading French forces, including the elite French legionnaires at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862 (mostly celebrated in the United States as Cinco de Mayo).
Biography
Early life
Ignacio Zaragoza was born in what is now the state of Texas, in the village of Bahía del Espíritu Santo, (now Goliad, Texas, in the United States) on March 24th in 1829. From birth, Zaragoza seemed destined to be a man who worked for the government, as his father, Miguel Zaragoza, met his mother, Maria, while on duty and stationed at Bexar in 1825. At the time the area was the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas. Zaragoza was the son of Miguel G. Zaragoza and María de Jesús Seguín, who was a niece of Erasmo Seguín and cousin of Juan Seguín. This was not a particularly wealthy upbringing for Zaragoza, until the year 1830, when Miguel decided to capitalize on the U.S. government’s land sale that was going on in what would later become the state of Texas. Miguel was able to procure the land, and begin life as a rancher, which at the time was more lucrative than his average military job. The Zaragoza family moved to Matamoros, Mexico, in 1834, and then to Monterrey, Mexico, in 1844, where young Ignacio entered a seminary. By 1846, Zaragoza was going tired of what he was doing in the seminary, and wished to further pursue his military endeavors as a cadet for the Mexican army in the Mexican American War. This is how Zaragoza began his preparation for becoming a figure in the Mexican military.
Military career
At this point in history, the United States was attacking Mexico after the U.S. tried to annex Zaragoza’s home state of Texas. Seeing this, Zaragoza volunteered to be a cadet for the Mexican army in this conflict. The Mexican army rejected his offer and as a result of this he was unable to enlist. Despite this rejection, Zaragoza was not deterred. Between the years 1846 and 1850, Zaragoza spent his time working in the mercantile business. In 1852, as a member of the Mexican Liberal Party, Zaragoza got his first government opportunity when he was offered a position in the national guard. Following this, in 1853, Zaragoza was able to join a militia branch of the Mexican army and in doing so obtained the rank of sergeant. Zaragoza joined the army supporting the cause of the Liberal Party, in opposition to dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna.
Zaragoza’s first major experience as a captain in the military was when he led the liberal army against general Santa Anna in 1854. This conflict was known as the liberal Revolution of Ayutla, and it lasted until 1856. Zaragoza and the Mexican liberals were successful in defeating Santa Anna in this revolution. This was the first significant victory of Zaragoza’s military career. This victory of Zaragoza’s, led to significant political reform in Mexico, and usurping in a new democratic form of rule. The re-establishment of a constitutional democratic government in Mexico fueled the increase in political turmoil that took place from 1856 to 1857. By the beginning of 1857, Zaragoza was fighting in a Mexican civil war against conservative party leaders, Leandro Márquez and Miguel Miramón. Zaragoza was so committed to his cause that he even missed his wedding, in order to stay and lead his army to victory. After this promising string of military victories, Zaragoza won the war on December 22nd, 1860, by defeating the conservative forces in the battle of Calpulalpan. Soon after this victory, Zaragoza took up a political position after being offered one by Mexican president Benito Juárez.
Political career
In the year 1861, through appointment by then president of Mexico Benito Juárez, Zaragoza served as the minister of war and navy for the liberal party in the Mexican parliament. The role of the minister of war and navy entailed controlling where and how the Mexican military and navy was deployed around the globe, and for what reasons and in what capacity. With his success in the military, Zaragoza was recognizably good at this job. During his short time in office, Zaragoza was able to help president Juárez negotiate a two year moratorium on Mexico’s debt to France. In 1862, with the abrupt death of his wife and the need for generals in the military to help his country fight France in the Mexican east, Zaragoza decided to resign in order to lead the Army of the East (Ejército de Oriente) against the Europeans, in particular the French, who were using the Mexican external debt as a pretext under the Treaty of London concluded earlier that year to invade Mexico. After this resignation, Zaragoza would unfortunately never again hold political office.
When the forces of Napoleon III invaded in the French intervention in Mexico, Zaragoza had sole command over Mexican forces for the first time and battled the French at Acultzingo on April 28, 1862, where he was forced to withdraw in the face of superior forces.
Defense at Puebla
The Battle of Puebla is the most important and influential part of Zaragoza’s legacy. This battle was a struggle that took place on May 5, 1862. On this day, in Puebla, Mexico, Napoleon III of France had deployed part of his army to take this part of Mexico as a satellite state of France. In response, Liberal president of Mexico Benito Juárez deployed Zaragoza and his forces. Zaragoza fell back to the favorable defensive forts outside of the city of Puebla, and with his ragtag army, beat back repeated French assaults upon the Mexican positions at Fort Loreto and Fort Guadalupe. He held firm ordering several counter attacks and held the gates to the capital. He then took the initiative and ordered a general counter attack pushing the French in a general retreat to Orizaba with Zaragoza's men in pursuit. After all was said and done, Zaragoza and his forces won the day-long battle, losing approximately ninety men compared to the estimated 1,000 French casualties. After this victory, Zaragoza was quickly elevated to the status of Mexican war hero. This victory led to the establishment of the renowned holiday Cinco De Mayo.
Death
Shortly after his famous victory, Zaragoza was struck with typhoid fever, of which he died at the age of 33. His army would never have a commander equal to him as they suffered defeats later on. He was buried in San Fernando Cemetery in Mexico City. He was later exhumed and transferred to Puebla, while his former tomb became a monument. When the French left Mexico in defeat, Zaragoza became a legend as one of the few Mexican generals to have success in battle against the then-greatest army in the world.
Legacy
His famous quotation, Las armas nacionales se han cubierto de gloria ("The national arms have been covered with glory"), is used to remember the battle, and comes from the single-line letter he wrote to his superior, President Juárez, informing him of the victory. The quotation was included, along with Zaragoza's likeness, on Mexican 500-peso banknotes from 1995 to 2010 (Series D).
There is a municipality in the Mexican state of Chihuahua that is named after Zaragoza.
There are urban localities named after Zaragoza in the Mexican states of Chiapas, Chihuahua, Puebla, and Tlaxcala.
Most Mexican states have at least one rural locality named after Zaragoza; there are at least 52 rural localities named after Zaragoza as of 2021.
Calzada Ignacio Zaragoza is one of the main avenues of Mexico City, crossing the city from center to the southeast, and at its intersection with Avenida Río Churubusco it becomes Mexican Federal Highway 150D. There is also a subway station on Line 1 of the Mexico City Metro named after Zaragoza.
In the film Cinco de Mayo La Batalla (2013), Zaragoza was portrayed by Kuno Becker.
See also
Benito Juárez
French intervention in Mexico
https://www.texascooppower.com/texas-stories/history/the-hero-of-cinco-de-mayo
Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
References
Sources
"Zaragoza Seguín, Ignacio ". The Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved July 1, 2005.
Anonymous, “Zaragoza, Ignacio Seguín,” Handbook of Texas Online, accessed November 2, 2021, Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
Texas General Land Office, “The Texas Hero of Cinco De Mayo: Ignacio Zaragoza, and the Origins of the Celebration.” Medium, Medium, April 29, 2020
Strong, W.F. “The Hero of Cinco De Mayo.” Texas Co-Op Power Magazine, May 2021, https://www.texascooppower.com/texas-stories/history/the-hero-of-cinco-de-mayo.
Herz, May, et al. “Inside MéXico.” Inside Mexico, Inside Mexico, January 1, 1962
1829 births
1862 deaths
Deaths from typhoid fever
Independent Mexico
Liberalism in Mexico
Mexican generals
People from Goliad, Texas
Second French intervention in Mexico | [
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|
220378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus%20of%20Miletus | Hecataeus of Miletus | Hecataeus of Miletus (; ; c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC), son of Hegesander, was an early Greek historian and geographer.
Biography
Hailing from a very wealthy family, he lived in Miletus, then under Persian rule in the satrapy of Lydia. He was active during the time of the Greco-Persian Wars. After having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras, acting tyrant of Miletus, held a council of leading Ionians at Miletus to organize a revolt against Persian rule, Hecataeus tried in vain to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking. In 494 BC, when the defeated Ionians were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the constitution of the Ionic cities. Hecataeus is the first known Greek historian and was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic and Illyrian peoples.
He is known as the "Father of Geography".
Works
Two works by Hecateus are known: Περίοδος γῆς (Periodos ges, "Journey round the Earth" or "World Survey") and Γενεαλογίαι (Genealogiai) or the Ἱστορία (Historia). However, they only survive in fragments.
Periodos ges
Periodos ges was written in two books, the first on Europe, the second on Asia, in which he included Africa. The book is a comprehensive work on geography beginning at the Straits of Gibraltar and going clockwise ending at the Atlantic coast of Morocco following the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Hecataeaus provides information about the people and places that would be encountered on a coastal voyage between these points, as well as the inhabitants of the various Mediterranean islands, the Scythians, Persia, India, Egypt and Nubia. Over 300 fragments of this work are preserved, mostly as citations for place names in the work of Stephanus of Byzantium.
Genealogies
Hecataeus' other work was a book on mythography in four books. Less than forty fragments remain. He applied a more skeptical approach to the traditions of families who claimed to be descended from gods.
One fragment that has survived is the opening "Hecataeus of Miletus thus speaks: I write what I deem true; for the stories of the Greeks are manifold and seem to me ridiculous."
Herodotus (II, 143) tells a story of a visit by Hecataeus to an Egyptian temple at Thebes. It recounts how the priests showed Herodotus a series of statues in the temple's inner sanctum, each one supposedly set up by the high priest of each generation. Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the same spectacle, after mentioning that he traced his descent, through sixteen generations, from a god. The Egyptians compared his genealogy to their own, as recorded by the statues; since the generations of their high priests had numbered three hundred and forty-five, all mortal men, they refused to believe Hecataeus's claim of descent from a god. Historian James Shotwell has called this encounter with the antiquity of Egypt an influence on Hecataeus's scepticism: he recognized that oral history is untrustworthy.
Map
Besides his written works, Hecataeus is also credited with improving the map of Anaximander, which he saw as a disc encircled by Oceanus.
Summary
He was probably the first of the logographers to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and other poets as trustworthy authorities. Herodotus, though he contradicts his statements at least once, is indebted to Hecataeus for the concept of a prose history.
References
Sources
Hecataei Milesii Fragmenta: Scylacis Caryandensis Periplus 1831 edition of Hecateus fragments from Google Books
External links
Early Greek historians
Ancient Greek mythographers
Ancient Greek geographers
Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire
Historians from ancient Anatolia
Ancient Milesians
6th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC historians
550s BC births
470s BC deaths
Historians of the Achaemenid Empire
Classical-era Greek historians
Writers of lost works
5th-century BC geographers
6th-century BC geographers | [
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220379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.%20Everett%20Koop | C. Everett Koop | Charles Everett Koop (October 14, 1916 – February 25, 2013) was an American pediatric surgeon and public health administrator. He was a vice admiral in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and served as the 13th Surgeon General of the United States under President Ronald Reagan from 1982 to 1989. According to the Associated Press, "Koop was the only surgeon general to become a household name."
Koop was known for his work on tobacco use, AIDS, and abortion, and for his support of the rights of children with disabilities.
Early life and education
Koop was born in Brooklyn, New York, the only child of John Everett Koop (1883–1972), a banker and descendant of 17th-century Dutch settlers, and Helen (née Apel) Koop (1894–1970). In 1937, he earned his Bachelor of Arts in zoology degree from Dartmouth College, where he was given the nickname "Chick" (occasionally used for his first name, Charles, but here an allusion to a chicken coop). His interest in medicine followed a year in the hospital after a childhood skiing accident and brain hemorrhage. He earned his MD degree from Cornell Medical College in 1941 and Doctor of Science degree in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 1947.
Medical career
From 1946 to 1981, Koop was the surgeon-in-chief at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP). Koop was able to establish the nation's first neonatal surgical intensive care unit there in 1956. He helped establish the biliary atresia program at CHOP when Japanese surgeon Morio Kasai came to work with him in the 1970s. He also established the pediatric surgery fellowship training program at CHOP. During his tenure there he graduated 35 residents and 14 foreign fellows, many of whom went on to become professors of pediatric surgery, directors of divisions of pediatric surgery, and surgeons-in-chief of children's hospitals.
Koop became a professor of pediatric surgery in 1959 and professor of pediatrics in 1971 at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.
While a surgeon in Philadelphia, Koop performed groundbreaking surgical procedures on conjoined twins, invented techniques which today are commonly used for infant surgery, and saved the lives of countless children who otherwise might have been allowed to die. He invented anesthetic and surgical techniques for small bodies and metabolisms and participated in the separation of several sets of conjoined twins whose condition other physicians at the time considered hopeless. He first gained international recognition in 1957 by the separation of two female pygopagus infants (conjoined at the pelvis) and then, again, in 1974 by the separation of two ischiopagus twins (conjoined at the spine) sharing a liver, colon, and parts of the intestines with their entire trunks merged.
Koop was active in publishing articles in the medical literature. Koop later wrote that Each day of those early years in pediatric surgery I felt I was on the cutting edge. Some of the surgical problems that landed on the operating table at Children's had not even been named. Many of the operations I performed had never been done before. It was an exuberant feeling, but also a little scary. At times I was troubled by fears that I wasn't doing things the right way, that I would have regrets, or that someone else had performed a certain procedure successfully but had never bothered to write it up for the medical journals, or if they had I couldn't find it. Koop helped rectify this by publishing his own findings and results. Additionally, he became the first editor of the Journal of Pediatric Surgery when it was founded in 1966.
In contrast to his years as surgeon general, when it was his policies and speeches that had bearing on other people, his years as an operating pediatric surgeon involved a more individualized, direct, hands-on effect on others. During the course of his long career, for example, he performed some seventeen thousand inguinal hernia repairs and over seven thousand orchidopexies (surgery for correcting undescended testicle). He developed new procedures, such as the colon interposition graft for correcting esophageal atresia (congenital lack of continuity of the esophagus) or ventriculoperitoneal shunts for treatment of hydrocephalus (accumulation of excessive cerebral spinal fluid in and around the brain causing neurological problems). He also tackled many difficult cases ranging from childhood cancer to surgeries done on conjoined twins, of which he and his colleagues operated upon ten pairs during his 35-year tenure. In all he operated on many children and babies with congenital defects 'incompatible with life but amenable to surgical correction'.
In 1976, Koop wrote The Right to Live, The Right to Die, setting down his concerns about abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia. Koop also took some time off from his surgical practice to make a series of films with Christian apologists Frank Schaeffer and his father Francis Schaeffer in 1978, entitled Whatever Happened to the Human Race? based on the book of the same title that was previously written by the elder Schaeffer. Frank Schaeffer and his associate, Jim Buchfuehrer provided a private, five hour screening to U.S. Rep. Jack Kemp and wife Joanne on their home that, according to Frank Schaeffer's account of the late evening and early morning event in his book Crazy for God, led to both the Schaeffers and Koop obtaining "...access to everyone in the Republican Party".
President Ronald Reagan, shortly after his first inauguration, appointed Koop Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health in February 1981. It was understood that Reagan would later nominate Koop to be surgeon general.
Surgeon General of the United States
As expected, Koop was nominated to be Surgeon General of the United States by Reagan later in 1981. Many liberal politicians and women's groups opposed the nomination because of Koop's very conservative views and strong anti-abortion beliefs. His nomination was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on November 16, 1981, by a vote of 60–24. He was sworn into office on January 21 the following year.
Abortion
Though Koop was opposed to abortion on personal and religious grounds, he declined to state that abortion procedures performed by qualified medical professionals posed a substantial health risk to the women whose pregnancies were being terminated, despite political pressure to endorse such a position.
Koop Report
Koop, an opponent of abortion, resisted pressure from the Reagan administration in 1987 to prepare a report stating that abortion was psychologically harmful to women. He said it was not a public health issue but a moral one. Koop assigned an assistant, George Walter, the task of researching the matter. Walter obtained a list of articles from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), authored mostly by CDC abortion-surveillance staff, and consulted with Alan Guttmacher Institute personnel. Walter wrote a draft report on his findings and gave it to Koop.
In a January 10, 1989 letter to Reagan, Koop said that there was insufficient evidence to substantiate issuing the finding desired by the administration. He also commented about how some of the president's advisers thought that "it was a foregone conclusion that the negative health effects of abortion on women were so overwhelming that the evidence would force the reversal of Roe v. Wade".
Koop did not present the draft report to Reagan and claimed he never approved it. In March 1989, the "Koop Report" became public after it was subpoenaed and became part of a Congressional subcommittee hearing. Although there were allegations that the report had not been released previously because it was biased, the document contained all arguments on both sides of the issue.
Tobacco
In his 1988 Report of the Surgeon General, it was reported that nicotine has an addictiveness similar to that of heroin or cocaine. Koop's report was somewhat unexpected, especially by those who expected him to maintain the status quo in regard to his office's position on tobacco products. During his tenure, in 1984, Congress passed legislation providing for new, rotated health warning labels on cigarette packs and required advertising to include the labels. Those labels remain unchanged today. New labels containing graphic depictions of smoking-caused illness and death have been announced by the FDA, but are on hold pending the outcome of tobacco industry legal challenges. Koop issued a challenge to Americans in 1984 to "create a smoke-free society in the United States by the year 2000." As Surgeon General, he released eight reports on the health consequences of tobacco use, including the first report on the health consequences of involuntary tobacco smoke exposure. During Koop's tenure as Surgeon General, smoking rates in the United States declined significantly from 38% to 27%.
AIDS
Koop was Surgeon General when public health authorities first began to take notice of AIDS. For his first four years in office, Koop, the nation's top health officer, was prevented from addressing this health crisis, for reasons he insisted were never fully clear to him but that were no doubt political. Koop wrote the official U.S. policy on the disease, and in 1988 he took unprecedented action in mailing AIDS information to every U.S. household. Gay activists and their supporters were unhappy with the way in which he targeted gay sex and the risk of infection through anal sexual intercourse as primary vectors of the disease, but Koop was unapologetic, claiming such activities entail risks several orders of magnitude greater than other means of transmission. Religious activists, upset over the pamphlet's frank discussion of sexual practices and advocacy of condom use, called for Koop's resignation. Koop also infuriated some former supporters by advocating sex education in schools, possibly as early as the third grade, including later instruction regarding the proper use of condoms to combat the spread of AIDS. While a straightforward telling to the public about the disease was controversial, Koop was also criticized by some health activists who claimed that his office had not gone far enough in attempting to develop a cure or vaccine, reducing the role of his office to educating the public on health concerns.
Disability
In April 1982, a child born in Bloomington, Indiana, was diagnosed with Down syndrome as well as esophageal atresia with tracheoesophageal fistula. Six days later, after court involvement and parental discussion involving disagreement among physicians about whether or not to treat the baby or let him die, the baby died, having been denied surgical treatment to correct his esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistula. Baby Doe, as he would be known, became a symbol for newborns with birth defects, children with disabilities, and the debate over infanticide. Koop was not initially involved with the Baby Doe case but had a special interest in it. As a pediatric surgeon in Philadelphia, he and his colleagues had operated on 475 such babies during his 35 years there, with ever-increasing survival rates. During his last eight years in active practice, Koop never lost a full-term baby upon whom he had operated to correct esophageal atresia. It was due to this background that he became actively involved in championing policies to protect the rights of newborns with disabilities, which led to Congress passing the Baby Doe Amendment.
Style
These four issues, combined with Koop's personality and his willingness to make use of mass media, brought to the office of Surgeon General a higher public profile than it previously had merited; he is, for instance, the first Surgeon General to have been the subject of a popular song – "Promiscuous" by Frank Zappa. He was interviewed by Ali G for comedic effect.
Koop was well known for his mustache-less beard and colorful bow ties. During much of his day-to-day work, Koop wore the Surgeon General's US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps uniform, a uniform similar to that of a U.S. Navy Vice Admiral's. During his tenure he re-instated the daily wearing of the PHS uniform by the officers of the PHS.
Later career
Following his career as Surgeon General, Koop was on The Firestorm Solutions Expert Council. Koop hosted a documentary series in 1991, simply titled C. Everett Koop, M.D. It aired for six episodes on NBC.
Koop and other investors established drkoop.com in 1997, during the dot-com bubble. This medical information website was one of the first major online sources of health information. Critical review of the site content revealed that many of the private care listings, medicinal recommendations, and medical trial referrals were paid advertisements. The company went bankrupt in 2001. Koop continued to endorse Life Alert bracelets for the elderly.
In 1999 testimony before Congress, Koop minimized concerns from health groups about the severity of allergies to latex gloves. It was later discovered that a company that manufactured latex gloves had previously paid Koop $650,000 for consulting work.
Koop held three professorships at Dartmouth Medical School, where he was also the senior scholar at the C. Everett Koop Institute.
Personal life
In early 1968, Koop's son David was killed in a rock climbing accident on Cannon Mountain during his junior year at Dartmouth College. Koop later wrote that because of his son's death he thought, "I might be better able to help parents of dying children, but for quite a while I felt less able, too emotionally involved. And from that time on, I could rarely discuss the death of a child without tears welling up into my eyes." Years later, he and his wife wrote a book called Sometimes Mountains Move to help others who had lost a child. Koop's son Rev. Norman Koop attended Eastern Baptist College (now Eastern University) and graduated in 1969. The following year the elder Koop was elected to the board of trustees, becoming the first non-Baptist member of the board.
In February 2007, Elizabeth Koop, his wife of nearly 70 years, died. On April 17, 2010, he married Cora Hogue, a former staff member of Tenth Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia.
Death and legacy
At a November 2010 news conference, Koop spoke from a wheelchair and said that he was "very, very deaf" and legally blind. Koop died on February 25, 2013, at the age of 96 at his home in Hanover, New Hampshire. According to a Koop aide, he had been ill for several months and had suffered kidney failure the previous week. No official determination of cause of death has yet been announced.
Remarking on Koop's death, American Medical Association president Jeremy Lazarus commented, "Because of what he did, and the way he did it, he had a dramatic impact on public health." The Associated Press called his impact "great", while The Philadelphia Inquirer called him "a courageous and brilliant pediatric surgeon who pioneered techniques ... and became an outspoken surgeon general". Writing for The New Yorker, Michael Specter said, "I don’t think I have ever met anyone for whom I had more respect... In this era, during which progress, facts, and science are under unrelenting siege, it is thrilling to remember that even ideologues can love the truth."
Awards and honors
Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal
Public Health Service Meritorious Service Medal
Surgeon General's Medallion
Surgeon General's Exemplary Service Medal
Public Health Service Citation Medal
Public Health Service Outstanding Unit Citation
Presidential Medal of Freedom (1995)
Public Health Service Foreign Duty Service Award
Public Health Service Regular Corps Ribbon
Légion d'Honneur (1980)
Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella, the highest award of the Dominican Republic
Association of Military Surgeons of the United States with gold star
Denis Brown Gold Medal by the British Association of Paediatric Surgeons
William E. Ladd Gold Medal of the American Academy of Pediatrics
Fellow of the American College of Surgeons (FACS)
Royal College of Surgeons of England (1982)
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (1987)
Royal Society of Medicine (1997)
Honorary Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (HonFRCS) (2009)
U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official (1988 Jefferson Award)
Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences (1990)
Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism (1991)
Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement (1991)
Emmy Award in the News and Documentary category for "C. Everett Koop, MD," a five-part series on health care reform (1991)
The 2nd Annual Heinz Award in Public Policy (1996)
Publications
Sometimes Mountains Move by C. Everett Koop and Elizabeth Koop. Tyndale, 1974. (revised edition published by Zondervan in 1994, )
Visible & Palpable Lesions in Children by C. Everett Koop. Grune & Stratton, 1976.
The Right to Live, the Right to Die by C. Everett Koop. Tyndale, 1976.
Whatever Happened to the Human Race? by Francis A. Schaeffer and C. Everett Koop. F.H. Revell, 1979. (revised edition published by Crossway Books in 1983, )
Koop: The Memoirs of America's Family Doctor by C. Everett Koop. Random House, 1991.
Let's Talk: An Honest Conversation on Critical Issues: Abortion, Euthanasia, AIDS, Health Care by C. Everett Koop and G. Timothy Johnson. Zondervan, 1992.
Critical Issues in Global Health by C. Everett Koop, Clarence E. Pearson, and M. Roy Schwarz. Jossey-Bass, 2001.
References
Further reading
Soul Survivor: How Thirteen Unlikely Mentors Helped My Faith Survive the Church by Philip Yancey. Galilee/Doubleday, 2003.
External links
C. Everett Koop Papers (1933–2005) – National Library of Medicine finding aid
The C. Everett Koop papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health
Biography from the C. Everett Koop Institute at Dartmouth College
C. Everett Koop (1982-1989) – biography from the Office of the
C. Everett Koop - His Legacy at LifeStory.com
1916 births
2013 deaths
Activists from New York (state)
American Presbyterians
American anti-abortion activists
American health activists
American pediatric surgeons
American people of Dutch descent
Television personalities from New York City
Anti-smoking activists
Dartmouth College alumni
Disability rights activists from the United States
Geisel School of Medicine faculty
HIV/AIDS activists
New York (state) Republicans
People from Brooklyn
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Physicians from New York City
Physicians from Philadelphia
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Reagan administration personnel
Surgeons General of the United States
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps admirals
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
Recipients of the Public Health Service Distinguished Service Medal | [
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|
220381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court%20of%20record | Court of record | A court of record is a trial court or appellate court in which a record of the proceedings is captured and preserved, for the possibility of appeal. A court clerk or a court reporter takes down a record of oral proceedings. That written record (and all other evidence) is preserved at least long enough for all appeals to be exhausted, or for some further period of time provided by law (for example, in some U.S. states, death penalty statutes provide that all evidence must be preserved for an extended period of time).
Most courts of record have rules of procedure (see rules of evidence, rules of civil procedure, and rules of criminal procedure) and therefore they require that most parties be represented by counsel (specifically, attorneys holding a license to practice law before the specific tribunal). In contrast, in courts not of record, oral proceedings are not recorded, and the judge makes his or her decision based on notes and memory. In most "not of record" proceedings, the parties may appear personally, without lawyers. For example, most small claims courts, traffic courts, justice courts presided over by justices of the peace, many administrative tribunals that make initial governmental administrative decisions such as government benefit determinations, and the like, are not courts of record.
United States
"Of record" and "not of record" are two polar extremes of a spectrum, and there is a transition zone between them. Many proceedings have an intermediate character, with some "of record" characteristics but not others. For example, in some agencies of the U.S. government, oral arguments in intra-agency appeals are transcribed by a reporter as a matter of the agency's choice, but since the record is not required by statute, other guarantees of 5 U.S.C. §§ 554, 556, and 557 do not apply. For example, in proceedings before executive branch agencies of the U.S. federal government, fully-formal proceedings of record are governed by the "formal adjudication" or "on the record" provisions of §§ 554, 556, and 557, but informal proceedings or "not on the record" proceedings are governed by § 555.
However, powers available to the tribunal turn on the tribunal having full "of record" characteristics. For example, in many states, statutes provide that the power to fine or imprison lies only with courts of record. Similarly, for a court to punish for contempt, there must be a record of exactly what was said by whom and so the power to punish for contempt requires the tribunal have at least a court reporter taking down all proceedings. The rationale is that criminal penalties or contempt penalties may not be imposed unless there is a right of appeal, and an appeal is only meaningful if the trial-level court kept a record of its proceedings.
In some classes of cases, after a determination by an inferior or lower tribunal not of record, a party may take a first-level appeal to a tribunal that is of record. For example, many government administrative agencies delegate initial decisions to a single person who acts informally, typically with a title like "clerk" or "examiner," such as a Social Security claims examiner or a patent examiner. Then, the agency provides a first-level of intra-agency review before a board of appeals that conducts its proceedings on a more formal basis than the proceedings before the initial hearing officer. In most cases, the first level appeal is "trial de novo" (or a 'hearing de novo'). The intra-agency appeal may be of record or not or somewhere between, depending on the agency. That is not an appeal as such but a new proceeding, which completely supersedes the result of the prior agency determination. Often, the review tribunal will not permit introduction of new evidence, or may have evidentiary rules that are quite restrictive. When the first-level adjudication is made by an executive branch agency, and after all intra-agency procedures are exhausted, it is often possible to go to a court to seek judicial review of the judgment of the agency.
The primary function of the record is to serve as the basis for appellate review of the agency- or trial-level proceedings. The record from a trial court includes the evidence introduced by the parties and some form of record of the proceeding itself, which includes copies of all papers filed by the parties and a transcript of any trial, and it may include an audio or videotape of hearings, appearances, or arguments of motions. Exhibits introduced in evidence are maintained in the court record at least for a certain period of time after the case has been tried, when the evidence may be returned to the parties or destroyed. If either party takes an appeal, the lower court produces a copy certified by a unique seal to authenticate the formal record.
References
Courts by type
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|
220386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaser | Phaser | Phaser may refer to:
Phaser (microwave weapon)
Phaser (fictional weapon), in the Star Trek fictional universe
Phaser (effect), in electronics, an audio signal processor used to distort the signal
Light Phaser, a lightgun for the Sega Master System video game system
Xerox Phaser, Xerox's trade name for makes of thermal transfer printers, solid ink printers and color laser printers
Personnel Halting and Stimulation Response rifle (PHASR), a dazzler weapon
Phaser, an insecticide containing the active ingredient endosulfan
Phaser Digital Power Transducer from Second Wind
Phaser (band), a Washington, D.C. rock band
Phaser (game framework), a free software 2D game framework for making HTML5 games
See also
Phase (disambiguation)
Phasor (disambiguation)
FASOR (disambiguation) | [
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220388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight%20Immortals | Eight Immortals | The Eight Immortals () are a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology. Each immortal's power can be transferred to a vessel () that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight vessels are called the "Covert Eight Immortals" (). Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Song Dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, which includes Mount Penglai.
The Immortals are:
He Xiangu (), generally seen as the only female of the group, often depicted holding a lotus flower.
Cao Guojiu (), related to a Song dynasty emperor before he became an immortal.
Li Tieguai (), considered to be mentally disturbed and associated with medicine and easing the suffering of the sick and needy, identified by his iron crutch and Calabash bottle.
Lan Caihe (), an immortal of ambiguous gender considered the patron of florists and gardeners.
Lü Dongbin (), a scholar and poet considered to be the leader of the Eight Immortals.
Han Xiangzi (), a flute artist.
Zhang Guolao (), a fangshi associated with old age.
Zhongli Quan (), associated with death and the power to create silver and gold, often depicted holding a fan.
In literature before the 1970s, they were sometimes translated as the Eight Genies. First described in the Yuan Dynasty, they were probably named after the Eight Immortal Scholars of the Han.
In art
The tradition of depicting humans who have become immortals is an ancient practice in Chinese art, and when religious Taoism gained popularity, it quickly picked up this tradition with its own immortals. While cults dedicated to various Taoist immortals date back to the Han dynasty, the popular and well-known Eight Immortals first appeared in the Jin dynasty. The art of the Jin tombs of the 12th and 13th centuries depicts a group of eight Taoist immortals in wall murals and sculptures. They officially became known as the Eight Immortals in the writings and works of art of the Taoist group known as the Complete Realization (Quanshen). The most famous art depiction of the Eight Immortals from this period is a mural of them in the Eternal Joy Temple (Yongle Gong) at Ruicheng.
The Eight Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and medieval art. They were frequent adornments on celadon vases. They were also common in sculptures owned by the nobility. Their most common appearance, however, was in paintings. Many silk paintings, wall murals, and wood block prints remain of the Eight Immortals. They were often depicted either together in one group, or alone to give more homage to that specific immortal.
An interesting feature of early Eight Immortal artwork is that they are often accompanied by jade hand maidens, commonly depicted servants of the higher ranked deities, or other images showing great spiritual power. This shows that early on, the Eight Immortals quickly became eminent figures of the Taoist religion and had great importance. We can see this importance is only heightened in the Ming and Qing dynasties. During these dynasties, the Eight Immortals were very frequently associated with other prominent spiritual deities in artwork. There are numerous paintings with them and the Three Stars (the gods of longevity, prosperity, and good fortune) together. Also, other deities of importance, such as the Queen Mother of the West, are commonly seen in the company of the Eight Immortals.
The artwork of the Eight Immortals is not limited to paintings or other visual arts. They are quite prominent in written works too. Authors and playwrights wrote numerous stories and plays on the Eight Immortals. One famous story that has been rewritten many times and turned into several plays (the most famous written by Mu Zhiyuan in the Yuan Dynasty) is The Yellow-Millet Dream, which is the story of how Lǚ Dòngbīn met Zhongli Quan and began his path to immortality.
In literature
The Immortals are the subject of many artistic creations, such as paintings and sculptures. Examples of writings about them include:
The Yueyang Tower by Ma Zhiyuan
The Bamboo-leaved Boat () by Fan Zi'an ()
The Willow in the South of the City () by Gu Zijing ()
The most significant is The Eight Immortals Depart and Travel to the East () by Wu Yuantai () in the Ming Dynasty.
There is another work, also made during the Ming (c. 14th–15th centuries), by an anonymous writer, called The Eight Immortals Cross the Sea (). It is about the Immortals on their way to attend the Conference of the Magical Peach () when they encounter an ocean. Instead of relying on their clouds to get them across, Lü Dongbin suggested that they each should exercise their unique powers to get across. Derived from this, the Chinese proverb "The Eight Immortals cross the sea, each reveals its divine powers" () indicates the situation that everybody shows off their skills and expertise to achieve a common goal.
In qigong and martial arts
Furthermore, they have been linked to the initial development of qigong exercises such as the Eight Piece Brocade. There are some Chinese martial arts styles named after them, which use fighting techniques that are attributed to the characteristics of each immortal. Some drunken boxing styles make extensive use of the Eight Immortals archetypes for conditioning, qigong/meditation and combat training. One subsection of BaYingQuan drunken fist training includes methodologies for each of the eight immortals.
Reverence
Established in the Song Dynasty, the Xi'an temple Eight Immortals Palace (), formerly Eight Immortals Nunnery (), is where statues of the Immortals can be found in the Hall of Eight Immortals (). There are many other shrines dedicated to them throughout China and Taiwan. In Singapore, the Xian'gu Temple () has the Immortal Woman He from the group as its focus of devotion.
Depictions in popular culture
In modern China, the Eight Immortals are still a popular theme in artwork. Paintings, pottery, and statues are still common in households across China and are even gaining some popularity worldwide.
Several movies about the Eight Immortals have been produced in China in recent years.
In Jackie Chan's films Drunken Master and Drunken Master II, there are eight "drunken" Chinese martial arts forms that are said to be originated from the Eight Immortals. At first, the protagonist did not want to learn the Immortal Woman He form because he saw it as feminine, but he eventually created his own version of it.
The 1998–99 Singaporean television series Legend of the Eight Immortals was based on stories of the Eight Immortals and adapted from the novel Dong You Ji.
The Eight Immortals play an important part in the plot of the video game Fear Effect 2.
In the Andy Seto graphic novel series Saint Legend, the Eight Immortals reappear to protect the Buddhist faith from evil spirits set on destroying it.
In the X-Men comic book, the Eight Immortals appear to protect China along with the Collective Man when the mutant Xorn caused a massacre in one small village.
In the Immortal Iron Fist comic book, there are seven supreme kung fu practitioners, called the Seven Immortal Weapons. They each hail from other-dimensional cities and must fight for their city's chance to appear on Earth. Aside from being named the "Immortal" Weapons, the most overt reference to the Eight Immortals is that one Immortal Weapon, Fat Cobra, hails from and represents a city called "Peng Lai Island".
In the roleplaying game Feng Shui, the Eight Immortals appear in the sourcebook Thorns of the Lotus.
The Eight Immortals played a role in the animated show Jackie Chan Adventures. In the show, the Immortals were said to be the ones who defeated the Eight Demon Sorcerers and sealed them away in the netherworld using items that symbolized their powers. They then crafted the Pan'ku box as a key to opening the portals that lead into the demons' prison. Later on in the series, the items the Immortals used to seal away the demons the first time are revealed to have absorbed some of the demons' chi and become the targets of Drago, the son of Shendu (one of the Demon Sorcerers), to enhance his own powers.
In The Forbidden Kingdom, Jackie Chan plays the character Lu Yan, who is supposed to be one of the Eight Immortals, as revealed by the director in the movie's special feature, The Monkey King and The Eight Immortals.
In the Tales of the Dragon expansion for Age of Mythology, the Eight Immortals are hero units for the Chinese.
In The Iron Druid Chronicles, Zhang Guolao joins the party journeying to Asgard to slay Thor in vengeance for the Norse gods crimes. Zhang Guolao's grudge stems from Thor killing his donkey in a trick.
References
Further reading
Lai, T. C., The Eight Immortals (Swindon Book Co., 1972).
Mantak Chia, Johnathon Dao, The Eight Immortal Healers: Taoist Wisdom for Radiant Health (Simon and Schuster).
External links
Stories and Myths of Eight Immortals. A collection of Eight Immortals stories
Chinese deities
Chinese art
Taoist art
Taoist immortals
Chinese iconography | [
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|
220390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Bo%20%28disambiguation%29 | Li Bo (disambiguation) | Li Bai or Li Bo (701–762) was a Tang dynasty Chinese poet.
Li Bo may also refer to:
Lee Bo, one of the missing booksellers of Causeway Bay Books in Hong Kong
Li Bo (ecologist) (1929–1998), Chinese phytoecologist
Sports
Li Bo (sport shooter), participated in Shooting at the 2010 Asian Games
Li Bo (footballer) for Guangxi Longguida F.C.
Li Bo (skier), Cross-country skiing at the 2010 Winter Paralympics – Men's 10 km Classic
Bo Li (athlete) from 2005 World Youth Championships in Athletics
Li Bo (referee) from 2009 Guangzhou Pharmaceutical F.C. season
See also
Libo (disambiguation) | [
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220401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20William%20III%20of%20Prussia | Frederick William III of Prussia | Frederick William III (; 3 August 1770 – 7 June 1840) was King of Prussia from 16 November 1797 until his death in 1840. He was concurrently Elector of Brandenburg in the Holy Roman Empire until 6 August 1806, when the Empire was dissolved.
Frederick William III ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic Wars. The king reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the . Following Napoleon's defeat, he took part in the Congress of Vienna, which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe. His primary interests were internal, the reform of Prussia's Protestant churches. He was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of Churches. The king was said to be extremely shy and indecisive. His wife Queen Louise (1776–1810) was his most important political advisor. She led a mighty group that included Baron vom Stein, Prince von Hardenberg, Scharnhorst, and Count von Gneisenau. They set about reforming Prussia's administration, churches, finance, and military. He was the common ancestor of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (through Princess Charlotte) and Kaiser Wilhelm II (through Wilhelm I).
Early life
Frederick William was born in Potsdam in 1770 as the son of Frederick William II of Prussia and Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was considered to be a shy and reserved boy, which became noticeable in his particularly reticent conversations, distinguished by the lack of personal pronouns. This manner of speech subsequently came to be considered entirely appropriate for military officers. He was neglected by his father during his childhood and suffered from an inferiority complex his entire life.
As a child, Frederick William's father (under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, Countess of Lichtenau) had him handed over to tutors, as was quite normal for the period. He spent part of the time living at Paretz, the estate of the old soldier Count Hans von Blumenthal who was the governor of his brother Prince Heinrich. They thus grew up partly with the Count's son, who accompanied them on their Grand Tour in the 1780s. Frederick William was happy at Paretz, and for this reason, in 1795, he bought it from his boyhood friend and turned it into an important royal country retreat. He was a melancholy boy, but he grew up pious and honest. His tutors included the dramatist Johann Engel.
As a soldier, he received the usual training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a lieutenant colonel in 1786, a colonel in 1790, and took part in the campaigns against France of 1792–1794. On 24 December 1793, Frederick William married Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who bore him ten children. In the (Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin, Frederick William lived a civil life with a problem-free marriage, which did not change even when he became King of Prussia in 1797. His wife Louise was particularly loved by the Prussian people, which boosted the popularity of the whole House of Hohenzollern, including the King himself.
Reign
Frederick William succeeded to the throne on 16 November 1797. He also became, in personal union, the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (1797–1806 and again 1813–1840). At once, the new King showed that he was earnest of his good intentions by cutting down the royal establishment's expenses, dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive abuses of the late reign. He had the Hohenzollern determination to retain personal power but not the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate responsibility to his ministers, he greatly reduced the effectiveness of his reign since he was forced to assume the roles he did not delegate. This is the main factor of his inconsistent rule.
Disgusted with his father's court (in both political intrigues and sexual affairs), Frederick William's first and most successful early endeavor was to restore his dynasty's moral legitimacy. The eagerness to restore dignity to his family went so far that it nearly caused sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow to cancel the expensive and lavish project, which was commissioned by the previous monarch Frederick William II. He was quoted as saying the following, which demonstrated his sense of duty and peculiar manner of speech:
Every civil servant has a dual obligation: to the sovereign and the country. It can occur that the two are not compatible; then, the duty to the country is higher.
At first, Frederick William and his advisors attempted to pursue a neutrality policy in the Napoleonic Wars. Although they succeeded in keeping out of the Third Coalition in 1805, eventually, Frederick William was swayed by the queen's attitude, who led Prussia's pro-war party and entered into the war in October 1806. On 14 October 1806, at the Battle of Jena-Auerstädt, the French effectively decimated the Prussian army's effectiveness and functionality; led by Frederick William, the Prussian army collapsed entirely soon after. Napoleon occupied Berlin in late October. The royal family fled to Memel, East Prussia, where they fell on the mercy of Emperor Alexander I of Russia.
Alexander, too, suffered defeat at the hands of the French, and at Tilsit on the Niemen France made peace with Russia and Prussia. Napoleon dealt with Prussia very harshly, despite the pregnant Queen's interview with the French emperor, which was believed to soften the defeat. Instead, Napoleon took much less mercy on the Prussians than what was expected. Prussia lost many of its Polish territories and all territory west of the Elbe and had to finance a large indemnity and pay French troops to occupy key strong points within the Kingdom.
Although the ineffectual King himself seemed resigned to Prussia's fate, various reforming ministers, such as Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein, Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst, and Count August von Gneisenau, set about reforming Prussia's administration and military, with the encouragement of Queen Luise (who died, greatly mourned, in 1810).
In 1813, following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, Frederick William turned against France and signed an alliance with Russia at Kalisz. However, he had to flee Berlin, still under French occupation. Prussian troops played a crucial part in the victories of the allies in 1813 and 1814, and the King himself traveled with the main army of Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, along with Alexander of Russia and Francis of Austria.
At the Congress of Vienna, Frederick William's ministers succeeded in securing significant territorial increases for Prussia. However, they failed to obtain the annexation of all of Saxony, as they had wished. Following the war, Frederick William turned towards political reaction, abandoning the promises he had made in 1813 to provide Prussia with a constitution.
Prussian Union of churches
Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial. Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition. Especially the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia refused to abandon their liturgical traditions. The crown responded by attempting to silence protest. The stubborn Lutheran minority was coerced by military force, their churches' confiscation, and their pastors' imprisonment or exile. By 1834 outward union was secured based on common worship but separate symbols—the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form communities of their own. Many left Prussia. The King's unsuccessful counterattack worsened tensions at the highest levels of government. The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history. In a series of proclamations over several years, the Church of the Prussian Union was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants. The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop.
In 1824 Frederick William III remarried (morganatically) Countess Auguste von Harrach, Princess of Liegnitz. They had no children.
In 1838 the king distributed large parts of his farmland at Erdmannsdorf Estate to 422 Protestant refugees from the Austrian Zillertal, who built Tyrolean style farmhouses in the Silesian village.
Death
Frederick William III died on 7 June 1840 in Berlin, from a fever, survived by his second wife. His eldest son, Frederick William IV, succeeded him. Frederick William III is buried at the Mausoleum in Schlosspark Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Issue
Honours
Ancestry
Siblings
Frederica Charlotte (1767–1820), who became Duchess of York by her marriage to Frederick, Duke of York
Christine (1772–73)
Louis Charles (1773–96)
Frederica Louisa Wilhelmina (1774–1837), wife of William of Orange, afterward King William I of the Netherlands
Augusta (1780–1841), wife of William II, Elector of Hesse
Henry (1781–1846)
William (1783–1851)
Works
Marches
, 1806
, circa 1820
References
Further reading
Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2006) pp 298–320.
Richardson, Constance. Memoirs of the Private Life and Opinions of Louisa, Queen of Prussia, Consort of Frederick William III (London, R. Bentley, 1847) online.
Sheehan, James J. German History, 1770-1866 (1993) passim.
Wright, Constance. Beautiful enemy: a biography of Queen Louise of Prussia (Dodd, Mead, 1969) online.
External links
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1770 births
1840 deaths
19th-century German people
18th-century Kings of Prussia
19th-century Kings of Prussia
Kings of Prussia
Crown Princes of Prussia
Brandenburgian nobility
Prince-electors of Brandenburg
Princes of Neuchâtel
House of Hohenzollern
People from Potsdam
Protestant monarchs
German Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Knights Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
3
3
3
Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter | [
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|
220406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangasniemi | Kangasniemi | Kangasniemi is a municipality in the Southern Savonia region, Finland. The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is .
Kangasniemi is located on the Finnish national road 13, northwest of Mikkeli and southeast of Jyväskylä. Distance to the national capital, Helsinki is . Its neighbour municipalities are Hankasalmi, Hirvensalmi, Joutsa, Mikkeli, Pieksämäki and Toivakka.
There are almost 3600 (May 2014) summer houses, and summer guests redouble the number of inhabitants during the summer months.
The municipality is unilingually Finnish.
History
The municipality was founded in 1867.
Nature
There are more than of shoreline. The largest lakes are Puulavesi and Kyyvesi. Some other lakes are Mallos and Synsiä. In 1997, Kangasniemi was voted the most beautiful municipality in Finland by television show.
Economy
Kangasniemi has large forest resources, approximately , and the yearly growth is approximately . There is also Puula golf field.
Gallery
See also
Kangasniemi Church
Famous natives
Emilie Björkstén, poet
Hilding Ekelund, architect
Otto Manninen, writer, poet and translator
Tepa Reinikainen, shot putter
Hiski Salomaa, singer and songwriter
Virpi Sarasvuo, née Kuitunen, cross-country skier
Sami Sarjula, actor
Martti Tolamo, athlete
References
External links
Municipality of Kangasniemi – Official website
The Finnish Association for Persons with Intellectual Disabilities Official website
Populated places established in 1867 | [
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220409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinola | Heinola | Heinola () is a town and a municipality of inhabitants () located in the eastern part of the Päijänne Tavastia region, Finland, near the borders of the South Savonia region and the Kymenlaakso region. It is the third largest municipality in the region in terms of population after Lahti and Hollola. The neighbour municipalities of Heinola are Asikkala, Hartola, Iitti, Kouvola, Mäntyharju, Nastola, Pertunmaa and Sysmä.
In the coat of arms of Heinola, the Tavastia's provincial animal, the Eurasian lynx, crosses a fess resembling an arch bridge; it refers to the Jyränkö Bridge (Jyrängönsilta) from 1932, which crosses Jyrängönvirta, the smaller part of the Kymi River. The coat of arms was designed by Gustaf von Numers and approved by the Heinola Town Council at its meeting on 23 September 1958. The coat of arms was approved for use by the Ministry of the Interior on 11 November of the same year.
History
Heinola used to be a remote village of then larger Hollola until it gained significance in 1776 when Gustav III of Sweden promoted it to be the governmental center of the province in which it was then located. The grid plan of the city center is from that era. Heinola also became a center of commerce for nearby regions.
When Finland became a part of Russia in 1809, the capital of the province was moved eastwards with the state border. To compensate this, Heinola was granted town rights on December 26, 1839 by Czar Nicholas I. Before World War II, Heinola was widely known as a spa town, and until 1972 it served as a location for an institute (seminaari) that taught elementary school teachers. These both were established in the 1890s and played an important role in the town life.
Heinolan maalaiskunta was merged into Heinola in 1997.
Economy
After World War II Heinola has been economically an industrial town, mainly due to its wood processing industry. Industry remained the largest source of employment until the 1970s, when the trade and services sector grew larger, following a national trend.
Heinola has been hit hard by Late-2000s recession. UPM-Kymmene, that used to be the largest employer after the public sector, reported closing down its sawmill and plywood mill in Heinola during 2010.
Sights
The bird zoo is located just next to the old bus station. The founding idea of the bird zoo is to offer help for birds that have injured themselves in the traffic, power lines and glass surfaces, and to rehabilitate them back to the nature. The birds that remain in the care, and the ones that are not capable of returning to the nature, but are considered to maintain a meaningful life in capture, are available for spectators to see. For school groups and tourists, this can be a good opportunity to identify some of the species that are not so easily spotted in the wild. In the summer, tropical birds that spend the winter inside are also to be seen.
Geography
Heinola is largely situated between two lakes, Ruotsalainen and Konnivesi. A waterway connecting the lakes crosses the town and is, along with an esker also crossing the town, a characterising geographical feature of Heinola.
A motorway (Finnish national road 4/E75) connects Heinola to Lahti (distance ) and Helsinki (distance ); it also acrosses Lake Ruotsalainen on the Tähtiniemi Bridge in the northern part of town. Heinola is also southern head of the Finnish national road 5, which goes over 900 kilometres to the north through the cities Kuopio and Kajaani to Sodankylä.
Culture
Food
In the 1980s, Heinola's traditional parish dishes were tappaiskeitto ("butchery soup") and pancakes.
International relations
Twin towns — sister cities
Heinola is twinned with:
Karlshamn, Sweden
Peine (district), Germany
Piešťany, Slovakia
See also
Heinolan Peliitat
Lusi (Heinola)
Vierumäki
References
External links
Town of Heinola – official website, finnish, swedish, english and russian
Cities and towns in Finland
Grand Duchy of Finland
Populated places established in 1776 | [
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|
220413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imatra | Imatra | Imatra is a town and municipality in eastern Finland. Imatra is dominated by Lake Saimaa, the Vuoksi River and the border with Russia.
On the other side of the border, away from the centre of Imatra, lies the Russian town of Svetogorsk. St Petersburg is situated to the southeast, Finland's capital Helsinki is away and Lappeenranta, the nearest Finnish town, is away. Imatra belongs to the administrative province of Southern Finland and the region of South Karelia.
The main employers are pulp and paper manufacturer Stora Enso Oyj, the Town of Imatra, engineering steel manufacturer Ovako Bar Oy Ab, and the Finnish Border Guard.
, the total number of employees was 12,423. , 1,868 employees were employed by the Town of Imatra.
The town manager of Imatra is Kai Roslakka. The town's nicknames include Imis, Ibiza and Nahkalippis City (Leather Baseball Cap City).
The name of Imatra comes possibly from a Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate language.
History
An Art Nouveau or Jugend style castle, currently known as Imatran Valtionhotelli, was built near the rapids in 1903 as a hotel for tourists from the Russian Imperial capital Saint Petersburg.
During the Continuation War, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim met with Adolf Hitler in secrecy near the town for the former's 75th birthday.
Imatra was founded in 1948 on the territory of three municipalities – Jääski, Ruokolahti and Joutseno. Finland ceded 9% of its territory to the Soviet Union after the Winter War. Jääski lost 85% of its territory and it was decided that a new municipality, Imatra, should be established on the remaining 15% of Jääski and some areas of Ruokolahti and Joutseno. This is why the Imatra coat of arms has three flashes – in honour of those previous municipalities that granted areas to it. It gained its municipal charter in 1971.
Sport
PaSa Bandy is a bandy club in Imatra.
Imatra is the birthplace of National Hockey League players Jussi Markkanen and Petteri Nokelainen.
In motorsport history, Imatra is best known for its road races (former TT-race) from 1963 to 1986. From 1962 to 1982 it was the home of the Finnish motorcycle Grand Prix. Racing on the Imatra road circuit ended after fatal accident during the 1986 European Championship event. Racing resumed in 2016 as an International Road Racing Championship event.
There is an annual indoor rowing race at Imatra, which attracts competitors from across Finland.
Transport
The national road 6, running from Koskenkylä in Loviisa to Kajaani via Kouvola, Lappeenranta, and Joensuu passes through Imatra. Also in Imatra is a crossing point over the Russian border, which is also the ending point of primary road 62 from Mikkeli.
The Kouvola–Joensuu railway passes through Imatra, and the Imatra railway station serves both passenger and freight transport. From the rail yard of this station is a fork onto the railway towards Kamennogorsk via Vyborg. The planning of the initiation of regular international passenger traffic between Imatra and Saint Petersburg is currently underway.
The closest airport to Imatra is the Lappeenranta Airport, which is used by Ryanair on several routes as well as irregular passenger flights to the Canary Islands and cargo flights to Russia. The Immola Airfield is also present, serving the Finnish Border Guard as well as hobbyist aviation activities.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Imatra is twinned with:
Ludvika, Sweden
Salzgitter, Germany
Zvolen, Slovakia
Tikhvin, Russia
Szigetvár, Hungary
Narva-Jõesuu, Estonia
See also
Imatra shooting
Svetogorsk
References
External links
Town of Imatra – Official site
goSaimaa.com – Travel information about Imatra
Cities and towns in Finland
Populated places established in 1948
Finland–Russia border crossings | [
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|
220414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogation | Interrogation | Interrogation (also called questioning) is interviewing as commonly employed by law enforcement officers, military personnel, intelligence agencies, organized crime syndicates, and terrorist organizations with the goal of eliciting useful information, particularly information related to suspected crime. Interrogation may involve a diverse array of techniques, ranging from developing a rapport with the subject to torture.
Techniques
Deception
Deception can form an important part of effective interrogation. In the United States, there is no law or regulation that forbids the interrogator from lying about the strength of their case, from making misleading statements or from implying that the interviewee has already been implicated in the crime by someone else. See case law on trickery and deception (Frazier v. Cupp).
As noted above, traditionally the issue of deception is considered from the perspective of the interrogator engaging in deception towards the individual being interrogated. Recently, work completed regarding effective interview methods used to gather information from individuals who score in the medium to high range on measures of psychopathology and are engaged in deception directed towards the interrogator have appeared in the literature.
Verbal and non-verbal cues
The major aim of this technique is to investigate to what extent verbal and non-verbal features of liars' and truth-tellers' behaviour change during the course of repeated interrogations. It has shown that liars display significantly fewer smiles, self-manipulations, pauses, and less gaze aversion than truth-tellers. According to Granhag & Strömwall, there are three approaches to non-verbal deceptive behavior. The first is the emotional approach, which suggests that liars will alter their behaviors based on their own emotional feelings. For example, if a subject is lying and they begin to experience guilt, they will shift their gaze. The second approach is the cognitive approach, which suggests that lying requires more thought than telling the truth, which in turn, may result in a liar making more errors in speech. Lastly, the attempted control approach suggests a subject who is lying will attempt to be seemingly normal or honest, and will try to adjust their behaviors to make themselves believable.
Good cop/bad cop
Good cop/bad cop is a psychological tactic used in negotiation and interrogation, in which a team of two interrogators take apparently opposing approaches to the subject. One adopts a hostile or accusatory demeanor, emphasizing threats of punishment, while the other adopts a more sympathetic demeanor, emphasizing reward, in order to convince the subject to cooperate.
Mind-altering drugs
The use of drugs in interrogation is both ineffective and illegal. The Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment (adopted by the UN General Assembly as resolution 43/173 of 9 December 1988) forbids "methods of interrogation which impair the capacity of decision of judgment." Furthermore, the World Medical Association and American Medical Association, for example, both forbid participation by physicians in interrogations.
Torture
The history of the state use of torture in interrogations extends over more than 2,000 years in Europe. It was recognized early on that information extracted under duress was deceptive and untrustworthy. The Roman imperial jurist Ulpian in the third century AD remarked that there is "no means of obtaining the truth" from those who have the strength to resist, while those unable to withstand the pain "will tell any lie rather than suffer it."
The use of torture as an investigative technique waned with the rise of Christianity since it was considered "antithetical to Christ's teachings," and in 866 Pope Nicholas I banned the practice. But after the 13th century many European states such as Germany, France, Portugal, Italy, and Spain began to return to physical abuse for religious inquisition, and for secular investigations. By the 18th century the spreading influence of the Enlightenment led European nations to abandon officially state-sanctioned interrogation by torture. By 1874 Victor Hugo could plausibly claim that "torture has ceased to exist." Yet in the 20th century authoritarian states such as Mussolini's Fascist Italy, Hitler's Third Reich, and Lenin's and Stalin's Soviet Union once again resumed the practice, and on a massive scale.
During the Cold War, the American Central Intelligence Agency was a significant influence among world powers regarding torture techniques in its support of anti-Communist regimes. The CIA adopted methods such as waterboarding, sleep deprivation, and the use of electric shock, which were used by the Gestapo, KGB, and North Koreans from their involvement in the Korean War. The CIA also researched 'no-touch' torture, involving sensory deprivation, self-inflicted pain, and psychological stress. The CIA taught its refined techniques of torture through police and military training to American-supported regimes in the Middle East, in Southeast Asia during the bloody Phoenix Program, and throughout Latin America during Operation Condor. In some Asian and South Pacific nations, such as Malaysia and the Philippines, torture for interrogating and terrorizing opponents became widespread. "In its pursuit of torturers across the globe for the past forty years," writer Alfred McCoy notes, "Amnesty International has been, in a certain sense, following the trail of CIA programs."
After the revelation of CIA sponsored torture in the 1970s and the subsequent outcry, the CIA largely stopped its own interrogations under torture. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, it "outsourced" such interrogation through renditions of prisoners to third world allies, often called torture-by-proxy. But in the furor over the September 11 attacks, American authorities cast aside scruples, legally authorizing some forms of interrogation by torture under euphemisms such as "enhanced interrogation techniques" or "interrogation in depth" to collect intelligence on Al Qaeda, starting in 2002. Ultimately the CIA, the US military, and their contract employees tortured untold thousands at Abu Ghraib, Bagram, and secret black site prisons scattered around the globe, according to the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture and the bipartisan U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee report Whether these interrogations under torture produced useful information is hotly disputed.
The administration of President Barack Obama prohibited so-called enhanced interrogation in 2009, and as of March 2012 there is no longer a nation which openly admits to deliberate abuse of prisoners for purposes of interrogation.
By country
United Kingdom
Statutory law and regulatory law, various legal precedents called 'case law' also impact interrogation techniques and procedures. One of the first attempts by British Courts to guide and set standards for police officers interrogating suspects was the declaration of the 'Judges' Rules' in 1912 by the judges of the King's Bench Division in England. These rules, although not law, still have weight in the United Kingdom and Canada.
British military personnel were found to have misused a number of techniques during the detention of suspects in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s.
United States
Police interrogation
In the United States, police interrogations are conducted under an adversarial system, in which the police seek to obtain material that will aid in convicting a suspect rather than discovering the facts of the case. To this end, a variety of tactics are employed.
The Reid technique is widely used by U. S. law enforcement officers for interrogation purposes. It involves steps to obtaining a confession and methods for detecting signs of deception in the suspect's body language. The technique has been criticized for being difficult to apply across cultures and as eliciting false confessions from innocent people. An example is described in the analysis of the Denver police's January 2000 interrogation of 14-year-old Lorenzo Montoya, which took place during its investigation of the murder of 29-year-old Emily Johnson.
Constitutional protections
The Fifth Amendment, which states that one cannot be made to be "a witness against himself", prohibits law enforcement from forcing suspects to offer self-incriminating evidence.
As a result of the Miranda v. Arizona ruling, police are required to read aloud to suspects under interrogation their Miranda Rights afforded to them by the Fifth Amendment, such as the right to remain silent and the right to seek counsel. If the police fail to administer the Miranda rights, all statements under interrogation are prohibited from being used as evidence in court proceedings.
Push for mandatory recording of interrogations in the U.S.
By the 2000s, a growing movement calls for the mandatory electronic recording of all custodial interrogations in the United States. "Electronic recording" describes the process of recording interrogations from start to finish. This is in contrast to a "taped" or "recorded confession," which typically only includes the final statement of the suspect. "Taped interrogation" is the traditional term for this process; however, as analog is becoming less and less common, statutes and scholars are referring to the process as "electronically recording" interviews or interrogations. Alaska, Illinois, Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are the only states to require taped interrogation. New Jersey's taping requirement started on January 1, 2006. Massachusetts allows jury instructions that state that the courts prefer taped interrogations. Commander Neil Nelson of the St. Paul Police Department, an expert in taped interrogation, has described taped interrogation in Minnesota as the "best thing ever rammed down our throats".
See also
Covert interrogation
Interrogation of Saddam Hussein
Torture
References
External links
Law enforcement | [
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220418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol%20I%20of%20Romania | Carol I of Romania | Carol I or Charles I of Romania (20 April 1839 – ), born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (Domnitor) from 1866 to 1881, and as King from 1881 to 1914. He was elected Prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 after the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup d'état. In May 1877, Romania was proclaimed an independent and sovereign nation. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire (1878) in the Russo-Turkish War secured Romanian independence, and he was proclaimed King on . He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a socialist republic in 1947.
During his reign, Carol I personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo/Romanian army during the siege of Plevna. The country achieved internationally recognized independence via the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria in 1913. In 1883 the king made a top-secret military alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, despite popular demands against Hungary. When World War I broke out he was unable to activate the alliance. Romania remained neutral and in 1916 joined the Allies.
Domestic political life was organized around the rival Liberal and Conservative parties. During Carol's reign, Romania's industry and infrastructure were much improved, however this process also resulted in major scandals, including the Strousberg Affair which personally implicated Carol. Overall, the country still had an agrarian-focused economy and the situation of the peasantry failed to improve, leading to a major revolt bloodily suppressed by the authorities.
He married Princess Elisabeth of Wied on 15 November 1869. They only had one daughter, Maria, who died at the age of three. Carol never produced a male heir, leaving his elder brother Leopold next in line to the throne. In October 1880 Leopold renounced his right of succession in favour of his son William, who in turn surrendered his claim six years later in favour of his younger brother, the future king Ferdinand.
Early life
Prince Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was born on 20 April 1839 in Sigmaringen, in the Catholic branch of the family. He was the second son of Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and his wife, Princess Josephine of Baden. After finishing his elementary studies, Karl entered the Cadet School in Münster. In 1857 he was attending the courses of the Artillery School in Berlin. Up to 1866, when he accepted the crown of Romania, he was a Prussian officer. He took part in the Second Schleswig War, including the assault of the Fredericia citadel and Dybbøl, an experience which would be very useful to him later in the Russo-Turkish war.
Although he was quite frail and not very tall, prince Karl was reported to be the perfect soldier, healthy and disciplined, and also a very good politician with liberal ideas. He was familiar with several European languages. His family was closely related to the Bonaparte family (one of his grandmothers was a Beauharnais, Joséphine's niece-in-law, and the other a Murat, Joachim's niece Marie Antoinette Murat), and they enjoyed very good relations with Napoleon III of France.
En route to Romania
The former Domnitor of united Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, had been expelled from the country by the leading noblemen, leaving Romania in political chaos. Cuza's double election seven years earlier, both in Wallachia and in Moldavia, had been the basis on which the Romanian Principalities' unification was recognized by the European powers. With him gone, the country was in danger of disintegration, as the Ottoman Empire and other powers initially accepted the unification only on the condition that it will end with his reign.
As Romanian politicians searched for a successor, Karl was not their first choice. The authors of the anti-Cuza coup first approached Philip of Flanders, brother of king Leopold II of Belgium, hoping that he would bring the institutions of his country to the Lower Danube and turn the newly unified country into a "Belgium of the East". Wary of France's oppositions, Philip, who also turned down the throne of Greece a few years earlier, refused.
Soon after, Napoleon III suggested Karl, who was the brother in law of Philip. Napoleon's recommendation weighed heavily with Romanian politicians of the time, since Romania was strongly influenced by French culture. Napoleon was a strong supporter of Romanian independence, hoping to consolidate French influence on the Black Sea. Another factor was Karl's blood relation to the ruling Prussian family. Ion Brătianu was the Romanian politician sent to negotiate with Karl and his family the possibility of installing him on the Romanian throne.
Due to the political conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Empire, Karl travelled incognito by railroad from Düsseldorf to Baziaș, through Switzerland. He received there a Swiss passport from a Swiss public clerk, friend of his family, under the name of Karl Hettingen. From Baziaș he travelled by boat to Turnu Severin, since there was no railroad to Romania. As he crossed the border onto Romanian soil, he was met by Brătianu, who bowed before him and asked Karl to join him in his carriage. He was elected Domnitor ("Reigning Prince") on 20 April.
On 10 May 1866 (22 May 1866 N.S.), Karl entered the capital Bucharest. The news of his arrival had been transmitted by telegraph and he was welcomed by a huge crowd eager to see the new ruler. In Băneasa he was given the keys to the capital city. Eventually it was a rainy day after a long period of drought, which was taken to be a good omen by locals. As he was crowned, Karl swore this oath: "I swear to guard the laws of Romania, to maintain the rights of its People and the integrity of its territory." He took this oath in French, as he did not yet speak Romanian. In fact, it is said that, before his nomination to being the King of Romania, he had never heard of the place. However, he endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol. He learned to speak Romanian not long after that.
Early reign
The Constitution of 1866
On 29 June–two months after Carol's arrival–the Romanian parliament adopted the 1866 Constitution of Romania, one of the most modern constitutions of its time. Carol signed it into law two days later. Modeled closely on the Constitution of Belgium, it guaranteed private propriety, freedom of speech, total freedom of the press, it abolished the death penalty during peace time, and established separation of powers. Despite the otherwise liberal nature of the act, the constitution barred non-Christians from becoming citizens, a measure which heavily affected the country's Jewish population
This constitution allowed the development and modernization of the Romanian state. In a daring move, the Constitution chose to ignore the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, which paved the way towards de jure independence.
Article 82 made the throne a hereditary office of Carol's descendants "on the male line through the right of first-born, perpetually excluding women and their descendants." It also required that Carol's descendants be "raised in the Eastern Orthodox Religion." Although Carol was vested with executive power, he was not politically responsible for exercising it. His acts were only valid if they were countersigned by a minister, who then became responsible for the act in question. Nevertheless, he commanded great moral authority as a symbol of the nation and its unity.
Franco-Prussian War and the Republic of Ploiești
While Romania did not take part in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the conflict nonetheless affected the early reign of Carol I. Because he was a German prince ruling a historically Francophile country, there is a strong feeling of distrust towards Carol at this time, who was not yet seen as Romanian. Several attempts to force the prince to abdicate take place around this time, usually led by the republicans and radical liberals led by Ion C. Brătianu and C. A. Rosetti. Carol's alliance with the Conservatives which effectively blocked the Liberals out of government did little to quell Liberal animosity towards the prince.
The most well known such incident took place on 8 August 1870, when radical liberals in the city of Ploiești started a revolt and attempted coup by arresting the chief of police and the county Prefect, occupying several official buildings and proclaiming the so-called Republic of Ploiești. The revolt lasted less than 24 hours and lead to the arrest of many Liberal leaders.
Future republican projects were rare, especially since Brătianu became prime minister in 1876 and helped Liberals hold power until 1889, becoming loyal supporters of King Carol.
War of independence (1877–1878)
Background
Between 1875 and 1877 anti-Ottoman revolts took place in several Balkan countries, most notably Bulgaria, where the April Uprisings of 1876 were brutally suppressed by irregular bashi-bazouks. The international outrage at the Bulgarian massacre – particularly on the part of Russia, who saw itself as a protector of Orthodox Christians in general and Bulgarians in particular – triggered several diplomatic efforts over the next year. After the failure of these diplomatic attempts, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877, launching the Russo-Turkish War, which is known in Romanian historiography as the War of Independence.
At the behest of then foreign minister Mihail Kogălniceanu and against the advice of his Crown Council, Carol decided to permit Russian troops to pass through its territory on the way to the Bulgaria. This resulted in Turkish bombardments of Romanian towns on the Danube. At this point, Romania was de facto independent, being "bound to the Ottoman Empire only by the payment of tribute (which had dropped to 1% of the country's budget) and a number of largely formal prerogatives in matters of foreign policy."
Romanian participation
On May 10, 1877, the Principality of Romania, which was under formal Turkish rule, declared its independence, ending the legal fiction of Ottoman suzerainty that had existed since 1861. The declaration was put forward and voted on by the Parliament and promulgated by Prince Carol.
While Russia was happy to be given travelling rights inside Romanian territory, it vehemently opposed Romania actively entering the war, as this would have given them a place at the negotiation table after the war. However, after the Russian advance was halted outside the Bulgarian town of Pleven, they requested the Romanian army's urgent intervention. Carol obtained the command of the combined Russian and Romanian forces that were surrounding Pleven and following heavy fighting and a prolonged siege, Osman Nuri Pasha surrendered the town on 28 November 1877. This victory sent ripples within Romanian society, elevating Carol's name among the pantheon of national heroes.
The Romanian army, under Carol, continued to fight in the war, most notably the battles of Smârdan and Vidin. By early 1878, the Turks were losing the war and on the third of March they signed the Treaty of San Stefano, which recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria.
Aftermath
After the war, the Treaty of Berlin recognized Romania as an independent country on 13 July 1878. In addition, Romania was granted the former Ottoman territory of Northern Dobruja, an immensely valuable territorial gain that gave Romania possession of the mouth of the Danube and access to the Black Sea. From 1878, Carol held the title of Royal Highness (Alteță Regală).
The war had also made possible the appearance of the Principality of Bulgaria. This young state began a search for a new prince, and Carol I was among the candidates, although he was not elected.
On 15 March 1881, the constitution was amended to proclaim Romania a kingdom. Carol became the first King of Romania, while the heir-apparent or heir-presumptive would be called Prince Royal. On 10 May, Carol was crowned king. The 1866 Constitution was retained, with the word "prince" replaced by the word "king". The Kingdom of Romania was thus born.
The Steel Crown that was used in the coronation of Carol was forged from steel of a melted Ottoman cannon that was captured by the Romanian Army at the Pleven. Since 2016 it is depicted on the Romanian coat of arms.
King of Romania
King Carol was a cold man who was always focused on the prestige of the dynasty he had founded. His wife, Elizabeth, claimed he 'wore the crown in his sleep'. He was very meticulous and he tried to impose his style upon everyone that surrounded him. Though he was devoted to his job as Romania's ruler, he never forgot his German roots. In 48 years of rule—the longest in Romanian history—he helped Romania gain its independence, raised its prestige, helped redress its economy and established a dynasty. In the Carpathian mountains, he built Peleș Castle in German style, which is considered one of Europe's most beautiful castles and is still one of Romania's most visited landmarks. After the Russo-Turkish war, Romania gained Northern Dobruja and Carol ordered Romanian engineer Anghel Saligny (a student of Gustave Eiffel) to build the first contemporary permanent bridge over the Danube, between Fetești and Cernavodă, linking the newly acquired province to the rest of the country. The bridge was, at that time, the longest in Europe and, although no longer in use, it is still intact as of 2019.
The king's personal authority in military and foreign policy issues was unquestioned. In 1883 he entered into a crucial alliance with the Central Powers, which he personally arranged without discussion in Parliament or with anyone outside a handful of insiders. Upon its renewal in 1892, he had to inform his prime minister and foreign minister, but Parliament and the public at large did not even know about its existence until the beginning of World War I.
On 22 June 1884, the Parliament voted in favour of granting Carol and his successors a large royal estate, making the king the biggest landowner in the country.
His reign established constitutional monarchy and saw the early days of democracy in Romania, despite the fact that elections of that era are largely seen as being controlled. The King would essentially alternate power between the two parties, installing the opposition whenever he felt the ruling party of the day had run its course. The new government would organize elections which they would invariably win.
Between 1886 and 1887, there was a new proposal to make Carol I the ruler of Bulgaria. He was strongly supported by Stefan Stambolov, regent of the country after the abdication of the Bulgarian prince Alexander of Battenberg. Stambolov's intention was to establish a personal union between Bulgaria and Romania. Carol I was interested in the offer, but had to reject it under Russian pressure.
Last years and the looming World War
In 1913 Romania intervened in the Second Balkan War and invaded Bulgaria. The approach of Romanian troops towards Sofia determined the Bulgarians to negotiate an armistice which resulted in the Treaty of Bucharest, which gained Romania the territory of Southern Dobruja, expanding the territory obtained by the country under King Carol and confirming Romania's dominant role in the region.
The long rule of Carol helped the quick development of the Romanian state. Towards the end of his reign and the start of World War I, Carol wanted to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers; however, Romanian public opinion was overwhelmingly Francophile and sided with the Triple Entente. Carol had signed a secret treaty in 1883 which had linked Romania with the Triple Alliance. Although the treaty was to be activated only if Russia attacked one of the signatories, Carol was convinced that the honourable thing to do was to enter the war supporting the German Empire and his cousin, Emperor William II.
On , an emergency meeting was held with the Crown Council, where Carol told them about the secret treaty and shared his opinion with them. However, most of the Crown Council members strongly disagreed, opting for neutrality, with prime-minister Brătianu being a particularly strong voice for preserving the peace obtained by the Treaty of Bucharest.
King Carol died on . The new king, Ferdinand (under the influence of his wife, Marie of Edinburgh, a British princess), was more willing to listen to public opinion and brought Romania into the war on the side of the Allies in 1916.
Life and family
When he was elected prince of Romania, Carol was unmarried. In 1869, the prince started a trip around Europe and mainly Germany, to find a bride. During this trip he met and married Princess Elizabeth of Wied at Neuwied on 15 November 1869. Their marriage was strange, with Carol being a cold and calculating man while Elizabeth was a notorious dreamer who published literature under the name of Carmen Sylva. They had one child, Princess Maria, born in 1870, who died 9 April (N.S.) 1874. She had no prospect of inheriting her father's throne; as mentioned above, the Constitution limited succession to the male line. This led to the further estrangement of the royal couple, Elizabeth never completely recovering from the trauma of losing her only child.
After the proclamation of the Kingdom (1881), the succession was a very important matter of state. Since Carol's brother, Leopold (in 1880), and his oldest son, William (in 1886), declined their rights, the second son of Leopold, Ferdinand, was named prince of Romania and heir-presumptive to the throne, in 1886.
Towards the end of Carol's life Carol and Elizabeth finally found a way to understand each other and were reported to have become good friends.
Legacy
Carol I is seen as a towering figure of national history in contemporary Romania. He is often depicted in history books as a historical leader on par with Decebalus, Stephen the Great, Michael the Brave or Alexandru Ioan Cuza. This view emerged during the second half of his reign, with the founding of the constitutional monarchy and the victory in the War of Independence making Carol a legendary personage in his own lifetime, according to historian Lucian Boia:His long reign (of forty-eight years, one more than Stephen the Great) allowed the myth to come to fruition even within his lifetime. The image of the sovereign, mediocre at first, took on a powerful brilliance in the last years of the century. An educational poster of around 1900 presents "the four pillars of the Romanian people", along with other heroes of Wallachian history. The four are Trajan and Decebalus, Cuza and Carol I. Even Michael the Brave becomes a secondary figure by comparison. Carol appears organically rooted in Romanian history; he represents a new beginning, of course, but a beginning based on much older foundations.
During the Communist era, Carol became a target of scorn for Romanian historians, as were all other figures associated with the monarchy. He was often described as a money-hungry foreign prince who was placed on the throne by Western capitalist in order to tighten their control over the Romanian state, no more than a simple pawn of the Kaiser, who needed someone that blindly followed his orders to rule over the lower Danube. Additionally, he was depicted as an enemy of the peasantry, who tried to steal their lands and rape young peasant girls. He was usually indicated as the sole source of outrage during the 1907 Peasant Revolt. Starting with the second half of the 1970s, Carol's image was rehabilitated to some extent by Romanian historians, who distanced themselves from the more propagandistic views of the last three decades. While more mainstream publications, such as school text books, continued the anti-monarchy line, some academics began describing his reign as a period of national progress and acknowledged his role in preserving the young Union.
Following the collapse of Communism in 1989, the monarchy was fully rehabilitated in the public eyes. Carol is now thought of as a figure of national unity who is seen as the founder of the modern Romanian state and of the most revered individuals in the country's history. During the 100 Greatest Romanians show broadcast by the national television in 2006, Carol I was voted the second greatest Romanian who has ever lived, after only Stephen the Great.
The Carol I National Defence University and Central University Library in Bucharest, and the Carol I National College in Craiova are named in his honour.
The Order of Carol I was established in 1906 and was until 1947 the highest honour bestowed by the Romanian Kingdom. In 2005 it was reintroduced by the Romanian royal family as a dynastic order.
Honours
National orders and decorations
:
Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania
Founder of the Medal of Faithful Service, 9 April 1878
Founder of the Order of the Crown of Romania, 14 March 1881
Founder of the Order of Carol I, 10 May 1906
House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class with Swords
Foreign orders and decorations
Ancestry
See also
King Carol I equestrian statue in Bucharest
Commissions of the Danube River
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Keith Hitchins, Rumania 1866–1947 (Oxford University Press, 1994).
Boris Crǎciun – "Regii și Reginele României", Editura Porțile Orientului, Iași
External links
Online edition of Carol's 1899 book Reminiscences of the King of Roumania
Daniel Cain: Carol I, King of Romania, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
1839 births
1914 deaths
People from Sigmaringen
Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
Kings of Romania
19th-century Kings of Romania
20th-century Kings of Romania
Romanian people of French descent
Romanian people of German descent
Romanian Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic monarchs
Field marshals of Germany
Field marshals of Russia
Romanian people of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
Romanian people of the Second Balkan War
Honorary members of the Romanian Academy
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Romania)
Recipients of the Order of Bravery, 1st class
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
2
2
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Third Degree
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Burials at Curtea de Argeş Cathedral
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion | [
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|
220419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Nations%20Convention%20against%20Torture | United Nations Convention against Torture | The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (commonly known as the United Nations Convention against Torture (UNCAT)) is an international human rights treaty, under the review of the United Nations, that aims to prevent torture and other acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment around the world.
The Convention requires member states to take effective measures to prevent torture in any territory under their jurisdiction, and forbids member states to transport people to any country where there is reason to believe they will be tortured.
The text of the Convention was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1984 and, following ratification by the 20th state party, it came into force on 26 June 1987. 26 June is now recognized as the International Day in Support of Victims of Torture, in honor of the Convention. Since the convention's entry into force, the absolute prohibition against torture and other acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment has become accepted as a principle of customary international law. As of June 2021, the Convention has 171 state parties.
Summary
The Convention follows the structure of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), with a preamble and 33 articles, divided into three parts:
Part I (Articles 1–16) contains a definition of torture (Article 1), and commits parties to taking effective measures to prevent any act of torture in any territory under their jurisdiction (Article 2). These include ensuring that torture is a criminal offense under a party's municipal law (Article 4), establishing jurisdiction over acts of torture committed by or against a party's nationals (Article 5), ensuring that torture is an extraditable offense (Article 8), and establishing universal jurisdiction to try cases of torture where an alleged torturer cannot be extradited (Article 5). Parties must promptly investigate any allegation of torture (Articles 12 and 13), and victims of torture, or their dependents in case victims died as a result of torture, must have an enforceable right to compensation (Article 14). Parties must also ban the use of evidence produced by torture in their courts (Article 15), and are barred from deporting, extraditing, or refouling people where there are substantial grounds for believing they will be tortured (Article 3). Parties are required to train and educate their public servants and private citizens involved in the custody, interrogation, or treatment of any individual subjected to any form of arrest, detention, or imprisonment, regarding the prohibition against torture (Article 10). Parties also must keep interrogation rules, instructions, methods, and practices under systematic review regarding individuals who are under custody or physical control in any territory under their jurisdiction, in order to prevent all acts of torture (Article 11). Parties are also obliged to prevent all acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment in any territory under their jurisdiction, and to investigate any allegation of such treatment. (Article 16).
Part II (Articles 17–24) governs reporting and monitoring of the Convention and the steps taken by the parties to implement it. It establishes the Committee against Torture (Article 17), and empowers it to investigate allegations of systematic torture (Article 20). It also establishes an optional dispute-resolution mechanism between parties (Article 21) and allows parties to recognize the competence of the Committee to hear complaints from individuals about violations of the Convention by a party (Article 22).
Part III (Articles 25–33) governs ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Convention. It also includes an optional arbitration mechanism for disputes between parties (Article 30).
Main provisions
Definition of torture
Article 1.1 of the Convention defines torture as:
The words "inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions" remain vague and very broad. It is extremely difficult to determine what sanctions are 'inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions' in a particular legal system and what are not. The drafters of the Convention neither provided any criteria for making such determination nor did it define the terms. The nature of the findings would so differ from one legal system to another that they would give rise to serious disputes among the Parties to the Convention. It was suggested that the reference to such rules would make the issue more complicated, for it would endow the rules with a semblance of legal binding force. This allows state parties to pass domestic laws that permit acts of torture that they believe are within the lawful sanctions clause. However, the most widely adopted interpretation of the lawful sanctions clause is that it refers to sanctions authorized by international law. Pursuant to this interpretation, only sanctions that are authorized by international law will fall within this exclusion. The interpretation of the lawful sanctions clause leaves no scope of application and is widely debated by authors, historians, and scholars alike.
Ban on torture
Article 2 prohibits torture, and requires parties to take effective measures to prevent it in any territory under their jurisdiction. This prohibition is absolute and non-derogable. "No exceptional circumstances whatsoever" may be invoked to justify torture, including war, threat of war, internal political instability, public emergency, terrorist acts, violent crime, or any form of armed conflict. In other words, torture cannot be justified as a means to protect public safety or prevent emergencies. Subordinates who commit acts of torture cannot abstain themselves from legal responsibility on the grounds that they were just following orders from their superiors.
The prohibition on torture applies to anywhere under a party's effective jurisdiction inside or outside of its borders, whether on board its ships or aircraft or in its military occupations, military bases, peacekeeping operations, health care industries, schools, day care centers, detention centers, embassies, or any other of its areas, and protects all people under its effective control, regardless of nationality or how that control is exercised.
The other articles of part I lay out specific obligations intended to implement this absolute prohibition by preventing, investigating, and punishing acts of torture.
Ban on refoulement
Article 3 prohibits parties from returning, extraditing, or refouling any person to a state "where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture." The Committee against Torture has held that this danger must be assessed not just for the initial receiving state, but also to states to which the person may be subsequently expelled, returned or extradited.
Obligation to prosecute or extradite
Article 7 obligates the government of the state in which the alleged offense occurred to either prosecute the accused party, or extradite them to a state that will, under the principle of aut dedere aut judicare.
Ban on cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment
Article 16 requires parties to prevent "other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment which do not amount to torture as defined in article 1" in any territory under their jurisdiction. Because it is often difficult to distinguish between cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and torture, the Committee regards Article 16's prohibition of such act as similarly absolute and non-derogable.
Signatories and ratifications
As of 17 November 2021, there are 173 States parties. 22 UN Member States are not yet party to the Convention.
Optional Protocol
The Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT), adopted by the General Assembly on 18 December 2002 and in force since 22 June 2006, provides for the establishment of "a system of regular visits undertaken by independent international and national bodies to places where people are deprived of their liberty, in order to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment," to be overseen by a Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
As of July 2020, the Protocol has 76 signatories and 90 parties.
Committee against Torture
The Committee against Torture (CAT) is a body of human rights experts that monitors implementation of the Convention by State parties. The Committee is one of eight UN-linked human rights treaty bodies. All state parties are obliged under the Convention to submit regular reports to the CAT on how rights are being implemented. Upon ratifying the Convention, states must submit a report within one year, after which they are obliged to report every four years. The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of "concluding observations". Under certain circumstances, the CAT may consider complaints or communications from individuals claiming that their rights under the Convention have been violated.
The CAT usually meets in April/May and November each year in Geneva. Members are elected to four-year terms by State parties and can be re-elected if nominated. The current membership of the CAT, :
Convention against Torture Initiative CTI2024
In 2014, on the 30th anniversary of the Convention against Torture, a cross-regional group of UN Member States formed the Convention against Torture Initiative (CTI), an inter-governmental endeavour with the aspiration to reduce and prevent the risks of torture and ill-treatment worldwide, through universal ratification and active implementation of the Convention. CTI2024 operates through confidential government-to-government dialogue, international cooperation and providing technical support and capacity building to States. The deadline for achieving their mission is 2024, on the 40th anniversary of the Convention. The six core States are Chile, Denmark, Fiji, Ghana, Indonesia, and Morocco, encouraged by a wider Group of Friends with over 40 additional UN Member States, leading anti-torture and human rights organisations, and independent experts. The Initiative is supported by a full-time Secretariat, based in Geneva, and headed by Ms Gayethri Pillay.
Impact
A 2021 study in the American Journal of Political Science found that countries that adopt national laws that prohibit torture (defining it in line with the standards codified in the UN Convention against Torture) subsequently experience reductions in police torture.
See also
Psychological torture
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
International Day in Support of Victims of Torture
International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims
Use of torture since 1948
World Organization Against Torture
References
External links
Official text of the Convention
List of parties
Optional Protocol
U.N. Committee against Torture*
Human Rights Watch summary of the Convention
List of links to other related documents
Human Rights First; Tortured Justice: Using Coerced Evidence to Prosecute Terrorist Suspects (2008)
Human Rights First; Leave No Marks: Enhanced Interrogation Techniques and the Risk of Criminality
International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims (IRCT); What is torture? Defining torture
Introductory note by Hans Danelius, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
UN Convention against Torture (1984–2014) – Research Guide, UNOG Library
UN Convention against Torture (1984–2014) – Bibliography (Books/Articles), UNOG Library
Decisions of the Committee Against Torture
Committee against Torture – Jurisprudence
CAT decisions on OHCHR
Decisions of the Committee Against Torture
Human rights instruments
United Nations Convention against Torture
United Nations treaties
United Nations Convention against Torture
United Nations Convention against Torture
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220425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Gregory%20%28mathematician%29 | James Gregory (mathematician) | James Gregory FRS (November 1638 – October 1675) was a Scottish mathematician and astronomer. His surname is sometimes spelled as Gregorie, the original Scottish spelling. He described an early practical design for the reflecting telescope – the Gregorian telescope – and made advances in trigonometry, discovering infinite series representations for several trigonometric functions.
In his book Geometriae Pars Universalis (1668) Gregory gave both the first published statement and proof of the fundamental theorem of the calculus (stated from a geometric point of view, and only for a special class of the curves considered by later versions of the theorem), for which he was acknowledged by Isaac Barrow.
Biography
Gregory was born in 1638. His mother Janet was the daughter of Jean and David Anderson and his father was John Gregory, an Episcopalian Church of Scotland minister, James was youngest of their three children and he was born in the manse at Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, and was initially educated at home by his mother, Janet Anderson (~1600–1668). It was his mother who endowed Gregory with his appetite for geometry, her uncle – Alexander Anderson (1582–1619) – having been a pupil and editor of French mathematician Viète. After his father's death in 1651 his elder brother David took over responsibility for his education. He attended Aberdeen Grammar School, and then Marischal College from 1653–1657, graduating AM in 1657.
In 1663 he went to London, meeting John Collins and fellow Scot Robert Moray, one of the founders of the Royal Society. In 1664 he departed for the University of Padua, in the Venetian Republic, passing through Flanders, Paris and Rome on his way. At Padua he lived in the house of his countryman James Caddenhead, the professor of philosophy, and he was taught by Stefano Angeli.
Upon his return to London in 1668 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, before travelling to St Andrews in late 1668 to take up his post as the first Regius Professor of Mathematics at the University of St Andrews, a position created for him by Charles II, probably upon the request of Robert Moray. There at the University of St Andrews, he laid the first meridian line across the floor of his lab in 1673, which was 200 years prior to the Greenwich Meridian being established, and thus "arguably making St Andrews the place where time began".
He was successively professor at the University of St Andrews and the University of Edinburgh.
He had married Mary, daughter of George Jameson, painter, and widow of John Burnet of Elrick, Aberdeen; their son James was Professor of Physics at King's College, Aberdeen. He was the grandfather of John Gregory (FRS 1756); uncle of David Gregorie (FRS 1692) and brother of David Gregory (1627–1720), a physician and inventor.
About a year after assuming the Chair of Mathematics at Edinburgh, James Gregory suffered a stroke while viewing the moons of Jupiter with his students. He died a few days later at the age of 36.
Published works
Optica Promota
In the Optica Promota, published in 1663, Gregory described his design for a reflecting telescope, the "Gregorian telescope". He also described the method for using the transit of Venus to measure the distance of the Earth from the Sun, which was later advocated by Edmund Halley and adopted as the basis of the first effective measurement of the Astronomical Unit.
Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura
Before he left Padua, Gregory published Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura (1667) in which he approximated the areas of the circle and hyperbola with convergent series:
[James Gregory] cannot be denied the authorship of many curious theorems on the relation of the circle to inscribed and circumscribed polygons, and their relation to each other. By means of these theorems he gives with infinitely less trouble than by the usual calculations, … the measure of the circle and hyperbola (and consequently the construction of logarithms) to more than twenty decimal places. Following the example of Huygens, he also gave constructions of straight lines equal to the arcs of the circle, and whose error is still less.
"The first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus and the discovery of the Taylor series can both be attributed to him."
The book was reprinted in 1668 with an appendix, Geometriae Pars, in which Gregory explained how the volumes of solids of revolution could be determined.
Gregorian telescope
In his 1663 Optica Promota, James Gregory described his reflecting telescope which has come to be known by his name, the Gregorian telescope. Gregory pointed out that a reflecting telescope with a parabolic mirror would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refracting telescopes. In his design he also placed a concave secondary mirror with an elliptical surface past the focal point of the parabolic primary mirror, reflecting the image back through a hole in the primary mirror where it could be conveniently viewed. According to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of actually constructing one.
The telescope design attracted the attention of several people in the scientific establishment such as Robert Hooke, the Oxford physicist who eventually built the telescope 10 years later, and Sir Robert Moray, polymath and founding member of the Royal Society.
The Gregorian telescope design is rarely used today, as other types of reflecting telescopes are known to be more efficient for standard applications. Gregorian optics are also used in radio telescopes such as Arecibo, which features a "Gregorian dome".
Mathematics
The following excerpt is from the Pantologia. A new (cabinet) cyclopædia (1813)
Mr. James Gregory was a man of a very acute and penetrating genius. ...The most brilliant part of his character was that of his mathematical genius as an inventor, which was of the first order; as will appear by... his inventions and discoveries [which include] quadrature of the circle and hyperbola, by an infinite converging series; his method for the transformation of curves; a geometrical demonstration of Lord Brouncker's series for squaring the hyperbola—his demonstration that the meridian line is analogous to a scale of logarithmic tangents of the half complements of the latitude; he also invented and demonstrated geometrically, by help of the hyperbola, a very simple converging series for making the logarithms; he sent to Mr. Collins the solution of the famous Keplerian problem by an infinite series; he discovered a method of drawing Tangents to curves geometrically, without any previous calculations; a rule for the direct and inverse method of tangents, which stands upon the same principle (of exhaustions) with that of fluxions, and differs not much from it in the manner of application; a series for the length of the arc of a circle from the tangent, and vice versa; as also for the secant and logarithmic tangent and secant, and vice versa. These, with others, for measuring the length of the elliptic and hyperbolic curves, were sent to Mr. Collins, in return for some received from him of Newton's, in which he followed the elegant example of this author, in delivering his series in simple terms, independent of each other.
Other work
In a letter of 1671 to John Collins, Gregory gives the power series expansion of seven functions
There is evidence that he discovered the method of taking higher derivatives in order to compute a power series, which was not discovered by Taylor until 1715, but did not publish his results, thinking he had only rediscovered "Mr. Newton's universal method," which was based on a different technique.
James Gregory discovered the diffraction grating by passing sunlight through a bird feather and observing the diffraction pattern produced. In particular he observed the splitting of sunlight into its component colours – this occurred a year after Newton had done the same with a prism and the phenomenon was still highly controversial.
A round wheel is unsuitable for irregular surfaces, and Gregory devised an appropriate "adaptable wheel" using a Gregory transformation.
Gregory, an enthusiastic supporter of Newton, later had much friendly correspondence with him and incorporated his ideas into his own teaching, ideas which at that time were controversial and considered quite revolutionary.
The crater Gregory on the Moon is named after him. He was the uncle of mathematician David Gregory.
Works
1663 – Optica promota (The advance of optics), link from Google Books.
1667 – Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura (The true squaring of the circle and hyperbola) via Internet Archive
1668 – Exercitationes geometricae (Geometrical exercises), link from Google Books.
1668 – Geometriae pars universalis (The universal part of geometry)
See also
James Gregory Telescope, St Andrews
Gregor telescope at the Teide Observatory
Thomas Reid
Deans Court
References
Further reading
Herbert Westren Turnbull (1939) James Gregory; Tercentenary Memorial Volume, Royal Society of Edinburgh
External links
James Gregory's Euclidean Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus at Convergence
James Gregory Public Lectures on Religion and Science, University of St Andrews
James Gregory's "Optica Promota" (English translation)
James Gregory's "The Universal Part of Geometry" (Andrew Leahy's English translation of Gregory's "Geometriae Pars Universalis").
James Gregory (1663) Optica promota – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
1638 births
1675 deaths
People from Kincardine and Mearns
17th-century astronomers
17th-century Scottish mathematicians
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Academics of the University of St Andrews
Scottish astronomers
Scottish inventors
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Aberdeen Grammar School
British scientific instrument makers
Scottish Episcopalians
University of Padua alumni
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220426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic%20partnership | Domestic partnership | A domestic partnership is a legal relationship between two individuals who live together and share a common domestic life, but are not married (to each other or to anyone else). People in domestic partnerships receive benefits that guarantee right of survivorship, hospital visitation, and others.
The term is not used consistently, which results in some inter-jurisdictional confusion. Some jurisdictions, such as Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. states of California, Maine, Nevada, Oregon and Washington use the term "domestic partnership" to mean what other jurisdictions call civil union, civil partnership, or registered partnership. Other jurisdictions use the term as it was originally coined, to mean an interpersonal status created by local municipal and county governments, which provides an extremely limited range of rights and responsibilities.
Some legislatures have voluntarily established domestic partnership relations by statute instead of being ordered to do so by a court. Although some jurisdictions have instituted domestic partnerships as a way to recognize same-sex marriage, statutes do exist which provide for recognition of opposite-sex domestic partnerships in many jurisdictions.
In some legal jurisdictions, domestic partners who live together for an extended period of time but are not legally entitled to common-law marriage may be entitled to legal protection in the form of a domestic partnership. Some domestic partners may enter into nonmarital relationship contracts in order to agree, either verbally or in writing, to issues involving property ownership, support obligations, and similar issues common to marriage. (See effects of marriage and palimony.) Beyond agreements, registration of relationships in domestic partnership registries allow for the jurisdiction to formally acknowledge domestic partnerships as valid relationships with limited rights.
Overview
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, a Domestic Partnership, Same Sex Marriage or Civil Union are each separate and distinct legal concepts. The domestic partnership is a legal relationship between two people of the same or opposite sex who live together and share a domestic life, but aren't married or joined by a civil union nor are blood relatives. It may be established by contract between the parties, but more often by registration according to procedures established by a state or municipal government. Benefits granted under a domestic partnership vary among different jurisdictions. Some accord full health benefits, others only a right of visitation. In still other jurisdictions, registered domestic partners are accorded a legal status similar to that of a married person with respect to matters of probate, guardianships, conservatorships, inheritance, protection from abuse, and related matters.
Since the 2015 US Supreme Court's decision legalizing same-sex marriage, there have been fewer US domestic partnerships registered, but in many jurisdictions they are still allowed for couples of the same gender or different genders who don’t want to marry but still would like to be eligible for certain benefits. Many couples opt for a domestic partnership after comparing the potential tax consequences of being married.
In the United States
Origin of term in Californian municipalities
In August 1979, gay rights activist Tom Brougham proposed a new category of relationship called "domestic partnership". Initially, the requirements were that only two people who resided together and were qualified to marry except that they were the same gender. Additional requirements were later added for the partners to maintain mutual financial responsibility and for both to be at least eighteen years old and able to enter into a legal contract.
San Francisco
In 1982, Brougham's definition was modified by Supervisor Harry Britt, a gay man appointed to replace Harvey Milk. Britt's version was adopted and passed by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, but Dianne Feinstein, mayor of San Francisco at the time, came under intense pressure from the Catholic Church and vetoed the bill. In 1989, a domestic partnership law was adopted in San Francisco. However, voters repealed the domestic partnership law by initiative; a modified version was reinstated by another voter initiative, 1990's Proposition K, also written by Britt.
Currently, the city still offers a domestic partnership status separate and differing in benefits from that offered by the state; city residents can apply for both.
According to the San Francisco Human Rights Commission, "In 1982, the term 'domestic partner' was first used in a lawsuit filed by San Francisco Human Rights Commission employee Larry Brinkin. Mr. Brinkin, then an employee of Southern Pacific Railway, had recently suffered the loss of his partner of eleven years. When he was denied the three days of paid bereavement leave given to married employees, he filed suit with the assistance of the ACLU. Mr. Brinkin lost his case. Despite a great deal of evidence to the contrary, the judge agreed with his employer's claim that there was no way to know if his relationship was legitimate."
Berkeley
In 1983, the City Council of Berkeley, California, under the leadership of Mayor Gus Newport, ordered their Human Relations and Welfare Commission to develop a domestic partnership proposal. The Commission appointed its Vice-Chair, Leland Traiman, a gay activist, to head the Domestic Partner Task Force and draft a policy. Working with Tom Brougham, members of the East Bay Lesbian/Gay Democratic Club, and attorney Matt Coles, the Domestic Partner Task Force drafted what has become the template for domestic partner/civil union policies around the world. The City of Berkeley's Human Relations and Welfare Commission held a public hearing early in 1984 on "Examining the Use of Marriage to Determine Benefits and Liabilities in Berkeley and the Alternatives". A policy was adopted by the Commission and presented to the City Council. A copy was sent to the Berkeley School Board. In July 1984 the City Council voted down the proposal citing financial concerns. On August 1, 1984, the Berkeley School Board enacted the policy by a 4 to 1 vote. The school board motion was made by board member and community activist Ethel Manheimer.
In November 1984, all the city council members up for election who had voted against the policy lost reelection. Progressives from the Berkeley Citizens' Action (BCA) slate who replaced them had voiced strong support for a domestic partner policy. The East Bay Lesbian/Gay Democratic Club had worked hard to elect the BCA Slate. This was the first time domestic partners was a campaign issue. At the first meeting of the new City Council in December 1984, the Berkeley City Council enacted a policy extending employee benefits to unmarried couples of any gender. The first couple to file for benefits under Berkeley's sex-neutral policy were Brougham and his partner Barry Warren.
However, the City Council did not create a registry for domestic partners until 1991. On October 11 of that year, 28 lesbian and gay male couples and one heterosexual couple registered their partnerships. The registry and benefits were also extended to non-resident couples that same year.
West Hollywood
In 1985, West Hollywood city council member John Heilman successfully introduced domestic partner legislation for city residents and employees that was passed by the city council and created the first domestic partnership registry.
Statewide
California
California created the first state-level domestic partnership in the United States in 1999. Effective from January 1, 2020, domestic partnerships will be legally available to all couples consisting of any two people, regardless of gender over 18 years old. The California Governor signed the bill SB-30 into law on July 30, 2019.
On September 4, 2003 the California legislature passed an expanded domestic partnership bill, extending all of the state legal rights and responsibilities of marriage to people in state domestic partnerships. California's comprehensive domestic partner legislation was the first same-sex couples policy in the United States created by a legislature without a court order. The legislation became effective January 1, 2005.
Pre-existing municipal and county domestic partnership ordinances remain in force unless repealed by their local governments. Thus, residents of San Francisco, West Hollywood, and a few other locations may choose between a local domestic partnership, a California domestic partnership, or marriage. Nothing in either the 1999 or 2003 domestic partnership legislation applies to any of the municipal or county domestic partnership ordinances, whose scopes are extremely limited and are not portable outside of the jurisdiction that issued them.
The State of California has developed an Online Self-Help Center that provides resources and information to assist domestic partners in many areas, including filing domestic partnerships, dissolving domestic partnerships, parenting issues, tax issues, and more.
Colorado
Since July 1, 2009 unmarried couples have been legally able to enter a designated beneficiary agreement which will grant them limited rights. A law on civil unions went into effect on May 1, 2013.
District of Columbia
Washington, D.C., has recognized domestic partnerships since 1992. However, Congress prohibited the District from spending any local funds to implement the law. The prohibition was lifted in the federal appropriations act for the District for the 2002 fiscal year. Domestic partnership in the District is open to both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. All couples registered as domestic partners are entitled to the same rights as family members to visit their domestic partners in the hospital and to make decisions concerning the treatment of a domestic partner's remains after the partner's death. The measure also grants District of Columbia government employees rights to a number of benefits. Domestic partners are eligible for health care insurance coverage, can use annual leave or unpaid leave for the birth or adoption of a dependent child or to care for a domestic partner or a partner's dependents, and can make funeral arrangements for a deceased partner. The Domestic Partnership Equality Amendment Act of 2006, D.C. Law 16-79, came into effect on April 4, 2006. This act provides that in almost all cases a domestic partner will have the same rights as a spouse regarding inheritance, probate, guardianship, and other rights traditionally accorded to spouses. D.C. Council on May 6, 2008 approved the addition of 39 new provisions to the city's domestic partners law, bringing the law to a point where same-sex couples who register as domestic partners will receive most, but not quite all, of the rights and benefits of marriage under District law.
Hawaii
Reciprocal beneficiary registration was enacted in 1997. The law took effect on June 1, 1997.
Maine
In April 2004 the legislature passed a domestic partnership bill. The law, which provides same-sex individuals with inheritance rights over their partners' property and guardianship over their deceased partner, went into effect on July 30, 2004. On May 6, 2009, Maine's legislature and governor enacted a law to legalize same-sex marriage, but on November 3, 2009, that law was repealed by voters. Maine legalized same-sex marriage in December 2012.
Maryland
Since July 1, 2008, unmarried couples have been able to enter a designated unregistered beneficiary agreement which will grant them limited rights such as the right to visit one another in the hospital, the right to share a room in a nursing home, and the right to make funeral decisions. A law on same-sex marriage went into effect on January 1, 2013.
Nevada
In Nevada domestic partnerships are granted all the benefits, rights, obligations and/or responsibilities of marriage (for any two adults over 18, regardless of gender) and these have become legally available since October 1, 2009. The act specifically excludes requiring any entity to provide health benefits to domestic partners. In addition, due to vagueness in the verbiage of the act, most companies and entities within Nevada refuse to acknowledge or afford any major benefits or rights to registered domestic partners, leaving legal action as the only avenue to garner individual rights.
New Jersey
Domestic partnerships in New Jersey have been available since July 30, 2004 for same-sex couples, and for opposite-sex couples in which both people are above the age of 62. However, on October 25, 2006, the Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled that under the New Jersey state constitution, the state could not deny the benefits of marriage to same-sex couples, although the court left it up to the legislature whether to call such relationships marriage or to use a different term. Complying with the court's ruling, on December 14, 2006, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill establishing civil unions for same-sex couples, which was signed into law by the governor on December 21 and came into effect on February 19, 2007.
Oregon
The governor of Oregon, Ted Kulongoski, signed a domestic partnership bill into law on May 9, 2007. Called the Oregon Family Fairness Act, the law would provide several major rights to same-sex couples that were previously only given to married couples, including the ability to file jointly on insurance forms, hospital visitation rights, and rights relating to the deceased partner. The law's initial implementation was delayed by a federal Court, but the injunction was lifted on February 1, 2008 and the law went into effect on February 4.
Washington
In the state of Washington, Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law legislation allowing limited domestic partnership on April 21, 2007. The law, which took effect July 22, 2007 and expanded to all areas except for marriage in 2008 and 2009, permits same-sex couples (as well as heterosexual couples when one individual is at least age 62) to register in a domestic partnership registry that allows couples hospital visitation rights, the ability to authorize autopsies and organ donations, and inheritance rights when there is no will. This follows the 1998 passage of a bill by the Washington State legislature that defined marriage as being between a man and a woman; this legislation was upheld by the Washington State Supreme Court in 2006.
Same-sex marriage was legalized in Washington with effect from December 6, 2012. As a result, the domestic partnership law was amended so that from June 30, 2014, domestic partnerships will be available only when at least one of the partners is sixty-two years of age or older.
Wisconsin
Wisconsin was the first state in the Midwest to legislatively enact same-sex unions. Out of about thirty states that have bans on same-sex marriage and civil unions, Wisconsin was the first (and only) to enact domestic partnerships.
On March 5, 2009 Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle proposed legislation for same-sex partnerships in Wisconsin.
In June 2009, the Wisconsin State Assembly and Senate both passed the biennial state budget which includes domestic partnership protections for the state's same-sex couples.
On June 29, 2009, Governor Jim Doyle signed the budget, giving final approval to limited domestic partnership benefits for same-sex couples living in Wisconsin.
On July 23, 2009, three members of Wisconsin Family Action filed a petition for an original action in the Wisconsin Supreme Court, seeking a declaration that the domestic partner registry is unconstitutional under the state's Marriage Protection Amendment.
The law went into effect on August 3, 2009.
November 4, 2009: The Wisconsin Supreme Court rejected Appling v. Doyle, Wisconsin Family Action's legal challenge to domestic partnerships.
May 13, 2011: Governor Scott Walker asked to withdraw the state's defense of the domestic partnership registry.
June 20, 2011: Dane County Judge Dan Moeser ruled that the domestic partnership registry does not violate the state constitution, finding that the state "does not recognize domestic partnership in a way that even remotely resembles how the state recognizes marriage".
Wisconsin ended its domestic partnership registry on April 1, 2018.
Other states
Many states recognize through their judicial systems cohabitation agreements and common law partner agreements concluded between two partners in a relationship. These are de facto domestic partnerships that protect both parties and allow for shared property and court recognition of their relationships.
Sometimes adult adoption by gay couples creates a de jure domestic partnership in all 50 states.
Local level
United States Military
On February 11, 2013, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta submitted a memorandum (subject: Extending Benefits to Same-Sex Domestic Partners of Military Members) that outlined benefits that would be made available to service members in domestic partnerships. The newly listed benefits available to gay and lesbian service members was to include:
Dependant ID Cards
Commissary privileges
Exchange privileges
Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) privileges
Surveys of Military Families
Quadrennial Quality of Life Review
Emergency Leave
Emergency Leave of Absence
Youth Sponsorship Program
Youth Programs
Family Center Programs
Sexual Assault Counselling Program
Joint Duty Assignments
Exemption from Hostile-Fire Areas
Transportation to and from certain places of employment and on military installations, as well as primary and secondary school for dependants
Authority of Service Secretary to Transport Remains of a Dependant
Disability and Death Compensation: Dependants of Members Held as Captives
Payments to Missing Persons
Space-Available Travel on DoD Aircraft
Child Care
Legal Assistance
Implementation of the plan was cancelled once the Supreme Court handed down its opinion in United States v. Windsor.
In Europe
In France since 1968, article 515-81 of Code civil defines domestic partnership (in French: concubinage or concubinage notoire) as a de facto union between two persons, of different sex or of same sex, characterised by a stable and continuous cohabitation and partnership. The French fiscal administration takes it into account in the calculation of the solidarity tax on wealth but not for other purposes. All children enjoy equal right whether within or outside wedlock. Since 1999 French law also provides for a civil solidarity pact (in French: pacte civil de solidarité, or PACS), a contractual form of civil union between two adults bringing additional rights and responsibilities, but less so than marriage.
Hungary has domestic partnerships, whereas most other nations in Europe recognize some form of civil unions, also called a registered partnership, or civil partnership for same-sex partners, which afford rights similar to marriage to LGBT couples. Croatia also had domestic partnerships until June 2014 when Croatian parliament passed a law allowing civil partnerships for same-sex couples giving them all rights except adoption rights.
In Hungary, since 1995 domestic partnership in the form of unregistered cohabitation offers a limited set of rights compared to marriage in a Civil Code (more in the field of health and pension; but no inheritance), although a growing number of Hungarian couples, both opposite-sex couples and same-sex couples choose this kind of partnership instead of marriage. In April 2009, the Hungarian Parliament passed a Registration Partnership Act 2009 with a vote of 199–159, which provides a registered partnership for same-sex couples with all the benefits and entitlements of marriage (except for marriage itself, adoption, IVF access, taking a partner's surname, parentage and surrogacy). The law was passed in December 2007 by a vote of 110–78, but the Constitutional Court of Hungary was "deeply concerned" that the law was a duplication of opposite-sex marriage benefits and entitlements, so same-sex couples only registration was chosen. Some politicians of the Alliance of Free Democrats and Hungarian Socialist Party parties have argued for the introduction of marriage for same-sex couples. The Registration Partnership Act 2009 came into effect from July 1, 2009.
In Oceania
Australia
Since January 9, 2018 same-sex marriage became legal throughout Australia. Since July 1, 2009, Australia also recognises de facto relationships for all couples of any sex.
Australian Capital Territory (domestic relationship status provided from 1994 and Civil relationship provided since 2008).
Commonwealth (federal Government of Australia provides both a de facto and registered relationship since 2009).
New South Wales (de facto status provided since 1999, expanded further in 2002, 2005 and 2008).
Norfolk Island (de facto status provided from 2006).
Northern Territory (de facto status provided since 2003).
Queensland (de facto status provided since 1999, expanded further in 2002).
South Australia (domestic relationship status provided since 2007).
Tasmania (de facto status provided from 2003, "Registry system/Significant Relationships" provided since 2004) Recognition of same-sex unions in Tasmania
Victoria (domestic relationship status provided since 2001 and a "registry system" has been provided since 2008).
Western Australia (de facto status provided since 2002).
New Zealand
In 2001, the Property (Relationships) Act 1976 was extended to offer partners in unregistered "de facto" relationships similar rights to those of married couples. A de facto relationship is defined as a relationship between two persons living as a couple, who are not married or in a civil union. This applies to both heterosexual and same sex couples. Since 2013, same-sex marriage is legally recognised and performed within New Zealand and still includes unregistered "de facto" relationships similar rights to those of married couples.
See also
Cohabitation
Civil union
Free union
Common-law marriage
Same-sex marriage
Same-sex marriage in California
References
External links
Same-Sex Marriage, Civil Unions, and Domestic Partnerships topic page from The New York Times
Domestic Partnership, Encyclopædia Britannica
What rights do I have as part of an unmarried couple
Family
Partnerships
State recognition of same-sex relationships | [
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|
220432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylitol | Xylitol | Xylitol is a chemical compound with the formula , or HO(CH2)(CHOH)3(CH2)OH; specifically, one particular stereoisomer with that structural formula. It is a colorless or white crystalline solid that is soluble in water. It can be classified as a polyalcohol and a sugar alcohol, specifically an alditol. The name derives from , xyl[on], "wood", with the suffix -itol used to denote sugar alcohols.
Xylitol is used as a food additive and sugar substitute. Its European Union code number is E967. Replacing sugar with xylitol in food products may promote better dental health, but evidence is lacking on whether xylitol itself prevents dental cavities.
History
Sugar rationing during World War II led to an interest in sugar substitutes. Interest in xylitol and other polyols became intense, leading to their characterization and manufacturing methods.
Structure, production, commerce
Xylitol occurs naturally in small amounts in plums, strawberries, cauliflower, and pumpkin; humans and many other animals make trace amounts during metabolism of carbohydrates. Unlike most sugar alcohols, xylitol is achiral. Most other isomers of pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol are chiral, but xylitol has a plane of symmetry.
Industrial production starts with lignocellulosic biomass from which xylan is extracted; raw biomass materials include hardwoods, softwoods, and agricultural waste from processing maize, wheat, or rice. The xylan polymers can be hydrolyzed into xylose, which is catalytically hydrogenated into xylitol. The conversion changes the sugar (xylose, an aldehyde) into the primary alcohol, xylitol. Impurities are then removed.
The processing is often done using standard industrial methods; industrial fermentation involving bacteria, fungi, or yeast, especially Candida tropicalis, are common, but are not as efficient.
According to the US Department of Energy, xylitol production by fermentation from discarded biomass is one of the most valuable renewable chemicals for commerce, forecast to be a US$1.4 billion industry by 2025.
Uses
Xylitol is used as a sugar substitute in such manufactured products as drugs, dietary supplements, confections, toothpaste, and chewing gum, but is not a common household sweetener. Xylitol has negligible effects on blood sugar because it is metabolized independently of insulin. It is approved as a food additive in the United States.
Xylitol is also found as an additive to saline solution for nasal irrigation and has been reported to be effective in improving symptoms of chronic sinusitis.
Food properties
Nutrition, taste, and cooking
Humans absorb xylitol more slowly than sucrose, and xylitol supplies 40% fewer calories than an equal mass of sucrose.
Xylitol has about the same sweetness as sucrose, but is sweeter than similar compounds like sorbitol and mannitol.
Xylitol is stable enough to be used in baking, but because xylitol and other polyols are heat stable, they do not caramelise as sugars do. When used in foods, they lower the freezing point of the mixture.
Food risks
No serious health risk exists in most humans for normal levels of consumption. The European Food Safety Authority has not set a limit on daily intake of xylitol. Due to the adverse laxative effect that all polyols have on the digestive system in high doses, xylitol is banned from soft drinks in the European Union. Similarly due to a 1985 report, by the E.U. Scientific Committee on Food, stating that "ingesting 50 g a day of xylitol can cause diarrhea", tabletop sweeteners containing xylitol are required to display the warning: "Excessive consumption may induce laxative effects".
Metabolism
Xylitol has 2.4 kilocalories of food energy per gram of xylitol (10 kilojoules per gram) according to U.S. and E.U. food-labeling regulations. The real value can vary, depending on metabolic factors.
Primarily, the liver metabolizes absorbed xylitol. The main metabolic route in humans occurs in cytoplasm, via nonspecific NAD-dependent dehydrogenase (polyol dehydrogenase), which transforms xylitol to D-xylulose. Specific xylulokinase phosphorylates it to D-xylulose-5-phosphate. This then goes to pentose phosphate pathway for further processing.
About 50% of eaten xylitol is absorbed via the intestines. Of the remaining 50% that is not absorbed by the intestines, in humans, 50–75% of the xylitol remaining in the gut is fermented by gut bacteria into short-chain organic acids and gases, which may produce flatulence. The remnant unabsorbed xylitol that escapes fermentation is excreted unchanged, mostly in feces; less than 2 g of xylitol out of every 100 g ingested is excreted via urine.
Xylitol ingestion also increases motilin secretion, which may be related to xylitol's ability to cause diarrhea. The less-digestible but fermentable nature of xylitol also contributes to constipation relieving effects.
Health effects
Dental care
Research has identified carbohydrates, oral bacteria, tooth anatomy, along with their time of interaction as the main pathobiological etiology for dental caries. Sucrose is deemed to be the most cariogenic carbohydrate consumed by humans, as it is a substrate to various oral bacteria to produce insoluble polysaccharides and acid. Streptococcus mutans is a major pathological bacteria. It uses carbohydrates via glycolysis to adhere to tooth surfaces with an extracellular matrix, and produces an acidic environment; that acid dissolves the outer tooth enamel layer of the teeth it adheres to.
Xylitol, a sugar alcohol containing 5 carbon-polyol is metabolized via the phospho-enolpyruvate-phospho-transferase pathway (PEP-PTS) in S. mutans, which produces xylitol-5-phosphate as a product. Xylitol-5-phosphate competes with phosphofructokinase and therefore, results in inhibition of glycolysis via accumulation of glucose-6-phosphate. Over long periods of time of xylitol use, S. mutans are observed to alter their enzymatic activity.
Burt (2006) conducted a systematic review looking at the effect of sugar alcohols on caries activity. His systematic review included randomized controlled trials as well as observational studies. Burt concluded that Xylitol displayed non-cariogenic properties in all protocols tested. Interestingly, he also concluded that mothers chewing xylitol-containing gums effectively inhibited the transmission of S. mutans to their offspring. Nayak et al. (2014) also conducted a review where they showed the positive effects of Xylitol in gummy bears, syrups, mouthrinse, dentifrice on inhibiting dental caries. Lastly, Chan et al. (2020) concluded that xylitol has inhibitory effects on S. mutans and Candida albicans. However other studies, such as one by Muhlemann et al. (1977), seem to call for more research in this area since the results were inconclusive. A Cochrane review conducted in 2015 included 10 studies which displayed a low quality evidence on the effectiveness of xylitol containing fluoride toothpastes when compared to fluoride only toothpaste.
Earache
In 2011 EFSA "concluded that there was not enough evidence to support" the claim that xylitol-sweetened gum could prevent middle-ear infections with a fast onset, which is also known as acute otitis media (AOM). A 2016 review indicated that xylitol in chewing gum or a syrup may have a moderate effect in preventing AOM in healthy children. It may be an alternative to conventional therapies (such as antibiotics) to lower risk of earache in healthy children – reducing risk of occurrence by 25% – although there is no definitive proof that it could be used as a therapy for earache.
Diabetes
In 2011, EFSA approved a marketing claim that foods or beverages containing xylitol or similar sugar replacers cause lower blood glucose and lower insulin responses compared to sugar-containing foods or drinks. Xylitol products are used as sucrose substitutes for weight control, as xylitol has 40 percent fewer calories than sucrose (2.4 kcal/g compared to 4.0 kcal/g for sucrose). The glycemic index (GI) of xylitol is only 7% of the GI for glucose.
Adverse effects
Humans
When ingested at high doses, xylitol and other polyols may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, including flatulence, diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome (see Metabolism above); some people experience the adverse effects at lower doses. Xylitol has a lower laxation threshold than some sugar alcohols but is more easily tolerated than mannitol and sorbitol.
Increased xylitol consumption can increase oxalate, calcium, and phosphate excretion to urine (termed oxaluria, calciuria, and phosphaturia, respectively). These are known risk factors for kidney stone disease, but despite that, xylitol has not been linked to kidney disease in humans.
Dogs and other animals
Xylitol poisons dogs. Ingesting 100 milligrams of xylitol per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg bw) causes dogs to experience a dose-dependent insulin release; depending on the dose it can result in life-threatening hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemic symptoms of xylitol toxicity may arise as quickly as 30 to 60 minutes after ingestion. Vomiting is a common first symptom, which can be followed by tiredness and ataxia. At doses above 500 mg/kg bw, liver failure is likely and may result in coagulopathies like disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Xylitol is safe for cats, rhesus macaques, horses, and rats. Cats can tolerate ingesting xylitol doses of 1000 mg/kg bw.
See also
Aspartame
Birch sap
L-Xylulose reductase
Xylonic acid
References
External links
E-number additives
Excipients
Sugar alcohols
Sugar substitutes
Veterinary toxicology | [
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|
220434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects%20of%20marriage | Effects of marriage | In family law, effects of marriage is a legal term of art used to describe all of the rights and obligations that individuals may be subject and entitled to if they are in a common-law marriage, an annulled marriage, domestic partnership or a civil union.
Thus, even if the underlying marriage is held to be void there may still be rights and obligations that continue and are recognized by court order. An example may be an annulled marriage where the court awards alimony to the weaker, poorer or less well educated spouse to allow them a period of time to go back to school or re-enter the work force.
There are a few positive and negative influences of marriage on an individual. Life after marriage depends on individual and partner. First of all, an individual becomes excited that they will begin to share their life with someone who cares for them, and whom they feel comforted by. They will feel excited to know that soon they will be starting a family of their own, and that they will become parents of their own children. Research has shown that those individuals who live a stable marital relationship tend to live longer, have a better physical health, better functional health at old age and better emotional health than those in troubled marriages or who are divorced.
On the other hand, there a few negative influences of marriage on an adult. An adult can become stressed out on the fact that they will need to make compromises and sacrifices, in order to form a good marital relationship. This can lead to a loss of hobbies, because there are restrictions about what the individuals can do; and these restrictions are for both the men and women in the relationship. The adult may develop a sense of stress because they have a lot of responsibility ahead of them. In addition, the individuals in the relationship can become upset by the fact that they have to make sure that their relationship has no betrayals, and it is kept loyal, throughout the couple's lives.
Traditional marriage
Healthier people in marriages may have a better chance of having a successful marriage. A healthier person may be more appealing to their partner. Married people are generally healthier than unmarried people. It is said that marriage can affect person's health in many ways. For example, having a higher income could improve the health care person receives or lower stress. In certain marriages, a spouse may help in monitoring and encouraging healthy behaviors. As well as discouraging unhealthy habits. Marriage may provide an emotional fulfilling relationship. Which would satisfy the need for a social connection. This could have implications on a person's physical and mental health. Marriage is able to reduce depressive symptoms for both men and women. As marriage is able to reduce them, divorce is able to increase them. Marriage can also be associated with less healthier behaviors. For example, alcohol consumption, drug use, cigarette smoking, diet, and exercise.
Same-sex marriage
In same-sex marriages, marriage has a more positive effect than negative. Single persons in the same-sex world happen to be more distressed. In contrast to same-sex marriage, heterosexuals have the lowest psychological distress. Lesbians, gays, and bisexuals who are not in a legalized marriages have the highest psychological distress. Marriage diminishes mental health issues between people in the same-sex community. Children who are raised in such marriages grow with the same beneficial experiences when compared to children raised in heterosexual marriages. Science shows that there is no reason to deny such people marriage, however there is scientific research show there are adverse effects when denying heterosexual couples to marry.
Polygamy
Polygamous marriages can have negative effects on women and are illegal in many countries. Many women experience feelings of neglect and jealousy. Men, often, are not fair when it comes to equally splitting their time in these marriages, though they may desire to be. It is possible that women rarely see their husbands or have their needs met. This not only applies to women, but also their children. The severity of the negative effects depend on the tolerance and patience of the wife. In more serious cases, it can range from depression, tantrums, or illness. All of the previously mentioned feelings and conditions can certainly affect men too. There are also pros for either sex when they are in a polygamas marriage. For men, their sexual needs are met more fully, and society views the man as more successful. For women, it is a decrease in individual household chores and less pressure to provide many healthy and fit children. As a household, they have shown to have better choice and availability of food as well as they often times have healthier children.
Differences between sex, race, and education
In opposition to men, women are more likely to get married and remarried. Women are also more likely to get married younger. Caucasians marry at a higher rate, then Asian, Hispanic, American Indian and lastly African Americans; listed in decreasing order. For each race, marriage numbers jump immensely from ages 23–25. In comparison to Hispanics and Whites, Blacks were less likely to get married and more likely to get divorced. 70% of non-Hispanic Caucasian children and 59% of Hispanics reported to live with both parents. However, for African Americans only 1/3rd reported such findings. People who did not complete high school were less likely to get married over people who did complete high school. For those who achieved a bachelor’s degree or higher, 69% did not divorce and of those with such degrees 29.7% got divorces. About 48% of those who graduated high school and/or got an Associate’s degree, got divorced. The more education one has, the later in life they are to get married.
Divorce
As time goes on, many changes have affected divorce and marriage rates. 2000 divorce was 4.0 per 1,000 people, 2015 down to 3.1 per 1,000, in 2018 it went down again to 2.9 per 1,000, and in 2020 it is 3.0 per 1,000. Divorce rates decline as educational attainment increases. It is also said that people who marry later in life are less inclined to get divorced. The Coronavirus disease has caused the divorce rates to jump an additional 34% compared to previous years in the United States.
See also
Cohabitation
Civil union
Common-law marriage
Domestic partnership
References
Marriage
Law of obligations | [
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|
220437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitation | Visitation | Visitation may refer to:
Law
Visitation (law) or contact, the right of a non-custodial parent to visit with their children
Prison visitation rights, the rules and conditions under which prisoners may have visitors
Music
Visitation (Division Day album), 2009
Visitation (Sam Jones album), 1978
Visitation (Joe McPhee album), 1985
Visitation (Jonah Sharp and Bill Laswell album), 1994
Religion
Visitation (Christianity), a liturgical feast day commemorating the visit of the Virgin Mary to St. Elizabeth
Visitation Order of enclosed nuns
Visitation Convent
Visitation Monastery
Visitation Church, Montreal
Canonical visitation, an inspection made by a clergyman authorised under Catholic canon law
Visitation, a funeral custom where a mourner visits the deceased's family and views the body
Visual arts
Images of the Visitation (Christianity), the visit of the Virgin Mary to St. Elizabeth
Visitation (Albertinelli), 1503
Visitation (Cariani), c.1524-1528
Visitation (Dürer), a 1503 engraving by Albrecht Dürer
Visitation (Ghirlandaio), a 1491 painting by Domenico Ghirlandaio displayed in the Louvre
Visitation (El Greco), a 1608–1613 painting by El Greco
Visitation (Perugino), c.1472
Visitation (Raphael), a c. 1517 painting by Raphael
Visitation (Rubens), 1610s
Visitation (Tintoretto, Bologna), c.1550
Visitation (Tintoretto, Venice), c.1588
Visitation (van der Weyden), c.1445
Other uses
"Visitation" (Stargate Universe), an episode of Stargate Universe
Heraldic visitation, a tour of inspection by a herald (or other officer-of-arms) to regulate and register coats of arms, and to record pedigrees; also, the written record of such a tour
See also
The Visitation (disambiguation)
Visit (disambiguation) | [
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|
220438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Willis | Frank Willis | Frank Willis may refer to:
Frank Wills (architect) (1822–1857), British architect
Frank B. Willis (1871–1928), American politician
Frank Willis (canoeist) (1915–1991), Canadian canoeist
See also
Francis Willis (disambiguation) | [
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220441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke%20Perry | Luke Perry | Coy Luther "Luke" Perry III (October 11, 1966 – March 4, 2019) was an American actor. He became a teen idol for playing Dylan McKay on the Fox television series Beverly Hills, 90210 from 1990 to 1995, and again from 1998 to 2000. He also starred as Fred Andrews on the CW series Riverdale. He had guest roles on notable shows such as Criminal Minds, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, The Simpsons, and Will & Grace, and also starred in several films, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1992), 8 Seconds (1994), The Fifth Element (1997), and Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019), his final feature performance.
Early life
Luke Perry was born on October 11, 1966 in Mansfield, Ohio, the second of three children to Ann Perry, a homemaker, and Coy Luther Perry Jr., a steelworker. He had an older brother, Thomas Perry and a younger sister, Amy Coder (nee Perry). His parents divorced in 1972. His biological father died of a heart attack in 1980. Perry was raised in Fredericktown, Ohio, and played Freddie Bird, the school mascot for Fredericktown High School.
Career
Beginnings
In 1984, Perry moved to Los Angeles shortly after high school to pursue acting. He worked odd jobs, including for an asphalt paving company and in a doorknob factory. He appeared in the 1985 music video of "Be Chrool to Your Scuel" for the band Twisted Sister, and by 1988, Perry auditioned for 256 acting jobs before receiving his first acceptance. After moving to New York, Perry's earliest roles were on daytime soap operas: one episode of Loving (1987–1988) and ten episodes of Another World (1988–1989).
Rise to fame: Beverly Hills, 90210 era
In 1990, Perry got the role of the brooding millionaire's son Dylan McKay on Fox's teen drama Beverly Hills, 90210. He originally auditioned for the role of Steve Sanders but lost to Ian Ziering. With this role, Perry became a popular teen idol; a riot broke out when 10,000 teen girls attended an August 1991 autograph session at The Fashion Mall at Plantation, causing him to leave after 90 seconds. While starring in 90210, Perry won a supporting role in the original film version of Joss Whedon's Buffy The Vampire Slayer (1992). He also starred in Terminal Bliss in 1992, and as Lane Frost in 8 Seconds in 1994.
In an attempt to find more mature roles, he decided to leave Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1995. That year, he took a part in the Italian film Vacanze di Natale '95, playing himself. Although he announced that 90210 was behind him, his absence lasted for only three years, and he returned to the show in 1998. During this time, Perry starred in the independent film Normal Life opposite Ashley Judd, starred in the TV science fiction movie Invasion (1997), and Riot (1997), a drama about the 1992 Los Angeles riots. He had a small role in Luc Besson's science fiction adventure film The Fifth Element (1997). In 1998, he returned to 90210, where he remained as a permanent special guest star through the show's final season in 2000. In 1999, he starred in the film Storm.
He said of his role on Beverly Hills, 90210 as Dylan McKay: "I'm going to be linked with him until I die, but that's actually just fine. I created Dylan McKay. He's mine," but did not reprise his role in the spin-off. He stated: "When you're in the professional acting business, you have to look into all these offers, and I don't mean anything bad about it but creatively it's something I have done before and I don't know how it will benefit me if I do it again." Perry said the fact that the show's longtime producer Aaron Spelling was not involved in the revival was critical: "The difference between CW bringing something back and Aaron Spelling doing something is significant. And I cannot do it without Aaron." However, Shannen Doherty, Jennie Garth, and Tori Spelling reprised their roles in the 2008 revival of the series.
Later work
From 2001 to 2002, he starred in the HBO prison drama Oz, as the Reverend Jeremiah Cloutier. From 2002 to 2004 he starred in the post-apocalyptic television series Jeremiah. Perry went on to star in a 2002 television movie called The Triangle. In 2006, Perry co-starred in the ensemble drama series Windfall, about a group of friends who win the lottery. The series ran for 13 episodes during the summer of 2006 on NBC. In 2007, he landed the role of Tommy "Santa" Santorelli on the film The Sandlot: Heading Home, and he appeared in the 2008 western A Gunfighter's Pledge. Perry also appeared in the 2007 HBO series John from Cincinnati. He also starred in the Swedish film Äntligen Midsommar (Finally Midsummer), which was released in the summer of 2009.
Perry did considerable voice-over work for various animated series, usually playing himself. He played himself (as Krusty the Clown's half brother) in "Krusty Gets Kancelled", an episode of The Simpsons (1993). He voiced himself in an episode of Johnny Bravo, giving Johnny dating advice after Johnny saved him from a stampede of fan girls. Perry parodied himself in "The Story on Page One", an episode of Family Guy, in which he sues Peter Griffin for calling him gay in a newspaper article. His other voice work includes The Incredible Hulk, Biker Mice from Mars (which also starred fellow 90210 co-star Ian Ziering), Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm, and The Night of the Headless Horseman.
Perry guest-starred as gay characters in the sitcoms Spin City (1997) and Will & Grace (2005); in the former, he appeared as Carter Heywood's ex-boyfriend who subsequently fell in love with a woman, and in the latter he played a geeky birdwatcher who catches the eye of Jack McFarland. In 2005, Perry was reunited with former 90210 co-star Jennie Garth when he guest-starred on What I Like About You in a loose parody of their 90210 characters' relationship. In 2008, Perry guest-starred as rapist Noah Sibert in the season premiere of the television series Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. He also guest-starred as cult leader Benjamin Cyrus in an episode of Criminal Minds. In late 2009, Perry starred in The Killers' music video for their fourth annual Christmas single, "¡Happy Birthday Guadalupe!".
The same year, Perry participated in the Thomas Nelson's audio Bible production known as The Word of Promise. In this dramatized audio, Perry played both Saint Stephen and Judas Iscariot. The project also featured a large ensemble of other well-known Hollywood actors, including Jim Caviezel, Louis Gossett Jr., John Rhys-Davies, Jon Voight, Gary Sinise, Jason Alexander, Christopher McDonald, Marisa Tomei, Stacy Keach, and John Schneider.
Perry appeared on Broadway in 2001 in a revival of The Rocky Horror Show, playing Brad Majors. In 2004, he appeared in the London production of When Harry Met Sally ... as Harry, alongside Alyson Hannigan as Sally. He played a con man/psychic in a second-season episode of Leverage in 2010, and then appeared as the American version of Inspector Spacetime in an episode of Community in 2013, titled "Conventions of Space and Time".
From 2017 until his death in 2019, Perry starred as Frederick "Fred" Andrews, Archie's father and owner of Andrews Construction, on the CW series Riverdale. Starting with "Chapter Forty-Nine: Fire Walk with Me", the first episode to air following his death, all new episodes of the series for that season were dedicated to him. At the time of his death on March 4, 2019, there were still four unaired episodes featuring Perry that would air in the remainder of Season 3. He played actor Wayne Maunder in the 2019 film Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, about 1960s Hollywood around the time of the Tate-LaBianca murders. Directed by Quentin Tarantino, it was Perry's final film role.
Personal life
Perry married Rachel Minnie Sharp on November 20, 1993, in Beverly Hills. They separated in 2003, and had two children, son Jack Perry (born June 16, 1997) and daughter Sophie Perry (born June 7, 2000). Jack is a professional wrestler known by his ring name, Jungle Boy, and is signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW).
Perry became an advocate for colorectal cancer testing after undergoing a colonoscopy in 2015 that revealed pre-cancerous growths. As a result of the scare, he created a will naming his children as the sole beneficiaries.
At the time of his death, Perry was engaged to Wendy Madison Bauer, a therapist and former part-time actress.
Illness and death
Perry suffered a massive ischemic stroke at his home in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles on February 27, 2019. After a second stroke, his family decided to remove him from life support, and he died on March 4, 2019 at age 52. He was buried at the Perry Family Farm in Vanleer, Tennessee, where he owned a home since 1995. Perry was buried in an eco-friendly mushroom burial suit which the manufacturer claims is able to remove polluting toxins from the body while naturally breaking it down.
In the aftermath of his death, the Reelz channel announced a documentary titled Luke Perry: In His Own Words. As a result of his death, his Riverdale character Fred Andrews also died and the fourth season premiere was a tribute episode dedicated to him and his character, featuring his Beverly Hills, 90210 co-star Shannen Doherty.
Filmography
Film
Television
Music videos
References
External links
Luke Perry on Find a Grave
1966 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Burials in Tennessee
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Male actors from Los Angeles
Male actors from Ohio
Male actors from Tennessee
Neurological disease deaths in California
People from Dickson County, Tennessee
People from Fredericktown, Ohio
People from Mansfield, Ohio
People from Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles | [
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220443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choanoflagellate | Choanoflagellate | The choanoflagellates are a group of free-living unicellular and colonial flagellate eukaryotes considered to be the closest living relatives of the animals. Choanoflagellates are collared flagellates having a funnel shaped collar of interconnected microvilli at the base of a flagellum. Choanoflagellates are capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction. They have a distinctive cell morphology characterized by an ovoid or spherical cell body 3–10 µm in diameter with a single apical flagellum surrounded by a collar of 30–40 microvilli (see figure). Movement of the flagellum creates water currents that can propel free-swimming choanoflagellates through the water column and trap bacteria and detritus against the collar of microvilli, where these foodstuffs are engulfed. This feeding provides a critical link within the global carbon cycle, linking trophic levels. In addition to their critical ecological roles, choanoflagellates are of particular interest to evolutionary biologists studying the origins of multicellularity in animals. As the closest living relatives of animals, choanoflagellates serve as a useful model for reconstructions of the last unicellular ancestor of animals.
Etymology
Choanoflagellate is a hybrid word from Greek χοάνη khoánē meaning "funnel" (due to the shape of the collar) and the Latin word flagellum.
Appearance
Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of actin-filled protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). Movement of the flagellum draws water through the collar, and bacteria and detritus are captured by the microvilli and ingested. Water currents generated by the flagellum also push free-swimming cells along, as in animal sperm. In contrast, most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella.
In addition to the single apical flagellum surrounded by actin-filled microvilli that characterizes choanoflagellates, the internal organization of organelles in the cytoplasm is constant. A flagellar basal body sits at the base of the apical flagellum, and a second, non-flagellar basal body rests at a right angle to the flagellar base. The nucleus occupies an apical-to-central position in the cell, and food vacuoles are positioned in the basal region of the cytoplasm. Additionally, the cell body of many choanoflagellates is surrounded by a distinguishing extracellular matrix or periplast. These cell coverings vary greatly in structure and composition and are used by taxonomists for classification purposes. Many choanoflagellates build complex basket-shaped "houses", called lorica, from several silica strips cemented together. The functional significance of the periplast is unknown, but in sessile organisms, it is thought to aid attachment to the substrate. In planktonic organisms, there is speculation that the periplast increases drag, thereby counteracting the force generated by the flagellum and increasing feeding efficiency.
Choanoflagellates are either free-swimming in the water column or sessile, adhering to the substrate directly or through either the periplast or a thin pedicel. Although choanoflagellates are thought to be strictly free-living and heterotrophic, a number of choanoflagellate relatives, such as members of Ichthyosporea or Mesomycetozoa, follow a parasitic or pathogenic lifestyle. The life histories of choanoflagellates are poorly understood. Many species are thought to be solitary; however coloniality seems to have arisen independently several times within the group and colonial species retain a solitary stage.
Ecology
Over 125 extant species of choanoflagellates are known, distributed globally in marine, brackish and freshwater environments from the Arctic to the tropics, occupying both pelagic and benthic zones. Although most sampling of choanoflagellates has occurred between 0 m and 25 m, they have been recovered from as deep as 300 m in open water and 100 m under Antarctic ice sheets. Many species are hypothesized to be cosmopolitan on a global scale [e.g., Diaphanoeca grandis has been reported from North America, Europe and Australia (OBIS)], while other species are reported to have restricted regional distributions. Co-distributed choanoflagellate species can occupy quite different microenvironments, but in general, the factors that influence the distribution and dispersion of choanoflagellates remain to be elucidated.
A number of species, such as those in the genus Proterospongia, form simple colonies, planktonic clumps that resemble a miniature cluster of grapes in which each cell in the colony is flagellated or clusters of cells on a single stalk. In October 2019, scientists found a new band behaviour of choanoflagellates : they apparently can coordinate to respond to light.
The choanoflagellates feed on bacteria and link otherwise inaccessible forms of carbon to organisms higher in the trophic chain. Even today they are important in the carbon cycle and microbial food web. There is some evidence that choanoflagellates feast on viruses as well.
Life cycle
Choanoflagellates grow vegetatively, with multiple species undergoing longitudinal fission; however, the reproductive life cycle of choanoflagellates remains to be elucidated. A paper released in August 2017 showed that environmental changes, including the presence of certain bacteria, trigger the swarming and subsequent sexual reproduction of choanoflagellates. The ploidy level is unknown; however, the discovery of both retrotransposons and key genes involved in meiosis previously suggested that they used sexual reproduction as part of their life cycle. Some choanoflagellates can undergo encystment, which involves the retraction of the flagellum and collar and encasement in an electron dense fibrillar wall. On transfer to fresh media, excystment occurs; though it remains to be directly observed.
Evidence for sexual reproduction has been reported in the choanoflagellate species Salpingoeca rosetta. Evidence has also been reported for the presence of conserved meiotic genes in the choanoflagellates Monosiga brevicollis and Monosiga ovata.
Silicon biomineralization
The Acanthoecid choanoflagellates produce an extracellular basket structure known as a lorica. The lorica is composed of individual costal strips, made of a silica-protein biocomposite. Each costal strip is formed within the choanoflagellate cell and is then secreted to the cell surface. In nudiform choanoflagellates, lorica assembly takes place using a number of tentacles once sufficient costal strips have been produced to comprise a full lorica. In tectiform choanoflagellates, costal strips are accumulated in a set arrangement below the collar. During cell division, the new cell takes these costal strips as part of cytokinesis and assembles its own lorica using only these previously produced strips.
Choanoflagellate biosilicification requires the concentration of silicic acid within the cell. This is carried out by silicon transporter (SiT) proteins. Analysis of choanoflagellate SiTs shows that they are similar to the SiT-type silicon transporters of diatoms and other silica-forming stramenopiles. The SiT gene family shows little or no homology to any other genes, even to genes in non-siliceous choanoflagellates or stramenopiles. This suggests that the SiT gene family evolved via a lateral gene transfer event between Acanthoecids and Stramenopiles. This is a remarkable case of horizontal gene transfer between two distantly related eukaryotic groups, and has provided clues to the biochemistry and silicon-protein interactions of the unique SiT gene family.
Classification
Relationship to metazoans
Dujardin, a French biologist interested in protozoan evolution, recorded the morphological similarities of choanoflagellates and sponge choanocytes and proposed the possibility of a close relationship as early as 1841. Over the past decade, this hypothesized relationship between choanoflagellates and animals has been upheld by independent analyses of multiple unlinked sequences: 18S rDNA, nuclear protein-coding genes, and mitochondrial genomes (Steenkamp, et al., 2006; Burger, et al., 2003; Wainright, et al., 1993). Importantly, comparisons of mitochondrial genome sequences from a choanoflagellate and three sponges confirm the placement of choanoflagellates as an outgroup to Metazoa and negate the possibility that choanoflagellates evolved from metazoans (Lavrov, et al., 2005). Finally, recent studies of genes expressed in choanoflagellates have revealed that choanoflagellates synthesize homologues of metazoan cell signaling and adhesion genes. (King, 2003) Genome sequencing shows that, among living organisms, the choanoflagellates are most closely related to animals.
Because choanoflagellates and metazoans are closely related, comparisons between the two groups promise to provide insights into the biology of their last common ancestor and the earliest events in metazoan evolution. The choanocytes (also known as "collared cells") of sponges (considered among the most basal metazoa) have the same basic structure as choanoflagellates. Collared cells are found in other animal groups, such as ribbon worms, suggesting this was the morphology of their last common ancestor. The last common ancestor of animals and choanoflagellates was unicellular, perhaps forming simple colonies; in contrast, the last common ancestor of all eumetazoan animals was a multicellular organism, with differentiated tissues, a definite "body plan", and embryonic development (including gastrulation). The timing of the splitting of these lineages is difficult to constrain, but was probably in the late Precambrian, >.
Some recent papers do not support the sister relationship of Choanoflagellates with Animals. Choanoflagellates may be related to Ichthyosporea.
External relationships of Choanoflagellatea.
Phylogenetic relationships
The choanoflagellates were included in Chrysophyceae until Hibberd, 1975. Recent molecular phylogenetic reconstruction of the internal relationships of choanoflagellates allows the polarization of character evolution within the clade. Large fragments of the nuclear SSU and LSU ribosomal RNA, alpha tubulin, and heat-shock protein 90 coding genes were used to resolve the internal relationships and character polarity within choanoflagellates. Each of the four genes showed similar results independently and analysis of the combined data set (concatenated) along with sequences from other closely related species (animals and fungi) demonstrate that choanoflagellates are strongly supported as monophyletic and confirm their position as the closest known unicellular living relative of animals.
Previously, Choanoflagellida was divided into these three families based on the composition and structure of their periplast: Codonosigidae, Salpingoecidae and Acanthoecidae. Members of the family Codonosigidae appear to lack a periplast when examined by light microscopy, but may have a fine outer coat visible only by electron microscopy. The family Salpingoecidae consists of species whose cells are encased in a firm theca that is visible by both light and electron microscopy. The theca is a secreted covering predominately composed of cellulose or other polysaccharides. These divisions are now known to be paraphyletic, with convergent evolution of these forms widespread. The third family of choanoflagellates, the Acanthoecidae, has been supported as a monophyletic group. This clade possess a synapomorphy of the cells being found within a basket-like lorica, providing the alternative name of "Loricate Choanoflagellates". The Acanthoecid lorica is composed of a series of siliceous costal strips arranged into a species-specific lorica pattern."
The choanoflagellate tree based on molecular phylogenetics divides into three well supported clades. Clade 1 and Clade 2 each consist of a combination of species traditionally attributed to the Codonosigidae and Salpingoecidae, while Clade 3 comprises species from the group taxonomically classified as Acanthoecidae. The mapping of character traits on to this phylogeny indicates that the last common ancestor of choanoflagellates was a marine organism with a differentiated life cycle with sedentary and motile stages.
Taxonomy
Choanoflagellates
Order Craspedida Cavalier-Smith 1997 em. Nitsche et al. 2011
Family Salpingoecidae Kent 1880-1882
?Dicraspedella Ellis 1930
?Diploeca Ellis 1930
?Diplosigopsis Francé 1897
?Pachysoeca Ellis 1930
?Piropsis Meunier 1910
?Salpingorhiza Klug 1936
?Sphaerodendron Zhukov, Mylnikov & Moiseev 1976 non Seemann 1865
?Stelexomonas Lackey 1942
Astrosiga Kent 1880-1882
Aulomonas Lackey 1942
Choanoeca Ellis 1930
Cladospongia Iyengar & Ramathan 1940
Codonosigopsis Senn 1900
Codosiga James-Clark 1866
Diplosiga Frenzel 1891
Desmarella Kent 1880-1882
Hartaetosiga Carr, Richter & Nitsche 2017
Kentrosiga Schiller 1953
Monosiga Kent 1880-1882
Mylnosiga Carr, Richter & Nitsche 2017
Lagenoeca Kent 1881
Microstomoeca Carr, Richter & Nitsche 2017
Paramonosiga Jeuck, Arndt & Nitsche 2014
Proterospongia Kent 1882
Salpingoeca James-Clark 1868 non Ellis 1933
Sphaeroeca Lauterborn 1894 non Meyrick 1895
Stagondoeca Carr, Richter & Nitsche 2017
Stylochromonas Lackey 1940
Order Acanthoecida Norris 1965 em. Nitsche et al. 2011 (Loricate choanoflagellates)
Conioeca Thomsen & Ostergaard 2019
Family Acanthoecidae Norris 1965 em. Nitsche et al. 2011 (Nudiform choanoflagellates)
Acanthoeca Ellis 1930
Enibas Schiwitza, Arndt & Nitsche 2019
Helgoeca Leadbeater 2008
Polyoeca Kent 1880
Savillea Loeblich III 1967
Family Stephanoecidae Leadbeater 2011 (Tectiform choanoflagellates)
?Conion Thomsen 1982
?Spiraloecion Marchant & Perrin 1986
Acanthocorbis Hara & Takahashi 1984
Amoenoscopa Hara & Takahashi 1987
Apheloecion Thomsen 1983
Bicosta Leadbeater 1978
Calliacantha Leadbeater 1978
Calotheca Thomsen & Moestrup 1983 non Desv. 1810 non Spreng. 1817 non Heyden 1887
Cosmoeca Thomsen 1984
Crinolina Thomsen 1976 non Smetana 1982
Crucispina Espeland & Throndsen 1986
Diaphanoeca Ellis 1930
Didymoeca Doweld 2003
Kakoeca Buck & Marchant 1991
Monocosta Thomsen 1979 non Monocostus Schumann 1904
Nannoeca Thomsen 1988
Parvicorbicula Deflandre 1960
Pleurasiga Schiller 1925
Polyfibula Manton 1981
Saepicula Leadbeater 1980
Saroeca Thomsen 1979
Spinoeca Thomsen, Ostergaard & Hansen 1995 non Poulsen 1973
Stephanacantha Thomsen 1983
Stephanoeca Ellis 1930
Syndetophyllum Thomsen & Moestrup 1983
Thomsenella Özdikmen 2009
Genomes and transcriptomes
Monosiga brevicollis genome
The genome of Monosiga brevicollis, with 41.6 million base pairs, is similar in size to filamentous fungi and other free-living unicellular eukaryotes, but far smaller than that of typical animals. In 2010, a phylogenomic study revealed that several algal genes are present in the genome of Monosiga brevicollis. This could be due to the fact that, in early evolutionary history, choanoflagellates consumed algae as food through phagocytosis. Carr et al. (2010) screened the M. brevicollis genome for known eukaryotic meiosis genes. Of 19 known eukaryotic meiotic genes tested (including 8 that function in no other process than meiosis), 18 were identified in M. brevicollis. The presence of meiotic genes, including meiosis specific genes, indicates that meiosis, and by implication, sex is present within the choanoflagellates.
Salpingoeca rosetta genome
The genome of Salpingoeca rosetta is 55 megabases in size. Homologs of cell adhesion, neuropeptide and glycosphingolipid metabolism genes are present in the genome.
S. rosetta has a sexual life cycle and transitions between haploid and diploid stages. In response to nutrient limitation, haploid cultures of S. rosetta become diploid. This ploidy shift coincides with mating during which small, flagellated cells fuse with larger flagellated cells. There is also evidence of historical mating and recombination in S. rosetta.
S. rosetta is induced to undergo sexual reproduction by the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri. A single V. fischeri protein, EroS fully recapitulates the aphrodisiac-like activity of live V. fisheri.
Other genomes
The single-cell amplified genomes of four uncultured marine choanoflagellates, tentatively called UC1–UC4, were sequenced in 2019. The genomes of UC1 and UC4 are relatively complete.
Transcriptomes
An EST dataset from Monosiga ovata was published in 2006. The major finding of this transcriptome was the choanoflagellate Hoglet domain and shed light on the role of domain shuffling in the evolution of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. M. ovata has at least four eukaryotic meiotic genes.
The transcriptiome of Stephanoeca diplocostata was published in 2013. This first transcriptome of a loricate choanoflagellate led to the discovery of choanoflagellate silicon transporters. Subsequently, similar genes were identified in a second loricate species, Diaphanoeca grandis. Analysis of these genes found that the choanoflagellate SITs show homology to the SIT-type silicon transporters of diatoms and have evolved through horizontal gene transfer.
An additional 19 transcriptomes were publisshed in 2018. A large number of gene families previously thought to be animal-only were found.
Gallery
References
External links
ChoanoWiki a collaborative resource maintained by the Choanoflagellate research community
Tree of Life Webpage for Choanoflagellates
Monosiga brevicollis genome browser
Your brain chemistry existed before animals did
Choanobase, the Choanoflagellate genetic library, developed and maintained by the Nicole King laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley
Proterozoic first appearances | [
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220444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morchella | Morchella | Morchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible sac fungi closely related to anatomically simpler cup fungi in the order Pezizales (division Ascomycota). These distinctive fungi have a honeycomb appearance due to the network of ridges with pits composing their caps. Morels are prized by gourmet cooks, particularly in catalonian and French cuisine. Due to difficulties in cultivation, commercial harvesting of wild morels has become a multimillion-dollar industry in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, in particular North America, Turkey, China, the Himalayas, India, and Pakistan where these highly prized fungi are found in abundance.
Typified by Morchella esculenta in 1794, the genus has been the source of considerable taxonomical controversy throughout the years, mostly with regard to the number of species involved, with some mycologists recognising as few as three species and others over thirty. Current molecular phylogenetics suggest there might be over seventy species of Morchella worldwide, most of them exhibiting high continental endemism and provincialism.
The genus is currently the focus of extensive phylogenetic, biogeographical, taxonomical and nomenclatural studies, and several new species have been described from Australia, Canada, Cyprus, Israel, Spain, and Turkey.
Early history
Morchella Dill. ex Pers. : Fr. was typified by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1794, with Morchella esculenta designated as the type species for the genus. Among early pioneers who took an interest in the genus, were mycologists Julius Vincenz von Krombholz and Émile Boudier, who, in 1834 and 1897 respectively, published several species and varieties, accompanied by meticulously illustrated iconographic plates. The seminal taxon Morchella elata, whose true identity still remains unresolved, was described by Elias Fries in 1822, from a fir forest in Sweden. Other classical, early-proposed names include Morchella deliciosa, also described by Fries in 1822, Morchella semilibera, the half-free morel, originally described by de Candolle and sanctioned by Fries in 1822, Morchella vulgaris, which was recombined by Samuel Gray as a distinct species in 1821 following a forma of M. esculenta previously proposed by Persoon, and Morchella angusticeps, a large-spored species described by American mycologist Charles Peck in 1887. Morchella purpurascens, the purple morel, was first described by Boudier as a variety of M. elata in 1897 based on an 1834 plate by Krombholz, and was recombined as a distinct species in 1985 by Emile Jacquetant. Morchella eximia, a globally-occurring fire-associated species was also described by Boudier in 1910. The old, widely applied name Morchella conica, featuring in many field guides and literature across several countries, has been shown by Richard and colleagues to be illegitimate.
Systematic classification
Phylogeny
Early phylogenetic analyses supported the hypothesis that the genus comprises only a few species with considerable phenotypic variation. Subsequent multigenic DNA studies, however, have revealed more than a dozen genealogically distinct species in North America and at least as many in Europe. DNA studies revealed three discrete clades, or genetic groups, consisting of the "white morels" (Morchella rufobrunnea and Morchella anatolica), the "yellow morels" (Morchella esculenta and others), and the "black morels" (Morchella elata and others). The fire-associated species Morchella tomentosa, commonly known as the "gray morel", is distinct for its fine hairs on the cap ridges and sclerotia-like underground structures, and may also deserve its own clade based on DNA evidence. Within the yellow and black clades, there are dozens of distinct species, many endemic to individual continents or regions. This species-rich view is supported by studies in Western Europe, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, China, Patagonia, and the Himalayas.
Taxonomy
The fruit bodies of Morchella species are highly polymorphic, varying in shape, color, and size. While in many cases they do not exhibit clear-cut distinguishing features microscopically, this has historically contributed to uncertainties in taxonomy. Discriminating between the various taxa described is further hindered by uncertainty over which of these are truly biologically distinct. Remarkably, some authors in the past had suggested that the genus contains as few as 3 to 6 species, while others recognised as many as 34. Efforts to clarify the situation and re-evaluate old classical names (such as Morchella elata and others) in accordance to current phylogenetic data have been challenging, due to vague or ambiguous original descriptions and loss of holotype material. In 2012, the simultaneous description of several new taxa from Europe by Clowez and North America by Kuo and colleagues resulted in several synonymities further complicating matters, until a transatlantic study by Richard and colleagues resolved many of these issues in 2014. The genus is currently undergoing extensive re-evaluation with regards to the taxonomic status of several species.
Species
About 80 species of Morchella were described until the turn of the 21st century (http://www.indexfungorum.org/), a number of which were later shown to be illegitimate or synonyms. As molecular tools became widely available in the new millennium, a revived interest in the genus commenced and several new species were proposed. In 2008 Kuo described Morchella tomentosa from burned coniferous forests in western North America. In 2010 Işiloğlu and colleagues described Morchella anatolica, a basal species from Turkey later shown to be sister to Morchella rufobrunnea. A study by Clowez described over 20 new species in 2012, while later in the same year, another study by Kuo and colleagues described 19 species from North America. However, several of these newly proposed names later turned out to be synonyms. An extensive taxonomical and nomenclatural revision of the genus provided by Richard and colleagues in 2014, applied names to 30 of the genealogical lineages recognized so far and clarified several synonymities. Also in 2014, Elliott and colleagues described Morchella australiana from sclerophyll forests in Australia, while Clowez and colleagues described Morchella fluvialis from riparian forests in Spain.
In 2015, Loizides and colleagues clarified the taxonomy of Morchella tridentina, a cosmopolitan species described under many names, and recombined Morchella kakiicolor as a distinct species. Later in the same year, Clowez and colleagues described Morchella palazonii from Spain, while Voitk and colleagues described Morchella laurentiana from Canada and Morchella eohespera, a cosmopolitan species present in several continents. In an extensive phylogenetic and morphological study from Cyprus in 2016, Loizides and colleagues added two more Mediterranean species, Morchella arbutiphila and Morchella disparilis, and resurrected Morchella dunensis as an autonomous species. In the same year, Taşkın and colleagues described four of the previously unnamed phylospecies from Turkey: Morchella conifericola, Morchella feekensis, Morchella magnispora and Morchella mediteterraneensis.
Section Rufobrunnea
Morchella anatolica
synonym: Morchella lanceolata
Morchella rufobrunnea
Section Morchella
Morchella americana
synonyms: Morchella californica, Morchella claviformis, Morchella esculentoides, Morchella populina
Morchella castaneae
synonyms: Morchella brunneorosea, Morchella brunneorosea var. sordida
Morchella diminutiva
Morchella dunensis
synonyms: Morchella esculenta f. dunensis, Morchella andalusiae
Morchella esculenta
synonyms: Morchella pseudoumbrina, Morchella pseudoviridis
Morchella fluvialis
Morchella galilaea
Morchella palazonii
Morchella prava
Morchella sceptriformis
synonym: Morchella virginiana
Morchella steppicola
Morchella ulmaria
synonym: Morchella cryptica
Morchella vulgaris
synonyms: Morchella acerina, Morchella anthracina, Morchella lepida, Morchella robiniae, Morchella spongiola
Section Distantes
Morchella angusticeps
Morchella arbutiphila
Morchella australiana
Morchella brunnea
Morchella conifericola
Morchella deliciosa
synonym: Morchella conica
Morchella disparilis
Morchella dunalii
synonym: Morchella fallax
Morchella elata
Morchella eohespera
Morchella eximia
synonyms: Morchella anthracophila, Morchella carbonaria, Morchella septimelata
Morchella eximioides
Morchella exuberans
synonym: Morchella capitata
Morchella feekensis
Morchella iberica
Morchella importuna
Morchella kakiicolor
synonym: Morchella quercus-ilicis f. kakiicolor
Morchella laurentiana
Morchella magnispora
Morchella mediteterraneensis
Morchella populiphila
Morchella pulchella
Morchella punctipes
Morchella purpurascens
synonyms: Morchella elata var. purpurascens, Morchella conica, Morchella conica var. purpurascens, Morchella conica var. crassa
Morchella semilibera
synonyms: Morchella gigas, Morchella gigas var. tintinnabulum, Morchella hybrida, Morchella undosa, Morchella varisiensis, Morchella esculenta var. crassipes, Phallus gigas, Eromitra gigas, Phallus undosus, Phallus crassipes, Mitrophora hybrida, Mitrophora hybrida var. crassipes, Ptychoverpa gigas, Helvella hybrida
Morchella septentrionalis
Morchella sextelata
Morchella snyderi
Morchella tomentosa
Morchella tridentina
synonyms: Morchella quercus-ilicis, Morchella frustrata, Morchella elatoides, Morchella elatoides var. elagans, Morchella conica var. pseudoeximia
Unresolved classification
Morchella anteridiformis
Morchella apicata
Morchella bicostata
Morchella conicopapyracea
Morchella crassipes
Morchella deqinensis
Morchella distans
Morchella guatemalensis
Morchella herediana
Morchella hetieri
Morchella hortensis
Morchella hotsonii
Morchella hungarica
Morchella inamoena
Morchella intermedia
Morchella meiliensis
Morchella miyabeana
Morchella neuwirthii
Morchella norvegiensis
Morchella patagonica
Morchella patula
Morchella pragensis
Morchella procera
Morchella pseudovulgaris
Morchella rielana
Morchella rigida
Morchella rigidoides
Morchella smithiana
Morchella sulcata
Morchella tasmanica
Morchella tatari
Morchella tibetica
Morchella umbrina
Morchella umbrinovelutipes
Morchella vaporaria
Evolutionary history and ancestral reconstructions
Early ancestral reconstruction tests by O'Donnell and collaborators postulated a western North American origin of morels and the genus was estimated to have diverged from its closest genealogical relatives Verpa and Disciotis in the early Cretaceous, approximately 129 million years ago (Mya). This date was later revised by Du and collaborators, placing the divergence of the genus in the late Jurassic, approximately 154 Mya. However, neither of these reconstructions had included Morchella anatolica in the analyses, whose phylogenetic placement remained at the time unresolved. Following genetic testing of isotype collection of M. anatolica by Taşkın and colleagues, this species was shown to nest in the ancestral /Rufobrunnea clade, together with the transcontinental Morchella rufobrunnea. This cast doubts over the accuracy of the original reconstructions, since both species of the ancestral /Rufobrunnea clade are present in the Mediterranean, while M. anatolica is altogether absent from North America. Updated ancestral area reconstructions by Loizides and colleagues using an expanded 79-species data set, have in 2021 refuted the previous hypothesis and designated the Mediterranean basin as the most probable place of origin of morels.
Ecology, phenology and distribution
The ecology of Morchella species is not well understood. Many species appear to form symbiotic or endophytic relationships with trees, while others appear to act as saprotrophs. Yellow morels (Morchella esculenta and related species) are more commonly found under deciduous trees rather than conifers, while black morels (Morchella elata and related species) are mostly found in coniferous forests, disturbed ground and recently burned areas. Morchella galilaea, and occasionally Morchella rufobrunnea, appear to fruit in the autumn or winter months rather than spring, which is the typical fruiting season for morels.
Tree species associated with Morchella vary greatly depending on the individual species, continent, or region. Trees commonly associated with morels in Europe and across the Mediterranean include Abies (fir), Pinus (pine), Populus (poplar), Ulmus (elm), Quercus (oak), Arbutus (strawberry trees), Castanea (chestnut), Alnus (alder), Olea (olive trees), Malus (apple trees), and Fraxinus (ash). In western North America morels are often found in coniferous forests, including species of Pinus (pine), Abies (fir), Larix (larch), and Pseudotsuga (Douglas-fir), as well as in Populus (cottonwood) riparian forests. Deciduous trees commonly associated with morels in the northern hemisphere include Fraxinus (ash), Platanus (sycamore), Liriodendron (tulip tree), dead and dying elms, cottonwoods, and old apple trees (remnants of orchards). Due to their springtime phenology (March–May), morels are hardly ever found in the vicinity of common poisonous mushrooms such as the death cap (Amanita phalloides), the sulphur tuft (Hypholoma fasciculare), or the fly agaric (Amanita muscaria). They can, however, occur alongside false morels (Gyromitra and Verpa species) and elfin saddles (Helvella species), which also appear in spring.
Efforts to cultivate morels at a large scale have rarely been successful and the commercial morel industry relies on the harvest of wild mushrooms.
Association with wildfire
Certain Morchella species (M. eximia, M. importuna, M. tomentosa and others) exhibit a pyrophilic behaviour and may grow abundantly in forests which have been recently burned by a fire. Moderate-intensity fires are reported to produce higher abundances of morels than low- or high-intensity fires. This is caused by the soil becoming more alkaline as the result of wood ash combining with water and being absorbed into the soil which triggers the morels to fruit. Alkaline soil conditions which trigger fruiting have been observed and exploited with small-scale commercial cultivation of morels. Where fire suppression is practiced, morels often grow in small numbers in the same spot, year after year. If these areas are overrun by wildfire they often produce a bumper crop of black morels the following spring. Commercial pickers and buyers in North America target recently burned areas for this reason. These spots may be closely guarded by mushroom pickers, as morels are widely regarded as a delicacy and often a cash crop.
Transcontinental species
Although many species within Morchella exhibit continental endemism and provincialism, several species have been phylogenetically shown to be present in more than one continent. So far, the list of transcontinental species includes M. americana, M. eohespera, M. eximia, M. exuberans, M. galilaea, M. importuna, M. populiphila, M. pulchella, M. rufobrunnea, M. semilibera, M. sextelata, M. steppicola, and M. tridentina. The reasons behind the widespread, cosmopolitan distribution of these species, are still puzzling. Some authors have hypothesized that such transcontinental occurrences are the result of accidental anthropogenic introductions, but this view has been disputed by others, who suggested an old and natural distribution, at least for some of these species which appear to be linked to indigenous flora. Long-distance spore dispersal has also been suggested as a possible dispersal mechanism for some species, especially those belonging to fire-adapted lineages. It has been suggested that the widespread but disjunct distribution of some morel species, especially early diverging lineages like M. rufobrunnea and M. tridentina, may be the result of climatic refugia from the Quaternary glaciation.
In popular culture
Morel hunting is a common springtime activity. Mushroom collectors may carry a mesh collecting bag, so the spores can scatter as one carries the harvest.<ref name="Harper Perennial">{{cite book|title=Excerpts from the book Animal, Vegetable, Miracle, by Barbara Kingsolver.' Animal, Vegetable, Miracle|publisher=Harper Perennial|pages=77–80}}</ref>
Every spring, hundreds of morel enthusiasts gather in Boyne City, Michigan for the National Morel Mushroom Festival, a century-old event. As one observer stated, "if there is a modern, North American reenactment of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales this is it." Other festivals and hunting competitions in North America include the Illinois State Morel Mushroom Hunting Championship, the Ottawa Midwest Morel Fest and the Mesick Michigan Mushroom Festival.
In the survival horror video game Cataclysm: Dark Days Ahead, morel mushrooms are featured as one of the many edible items that the survivors can gather in the forests. They typically can be picked from underbrushes during summer and autumn, and can be boiled, fried, or preserved via drying.
Vernacular names Morchella species have been called by many local names; some of the more colorful include dryland fish, because when sliced lengthwise then breaded and fried, their outline resembles the shape of a fish; hickory chickens, as they are known in many parts of Kentucky; and merkels or miracles, based on folklore, of how a mountain family was saved from starvation by eating morels. In parts of West Virginia, they are known as molly moochers, muggins, or muggles. Due to the partial structural and textural similarity to some species of Porifera (sponges), other common names for any true morel are sponge mushroom and waffle mushroom. In the Appalachian woodlands, morels have also been called haystacks, or snakeheads. The Finnish vernacular name huhtasieni, refers to huhta, area cleared for agriculture by the slash and burn method.
The scientific name of the genus Morchella itself, is thought to have derived from morchel, an old German word close to "Möhre", carrot or beet, due to similarity in shape.
Cultivation
Due to the mushroom's prized fruit bodies, several attempts have been made to grow the fungus in culture. In 1901, Repin reported successfully obtaining fruit bodies in a cave in which cultures had been established in flower pots nine years previously in 1892.
More recently, small-scale commercial growers have had success growing morels by using partially shaded rows of mulched wood. The rows of mulch piles are inoculated with morel mushroom spores in a solution of water and molasses which are poured over the piles of mulch and then they are allowed to grow undisturbed for several weeks. A solution of wood ashes mixed in water and diluted is subsequently poured over the rows of wood mulch which triggers fruiting of the morels. Morels are known to appear after fires and the alkalinity produced by wood ash mixed with water initiate fruit body formation for most species of morels.
Nutrition
Raw morel mushrooms are 90% water, 5% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat. A 100 gram reference amount supplies 31 calories, and is a rich source of iron (94% of the Daily Value, DV), manganese, phosphorus, zinc, and vitamin D (34% DV, if having been exposed to sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light). Raw morels contain moderate levels of several B vitamins (table).
Gastronomical value and culinary uses
Morels are a feature of many cuisines, including Provençal. Their unique flavor is prized by chefs worldwide, with recipes and preparation methods designed to highlight and preserve it. As with most edible fungi, they are best when collected or bought fresh. One of the simplest ways to enjoy morels is by gently sauteeing them in butter, cracking pepper on top and sprinkling with salt. They are good additions to meat and poultry dishes and soups, and can be used as pasta fillings. However, as morels are known to contain thermolabile toxins, they must always be cooked before eating.
Morels can be preserved in several ways: They can be 'flash frozen' by simply running under cold water or putting them in a bucket to soak for a few minutes, then spread on a baking tray and placed into a freezer. After freezing, they keep very well with the frozen glaze for a long time in airtight plastic containers. However, when thawed they can sometimes turn slightly mushy, so they are best frozen after steaming or frying. Due to their natural porosity, morels may contain trace amounts of soil which cannot be easily washed out. Any visible soil should be removed with a brush, after cutting the body in half lengthwise, if needed. Mushroom hunters sometimes recommend soaking morels in a bowl of salt water briefly prior to cooking, although many chefs would disagree.
Drying is a popular and effective method for long-term storage, and morels are widely available commercially in this form. Any insect larvae which might be present in the fruit bodies usually drop out during the drying process. Dried morels can then be reconstituted by soaking for 10–20 minutes in warm water or milk, and the soaking liquid can be used as stock.
The supreme flavor of morels is not just appreciated by humans; in Yellowstone National Park, black morels are also known to be consumed by grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis).
Toxicity Morchella species are thought to contain small amounts of hydrazine toxins or an unknown toxin that is destroyed through cooking, (the presence of hydrazine is controversial since there are no primary references of hydrazine having been detected in the species); because of this, morels should never be eaten raw. It has been reported that even cooked morels can sometimes cause symptoms of upset stomach when consumed with alcohol.
When eating this fungus for the first time it is wise to consume a small amount to minimize any allergic reaction. As with all fungi, morels for consumption must be clean and free of decay. Morels growing in old apple orchards that had been treated with the insecticide lead arsenate may accumulate levels of toxic lead and arsenic that are unsuitable for human consumption.
False morels
When gathering morels for the table, care must be taken to distinguish them from the poisonous "false morels", a term loosely applied to describe Gyromitra esculenta, Verpa bohemica, and other morel lookalikes. Although false morels are sometimes eaten without ill effect, they can cause severe gastrointestinal upset, loss of muscular coordination (including cardiac muscle), or even death.Bresinsky A, Besl H. (1990). A colour atlas of poisonous fungi. Wolfe Publishing Ltd, London. Incidents of poisoning usually occur when they are eaten in large quantities, inadequately cooked, or over several days in a row. False morels contain gyromitrin, an organic carcinogenic poison, hydrolyzed in the body into monomethylhydrazine (MMH). Gyromitra esculenta in particular, has been reported to be responsible for up to 23% of mushroom fatalities each year in Poland.
The key morphological features distinguishing false morels from true morels are as follows:
Gyromitra species often have a "wrinkled" or "cerebral" (brain-like) appearance to the cap due to multiple wrinkles and folds, rather than the honeycomb appearance of true morels due to ridges and pits.
Gyromitra esculenta has a cap that is usually reddish-brown in colour, but sometimes also chestnut, purplish-brown, or dark brown.
Gyromitra species are typically chambered in longitudinal section, while Verpa species contain a cottony substance inside their stem, in contrast to true morels which are always hollow.
The caps of Verpa species (V. bohemica, V. conica and others) are attached to the stem only at the apex (top of the cap), unlike true morels which have caps that are attached to the stem at, or near the base of the cap. The easiest way to distinguish Verpa species from Morchella species is to slice them longitudinally.
See also
References
External links
2000 Pezizales on Ascomycete.org
MushroomExpert.com's Morel section
A Beginner's Guide to Hunting Morel Mushrooms, from Field and Stream''
Colorado Morels
Morel
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220445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascocarp | Ascocarp | An ascocarp, or ascoma (), is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and millions of embedded asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores. Ascocarps are most commonly bowl-shaped (apothecia) but may take on a spherical or flask-like form that has a pore opening to release spores (perithecia) or no opening (cleistothecia).
Classification
The ascocarp is classified according to its placement (in ways not fundamental to the basic taxonomy). It is called epigeous if it grows above ground, as with the morels, while underground ascocarps, such as truffles, are termed hypogeous. The structure enclosing the hymenium is divided into the types described below (apothecium, cleistothecium, etc.) and this character is important for the taxonomic classification of the fungus. Apothecia can be relatively large and fleshy, whereas the others are microscopic—about the size of flecks of ground pepper.
Apothecium
An apothecium (plural: apothecia) is a wide, open, saucer-shaped or cup-shaped fruit body. It is sessile and fleshy. The structure of the apothecium chiefly consists of three parts: hymenium (upper concave surface), hypothecium, and excipulum (the "foot"). The asci are present in the hymenium layer. The asci are freely exposed at maturity. An example are the members of Dictyomycetes. Here the fertile layer is free, so that many spores can be dispersed simultaneously. The morel, Morchella, an edible ascocarp, not a mushroom, favored by gourmets, is a mass of apothecia fused together in a single large structure or cap. The genera Helvella and Gyromitra are similar.
Cleistothecium
A cleistothecium (plural: cleistothecia) is a globose, completely closed fruit body with no special opening to the outside. The ascomatal wall is called peridium and typically consists of densely interwoven hyphae or pseudoparenchyma cells. It may be covered with hyphal outgrowth called appendages. The asci are globose, deliquescent, and scattered throughout the interior cavity i.e. as in Eurotium or arising in tufts from the basal region of ascocarps as in Erysiphe. In this case the ascocarp is round with the hymenium enclosed, so the spores do not automatically get released, and fungi with cleistothecia have had to develop new strategies to disseminate their spores. The truffles, for instance, have solved this problem by attracting animals such as wild boars, which break open the tasty ascocarps and spread the spores over a wide area. Cleistothecia are found mostly in fungi that have little room available for their ascocarps, for instance those that live under tree bark, or underground like truffles.
Gymnothecium
Similar to a cleistothecium, a gymnothecium is a completely enclosed structure containing globose or pear-shaped, deliquescent asci. However, unlike the cleistothecium, the peridial wall of a gymnothecium consists of a loosely woven "tuft" of hyphae, often ornamented with elaborate coils or spines. Examples are the Gymnoascus, Talaromyces and the dermatophyte Arthroderma.
Perithecium
Perithecia are flask shaped structures opening by a pore or ostiole (short papilla opening by a circular pore) through which the ascospores escape. The ostiolar canal may be lined by hair-like structures called periphyses. The unitunicate asci are usually cylindrical in shape, borne on a stipe (stalk), released from a pore, developed from the inner wall of the perithecium and arise from a basal plectenchyma-centrum. Examples are members of Sphaeriales and Hypocreales. Perithecia are also found in Xylaria (Dead Man's Fingers, Candle Snuff), Nectria, Claviceps and Neurospora.
Sometimes the perithecia are "free" (individually visible from the outside), but in many species they are embedded in a dense sterile tissue of haploid cells called a stroma (plural: stromata).
Pseudothecium
This is similar to a perithecium, but the asci are not regularly organised into a hymenium and they are bitunicate, having a double wall that expands when it takes up water and shoots the enclosed spores out suddenly to disperse them. Example species are Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) and the horse chestnut disease Guignardia aesculi.
See also
Basidiocarp
Conidium
References
Mycology
Fungal morphology and anatomy
de:Schlauchpilze#Das Ascokarp | [
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|
220446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascus | Ascus | An ascus (; ) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi. Each ascus usually contains eight ascospores (or octad), produced by meiosis followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell division. However, asci in some genera or species can occur in numbers of one (e.g. Monosporascus cannonballus), two, four, or multiples of four. In a few cases, the ascospores can bud off conidia that may fill the asci (e.g. Tympanis) with hundreds of conidia, or the ascospores may fragment, e.g. some Cordyceps, also filling the asci with smaller cells. Ascospores are nonmotile, usually single celled, but not infrequently may be coenocytic (lacking a septum), and in some cases coenocytic in multiple planes. Mitotic divisions within the developing spores populate each resulting cell in septate ascospores with nuclei. The term ocular chamber, or oculus, refers to the epiplasm (the portion of cytoplasm not used in ascospore formation) that is surrounded by the "bourrelet" (the thickened tissue near the top of the ascus).
In many cases the asci are formed in a regular layer, the hymenium, in a fruiting body which is visible to the naked eye, here called an ascocarp or ascoma. In other cases, such as single-celled yeasts, no such structures are found. In rare cases asci of some genera can regularly develop inside older discharged asci one after another, e.g. Dipodascus.
Asci normally release their spores by bursting at the tip, but they may also digest themselves, passively releasing the ascospores either in a liquid or as a dry powder. Discharging asci usually have a specially differentiated tip, either a pore or an operculum. In some hymenium forming genera, when one ascus bursts, it can trigger the bursting of many other asci in the ascocarp resulting in a massive discharge visible as a cloud of spores – the phenomenon called "puffing". This is an example of positive feedback. A faint hissing sound can also be heard for species of Peziza and other cup fungi.
Asci, notably those of Neurospora crassa, have been used in laboratories for studying the process of meiosis, because the four cells produced by meiosis line up in regular order. By modifying genes coding for spore color and nutritional requirements, the biologist can study crossing over and other phenomena. The formation of asci and their use in genetic analysis are described in detail in Neurospora crassa.
Asci of most Pezizomycotina develop after the formation of croziers at their base. The croziers help maintain a brief dikaryon. The compatible nuclei of the dikaryon merge forming a diploid nucleus that then undergoes meiosis and ultimately internal ascospore formation. Members of the Taphrinomycotina and Saccharomycotina do not form croziers.
Classification
The form of the ascus, the capsule which contains the sexual spores, is important for classification of the Ascomycota. There are four basic types of ascus.
A unitunicate-operculate ascus has a "lid", the Operculum, which breaks open when the spores are mature and allows the spores to escape. Unitunicate-operculate asci only occur in those ascocarps which have apothecia, for instance the morels. 'Unitunicate' means 'single-walled'.
Instead of an operculum, a unitunicate-inoperculate ascus has an elastic ring that functions like a pressure valve. Once mature the elastic ring briefly expands and lets the spores shoot out. This type appears both in apothecia and in perithecia; an example is the illustrated Hypomyces chrysospermus.
A bitunicate ascus is enclosed in a double wall. This consists of a thin, brittle outer shell and a thick elastic inner wall. When the spores are mature, the shell splits open so that the inner wall can take up water. As a consequence this begins to extend with its spores until it protrudes above the rest of the ascocarp so that the spores can escape into free air without being obstructed by the bulk of the fruiting body. Bitunicate asci occur only in pseudothecia and are found only in the classes Dothideomycetes and Chaetothyriomycetes (which were formerly united in the old class Loculoascomycetes). Examples: Venturia inaequalis (apple scab) and Guignardia aesculi (Brown Leaf Mold of Horse Chestnut).
Prototunicate asci are mostly spherical in shape and have no mechanism for forcible dispersal. The mature ascus wall dissolves allowing the spores to escape, or it is broken open by other influences, such as animals. Asci of this type can be found both in perithecia and in cleistothecia, for instance with Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma). This is something of a catch-all term for cases which do not fit into the other three ascus types, and they probably belong to several independent groups which evolved separately from unitunicate asci.
References
External links
IMA Mycological Glossary: Ascus
APSnet Illustrated Glossary of Plant Pathology: Ascus
Mycology
Fungal morphology and anatomy | [
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|
220455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine%20neurotransmitter | Monoamine neurotransmitter | Monoamine neurotransmitters are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that contain one amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain (such as -CH2-CH2-). Examples are dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin.
All monoamines are derived from aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan by the action of aromatic amino acid decarboxylase enzymes. They are deactivated in the body by the enzymes known as monoamine oxidases which clip off the amine group.
Monoaminergic systems, i.e., the networks of neurons that use monoamine neurotransmitters, are involved in the regulation of processes such as emotion, arousal, and certain types of memory. It has also been found that monoamine neurotransmitters play an important role in the secretion and production of neurotrophin-3 by astrocytes, a chemical which maintains neuron integrity and provides neurons with trophic support.
Drugs used to increase or reduce the effect of monoamine neurotransmitters are used to treat patients with psychiatric and neurological disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease.
Examples
Classical monoamines
Imidazoleamines:
Histamine
Catecholamines:
Adrenaline (Ad; Epinephrine, Epi)
Dopamine (DA)
Noradrenaline (NAd; Norepinephrine, NE)
Indolamines:
Serotonin (5-HT)
Melatonin (MT)
Trace amines
Specific transporter proteins called monoamine transporters that transport monoamines in or out of a cell exist. These are the dopamine transporter (DAT), serotonin transporter (SERT), and the norepinephrine transporter (NET) in the outer cell membrane and the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT1 and VMAT2) in the membrane of intracellular vesicles.
After release into the synaptic cleft, monoamine neurotransmitter action is ended by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal. There, they can be repackaged into synaptic vesicles or degraded by the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), which is a target of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, a class of antidepressants.
Evolution
Monoamine neurotransmitter systems occur in virtually all vertebrates, where the evolvability of these systems has served to promote the adaptability of vertebrate species to different environments.
See also
Monoamine reuptake inhibitor
Monoamine receptor
Monoamine oxidase
Monoamine transporter
Monoamine Hypothesis
Biogenic amine
Trace amine
Monoamine nuclei
Biology of depression
References
External links
Neurotransmitters
TAAR1 agonists
Amphetamine
fi:Hermoston välittäjäaine#Monoamiinit | [
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|
220457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycad | Cycad | For the insect, see Cicada.
Cycads are seed plants that typically have a stout and woody (ligneous) trunk with a crown of large, hard, stiff, evergreen and (usually) pinnate leaves. The species are dioecious, that is, individual plants of a species are either male or female. Cycads vary in size from having trunks only a few centimeters to several meters tall. They typically grow very slowly and live very long, with some specimens known to be as much as 1,000 years old. Because of their superficial resemblance, they are sometimes mistaken for palms or ferns, but they are not closely related to either group.
Cycads are gymnosperms (naked seeded), meaning their unfertilized seeds are open to the air to be directly fertilized by pollination, as contrasted with angiosperms, which have enclosed seeds with more complex fertilization arrangements. Cycads have very specialized pollinators, usually a specific species of beetle. Both male and female cycads bear cones (strobili), somewhat similar to conifer cones.
Cycads have been reported to fix nitrogen in association with various cyanobacteria living in the roots (the "coralloid" roots). These photosynthetic bacteria produce a neurotoxin called BMAA that is found in the seeds of cycads. This neurotoxin may enter a human food chain as the cycad seeds may be eaten directly as a source of flour by humans or by wild or feral animals such as bats, and humans may eat these animals. It is hypothesized that this is a source of some neurological diseases in humans.
Cycads all over the world are in decline, with four species on the brink of extinction and seven species having fewer than 100 plants left in the wild. The plant has a very long fossil history, with evidence that they existed in greater abundance and in greater diversity before the Jurassic and late Triassic mass extinction events.
Description
Cycads have a cylindrical trunk which usually does not branch. But, some types of Cycads can branch their trunks, at their adult age. (Eg: Cycas zeylanica is an endemic Cycad found in Sri Lanka, which can branch their trunk.) Leaves grow directly from the trunk, and typically fall when older, leaving a crown of leaves at the top. The leaves grow in a rosette form, with new foliage emerging from the top and center of the crown. The trunk may be buried, so the leaves appear to be emerging from the ground, so the plant appears to be a basal rosette. The leaves are generally large in proportion to the trunk size, and sometimes even larger than the trunk.
The leaves are pinnate (in the form of bird feathers, pinnae), with a central leaf stalk from which parallel "ribs" emerge from each side of the stalk, perpendicular to it. The leaves are typically either compound (the leaf stalk has leaflets emerging from it as "ribs"), or have edges (margins) so deeply cut (incised) so as to appear compound. Some species have leaves that are bipinnate, which means the leaflets each have their own subleaflets, growing in the same form on the leaflet as the leaflets grow on the stalk of the leaf (self-similar geometry).
Confusion with palms
Due to superficial similarities in foliage and plant structure, cycads and palms are often mistaken for each other. They also can occur in similar climates. However, they belong to completely different phyla and are not closely related at all. The similar structure is evidence of convergent evolution.
Beyond those superficial resemblances, there are a number of differences between cycads and palms. For one, both male and female cycads are gymnosperms and bear cones (strobili), while palms are angiosperms and so flower and bear fruit. The mature foliage looks very similar between both groups, but the young emerging leaves of a cycad resemble a fiddlehead fern before they unfold and take their place in the rosette, while the leaves of palms are never coiled up and instead are just small versions of the mature frond. Another difference is in the stem. Both plants leave some scars on the stem below the rosette where there used to be leaves, but the scars of a cycad are helically arranged and small, while the scars of palms are a circle that wraps around the whole stem. The stems of cycads are also in general rougher and shorter than those of palms.
Taxonomy
The three extant families of cycads all belong to the order Cycadales, and are Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae, and Zamiaceae. These cycads have changed little since the Jurassic, compared to some major evolutionary changes in other plant divisions. Five additional families belonging to the Medullosales became extinct by the end of the Paleozoic Era.
Based on genetic studies, cycads are thought to be more closely related to Ginkgo than other living gymnosperms. Both are thought to have diverged from each other during the early Carboniferous.
Classification of the Cycadophyta to the rank of family.
Class Cycadopsida
Order Cycadales
Suborder Cycadineae
Family Cycadaceae
Suborder Zamiineae
Family Stangeriaceae
Family Zamiaceae
Relationships between the extant genera, according to Nagalingum et al. (2011):
Fossil record
The probable former range of cycads can be inferred from their global distribution. For example, the family Stangeriaceae only contains three extant species in Africa and Australia. Diverse fossils of this family have been dated to 135 mya, indicating that diversity may have been much greater before the Jurassic and late Triassic mass extinction events. However, the cycad fossil record is generally poor and little can be deduced about the effects of each mass extinction event on their diversity.
Instead, correlations can be made between the number of extant gymnosperms and angiosperms. It is likely that cycad diversity was affected more by the great angiosperm radiation in the mid-Cretaceous than by extinctions. Very slow cambial growth was first used to define cycads, and because of this characteristic the group could not compete with the rapidly growing, relatively short-lived angiosperms, which now number over 250,000 species, compared to the 1080 remaining gymnosperms.
Origins
The cycad fossil record dates to the early Permian, (mya). There is controversy over older cycad fossils that date to the late Carboniferous period, . This clade probably diversified extensively within its first few million years, although the extent to which it radiated is unknown because relatively few fossil specimens have been found. The regions to which cycads are restricted probably indicate their former distribution in the Pangea supercontinent before the supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana separated. Recent studies have indicated the common perception of existing cycad species as living fossils is largely misplaced, with only Bowenia dating to the Cretaceous or earlier. Although the cycad lineage itself is ancient, most extant species have evolved in the last 12 million years. Though the Mesozoic is sometimes called the "Age of Cycads", the foliage of cycads is very similar to other groups of extinct seed plants, such as Bennettitales and Nilssoniales, that are not closely related, and cycads were probably only a minor component of mid-Mesozoic floras.
The family Stangeriaceae (named for Dr. William Stanger, 1811–1854), consisting of only three extant species, is thought to be of Gondwanan origin, as fossils have been found in Lower Cretaceous deposits in Argentina, dating to . The family Zamiaceae is more diverse, with a fossil record extending from the middle Triassic to the Eocene () in North and South America, Europe, Australia, and Antarctica, implying the family was present before the break-up of Pangea. The family Cycadaceae is thought to be an early offshoot from other cycads, with fossils from Eocene deposits () in Japan, China, and North America, indicating this family originated in Laurasia. Cycas is the only genus in the family and contains 99 species, the most of any cycad genus. Molecular data have recently shown Cycas species in Australasia and the east coast of Africa are recent arrivals, suggesting adaptive radiation may have occurred. The current distribution of cycads may be due to radiations from a few ancestral types sequestered on Laurasia and Gondwana, or could be explained by genetic drift following the separation of already evolved genera. Both explanations account for the strict endemism across present continental lines.
Distribution
The living cycads are found across much of the subtropical and tropical parts of the world. The greatest diversity occurs in South and Central America. They are also found in Mexico, the Antilles, southeastern United States, Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Japan, China, Southeast Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and southern and tropical Africa, where at least 65 species occur. Some can survive in harsh desert or semi-desert climates (xerophytic), others in wet rain forest conditions, and some in both. Some can grow in sand or even on rock, some in oxygen-poor, swampy, bog-like soils rich in organic material. Some are able to grow in full sun, some in full shade, and some in both. Some are salt tolerant (halophytes).
Species diversity of the extant cycads peaks at 17˚ 15"N and 28˚ 12"S, with a minor peak at the equator. There is therefore not a latitudinal diversity gradient towards the equator but towards the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. However, the peak near the northern tropic is largely due to Cycas in Asia and Zamia in the New World, whereas the peak near the southern tropic is due to Cycas again, and also to the diverse genus Encephalartos in southern and central Africa, and Macrozamia in Australia. Thus, the distribution pattern of cycad species with latitude appears to be an artifact of the geographical isolation of the remaining cycad genera and their species, and perhaps because they are partly xerophytic rather than simply tropical.
Cultural significance
In Vanuatu, the cycad is known as namele and is an important symbol of traditional culture. It serves as a powerful taboo sign, and a pair of namele leaves appears on the national flag and coat of arms. Together with the nanggaria plant, another symbol of Vanuatu culture, the namele also gives its name to Nagriamel, an indigenous political movement.
See also
Fossil Cycad National Monument, formerly in the U.S. state of South Dakota
Footnotes
References
External links
Palm Trees, Small Palms, Cycads, Bromeliads and tropical plants site with thousands of large, high quality photos of cycads and associated flora. Includes information on habitat and cultivation.
Hill KD (1998–2004) The Cycad Pages, Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney. http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/PlantNet/cycad/index.html
Gymnosperm Database: Cycads
Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden- one of the largest collection of cycads in the world in Florida, U.S.A.
Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia (PACSOA)
The Cycad Society of South Africa
Cycad nitrogen fixation
Cycad toxicity
The Cult of the Cycads, The New York Times Magazine article on cycad collectorship and cycad smuggling
Dioecious plants
Cisuralian first appearances
Extant Permian first appearances | [
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|
220458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20Norway | Prime Minister of Norway | The prime minister of Norway (, which directly translates to "minister of state") is the head of government and chief executive of Norway. The prime minister and Cabinet (consisting of all the most senior government department heads) are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the monarch, to the Storting (Parliament of Norway), to their political party, and ultimately the electorate. In practice, since it is nearly impossible for a government to stay in office against the will of the Storting, the prime minister is primarily answerable to the Storting. The prime minister is almost always the leader of the majority party in the Storting, or the leader of the senior partner in the governing coalition.
Norway has a constitution, which was adopted on 17 May 1814. The position of prime minister is the result of legislation. Modern prime ministers have few statutory powers, but provided they can command the support of their parliamentary party, they can control both the legislature and the executive (the cabinet) and hence wield considerable de facto powers. As of , the prime minister of Norway is Jonas Gahr Støre, of the Labour Party, replacing Erna Solberg of Conservative Party, who resigned in October 2021.
Unlike their counterparts in the rest of Europe, Norwegian prime ministers do not have the option of advising the king to dissolve the Storting and call a snap election. The constitution requires that the Storting serve out its full four-year term. If the prime minister loses the confidence of the Storting, they must resign.
Longest-serving prime ministers
Living former prime ministers
As of , five former prime ministers are alive:
See also
List of heads of government of Norway
Regjeringskvartalet
References
External links
Government Official Homepage
1873 establishments in Norway | [
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|
220459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20African | South African |
South African may relate to:
The nation of South Africa
South African Airways
South African English
South African people
Languages of South Africa
Southern Africa
See also
South Africa (disambiguation)
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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|
220460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waxed%20paper | Waxed paper | Waxed paper (also wax paper or paraffin paper) is paper that has been made moisture-proof through the application of wax.
The practice of oiling parchment or paper in order to make it semi-translucent or moisture-proof goes back at least to the Middle Ages. Paper impregnated or coated with purified beeswax was widely used throughout the 19th century to retain or exclude moisture, or to wrap odorous products. Gustave Le Gray introduced the use of waxed paper for photographic negatives in 1851. Natural wax was largely replaced for the making of waxed paper (or paraffine paper) after Herman Frasch developed ways of purifying paraffin and coating paper with it in 1876. Waxed paper is commonly used in cooking for its non-stick properties, and wrapping food for storage, such as cookies, as it keeps water out or in. It is also used in arts and crafts.
Food preparation
Waxed paper is not recommended for baking use in an oven, as it will smoke and explode . Parchment paper is better for this use.
In a microwave, waxed paper can be used to prevent splatters by covering the food when microwave cooking. Since the paper is mostly unaffected by microwaves, it will not heat to the point of combustion under normal usage. This makes waxed paper more functional than plastic wrap which will melt at higher temperatures, or aluminium foil which is not safe for use in most microwave ovens.
Other uses
Safety razor blades are traditionally wrapped in waxed paper to make handling them less dangerous.
From the early 1950s to the mid-1990s, waxed paper was used as a common wrapping for sports card packages (O-Pee-Chee, Topps, Donruss, etc.). It was notorious for leaving wax markings on the back card where the waxed paper was heated to be sealed. Waxed paper was used as a way to keep the enclosed piece of bubble gum protected.
In the mid-1990s, sports card manufacturers stopped including pieces of bubble gum in packs of sports cards, thus ending the need for waxed paper packs. Plastic (mylar) or other plastic/paper blends were used from then on.
Waxed paper is also commonly used to attach pattern pieces to fabric while cutting it for sewing. One presses an iron over the waxed paper briefly and attaches it to the cloth, making it easier to trace while cutting.
Waxed paper's particularly high dielectric strength makes it a practical electrical insulator, although modern materials have surpassed and mostly replaced it. Common applications are coil winding separators and capacitor dielectrics, and other applications requiring resilience against a potential difference up to the order of a few thousand volts per layer.
In photography, waxed paper can be used as a light diffuser.
Environmental issues
There are multiple environmental issues concerned with waxed paper. Though it is biodegradable in its unaltered form, oft-applied additives such as petroleum rid it of that quality. Waxed paper also cannot be recycled.
See also
Greaseproof paper
Glassine
Parchment
Parchment paper (baking)
References
External links
Coated paper
Food preparation utensils | [
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|
220464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polishing | Polishing | Polishing is the process of creating a smooth and shiny surface by rubbing it or by applying a chemical treatment, leaving a clean surface with a significant specular reflection (still limited by the index of refraction of the material according to the Fresnel equations). In some materials (such as metals, glasses, black or transparent stones), polishing is also able to reduce diffuse reflection to minimal values.
When an unpolished surface is magnified thousands of times, it usually looks like a succession of mountains and valleys. By repeated abrasion, those "mountains" are worn down until they are flat or just small "hills." The process of polishing with abrasives starts with a coarse grain size and gradually proceeds to the finer ones to efficiently flatten the surface imperfections and to obtain optimal results.
Mechanical properties
The strength of polished products can be higher than their rougher counterparts owing to the removal of stress concentrations present in the rough surface. They take the form of corners and other defects which magnify the local stress beyond the inherent strength of the material.
Types
Metalworking
Other polishing processes include:
Burnishing
Mass finishing
Tumble finishing
Vibratory finishing
Sodablasting
Woodworking
French polishing
Wood finishing
Other
Chemical-mechanical polishing, which is used in semiconductor fabrication
Fabrication and testing of optical components
Flame polishing, a type of polishing used on glass and thermoplastics
Ultra-fine, abrasive paste polishing, polishing for soft or fragile work surfaces
Vapor polishing, a method of polishing plastics to optical clarity
References
External links
4 Steps of Marble Polishing
Decorative arts
Grinding and lapping
Industrial processes
Wood finishing techniques
Surface finishing | [
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|
220465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asystole | Asystole | Asystole (New Latin, from Greek privative a "not, without" + systolē "contraction") is the absence of ventricular contractions in the context of a lethal heart arrhythmia (in contrast to an induced asystole on a cooled patient on a heart-lung machine and general anesthesia during surgery necessitating stopping the heart). Asystole is the most serious form of cardiac arrest and is usually irreversible. Also referred to as cardiac flatline, asystole is the state of total cessation of electrical activity from the heart, which means no tissue contraction from the heart muscle and therefore no blood flow to the rest of the body.
Asystole should not be confused with very brief pauses in the heart's electrical activity—even those that produce a temporary flatline—that can occur in certain less severe abnormal rhythms. Asystole is different from very fine occurrences of ventricular fibrillation, though both have a poor prognosis, and untreated fine VF will lead to asystole. Faulty wiring, disconnection of electrodes and leads, and power disruptions should be ruled out.
Asystolic patients (as opposed to those with a "shockable rhythm" such as ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, which can potentially be treated with defibrillation) usually present with a very poor prognosis. Asystole is found initially in only about 28% of cardiac arrest cases in hospitalized patients, but only 15% of these survive, even with the benefit of an intensive care unit, with the rate being lower (6%) for those already prescribed drugs for high blood pressure.
Asystole is treated by cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) combined with an intravenous vasopressor such as epinephrine (a.k.a. adrenaline). Sometimes an underlying reversible cause can be detected and treated (the so-called "Hs and Ts", an example of which is hypokalaemia). Several interventions previously recommended—such as defibrillation (known to be ineffective on asystole, but previously performed in case the rhythm was actually very fine ventricular fibrillation) and intravenous atropine—are no longer part of the routine protocols recommended by most major international bodies. Asystole may be treated with 1 mg epinephrine by IV every 3–5 minutes as needed.
Survival rates in a cardiac arrest patient with asystole are much lower than a patient with a rhythm amenable to defibrillation; asystole is itself not a "shockable" rhythm. Even in those cases where an individual suffers a cardiac arrest with asystole and it is converted to a less severe shockable rhythm (ventricular fibrillation, or ventricular tachycardia), this does not necessarily improve the person's chances of survival to discharge from the hospital, though if the case was witnessed by a civilian, or better, an EMT, who gave good CPR and cardiac drugs, this is an important confounding factor to be considered in certain select cases. Out-of-hospital survival rates (even with emergency intervention) are less than 2 percent.
Cause
Possible underlying causes, which may be treatable and reversible in certain cases, include the Hs and Ts.
Hypovolemia
Hypoxia
Hydrogen ions (acidosis)
Hypothermia
Hyperkalemia or Hypokalemia
Toxins (e.g., drug overdose)
Cardiac Tamponade
Tension pneumothorax
Thrombosis (myocardial infarction or pulmonary embolism)
While the heart is asystolic, there is no blood flow to the brain unless CPR or internal cardiac massage (when the chest is opened and the heart is manually compressed) is performed, and even then it is a small amount. After many emergency treatments have been applied but the heart is still unresponsive, it is time to consider pronouncing the patient dead. Even in the rare case that a rhythm reappears, if asystole has persisted for fifteen minutes or more, the brain will have been deprived of oxygen long enough to cause severe hypoxic brain damage, resulting in brain death or persistent vegetative state.
See also
Agonal heart rhythm
Ictal asystole
References
External links
Medical aspects of death
Medical emergencies
Causes of death
Cardiac arrhythmia | [
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|
220466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20list%20of%20most-wanted%20Iraqis | U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis | In April 2003, the United States drew up a list of most-wanted Iraqis, consisting of the 55 members of the deposed Iraqi Ba'athist regime whom they most wanted to capture. The list was turned into a set of playing cards for distribution to United States-led Coalition troops. Later, in 2003, the list was renumbered so that it mostly conformed to the order of the playing cards (see most-wanted Iraqi playing cards).
List
Dead: 32
Imprisoned: 6
Released: 13
At large: 4
See also
2003 invasion of Iraq
2003 Iraq war timeline
List of people associated with the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards
Torture and murder in Iraq
USA kill or capture strategy in Iraq
References
External links
"Personality Identification Playing Cards" - a U.S. Department of Defense page showing the most wanted Iraqi playing cards
"'Chemical Ali' sentenced to death in Iraq" - news article
most-wanted
Most wanted lists | [
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|
220469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20v%20Quebec%20%28AG%29 | Ford v Quebec (AG) | Ford v Quebec (AG), [1988] 2 SCR 712 is a landmark Supreme Court of Canada decision in which the Court struck down part of the Charter of the French Language, commonly known as "Bill 101". This law had restricted the use of commercial signs written in languages other than French. The court ruled that Bill 101 violated the freedom of expression as guaranteed in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Background
The appeal, launched by the government of Quebec, consolidated many cases initiated by Montreal-area merchants such as Montreal florist Hyman Singer and West Island wool shop owner Valerie Ford. Following complaints, the Office québécois de la langue française had instructed them to inform and serve their customers in French and replace their bilingual French and English signs with unilingual French ones. They had been fined for violation of the Charter of the French Language and decided to fight the case in court with the backing of Alliance Quebec. The Supreme Court of Canada upheld the decisions of the Quebec Superior Court and the Quebec Court of Appeal.
Aftermath
In late 1989, shortly after the Supreme Court's decision, Premier of Quebec Robert Bourassa's Liberal Party of Quebec government passed Bill 178, making minor amendments to the Charter of the French Language. Recognizing that the amendments did not follow the Supreme Court's ruling, the provincial legislature invoked section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (also known as the notwithstanding clause) to shield Bill 178 from review by courts for five years.
This move was politically controversial, both among Quebec nationalists, who were unhappy with the changes to the Charter of the French Language; and among English-speaking Quebecers, who opposed the use of the notwithstanding clause. Tension over this issue was a contributing factor to the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, among other political repercussions.
The law was challenged under International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Human Rights Committee found a violation of article 19 which guarantees right to opinion and freedom of expression. The State was ordered to remedy the violation by an amendment to the law.
In 1993, the Charter of the French Language was amended in the manner suggested by the Supreme Court of Canada. Bill 86 was enacted by the Bourassa government to amend the Charter. It now states that French must be predominant on commercial signs, but a language other than French may also be used. Accordingly, the law no longer invokes the notwithstanding clause.
See also
List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Dickson Court)
Demolinguistics of Quebec
References
External links
Charter of the French language
Article critical of the decision "The implications of accommodation", Policy Options, May 1990
Canadian freedom of expression case law
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms case law
Supreme Court of Canada cases
Bilingualism in Canada
1988 in Canadian case law
Quebec language policy
Language case law
Language conflict in Canada | [
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|
220475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical%20regions%20in%20present-day%20Ukraine | Historical regions in present-day Ukraine | A list of the various regions of Ukraine and/or inhabited by Ukrainians and their ancestors throughout history.
Main historical regions
Traditional regions
The traditional names of the regions of Ukraine are important geographic, historical, and ethnographic identifiers.
Over-Dnieper Ukraine, Great Ukraine
Land of Kyiv
Right-bank Ukraine (east of Zhytomyr Oblast, Kyiv Oblast, Cherkasy Oblast), Central Ukraine
Polesia, Land of Turov (north of Kyiv Oblast, east of Brest Oblast, west of Gomel Oblast), Northern Ukraine
Land of Pereyaslav (predominantly Poltava Oblast and east of Kyiv Oblast), southern part of Left-bank Ukraine, Little Russia, Central Ukraine
Land of Chernihiv (predominantly Chernihiv Oblast, west of Bryansk Oblast, east of Gomel Oblast), northern part of Left-bank Ukraine, Little Russia, Northern Ukraine
Severia (Sumy Oblast, Kharkiv Oblast, Kursk Oblast, Belgorod Oblast)
Sloboda Ukraine (mostly Kharkiv Oblast)
Ruthenia, Kingdom of Rus, Western Ukraine, Western Oblast, Liitle Poland
Volhynia (Volyn Oblast, Rivne Oblast, west of Zhytomyr Oblast, north of Ternopil Oblast, north of Khmelnytsky Oblast), former principality
Chełm, Belz, San River, Przemyśl (east of Podkarpackie Voivodeship and Lublin Voivodeship), former principality and a constituent land of Ruthenia
Berestia (west of Brest Oblast, south of Podlaskie Voivodeship)
Galicia (Lviv Oblast, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, Ternopil Oblast)
Red Ruthenia
Prykarpattia (Boikos and Lemkos, collectively Rusyns)
Pokuttia (Hutsuls)
Podolia (Khmelnytsky Oblast, Vinnytsia Oblast, north of Odessa Oblast, west of Kirovohrad Oblast), Little Poland
Zaporizhzhia (Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, east of Kirovohrad Oblast), New Serbia, Central Ukraine
Pontic steppe, Wild Fields, New Russia
Donbas ("Donets Basin") (Donetsk Oblast, Luhanks Oblast), also known as Cuman Land, Slavo-Serbia, Eastern Ukraine
Azov Littoral (Zaporizhzhia Oblast, south of Donetsk Oblast, southwest of Rostov Oblast)
Black Sea Littoral, Southern Ukraine
Over-Buh, Yedisan, Transnistria (Odessa Oblast, Mykolaiv Oblast)
Bugeac (Budzhak) (southwest of Odessa Oblast)
Tavria (Kherson Oblast)
Crimea (Krym), also known as Tavria, Taurida
Transcarpathia / Carpathian Ruthenia, Subcarpathian Rus, Carpatho-Ukraine and many others
Maramureș
Northern Bukovina (Chernivtsi Oblast)
Regions historically inhabited by Ukrainians (mostly with other nations), which are partly or wholly outside modern Ukraine:
Kuban granted to Black Sea Cossacks colonization from the Russian government during the Russian-Circassian War
Northern Caucasus (also called Pink Ukraine)
Volga Region (around Saratov, called Yellow Ukraine)
Siberia (city of Omsk, Grey Ukraine)
Russian Far East (see Green Ukraine)
Regions of Ukraine
Geopolitical, historical, and cultural factors play a role in assigning different areas of Ukraine to semi-official regions. The map on the right shows the approximate locations of some broad-brush regions. The terms "Central Ukraine", "Eastern Ukraine", "Southern Ukraine", and "Western Ukraine" occur in common usage. There is no clear definition of the boundaries of such regions, but rather a general reference. Lists of what may constitute such regions might include:
Central Ukraine, a more vague term, often denotes what is not included in Western or South-Eastern definitions.
Eastern Ukraine may mean either the Don basin, Sloboda Ukraine, continental Taurida regions etc.
Southern Ukraine often includes the whole Taurida, the Kryvyi Rih basin, and the regions of Mykolayiv and Odessa oblasts. Alternatively it may include the Don basin, in particularly the adjacent land to the Azov Sea.
Western Ukraine may mean either the historic region of Galicia, or may also include Volhynia, Podolia, Transcarpathia, and/or Bukovina.
Other terms are rarely used – such as "South-western Ukraine", which can denote either Transcarpathia, or Budjak. Sometimes the term "South-eastern Ukraine" is used to define both regions of the Southern and Eastern Ukraine. Due to the shape of the country, in narrow definition, term "Northern Ukraine" is often used to denote either the bulge of Chernihiv/Sumy oblasts or, in broader terms, the whole of Polesia. "North-western Ukraine" almost exclusively refers to the historic region of Volhynia. This makes the term "North-eastern Ukraine" rarest of them all – it is either used as synonym for the narrow definition of Northern Ukraine, or as synonym for Sloboda Ukraine (particularly Sumy Oblast).
Historical Ukrainian states
Kyivan Rus (a state of Early East Slavs), (880s–1240)
Galicia-Volhynia (1199–1349)
Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)
Central Rada of the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1918)
Hetmanate of the Ukrainian State (1918)
West Ukrainian People's Republic (1918–1919)
Directorate of the Ukrainian People's Republic (1918–1920)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Carpatho-Ukraine (1939)
See also
Geography of Ukraine
ISO 3166-2:UA
List of places named after people (Ukraine)
References
Paul Robert Magosci, Ukraine: A Historical Atlas, 1985. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Historical regions
Ukraine
Ukrainian genealogy
Historical regions | [
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|
220477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory%20Doctorow | Cory Doctorow | Cory Efram Doctorow (; born July 17, 1971) is a Canadian-British blogger, journalist, and science fiction author who served as co-editor of the blog Boing Boing. He is an activist in favour of liberalising copyright laws and a proponent of the Creative Commons organization, using some of their licences for his books. Some common themes of his work include digital rights management, file sharing, and post-scarcity economics.
Life and career
Cory Efram Doctorow was born in Toronto, Ontario on 17 July 1971. He is of Eastern European Jewish descent. His paternal grandfather was born in what is now Poland and his paternal grandmother was from Leningrad. Both were deserters from the Red Army, and as a result Doctorow's father was born in a displaced persons camp near Baku, Azerbaijan. His grandparents and father emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union. Doctorow's mother's family were Ukrainian-Russian Romanians.
Doctorow was a friend of Columbia law professor Tim Wu, dating to their time together in elementary school. Doctorow went to summer camp as a young teenager at what he has described as a "hippy summer camp" at Grindstone Island, near Portland, Ontario, that was influential on his intellectual life and development. He quit high school, received his Ontario Academic Credit (high school diploma) from the SEED School in Toronto, and attended four universities without obtaining a degree.
Cory Doctorow has stated both that he is not related to the American novelist E. L. Doctorow and that he may be a third cousin once removed of the novelist.
In June 1999, Doctorow co-founded the free software P2P company Opencola with John Henson and Grad Conn, which sold to the Open Text Corporation of Waterloo, Ontario in the summer of 2003. The company used a drink called OpenCola as part of its promotional campaign.
Doctorow later relocated to London and worked as European Affairs Coordinator for the Electronic Frontier Foundation for four years, helping to establish the Open Rights Group, before leaving the EFF to pursue writing full-time in January 2006; Doctorow remained a Fellow of the EFF for some time after his departure from the EFF Staff. He was named the 2006–2007 Canadian Fulbright Chair for Public Diplomacy at the USC Center on Public Diplomacy, sponsored jointly by the Royal Fulbright Commission, the Integrated Media Systems Center, and the USC Center on Public Diplomacy. The professorship included a one-year writing and teaching residency at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, United States. He then returned to London, but remained a frequent public speaker on copyright issues.
In 2009, Doctorow became the first Independent Studies Scholar in Virtual Residence at the University of Waterloo in Ontario. He was a student in the program during 1993–94, but left without completing a thesis. Doctorow is also a Visiting Professor at the Open University in the United Kingdom. In 2012 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from The Open University.
Doctorow married Alice Taylor in October 2008; they have a daughter named Poesy Emmeline Fibonacci Nautilus Taylor Doctorow, who was born in 2008. Doctorow became a British citizen by naturalisation on 12 August 2011.
In 2015, Doctorow decided to leave London and move to Los Angeles, expressing disappointment at London's "death" after Britain's choice of Conservative government; he stated at the time, "London is a city whose two priorities are being a playground for corrupt global elites who turn neighbourhoods into soulless collections of empty safe-deposit boxes in the sky, and encouraging the feckless criminality of the finance industry. These two facts are not unrelated." He rejoined the EFF in January 2015 to campaign for the eradication of digital rights management (DRM).
Doctorow left Boing Boing in January 2020, and soon started a solo blogging project titled Pluralistic. The circumstances surrounding Doctorow's exit from the website were unclear at the time, although Doctorow acknowledged that he remained a co-owner of Boing Boing. Given the end of the 19-year association between Doctorow and Boing Boing, MetaFilter described this news as "the equivalent of the Beatles breaking up" for the blog world. Doctorow's exit was not acknowledged by Boing Boing, with his name being quietly removed from the list of editors on 29 January 2020.
Other work, activism, and fellowships
Doctorow served as Canadian Regional Director of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1999.
In 2007, together with Austrian art group monochrom, he initiated the Instant Blitz Copy Fight project, which asks people from all over the world to take flash pictures of copyright warnings in movie theaters.
On October 31, 2005, Doctorow was involved in a controversy concerning digital rights management with Sony-BMG, as told in Wikinomics.
As a user of the Tor anonymity network for more than a decade during his global travels, Doctorow publicly supports the network; furthermore, Boing Boing operates a "high speed, high-quality exit node."
Doctorow was the keynote speaker at the July 2016 Hackers on Planet Earth conference.
Fiction
Doctorow began selling fiction when he was 17 years old, and sold several stories, followed by publication of the story "Craphound" in 1998.
Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom, Doctorow's first novel, was published in January 2003, and was the first novel released under one of the Creative Commons licences, allowing readers to circulate the electronic edition as long as they neither made money from it nor used it to create derived works. The electronic edition was released simultaneously with the print edition. In March 2003, it was re-released with a different Creative Commons licence that allowed derivative works such as fan fiction, but still prohibited commercial usage.
Down and Out... was nominated for a Nebula Award, and won the Locus Award for Best First Novel in 2004. A semi-sequel short story named Truncat was published on Salon.com in August 2003.
His novel Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town, published in June 2005, was chosen to launch the Sci-Fi Channel's book club, Sci-Fi Essentials (now defunct).
Doctorow's other novels have been released with Creative Commons licences that allow derived works and prohibit commercial usage, and he has used the model of making digital versions available, without charge, at the same time that print versions are published.
His Sunburst Award-winning short story collection A Place So Foreign and Eight More was also published in 2004: "0wnz0red" from this collection was nominated for the 2004 Nebula Award for Best Novelette.
Doctorow released the bestselling novel Little Brother in 2008 with a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike licence. It was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2009. and won the 2009 Prometheus Award, Sunburst Award, and the 2009 John W. Campbell Memorial Award.
His novel Makers was released in October 2009, and was serialised for free on the Tor Books website.
Doctorow released another young adult novel, For the Win, in May 2010. The novel is available free on the author's website as a Creative Commons download, and is also published in traditional paper format by Tor Books. The book is about "greenfarming", and concerns massively multiplayer online role-playing games.
Doctorow's short story collection "With a Little Help" was released in printed format on May 3, 2011. It is a project to demonstrate the profitability of Doctorow's method of releasing his books in print and subsequently for free under Creative Commons.
In September 2012, Doctorow released The Rapture of the Nerds, a novel written in collaboration with Charles Stross.
Doctorow's young adult novel Pirate Cinema was released in October 2012. It won the 2013 Prometheus Award.
In February 2013, Doctorow released Homeland, the sequel to his novel Little Brother. It won the 2014 Prometheus Award (Doctorow's third novel to win this award).
His novel Walkaway was released in 2017.
In March 2019, Doctorow released Radicalized, a collection of four self-contained science-fiction novellas dealing with how life in America could be in the near future. The book was selected for the 2020 edition of Canada Reads, in which it was defended by Akil Augustine.
Attack Surface, a standalone adult novel set in the "Little Brother" universe, was released on October 13, 2020.
Nonfiction and other writings
Doctorow's nonfiction works include his first book, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Publishing Science Fiction (co-written with Karl Schroeder and published in 2000), his contributions to Boing Boing, the blog he co-edits, as well as regular columns in the magazines Popular Science and Make. He is a contributing writer to Wired magazine, and contributes occasionally to other magazines and newspapers such as the New York Times Sunday Magazine, The Globe and Mail, Asimov's Science Fiction magazine, and the Boston Globe.
In 2004, he wrote an essay on Wikipedia included in The Anthology at the End of the Universe, comparing Internet attempts at Hitchhiker's Guide-type resources, including a discussion of the Wikipedia article about himself. Doctorow contributed the foreword to Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a. DJ Spooky. He also was a contributing writer to the book Worldchanging: A User's Guide for the 21st Century.
He popularised the term "metacrap" by a 2001 essay titled "Metacrap: Putting the torch to seven straw-men of the meta-utopia." Some of his non-fiction published between 2001 and 2007 has been collected by Tachyon Publications as Content: Selected Essays on Technology, Creativity, Copyright, and the Future of the Future. In 2016 he wrote the article Mr. Robot Killed the Hollywood-Hacker (published on MIT Technology Review) as a review of the TV show Mr. Robot and argued for a better portrayal and understanding of technology, computers and their risks and consequences in our modern world.
His essay "You Can't Own Knowledge" is included in the Freesouls book project.
He is the originator of Doctorow's Law: "Anytime someone puts a lock on something you own, against your wishes, and doesn't give you the key, they're not doing it for your benefit."
Writing in the Guardian in2022, Doctorow listed the many problems confronting Facebook and suggested that it's future would be increasingly fraught.
Opinions on intellectual property
Doctorow believes that copyright laws should be liberalised to allow for free sharing of all digital media. He has also advocated filesharing. He argues that copyright holders should have a monopoly on selling their own digital media and that copyright laws should not be operative unless someone attempts to sell a product that is under someone else's copyright.
Doctorow is an opponent of digital rights management and claims that it limits the free sharing of digital media and frequently causes problems for legitimate users (including registration problems that lock users out of their own purchases and prevent them from being able to move their media to other devices).
He was a keynote speaker at the 2014 international conference CopyCamp in Warsaw with the presentation "Information Doesn't Want to Be Free."
In popular culture
The webcomic 'xkcd' occasionally features a partially fictional version of Doctorow who lives in a hot air balloon up in the "blogosphere" ("above the tag clouds") and wears a red cape and goggles, such as in the comic "Blagofaire". When Doctorow won the 2007 EFF Pioneer Award, the presenters gave him a red cape, goggles and a balloon.
The novel Ready Player One features a mention of Doctorow as being the newly re-elected President of the OASIS User Council (with Wil Wheaton as his vice-president) in the year 2044, saying that, "those two geezers had been doing a kick-ass job of protecting user rights for over a decade."
The comedic role-playing game Kingdom of Loathing features a boss-fight against a monster named Doctor Oh who is described as wearing a red cape and goggles. The commentary before the fight and assorted hit, miss and fumble messages during the battle make reference to Doctorow's advocacy for open-source sharing and freedom of media.
Awards
2000 John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer
2004 Locus Award for Best First Novel for Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom
2004 Sunburst Award for A Place So Foreign and Eight More
2006 Locus Award for Best Novelette for "I, Robot"
2007 Locus Award for Best Novelette for "When Sysadmins Ruled the Earth"
2007 The Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award
For Little Brother
2009 John W. Campbell Memorial Award
2009 Prometheus Award
2009 Sunburst Award
2009 White Pine Award
2018 Inkpot Award
For Pirate Cinema
2013 Prometheus Award
For Homeland
2014 Prometheus Award
Bibliography
In chronological sequence, unless otherwise indicated
Fiction
Novels
The Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow, November 1, 2011,
(with Charles Stross)
Graphic novels
In Real Life. Illustrated by Jen Wang. First Second. October 14, 2014. .
Poesy the Monster Slayer. Illustrated by Matt Rockefeller. First Second. July 14, 2020. .
Collections
or
Other instance:
Short fiction
Non-fiction
Paper for the O'Reilly Emerging Technologies Conference, 2004.
References
Further reading
External links
Cory Doctorow's personal website
Pluralistic, daily links by Cory Doctorow
Presentation of Cory Doctorow "Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free" at the CopyCamp 2014 conference
Interviews
2019 interview with Doctorow at Cyberpunks.com
2020 interview with Doctorow by Johannes Grenzfurthner in The Free Lunch magazine.
1971 births
20th-century Canadian short story writers
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian short story writers
Academics of the Open University
Articles containing video clips
British activists
British bloggers
British Jewish writers
British men podcasters
British podcasters
British science fiction writers
British technology journalists
British technology writers
Canadian activists
Canadian bloggers
Canadian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Canadian expatriates in the United States
Canadian male novelists
Canadian male short story writers
Canadian men podcasters
Canadian podcasters
Canadian science fiction writers
Canadian social commentators
Canadian technology writers
Copyright activists
Creative Commons-licensed authors
Cyberpunk writers
Inkpot Award winners
Internet activists
Jewish Canadian writers
John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer winners
Journalists from Toronto
Living people
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Science fiction fans
University of Southern California faculty
Wired (magazine) people
Writers from Toronto | [
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|
220478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliners%20%28magazine%29 | Airliners (magazine) | Airliners was an American magazine dedicated to the airline industry. Six issues were circulated each year. The title was first published by World Transport Press in 1988. Since the 100th issue (July/August 2006) it was produced by Airliners Publications, LLC. For a time, the editorial headquarters of the magazine was in Castro Valley, California, although it later was based in Miami.
The magazine included articles about the world of commercial aircraft and air carriers, including new low cost airlines, changes at legacy companies, jetliners such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787, trips around the world, historical airlines, adventurous flights, airliner crashes and pictures of airliner liveries.
Featured authors included John Adlard, Sebastian Schmitz, Dave Nichols, Ben Wang, Bill Hough, Joel Chusid, Royal King, Robbie Shaw, and Cody Diamond. Photographers contributed images of airlines, aircraft, personnel, facilities and operations.
The magazine's first editor was John Wegg, who left Airliners to found Airways Magazine in 1994. Subsequent editors were Bryant Pettit, Nick Veronico, Jon Proctor, David Kaufman and Jay Selman. Starting with the November/December 2007 issue, the editor was Dwayne Darnell. On December 11, 2009, Darnell announced that he was leaving, and that designer/Creative Director Robert Christensen would lead the magazine.
In 2010, Robert Christensen announced plans for a series of online initiatives, releasing e-book formats of the print magazine and establishing a social media presence. The magazine was re-titled "Airliners & Airports. Popular components of past issues such as the Air Photo News section were being returned to the magazine's pages, but around the end of 2012 the magazine abruptly ceased publishing and the website is no longer active.
References
External links
Website
1988 establishments in California
2012 disestablishments in Florida
Aviation magazines
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Business magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1988
Magazines disestablished in 2012
Magazines published in California
Magazines published in Florida
Mass media in Miami | [
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220479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash%2C%20Nova%20Scotia | Pugwash, Nova Scotia | Pugwash is an incorporated village in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada, located on the Northumberland Strait at the mouth of the Pugwash River. It had a population of 736 as of the 2016 census. The name Pugwash is derived from the Mi'kmaq word, Pakwesk (also written as Pagwĕsk) meaning "a shoal", in reference to a reef near the mouth of the harbour.
The village is home to fishing, salt mining, and small-scale manufacturing, and tourism. Pugwash sits atop a salt deposit measuring thick and is home to the largest underground salt mine in Atlantic Canada, with shipments from its port, as well as by rail from a facility at Oxford Junction.
History
The end of glaciation began 13,500 years ago and ended with the region becoming largely ice-free 11,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of Palaeo-Indian settlement in the region follows rapidly after deglaciation.
The Pugwash area is part of the Mi’kma’ki territory of the Mi’kmaq, who have inhabited their traditional lands these 13,500 years. Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, Mi’kmaw lived in and around what is now the Northumberland Shore, including Pugwash. West Pugwash is shown as "Indian land" on early post-settlement maps of the area. There are many Mi’kmaq who live in the area today.
The Chignecto peninsula was settled by Acadians from the 1660s onward, this period ended with the with Expulsion and th Bay of Fundy Campaign during the French and Indian War. Wallace and near-by Tatamagouche were the first villages in Acadia to be burned because they were important port through which Acadians supplied the French Fortress Louisbourg.
British colonial settlement began with the arrival of the United Empire Loyalists, coming to Chignecto in 1790, and then with the Seaman family, formerly of New York State, moving to farm the mouth of River Phillip in 1795, and ultimately purchasing what became the Pugwash town site from the Mi'kmaw in 1802.
Pugwash is also home of many descendants of Highland Scots who immigrated to the region in the 19th century. All street signs in the town are bilingual, with both English and Gaelic translations. The village celebrates its Scottish heritage each July 1, with the annual Gathering of the Clans and Fisherman's Regatta. The Pugwash area, and indeed the entire north shore of Nova Scotia, is famed for its warm waters and sandy beaches. Some claim the waters in summer here are the warmest waters north of the Carolinas in the United States.
The Crowley Memorial was erected in 1870 at Pugwash, Nova Scotia by the Legislature of Nova Scotia in honour of Mary E. Crowley, who died October 1869, aged 12 years after rescuing her younger brother and sister from a house fire. This is believed to be the first public monument ever erected to a woman in Canada.
In 1898 a fire destroyed the entire town leaving 1200 people homeless, with the New York Times reporting 200 dwellings, 5 churches, 20 stores, 3 hotels, and several mills" were destroyed, and that the "town was little insured."
Pugwash is famous for being the site of an international conference of scholars organized by Bertrand Russell in 1957, and hosted by Pugwash's native son, steel magnate Cyrus Eaton (1883–1979), at the lodge on property owned by the Pugwash Park Commission located at the north end of Water Street in the village. This conference brought high-level scientists from both sides of the Cold War divide to state their opposition to nuclear weapons. This meeting was a follow-up to an earlier statement of notables whose signatories had included Albert Einstein and Linus Pauling, the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. The name Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs has since been used to refer to the group.
A myth about the village is that the children's cartoon character Captain Pugwash was named after the international organization that takes its name from the town, but the character, a pirate, in fact first appeared in 1950, several years before the planning of the first Pugwash conference took place.
Today
Visitors entering Pugwash were once greeted by roadside signs announcing that they were entering the "Home of the Thinkers," but the signs have since been replaced by a newer slogan "World Famous for Peace". The switch was made in response to the 1995 awarding of the Nobel Prize to the International Pugwash conferences "for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and in the longer run to eliminate such arms".
The village has an elementary school, named after Cyrus Eaton, as well as a regional high school that draws students from around rural Cumberland County. Pugwash has a farmers market that runs on Saturdays during the summer months.
The Pugwash railway station is now a library. The building was designed by Sir Sandford Fleming and completed in 1892, is a registered historic site under the Heritage Property Act of Nova Scotia.
The village was hit by a tornado in 1999, a rarity in Nova Scotia.
Economy
Pugwash sits on the dividing line between two fishing areas making it the only place on the Northumberland Strait to have two fishing seasons. The first one takes place in May and June and the second in mid-August and mid-October. Many boats fish out of the Pugwash harbour, carrying up to 300 lobster traps at a time.
The Village is home of the Canadian Salt Company Mine the only salt mine and only underground mine in Nova Scotia. This mine has been open since 1959. The majority of the mine runs under the Pugwash River, some under solid ground, but none under the village. The plant produces industrial grades salt, salt blocks for farm use and refined salt for domestic consumption. The mine produces approximately 1,200,000 tones of salt per year. The salt is distributed by road or from the company owned ship-loading facility for which large ships can be seen in the harbour from early spring to late autumn.
The creation of pewter crafts and souvenirs is another important industry in Pugwash.
Government
The Village of Pugwash is governed by a Commission composed of a five Commissioners elected at-large, who elect a Chair and Vice Chair from their numbers The Chair of the Commission is Roger Mundle. Day-to-day activities are managed by a Village Clerk who is accountable to Commission. Terms overlap and elections are held every year for one or two seats. The village's operating budget was $$327,015 in fiscal 2021.
Pugwash is also a part of the Municipality of Cumberland. Municipal Council is responsible for all facets of the municipal government, including directly delivered and shared or regional services. Directly delivered services include services such fire, public works, roads, as well as the municipally owned and operated electrical and water utilities. The municipality participates in shared services, such as library services and policing. The municipal operating budget was $7.6 million in the 2019/20 fiscal year.
The provincial legislation that creates and empowers the a village and a municipal council is the Nova Scotia Municipal Government Act.
Pugwash is represented by Elizabeth Smith-McCrossin in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly and Lenore Zann in Canada's House of Commons.
Climate
Pugwash has a humid continental climate (Dfb) characterized by warm summers with cool nights and long, cold, and snowy winters.
Notable people
Charles Aubrey Eaton (1868–1953), clergyman and politician who served in the United States House of Representatives, representing the from 1925 to 1933, and the from 1933 to 1953.
Cyrus S. Eaton
Norman MacKenzie
James Dewar
Parks
Gulf Shore Provincial Park
Heather Beach Provincial Park
References
External links
The Village Of Pugwash Website
Russell-Einstein Manifesto
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
General Service Areas in Nova Scotia
Communities in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia
Villages in Nova Scotia
Mining communities in Nova Scotia
Designated places in Nova Scotia | [
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|
220481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20grunge%20albums | List of grunge albums | This article is a list of grunge albums and EPs with articles on English Wikipedia. They appear on at least one cited album list and are described as "grunge" by AllMusic (). Although citations could be found describing each of these as "grunge", in some cases the designation would be controversial, particularly for those bands that are considered Post-grunge.
In addition, several artists not typically associated with grunge music have released albums displaying a grunge sound, including Manic Street Preachers with Gold Against the Soul (1993), and R.E.M. with Monster (1994).
List of albums
References
Grunge | [
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]
|
220483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodospirillales | Rhodospirillales | The Rhodospirillales are an order of Proteobacteria.
Notable Families
The Acetobacteraceae comprise the acetic acid bacteria, which are heterotrophic and produce acetic acid during their respiration.
The Rhodospirillaceae include mainly purple nonsulfur bacteria, which produce energy through photosynthesis.
Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). The phylogeny is based on whole-genome analysis.
Notes
References
Bacteria orders | [
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|
220501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedsnipe | Seedsnipe | The seedsnipes are a small family, Thinocoridae, of small gregarious waders which have adapted to a herbivorous diet. The family is divided into two genera, Attagis and Thinocorus, each containing two species. The family has a South American distribution, in the Andean and Patagonian regions. The relationships with other families within the order Charadriiformes are uncertain, it has been suggested that the plains wanderer of Australia, the jacanas and the painted snipes are their closest relatives. The plains wanderer in particular has a similar feeding ecology, although differs markedly in breeding biology. The family's common name is misleading, as they do not resemble true snipe, having short bills on small heads, and seeds do not form a major part of the diet. One species Thinocorus rumicivorus is however known to feed on the fleshy flower petal appendages of Calceolaria uniflora, a species of Scrophularaceae. In the process of feeding on these sugar rich appendages, they also pollinate the flowers.
They resemble grouse, quail and sandgrouse, only with long wings. The seedsnipes in the genus Thinocorus are smaller, ranging in size from a sparrow to a snipe, whereas the genus Attagis are larger, the size of a ptarmigan. They have short legs (but long toes) and tails. The colour of their plumage is generally cryptic. There is some sexual dimorphism in the plumage of the Thinocorus species, the males have grey faces, necks and breasts.
Seedsnipes inhabit a variety of harsh environments, including grasslands, grass steppes, semi-arid deserts and alpine habitats. The rufous-bellied seedsnipe ranges as far up as to the snowline (5500 m).
Their 2–3 eggs are laid in a shallow scrape on the ground.
Species
References
External links
Seedsnipe videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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220509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical%20device | Rhetorical device | In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, using language designed to encourage or provoke an emotional display of a given perspective or action. Rhetorical devices evoke an emotional response in the audience through use of language, but that is not their primary purpose. Rather, by doing so, they seek to make a position or argument more compelling than it would otherwise be.
Modes of persuasion
Originating from Aristotle's Rhetoric, the four modes of persuasion in an argument are as follows:
Logos is an appeal to logic using intellectual reasoning and argument structure such as giving claims, sound reasons for them, and supporting evidence.
Pathos is an appeal to the audience's emotions, often based on claims they hold. By influencing their feelings, the audience can be pushed to take an action, believe an argument, or respond in a certain way.
Ethos is an appeal based on the good character of the author. It involves persuading the audience that the author is credible and well-qualified, or possesses other desirable qualities that mean the author's arguments carry weight.
Kairos is an appeal to timing, such as whether the argument occurs at the right time and in the ideal surrounding context to be accepted. It has been argued to be the most important since no matter how logical, emotionally powerful and credible the argument, if the argument is made in an unsuitable context or environment, the audience will not be receptive to it.
Rhetorical devices can be used to facilitate and enhance the effectiveness of the use of rhetoric in any of the four above modes of persuasion. Rather than certain rhetorical devices falling under certain modes of persuasion, rhetorical devices are techniques authors, writers or speakers use to execute rhetorical appeals. Thus, they overlap with figures of speech, differing in that they are used specifically for persuasive purposes, and may involve how authors introduce and arrange arguments (see the section on discourse level devices) in addition to creative use of language.
Sonic devices
Sonic devices depend on sound. Sonic rhetoric is used as a clearer or swifter way of communicating content in an understandable way. Sonic rhetoric delivers messages to the reader or listener by prompting a certain reaction through auditory perception.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of the sound of an initial consonant or consonant cluster in subsequent syllables. It is one of the most well-known and effective rhetorical devices throughout literature and persuasive speeches.
From forth the fatal loins of these two foes,
A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life. (R&J Prologue)
Small showers last long but sudden storms are short. (R2 2.1)
Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds across neighbouring words.
So keen and greedy to confound a man. (MoV 3.2)
Blow wind, swell billow and swim bark! (Julius Caesar 5.1)
Consonance
Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds across words which have been deliberately chosen. It is different from alliteration as it can happen at any place in the word, not just the beginning.
In the following example, the k sound is repeated five times.
...with streaks of light,
And flecked darkness like a drunkard reels... (R&J 2.3)
Cacophony
Cacophony refers to the use of unpleasant sounds, such as the explosive consonants k, g, t, d, p and b, the hissing sounds sh and s, and also the affricates ch and j, in rapid succession in a line or passage, creating a harsh and discordant effect.
Hear the loud alarum bells–
Brazen bells! What tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells!
In the startled ear of night
How they scream out their affright!
Too much horrified to speak,
They can only shriek, shriek... (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Bells")
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that attempt to emulate a sound. When used colloquially, it is often accompanied by multiple exclamation marks and in all caps. It is common in comic strips and some cartoons.
Some examples include these: smek, thwap, kaboom, ding-dong, plop, bang and pew.
Word repetition
Word repetition rhetorical devices operate via repeating words or phrases in various ways, usually for emphasis.
Anadiplosis/Conduplicatio
Anadiplosis involves repeating the last word(s) of one sentence, phrase or clause at or near the beginning of the next.
To die, to sleep;
To sleep, perchance to dream... (Hamlet 3.1)
Who alone suffers, suffers most in the mind... (Lear 3.6)
It is the stars,
The stars above us govern our conditions. (Lear 4.3)
Conduplicatio is similar, involving repeating a key word in subsequent clauses.
Thou quiet soul, sleep thou a quiet sleep! (R3 5.3)
Anaphora/Epistrophe/Symploce/Epanalepsis
Anaphora is repeating the same word(s) at the beginning of successive sentences, phrases or clauses.
There's no trust,
No faith, no honesty in men; all perjured,
All forsworn, all naught, all dissemblers. (R&J 3.2)
With mine own tears I wash away my balm,
With mine own hands I give away my crown,
With mine own tongue deny my sacred state,
With mine own breath release all duty's rites. (R2 4.1)
Epistrophe is repeating the same word(s) at the end instead.
If you had known the virtue of the ring,
Or half her worthiness that gave the ring,
Or your own honour to contain the ring,
You would not then have parted with the ring. (MoV 5.1)
Symploce is a simultaneous combination of both anaphora and epistrophe, but repeating different words at the start and end.
That Angelo's forsworn; is it not strange?
That Angelo's a murderer; is't not strange?
That Angelo is an adulterous thief,
An hypocrite, a virgin-violator;
Is it not strange and strange? (Measure 5.1)
ALFRED DOOLITTLE: I'll tell you, Governor, if you'll only let me get a word in. I'm willing to tell you. I'm wanting to tell you. I'm waiting to tell you.
HENRY HIGGINS: Pickering, this chap has a certain natural gift of rhetoric. Observe the rhythm of his native woodnotes wild. 'I'm willing to tell you. I'm wanting to tell you. I'm waiting to tell you.' Sentimental rhetoric! That's the Welsh strain in him. It also accounts for his mendacity and dishonesty. (George Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion)
Epanalepsis repeats the same word(s) at the beginning and end.
Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more! (H5 3.1)
Nothing will come of nothing. (Lear 1.1)
Epizeuxis/Antanaclasis
Epizeuxis is simply repetition of the same word without interruption.
Words, words, words. (Hamlet 2.2)
O horror! Horror! Horror! (Macbeth 2.3)
Antanaclasis is more witty, repeating the same word but in a different sense. This can take advantage of polysemy.
Put out the light, and then put out the light. (Othello 5.2; first referring to extinguishing the candle, then referring to killing Desdemona.)
VIOLA: Dost thou live by thy labour?
CLOWN: No, sir, I live by the church. (12N 3.1)
Gaunt am I for the grave, gaunt as a grave. (R2 2.1; John of Gaunt plays on his name.)
Since you are dear bought, I will love you dear. (MoV 3.2; the first 'dear' has the meaning of 'at great cost')
Dreaming of you won't help me to do
All that you dreamed I could! (Andrew Lloyd Webber, Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again)
We must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. (Benjamin Franklin)
Diacope
Diacope is the repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or clause. It can also be thought of as a reshaped epanalepsis.
A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse! (R3 5.4)
Good queen, my lord, good queen, I say good queen. (Winter's Tale 2.3)
Farewell, my dearest sister, fare thee well:
The elements be kind to thee, and make
Thy spirits all of comfort! fare thee well. (A&C 3.2)
Word relation
Word relation rhetorical devices operate via deliberate connections between words within a sentence.
Antithesis/Antimetabole/Chiasmus
Antithesis involves putting together two opposite ideas in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Contrast is emphasised by parallel but similar structures of the opposing phrases or clauses to draw the listeners' or readers' attention. Compared to chiasmus, the ideas must be opposites.
Scarce any joy
Did ever so long live; no sorrow
But killed itself much sooner. (Winter's Tale 5.3)
Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall. (Measure 2.1)
The evil that men do lives after them,
The good is oft interred with their bones. (Julius Caesar 3.2)
QUEEN: Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue.
HAMLET: Go, go, you question with a wicked tongue. (Hamlet 3.1)
Antimetabole involves repeating but reversing the order of words, phrases or clauses. The exact same words are repeated, as opposed to antithesis or chiasmus.
Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. (John F Kennedy Inaugural Address)
Suit the action to the word, the word to the action. (Hamlet 3.2)
The setting sun, and music at the close,
As the last taste of sweets, is sweetest last. (R2 2.1)
Cease to lament for that thou canst not help,
And study help for that which thou lament'st. (TGV 3.1)
Chiasmus involves parallel clause structure but in reverse order for the second part. This means that words or elements are repeated in the reverse order. The ideas thus contrasted are often related but not necessarily opposite.
But O, what damned minutes tells he o'er
Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves! (Othello 3.3)
Asyndeton/Polysyndeton
Asyndeton is the removal of conjunctions like "or," "and," or "but" where it might have been expected because the sentence flows better, or more poetically, without them.
I might in virtue, beauties, livings, friends, exceed account... (MoV 3.2)
Accursed, unhappy, wretched, hateful day! (R&J 4.4)
Beguiled, divorced, wronged, spirited, slain! (R&J 4.5)
Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
Shrunk to this little measure? (Julius Caesar 3.1)
Polysyndeton is the use of more conjunctions than strictly needed. This device is often combined with anaphora.
We'll live,
And pray, and sing, and tell old tales, and laugh
At gilded butterflies, and hear poor rogues
Talk of court news... (Lear 5.3)
Auxesis/Catacosmesis
Auxesis is arranging words in a list from least to most significant. This can create climax.
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea,
But sad mortality o'er-sways their power... (Sonnet 65)
Today, today, unhappy day too late,
O'erthrows thy joys, friends, fortune, and thy state (R2 3.2)
Catacosmesis, the opposite, involves arranging them from most to least significant.
Nor brass, nor stone, nor parchment bears not one. (Winter's Tale 1.2)
Be certain what you do, sir, lest your justice
Prove violence, in the which three great ones suffer,
Yourself, your queen, your son. (Winter's Tale 2.1)
This can create anticlimax for humour or other purposes.
He has seen the ravages of war, he has known natural catastrophes, he has been to singles bars. (Woody Allen)
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a 2-word paradox often achieved through the deliberate use of antonyms. This creates an internal contradiction that can have rhetorical effect.
His humble ambition, proud humility;
His jarring concord, and his discord dulcet;
His faith, his sweet disaster. (All's Well 1.1)
I could weep
And I could laugh, I am light and heavy. (Coriolanus 2.1)
Zeugma/Syllepsis
Zeugma involves the linking of two or more words or phrases that occupy the same position in a sentence to another word or phrase in the same sentence. This can take advantage of the latter word having multiple meanings depending on context to create a clever use of language that can make the sentence and the claim thus advanced more eloquent and persuasive.
In the following examples, 2 nouns (as direct objects) are linked to the same verb which must then be interpreted in 2 different ways.
He caught the train and a bad cold.
This shirt attracts everything but men.
I held my breath and the door for you.
Dumbledore was striding serenely across the room wearing long midnight-blue robes and a perfectly calm expression. (J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix)
Zeugma is sometimes defined broadly to include other ways in which one word in a sentence can relate to two or more others. Even simple constructions like multiple subjects linked to the same verb are then "zeugma without complication".
Fred excelled at sports; Harvey at eating; Tom with girls.
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. (Julius Caesar 3.2)
Discourse level
Discourse level rhetorical devices rely on relations between phrases, clauses and sentences. Often they relate to how new arguments are introduced into the text or how previous arguments are emphasized. Examples include antanagoge, apophasis, aporia, hypophora, metanoia and procatalepsis.
Amplification/Pleonasm
Amplification involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail, to emphasise what might otherwise be passed over. This allows one to call attention to and expand a point to ensure the reader realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion.
But this revolting boy, of course,
Was so unutterably vile,
So greedy, foul, and infantile
He left a most disgusting taste
Inside our mouths... (Roald Dahl, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory)
Pleonasm involves using more words than necessary to describe an idea. This creates emphasis and can introduce additional elements of meaning.
I heard it with my own ears.
I should have found in some place of my soul
A drop of patience. (Othello 4.2)
Swerve not from the smallest article of it, neither in time, matter or other circumstance. (Measure 4.2)
Antanagoge
Antanagoge involves 'placing a good point or benefit next to a fault criticism, or problem in order to reduce the impact or significance of the negative point'.
Within the infant rind of this weak flower
Poison hath residence, and medicine power. (R&J 2.3)
One scenario involves a situation when one is unable to respond to a negative point and chooses instead to introduce another point to reduce the accusation's significance.
We may be managing the situation poorly, but so did you at first.
Antanagoge can also be used to positively interpret a negative situation:
When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.
Apophasis
Apophasis is the tactic of bringing up a subject by denying that it should be brought up. It is also known as paralipsis, occupatio, praeteritio, preterition, or parasiopesis.
There's something tells me, but it is not love,
I would not lose you; and you know yourself,
Hate counsels not in such a quality. (MoV 3.2)
This device has a number of effects that make it quite useful in politics. Donald Trump, for instance, has been noted to frequently use apophasis when attacking his political opponents.
Aporia
Aporia is the rhetorical expression of doubt. The most famous example of this is undoubtedly Hamlet's soliloquy, which begins:
To be or not to be, that is the question. (Hamlet 3.1)
Another example is in Antony's famous speech at Caesar's funeral, which includes examples such as:
Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. (Julius Caesar 3.2)
When the rhetorical question posed is answered, this is also an instance of hypophora.
Diasyrmus
Rejecting an argument through ridiculous comparison.
Derision
This involves setting up an opposing position to ridicule without offering a counterargument, such as:
You believe we should vote for him? I've got a bridge to sell you.
No reason for why one should not vote for him is given. It is merely implied that it would be gullible to do so.
Enthymeme
Syllogism which omits either one of the premises or the conclusion. The omitted part must be clearly understood by the reader. Sometimes this depends on contextual knowledge.
Mark'd ye his words? He would not take the crown; Therefore 'tis certain he was not ambitious. (Julius Caesar 3.2; the premise implied is that no ambitious person would refuse the crown)
They say it takes hundreds of years to build a nation.
Welcome to Singapore. (Singapore Tourism Board campaign; to arrive at the omitted conclusion that Singapore is exceptional, the visitor must know that Singapore has but a short history of 50-odd years as an independent nation)
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. This can be for literary effect:
The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars,
As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven
Would through the airy region stream so bright
That birds would sing and think it were not night (R&J 2.2)
His face was as the heavens...
His legs bestrid the ocean: his rear'd arm
Crested the world... realms and islands were
As plates dropp'd from his pocket. (A&C 5.2)
Or for argumentative effect:
Her election to Parliament would be the worst thing to ever happen to this country!
Hypophora
The use of hypophora is the technique whereby one asks a question and then proceeds to answer the question. This device is one of the most useful strategies in writing essays to inform or persuade a reader.
Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honour hath no skill in surgery, then? No. What is honour? A word. What is in that word honour? What is that honour? Air. A trim reckoning! Who hath it? He that died a' Wednesday. Doth he feel it? No. Doth he hear it? No. 'Tis insensible, then? Yea, to the dead. But will it not live with the living? No. Why? Detraction will not suffer it. (1H4 5.1)
Innuendo
This device indirectly implies an accusation without explicitly stating it. This can be combined with apophasis.
I know you aren't an alcoholic, but I did notice you've replaced all the bottles in your liquor cabinet.
Metanoia
Metanoia qualifies a statement or by recalling or rejecting it in part or full, and then re-expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way. A negative is often used to do the recalling.
All faults that may be named, nay, that hell knows... (Cymbeline 2.4)
He was the best of men - no, of all humanity.
Procatalepsis
By anticipating and answering a possible objection, procatalepsis allows an argument to continue while rebutting points opposing it. It is a relative of hypophora. Procatalepsis shows that concerns have been thought through.
'All right!' you'll cry. 'All right!' you'll say,
But if we take the set away,What shall we do to entertainOur darling children? Please explain!
We'll answer this by asking you,
What used the darling ones to do?How used they keep themselves contentedBefore this monster was invented? (Roald Dahl, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory)
Understatement
Understatement, or meiosis, involves deliberately understating the importance, significance or magnitude of a subject. This means the force of the description is less than what is expected, thus highlighting the irony or extreme nature of an event.
The war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage. (The Hirohito surrender broadcast)
BENVOLIO: What, art thou hurt?
MERCUTIO: Ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch. (R&J 3.1; Mercutio dies of his wounds shortly after.)
The captain's announcement onboard British Airways Flight 9 has been described as 'a masterpiece of understatement':
Ladies and gentlemen, this is your captain speaking. We have a small problem. All four engines have stopped. We are doing our damnedest to get them going again. I trust you are not in too much distress.
A subtype of understatement is litotes, which uses negation:
Heatwaves are not rare in the summer.
Irony and imagery
Irony
Irony is the figure of speech where the words of a speaker intends to express a meaning that is directly opposite of the said words.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest -
For Brutus is an honourable man;
So are they all, all honourable men -
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man. (Julius Caesar 3.2; Antony attacks Brutus's character and that of his co-conspirators)
Metaphor
Metaphor connects two different things to one another. It is frequently invoked by the to be verb. The use of metaphor in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning by linking it to an already familiar idea or meaning. The literary critic and rhetorician, I. A. Richards, divides a metaphor into two parts: the vehicle and the tenor.
In the following example, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun (the vehicle), and this metaphor connecting Juliet to the sun shows that Romeo sees Juliet as being radiant and regards her as an essential being (the tenor).
But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?
It is the East, and Juliet is the sun. (R&J 2.2)
Personification
Personification is the representation of animals, inanimate objects and ideas as having human attributes.
In the following example Romeo personifies love as being blind yet able to enamour someone.
Alas that love, whose view is muffled still,
Should without eyes see pathways to his will! (R&J 1.1)
In another example:
The gray-eyed morn smiles on the frowning night (R&J 2.3)
Simile
Simile compares two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. It uses the as... as construction as compared to metaphor which is direct equivalence.
In the following example, the nurse compares Romeo's manners and behaviour to a lamb.
I'll warrant him, as gentle as a lamb. (R&J 2.5)
Another example can be seen in a conversation between Emilia and Othello.
OTHELLO: She was false as water.
EMILIA: Thou art rash as fire,
To say that she was false. Oh, she was
heavenly true! (Othello, 5.2)
Metonymy
Metonymy is a figure of speech where a thing or concept is referred to indirectly by the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant.
Examples:
- "crown" to denote king or queen.
- Oval Office or Washington to refer to the President of the United States of America.
Synecdoche
A synecdoche is a class of metonymy, often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole or conversely the whole for one of its parts. Examples from common English expressions include "suits" (for "businessmen"), "boots" (for "soldiers") (pars pro toto), and "America" (for "the United States of America", totum pro parte).
See also
Figure of speech
Glossary of rhetorical terms
Rhetorical modes
Stylistic device
Translation (rhetorical device)
References
External links
Handbook of rhetorical devices
List of Fallacious Arguments
Online Resource of Rhetorical Devices
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|
220512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheathbill | Sheathbill | The sheathbills are a family of birds, Chionidae. Classified in the wader order Charadriiformes, the family consists of one genus, Chionis with two species. They breed on subantarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula, and the snowy sheathbill migrates to the Falkland Islands and coastal southern South America in the southern winter; they are the only bird family endemic as breeders to the Antarctic region. They are also the only Antarctic birds without webbed feet.
Description
They have white plumage including a thick layer of down, with only the face and leg colours distinguishing the two species. They look plump and dove-like, but are believed to be similar to the ancestors of the modern gulls and terns. There is a rudimentary spur on the "wrist" (carpal) joint, as in plovers. The skin around the eye is bare, as is the skin above the bill, which has carbuncular swellings. They derive their English name from the horny sheath which partially covers the upper mandible of their stout bills. They are commonly known in the Antarctic as "Mutts" because of their call which is a soft "Mutt, mutt, mutt"
Behaviour
Sheathbills habitually walk on the ground, somewhat like rails. They fly only when alarmed or in migration, looking like pigeons.
Food and feeding
The sheathbills are scavengers and opportunistic feeders, consuming invertebrates, faeces, and carrion—including seal afterbirths and stillborn seal pups—between the tidelines. They also take many chicks and eggs from penguins and cormorants.
The bird has also been observed to directly pilfer milk from the elephant seals’ teats.
Breeding
During the penguin breeding season, which is also the sheathbill breeding season, pairs of sheathbills in penguin colonies maintain territories covering a number of penguin nests. Two mated sheathbills often work together to harass adult penguins, nimbly avoiding their attempts to peck; they gain access to the eggs or chicks or steal the krill that the adult penguins regurgitate to feed their chicks. Near the few human settlements of the region, they boldly forage for offal. Because of this diet, they spend a good deal of time cleaning themselves.
They lay 2 or 3 blotchy white eggs in crevices or rock cavities. The nests are lined messily with seaweed, stones, feathers, guano, bones, and occasionally plastic trash; even dead chicks may not be removed. Incubation lasts 28 to 32 days, and the young fledge 50 to 60 days later.
Taxonomy
Genetic studies of the order Charadriiformes show the sheathbills to be a sister group of the thick-knees of the family Burhinidae. These two groups together are a sister group to Recurvostridae-Haematopodidae and Charadriidae. Recent research on the Magellanic plover (Pluvianellus socialis) of southern South America has indicated it too may be classified within the sheathbill family.
The two species are the snowy sheathbill (Chionis albus) and the black-faced sheathbill (C. minor).
References
External links
Sheathbill videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Sheathbill sounds on xeno-canto.org | [
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|
220517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuad%20II%20of%20Egypt | Fuad II of Egypt | Fuad II (, full name: Ahmed Fuad II; born 16 January 1952 as Prince Ahmad Fuad) is a member of the Egyptian Muhammad Ali dynasty. He formally reigned as the last King of Egypt and the Sudan from July 1952 to June 1953, when he was deposed.
Life and family
Fuad II was born on 16 January 1952 and ascended the throne on 26 July 1952 upon the abdication of his father, King Farouk, following the Egyptian revolution in 1952. Farouk had hoped that his abdication would appease the revolutionaries and other anti-royalist forces and that his son could serve as a unifying force for the country.
Fuad II had three half-sisters: Princess Ferial, Princess Fawzia and Princess Fadia of Egypt.
Fuad II was less than a year old at the time of his accession to the throne, and his reign would prove to be short; thus, he was never formally crowned. Upon Farouk's abdication, the now former king was exiled, and the new king Fuad II left Egypt with him and his family. The Council of Regency headed by Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim (husband of Fatma Neslişah, granddaughter of the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI) formally represented Fuad II in Egypt during his absence.
However, the infant king reigned for less than a year until 18 June 1953, when Egypt was declared a republic. Fuad II was the 11th and last monarch of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, which had ruled Egypt (and later Sudan) since 1805. His name is sometimes spelled Fouad.
After being deposed, Fuad II was brought to Switzerland, where he was raised. He later moved to Paris, where he married and had three children before returning to the Lake Geneva area of Switzerland after his divorce.
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat later restored Fuad II's Egyptian citizenship, and he was thus able to visit Egypt multiple times. In May 2010, he recorded a television interview with ONTV and talked about his visits to Egypt, how he felt about the Egyptian people, and their view of his late father.
Fuad II supported the candidacy of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as President of Egypt in October 2013.
Marriage and issue
On 16 April 1976 in Paris, in a civil ceremony, he married Dominique-France Loeb-Picard (née Loeb, born 23 November 1948), the daughter of David-Robert Loeb and his wife, Paule-Madeleine Picard. She converted from Judaism to Islam. They married religiously on 5 October 1977 in Monaco and assumed the title of Queen Fadila of Egypt. The couple had three children before they divorced in 1996.
Their children are:
Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id (born 5 February 1979); married Princess Noal Zaher Shah of Afghanistan, daughter of Prince Muhammed Daoud Pashtunyar Khan, on 30 August 2013. They have two children, a set of twins.
Princess Fawzia-Latifa (born 12 February 1982); married Sylvain Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Renaudeau, on 19 January 2019. They have a son and a daughter.
Prince Fakhruddin (born 25 August 1987).
Ancestry
Patrilineal descent
Ibrahim Agha
Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 1769-1849
Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, 1789–1848
Isma'il Pasha, 1830–1895
Fuad I of Egypt, 1868–1936
Farouk of Egypt, 1920–1965
Fuad II of Egypt, b. 1952
See also
Egyptian Revolution of 1952
List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty
List of shortest-reigning monarchs
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Egyptian Royalty by Ahmed S. Kamel, Hassan Kamel Kelisli-Morali, Georges Soliman and Magda Malek
L'Egypte D'Antan... Egypt in Bygone Days by Max Karkegi
1952 births
Living people
Egyptian Muslims
20th-century Egyptian monarchs
Egyptian emigrants to France
Egyptian emigrants to Switzerland
Farouk of Egypt
Heirs to the Egyptian throne
Kings of Egypt
Kings of Sudan
Modern child rulers
Muhammad Ali dynasty
People from Cairo
Rulers deposed as children | [
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|
220521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamonds%20%281975%20film%29 | Diamonds (1975 film) | Diamonds is a 1975 Israeli-American heist film. Robert Shaw stars in a dual role as twin brothers. Richard Roundtree, Barbara Hershey and Shelley Winters are co-stars. The film was also released as Diamond Shaft, although it has no relation to the Shaft films other than having Roundtree in the cast.
Plot
Charles Hodgson is a British aristocrat who decides to become a thief as a way of getting at his twin brother, Earl, a security expert who has built a supposedly impregnable vault in Tel Aviv, which holds a cache of diamonds. For the caper, Charles enlists Archie, a heist expert, and Sally. He also becomes acquainted with an American woman, Zelda Shapiro, who is in Israel looking for a new husband.
Cast
Robert Shaw as Charles Hodgson / Earl Hodgson
Richard Roundtree as Archie
Barbara Hershey as Sally (credited as Barbara Seagull)
Shelley Winters as Zelda Shapiro
Shaike Ophir as Moshe
Yosef Shiloach as Mustafa
Gadi Yagil as Gaby
Yehuda Efroni as Salzburg
See also
List of American films of 1975
External links
1975 films
1975 crime drama films
1970s heist films
Israeli films
American films
English-language films
English-language Israeli films
Films directed by Menahem Golan
Films scored by Roy Budd
Embassy Pictures films
Films produced by Menahem Golan
Films set in Israel
Films about twin brothers
Films with screenplays by Menahem Golan
Films produced by Yoram Globus | [
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220523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spades%20%28card%20game%29 | Spades (card game) | Spades is a trick-taking card game devised in the United States in the 1930s. It can be played as either a partnership or solo/"cutthroat" game. The object is to take the number of tricks (also known as "books") that were bid before play of the hand began. Spades is a descendant of the Whist family of card games, which also includes Bridge, Hearts, and Oh Hell. Its major difference as compared to other Whist variants is that, instead of trump being decided by the highest bidder or at random, the Spade suit always trumps, hence the name.
History
Spades was devised in the United States in the late 1930s. It is unclear which game it is most directly descended from, but it is known that Spades is a member of the Whist family and is a simplification of Contract Bridge such that a skilled Spades player can learn Bridge relatively quickly (the major additional rules being dynamic trump, the auction, dummy play, and rubber scoring).
The game's rise to popularity in the U.S. came during World War II, when it was spread by soldiers traveling around the globe. The game's popularity in the armed forces stems from its simplicity compared to Bridge and Euchre and the fact that it can be more easily interrupted than Poker, all of which were also popular military card games. After the war, veterans brought the game back home to the U.S., where due to the GI Bill it spread to and became popular among college students as well as in-home games. It also remained widely popular in countries in which U.S. troops were stationed, both in WWII and later deployments.
One account of the history of the game is that it was created by the Kirkwood family in McCool, Mississippi, in the 1930s. The popularity of the game expanded when Frank and Mavis Kirkwood relocated to Buffalo NY in search of work and opportunity, and family members that served in the military spread the game around the country. Members of the Kirkwood family were the winners of the 2012 Charlotte Spades Open Tournament, and the Western NY Tournament of Champions in 2017. Mavis Kirkwood is still alive at 91 and in 2020 was recognized by the Mayor of Buffalo NY for her and the Kirkwoods' contributions to communities across the country.
General overview
Number of players Two or more; the game is most commonly played with four players in pairs ("Partnership spades")
The deck Standard 52-card deck. Spades may also be played with one or two Jokers or with predetermined cards removed. With playing with six or more players, a second deck is often used.
Rank of suit Spades are always trump. Other suits have no intrinsic value during play, but a card of the suit led in the current trick will beat a card of any other suit except a Spade. If a tiebreaker is needed in a draw for deal, the most common suit order in Bridge from low to high is .
Rank of cards Highest to lowest: Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2.
Object of the game To score points (generally 500). Points are accrued by winning at least the number of tricks bid in each hand, and are lost by failing to take at least that many, or in some cases by taking too many.
Counter Bidding The first team that bids has an option to counter-bid their opponent.
Rules
The deal
The first dealer is chosen by a draw for "first spade" or "highest card", and thereafter the deal passes to the dealer's left after each hand. The dealer shuffles, and the player to the right is given the opportunity to "cut" the cards to prevent the dealer stacking the deck. The entire deck is then dealt face-down one card at a time in clockwise order (with four players, each player should receive 13 cards). The players then pick up their cards, verify the correct count of the cards, and arrange them as desired (the most common arrangement is by suit, then rank).
A misdeal is a deal in which all players have not received the same number of cards or a player has dealt out of turn. A misdeal may be discovered immediately by counting the cards after they are dealt, or it may be discovered during play of a hand. If a single card is misdealt and discovered before players in question have seen their cards the player that is short a card can pull a card at random from the player with an extra card. Otherwise a hand is misdealt, the hand is considered void and the hand must be redealt by the same dealer (unless the reason for the redeal is the hand was dealt out of turn).
Bidding
Each player bids the number of tricks they expect to take. The player to the left of the dealer starts the bidding, and bidding continues in a clockwise direction, ending with the dealer. As Spades are always trump, no trump suit is named during bidding as with some other variants. A bid of "zero" is called "nil"; players must bid at least one if they don't want to bid "nil" (see below).
In partnership Spades, the standard rule is that the bids by the two members of each partnership are added together.
Blind and nil bidding
Two very common variants of bidding are for a player or partnership to bid "blind", without having looked at their cards, or to bid "nil", stating that they will not take a single trick during play of the hand. These bids give the partnership a bonus if the players exactly meet their bid, but penalizes them if the players takes more or fewer. A combined bid of two "blind nil" is usually allowed and is worth both the blind and nil bonuses or penalties. In some variants, the player bidding nil passes one or two of their cards (depending on the variant rules) to their partner and receives an equal number of cards back from said partner. Nil passing may be allowed only in the case of a blind nil. Usually teams must be down by 100 points to bid blind nil.
Game play
Each hand consists of a number of tricks; a four-handed game consists of thirteen tricks using all fifty-two cards. The player on the dealer's left makes the opening lead by playing a single card of their choice. Players in clockwise fashion then play cards of their choice. They must follow suit if possible; otherwise they may play any card, including a trump spade. Once a card has left the hand of a player, it stands and cannot be retrieved unless the player who threw the card makes an effort to correct his mistake before the next player lays down a card.
A common variant rule, borrowed from Hearts, is that a player may not lead spades until a spade has been played to trump another trick. This prevents a player who is "long" in spades (having a large number of them) from leading spades one after the other at the beginning of the hand to deplete them and thus prevent other players using them as trumps. The act of playing the first spade in a hand is known as "breaking spades", derived from its parent rule, "breaking hearts". When a player leads with a spade after spades has been broken, the other players must follow suit.
Another common variant rule, also borrowed from Hearts, is that a player cannot lead spades in the first trick.
The trick is won or taken by the player who played the highest card of the led suit; if trumps were played, the highest trump card wins. The player who wins the trick gathers the cards up into a facedown arrangement that allows players to count the number of tricks taken. The contents of each trick can not be viewed after this point, except to determine whether a player reneged. The number of tricks a player has won cannot be disguised; if asked, each player must count out his tricks until everyone has agreed on the "trick count". The player who wins any given trick leads the next. Play continues until all players have exhausted their hands, which should occur on the same (last) trick. Otherwise, it is declared a misdeal.
Reneging
A partnership reneges on their contract if they violate the rules of play; most often this happens when a player plays offsuit when he could have—and therefore should have—followed suit. This may not be noticed until later in the game.
Common penalties for reneging are for the reneging player to automatically lose their bid, or for the reneger to have three tricks added to their bid as a penalty, meaning that the team may still make contract but must take three additional tricks to do so. It does not matter whether the player reneged on purpose.
Scoring
Once the final trick is played, the hand is then scored. Many variants for scoring exist; what follows is the basic method. All players must align tricks earned from time played consecutively to last hand
Contract score
Once a hand is completed, the players count the number of tricks they took and, in the case of partnerships or teams, the members' trick counts are summed to form a team count.
Each player's or team's trick count is then compared to their contract. If the player or team made at least the number of tricks bid, 10 points for each bid trick are awarded (a bid of 5 would earn 50 points if made). If a team did not make its contract, it was "set" and 10 points for each bid trick are deducted from the team's score (e.g.: six bid and any number less than six taken results in minus 60 points).
If a player/team took more tricks than they bid, a single point is scored for each overtrick, called an "overtrick", "bag" or "sandbag" (a bid of 5 tricks with 6 tricks taken results in a score of 51 points).
Bonuses or penalties
To this contract score, players add bonuses earned and subtract penalties assessed based on whether the player successfully did or failed to do any of the more specific things they said they would in the bidding phase. Many variants exist that award or penalize according to certain behaviors; they are covered below. For the basic Nil and blind bids, points are awarded as follows:
Though some variant bonuses or penalties are based on the contract score, normally a bonus or penalty does not affect and is not affected by any other bonus or penalty, or the contract score. As a result, a partnership can have a net positive score even if they failed to make their contract. For instance, if one player successfully made a Nil bid, but their partner bid 5 tricks and only took 4 tricks, the partnership still gets the bonus which is represented as −50 points + 100 points = 50 points. Conversely, a partnership can have a net negative score in much the same way; if a player failed a nil bid but the partnership bid and took 5 tricks, the net score is −50 points.
If a Nil bid is set, most tournament rules dictate that the overtricks make the nil invalid.
Sandbags and bagging out
A common scoring variant is designed to penalize players for underestimating the number of tricks they will take, while at the same time not removing the possible strategy of intentionally taking overtricks, or "bags", in order to "set" the other team. This is accomplished by keeping track of bags in the ones place on the scorecard, and assessing a 100-point penalty when 10 bags are accumulated and the ones place rolls over. In shorter variants of the game, where players play to 250 points (instead of the standard 500 points), sandbag penalties can be assessed earlier. In these variants, a 50-point penalty would be assessed when 5 bags are accumulated.
For example, if a team's bid is 5 tricks and they take 8 tricks, the score for the hand is 53 points. If the team's total score before this hand had a first digit of 7 or more, for instance 108, the team has "bagged out" or been "sandbagged"; the hand's score is added to the total and then 100 points are deducted. In the example, the score would be 61 points after the penalty. The 10 bags could be considered to make the penalty 90 points (the penalty can instead be 110 points to offset this, or the ones' place can simply not be carried when adding). Anything over 10 sandbags is retained in the first digit and count towards future overtricks; a player or team can bag out multiple times in a game. Sandbags do not count as points.
Keeping score
One of the players is the scorer and has written the bids down, so that during the play and for the scoring afterward, this information will be available to all the players. When a hand is over, the scores should be recorded next to the bids. Alternatively, the scorer can turn the bid into the contract score by writing in the number of bags (zero if there were none) behind the bid, and a minus sign before it if the team was set, then add bonuses and subtract penalties beneath. A running score should be kept so that players can readily see each other's total points.
Winning
The most common condition is the first to reach 500 points, or forcing the opposing team to drop to −200 points. Alternatively, the game could be played for a fixed number of hands or a fixed time limit; with four players, eight hands can generally be played in about an hour. If there is a tie, then all players participate in one more round of play until a winner is decided.
Game variations
As with any widely played game of such a flexible nature, Spades has many variations, ranging from significant changes in play to small tweaks that suit individual or household preference.
Deal variations
Deficient Hand Sometimes a misdeal is also called if a player is dealt a "deficient" hand, such as one that contains one or no Spades or no face cards (players should agree beforehand on what constitutes a "deficient hand"). A player wishing to declare a misdeal due to a deficient hand must throw down his hand face-up, so other players may verify, and declare "misdeal" before he or his team has bid. Declaring a misdeal on a deficient hand is optional; a player may try to bid "nil" if dealt such a hand.
Deuce Starts Regardless of which player has dealt, the player with the leads it to begin the game, similar to Hearts.
Face-up deal In this variant, the dealer can lay out up to four cards per player face up as long as the same number is revealed for each player. Revealing the cards can also set up the psychological warfare of bidding and later playing, referred to as power checks, but face-up deals are sometimes done by dealers who set the deck to determine if the cut has disrupted their preparations. When a face-up deal is made, Blind Nil can still be bid if the player has not viewed any face-down cards.
Kitty In games with players where the cards cannot be dealt evenly, there is a variation in which no cards are removed from the deck, but instead a kitty composed of the leftover cards (or one trick's worth of cards plus the leftovers) is placed at center. Whoever is dealt the , or alternatively, the player with the highest bid (tie-breaker being first to make that bid), picks up the kitty before bidding begins, integrates it into his hand and then discards the same number of cards. If a round of cards in addition to the leftovers is placed in the kitty, the discard by the player who picked up the kitty counts as a trick. This introduces more uncertainty in bids because usually the person with the kitty tries to void one suit and trump earlier in the game.
Bidding variations
Sum of bids One variant, borrowed from the related game Oh Hell, is that the sum of all bids must not equal the number of tricks to be played. This ensures that at least one player or team will be set or "bagged" (forced to take an overtrick). Another game variation allows each player to optionally increase their bid by one point after all players have bid but before game play starts. A reduction in bid, once bids are made, is never allowed.
Nil A player that has already looked at their cards can bid Nil. The object of the bidder is to take no tricks during the hand. The player's partner may make a normal bid and then help them by attempting to take tricks the Nil bidder would otherwise take. In solo/cutthroat spades, successful Nil bids are rare since there is no partner to help by taking the bidder's higher cards. If the Nil bidder takes no tricks, he receives the Nil bonus; if unsuccessful, the player or team subtracts that bonus. More than one player (opponents or teammates in partners) may bid Nil on a deal.
Double Nil Both players in a partnership bid Nil and if successful, the team's Nil bonuses are doubled. If either player or both players fail(s) to make theirs Nil bid, there is no penalty.
Blind bidding Virtually all games include a variant that may happen during bidding; one or more players, having not yet looked at their cards, may choose to bid on the number of tricks they will take. When bidding "blind", the player's bid, if made exactly by that player, is rewarded with bonus points, while failing to make the bid results in the bonus being subtracted from the player's or team's score. Blind bidding is capped at a bid of seven. Thus, bidding a blind 8 or higher is contrary to standard game play, and is not allowed. Quite commonly, blind bids are allowed only if the bidding team is at least 100 points behind, and in many cases, whether a minimum point spread is required, these risky bids are typically made by a team with a large deficit as a last-ditch effort; blind bids made in this situation are typically called "trailing blind bids".
Blind Nil The most common blind bid, the player bids that they will not take a single trick during play of the hand. Bidding nil offers an additional bonus on top of the blind bid. A failed nil bid, similar to a failed blind, results in the bonus being deducted from the score.
Double Blind Nil It is possible for both players of a partnership to bid Blind Nil. If this is done successfully, the team wins the game outright or takes double the combined bonus. If either or both players take tricks, however, there is no penalty.
Passing Passing, or the exchanging of cards between players, is optional and rare in Spades. However, one more common exception relates to Nil bids, which are generally considered difficult to make, especially when the bid was blindly made. To offset this difficulty slightly, a partnership in which one player has bid Nil or Blind Nil can choose to pass two cards between players; the most common arrangement is one card for regular nil and two cards for blind nil. When passing, the partners agree on a number of cards to pass, then select that number of cards and place them face down in front of their partner. Neither partner should look at the cards passed to them before they have passed their own cards. In passing this way, the idea is for the partner who bid Nil to offload their highest trumps or other face cards in return for low cards from their partner, which both decreases the likelihood that the nil bidder can be forced to take a trick, and increases the likelihood that his partner will be able to "cover", or overplay high cards the nil bidder still holds that would otherwise take a trick. The number of cards passed should be determined before the game begins so that each team can use this as they bid.
Passing does not have to be limited to this one case; players may agree that a certain number of cards may, or must, be passed either between partners or to the opponent on each player's left or right, before or after making a bid. Passing between opponents is borrowed from Hearts and generally allows players to attempt to "shorten" or "void" a suit, or get rid of "dangerous" cards such as upper pip cards or low face cards, which may win a trick the player didn't bid to take. Passing between partners in situations other than Nil bids is rare, as the players would have little or no information about cards their partner would want or that opponents wouldn't.
Board Each team is required to make a minimum required bid of four tricks. When bidding Nil, the player's teammates must bid a minimum of four tricks or bid Double Nil or Triple Nil with three teammates. When playing solo, one can bid Nil or board. You can never bid anything between Nil or board. A variation to this play involves setting the minimum bid to whatever number the players agree on.
Partnership bidding This variant allows partners to "talk" during the bidding round and bid as a partnership rather than individuals. The partnership that did not deal makes their bid first, and the opposing partnership may use this information to craft their bid, although the total number of tricks bid by both teams does not need to equal 13. The minimum bid is "Board" or 4 tricks, and there is no Nil bidding. Players are allowed to discuss how many tricks they think they can take with each other, but any discussion that identifies specific cards or strength of a particular suit constitutes "cross-boarding" and results in a misdeal, for which the penalty can range from the deal passing to the left to adding a predetermined number of "bags" to the offending partnership to a score penalty of up to 100 points.
The only exception to this rule is the Ace Check rule. If a player holds three or more Aces in his hand, that player may use the phrase Ace Check during the bidding round. The partner then discloses whether or not they have an Ace. If the initiating partner can now determine that all four Aces are held within the partnership, he or she may pass a card face down to his or her partner. Doing so creates a special contract where if the partnership retains all 4 Aces after all cards are played for the hand, they receive a 100-point bonus. If not, they receive a 100-point penalty. The Ace Check variant is optional to Partnership Bidding, and is generally only used in combination with "Deuces High" or similar Trump Variants where the Ace of Spades is more difficult to retain since other cards in the deck are assigned a higher rank.
Auction Spades This variant is a combination of Spades with the auction-based bidding of Contract Bridge. Each player must bid a minimum of 1 trick; by making the bid, they are committing their partnership to take the minimum 6 tricks plus the number bid. Subsequent bidders must raise the bid or pass; once they pass, they cannot bid further. Once all other players have passed, the winning partnership (declarers) must take a number of tricks equal to the winning bid plus 6 (so a winning bid of 2 commits the declarers to winning 8 tricks), while the defenders attempt to set them. If the declarers make contract, they get 10 points per bid trick; if they are set they get nothing. The defenders get 10 points per overtrick made by, or undertrick missed by, the declarers (if the declarers bid 2 and only make 6 tricks, the declarers get nothing and defenders get 20 points; if the declarers make 10 tricks, the declarers get 80 points but the defenders get 20 for the 2 unbid overtricks). Thus, the defenders have a choice of tactics; they can either set the declarers so they get no points, or may "bag" the declarers by forcing them to take overtricks so both sides get points.
No-trump bids This variant's name is misleading as it is not the same as the equivalent bid in Contract Bridge; Spades are still trumps, but a player who bids some number of tricks with "no trump" promises not to win any tricks with spades, except when spades are led. A player may only bid "No Trump" if that player holds at least one spade in their hand, and their partner agrees to let them bid NT. A player who successfully makes a No Trump bid counts each trick taken by that player as double (normally 20 points).
10-for-200 Also known as Bidding A Flight or Wheels. Bidding 10-for-200 commits a side to win at least 10 tricks; if successful, the team scores 200 points. If the side wins fewer than 10 tricks, they lose 200 points. Some play a lost bid only loses 100, not 200. In some variations, to make a 10-for-200 bid, the side must win exactly 10 tricks. If a team pulls more than 10 the extra tricks are still bags or "ob's" Some play that any bid of 10 is automatically a 10-for-200 bid. In some places the 10-for-200 bid is called 10-for-2, which is written on the score sheet as 10-4-2. Another way of writing the 200 score is with the two zeros linked together at the top; this is called Wheels, as the zeroes are supposed to look like train wheels. Making this bid is also significant in that the other team is automatically set if Nils are not allowed, since they would not even make Board, thus the winning team will be ahead by at least 240 points (200 for the score + 40 point penalty of the other team).
Eight & Ten Rule Variation of bonus where bonuses are split into two between 4 players (8 + 3 and 10 + 3). This variation is played widely in India and England.
Big & Little Moe A series of bids where the partnership states their intention to take, respectively, eight or six tricks consecutively. Any capture of a trick by opponents "resets" the count. A partnership bidding Big Moe and capturing eight tricks in a row gains 300 points; one bidding Little Moe and capturing six tricks in a row gains 150 points. Bags or overtricks, if applicable, are not counted.
Bemo A specialization of Big & Little Moe bidding, bidding Little Bemo commits the team to win all of the first six tricks. It is additional to the normal bid; the team scores an extra bonus of 60 if successful and loses 60 if not. Big Bemo similarly commits the team that bids it to win the first nine tricks; they score a 90-point bonus if successful and lose 90 if not.
Blind 6 This must be declared by a side before either partner looks at their cards. It scores 120 points if the side takes exactly six tricks. If they take some other number of tricks they lose 120. It is also commonly played that the side must win at least six tricks and overtricks are not counted, or that failing to make six tricks only loses 60.
Trailing Blind Bids Only a player or partnership that is 100 points behind the leader may make blind bids of any kind, and they are scored at 20 points per bid trick, with no overtricks scored. Failing a blind contract is penalized at the normal 10 points per trick bid. Played with or without Jokers.
No Nines, No Blinds A variation of partnership bidding - neither blind bids nor a cumulative bid of 9 is allowed. This can make the game more competitive since a partnership with a strong hand has to either bid an 8 or 10-for-200, risking "overbidding" their hand and teams cannot catch up through Trailing Blind Bids.
Boston Also known as Shooting The Moon or Slamming. Related to but opposite of a Double Nil bid. If a team bids to take all the tricks in a hand and does so, that team wins the game outright regardless of the score before the hand. A team cannot bid to Shoot The Moon if the other team bids Double Nil, and vice versa.
Boston On Fire Also known as Blind Moon or a Grand Slam. This is a blind bid to take all tricks in a hand, made before either partner has looked at their cards. Again, the first team to bid either Double Blind Nil or Blind Moon has precedence.
Lexington Similar to Boston but 12 tricks are made. Variations include automatically scoring 240 points regardless the bid.
Half Tricks In this variation, the first partner of a team to bid may, if he chooses, bid tricks in increment of one-half instead of one, i.e. "I bid three-and-one-half". His partner is then required to bid such that the team bid rounds out to a whole number, i.e. "I'll bid two-and-one-half" for a team bid of six tricks. This gives some information between partners; a player is bidding that they will take three tricks and might take a fourth. Their partner can then use this in determining the other half of the partnership's bid.
Suicide Played by four players, playing as partners. Each player must bid either Nil or at least four tricks. The second player to bid in each partnership may either bid the opposite, i.e., Nil if partner bid four or more, or may bid what their partner bid, thus forcing their partner to take the opposite bid.
Another version of Suicide is played by four players, playing as partners. The bidding is the same as normal, except that one person in each team is forced to bid nil, so if the leading partner does not bid nil they must do so. This limits the hands which the first and second person want to bid a non-Nil amount, as if they do not have the ace of spades, they cannot place it and therefore risk having it in their partner's hand.
Whiz In this variant, each player must bid the exact number of spades in their hand or go Nil. There is no minimum amount for teams to bid. Blind bidding is not allowed, however bags are counted as usual.
Mirrors Related to Whiz, each player must bid the number of spades in their hand. Players do not have the option to go Nil unless they have no Spades and must bid Nil if this is the case. Bags are counted as normal.
Fredieu In this variant, each player must bid a minimum four tricks unless going nil, blind nil or Wheels (10 for 200). The objective is to force as many bags as possible on the opposing players to give them the most sandbags. Sandbags are counted as usual.
Trump variations
Breaking Spades Borrowed from Hearts, a player may not lead a Spade until a Spade has been played as a trump card (when a non-Spade was led), unless he or she has only Spades.
Deuces High All 2s count as the highest spades. The order becomes, highest to lowest: , , , , then all the rest of the spades, Ace through 3. There is another variation, when playing with the Jokers, that the and the are high trumps, then Ace, King, etc. When the deck being used does not contain Jokers, or contains Jokers of the same size, the becomes the Big Joker and the becomes the Little Joker. There is a variation where the Aces can be called high (value of 14) or low (value of 1). In this scenario highest to lowest spades with all cards in deck is: H Joker, L Joker, , , , , Ace, King - 3 of Spade.
Joke Trumps Jokers have no value or rank by themselves, but transform all teammates' cards (whether played before or after the Joker) to "joke trumps" status. For example, a Joker played on A transforms that card into A, which trumps all cards except a natural A. Similarly, a Joker followed by a transforms the latter into a , beatable by either a natural or higher, or a joke or higher. There is no added benefit to playing multiple Jokers. If two teams play Jokers, resulting in tied joke trumps, the tie is broken either by the higher Joker, the first Joker played, or the suit rank ( first, then , then ), depending on variation.
Jokers High aka Easy Spades Both Jokers are positioned as the highest Spades. So instead of just 13 spades, there are now 15 spades. This in effect takes the Queens out of question, meaning one need not bother to question whether the queen will win a trick, it will most likely not. With more spades and removing the question from the queens makes this variation an easier game to play. If both jokers are played in one trick, the Big Joker (full color, red, or larger graphic) beats the Little Joker (black-and-white, or the "guarantee" card with smaller art). A related variation is Joker-Joker-Deuce-Ace in which the ranking is Big Joker, Little Joker, and A. With 3 players, the Jokers are added and no cards are removed; with 4 players, the and either or are taken out, or, similar to their use in Euchre, can replace the J and J.
Jokers High Alternate Similar to Jokers High above, if the Big Joker is led, opponents must play their highest spade in that trick. If the Big Joker is played during a hand, opponents are not forced to play their highest spade. This variation makes bidding more complex, as one cannot count on their highest spade as winning a trick, Big Joker excepted. This variation is commonly played with all 54 cards, using the Kitty dealing variation above.
Jokers High First Played Wins Both Jokers are used and count as the highest Spade. If both jokers are played in one trick, the one played first takes the trick.
Bauer Trumps Adapted from 500 and Euchre, highest trump is the J, known as the right bauer. Second highest trump is J, being the same color and known as the Left Bauer. The rest of the cards follow normal order. Alternatively, and similar to the above, both Jacks can be replaced with two Jokers, making them more distinctive.
Differentiated Trump Values Suits are given special trump value, with Spades being the highest trump. General order is , , , and . When played this way, there is no off-suit; the suit is either more or less valuable than the led suit, and if more valuable it trumps any card played in that suit.
Variations
Aces High/Low During the play Aces can be called high or low. These are especially valuable cards in 3B-Spades scoring version where there is an immediate penalty for taking extra tricks.
Big Mo, Little Mo During bidding, a team may declare either Big Mo or Little Mo, meaning they intend to take the first several tricks. This is the only time that cross-talk during the bidding is allowed. A player considering a Mo may ask his teammate "How many do you have on the Mo?" or some similar question to determine how many tricks the teammate can contribute to the Mo without revealing any details as to which tricks they'll take. The only detail that can be discussed is which teammate will be leading the first trick but not how they will be leading. If a team declares Little Mo, they must take the first 7 tricks of the hand. Accomplishing the Little Mo earns the team 150 points. If a team declares Big Mo, they must take the first 10 tricks of the hand. Accomplishing the Big Mo earns the team 250 points. Taking more consecutive tricks than needed does not earn the team more points. For instance, taking the first 10 tricks when a Little Mo had been declared still only earns the team 150 points. The team that declares either Mo is immune to bags for that hand and will lead the first trick, regardless of whose turn it was to lead. Failure to accomplish the declared Mo (the opposing team took a trick before the goal was met) will cause the team to lose the points they would have earned had they been successful. This is true regardless of how many tricks they took before or after the opposing team took a trick. The other team bids and must match their bid, as usual. It's not unusual for a team that could do a Big Mo to declare a Little Mo to play it safe and then take the extra tricks to try to set their opponents.
Cancellation Spades 3 teams of 2 players play with 2 decks minus both . The 2 is the highest spade followed by the and Ace. They must follow the spades suit rules. If identical cards are played in a round, they cancel and cannot take the trick. Tricks won by no one are "dead" and discarded. Successful nil bids score 50. Double nil scores 200. No blind bid bonuses. Missed bids cost 10 points for each trick short—getting 3 of 5 means −20 points. Tricks taken by a nil do not count towards a non-nil bid and are penalized 10 points each. Extra tricks get 1 point—no penalties for sandbags. Game is six hands with each player dealing once. Optionally, 8 players can share two full decks with nils worth 30 and double nils worth 100.
Passing Cards Each team passes one card with their partner each hand. This rule is normally applied only to Nil bids and it is most frequently used to allow players to exchange two cards if a Blind Nil bid is made.
First Trick Clubs This rule is borrowed from a common variation of Hearts rules. Whoever possesses the lowest Club, usually , (if deuces are high), must open the play. Other players can play any card except Spades on the first trick, unless the player has nothing but Spades (rare, as the player would have to have been dealt every Spade in the deck).
First Trick Lowest Club This rule is an elaboration of the preceding First Trick Clubs rule. Whoever possesses the lowest Club, usually , (if a three-hand game), must open the play. Each player must then play their lowest club to the first trick. Play proceeds normally from the second trick.
Speed-Spades a.k.a. Philadelphia a.k.a. Quakers The players agree to play each trick within a certain time frame, with each player required to make a play on a one- or two- second count. This is a game of pressure designed to induce mistakes, to increase the pace of a slow game, or both. Often the players will shout "Speed Spades!" as the start of each trick.
Play To Beat a.k.a. Must Trump A Pinochle-based variant, if a player cannot follow suit, but can beat a Spade already played as trump (when a Spade was not led), he must play the "overtrump". Sometimes this rule extends this to even having to beat a player's partner, but this generally only applies to beating the other team's trump. If a player is caught breaking this rule, all points won by the team that broke the rule during the round are awarded to the opposing team. An alternate variant, from Tarot games, is that if a player cannot follow suit, they must trump if they are able (meaning they cannot play off-suit if they have a Spade even if there are no other Spades played), and additionally they must beat any Spade already played if they can (including when Spades are led).
End Winning Streak If one player wins last three tricks of the round, it is worth either 3 points or 30. Some varieties include awarding points for winning the last four or five tricks with same point gauge. If this rule is enforced, and an opposing team ends a possible streak by taking the last trick, the points may be awarded to that team instead of the team who had the streak.
Dix If the wins a trick, it is worth 1 point. If the 9 wins a trick with at least one other Spade in play, worth 5 points. If the 9 wins a Spade-led trick, it is worth 10 points. This is borrowed from Pinochle where in the melding phase, a 9 of trumps is worth 10 points.
Last Trick Ace Victory Bonus points (1 or 10) are awarded for winning the last round with any Ace. 20 points for winning with the Ace of Spades.
Last Trick Ace On Nil Bonus points, usually one-fifth of agreed nil value, are awarded for making a nil bid and playing an ace on the last trick.
Last Trick Deuce Victory Bonus points (30) are awarded for winning the last round with a non-trump two.
Last Trick High Spade Victory A player who takes the very last trick with a high Spade ( or above), and with that trick exactly makes their bid, receives a 10-point bonus. There is no bonus if the player bags or is short.
Nil A team that declares Nil is intending to lose every trick. If successful, the team earns 100 points. If the team takes a single trick, they will lose 100 points. A team that declares Nil is immune to bags for that hand.
Blind Nil A team may declare Blind Nil as long as neither teammate has looked at any of their cards. After bidding has been set, all players can look at their cards like normal. Like Nil, the team intends to lose every trick. If successful, the team earns 150 points. If the team takes a single trick, they will lose 150 points. A team that declares Blind Nil is immune to bags for that hand.
Nil In The Dark A player who bids Nil In The Dark shuffles their cards and puts them face down in front of them in a stack. When it is their play, they take the top card and throw it into the pile. The scoring counts the same as Blind Nil. A player may also go Blind Nil In The Dark where they never even look at their cards. This is scored the same as a Big Mo. Nil In The Dark is usually only bid if they have no trump cards.
The rest are mine (TRAM) Some players allow a player who realizes that he cannot help but win all remaining tricks to simply lay down his hand and declare "the rest are mine"; such declaration is sometimes called "tramming". This can help speed the play of the game. An obvious situation in which a player could "TRAM" is if, with three tricks left to play, the leading player holds the . No matter which card he plays, no other player will be able to beat that card (as the player holds the only cards that can), and the same will be true for the next two tricks. Usually, situations in which TRAMming is appropriate are less clearcut, and involve keeping track of the cards that have been played to determine whether any player could beat a particular card.
The practice is sometimes prohibited explicitly by the rules.
A player who mistakenly TRAMs (i.e., when it is possible for another player to win at least one trick) may face a penalty. This may be the same penalty as that imposed for any other illegal showing of cards, such as being required to leave the exposed cards face up on the table, to be played at the earliest legal opportunity to do so. Other penalties are also possible; e.g., forfeiting all remaining tricks at the discretion of the player who would otherwise take the trick (to prevent intentional false TRAMming that would give the player an advantage), or forfeiting of a player's bid and scoring the hand as if that player had failed to make his bid, regardless of the number of tricks he has taken.
Scoring variations
3B-Spades In 3B-Spades there is an immediate bag penalty. In this variation you are penalized -10 for each extra trick. In this case the player receives 10 points for each trick that was bid and -10 points for each extra trick. This makes the ideal strategy to make your own bid exactly while giving extra tricks to some players and trying to set others. A person going zero/nil also gets -10 for each "extra" trick and those points go into the "zero pot". Players that did not make their bid only get 1 point per trick made.
No Overs One game variation does not count overtricks. In this case the player or team receives only 10 points for each trick that was bid and no points for overtricks. This changes the bidding strategy; it is only possible to lose points by being "set" on a bid, as there is no penalty for "bagging out", so players will attempt to "set" the leading player or team in order to gain ground. Similarly, players or teams will bid lower to avoid being set as there is no penalty for taking too many overtricks.
Double Over, Double Back Instead of, or perhaps in addition to, penalizing players who "bag out", a common variant is for players or teams who take at least double the number of bid tricks will be penalized by subtracting double the value of their contract. A team who bids 2 tricks and takes 4 tricks or more will lose 40 points. This is often combined with the "No Overs" scoring style to discourage small bids.
Oh Hell Variation Like Oh Hell, partnerships must take exactly the number of tricks bid. If they have overtricks, the team is penalized and the contract is broken. Some play where if the team bids 5 tricks and wins exactly 5 tricks, the contract is honored no matter which player made how many tricks, while others force each player to exactly meet their contract.
Quicksand A variation of penalizing overtricks, a team who exactly makes their contract gets full value. Overtricks subtract 10 points each from that value, and teams who do not make their contract subtract 10 points for each missed trick. For instance, consider a bid of 7 tricks. If the team made exactly 7 tricks, they would earn the full 70 points. If they only took 5 tricks, they would lose 20 points. If the team made 9 tricks, they would earn the 70 points, −20 points for the two overtricks, resulting in a score of 50 points.
Broken Contract Gives Points To Opposing Team This is an additional variant taken from Bridge and used with an auction-style bidding. If the declarer (the player or partner with the winning bid) fails to meet the contract, the defending pair receives 10 points for each undertrick (the number of tricks by which declarer fell short of the goal). Instead of the declaring team losing points, they should receive zero.
Books Made If the combine bids of both teams equals 10 books (i.e. 6 books to 4 books, 5 books to 5 books) then books made is called. The hand is not played out. Both team are awarded their bids. There are no over books. the deal moves to the next player.
Deficient Ends The Game If one team's cumulative score is less than the negative of the winning score, that team has lost. For example, if before the game, the winning score is set at 500 points, then either team that manages to net a score of −500 points or below automatically loses.
Highlander Scoring The points awarded function slightly differently than in conventional Spades. Highlander Scoring merges partnership playing with individual team effort. Sandbagging does not apply with this type of game play, although sandbagging could be included. Each partner makes a bid of the tricks they think they can win. Each partner must win the total they individually bid; if not, that player's bid value is deducted from the team's score even if their partner took enough trick to make up the difference.
For example, if Tom bids 5 tricks and wins 4 tricks, and Harry (his partner) bids 3 tricks and wins 4 tricks, 80 points is deducted from the partnership's total score even though the team won their promised 8 tricks, because Tom did not make his bid. However, Harry is awarded five points per overtrick, so they are −75 points instead of −80 points. If the contract is broken and no overtricks were taken, the team is down the full amount of the bid. If both made their contract and have won overtricks, they are awarded five extra points per overtrick. Team that wins seven or more tricks per round is given 10 points the first time, 20 points the second, and each time thereafter the points increase by 10. This encourages race-style play where players set out to take as many tricks as they can as long as they do not steal tricks their partner needs.
Individual Team Players If both teammates get their exact individual bid, they are given a bonus equal to half the total bid (rounded down to the nearest 10 to avoid interference with bags). For example, Tom bids 3 tricks, Harry bids 4 tricks. If Tom wins 3 tricks and Harry wins 4 tricks, 30 bonus points are awarded to that team (added to the 70 points for contract for a total of 100 points on the hand).
Sandbags 0-Till-10 Some players use the last digit of the score to count sandbags, but do not regard that digit as being part of the score. For example, as score of 54 points translates to 50 recordable points with 4 sandbags. In this manner, sandbags are in effect worth nothing until a player accumulates 10 of them, at which point they trigger a 100-point deduction. Bags are thus kept separate from the score and cannot be used as a tiebreaker.
Sandbag Cancellation Some people play that there is a special card which cancels one bag on that hand for the side that takes it in their tricks. If the side which wins the special card makes no overtricks, or loses their bid, the special card has no effect. The special card may be either a fixed card or may be determined afresh by cutting a card before each deal.
Sandbags Negative Value Tricks in excess of the contract (overtricks or sandbags) may be worth −1 point each rather than +1 point. In this case the penalty for accumulating 10 overtricks generally does not apply.
Seven Tricks Or Higher! For successful bids of seven or more, players get an extra 10 points for each trick bid above six. So, if 7 tricks are bid by a player and that contract is made exactly, 80 bonus points are awarded. 8 tricks award 100 points, 9 tricks award 120 points, etc. This method of scoring rewards players who are more daring.
Seven Tricks Or Higher! Part Deux Team that bids and then wins 7 tricks per round is given 10 points the first time, 20 points the second, and each time thereafter the points increase by 10 points. Overtricks do not count.
Win The Last Trick! Taken from Bela and Pinochle, the winner of last trick wins 10 bonus points. Generally this variation is not recommended if one is playing with bonus tricks.
Leading with the Ace of spades Depending on the region in which the game is played this is permitted.
No Point Deductions
In some variations of spades, no points are lost when bids are not meet. In these scenarios, the team receives a score of 0 points for the round. This scoring is less drastic than normal scoring and is recommended for beginner players. Nil is the exception to this rule. If a player bids nil and takes a trick, then 100 points are deducted from the team's score. This is independent of your partner's bid. For example, if a player bids nil and their team member does not meet their bid, the team still gains a net of 100 points. If a player bids nil and receives a trick, then 100 points are deduced and their partner's hand is scored normally.
The number of players
Traditionally Spades is played with four players in two partnerships. However, there are variations that allow for greater or fewer players. Partnerships are optional even with four players. All other rules should be agreed upon beforehand by the players.
Solo Spades Solo Spades is like regular Spades, just without the partnership. This is also known as "Cut Throat Spades".
Two Players In this variation, the cards are not dealt at the beginning of the game. Instead, the deck is placed face down and the players take turns drawing two cards with each turn. Once drawn, players must choose one card of the pair to discard and one to keep. This continues until the deck is exhausted after which, each player will possess 13 cards. The game then proceeds normally. :A variation of this deal is to decide whether or not to keep the first card drawn. If the player decides to keep the first card, the second card may be looked at, but must be discarded. If the player decides to discard the first card, the second card must be kept. This variation introduces a greater degree of chance into the game. To add an even greater degree of chance, forbid viewing of the second card if the first card is kept. This gives both players less certainty as to which cards their opponent is holding.
Three Players There are no partnerships; players play for themselves. A standard 52 card deck is used, and each player is dealt 17 cards with a predetermined card thrown out (usually the ) or the last undealt card thrown out. Some play with the Big and Little Joker included as the highest trumps, with each person getting 18 cards.
Five Players There are no partnerships; players play for themselves. and are removed from the deck and each player is dealt 10 cards. Alternatively, if three Jokers are available, they may be added as either highest trump or as junk cards, thus dealing each player 11 cards each.
Six Players This can be played either solo, three partnerships, or two teams of three. Two standard 52 card decks are combined, with both discarded (102 cards, 17 each), two cards discarded (or kept as a kitty), or all four Jokers added (108 cards, 18 each). Prior to the beginning of play, players agree on the protocol when identical cards are played. Some play that the first such played card wins the trick while others play that the last played card wins the trick. Alternatively, 6-handed play can be done with a 48 card deck, having removed all the 2s. It can also be done with a 52 card deck plus two Jokers, similar to three-handed but with half the cards per player.
Seven Or More Players Beyond six players, the game becomes either very complex, or hard to maintain with multiple decks. An additional side effect of an increased number of players is a short game, as the number of cards held by each player is reduced and high trump is more and more likely to take the trick. Seven players should normally be split into groups of four and three, eight players into two groups of four players, nine players into either groups of four and five players, or three groups of three players.
Partners versus Cutthroat/Solo
The differences Partners Spades and Cutthroat bidding and play are substantial. In Partners, a player would bid a trick for every Ace, King, and Queen in a side suit (i.e.: non-Spade). In Cutthroat, a player would rarely bid on a King in a long side suit (5+ cards) nor a Queen in any length side suit because of the risk of their being trumped. This risk is reduced in Partners by the possibility that partner may be out of the long suit and able to discard or to overtrump an opponent.
In Partners, Nil bids are easier to make because the Nil bidder's partner can overtake or trump the Nil bidder's high cards. In Cutthroat, this safety valve is not available.
Partners allows a mix of weak and strong players by pairing a weak player with a strong one, resulting in a more satisfying game (provided that the division of talent is about even) than in Cutthroat where individual weak players would stand little or no chance against strong players.
Conversely, against a computer program where the object is for a human to beat the computer software, being saddled with a weak computer partner does not provide a satisfying game. Thus, Cutthroat makes more sense for a computer game than Partners.
Terminology
Bag - an "overtrick"; a trick taken by a player or partnership when their contract has already been met. The importance of bags or overtricks varies depending on house rules; generally, taking too many overtricks incurs a penalty, but the taking of some overtricks can be good strategy.
Bid - The number of tricks each player will take during a hand, announced by each player in term before a hand begins. The bid is the sum of each team members single bid and is used to determine the total "team bid." The bid equals the total number of tricks the team must win, or risk being set (falling short of the bid) or taking sandbags, or bags (taking more tricks than were bid).
Book - in Spades, this is synonymous with "trick"; however other trick-taking games have a different definition.
Boston - when a team, usually by one player of the team or both, wins all 13 books in a hand.
Contract - The result of a player's or partnership's bids for the hand; they are required to take at least that number of tricks during play of the hand.
Cut or cutting - In Spades, when a suit being played gets cut by a spade and thus takes the book unless the following player trumps theirs with a higher spade. Also, when a partner trumps the other partners winning card, for example the first partner threw out a king of diamonds and his partner then trumped it with the ace of diamonds. There are times when this can be a strategic move, though not often.
Extras - After adding up all the contracts the unclaimed tricks are "the extras". In 4 handed there are 13 tricks per hand. A typical hand has just one extra.
Hand - A series of tricks in which all cards dealt to each player are played.
Honor Cards - Refers to the top four or five cards in each suit, A, K, Q, J and 10.
Nil - A Bid to win no tricks at all in any hand. A special bid for which there is usually a bonus if the nil is achieved and a penalty if it is defeated by forcing the one who bid Nil to take a trick in any given hand.
Partnership - A pair of players when playing with an even number; their bids and taken tricks are summed.
Renege - When a player can follow suit but does not, it is considered cheating.
Set - To be unable to take the number of tricks required by a contract, usually because the opposing players have taken enough tricks that there are fewer remaining tricks than are needed.
Slough (Sluff) - ( also known as "throwing off"),to play a card that is not a trump card but of different suit than the first suit played, therefore discarding that card. Sloughing is normally used to get rid of a card that may otherwise take a trick the player does not wish to take. It can also be used to void other suits allowing play of trump cards in tricks where that suit is led.
Team - largely synonymous with "partnership", but when playing with six or more a team can comprise more than two players.
Three Amigos - The Ace, King, and Queen of spades. When a person has all three it usually mentioned when they are being led out in order. Also, with the Jack, "the three amigos and their little brother".
(To) Follow Suit - to play a card of the same suit as the first card played to a trick. As in many trick-taking games, Spades players are required to follow suit if they are able.
Trick - Also known as a book. A unit of play in which each player lays one card from their hand, and is "taken" or won usually by the player who laid down the highest value card.
Trump - a suit or other subset of cards in the deck that is of higher value than all others. Most games in the Whist family use a trump suit; in Spades, it is always the Spade suit. The term also refers to the playing of a trump card, also known as a "ruff" or "ruffing".
Undertrick - A trick that a partnership needed in order to make contract, but didn't take. The term is used more in scoring than in play; a pair who bid 6 but only took five has an undertrick, while a specific trick in play that the partners need to take from a tactical standpoint is simply a "must-have" or "must-win".
Void - To not have any card in a particular suit or suits, or to intentionally exhaust them from one's hand. A player must be void in at least one suit in order to play Spades as trump, and therefore will try to void their hand of a suit in which they hold few cards.
Zero - See nil.
See also
Bid Whist
German Whist
Oh Hell
Pitch (card game)
Solo whist
Tarneeb
Vint
Whist
References
External links
American card games
Card games introduced in the 1930s
French deck card games
Auction Whist group
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|
220524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubs%20%28suit%29 | Clubs (suit) | Clubs is one of the four suits of playing cards in the standard French deck. It corresponds to the suit of Acorns in a German deck .
Its original French name is Trèfle which means "clover" and the card symbol depicts a three-leafed clover leaf. The Italian name is Fiori ("flower"). The English name "Clubs" is derived from the suit of Bastoni (batons) in Italian-Spanish suited cards.
In Germany, this suit is known as Kreuz ("cross"), especially in the International Skat Regulations. In Austria, by contrast, it is almost exclusively called Treff, a reference to the French name, especially in the game of Bridge, where French names generally predominate, for example Cœur is used instead of Herz.
In Skat and Doppelkopf, Clubs are the highest-ranked suit (whereas Diamonds/Bells are the trump suit in Doppelkopf). In Bridge, Clubs are the lowest suit.
Characteristics
The symbol for the suit of Clubs depicts a very stylised three-leaf clover with its stalk oriented downwards.
Generally the suit of Clubs is black in colour. However, the suit may also be green, for example as sometimes used in Bridge (where it is one of the two minor suits, along with Diamonds).
The gallery below shows a suit of Clubs from a French suited deck of 52 cards. Not shown is the Knight of Clubs used in tarot card games:
Four-colour packs
Four-colour packs are sometimes used in tournaments or online. In four-colour packs, clubs may be:
green in American Bridge and Poker, English Poker, French and Swiss four-colour decks,
black in German Skat packs,
blue in English Bridge and some American packs or
pink in some other four-colour packs.
Coding
The symbol ♣ is already in the CP437 and thus also part of Windows WGL4. In Unicode a black ♣ and a white ♧ Club symbol are defined:
References
Literature
Allan, Elkan and Hannah Mackay (2007). The Poker Encyclopedia. London: Portico.
Parlett, David (2008). The Penguin Book of Card Games, Penguin, London.
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|
220525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker%20%28playing%20card%29 | Joker (playing card) | The Joker is a playing card found in most modern French-suited card decks, as an addition to the standard four suits (Clubs, Diamonds, Hearts, and Spades). From the second half of the 20th century, they have also been found in Spanish- and Italian-suited decks, excluding stripped decks. The Joker originated in the United States during the Civil War, and was created as a trump card for the game of Euchre. It has since been adopted into many other card games, where it often acts as a wild card, but may have other functions such as the top trump, a skip card (forcing another player to miss a turn), the lowest-ranking card, the highest-value card or a card of a different value from the rest of the pack (see e.g. Zwickern which has 6 Jokers with this function). By contrast, a wild card is any card that may be used to represent another card or cards; it need not be a Joker.
Origin
The game of Euchre is credited with the introduction of the Joker into card games. However, Euchre began life with no Joker. In the earliest rules of 1844, 32 standard cards are used and the Right Bower, the trump Jack, was the "commanding card" with the Left Bower, the Jack of the same colour, as the second-highest card. The Joker makes its first official appearance in a set of rules in 1868 where it turns out to be a blank specimen card not intended for actual play. This gave rise to a variant game called "Euchre with the Joker" in which the blank card ranked above all the rest. It must have been in use even earlier, however, since the term "Best Bower" appears in a satirical 1861 piece about the American Civil War, and in fact Samuel Hart is credited with printing the first illustrated "Best Bower" card in 1863 with his "Imperial Bower". Best Bower-type Jokers continued to be produced well into the 20th century. Cards labelled "Joker" began appearing around the late 1860s, with some depicting clowns and jesters.
The idea behind the three top cards in Euchre appears to have originated from Germany where the games Juckerspiel and Bester Bube ("Best Bower") also used Jacks as best, right and left bowers. It is also believed that the term "Joker" comes from Juckerspiel, which is also known as Jucker, the original German spelling of Euchre. One British manufacturer, Charles Goodall, was manufacturing packs with Jokers for the American market in 1871. The first Joker for the domestic British market was sold in 1874. Italians call Jokers "Jolly", for many early cards were labelled "Jolly Joker".
The notion of a Joker was later transferred to the game of Poker where it was initially called the Mistigris. This happened around 1875, where it functioned as a wild card. Packs with two Jokers started to become the norm during the late 1940s for the game of Canasta. Since the 1950s, German and Austrian packs have included three Jokers to play German Rummy. In Poland, the third Joker is known as the blue Joker because the KZWP monopoly during the Polish People's Republic printed all third Jokers blue. In Schleswig-Holstein, Zwickern packs come with six Jokers.
Appearance
Jokers do not have any standardized appearance across the card manufacturing industry. Each company produces their own depictions of the card. The publishers of playing cards trademark their Jokers, which have unique artwork that often reflect contemporary culture. Out of convention, Jokers tend to be illustrated as jesters. There are usually two Jokers per deck, often noticeably different. For instance, the United States Playing Card Company (USPCC) prints their company's guarantee claim on only one. At times, the Jokers will each be colored to match the colors used for suits; e.g., there will be a red Joker and a black Joker. In games where the Jokers may need to be compared, the red, full-color, or larger-graphic Joker usually outranks the black, monochrome, or smaller-graphic one. If the Joker colors are similar, the Joker without a guarantee will outrank the guaranteed one. With the red and black Jokers, the red one can alternately be counted as a Heart/Diamond and the black one can alternately be counted as a Club/Spade. The Unicode for playing cards provide symbols for three Jokers: red, black, and white.
Many decks do not provide the Joker with a corner index symbol; of those that do, the most common is a solid star (as is the case with Bee cards). It is also common for decks to simply display the word “JOKER” in the corner. Bicycle cards use a “US” monogram as the Joker index.
Collecting
Joker collecting has been popular for an unknown amount of time, but with the advent of the Internet and social media, it has emerged as a hobby. Many unusual Jokers are available for purchase online, while other collectible Jokers are catalogued online for viewing. Guinness World Records has recognized Denoto de Santis, an Italian magician, as having the world's largest collection of Jokers.
Tarot and Tarock card games
The Joker is often compared to "(the) Fool" in the Tarot or Tarock decks. They share many similarities both in appearance and play function. In central Europe, the Fool, or Sküs, is the highest trump; elsewhere as an "excuse" (L'Excuse) that can be played at any time to avoid following suit, but cannot win.
Cartomancy
Practitioners of cartomancy often include a Joker in the standard 52-card deck with a meaning similar to the Fool card of Tarot. Sometimes, the two Jokers are used. An approach is to identify the "black" Joker with a rank of zero with the Fool and the "red" Joker with "the Magician", also known as "the Juggler", which is a card with a rank of one that is somewhat similar in interpretation and is considered the first step in the "Fool's Journey".
Use of the Joker in card games
In a standard deck, there are usually two Jokers. The Joker's use varies greatly. Many card games omit the card entirely; as a result, Jokers are often used as informal replacements for lost or damaged cards in a deck by simply noting the lost card's rank and suit on the Joker. Other games, such as a 25-card variant of Euchre which uses the Joker as the highest trump, make it one of the most important in the game. Often, the Joker is a wild card, and thereby allowed to represent other existing cards. The term "Joker's wild" originates from this practice.
The Joker can be an extremely beneficial, or an extremely harmful, card. In Euchre it is often used to represent the highest trump. In poker, it is wild. However, in the children's game named Old Maid, a solitary Joker represents the Old Maid, a card that is to be avoided.
Role in multi-player games
Euchre, 500: As the highest trump or "top Bower".
Canasta: The Joker, like the deuce, is a wild card. However, the Joker is worth 50 points in melding, as opposed to 20 for the deuce.
Gin Rummy: a wild card, able to be used as any necessary rank or suit to complete a meld.
Chase the Joker: An alternative version of Old Maid, where the Joker card is used instead of the Ace.
Poker: A Joker can be wild, or can be a "bug", a limited form of wild card which can only be used to complete straights and flushes.
War: In some variations, beats all other cards.
Pitch: A point card in some variations. Jokers usually are marked as "High" and "Low", one outranking the other.
Daihinmin: a wild card, or a deuce (which ends the round and clears the discard pile).
Crazy Eights: a "skip" card, playable on top of any other card, that forces the next player to lose a turn.
Spades: uncommon, but can fulfill one of two roles. When playing with three or six players, they are added to make the cards deal evenly (18 or nine cards each, respectively). They are either "junk" cards playable anytime that cannot win a trick, or they count as the two highest trumps (the two Jokers must be differentiable; the "big Joker" outranks the "little Joker"). They also can be used in conjunction with teammates cards to create a pseudo-"trump", i.e. an Ace of Hearts and Joker played together would be counted as an Ace of Spades, inferior only to a natural Ace of Spades.
Double King Pede: As the lowest-ranked card, but worth 18 points.
Go Fish: In a game with two players, the Joker pair is often used to bring the number of pairs to 27 and prevent a 13-13 tie.
Dou dizhu: Jokers are used as the highest value cards; one is little and one is big, usually the colored one being bigger. Both Jokers together is the only unbeatable play.
Role in patience (solitaire) games
Generally, the Joker is omitted from patience games as in many others of its type. However, there are variations of solitaire games where a Joker does take part, most often as a wild card.
Forty Thieves: the Joker is placed on the foundations, while the natural card is unavailable. Any applicable cards are placed over the Joker. When the natural card becomes available, it replaces the Joker, which in turn is placed on the top of the foundation pile. When the Joker is placed on an empty foundation, it stays there until an Ace appears.
FreeCell: the Joker functions the same way as mentioned above, but when the natural card it replaces becomes available and the Joker is placed on top, the Joker can be placed on another foundation.
Golf: where Kings can be built, the Joker, whenever available, is placed on the wastepile as a wild card and any card can be placed over it.
Klondike: the Joker acts the same way as it is in Forty Thieves. It can also be built while it is still on the tableau. The United States Playing Card Company's version, created by Joli Quentin Kansil, uses two Jokers, with the black joker to be used as a wild black card and the red joker as a wild red card.
Pyramid: the Joker is discarded together with any available card. In this case, the stock is dealt one card at time and can be reused twice.
Aces Up: The Jokers are used to clear out a row and are sometimes referred to as "Joker Bombs". When a Joker is dealt into a column, the entire column is reshuffled into the stock and that particular Joker is removed from the game. This leaves an empty foundation slot and greatly increases the win rate.
References
External links
Playing cards
Card game terminology | [
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|
220533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20and%20white | Black and white | Black-and-white (B&W or B/W) images combine black and white in a continuous spectrum, producing a range of shades of grey.
Media
The history of various visual media began with black and white, and as technology improved, altered to color. However, there are exceptions to this rule, including black-and-white fine art photography, as well as many film motion pictures and art film(s).
Photography
Contemporary use
Since the late 1960s, few mainstream films have been shot in black-and-white. The reasons are frequently commercial, as it is difficult to sell a film for television broadcasting if the film is not in color. 1961 was the last year in which the majority of Hollywood films were released in black and white.
Computing
In computing terminology, black-and-white is sometimes used to refer to a binary image consisting solely of pure black pixels and pure white pixels; what would normally be called a black-and-white image, that is, an image containing shades of gray, is referred to in this context as grayscale.
See also
dr5 chrome
List of black-and-white films produced since 1970
Monochromatic color
Panchromatic film
Selective color
References
Black-and-white media
Photographic processes | [
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|
220540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent | Privatdozent | Privatdozent (for men) or Privatdozentin (for women), abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualifications that denote an ability (facultas docendi) and permission to teach (venia legendi) a designated subject at the highest level. To be granted the title Priv.-Doz. by a university, a recipient has to fulfill the criteria set by the university which usually require excellence in research, teaching, and further education. In its current usage, the title indicates that the holder has completed their habilitation and is therefore granted permission to teach and examine students independently without having a professorship.
Conferment and roles
A university faculty can confer the title to an academic who has a higher doctoral degree - usually in the form of a habilitation. The title, Privatdozent, as such does not imply a salaried appointment; it merely denotes permission to teach and examine independently at the conferring faculty without a professorial appointment. At German universities, some title holders are appointed as Dozent on a fee basis, or as senior researchers through externally funded research projects.
Many title holders do not have remuneration agreements with their conferring institution, but depending on local regulations may be required to teach in order to maintain their status as a Privatdozent. In 2012 more than 5,000 honorarium Privatdozenten worked at German universities without a salary.
A Privatdozent ceases to hold the title if appointed at professorial level or if discontinuing lecturing at the faculty. In Germany, the title can be revoked if the holder does not lecture for more than two consecutive semesters.
History and future
The title has its origins in German-speaking countries in Europe before 1800. It referred to a lecturer who received fees from his students rather than a university salary.
In Prussia it started around 1810, and became established around 1860. From 1900 until 1968, most university professors who were appointed were title holders, as they obtained a habilitation and already held a teaching position.
In Germany, since the end of the 1960s the requirement of a post-doctoral degree for a professorship has been questioned and in some cases became not always necessary. In 2002 junior professorships were introduced, providing a route to a professorship without habilitation; the habilitation is no longer the gold standard against which other qualifications are measured during the appointment process. This has led to a decline in universities conferring the title Privatdozent in certain academic disciplines.
References
Higher education in Germany
Academic terminology
Academic titles
German words and phrases | [
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220541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20coat%20of%20arms%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom | Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom | The royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, or the royal arms for short, is the arms of dominion of the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. These arms are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the royal arms are used by other members of the British royal family, by the British Government in connection with the administration and government of the country, and some courts and legislatures in a number of Commonwealth realms. A Scottish version of the royal arms is used in and for Scotland. The arms in banner form serve as basis for the monarch's official flag, the Royal Standard.
In the standard variant used outside of Scotland, the shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the three passant guardant lions of England; in the second, the rampant lion and double tressure flory-counterflory of Scotland; and in the third, a harp for Ireland. The crest is a statant guardant lion wearing the St Edward's Crown, himself on another representation of that crown. The dexter supporter is a likewise crowned English lion; the sinister, a Scottish unicorn. The English and Scottish quarters and supporters are swapped in the Scottish version of the arms.
In the greenery below, a thistle, Tudor rose and shamrock are depicted, representing Scotland, England and Ireland respectively. This armorial achievement comprises the motto, in French, of English monarchs, (God and my right), which has descended to the present royal family as well as the Garter circlet which surrounds the shield, inscribed with the Order's motto, in French, (Shame on him who thinks evil of it). In the arms as used in Scotland, the Order of the Thistle's motto, (No one provokes me with impunity) is used.
The official blazon of the royal arms is:
Uses
The royal arms may only be used by the Queen herself. They also appear in courtrooms, since the monarch is deemed to be the fount of judicial authority in the United Kingdom and law courts comprise part of the ancient royal court (thus so named). Judges are officially Crown representatives, demonstrated by the display of the royal arms behind the judge's bench in courts in England and Wales; which notable exceptions include the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, which displays its own badge and flag to symbolize its nationwide role, the magistrates' court in the City of London, where behind the Justices of the Peace stands a sword upright flanked by the arms of the City and the Crown. In addition, the royal arms cannot be displayed in courtrooms or on court-house exteriors in Northern Ireland, except for the courtrooms of the Royal Courts of Justice in Belfast and the courts in Armagh, Banbridge, Downpatrick, Magherafelt, or Omagh, and the exterior of court buildings that had them in place prior to the 2002 law.
As the United Kingdom is governed in the monarch's name, the British Government also uses the royal arms as a national symbol of the United Kingdom, and, in that capacity, the coat of arms can be seen on several government documents and forms, passports, in the entrance to embassies and consulates, etc. However, when used by the government and not by the monarch personally, the coat of arms is often represented without the helm. This is the case with both the Scottish and non-Scottish versions.
The royal arms have regularly appeared on the coinage produced by the Royal Mint including, for example, from 1663, the Guinea and, from 1983, the British one pound coin. In 2008, a new series of designs for all seven coins of £1 and below was unveiled by the Royal Mint, every one of which is drawn from the royal arms. The full royal arms appear on the one pound coin, and sections appear on each of the other six, such that they can be put together like a puzzle to make another complete representation of the royal arms. The series was replaced in 2016 by the Nations of the Crown bi-metallic coin.
The monarch grants Royal Warrants to select businesses and tradespeople which supply the Royal Household with goods or services. This entitles those businesses to display the royal arms on their packaging and stationery by way of advertising.
It is customary (but not mandatory) for churches throughout the United Kingdom whether in the Church of England or the Church of Scotland to display the royal arms to show loyalty to the Crown. If a church building of either denomination does not have a royal arms, permission from the Crown must be given before one can be used.
A banner of the royal arms, known as the Royal Standard, is flown from the royal palaces when the monarch is in residence, Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace being her principal abodes; and from public buildings only when the monarch is present. For instance, the Royal Standard only flies over the Palace of Westminster when the monarch is delivering her speech from the throne in the House of Lords at the State Opening of Parliament. This protocol equally applies to the monarch's principal residences in Scotland (the Palace of Holyroodhouse and Balmoral Castle), where the Royal Standard (Scottish version) is flown. When the monarch is not in residence the Union Flag, or in Scotland the ancient Royal Standard of Scotland, is flown.
The widely sold British newspaper The Times uses the Hanoverian royal arms as a logo, whereas its sister publication, The Sunday Times, displays the current version. Likewise, the Australian newspaper The Age uses the insignia as its logo.
The royal arms are also displayed in all courts in British Columbia, as well as in other Canadian provinces such as Ontario, where the judges are appointed by Crown authority. In Australia they were also displayed by all Viceroys as representation of their Crown authority, and by most state Supreme Courts across the country. Additionally the Western Australian Legislative Council has also adopted them as its own symbol.
The royal arms were controversially used by former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher as her official letterhead from .
Scotland
Since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, a separate version of the royal arms has been used in Scotland, giving the Scottish elements pride of place.
The shield is quartered, depicting in the first and fourth quarters the lion rampant of Scotland; in the second, the three lions passant guardant of England; and in the third, the harp of Ireland.
The crest atop the Crown of Scotland is a red lion, seated and forward facing, itself wearing the Crown of Scotland and holding the two remaining elements of the Honours of Scotland, namely the Sword of State and the Sceptre of Scotland. This was also the crest used in the royal arms of the Kingdom of Scotland. The slogan, in Scots, appears above the crest, in the tradition of Scottish heraldry, and is an abbreviated form of the full motto: In My Defens God Me Defend.
The supporters change sides and both appear wearing the crowns of their respective Kingdom. The dexter supporter is a crowned and chained unicorn, symbolising Scotland. The sinister supporter is a crowned lion, symbolising England. Between each supporter and the shield is a lance displaying the flag of their respective Kingdom.
The coat also features both the motto Nemo me impune lacessit (No one wounds (touches) me with impunity) and, surrounding the shield, the collar of the Order of the Thistle. On the compartment are a number of thistles, Scotland's national flower.
England, Wales and Northern Ireland
Unlike the Acts of Union 1707 with Scotland, the Acts of Union 1800 with Ireland did not provide for a separate Irish version of the royal arms. The crest of the Kingdom of Ireland ("on a wreath Or and Azure, a tower triple-towered of the First, from the portal a hart springing Argent attired and unguled Or") has had little or no official use since the union.
The harp quarter of the royal arms represents Ireland on both the English and Scottish versions. Likewise, one English quarter is retained in the Scottish version, and one Scottish quarter is retained in the English version. Thus, England, Scotland and Ireland are represented in all versions of the royal arms since they came under one monarch. When the Irish Free State established its own diplomatic seals in the 1930s, the royal arms appearing on them varied from those on their UK equivalents by having the Irish arms in two-quarters and the English arms in one.
By contrast, there is no representation at all for Wales in the royal arms, as at the Act of Union 1707 Wales was an integral part of the Kingdom of England pursuant to the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542; thus, it has been argued Wales is represented in the English coat of arms. However the argument is somewhat disingenuous as in 1535 the Welsh Dragon was already part of the Tudor Coat of Arms. Upon the accession of the Tudor monarchs, who were themselves of Welsh descent, a Welsh Dragon was used as a supporter on the royal arms. This was dropped by their successors, the Scottish House of Stuart, who replaced the Tudors' dragon supporter with the Scottish unicorn.
In the 20th century, the arms of the principality of Wales were added as an inescutcheon to the coat of arms of the Prince of Wales, and a banner of those arms with a green inescutcheon bearing the prince's crown is flown as his personal standard in Wales. The so-called Prince of Wales's feathers are a heraldic badge rather than a coat of arms upon a shield, but they are not Welsh in any case. They derive, in fact, from the English Princes of Wales (who may owe them to an exploit of Edward, the Black Prince at the Battle of Crécy) and carry the motto (German, "I Serve"). In any event, they do not form part of the royal arms, as opposed to the heraldic achievement of the Prince of Wales, who drops them upon his accession as King.
History
Kingdoms of England and Scotland
The current royal arms are a combination of the arms of the former kingdoms that make up the United Kingdom, and can be traced back to the first arms of the kings of England and kings of Scotland. Various alterations occurred over the years as the arms of other realms acquired or claimed by the kings were added to the royal arms. The table below tracks the changes in the royal arms from the original arms of King Richard I of England, and William I, King of Scots.
Union of the Crowns and the Commonwealth
After the Acts of Union 1707
Other variants
Royal family
Members of the British royal family are granted their own personal arms. In the past, the monarch's younger sons used various differences; and married daughters of the monarch impaled the plain royal arms with their husbands' arms. But for many centuries now, all members of the royal family have had differenced versions of the royal arms settled on them by Royal Warrant. Only children and grandchildren in the male line of the monarch are entitled to arms in this fashion: the arms of children of the monarch are differenced with a three-point label; while grandchildren of the monarch are differenced with a five-point label. An exception is made for the eldest son of the Prince of Wales, who also bears a three-point label. The labels are always white (argent) and each prince or princess has individual marks to form his or her particular difference, except the Prince of Wales, who uses a plain white three-pointed label. Since 1911, the arms of the Prince of Wales also displays an inescutcheon of the ancient arms of the Principality of Wales. The incumbent, Charles, Prince of Wales, after becoming the heir apparent in 1952, did not use the inescutcheon until he was officially created Prince of Wales in 1969.
Queens consort and the wives of sons of the monarch also have their own personal coat of arms. Typically this will be the arms of their husband impaled with their own personal arms or those of their father, if armigerous. However, the consorts of a queen regnant are not entitled to use the royal arms. Thus Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was granted his own personal arms. A notable exception to this rule was Prince Albert, who used the royal arms (differenced by a special label) quartered with his own Saxon royal arms.
Currently the following members of the royal family have their own arms based on the royal arms:
Government
Various versions of the royal arms are used by Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, the Parliament of the United Kingdom and courts in some parts of the Commonwealth.
HM Government generally uses a simplified version of the royal arms with a crown replacing the helm and crest, and with no compartment. In relation to Scotland, the Scotland Office and the Advocate General for Scotland use the Scottish version, again without the helm or crest, and the same was used as the day-to-day logo of the Scottish Executive until September 2007, when a rebranding exercise introduced the name Scottish Government, together with a revised logo incorporating the flag of Scotland.
The Scottish Government continues to use the Arms on some official documents.
The simplified royal arms also feature:
on all Acts of Parliament;
on the cover of all UK passports and passports issued in other British territories and dependencies;
as an inescutcheon on the diplomatic flags of British Ambassadors; and
on all acts of the Anguilla House of Assembly, the Sovereign Base Areas, Pitcairn Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands administrations;
on The London Gazette.
Various courts in the Commonwealth also continue to use the royal arms:
The Court of Appeal, Supreme Court and Provincial Court of British Columbia
The Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador and Court of Appeal of Newfoundland and Labrador
The Supreme Court of the Yukon Territory
The Supreme Court of South Australia
The Supreme Court of Victoria
Furthermore:
A version of the crest of the royal arms, as used in Scotland, is used by the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, the General Register Office for Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland.
The crowned shield of the royal arms encircled by the Garter is used by the Home Office, by the Privy Council Office (United Kingdom), and by the Parliament of Victoria.
The crowned shield of the royal arms is used by the Royal Mint.
The royal arms with the crest but without the helm is used as the rank insignia for Class 1 Warrant Officers in Her Majesty's Armed Forces.
Blazon
This table breaks down the official blazons to enable comparison of the differences between the general coat and the coat used in Scotland.
See also
Flag of the United Kingdom
Cadency labels of the British royal family
Armorial of the House of Plantagenet
Of all the former Dominions only three retain elements from the British Coat of Arms:
Coat of arms of New Zealand
Arms of Canada
Coat of arms of Newfoundland and Labrador
Ireland uses the medieval arms of Ireland that are incorporated into the British Coat of Arms:
Coat of arms of Ireland
All other former Dominions have changed their coat of arms:
Coat of arms of Australia
Coat of arms of South Africa
Emblem of India
Emblem of Sri Lanka
References
External links
Number 10 Downing Street- Royal Coat of Arms
Heraldica.org- The Royal Arms of Great Britain
Government identity system HM Government
United Kingdom
British monarchy
United Kingdom
National symbols of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Church architecture
United Kingdom
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|
220542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%27s%20Questions | Prime Minister's Questions | Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs, officially known as Questions to the Prime Minister, while colloquially known as Prime Minister's Question Time) is a constitutional convention in the United Kingdom, currently held as a single session every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting, during which the Prime Minister answers questions from Members of Parliament (MPs).
The Institute for Government has described PMQs as 'the most distinctive and internationally famous feature of British politics.'
History
Although prime ministers have answered questions in parliament for centuries, until the 1880s, questions to the prime minister were treated the same as questions to other Ministers of the Crown: asked without notice, on days when ministers were available, in whatever order MPs rose to ask them. In 1881 fixed time-limits for questions were introduced and questions to the prime minister were moved to the last slot of the day as a courtesy to the 72-year-old prime minister at the time, William Ewart Gladstone, so he could come to the Commons later in the day. In 1953, when Winston Churchill (in his late 70s at the time) was prime minister, it was agreed that questions would be submitted on fixed days (Tuesdays and Thursdays).
A Procedure Committee report in 1959 recommended that questions to the prime minister be taken in two fixed-period, 15-minute slots on Tuesday and Thursday afternoons. The recommendations were put into practice under Harold Macmillan during a successful experiment from 18 July 1961 to the end of the session on 4 August. The very first question was delivered by Labour MP Fenner Brockway, asking to which Minister the UK Ambassador to South Africa would be responsible. In response to the Prime Minister's answer, Brockway said "May I express our appreciation of this new arrangement for answering Questions and the hope that it will be convenient for the Prime Minister as well as useful to the House?" PMQs were made permanent in the following parliamentary session, with the first of these on 24 October 1961.
The style and culture of PMQs has changed gradually over time. According to former Speaker Selwyn Lloyd, the now famous disorderly behaviour of MPs during PMQs first arose as a result of the personal animosity between Harold Wilson and Edward Heath; before this PMQs had been lively but comparatively civilised. In the past, prime ministers often opted to transfer questions to the relevant minister, and Leaders of the Opposition did not always take their allocated number of questions in some sessions, sometimes opting not to ask any questions at all. This changed during the premiership of Margaret Thatcher, when the prime minister chose not to transfer any questions to other members of her Cabinet, and Labour leader Neil Kinnock began asking more questions than his predecessors. His successor, John Smith, established the precedent of always taking his full allocation of questions.
One of Tony Blair's first acts as prime minister was to replace the two 15-minute sessions with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays, initially at 3 p.m. but since 2003 at noon. The allocated number of questions in each session for the Leader of the Opposition was doubled from three to six, and the leader of the third-largest party in the Commons was given two questions as opposed to one question beforehand. The first PMQs to use this new format took place on 21 May 1997.
During the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government from 2010–2015, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, as a member of the government, did not ask questions during PMQs. Instead, the leader of the second largest parliamentary opposition party at the time, Nigel Dodds of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), usually asked a single question later in the session, followed by at least one MP from another party such as the Scottish National Party or Plaid Cymru.
Practice
Backbench MPs wishing to ask a question must enter their names on the Order Paper. The names of entrants are then shuffled in a ballot to produce a random order in which they will be called by the Speaker. The Speaker will then call on MPs to put their questions, usually in an alternating fashion: one MP from the government benches is followed by one from the opposition benches. MPs who are not selected may be chosen to ask a supplementary question if they "catch the eye" of the Speaker, which is done by standing and sitting immediately before the prime minister gives an answer.
The leader of the opposition usually asks six questions at PMQs, either as a whole block or in two separate groups of three. If the first question is asked by a government backbencher, the Leader of the Opposition is the second MP to ask questions. If the first question is asked by an opposition MP, this will be followed by a question from a government MP and then by the questions from the Leader of the Opposition. The leader of the third largest parliamentary party (the Liberal Democrats from 1988–2010 and the Scottish National Party from 2015) would then ask two questions.
The first formal question on the Order Paper, posed by simply saying "number one, Mr [or Madam] Speaker", is usually to ask the Prime Minister "if he [or she] will list his [her] engagements for the day". The prime minister usually replies:
The reason for such a question is that, historically, the prime minister may be questioned only as to those matters for which they are directly responsible. Such matters are relatively few in number, because many substantive matters are handled by the other Cabinet ministers . By requiring the prime minister to list his or her engagements, the members may then inquire whether the Prime Minister ought to be engaged in some other activity or be taking some other action.
Before listing the day's engagements, the prime minister sometimes extends condolences or offers congratulations after significant events. During the Iraq War, Tony Blair introduced the practice of naming any British military personnel who had been killed in service since the last time he addressed the House. This practice was continued by Blair's successors as prime minister. After this, the MP may ask a supplementary question about any subject that might occupy the Prime Minister's time. Most MPs table the same engagements question and so after it has been asked for the first time, any other MPs who have tabled the same question are simply called to ask an untabled question, meaning that the Prime Minister will not know what questions will be asked.
Occasionally the first question tabled is on a specific area of policy, not the engagements question. This, though, is quite rare as it would allow the Prime Minister to prepare a response in advance; the non-descript question allows some chance of catching him or her out with an unexpected supplementary question.
At times of national or personal tragedy or crisis, PMQs have been temporarily suspended. The last such suspension occurred on 25 February 2009 when the Speaker, at the request of Prime Minister Gordon Brown, suspended the Commons as a mark of respect following the unexpected death of Opposition leader David Cameron's son. Prime Minister's Questions was also suspended following the sudden death of the leader of the Labour Party, John Smith, in 1994.
PMQs has been filmed since 1989, and has been broadcast live since 1990. It is broadcast live in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two and BBC Parliament television channels. It is also broadcast outside the United Kingdom, most notably on the US cable network C-SPAN and has been spoofed on the American late-night television sketch comedy Saturday Night Live. In a C-SPAN interview in 1991, shortly after the network started to broadcast PMQs, US President George H. W. Bush said, "I count my blessings for the fact I don't have to go into that pit that John Major stands in, nose-to-nose with the opposition, all yelling at each other."
Absence of the Prime Minister or Leader of the Opposition
If the Prime Minister is away on official business when PMQs is scheduled, their role is usually filled by the Deputy Prime Minister. If this office is not occupied or the Deputy Prime Minister is not available, the next most senior member of the Cabinet will receive questions (such as the First Secretary of State or the Deputy Leader of the government party). In the absence of the Leader of the Opposition, the opposition questions will be usually led by the next highest ranking member of the Shadow Cabinet. From 1992 to 2020, a convention was in place that if either the Prime Minister or the Leader of the Opposition is absent, the other faction would nominate someone to stand, meaning that both sides were stood in for. This precedent was broken at Keir Starmer's first PMQs as Leader of the Opposition, as Prime Minister Boris Johnson was hospitalised due to illness with COVID-19. Dominic Raab, as First Secretary of State, stood in for Johnson. On 16 September 2020, a member of Starmer's household displayed COVID-19 symptoms, meaning he was self-isolating. As a result, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party and Shadow First Secretary of State Angela Rayner stood in for him putting questions to Johnson. Before 1992, the replacement would often question the Prime Minister or vice versa. For example, Roy Hattersley, the deputy leader of the Labour Party between 1983 and 1992, stood in for Neil Kinnock facing Margaret Thatcher on 38 occasions between February 1984 and July 1990.
Boris Johnson also became the first prime minister to answer PMQs outside the chamber virtually after having been told to isolate after meeting with Lee Anderson who later tested positive for COVID-19. Keir Starmer became the first leader of the opposition to ask questions remotely a month later after a member of his office staff contracted coronavirus.
During the Cameron–Clegg coalition, Nick Clegg answered 15 PMQs and William Hague twice, all opposite Harriet Harman. During the Second Cameron ministry, George Osborne answered three times, opposite Angela Eagle. In the Second May ministry, Damian Green replied twice, opposite Emily Thornberry, while David Lidington did so six times, opposite Thornberry and Rebecca Long-Bailey. On 2 October 2019, Diane Abbott became the first Black MP to stand for PMQs and ask the six main questions when she challenged the Foreign Secretary, Dominic Raab, in his capacity as First Secretary of State.
Leaders at the dispatch box since 1961
The most high-profile contributors at Prime Minister's questions are the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, who speak opposite each other at the dispatch box. Regular, fixed sessions have taken place since 1961, and the list below outlines the prime ministers since 1961 and Opposition party leaders they faced across the floor of the House of Commons, as well as the secondary opposition leader since 1997 (usually the leader of third largest party within the House of Commons):
Media coverage
In the United Kingdom, Prime Minister's Questions is broadcast live via cameras within the Press Gallery inside the House of Commons on domestic national television channels BBC Two, the BBC News Channel, BBC Parliament and Sky News. It is also broadcast live on the national radio station BBC Radio 5 Live.
In the United States, Prime Minister's Questions is broadcast live on the national C-SPAN television network. C-SPAN also has an archive of Prime Minister’s Questions coverage going back to 1989 when it was first televised. There is no live radio coverage of Prime Minister's Questions in that country.
Worldwide, Prime Minister's Questions is broadcast live via the official British Parliament website parliamentlive.tv, in visual and audio form.
Notes
References
External links
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Westminster system
British Prime Minister's Office
Weekly events
Events in the United Kingdom
Debates in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
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|
220544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martti%20Miettunen | Martti Miettunen | Martti Juhani Miettunen (17 April 1907 – 19 January 2002), was a Finnish politician who served twice as Finland's prime minister, from 1961 to 1962 and again from 1975 to 1977.
Miettunen was born in Simo, the son of a smallholder. He studied agriculture, and worked as a farmer and an agricultural advisor before entering politics. He served in Parliament as a representative for the Agrarian Party from 1945 to 1958, and then served as Governor of the Province of Lapland from 1958 to 1973. He was awarded the honorary title of Counsellor of State in 1977.
Miettunen served as a cabinet minister for 4,300 days, the eighth-longest period of service in Finnish political history. He was also known as President Urho Kekkonen's right-hand man.
He died at the age of 94 in the Kauniainen military hospital near Helsinki in early 2002.
Cabinets
Miettunen I Cabinet
Miettunen II Cabinet
Miettunen III Cabinet
References
1907 births
2002 deaths
People from Simo, Finland
People from Oulu Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Finnish Lutherans
Centre Party (Finland) politicians
Prime Ministers of Finland
Ministers of Transport and Public Works of Finland
Ministers of Agriculture of Finland
Ministers of Finance of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1945–48)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1948–51)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1951–54)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1954–58)
20th-century Lutherans | [
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|
220545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question%20Period | Question Period | Question Period (), known officially as Oral Questions () occurs each sitting day in the House of Commons of Canada, in which members of the parliament ask questions of government ministers (including the prime minister). According to the House of Commons Compendium, “The primary purpose of Question Period is to seek information from the Government and to call it to account for its actions.” It is similar in form to question time in other parliaments, mainly those following the Westminster system.
At the Legislative Assembly of Ontario (as well as in several other provinces) questions raised are referred as Oral Questions. In the Quebec National Assembly, the term is Oral Questions and Answers.
History
The first oral question occurred during the 1st Canadian Parliament, before rules had been established providing for formal questions. According to the record of debates for November 29, 1867, a question was posed to Chairman of the Printing Committee before Orders of the Day were called.
In the absence of formal rules, the Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada exerted great control over form, nature, and admissibility of questions. The first codification of formal rules to govern Question Period occurred in April 1964, and subsequent rule changes have been adopted; however, the opinion of the Speaker carries the most weight, as the actions of the Speaker set precedents when a new Point of Order or questions arises about practices during Question Period.
For a detailed discussion, see Robert Marleau and Camille Montpetit’s House of Commons Procedure and Practice.
Current practice
Question Period lasts 45 minutes pursuant to Standing Order 30(5), beginning no later than 2:15 pm or 11:15 am, as the case may be. Typically, 2:15 pm is the start time for Question Period Monday through Thursday, with Question Period starting at 11:15 on Fridays. Every Wednesday, Question Period starts slightly after 2:15 due to the 2:00 pm singing of the National Anthem, "O Canada".
Questions may be posed to either the Prime Minister, or any Minister of the Cabinet of Canada, who will answer the question unless the Speaker rejects the question under established rules or accepted custom. For example, although it is not codified, questions on current legal matters before the courts are not acceptable questions.
Question Period in Canada, as an instance of Question time in Westminster tradition, is similar to the Prime Minister's Questions practice of the Parliament of the United Kingdom; however it is important to note that the Canadian version occurs daily as opposed to weekly, runs 45 minutes instead of 30 and questions may be asked to any cabinet member, not just the Prime Minister. In the UK Parliament, other Cabinet members have Question Time on other days, so it is a daily occurrence but to specific Ministers.
Format
At the start of a typical Question Period, the Speaker recognizes the Leader of the Opposition to ask the lead question. It is possible for the question to be asked by a designee of the Leader of the Opposition, yet this Member of Parliament must be a member of the Official Opposition. Following the answer to the lead question, the lead questioner has two more questions permitted, referred to as supplementary questions. These questions may be asked by the same Member of Parliament to follow up on the answer provided to the lead question, or they may be given to another member of the Official Opposition.
When the Official Opposition has exhausted its initial three questions, the lead questioners of the other officially recognized opposition parties are permitted an initial question and one supplementary question each, in order of size. In the 43rd Canadian Parliament, once the Official Opposition is finished, questions then come from the Bloc Québécois, then the New Democratic Party.
Throughout the remainder of Question Period, Members of officially recognized parties ask questions in rotation based upon party representation in the House. Members of the governing party may occasionally pose a question to one of their own. Members of political parties not officially recognized in the House and independent Members may also be recognized to ask questions, though not as often as Members of officially recognized opposition parties. Ministers and
Parliamentary Secretaries do not ask questions.
Rules
Question Period has a reputation for being quite chaotic due to the commonplace cat-calling and jeering from non-participating MPs, but notwithstanding the heckling, Question Period is actually tightly regulated. Parties are only allowed to ask a predetermined number of questions based on the size of their caucus, and must ask their questions in a specific order, predetermined by their party leadership for that day on a list given to the Speaker.
Questions and responses are all timed as well, in order to prevent excessive speeches, and the Speaker of the House has the ability to cut the microphones of members speaking after the specified time has elapsed. The parties may negotiate a maximum time limit for each question and answer; currently this limit is 35 seconds for each.
As with other parliamentary procedures in the House, members of opposition parties must place questions through the Speaker, addressing them only indirectly to the minister responsible for the issue at hand. When asking questions, members address the Speaker as "Mr. Speaker" or "Madam Speaker" ("Monsieur le président" or "Madame la présidente" in French). There is no obligation for the minister referred to in the question to actually respond, and often the minister's parliamentary secretary or a fellow cabinet member will rise to answer the question. This is particularly true when the minister addressed is not actually present in the House during Question Period, and arguably occurs most often when the Prime Minister is addressed on a specific issue for which one of his ministers has more information.
Bilingual nature
Reflecting the nature of Bilingualism in Canada, Question Period is bilingual. Questions may be posed in either English or French and responses may be in either official language. Although English was the primary language in parliament in its early days, French is now spoken just as much as English. Simultaneous interpretation is provided on English and French broadcasts of Question Period, on many news networks, as well as the Cable Public Affairs Channel (CPAC). Transcripts of Question Period are published in both official languages in the Canadian Hansard, as with any other proceedings in the House of Commons and its committees.
There is no guarantee that the answer will be provided in the same language as the question, and a Member relying on the simultaneous interpretation may respond to something differing slightly from the actual question asked. For the most part, bilingual Members respond to the question in the language in which it was asked.
The simultaneous translation provided to Members in the Chamber as well as visitors in the gallery is also available over the internet on either the website of the Parliament of Canada, or through services such as CPAC.
Provincial equivalent
Each of the provincial legislatures also conducts its own form of question period. Question Period in provincial legislatures are formally known as Oral Questions in British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario, and Oral Questions and Answers in Quebec.
See also
Prime Minister's Questions in the British House of Commons
Question Hour in the Lok Sabha
Question Period, a Canadian political news series on CTV which takes its name from this practice.
References
External links
CPAC, Canada's parliamentary channel; broadcasts Question Period online.
Parliament of Canada Compendium article on Question Period
Chapter on Questions from House of Commons Procedure and Practice by Robert Marleau and Camille Montpetit
Westminster system
Parliamentary procedure in Canada | [
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|
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