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221192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterling%20silver	Sterling silver	Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of other metals, usually copper. The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925. Fine silver, for example 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Sterling silver is prone to tarnishing, and elements other than copper can be used in alloys to reduce tarnishing, as well as casting porosity and firescale. Such elements include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. Recent examples of these alloys include argentium, sterlium, sterilite and silvadium. Etymology One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form , in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux, dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – 1142) uses the Latin forms and . The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the most plausible etymology is derivation from a late Old English (with (or like) a 'little star'), as some early Norman pennies were imprinted with a small star. Another argument is that the Hanseatic League was the source for both the origin of its definition and manufacture, and in its name is that the German name for the Baltic is , or 'East Sea', and from this the Baltic merchants were called "Osterlings", or "Easterlings". In 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. Because the League's money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, which was contracted to sterling. and land for their , the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or . The Hanseatic League was officially active in the London trade from 1266 to 1597. This etymology may have been first suggested by Walter de Pinchebek (ca. 1300) with the explanation that the coin was originally made by moneyers from that region. The claim has also been made in Henry Spelman's glossary () as referenced in Commentaries on the Laws of England by William Blackstone. Yet another claim on this same hypothesis is from William Camden, as quoted in Chamber's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Arts, Volume 4. By 1854, the tie between Easterling and Sterling was well-established, as Ronald Zupko quotes in his dictionary of weights. The British numismatist Philip Grierson disagrees with the "star" etymology, as the stars appeared on Norman pennies only for the single three-year issue from 1077–1080 (the Normans changed coin designs every three years). Grierson's proposed alternative is that sterling derives from ster meaning 'strong' or 'stout', by analogy with the Byzantine solidus, originally known as the meaning 'solid gold' or 'reliable gold'. In support of this he cites the fact that one of the first acts of the Normans was to restore the coinage to the consistent weight and purity it had in the days of Offa, King of Mercia. This would have been perceived as a contrast to the progressive debasement of the intervening 200 years, and would therefore be a likely source for a nickname. S.E. Rigold disputes the origin being Norman, stating, "that, while medieval British coins seldom copy or are copied by those of France, they have many typological connexions with the lands to the east—the Netherlands, the Baltic, Germany, and even deeper regions of central Europe." History The sterling alloy originated in continental Europe and was being used for commerce as early as the 12th century in the area that is now northern Germany. In England the composition of sterling silver was subject to official assay at some date before 1158, during the reign of Henry II, but its purity was probably regulated from centuries earlier, in Saxon times. A piece of sterling silver dating from Henry II's reign was used as a standard in the Trial of the Pyx until it was deposited at the Royal Mint in 1843. It bears the royal stamp ENRI. REX ("King Henry") but this was added later, in the reign of Henry III. The first legal definition of sterling silver appeared in 1275, when a statute of Edward I specified that 12 Troy ounces of silver for coinage should contain 11 ounces pennyweights of silver and pennyweights of alloy, with 20 pennyweights to the Troy ounce. This is (not precisely) equivalent to a millesimal fineness of 926. In Colonial America, sterling silver was used for currency and general goods as well. Between 1634 and 1776, some 500 silversmiths created items in the "New World" ranging from simple buckles to ornate Rococo coffee pots. Although silversmiths of this era were typically familiar with all precious metals, they primarily worked in sterling silver. The colonies lacked an assay office during this time (the first would be established in 1814), so American silversmiths adhered to the standard set by the London Goldsmiths Company: sterling silver consisted of 91.5–92.5% by weight silver and 8.5–7.5 wt% copper. Stamping each of their pieces with their personal maker's mark, colonial silversmiths relied upon their own status to guarantee the quality and composition of their products. Colonial silversmiths used many of the techniques developed by those in Europe. Casting was frequently the first step in manufacturing silver pieces, as silver workers would melt down sterling silver into easily manageable ingots. Occasionally, they would create small components (e.g. teapot legs) by casting silver into iron or graphite molds, but it was rare for an entire piece to be fabricated via casting. More commonly, a silversmith would forge an ingot into the desired shape, often hammering the thinned silver against specially shaped dies to "mass produce" simple shapes like the oval end of a spoon. The hammering occurred at room temperature, and, like any cold forming process, caused work hardening of the silver, which become increasingly brittle and difficult to shape. To restore the workability, the silversmith would anneal the piece—that is, heat it to a dull red and then quench it in water—to relieve the stresses in the material and return it to a more ductile state. Hammering required more time than all other silver manufacturing processes, and therefore accounted for the majority of labor costs. Silversmiths would then seam parts together to create complex and artistic items, sealing the gaps with a solder of 80 wt% silver and 20 wt% bronze. Finally, they would file and polish their work to remove all seams, finishing off with engraving and stamping the smith's mark. The American revolutionary Paul Revere was regarded as one of the best silversmiths from this "Golden Age of American Silver." Following the Revolutionary War, Revere acquired and made use of a silver rolling mill from England. Not only did the rolling mill increase his rate of production—hammering and flattening silver took most of a silversmith’s time—he was able to roll and sell silver of appropriate, uniform thickness to other silversmiths. He retired a wealthy artisan, his success partly due to this strategic investment. Although he is celebrated for his beautiful hollowware, Revere made his fortune primarily on low-end goods produced by the mill, such as flatware. With the onset of the first Industrial Revolution, silversmithing declined as an artistic occupation. From about 1840 to 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver cutlery (US: 'flatware') became de rigueur when setting a proper table. There was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged during that period. The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. A number of factors converged to make sterling silver cutlery fall out of favor around the time of World War II. The cost of labor rose (pieces were all still mostly handmade, with only the basics being done by machine). Only the wealthy could afford the large number of servants required for fancy dining with ten courses. And changes in aesthetics resulted in people desiring simpler dinnerware that was easier to clean. Hallmarks Some countries developed systems of hallmarking silver: To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece. To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece. To note the date and/or location of the manufacture or tradesman. To reduce the amount of counterfeiting of silver items. Uses Individual eating implements often included: forks (dinner fork, salad fork, pastry fork, or shrimp fork) spoons (teaspoon, coffee spoon, demitasse spoon, iced tea spoon) and knives (dinner knife, butter spreader, cheese knife). This was especially true during the Victorian period, when etiquette dictated no food should be touched with one's fingers. Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory, and could include any or all of the following: carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole-serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four server, cake knife, bon bon spoon, salt spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with brush. Cutlery sets were often accompanied by tea sets, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces. The interest in sterling silver extended to business (paper clips, mechanical pencils, letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, cutlery, rattles). Other uses of the specific silver alloy include: Use as surgical and medical instruments as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items and sharper, more durable steel ones. The alloy's natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it is also naturally aseptic. Some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92.5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophone. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver. Use as jewelry rings, bracelets, earrings and necklaces. Tarnish and corrosion Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide. As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air. The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution, a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions. Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top. Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. Techniques such as wheel polishing, which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion. See also Britannia silver, a higher grade silver alloy (95.8% compared to Sterling silver's 92.5%) Argentium sterling silver, a higher grade silver alloy with unique working properties (93.6% or 96%) Coin silver, .900 fine silver widely used in pre-1964 United States coinage Pound sterling, the official currency of the United Kingdom, which once was based on a weight in sterling silver Weighted sterling, items with a silver surface and a composite of other materials Footnotes References Works cited All About Antique Silver with International Hallmarks, 2nd printing (2007), by Diana Sanders Cinamon, AAA Publishing, San Bernardino, CA. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, by lexicographer Eric Partridge. Silver in America, 1840–1940: A Century of Splendor, third edition (1997), by Charles L. Venable; Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, NY. Tiffany Silver Flatware, 1845–1905: When Dining Was an Art, by William P. Hood, Jr.; 1999; published by the Antique Collectors Club Ltd., Suffolk, England. The Encyclopedia of American Silver Manufacturers, revised fourth edition (1998), by Dorothy T. Rainwater and Judy Redfield; Schiffer Publishing Ltd., Atglen, PA. The Book of Old Silver, English – American – Foreign, With All Available Hallmarks Including Sheffield Plate Marks, by Seymour B. Wyler; 1937; Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, NY. International Hallmarks on Silver Collected by Tardy, 5th English Language reprint (2000); original publication date unknown, date of first softcover publication 1985; author unknown; publisher unknown. 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221194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyazaki%20Prefecture	Miyazaki Prefecture	is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. Miyazaki Prefecture has a population of 1,073,054 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 7,735 km2 (2,986 sq mi). Miyazaki Prefecture borders Ōita Prefecture to the north, Kumamoto Prefecture to the northwest, and Kagoshima Prefecture to the southwest. Miyazaki is the capital and largest city of Miyazaki Prefecture, with other major cities including Miyakonojō, Nobeoka, and Hyūga. Miyazaki Prefecture is located in southeastern Kyūshū on Japan's Pacific coast, with its coastline extending from Nobeoka near the entrance to the Bungo Channel to Shibushi Bay in Kushima. History Historically, after the Meiji Restoration, Hyūga Province was renamed Miyazaki Prefecture. In Japan, Miyazaki Prefecture was first created in 1873 when Mimitsu Prefecture was merged with parts of Miyakonojō Prefecture. The first Miyazaki existed only until 1876 when it was merged (back) into Kagoshima Prefecture. Under public pressure and demands in the prefectural assembly of Kagoshima, Miyazaki became finally independent from Kagoshima in 1883. Geography Miyazaki Prefecture is on the eastern coast of the island of Kyushu, surrounded by the Pacific Ocean to the south and east, Ōita Prefecture to the north, and Kumamoto and Kagoshima prefectures to the west. It is one of only two locations on Earth where the fungus Chorioactis geaster is found. Miyazaki is the home of the hyuganatsu fruit. It is also home to two virgin forests of the palm Livistona chinensis, one of which, on the islet of Aoshima, Miyazaki, is the northernmost reproducing population of its native range. As of 31 March 2019, 12% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Kirishima-Kinkōwan National Park; Kyūshū Chūō Sanchi, Nichinan Kaigan, Nippō Kaigan, and Sobo-Katamuki Quasi-National Parks; and Mochio-Sekinoo, Osuzu, Saitobaru-Sugiyasukyō, Sobo Katamuki, Wanitsuka, and Yatake Kōgen Prefectural Natural Parks. Cities Nine cities are in Miyazaki Prefecture: Districts These are the towns and villages of each district: Mergers Sports The sports teams/events listed below are based in Miyazaki. Football (soccer) Honda Lock S.C. (Miyazaki City) Tegevajaro Miyazaki (Miyazaki City) Basketball (Bj League) Miyazaki Shining Suns (Miyazaki City) Golf (Japan Golf Tour) Dunlop Phoenix Tournament (ダンロップフェニックストーナメント, Danroppu fenikkusu tōnamento) (Miyazaki City) Annual Japan Golf Tour event, with one of the highest prize money amounts on the tour, that attracts top players from around the world. Press Media Newspaper Miyazaki Daily Newspaper Evening Daily (Different from the Daily Sports evening edition published in Kanto) The Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, Nishi Nihon Shimbun and Minami Nihon Shimbun also have branch offices and communication departments in the prefecture. The Miyazaki Nichi-Nichi Shimbun is a local newspaper covering the entire area of Miyazaki Prefecture. The Yomiuri / Asahi / Daily newspapers handle the Miyazaki edition, and the Nishi-Nippon Shimbun handles articles in the prefecture within Minami Kyushu Wide (two prefectures in Miyazaki and Kagoshima). The Minami Nihon Shimbun is a local newspaper in Kagoshima Prefecture, but it is also sold in the western part of the prefecture (prefectures). The Nishi Nihon Shimbun ended its publication in both Miyazaki and Kagoshima prefectures on March 31, 2018 (the same applies to West Japan Sports). Telecast TV station Status In this prefecture, even after many broadcasting stations (Heisei New Station) opened in other prefectures and the number of channels increased, private broadcasting as the target area of broadcasting is the Fuji TV series main TV Miyazaki (UMK) and TBS series There are only two stations of Miyazaki Broadcasting (MRT). In the 1990s, a third commercial TV station was scheduled to be created, but it has been abandoned, and there are no plans or plans for the opening of a new station (see details in the separate section). There are other prefectures (Fukui Prefecture and Yamanashi Prefecture) where there are only two commercial broadcasters, but these prefectures are areas where broadcast stations in the neighboring prefectures can watch by means of public hearing facilities, cable TV (CATV) or direct reception outside the area. Is the majority. On the other hand, in this prefecture, as will be described later, the penetration rate of cable TV is low for the number of private broadcasters, and the reception outside the area is also limited to Kagoshima Prefecture in parts of Ebino City, Miyakonojo City, Kushima City, Mimata Town There is a relative disparity in information in Japan because the broadcast area is limited to the broadcast area where Kumamoto Prefecture is the broadcast area in some areas such as Gokase-cho. It is said that. Until the opening of NHK Miyazaki Broadcasting Station in July 1960, the Kagoshima Station was received in Miyazaki City, and before the Kagoshima Station was opened, the Hiroshima Station was received using ionospheric reflection, as well as Gokase Town and Shiiba Village. Then Kumamoto station was watched. See Gokase Relay Station for the situation in Gokase Town. On the other hand, as described above, there are only two channels that can be directly viewed in Miyazaki Prefecture as described above (this is not the case if you can watch stations in neighboring prefectures). There are also locations that receive broadcasts from neighboring prefectures (mainly Kagoshima and Kumamoto Prefectures) that perform full networks of the ANN (TV Asahi) series and NNS / NNN (Nippon TV) series, which are sub-affiliated sub-series. (Refer to the separate section for details.) Proposed TV Station In 1990, the third private broadcasting station was assigned (Miyazaki 21ch), and about 400 licenses were filed. Among them, NTV had a plan to set up a broadcasting station with Okinawa (see Southwest Broadcasting for Okinawa), but it was necessary to inject funds into satellite broadcasting due to the effects of the recession after the collapse of the bubble economy and satellite broadcasting. By April 1993, “The program will be provided free of charge, but it will not support the opening of the station and will not be given any compensation for the network” (meaning that you have to search for sponsors yourself), and will advance to Miyazaki as a key station. Abandoned. For this reason, there was a plan to use TV Asahi as a key station later, but the TV Asahi side showed disappointment, thus the idea of setting up the third station was on the reef and on September 6, 2000. The radio wave assignment has been canceled. The land reserved for the new Miyazaki station later became a parking lot. Former Governor Hideo Higashikokubaru also posted an extension of the TV station in the manifesto, but this was not necessarily a terrestrial commercial release, but also an image of Internet TV. On the other hand, the Institute for Manifest Research at Waseda University has judged this manifest as a C evaluation (minimum of the three stages of A, B, and C), which is “substantially delayed or policy change＂. Miyazaki Method The Miyazaki system for TV transmitters means that the local government that is the beneficiary bears a part of the installation cost of the relay station. As a private broadcasting station, the coverage rate in the prefecture is almost 100% just by setting up a plan station, so the installation of a relay station in a mountainous area was not expected to be cost-effective. This was the direction of installation due to the fact that the local government in the Irago district (current Misato-cho, Togo-cho, Hyuga-shi, Morozuka-mura, Shiiba-mura) applied to the broadcasting station for a part of the installation cost in 1973. . As a result, relay stations were set up in Irago, Hinata Saigo, Togo (1973), Kita Morozuka, Minami Morozuka, Shiiba (1974). Since then, this method has basically been adopted for relay stations installed in Miyazaki Prefecture. Radio NHK Miyazaki Broadcasting Station (AM / FM) Miyazaki Broadcasting (MRT Radio) (JRN / NRN series) FM Miyazaki (JOY FM) (JFN affiliate, TV Miyazaki affiliate) Miyazaki Sunshine FM (community broadcast)-Miyazaki City resends music bird in some time zone City FM Miyakonojo (Community Broadcast)-Miyakonojo City, resend J-WAVE at certain times FM beoka (community broadcast)-Nobeoka FM Hyuga (Community Broadcasting)-Hyuga City / Kadokawa Town, operated by Cable Media Waiwai, re-sends music birds at some times In Miyazaki City, there was a community FM station, Miyazaki City FM (City FM77), which was closed on October 31, 2005. Transportation Rail JR Kyushu Nippō Main Line, Miyazaki Kūkō Line, Nichinan Line, Kitto Line, Hisatsu Line Bus Miyazaki Kōtsu Airport Miyazaki Airport See also History of Miyazaki Prefecture Miyazaki Ocean Dome Notes References Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 External links Official Miyazaki Prefecture website Official Miyazaki Prefecture website Miyazaki and Vicinity Information from the JNTO Video Footage The following travel- and tourism-related videos were shot and provided by video artist egawauemon. 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221195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Fritsch	Johannes Fritsch	Johannes Georg Fritsch (27 July 1941 – 29 April 2010) was a German composer. At the age of seven, Fritsch found a violin in the attic of his uncle's house in Bensheim-Auerbach, Germany, and began lessons with a village music teacher named Knapp. When he was ten, his family moved to Cologne, and he began studying with the principal violist in the Gürzenich Orchestra. He studied music, sociology, and philosophy from 1961 to 1965 at the University and the Staatliche Musikhochschule in Cologne with, amongst others, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In the following years he applied himself to the most varied musical activities. Amongst other things he played viola in the Stockhausen-Ensemble from 1964 to 1970, and took part in the German exhibition at Expo '70, the World's Fair in Osaka in 1970. Although he had begun to compose at the age of 17, Fritsch regards as his first real composition the Duett für Bratsche (Duet for Viola), for viola and tape, which had a succès de scandale when he performed it at the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in 1962—one newspaper review called him a kühner Kratzer (audacious scraper). In 1966 Fritsch received the Förderpreis (Monetary Award) of the Federal State of North Rhine–Westphalia, and in 1971 the Prize of the Paris Biennale. Since the 1970s there have been further awards, such as the Förderpreis of the City of Cologne, and the Robert-Schumann Prize of the City of Düsseldorf. In 1970 Fritsch was one of the founders of the Feedback Studio of Cologne (together with Rolf Gehlhaar and David Johnson), and has been since 1975 active as the chief protagonist of the Feedback Studio Verlag, the first German composers' publishing house. He is a producer of compact discs, editor of the Feedback Studio Papers (one of the journals dedicated to electronic music), a publisher of scores of contemporary music, and a concert manager. In 1979, 1982, 1984, and 1986 he was with WDR manager of the World Music Congresses in Vlotho. From 1984 he was Professor of Composition at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Cologne, where his students have included Volker Staub, Caspar Johannes Walter, Juan María Solare, Josef Rebbe, Branimir Krstic and many other composers and improvisors. He died at the age of 68 on 29 April 2010 after a long illness. References Cited sources External links Edition Johannes Fritsch (German, English) Literature on and by Johannes Fritsch (in German) in the catalogue of the German National Library Johannes Fritsch, The Living Composers Project, biography, works list 1941 births 2010 deaths 20th-century classical composers 21st-century classical composers German classical composers German classical violists Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln alumni Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln faculty Pupils of Karlheinz Stockhausen German male classical composers 20th-century German composers 21st-century German composers 20th-century German male musicians 21st-century German male musicians	[ -0.3876579701900482, 0.9439026117324829, -0.3923346996307373, -0.3141922950744629, -0.6579326391220093, 0.6896027326583862, 0.5976600646972656, -0.16573649644851685, 0.10423373430967331, -0.42839300632476807, 0.06938556581735611, 0.088314488530159, -0.29302772879600525, 0.2578187584877014, 0.1342921257019043, 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221198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamp%20%28tool%29	Clamp (tool)	A clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure. In the United Kingdom the term cramp is often used instead when the tool is for temporary use for positioning components during construction and woodworking; thus a G cramp or a sash cramp but a wheel clamp or a surgical clamp. There are many types of clamps available for many different purposes. Some are temporary, as used to position components while fixing them together, others are intended to be permanent. In the field of animal husbandry, using a clamp to attach an animal to a stationary object is known as "rounded clamping." A physical clamp of this type is also used to refer to an obscure investment banking term, "fund clamps." Anything that performs the action of clamping may be called a clamp, so this gives rise to a wide variety of terms across many fields. Types Temporary These clamps (or cramps) are used to position components temporarily for various tasks: Band clamp or web clamp Bar clamp, F-clamp or sliding clamp (upper left in the photo) Cardellini clamp – jaw-style clamp that clamps onto round, square, or rectangular tubing; or onto flat objects, such as dimensional lumber or plywood sheets—to mount motion picture lights, or grip equipment such as gobo heads C-clamp (also G-clamp or G-cramp) (lower centre in the photo) Flooring clamp A carpenter's clamp used to cramp up floorboards prior to fixing. Forked clamp stainless steel for ST ground glass joints with/without setscrew. Sizes for: ST 14, 19, 24, 29 and 45. Gripe (a specialized clamp, tightened with a wedge, for holding strakes in position when building a clinker boat) Handscrew (upper right in the photo) Holdfast, a bench clamp for holding things to a bench top or side The bench forms the fixed jaw. Kant-Twist clamp Magnetic clamp (see Magnetic base) Mitre clamp Pipe clamp (top of photo) Sash clamp (a specialized, long form of bar clamp) Set screw Spring clamp (first item of third row in photo) Speed clamp Step clamp, a type of serrated-edged clamp used in conjunction with step blocks when machining or milling parts in metalworking Toggle clamp Toolmakers' clamp (a smaller, precision version of the handscrew, all in steel) Pinch Dog (a small "staple" shaped device, designed to straddle a joint, and pull the joint tightly together during the glue up process) Clip hangers are a subset of clothes hangers Permanent Hose clamp Marman clamp Wire rope clamp Joiner's dog Medical Foerster clamp Hemostatic clamp Pennington clamp Gomco clamp Mogen clamp Other Wheel clamp Pandrol clip Tube clamp (name for the different clamps used in a tube and clamp scaffold) Nipple clamp See also Fixture Vise References Further reading Patrick Spielman (1986). Gluing and Clamping: A Woodworker’s Handbook. Sterling Publishing. Lee Jesberger (2007). 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221199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamp%20%28manga%20artists%29	Clamp (manga artists)	Clamp (stylized as CLAMP) is an all-female Japanese manga artist group, consisting of leader and writer Nanase Ohkawa (born in Osaka), and three artists whose roles shift for each series: Mokona, Tsubaki Nekoi, and Satsuki Igarashi (all born in Kyoto). Clamp was first formed in the mid-1980s as an eleven-member group creating dōjinshi (self-published fan works), and began creating original manga in 1987. By the time the group made its mainstream publishing debut with RG Veda in 1989, it was reduced to seven members; three more members left in 1993, leaving the four current members of the group. Notable works by Clamp include X (1992), Magic Knight Rayearth (1993), Cardcaptor Sakura (1996) and its sequel Cardcaptor Sakura: Clear Card (2016), Chobits (2000), and xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle (both 2003). Various series by the group cross-reference each other, and characters reappear in multiple works by the group, with Tsubasa, a series set across multiple dimensions, featuring multiple alternative versions of characters from past works. Clamp are noted as among the most critically and commercially acclaimed manga artists in Japan, and as of 2007, have sold nearly 100 million books worldwide. Etymology The name "Clamp" comes from a misspelling of the word "clump", in the sense of "a bunch of potatoes". This is referenced in Duklyon: Clamp School Defenders, where a teacher is observed saying: "The name 'Clamp' incorporates the words 'hinge,' as well as 'potato mountain,' within its definition." History Before their debut (1980s–1989) Clamp originally began in the mid-1980s as an eleven-member dōjinshi circle. This included , , , , , , and . Three of Clamp's artists—Mokona, Tsubaki Nekoi, and Satsuki Igarashi—first began drawing manga when they were teenagers, inspired by friends. The three artists were good friends in the same school. They met and befriended Nanase Ohkawa through one of her friends who had bought comics from Mokona. The original group of twelve members began to meet at every event held in Osaka and Kobe, which usually occurred once a month. Before they began creating original work, the group produced dōjinshi of Captain Tsubasa, and yaoi dōjinshi of Saint Seiya. However, in 1987 the group stopped dōjinshi and began creating original work; it was at this time they began working on RG Veda, a loose adaptation of the Rigveda. Their first collaborative work was entitled "Clamp", which they continued to work on until shortly after their debut. The group debuted as professional manga artists when they decided to print the manga RG Veda, which they had first started as a fan comic. After seeing the comic digest of the manga series that Clamp had published, an editor for Shinshokan's Wings manga magazine asked the group to work for them. They submitted an approximately sixty-page story as a sample, but the work was rejected. Ohkawa later lambasted the draft, stating that "everything was bad" and attributing the quality to the group's lack of experience, since they had never before completed a story as a cohesive group. The group was given another chance at publication should they submit a new story that Shinshokan liked; this time, they submitted RG Veda, which was serializd in Wings magazine. During the time before their official debut, the group moved to Tokyo and rented a small, two-bedroom apartment. Ohkawa stated that she thought she was "gonna die there". Nekoi stated that "the only private space [they] had was under [their] desk." By the time RG Veda debuted, its members had gone down to seven. During the production of the manga RG Veda, O-Kyon had left the group. In June 1990, Sei Nanao officially left the group (last mentioned in Shōten 6), , , and officially left in March 1993 (as mentioned in the Shōten 3). In October 1992, Tamayo Akiyama and Leeza Sei officially left the group. RG Veda was originally planned to be a single story rather than a series, although because of good reader response and higher-than-expected sales for its first volume Shinshokan permitted the group to create more volumes, however after each chapter of the manga was released, Shinshokan threatened that it would cease serialization should its popularity fall. In July 1989, Genki Comics began serializing Clamp's second work, Man of Many Faces. 1990–1999 Genki Comics began serializing Duklyon: Clamp School Defenders in August 1991, which became the work that the three artists Mokona, Nekoi, and Igarashi enjoyed working on most. In March 1990, Wings began serializing Tokyo Babylon. In December 1990, Monthly Asuka ran Clamp School Detectives, and in May 1992, it began serializing X. Clamp was serialized by many other magazines and publishers including Kobunsha publishing Shirahime-Syo: Snow Goddess Tales on June 10, 1992. In 1993, Clamp released two different manga: in March, Miyuki-chan in Wonderland, which began serializing in Newtype, and in November, Magic Knight Rayearth which was serialized in Nakayoshi. Nakayoshi also began to serialize Cardcaptor Sakura in May 1996; Ohkawa, Clamp's leader and storyboarder, particularly enjoyed working on Cardcaptor Sakura because unlike many of her previous works, it wasn't tragic. Kadokawa Shoten published The One I Love on July 17, 1995. Wish first began serializing in Asuka Comics DX in October 1996. In December 1998, Suki: A Like Story began first serializing in Asuka Comics DX, and in January 1999, Angelic Layer first began serializing in Monthly Shōnen Ace. 2000–2009 In 2001, Young Magazine began serializing Clamp's Chobits which completed its run in 2002. Although their previous works are targeted at a female audience, Chobits marked the first time Clamp wrote for an older teen male audience. Clamp began writing the two works that tell separate parts of the same overarching plot, xxxHolic serialized in Young Magazine beginning in 2003 followed by Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle serialized in the Weekly Shōnen Magazine beginning in the same year. Tsubasa marked the first time Clamp had ever tried writing for a younger male audience, although their first work published in the Shōnen demography was Angelic Layer. In 2004, Clamp's 15th anniversary as a manga artist group, the members changed their names from Nanase Ohkawa, Mokona Apapa, Mick Nekoi, and Satsuki Igarashi to Ageha Ohkawa, Mokona, Tsubaki Nekoi and Satsuki Igarashi (her name is pronounced the same, but written with different characters) respectively. To celebrate Clamp's 15th anniversary, Tokyopop released a twelve-part magazine series entitled Clamp no Kiseki that contained a plethora of information for fans. The August 2004 issue of Newtype USA, a magazine specializing in events of the anime and manga subcultures, reported that the members of Clamp simply wanted to try out new names. In a later interview with Ohkawa, it was revealed that initially Mokona wanted to drop her surname because it sounded too immature for her liking, while Nekoi disliked people mistakenly commenting on her as a Rolling Stones member. Ohkawa and Igarashi, wanting to go with the flow of Nekoi's and Mokona's name changes, changed their names as well. In 2006, Clamp provided the character designs for Code Geass. This came into fruition after producer Yoshitaka Kawaguchi called them. This also marked Clamp's first time being requested to provide a character design for an anime series. Ohkawa made her first appearance overseas at the Taipei International Book Exhibition sponsored by Production I.G that same year. During an interview there, she announced that Clamp would be making its first United States public debut at Anime Expo in July in Anaheim, California co-sponsored by Anime Expo, Del Rey Manga, Funimation and Tokyopop. They were well received at the convention as fans completely filled all 6,000 seats present in the auditorium of the focus panel in addition to more on the waiting list. By 2006, Clamp had reportedly sold in excess of 90 million copies of their manga internationally. 2010–onwards While Tsubasa ended in October 2009, xxxHolic ended in early 2011. The authors were satisfied with the two manga ending commenting it was difficult to serialize the two interconnected manga at the same time due to Tsubasas focus on action which required them to write side stories for xxxHolic. Clamp collaborated in the Blood: The Last Vampire spin off anime, Blood-C, as they are responsible for designing the characters and providing the story. Ohkawa wrote the scripts with series supervisor, Junichi Fujisaku for both anime series and the sequel movie, Blood-C: The Last Dark. Legal Drug restarted serialization in the same year in Kadokawa Shoten's Young Ace under the new title of Drug and Drop. A new xxxHolic manga titled XXXHOLiC Rei also started serialization in Kodansha's Young Magazine in March 2013. Clamp also provided character design for Studio Deen's the anime adaptation of Kabukibu!, which aired in April 2017. Cardcaptor Sakura: Clear Card began serialization in 2016 with an anime that aired from January to June 2018 on NHK. On October 19, 2020, the official Clamp fans website posted a link to a YouTube video due to start on October 25, 2020. These daily links are each accompanied by a graphic displaying the number of days to go until the announcement, and a single word. Each word relates to a chapter of Tokyo Babylon from the respectively numbered tankobon volume. This has caused speculation among Clamp's fans that a new Tokyo Babylon related work is due to be announced. On October 25, 2020, at 15:00 UTC (October 26, 2020 at midnight Japan Standard Time), a trailer was released for a new anime adaptation of Tokyo Babylon. The new series, Tokyo Babylon 2021, will be released and set the story in the year 2021. It will be made by the studio GoHands. The series was to debut in April 2021, but was postponed due to the production team's plagiarism incident. On March 28, 2021, the production committee announced that the series's production was discontinued, and Clamp and the production committee will restart the anime series with a different studio. In January 2021, it was announced that a new series in the Cardfight!! Vanguard franchise will begin on April 3, 2021, and will feature character designs by Clamp. The new series will be called Vanguard overDress. In June 2021, it was announced that Clamp will collaborate with Netflix to produce an original anime series based on the Grimms' Fairy Tales, with Wit Studio handling the animation. Business model The members of Clamp all share a single workplace and as such do not need to arrange specific meetings. Nanase Ohkawa acts as the group's spokesperson, producer-director, and storyboarder. Mokona is the chief character designer, while Igarashi and Nekoi work for the background; however, the three often shuffle their roles. Sometimes, they may split the work of the characters and backgrounds or have one person draw all the art depending on the story. The three artists try to stay as "close as possible" to Ohkawa's original designs. Ohkawa advises the artists on what colors to use. Although Ohkawa chooses which projects they decide to decline or accept, Satsuki Igarashi decides on the actual time and order the group works on each project, creating the schedules for time allotted to each individual work. They do not have any assistants, stating that assistants would slow them down because they would not understand the "years worth of jargon" they created among themselves. Once Ohkawa has conceived a story, the four members of the group gather "to discuss the purpose of the story and its main characters". After the group members become familiar with the story, Ohkawa drafts an outline for the story and determines the story's setting. The ending for each story is predetermined. Ohkawa designs many of the characters early in the story's development; frequently appearing guest characters are designed from the beginning whereas minor characters are designed early on. As Ohkawa drafts the outline, the other three members formulate character designs by creating character profile sheets so as to avoid confusion. After drawing a sample story and sketch for their editor and receiving approval, Ohkawa assigns the roles to each group member and then chooses the visual styles depending on factors such as the complexity of the story, the chosen art style, and its relationship to the group's other works. Ohkawa provides a rough draft for each chapter detailing things such as dialogue, panel size, props, movement, and character's emotions. On average for each chapter that they produce (for Clamp, an average of 20 pages of artwork in a magazine), storyboarding takes twelve hours, the script takes eight hours to write, and the artwork depends on the story. For example, a chapter of xxxHolic takes two days, whereas a chapter of X took four to five days. Style In general, Ohkawa gets her inspiration for the group from everyday events such as dreams or the news. Unlike most manga artists who specialize in a single genre, Clamp has created a diverse body of work. Clamp's genres vary widely, from childish and comedic (Cardcaptor Sakura, Chobits, Clamp School Detectives) to more dramatic and teen-rated (xxxHolic, X) series. Furthermore, drawing from the idea of Osamu Tezuka's Star System as they did in Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, Clamp often crossover characters from their own series into their other works, which gives rise to a loosely defined "Clamp Universe". Although most of their manga are female-oriented, Clamp has also attracted male readers in their early works through their handling of fight scenes in X and Tokyo Babylon. Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle is a male-oriented manga but Clamp still added multiple motififs to attracts readers such as Syaoran's romantic journey. xxxHolic is an adult-oriented manga but it uses Kimihiro Watanuki as a protagonist that would attract female demographic. Art The current members of Clamp took art-focused classes during their high school. However, Tsubaki Nekoi feels that, aside from basic art skills, drawing manga requires a different skill set; however, none of the group members has worked as an assistant for already established manga artists, and most of their ability is self-taught. Clamp's manga is distinguished by its diverse visual styles. Their work Clover, for example, is remarkable for its heavy use of negative space. Themes Clamp's works span a wide variety of themes. As opposed to keeping consistent themes across their works or having individual themes for each work, Nanase Ohkawa stated "we come up with a new theme for each story. One thing to say each time." Their works often deal with the theme of human fate that relates to Ohkawa's view on life; Ohkawa believes that "fate is something you choose", not a "mystical force manipulating your destiny", and that with determination and resolve, "you can change your fate". Also common is the idea of soulmates, or couples tied together by fate. Syaoran and Sakura (featured in both Cardcaptor Sakura and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle) are among Clamp's signature couples that best fits this representation. As also seen in Magic Knight Rayearth, three girls are bound together by fate to save Cephiro. Fate is also the reason the three girls consider each other "sisters"; another idea that elaborates people being tied together (family cannot be chosen). Clamp also explores the idea of chaste or pure love (as in the manga Chobits). Clamp's disregard for sex or gender (or at times biological age) in these couples has led them to write same-sex couples into many of their manga in contrast to many other manga artists (for example, Tōya and Yukito in Cardcaptor Sakura). A number of such couples have been shown together across parallel dimensions in the Clamp multiverse. Although Clamp often writes romantic works, Ohkawa has mentioned that she feels that it is more putting one's life on the line than love that causes women to grow or change. Clamp never features love as a central theme; Ohkawa stated in an interview with Takeshi Oshiguchi in 1997 for Animerica that she is not "good at love stories" since her "idea of a relationship is different from that of a lot of other people". Perhaps drawing inspiration from Ohkawa's own poor right-eye vision, Clamp frequently features one-eyed characters or characters that lose their sight in one eye as means to express the feeling of loneliness (for example, Subaru and Seishirō in Tokyo Babylon and X and Fay in Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle). However, there is always something later on that comes to supplement the loss in vision. Works Reception and awards Mystery has surrounded the members of Clamp as, in order to avoid being harassed by overzealous fans, they avoid making public appearances. In polls conducted by marketing research firm Oricon, Clamp was elected ninth most popular manga artist from Japan in 2007, while they were eighth in 2008, sharing the spot with Fujiko F. Fujio. Gen Fukunaga, the president and CEO of Funimation, has praised Clamp as being "one of the most acclaimed groups of artists in Japan". According to Charles Solomon, a journalist for The New York Times, Clamp "ranks among the most successful creators of manga ... in Japan and the United States". Dallas Middaugh, associate publisher of Del Rey Manga, stated that Clamp was an integral part of "manga explosion" that has been occurring in the United States over the past few years. He also praised the group's artwork and storytelling style as having "struck a strong chord with male and female manga readers". The group was placed third after the winner for the Shogakukan Manga Award in the Children's category in 1999. Their work Cardcaptor Sakura won the Seiun Award for best manga in 2001. Almost 100 million Clamp tankōbon copies have been sold worldwide as of October 2007. Various of their selling series include xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle that have sold over eleven million and twenty million volumes, respectively. When asked about the universal popularity of Clamp's works, John Oppliger of AnimeNation stated that although it is "not based on originality [or] their artistic skill", they possess a distinct style that "perfectly mesh[es] the conventional attributes of shōnen and shōjo manga". He also pointed out that Clamp often "recycles" characters from their own earlier works, which gave rise to "a loosely defined 'Clamp Universe' that gives much of their work a unifying tone", and creates "absorbing, complex narratives that appeal to both male and female readers". All these factors result in "a cult following devoted to anything and everything the group publishes". The Anime Encyclopedia authors stated that "whatever Clamp are on, we'd like some". Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies stated that Clamp's works "are among the most successful manga and anime with Western fans". Notes References External links Japanese female comics artists Women manga artists Manga artists 1987 establishments in Japan 21st-century Japanese writers 21st-century Japanese women writers Collective pseudonyms Pseudonymous women writers	[ -0.12760058045387268, -0.02389765903353691, 0.24018003046512604, -0.16747121512889862, -0.7537235617637634, 0.5912274122238159, -0.17357157170772552, -0.5402637720108032, -0.3969959318637848, -0.0703628659248352, -0.5282263159751892, -0.0170122142881155, -0.09335806220769882, 0.216146782040596, -0.3037530779838562, 0.1495947241783142, 0.017562905326485634, 0.5039097666740417, -0.643300473690033, -0.32363253831863403, 0.1366639882326126, -0.2547551393508911, 0.5122402310371399, -0.5527759790420532, 0.10895542055368423, -0.22988653182983398, 0.5118823051452637, 0.6839550733566284, 0.7711323499679565, 0.056404367089271545, 0.36103031039237976, 0.797304630279541, 0.44172799587249756, -0.2171085625886917, 0.10387414693832397, -0.34705623984336853, 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221204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof%20concentration%20camp	Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp	Natzweiler-Struthof was a Nazi concentration camp located in the Vosges Mountains close to the villages of Natzweiler and Struthof in the Gau Baden-Alsace of Germany, on territory annexed from France on a basis in 1940. It operated from 21 May 1941 to September 1944, and was the only concentration camp established by the Germans in the territory of pre-war France. The camp was located in a heavily-forested and isolated area at an elevation of . About 52,000 prisoners were estimated to be held there during its time of operation. The prisoners were mainly from the resistance movements in German-occupied territories. It was a labor camp, a transit camp and, as the war went on, a place of execution. Some died from the exertions of their labor and malnutrition – there were an estimated 22,000 deaths at the camp, including its network of subcamps. Many prisoners were moved to other camps; in particular, in 1944 the former head of Auschwitz concentration camp was brought in to evacuate the prisoners of Natzweiler-Struthof to Dachau as the Allied Armies neared. Only a small staff of Nazi SS personnel remained until the camp was liberated by the French First Army under the command of the U.S. Sixth Army Group on 23 November 1944. The anatomist August Hirt conducted some of his efforts in making a Jewish skeleton collection, whose purpose was to exhibit Jews as racially inferior, at the camp. A documentary movie was made about the 86 named men and women who were killed there for that project. Some of the people responsible for atrocities in this camp were brought to trial after the war ended. The camp is preserved as a museum in memory of those held or killed there. The European Centre of Deported Resistance Members is located at this museum, focusing on those held. The Monument to the Departed stands at the site. The present museum was restored in 1980 after damage by neo-Nazis in 1976. Among notable prisoners, the writer Boris Pahor was interned in Natzweiler-Struthof and wrote his novel Necropolis based on his experience. Background In 1940, Germany invaded and occupied France, including Alsace. The region, adjacent to the German border, was chosen for full Germanization and was annexed to Gau Baden-Alsace. On 2 July 1940, two weeks after the fall of the nearby city of Strasbourg, an internment camp was set up near Schirmeck which existed throughout the war but was never part of the concentration camp system. The Natzweiler-Struthof main camp was established nearby on 1 May 1941, in Natzweiler, in the Bruche valley; its site was chosen due to its proximity to a quarry. Operations Natzweiler-Struthof operated between 21 May 1941 and the beginning of September 1944, when the SS evacuated the camp to Dachau. Its construction was overseen by Hans Hüttig in the spring of 1941, in a heavily-forested and isolated area at an elevation of . The camp was evacuated and its surviving prisoners sent on a "death march" in early September 1944 with only a small SS unit keeping the camp's operations. On 23 November 1944, this camp with its small staff was discovered and liberated by the French First Army as part of the U.S. Sixth Army Group, on the same day that the city of Strasbourg was liberated by the Allies. Through 1945, Natzweiler-Struthof had a complex of about 70 subcamps or annex camps. (For the system of subcamps see List of subcamps of Natzweiler-Struthof.) Initial focus and later actions The total number of prisoners reached 52,000 over the three years, of 32 nationalities. Inmates originated from various countries, including Poland, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, France, Nazi Germany, Slovene-speaking parts of Yugoslavia and Norway. The camp was specially set up for Nacht und Nebel prisoners, in most cases, people of the resistance movements. It was a labor camp and a transit camp, as many prisoners were sent to other Nazi concentration camps before the final evacuation. As the war continued, it became a death camp as well. Some people died from the exertions of the work they had to do, while poorly fed. Deaths are estimated at 22,000 at the main camp and the subcamps. Interned prisoners provided forced labor for the Wehrmacht war industry, through contracts with private industry. This was done mainly at the numerous annex camps, some of which were located in mines or tunnels in order to avoid damage from Allied air raids. Work, hunger, darkness and the lack of health care caused many epidemics; mortality rates could reach 80%. Some worked in quarries, but many worked in the arms industry at various subcamps. Daimler-Benz moved its aircraft engine factory from Berlin to a gypsum mine near the Neckarelz annex camp. The disused autobahn Engelberg Tunnel in Leonberg, near Stuttgart, was used by the Messerschmitt Aircraft Company which eventually employed 3,000 prisoners in forced labor. Another annex camp at Schörzingen was established in February 1944 for extracting crude oil from oil shale. The total number of prisoners at all of the Natzweiler subcamps was estimated to be 19,000 while there was between 7,000 and 8,000 in the main camp at Natzweiler. The camp held a crematorium and a jury rigged gas chamber outside the main camp, which was not used for mass extermination but for selective extermination, as part of the human experimentation programs, in particular on the problems of fighting a war, like typhus among the troops. Doctors Otto Bickenbach and Helmut Rühl were accused of crimes committed at this camp. Hans Eisele was also stationed in this camp for a time. August Hirt committed suicide in June 1945; his suicide was unknown for many years, and he was tried in absentia in 1953 at Metz for his war crimes, including the Jewish skeleton collection, begun at Auschwitz, continued at Natzweiler-Struthof, and ended, but not completed, at the Reichs University of Strasbourg. Strenuous work, medical experiments, poor nutrition and mistreatment by the SS guards resulted in most of the documented deaths, although some prisoners were executed directly, by hanging, by gunshot or by gas. The female prisoner-population in the camp was small, and only seven SS women served in Natzweiler-Struthof camp (compared to more than 600 SS men) and 15 in the Natzweiler complex of subcamps. The main duty of the female supervisors in Natzweiler was to guard the few women who came to the camp for medical experiments or to be executed. The camp also trained several female guards who went to the Geisenheim and Geislingen subcamps in western Germany. Leo Alexander, the medical advisor at the Nuremberg trials, stated that some children were murdered at Natzweiler-Struthof for the sole purpose of testing poisons for inconspicuous executions of Nazi officials and prisoners. Such executions of took place at Bullenhuser Damm. The camp became a war zone in late summer 1944, and was evacuated in early September 1944. Prior to the evacuation of the camp, 141 prisoners were shot dead on 31 August – 1 September 1944. The 70th anniversary of this execution of those who resisted Nazi occupation was commemorated at the museum in 2014. Notable prisoners Four female British SOE agents were executed together on 6 July 1944: Diana Rowden, Vera Leigh, Andrée Borrel and Sonya Olschanezky. Brian Stonehouse of the British SOE and Albert Guérisse, a Belgian escape line leader, witnessed the arrival of the four women and the events leading up to their execution and cremation; both men testified to the executions of the four women in post-war trials. The two men were sent to Dachau, where they were liberated. Roger Boulanger writes of the four British SOE women executed under the supervision of Dr. Plaza and Dr. Rhode, in his section on Capital Punishment (Les exécutions capitales), as to the intent of the RSHA of Berlin, Reichssicherheitshauptamt, to have them disappear with no trace, as their names were not recorded as being at this camp. Stonehouse later sketched the four women which aided in their identification. Charles Delestraint, leader of the Armée Secrète, was detained at Natzweiler-Struthof, then was executed by the Gestapo in Dachau days before that camp was liberated and the war ended. Henri Gayot, a member of the French Resistance who was interned at Struthof between April and September 1944, documented his ordeal in drawings which are now in the Struthof Concentration Camp Museum. Bishop Gabriel Piguet, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Clermont-Ferrand, was interned at Natzweiler before being transferred to the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp. He is honored as a Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, Israel's Holocaust Memorial, for hiding Jewish children in Catholic boarding schools. Two British Royal Air Force airmen (Flying Officer Dennis H. Cochran, and Flight Lieutenant Anthony "Tony" R. H. Hayter) who were involved in "The Great Escape" and murdered by the Gestapo after re-capture, were cremated at Natzweiler-Struthof. British bomber Sergeant Frederic ("Freddie") Habgood was hanged at this camp, after his Lancaster bomber crashed in Alsace on 27 July 1944 and he was betrayed to the Nazis by a local woman. Two died as a result of the crash, three survived as prisoners of war in a camp in Poland, one returned to England with the help of the resistance, and Mr Habgood was hanged on 31 July 1944. His death was acknowledged as a war crime in 1947 and his family was informed, but the most personal evidence of his presence there, a silver bracelet with his name on it, emerged from the soil in July 2018, as an area with flowers was being watered by a volunteer. In his memoirs titled Moi, Pierre Seel, déporté homosexuel, Pierre Seel, who served a sentence at the neighboring camp of Schirmeck, tells that he took part in the construction of the Struthof concentration camp, in the context of his forced labor tasks. A Slovene novelist Boris Pahor was imprisoned at the camp in 1944. Pahor was later transported to Dachau camp and other camps until finally liberated in Bergen-Belsen. After the war he wrote the novel Necropolis about his experiences in the camp. The novel was later translated into numerous other European languages. List of personnel The camp had five commandants and numerous doctors in its history. Commanders (Commandants) SS-Hauptsturmführer Hans Huttig SS-Sturmbannführer Egon Zill SS-Hauptsturmführer Josef Kramer SS-Sturmbannführer Fritz Hartjenstein SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinrich Schwarz SS Doctors SS-Hauptsturmführer Kurt aus dem Bruch SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Babor SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinz Baumköther SS-Hauptsturmführer Max Blancke SS-Obersturmführer Franz von Bodmann SS-Obersturmführer Hans Eisele SS-Obersturmführer Herbert Graefe SS-Sturmbannführer Richard Krieger SS-Obersturmführer Georg Meyer SS-Hauptsturmführer Heinrich Plaza SS-Hauptsturmführer Elimar Precht SS-Untersturmführer Andreas Rett SS-Untersturmführer Werner Rohde SS-Hauptsturmführer Gerhard Schiedlausky SS-Obersturmführer Siegfried Schwela Private firms using inmate labor The following private firms used Natzweiler-Struthof camp's inmates for labor in their factories: Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG) Adlerwerke AG (formerly Adlerwerke vorm. Heinrich Kleyer) Bayerische Motorenwerke AG (BMW) Berger Daimler-Benz AG and its subsidiary Goldfisch Friedrich Krupp Ironworks Gruen & Bulfinger Henkel & Cie Heinkel Flugzeugwerke, aircraft factory, Zuffenhausen Kessler Factory Koch & Mayer Messerschmitt AG Röchling Group Jewish skeleton collection The Jewish skeleton collection was an attempt by the Nazis to create an anthropological display to showcase the alleged racial inferiority of the "Jewish race" and to emphasize the status of Jews as Untermenschen ("sub-humans"), in contrast to the Germanic Übermenschen ("super-humans") Aryan race which the Nazis considered to be the "Herrenvolk" (master race). The people who were to serve as best examples of the "Jewish race" were selected from people at the Auschwitz camp, then brought to Natzweiler-Struthof both to eat well and then to be murdered by gas, and their corpses brought to the Anatomy Institute of at the Reich University of Strasbourg (Reichsuniversität Straßburg) in the annexed region of Alsace, a project of great scope. Some initial study of the corpses was performed, but the progress of the war stalled completion of the collection. The collection was sanctioned by Reichsführer of the SS Heinrich Himmler, and under the direction of August Hirt with Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers who was responsible for procuring and preparing the corpses as part of his management of the Ahnenerbe (the National Socialist scientific institute that researched the archaeological and cultural history of the hypothesized Aryan race). In a 2013 documentary by Sonia Rolley and others, two historians remark that "Hirt is one of the most absolutely criminal of National Socialist ideology," adds the historian Yves Ternon. "The project itself, continues Professor , is an example of this investment of politics by science, or science by politics that is Nazism." In 1943, the inmates selected at Auschwitz were transported to Natzweiler-Struthof. They spent two weeks eating well in barracks there in Block 13, so they would be good specimens of normal size. The deaths of 86 inmates were, in the words of Hirt, "induced" at a jury rigged gassing facility at Natzweiler-Struthof on several days in August and their corpses, 57 men and 29 women, were sent to Strasbourg for study. Natzweiler-Struthof was considered the better place for gassing the selected victims (better than at Auschwitz), as they would die one by one, with no damage to the corpses, and Natzweiler-Struthof was at Hirt's disposal. Josef Kramer, acting commandant of Natzweiler-Struthof (who was a Lagerführer at Auschwitz and the last commandant of Bergen Belsen) personally carried out the gassing of 80 of the 86 victims at Natzweiler-Struthof. The next part of the process for this "collection" was to bring the corpses to the Reichs University, where Hirt's plan was to make anatomical casts of the bodies. Photos of the corpses as found by the Allies who saw them in the Reichs University make the totality of the strange project quite real. The next step after making the casts was to have been reducing them to skeletons. Neither of those steps, making the casts nor reducing the corpses to skeletons, was carried out. In 1944, with the approach of the Allies, there was concern over the possibility that the corpses could be discovered. In September 1944, Sievers telegrammed Brandt: "The collection can be defleshed and rendered unrecognizable. This, however, would mean that the whole work had been done for nothing – at least in part – and that this singular collection would be lost to science, since it would be impossible to make plaster casts afterwards." And so it was left, as the camp was evacuated in September 1944, and the human remains were left at a room in the Reichs University of Strasbourg. Two anthropologists, who were both members of the SS, Hans Fleischhacker and Bruno Beger, along with Wolf-Dietrich Wolff, were accused of making selections at Auschwitz of Jewish prisoners for Hirt's collection of 'racial types', the man who devised the project of the Jewish skeleton collection. Beger was found guilty, although he was credited for pre-trial imprisonment and served no time. Also named as associated with this project are doctor and the anatomist . August Hirt, who conceived the project, was sentenced to death in absentia at the Military War Crimes Trial at Metz on 23 December 1953. It was unknown at the time that Hirt had shot himself in the head on 2 June 1945 while in hiding in the Black Forest. For many years only a single victim, Menachem Taffel (prisoner no. 107969), a Polish born Jew who had been living in Berlin, was positively identified through the efforts of Serge and Beate Klarsfeld. In 2003, Hans-Joachim Lang, a German professor at the University of Tübingen succeeded in identifying all the victims, by comparing a list of inmate numbers of the 86 corpses at the Reichs University in Strasbourg, surreptitiously recorded by Hirt's French assistant Henri Henrypierre, with a list of numbers of inmates vaccinated at Auschwitz. The names and biographical information of the victims were published in the book Die Namen der Nummern (The Names of the Numbers). Rachel Gordon and Joachim Zepelin translated the introduction to the book to English, at the web site where the whole book, including the biographies of the 86 people, is posted in German. Lang recounts in detail the story of how he determined the identities of the 86 victims gassed for Hirt's project of the Jewish skeleton collection. Forty-six of these individuals were originally from Thessaloniki, Greece. The 86 were from eight countries in German-occupied Europe: Austria, Netherlands, France, Germany, Greece, Norway, Belgium and Poland. The biographies of all 86 people are described in English on a web site set up by Lang. In 1951, the remains of the 86 victims were reinterred in one location in the Cronenbourg-Strasbourg Jewish Cemetery. On 11 December 2005, memorial stones engraved with the names of the 86 victims were placed at the cemetery. One is at the site of the mass grave, the other along the wall of the cemetery. Another plaque honoring the victims was placed outside the Anatomy Institute at Strasbourg's University Hospital. Post-war criminal trials The first camp commandant, Hans Hüttig, was sentenced to death on 2 July 1954 by a French military court in Metz, but the death sentence was not carried out. In 1956, he was released from detention after being imprisoned for eleven years. Josef Kramer, the former commandant of the camp during the time of the Jewish skeleton collection project, was arrested at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp on 17 April 1945 and tried at Lüneburg in the British-occupied sector for his crimes, including the murder of Jews in the gas chamber at Natzweiler. He was sentenced on 16–17 November 1945 and was hanged at on 13 December 1945. The commandant of Natzweiler at the time that four female resistance agents were executed, Fritz Hartjenstein and five others were tried by a British war crimes court at Wuppertal, from 9 April to 5 May 1946. All of the accused were found guilty; of these, three were sentenced to death and two hanged. Hartjenstein's death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment on 1 June 1946. Then he was tried again by the British for hanging a POW who was a member of the Royal Air Force. Hartjenstein was sentenced to death by firing squad on 5 June 1946. The sentence was not carried out, and he was then extradited to France, where he was tried at Metz for his crimes at Natzweiler and sentenced to death. He died of a heart attack while awaiting execution on 20 October 1954. Those tried at Wuppertal were: Franz Berg: death sentence (executed by hanging 11 October 1946) Kurt Geigling: 10 years imprisonment Josef Muth: 15 years imprisonment Peter Straub: death sentence (executed by hanging 11 October 1946) Magnus Wochner: 10 years imprisonment Fritz Hartjenstein (commandant): death sentence, commuted to life (Wuppertal), death sentence by British (Rastatt), death sentence by French Court (Metz), died before sentence was carried out Magnus Wochner was also implicated in the Stalag Luft III murders and was listed among the accused. Heinrich Ganninger, adjutant and deputy of commander Fritz Hartjenstein, committed suicide in Wuppertal prison in April 1946 before his trial. He was accused of having murdered four British female spies. Heinrich Schwarz was tried separately at Rastatt in connection with atrocities committed during his tenure as commandant of Natzweiler-Struthof. He was sentenced to death and subsequently shot by firing squad near Baden-Baden on 20 March 1947. Post-war history, museum and monument During the night of 12–13 May 1976, neo-Nazis burned the camp museum, with the loss of important artifacts. Structures were rebuilt, placing the artifacts that survived the fire as they were found originally. The reconstructed camp museum was officially opened on 29 June 1980. The European Centre of Deported Resistance Members, a new structure at the site, opened in November 2005, and at the same time, "the museum was entirely redesigned to focus solely on the history of Natzweiler concentration camp and its subcamps." Documentary films A documentary film was shown in 2014 about the 86 people who were murdered in the camp and whose remains were later identified by name, as described above in The Jewish skeleton collection section. The film "The names of the 86" () was directed by Emmanuel Heyd and Raphael Toledano (Dora Films). Another documentary was made about the skeleton project in 2013, titled Au nom de la race et de la science, Strasbourg 1941–1944 (English: In the name of Race and Science, Strasbourg 1941–1945). Its goal was to explain what happened at Reich University of Strasbourg, at Natzweiler-Struthof, in the strange use of science in this Nazi project to eliminate the Jews, but keeping some remains for history and science, the project never fully completed. In the 2019 BBC One documentary The Man Who Saw Too Much Alan Yentob traces the story of 106-year-old Boris Pahor, believed to be the oldest known survivor of the Nazi concentration camps. Pahor's testimony is illustrated with remarkable drawings by fellow prisoners, creating a unique record of conditions in the Nazi death camps. The program also includes details from a shocking report into the camp by British intelligence officer Captain Yurka Galitzine and the chilling testimony by SS commandant Josef Kramer, infamously known as the Beast of Belsen. See also List of subcamps of Natzweiler-Struthof List of Nazi concentration camps Hans-Joachim Lang References Further reading Inmate accounts include , memoirs of the former prime minister of Norway , written as an historical account by a former inmate, based on interviews and research Recent research identified the 86 people murdered for the Jewish skeleton collection Lang, Hans-Joachim, The names of the numbers. How I succeeded in identifying the 86 victims of a NAZI crime. Hoffmann & Campe, Hamburg 2004, . External links Struthof official site The Names of the Numbers – A Project of Hans-Joachim Lang. List of all 86 victims of the Jewish Skeleton Collection (in German – also in English, French, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, Norwegian and Polish) Independent researcher Diana Mara Henry's site Memoir by KLNA Survivor Joseph Scheinmann aka Andre Peulevey History of the Natzweiler-Struthof Camp by Roger Boulanger, camp survivor (in French) Vichy France Alsatian Jews Nazi concentration camps in France	[ 0.09212048351764679, 0.28319716453552246, -0.6354359984397888, -0.1047506108880043, -0.7400180101394653, 0.5298047065734863, 1.6547002792358398, -0.23091483116149902, 0.0676855593919754, -0.4707423746585846, -0.37011200189590454, -0.49354851245880127, -0.3132365643978119, 0.5285662412643433, 0.06573516875505447, 0.006145917344838381, 0.6384380459785461, 0.29498013854026794, -0.21222180128097534, -0.8143153190612793, 0.3451276421546936, -0.38094326853752136, 0.35502517223358154, 0.9816359877586365, -0.13675598800182343, -0.30845528841018677, 0.6613963842391968, -0.1944836676120758, 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221205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark%27s%20nutcracker	Clark's nutcracker	Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), sometimes referred to as Clark's crow or woodpecker crow, is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to the mountains of western North America. The nutcracker is an omnivore, but subsists mainly on pine nuts, burying seeds in the ground in the summer and then retrieving them in the winter by memory. Etymology and history The bird was described by the Lewis and Clark expedition, with William Clark first observing it in 1805 along the banks of the Salmon River, a tributary of the Columbia River. Its scientific name literally means "nutcracker of the Columbia." Lewis recorded a more detailed description in 1806. A skin collected by the expedition was obtained by the ornithologist Alexander Wilson, who used it to produce an engraving for his monumental American Ornithology. Taxonomy Originally placed in the genus Corvus by Lewis, Clark's nutcracker was later included in Nucifraga by Wilson, which also includes two Old World species with similar lifestyles and habitats. Distribution and habitat This species is present in western North America from British Columbia and western Alberta in the north to Baja California and central New Mexico in the south. There is also a small isolated population on the peak of Cerro Potosí, elevation 3,700 metres (12,200 ft), in Nuevo León, northeast Mexico. It is mainly found in mountains at altitudes of 900–3,900 metres (3,000–12,900 ft) in conifer forest. It is not migratory except in the sense of moving back and forth locally between areas of higher and lower elevation. Outside the breeding season, it may wander extensively to lower altitudes and also further east as far as Illinois (and exceptionally, Pennsylvania), particularly following any cone crop failure in its normal areas. Description Nucifraga columbiana can reach an average length of . It is slightly smaller than its Eurasian relative the spotted nutcracker (N. caryocatactes). Most of its body has feathers that are ashy-grey and loose in texture. The wings and tail are black and white. The central tail feathers are black and the outer ones white. The bill, legs and feet are also black. The bill is long, stout, and cone-shaped. Measurements: Length: 10.6-11.8 in (27-30 cm) Weight: 3.7-5.7 oz (106-161 g) Wingspan: 24 in (61 cm) Food The most important food resources for this species are the seeds of pines (Pinus sp.), principally the two cold-climate (high altitude) species of white pine (Pinus subgenus Strobus) with large seeds P. albicaulis and P. flexilis, but also using other high-altitude species like P. balfouriana, P. longaeva and P. monticola. During migrations to lower altitudes, it also extensively uses the seeds of pinyon pines. The isolated Cerro Potosí population is strongly associated with the local endemic Potosi pinyon Pinus culminicola. All Clark's Nutcrackers have a sublingual pouch capable of holding around 50–150 seeds, depending on the size of the seeds; the pouch greatly enhances the birds' ability to transport and store seeds. Clark's nutcrackers store seeds, usually in the ground for later consumption, in caches of 1–15 seeds (average of 3–4 seeds). Depending on the cone crop as well as the tree species, a single Clark's nutcracker can cache as many as 98,000 seeds per season. The birds regularly store more than they actually need as insurance against seed theft by other animals (squirrels, etc.), as well as low availability of alternative foods; this surplus seed is left in the cache, and may be able to germinate and grow into new trees, if the conditions are right. Through this activity of caching and over-storing, the bird is perpetuating its own habitat. Closely tied in with this storage behavior is the bird's remarkable long-term spatial memory; they are able to relocate caches of seeds with great accuracy, even nine months later, and even when the cache sites are buried under up to a meter (3 ft) of snow. Its powers of memory exemplify the high intelligence of the Corvidae. Clark's nutcrackers are known for storing a recovering large numbers of seed catches that are critical for winter survival. Short-term memory tasks reveal that nutcrackers can remember spatial information better than visual information. It is was demonstrated that the catch recovery ability of Clarks nutcracker is derived from a memory system that has evolved differently for storing spatial information. The diet also includes a wide range of insect prey, berries and other fruits, small mammals and occasionally flesh from carcasses. Eggs and nestlings are sometimes devoured, and peanuts and suet have become a favorite at bird tables. Food is taken both from the ground and from trees, where the nutcrackers are very agile among the branches. The birds are able to extract food by clasping pine cones in such a way that the cones are held between one or both feet. The birds then hack the cones open with their strong bills. Rotten logs are also hacked into in order to locate large beetle grubs, and animal dung may be flipped over in search of insects. Clark's nutcrackers can also be opportunistic feeders in developed areas, and are known to some as "camp robbers". Nesting The species usually nests in pines or other types of conifers during early spring. Two to four eggs are laid, incubation usually occurring in 16–18 days. Incubation is performed by both the male and female parents, and both the male and the female develop brood patches. The young are typically fledged by around the 22nd day. The fledglings follow their parents around for several months, possibly in order to learn the complex seed storage behavior. Whitebark pine mutualism Clark's nutcracker is the primary seed disperser for whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Whitebark pine is in decline throughout its range, due to infection by white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), widespread outbreaks of mountain pine beetle, and the long-term effects of fire suppression. The Clark's nutcracker is an integral part of the whitebark pine restoration process: the Clark's nutcracker must remain in whitebark pine forests and cache the seeds in excess, so that healthy trees will continue to grow. If whitebark pine declines into extinction, the Clark's nutcracker will lose an important source of food and may no longer be seen in areas where the tree is the primary source of seed, such as Glacier National Park. Vocalization The voice of this bird is extremely varied and produces many different sounds. However, the most frequent call is commonly described as . References Lanner, R. M. (1996). Made for each other: a symbiosis of birds and pines. OUP. Balda R., Kamil C., Linking Life Zones, Life History Traits, Ecology, and Spatial Cognition in Four Allopatric Southwestern Seed Caching Corvids, 2006 NatureServe report External links Clark's nutcracker photo gallery VIREO Clark's nutcracker on the Internet Bird Collection Clark's nutcracker at All About Birds Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation Clark's nutcracker Native birds of Western Canada Native birds of the Western United States Birds of the Sierra Nevada (United States) Birds of the Rio Grande valleys Fauna of the Chihuahuan Desert Clark's nutcracker Taxa named by Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)	[ -0.5026255249977112, 0.45870813727378845, -0.6159791350364685, 0.08062958717346191, 0.14850790798664093, 0.41134047508239746, 0.47174322605133057, 0.5892512798309326, -0.465034544467926, 0.22584599256515503, -0.3650182783603668, -0.29140815138816833, -0.4459491968154907, 0.11630149185657501, -0.7839395999908447, 0.006025406997650862, 0.3070497512817383, 0.32971614599227905, 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221208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty%20court	Admiralty court	Admiralty courts, also known as maritime courts, are courts exercising jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, injuries, and offences. Admiralty courts in the United Kingdom England and Wales England's admiralty courts date to at least the 1360s, during the reign of Edward III. At that time there were three such courts, appointed by admirals responsible for waters to the north, south and west of England. In 1483 these local courts were amalgamated into a single High Court of Admiralty, administered by the Lord High Admiral of England. The Lord High Admiral directly appointed judges to the court, and could remove them at will. This was amended from 1673, with appointments falling within the purview of the Crown, and from 1689 judges also received an annual stipend and a degree of tenure, holding their positions subject to effective delivery of their duties rather than at the Lord High Admiral's pleasure. From its inception in 1483 until 1657 the court sat in a disused church in Southwark, and from then until 1665 in Montjoy House, private premises leased from the Dean of St Paul's Cathedral. In order to escape the Great Plague of London in 1665, the court was briefly relocated to Winchester and then to Jesus College at Oxford University. The plague threat having subsided by 1666, the court returned to London and until 1671 was located at Exeter House on The Strand before returning to Montjoy House near St Paul's. During the period after the French and Indian War, admiralty courts became an issue that was a part of the rising tension between the British Parliament and their American Colonies. Starting with the Proclamation of 1763, these courts were given jurisdiction over a number of laws affecting the colonies. The jurisdiction was expanded in later acts of the Parliament, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists' objections were based on several factors. The courts could try a case anywhere in the British Empire. Cases involving New York or Boston merchants were frequently heard in Nova Scotia and sometimes even in England. The fact that judges were paid based in part on the fines that they levied and naval officers were paid for bringing "successful" cases led to abuses. There was no trial by jury, and evidence standards were lower than in criminal courts, the latter requiring proof "beyond reasonable doubt". The government's objective was to improve the effectiveness of revenue and excise tax laws. In many past instances, smugglers would avoid taxes. Even when they were caught and brought to trial, local judges frequently acquitted the popular local merchants whom they perceived as being unfairly accused by an unpopular tax collector. In 1875, the High Court of Admiralty governing England and Wales was absorbed into the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty (or PDA) Division of the High Court. When the PDA Division was in turn abolished and replaced by the Family Division, the "probate" and "admiralty" jurisdictions were transferred to, respectively, the Chancery Division and to the new "Admiralty Court" (a subset of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court). Strictly speaking, there was no longer an "Admiralty Court" as such, but the admiralty jurisdiction allocated by the Senior Courts Act 1981 was (and is) exercised by the Admiralty Judge and other Commercial Court judges authorized to sit in admiralty cases. When these judges sat, it became convenient to call the sitting the "Admiralty Court". In England and Wales today, admiralty jurisdiction is exercised by the High Court of Justice in England (EWHC). Admiralty law applied in this court is based upon the civil law-based Law of the Sea, with statutory law and common law additions. The Admiralty Court is no longer in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, having moved to the Rolls Building. Scotland The Scottish court's earliest records, held in West Register House in Edinburgh, indicate that sittings were a regular event by at least 1556. Judges were styled "Judge Admiral" and received appointment at the hands of the Scottish High Admiral to hear matters affecting the Royal Scots Navy as well as mercantile, privateering and prize money disputes. From 1702 the judge of the court was also authorised to appoint deputies to hear lesser matters or to deputise during his absence. The Scottish court's workload was small until the mid-eighteenth century, with judges hearing no more than four matters in each sitting. After the 1750s the volume of cases rose until by 1790 it was necessary to maintain a daily log of decisions. The growth in caseload was related to increasing disputes regarding breaches of charter, including ship's masters seeking compensation for unpaid freight and merchants suing for damage to goods or unexpected port fees. Cases reflected Scotland's principal marine industries including the transshipment of sugar and tobacco and the export of dried fish, coal and grains. A smaller number of cases related to smuggling, principally brandy, and to salvage rights for ships wrecked on Scottish shores. The court ceased operation in 1832 and its functions were subsumed into the Court of Session, Scotland's supreme court for civil disputes. Cinque Ports The sole survivor of the independent courts of admiralty is the Court of Admiralty for the Cinque Ports, which is presided over by the early-merged role of Judge Official and Commissary. This office is normally held by a High Court Judge who holds the appointment of Admiralty Judge. The jurisdiction of the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports extends in an area with boundaries running from the Naze Tower, Essex along the shore to Brightlingsea, then to Shoe Beacon (or Shore Beacon), (to the east of Shoeburyness, Essex), across the mouth of the Thames Estuary to Shellness, Kent, and around the coast to Redcliffe, near Seaford, Sussex. It covers all the sea from Seaford to a point five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the Galloper Sands off the coast of Essex. The last full sitting was in 1914. According to general civilian practice, the registrar can (and here does) act as deputy to the judge. Unless the judge finds a conflict of interest in the registrar's work their main task is to co-invest each successive Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Appeal from the court's decisions lies to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Court regalia Since Elizabethan times, the symbol of authority for a British admiralty court has been a silver oar, placed before the judge when the court is in session. In this respect the silver oar is the equivalent of a ceremonial mace, representing the authority of the Crown and the Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom. An antique silver oar is still placed before the bench when the High Court sits in London on matters relating to its admiralty court functions; in past times it was borne by the marshal in procession, not only in court but on occasions of arrest of persons or vessels, and also on the way to Execution Dock for the last journey of those convicted of piracy. The date of the London oar is uncertain: it is depicted on the tomb of David Lewis, Judge of the High Court of Admiralty from 1559 until 1584, there is some evidence that it may date from the beginnings of the court in the fourteenth century, though one of several assay marks suggests that it was remade three centuries later (based on the earlier pattern). Local courts and vice-admiralty courts had their own silver oars; early examples survive from colonial courts in Bermuda (1701), Boston (1725), New York City (c. 1725), Colombo (1801), Cape of Good Hope (1806) and Calcutta. The Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports had a silver oar of early date, but it was stolen in the 1960s and replaced with a replica. Some local authorities possess examples relating to their former local admiralty jurisdiction. In recent times, new silver oars have been made for admiralty courts in Canada, Australia and New Zealand; in 2014 the Admiralty Court presented a replica silver oar mace to the Corporation of Trinity House on the occasion of its 500th anniversary, acknowledging the work of its brethren in advising the court over much of its history. In addition to representing the Court in session, from the nineteenth century the silver oar has been the insignia of the Admiralty Marshal - an official responsible for serving writs of the Court, and carrying out the sale of any vessels seized and disposed of by Court decision. Vice admiralty courts To expedite the administration of maritime law, British colonies were routinely granted subsidiary jurisdiction through independent vice-admiralty courts. These were civil courts with the power to interpret colonial legislation, provided these did not conflict with Admiralty Court decisions or British maritime law. The first vice-admiralty court in Australia was established in the colony of New South Wales in 1788. The first Vice-Admiral was Arthur Phillip and the first judge was Robert Ross. The court was abolished in 1911 when the Supreme Court of New South Wales was granted the admiralty jurisdiction of the court. A vice-admiralty court was also formed in Nova Scotia to try smugglers and to enforce the Sugar Act of 1764 throughout British North America. From 1763 to 1765, when American smugglers were caught, they were tried by corrupt judges who received a percentage of the confiscated goods if the defendants were found guilty; therefore, defendants were more than likely to be found guilty. Colonial courts of admiralty 1890 saw the enactment of the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890 (UK). That Act provided for the abolition of the imperial courts of admiralty and replace them with local courts to be called colonial courts of admiralty. It was widely considered unsatisfactory that the imperial court should exist separately to the colonial courts, yet use the same facilities and personnel of the colonial courts. Ceylon A colonial court of admiralty was established in the British Ceylon in 1891 under the Ceylon Courts of Admiralty Ordinance under the provisions of the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890 (UK) to deal jurisdiction over all admiralty and maritime actions. With Ceylon gaining self rule in 1948, jurisdiction over admiralty matters were transferred to the Supreme Court of Ceylon as the Ceylon Independence Act 1947 (UK) made provisions of the Admiralty Act inapplicable. In Sri Lanka today, admiralty jurisdiction is exercised by the High Court of Colombo, having had the jurisdiction transferred to it from the Supreme Court under the provisions of the Judicature Act No.2 of 1978. Admiralty courts in the United States In the United States, the federal district courts have jurisdiction over all admiralty and maritime actions; see . In recent years, a non-historically-based conspiracy argument used by tax protesters is that an American court displaying an American flag with a gold fringe is in fact an "admiralty court" and thus has no jurisdiction. Courts have repeatedly dismissed this as frivolous. In United States v. Greenstreet, the court summarized their finding to this argument with, "Unfortunately for Defendant Greenstreet, decor is not a determinant for jurisdiction." Notes References Bibliography Admiralty law Courts by type	[ 0.4188957214355469, 0.09347786009311676, 0.17053334414958954, -0.09595029801130295, 0.3723680377006531, 0.42097532749176025, -0.2137065827846527, 0.03644632175564766, -0.46276429295539856, -0.2753954827785492, -0.46482330560684204, 0.6054537296295166, 0.024012219160795212, 0.301215261220932, -0.15467101335525513, 0.620526134967804, 0.41399332880973816, -0.12764307856559753, 0.0475275032222271, -0.5342934727668762, -0.4076671004295349, -0.07179178297519684, 0.18256621062755585, -0.29622381925582886, 0.2977451980113983, -0.26642483472824097, 0.06897169351577759, 0.6206419467926025, -0.555576741695404, 0.4427850842475891, 0.37456315755844116, 0.30305853486061096, -0.39740467071533203, 0.22511106729507446, -0.26301032304763794, -0.2916106879711151, -0.6406757831573486, -0.21160158514976501, -0.3911651074886322, -0.6470283269882202, 0.2709348201751709, -0.11639530956745148, -0.2812804579734802, -0.15021716058254242, 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221209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAC	CAC	CAC may refer to: Arts California Arts Council, an agency for advancing California through the arts and creativity Campbelltown Arts Centre, multidisciplinary contemporary arts centre south-west of Sydney, Australia Comics Arts Conference, a scholarly conference associated with Comic-Con International Contemporary Arts Center, an art museum in Cincinnati, Ohio Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències (City of Arts and Sciences), a cultural and architectural complex in Valencia, Spain Business and finance Central Arbitration Committee CAC 40, a French stock market index Cotation Assistée en Continu, an electronic trading system used at the French stock exchange Capital account convertibility, a fiscal policy based on conducting transactions of local financial assets into foreign financial assets freely Collective action clause, a clause that allows a supermajority of bondholders to agree a debt restructuring that is legally binding on all holders of the bond Corporate Affairs Commission, Nigeria, a body that regulates companies in Nigeria Customer acquisition cost, the amount of money a business needs to spend to get an additional customer Corporate Call Aircraft Company, an aircraft manufacturer in the United States Certified Acceptance Corporation, a coin grading service Cessna Aircraft Company, a defunct American general aviation aircraft manufacturing corporation Chengdu Aircraft Corporation, an aircraft manufacturer in China Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native regional corporation Colonial Ammunition Company, a New Zealand ammunition company Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, an Australian aircraft manufacturer Conquest Airlines (ICAO airline designator) Consolidated Aircraft Corporation Copa Airlines Colombia Carrington American Central [[Copper Australia Courier]] Cambridge Aero Coorporation Education Cairo American College, a school in Cairo, Egypt Coomera Anglican College, a school in Queensland, Australia Carmel Adventist College, a school in Western Australia, Australia , a middle school in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong United States Central Arizona College, a community college in Coolidge, Arizona Commissioner's Academic Challenge, a Florida high school academic tournament Central Arkansas Christian Schools, a school system in North Little Rock, Arkansas Military U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps, a U.S. Army corps Combined Action Company, a joint unit of the Combined Action Program of U.S. Marines and South Vietnamese Regional Forces during the Vietnam war United States Army Combined Arms Center, a component of the Training and Doctrine Command Canadian Armoured Corps, renamed in 1945 to Royal Canadian Armoured Corps Canadian Aviation Corps, the predecessor to the Royal Canadian Air Force Common Access Card, a U.S. military identification card Colombian armed conflict (1964–present), an internal war in Colombia Politics and religion Campaign Against Censorship, a UK pressure group that opposes censorship Central Advisory Commission, a political commission of the People's Republic of China Central Asian Commonwealth, an organization later renamed to Organization of Central Asian Cooperation Coalition against Communalism, a San Francisco Bay area organization concerned with communalism in South Asia Constitutional Accountability Center, a Washington, D.C. think tank CPSU Central Auditing Commission, an organ of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Christians Against the Coup, an Egyptian political movement opposing the recent 2013 coup d'état in Egypt Christ Apostolic Church Church at Charlotte, an evangelical free church in Charlotte, NC Cyberspace Administration of China, a government agency of the People's Republic of China Science and technology Calcium carbide, a chemical compound Call Admission Control, a concept in voice over IP networking Air carbon arc cutting, an arc cutting process Citric acid cycle, a series of chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen in respiration Codex Alimentarius Commission, an organisation which maintains food standards Common Access Card, smart card used by the Active Duty United States Defense personnel Criteria air contaminants, a group of air pollutants Charge air cooler, part of an internal combustion engine Carrier access code Система Аварийного Спасения (transliteration from the Russian alphabet: Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya, SAS), the Soyuz launch escape system CAC, a codon for the amino acid histidine Medicine Coronary Artery Calcium Sports and games Cardiff Athletic Club, a Cardiff-based multi sport organisation Castles and Crusades, a role-playing game Cauliflower Alley Club, a wrestling and boxing organization Commonwealth Athletic Conference, a high school athletic conference in Massachusetts, United States Confédération Africaine de Cyclisme (African Cycling Confederation), a confederation of governing bodies for cycling in Africa Capital Athletic Conference, former name of the US intercollegiate athletic conference now known as the Coast to Coast Athletic Conference Central American and Caribbean Games, a multi-sport regional championships event Command & Conquer, a series of video games Cricket Australia Cup, now the Futures League, an Australian cricket competition Club Athlétique Canadien, a Montreal-based ice hockey team Copa América Centenario	[ 0.42197784781455994, 0.44119730591773987, -0.22723081707954407, 0.3512272834777832, -0.05767804756760597, 0.2733975350856781, -0.08346719294786453, 0.6327883005142212, -0.20093613862991333, -0.2810893952846527, -0.2831082046031952, 0.09826450049877167, 0.20930208265781403, 0.303236722946167, 0.05364743992686272, 0.19166943430900574, 0.6622011661529541, 0.3844529688358307, -0.06670157611370087, -0.25222623348236084, -0.6497452855110168, 0.10323939472436905, 0.3698275685310364, 0.10558802634477615, -0.13809902966022491, -0.16078898310661316, 0.24233587086200714, 0.44638076424598694, 0.0838325172662735, -0.07201853394508362, 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221210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Advisory%20Commission	Central Advisory Commission	The Central Advisory Commission () (CAC) was a body of the Chinese Communist Party that existed during the era of the paramount leadership of Deng Xiaoping. The body was supposed to provide "political assistance and consultation" to the Party's Central Committee; however, as the CAC was a select group of senior Party members, it was often seen as having more authority unofficially than that body. History The commission was established after the Twelfth Party Congress in 1982, and abolished in 1992. Its chairmen were Deng Xiaoping (1982–1987) and Chen Yun (1987–1992). Its membership was offered only to members of the Central Committee with forty years or more of service which made it an important forum for the Eight Elders to remain formally involved in politics. Directors and deputy directors were required to have first served in the Politburo or Standing Committee. Despite being supposedly advisory its power surpassed that of the Politburo Standing Committee and was nicknamed the "Sitting Committee" on account of the advanced age of its members. See also Politics of the People's Republic of China Gerontocracy References 1982 establishments in China 1992 disestablishments in China History of the Chinese Communist Party Organization of the Chinese Communist Party Organizations disestablished in 1992 Organizations established in 1982 Political history of China	[ 0.186040461063385, 0.6593979001045227, -0.7260585427284241, 0.09553109109401703, -0.48811787366867065, -0.16530495882034302, -0.8414808511734009, 0.11618629842996597, -0.014945704489946365, 0.25770848989486694, -0.15243951976299286, 0.3479500710964203, -0.029427308589220047, 0.25401169061660767, -0.3577412962913513, -0.1953107863664627, 0.9455994367599487, 0.3384189009666443, -0.08138531446456909, -0.29606789350509644, -0.16262401640415192, 0.2754674255847931, -0.14833587408065796, 0.0820516049861908, -0.18516068160533905, 0.18270212411880493, 0.5156705379486084, 0.1430174857378006, 0.369113028049469, -0.12120448052883148, 0.0718391016125679, 0.5231471061706543, 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221211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunduz	Kunduz	Kunduz (; ; original name: ) is a city in northern Afghanistan, the capital of Kunduz Province. The city has an estimated population of about 268,893 as of 2015, making it about the 7th-largest city of Afghanistan, and the largest city in northeastern Afghanistan. Kunduz is in the historical Tokharistan region of Bactria, near the confluence of the Kunduz River with the Khanabad River. Kunduz is linked by highways with Kabul to the south, Mazar-i-Sharif to the west, and Badakhshan to the east. Kunduz is also linked with Dushanbe in Tajikistan to the north, via the Afghan dry port of Sherkhan Bandar. As of 2015, the land use of the city (within the municipal boundary) is largely agricultural (65.8% of total area). Residential land comprises nearly half of the 'built-up' land area (48.3%) with 29,877 dwellings. Institutional land comprises 17.9% of built-up land use, given that the airport is within the municipal boundary. In 2021, the Taliban gained control of the city during the 2021 Taliban offensive. Etymology Kunduz is also sometimes spelled (romanized) as Kundûz, Qonduz, Qondûz, Konduz, Kondûz, Kondoz, or Qhunduz. The name of the city is derived from the Persian compound, kohan dež, "old/ancient fort". History Kunduz is the site of the ancient city of Drapsaka. It was a great centre of Buddhist learning and very prosperous during the 3rd century AD. The city used to be called Walwalij (or Varvarliz) and the name Kuhandiz began to be used from the Timurid time. In the 18th and 19th centuries it was the capital of a rather large eponymous, sometimes independent, sometimes autonomous Uzbek-Tajik khanate that in the 1820s encompassed land from Balkh to the Pamir Mountains. It was part of The Great Game between the British and Russians. This khanate was finally destroyed by Afghanistan in 1859. In the early 20th century, between one-hundred and two-hundred thousand Tajiks and Uzbeks fled the conquest of their homeland by Russian Red Army and settled in northern Afghanistan. In the early 20th century, under the governance of Sher Khan Nasher, Kunduz became one of the wealthiest Afghan provinces. This was mainly due to Nasher's founding of the Spinzar Cotton Company, which continues to exist in post-war Afghanistan. Kunduz is the most important agricultural province which produces wheat, rice, millet, and other products and obtained the nickname of "the hive of the country." Kunduz is the centre for the northeast provinces and was captured by the Taliban in 1997. It was the last major city held by the Taliban before its fall to US-backed Afghan Northern Alliance forces on 26 November 2001. During the summer of 2015, the Taliban advanced and attacked the city, which resulted in a battle for control of the city against Afghan forces. Tens of thousands of inhabitants were displaced internally by the fighting. On 28 September 2015 the Taliban flag was again raised in the city center and the Taliban managed to capture the city prison and free many prisoners. The Afghan Armed Forces counter-attacked and managed to re-capture the city in 15 days. The Taliban announced that, after achieving their objectives, they have withdrawn from the city's center. Zabiullah Mujahid, a Taliban spokesperson, said that their main object in leaving the city is to avoid civilian casualties from air raids. In April 2018 the Afghan Air Force conducted an airstrike that killed and injured dozens of civilians at a religious school in Kunduz. On 31 August 2019, the Taliban forces launched another attack on the city, setting off a major battle with local security forces. On 19 May 2020, the Taliban killed one policeman and one civilian and injured 18 others in a motorbike bomb blast in Kunduz. On the same day, the Taliban attempted again to capture Kunduz, attacking several government posts but were repelled by the Afghan security forces. The Taliban were forced to flee the city, leaving ten dead bodies behind. Eight Afghan soldiers and three civilians were killed and 55 others were wounded during the Taliban attack. On 8 August 2021, the Taliban as part of their nationwide military offensive captured Kunduz, along with Sar-e-Pul and Taloqan after heavy clashes with ANA forces. On 8 October 2021, a militant of ISKP detonated a suicide vest targeting shia worshippers at the Gozar-e-Sayed Abad Mosque, killing 50+ people and wounding over 100. Geography Kunduz is strategically situated on the main north–south highway linking Kabul to Tajikistan, and east–west Mazar-i-Sharif to Taloqan and Fayzabad. Climate Kunduz has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk) with hot summers and cool winters. Precipitation is generally low except from January to April, with summers almost always rainless. Demographics The city of Kunduz has an estimated population of about 268,893 as of 2015. Ethnic Pashtuns comprise the largest segment, followed by Uzbeks, Tajiks, Arabs and a few others. Kunduz is the capital of a highly diverse province that includes significant populations of Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Karluks, Hazaras, Arabs, Moghols, Balochis and Turkmens. Kunduz Arabs speak Persian and Pashto, Afghanistan's two official languages, rather than Arabic. However, they claim a strong Arab identity, based on their tribal origins in Arabia. This may in fact point to the seventh-century and eighth-century migration to this and other Central Asian locales of many Arab tribes from Arabia in the wake of the Islamic conquests of the region. Administration Kunduz city is divided into 8 Districts ('Nahias') with a total land area of 11,206 hectares. The most influential leader of Kunduz was Arif Khan, who was a governor of Kunduz Province and was shot dead in the city of Peshawar, Pakistan in the year 2000. Soon after the incident his brother Haji Omar Khan took his responsibility and was appointed as the Governor of Kunduz (2000–01). Sports Professional sports teams from Kunduz Stadiums Kunduz Cricket Ground Kunduz Ground Notable people Sher Khan Nasher, chief clan of (Ghilji) Kharoti Nasher tribe Spinzar Cotton Company founders, Ghulam Sarwar Nashir, Mir Khan Zakhel, and Raees Munawar Khan seen as the founding fathers of the province. Gholam Nabi Nasher Khan (1926–2010), parliamentarian Sayed Noorullah Murad (Afghan politician, member of federal cabinet, military commander & scholar) Imam Saheb district. Gulbudin Hekmatyar, Afghan political leader Javed Ahmadi (1992–), player of the Afghanistan national cricket team Abdul Rauf Ibrahimi, former Afghan National Parliament Speaker. Farhad Darya, Afghan singer See also List of cities in Afghanistan Farhad Darya 2009 Kunduz airstrike, (2015) Kunduz hospital airstrike, Kunduz Trauma Centre Kunduz Airport Kunduz University Battle of Kunduz (2015) Battle of Kunduz (2016) References Further reading Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977): An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. 1st Edition: 1970. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Tourist Organization. Thomas J. Barfield, The Central Asian Arabs of Afghanistan: Pastoral Nomadism in Transition. 1982. 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221220	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-right%20politics	Far-right politics	Far-right politics, also referred to as the extreme right or right-wing extremism, are politics further on the right of the left–right political spectrum than the standard political right, particularly in terms of being anti-communist, authoritarian, ultranationalist, and having nativist ideologies and tendencies. Historically used to describe the experiences of fascism and Nazism, today far-right politics include neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, the Third Position, the alt-right, racial supremacism, and other ideologies or organizations that feature aspects of ultranationalist, chauvinist, xenophobic, theocratic, racist, homophobic, transphobic, or reactionary views. Far-right politics can lead to oppression, political violence, forced assimilation, ethnic cleansing, or genocide against groups of people based on their supposed inferiority or their perceived threat to the native ethnic group, nation, state, national religion, dominant culture, or conservative social institutions. Overview Concept and worldview The core of the far right's worldview is organicism, the idea that society functions as a complete, organized and homogeneous living being. Adapted to the community they wish to constitute or reconstitute (whether based on ethnicity, nationality, religion or race), the concept leads them to reject every form of universalism in favor of autophilia and alterophobia, or in other words the idealization of a "we" excluding a "they". The far right tends to absolutize differences between nations, races, individuals or cultures since they disrupt their efforts towards the utopian dream of the "closed" and naturally organized society, perceived as the condition to ensure the rebirth of a community finally reconnected to its quasi-eternal nature and re-established on firm metaphysical foundations. As they view their community in a state of decay facilitated by the ruling elites, far-right members portray themselves as a natural, sane and alternative elite, with the redemptive mission of saving society from its promised doom. They reject both their national political system and the global geopolitical order (including their institutions and values, e.g. political liberalism and egalitarian humanism) which are presented as needing to be abandoned or purged of their impurities, so that the "redemptive community" can eventually leave the current phase of liminal crisis to usher in the new era. The community itself is idealized through great archetypal figures (the Golden Age, the savior, decadence and global conspiracy theories) as they glorify non-rationalistic and non-materialistic values such as the youth or the cult of the dead. Political scientist Cas Mudde argues that the far right can be viewed as a combination of four broadly defined concepts, namely exclusivism (e.g. racism, xenophobia, ethnocentrism, ethnopluralism, chauvinism, or welfare chauvinism), anti-democratic and non-individualist traits (e.g. cult of personality, hierarchism, monism, populism, anti-particracy, an organicist view of the state), a traditionalist value system lamenting the disappearance of historic frames of reference (e.g. law and order, the family, the ethnic, linguistic and religious community and nation as well as the natural environment) and a socioeconomic program associating corporatism, state control of certain sectors, agrarianism and a varying degree of belief in the free play of socially Darwinistic market forces. Mudde then proposes a subdivision of the far-right nebula into moderate and radical leanings, according to their degree of exclusionism and essentialism. Definition and comparative analysis The Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and the Right states that far-right politics include "persons or groups who hold extreme nationalist, xenophobic, racist, religious fundamentalist, or other reactionary views." While the term far right is typically applied to fascists and neo-Nazis, it has also been used to refer to these to the right of mainstream right-wing politics. According to political scientist Lubomír Kopeček, "[t]he best working definition of the contemporary far right may be the four-element combination of nationalism, xenophobia, law and order, and welfare chauvinism proposed for the Western European environment by Cas Mudde." Relying on those concepts, far-right politics includes yet is not limited to aspects of authoritarianism, anti-communism and nativism. Claims that superior people should have greater rights than inferior people are often associated with the far right, as they have historically favored a social Darwinistic or elitist hierarchy based on the belief in the legitimacy of the rule of a supposed superior minority over the inferior masses. Regarding the socio-cultural dimension of nationality, culture and migration, one far-right position is the view that certain ethnic, racial or religious groups should stay separate, based on the belief that the interests of one's own group should be prioritized. In comparing the Western European and post-Communist Central European far-right, Kopeček writes that "[t]he Central European far right was also typified by a strong anti-Communism, much more markedly than in Western Europe", allowing for "a basic ideological classification within a unified party family, despite the heterogeneity of the far right parties." Kopeček concludes that a comparison of Central European far-right parties with those of Western Europe shows that "these four elements are present in Central Europe as well, though in a somewhat modified form, despite differing political, economic, and social influences." In the American and more general Anglo-Saxon environment, the most common term is "radical right", which has a broader meaning than the European radical right. Mudde defines the American radical right as an "old school of nativism, populism, and hostility to central government [which] was said to have developed into the post-World War II combination of ultranationalism and anti-communism, Christian fundamentalism, militaristic orientation, and anti-alien sentiment." Jodi Dean argues that "the rise of far-right anti-communism in many parts of the world" should be interpreted "as a politics of fear, which utilizes the disaffection and anger generated by capitalism. [...] Partisans of far right-wing organizations, in turn, use anti-communism to challenge every political current which is not embedded in a clearly exposed nationalist and racist agenda. For them, both the USSR and the European Union, leftist liberals, ecologists, and supranational corporations – all of these may be called 'communist' for the sake of their expediency." In Hate in the Homeland: The New Global Far Right, Cynthia Miller-Idriss examines the far-right as a global movement and representing a cluster of overlapping "antidemocratic, antiegalitarian, white supremacist" beliefs that are "embedded in solutions like authoritarianism, ethnic cleansing or ethnic migration, and the establishment of separate ethno-states or enclaves along racial and ethnic lines". Modern debates Terminology According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg, the modern ambiguities in the definition of far-right politics lie in the fact that the concept is generally used by political adversaries to "disqualify and stigmatize all forms of partisan nationalism by reducing them to the historical experiments of Italian Fascism [and] German National Socialism." Mudde agrees and notes that "the term is not only used for scientific purposes but also for political purposes. Several authors define right-wing extremism as a sort of anti-thesis against their own beliefs." While the existence of such a political position is widely accepted among scholars, figures associated with the far-right rarely accept this denomination, preferring terms like "national movement" or "national right". There is also debate about how appropriate the labels neo-fascist or neo-Nazi are. In the words of Mudde, "the labels Neo-Nazi and to a lesser extent neo-Fascism are now used exclusively for parties and groups that explicitly state a desire to restore the Third Reich or quote historical National Socialism as their ideological influence." One issue is whether parties should be labelled radical or extreme, a distinction that is made by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany when determining whether or not a party should be banned. An extremist party opposes liberal democracy and the constitutional order while a radical one accepts free elections and the parliament as legitimate structures. After a survey of the academic literature, Mudde concluded in 2002 that the terms "right-wing extremism", "right-wing populism", "national populism", or "neo-populism" were often used as synonyms by scholars, in any case with "striking similarities", except notably among a few authors studying the extremist-theoretical tradition. Relation to right-wing politics Italian philosopher and political scientist Norberto Bobbio argues that attitudes towards equality are primarily what distinguish left-wing politics from right-wing politics on the political spectrum. Aspects of far-right ideology can be identified in the agenda of some contemporary right-wing parties: in particular, the idea that superior persons should dominate society while undesirable elements should be purged, which in extreme cases has resulted in genocides. Charles Grant, director of the Centre for European Reform in London, distinguishes between fascism and right-wing nationalist parties which are often described as far right such as the National Front in France. Mudde notes that the most successful European far-right parties in 2019 were "former mainstream right-wing parties that have turned into populist radical right ones." According to historian Mark Sedgwick, "[t]here is no general agreement as to where the mainstream ends and the extreme starts, and if there ever had been agreement on this, the recent shift in the mainstream would challenge it." Proponents of the horseshoe theory interpretation of the Left–right political spectrum identify the far left and the far right as having more in common with each other as extremists than each of them has with centrists or moderates. However, the horseshoe theory does not enjoy support within academic circles and has received criticism, including the view that it has been centrists who have supported far-right and fascist regimes that they prefer in power over socialist ones. Nature of support Jens Rydgren describes a number of theories as to why individuals support far-right political parties and the academic literature on this topic distinguishes between demand-side theories that have changed the "interests, emotions, attitudes and preferences of voters" and supply-side theories which focus on the programmes of parties, their organization and the opportunity structures within individual political systems. The most common demand-side theories are the social breakdown thesis, the relative deprivation thesis, the modernization losers thesis and the ethnic competition thesis. The rise of far-right parties has also been viewed as a rejection of post-materialist values on the part of some voters. This theory which is known as the reverse post-material thesis blames both left-wing and progressive parties for embracing a post-material agenda (including feminism and environmentalism) that alienates traditional working class voters. Another study argues that individuals who join far-right parties determine whether those parties develop into major political players or whether they remain marginalized. Early academic studies adopted psychoanalytical explanations for the far right's support. The 1933 publication The Mass Psychology of Fascism by Wilhelm Reich argued the theory that fascists came to power in Germany as a result of sexual repression. For some far-right parties in Western Europe, the issue of immigration has become the dominant issue among them, so much so that some scholars refer to these parties as "anti-immigrant" parties. Intellectual history Background The French Revolution in 1789 created a major shift in political thought by challenging the established ideas supporting hierarchy with new ones about universal equality and freedom. The modern left–right political spectrum also emerged during this period. Democrats and proponents of universal suffrage were located on the left side of the elected French Assembly, while monarchists seated farthest to the right. The strongest opponents of liberalism and democracy during the 19th century, such as Joseph de Maistre and Friedrich Nietzsche, were highly critical of the French Revolution. Those who advocated a return to the absolute monarchy during the 19th century called themselves "ultra-monarchists" and embraced a "mystic" and "providentialist" vision of the world where royal dynasties were seen as the "repositories of divine will". The opposition to liberal modernity was based on the belief that hierarchy and rootedness are more important than equality and liberty, with the latter two being dehumanizing. Emergence In the French public debate following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, far right was used to describe the strongest opponents of the far left, those who supported the events occurring in Russia. A number of thinkers on the far right nonetheless claimed an influence from an anti-Marxist and anti-egalitarian definition of socialism, based on a military comradeship that rejected Marxist class analysis, or what Oswald Spengler had called a "socialism of the blood", which is sometimes described by scholars as a form of "socialist revisionism". They included Charles Maurras, Benito Mussolini, Arthur Moeller van den Bruck and Ernst Niekisch. Those thinkers eventually split along nationalist lines from the original communist movement, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels contradicting nationalist theories with the idea that "the working men [had] no country." The main reason for that ideological confusion can be found in the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, which according to Swiss historian had completely redesigned the political landscape in Europe by diffusing the idea of an anti-individualistic concept of "national unity" rising above the right and left division. As the concept of "the masses" was introduced into the political debate through industrialization and the universal suffrage, a new right-wing founded on national and social ideas began to emerge, what Zeev Sternhell has called the "revolutionary right" and a foreshadowing of fascism. The rift between the left and nationalists was furthermore accentuated by the emergence of anti-militarist and anti-patriotic movements like anarchism or syndicalism, which shared even less similarities with the far right. The latter began to develop a "nationalist mysticism" entirely different from that on the left, and antisemitism turned into a credo of the far right, marking a break from the traditional economic "anti-Judaism" defended by parts of the far left, in favour of a racial and pseudo-scientific notion of alterity. Various nationalist leagues began to form across Europe like the Pan-German League or the Ligue des Patriotes, with the common goal of a uniting the masses beyond social divisions. Völkisch and revolutionary right The Völkisch movement emerged in the late 19th century, drawing inspiration from German Romanticism and its fascination for a medieval Reich supposedly organized into a harmonious hierarchical order. Erected on the idea of "blood and soil", it was a racialist, populist, agrarian, romantic nationalist and an antisemitic movement from the 1900s onward as a consequence of a growing exclusive and racial connotation. They idealized the myth of an "original nation", that still could be found at their times in the rural regions of Germany, a form of "primitive democracy freely subjected to their natural elites." Thinkers led by Arthur de Gobineau, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Alexis Carrel and Georges Vacher de Lapouge distorted Darwin's theory of evolution to advocate a "race struggle" and an hygienist vision of the world. The purity of the bio-mystical and primordial nation theorized by the Völkischen then began to be seen as corrupted by foreign elements, Jewish in particular. Translated in Maurice Barrès' concept of "the earth and the dead", these ideas influenced the pre-fascist "revolutionary right" across Europe. The latter had its origin in the fin de siècle intellectual crisis and it was, in the words of Fritz Stern, the deep "cultural despair" of thinkers feeling uprooted within the rationalism and scientism of the modern world. It was characterized by a rejection of the established social order, with revolutionary tendencies and anti-capitalist stances, a populist and plebiscitary dimension, the advocacy of violence as a means of action and a call for individual and collective palingenesis ("regeneration, rebirth"). Contemporary thought The key thinkers of contemporary far-right politics are claimed by Mark Sedgwick to share four key elements, namely apocalyptism, fear of global elites, belief in Carl Schmitt's friend-enemy distinction and the idea of metapolitics. The apocalyptic strain of thought begins in Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West and is shared by Julius Evola and Alain de Benoist. It continues in The Death of the West by Pat Buchanan as well as in the fears of Islamization of Europe. Related to it is the fear of global elites, who are seen as responsible for the decline. Ernst Jünger was concerned about rootless cosmopolitan elites while de Benoist and Buchanan oppose the managerial state and Curtis Yarvin is against "the Cathedral". Schmitt's friend-enemy distinction has inspired the French Nouvelle Droite idea of ethnopluralism which has become highly influential on the alt-right when combined with American racism. In a 1961 book deemed influential in the European far-right at large, French neo-fascist writer Maurice Bardèche introduced the idea that fascism could survive the 20th century under a new metapolitical guise adapted to the changes of the times. Rather than trying to revive doomed regimes with their single party, secret police or public display of Caesarism, Bardèche argued that its theorists should promote the core philosophical idea of fascism regardless of its framework, i.e. the concept that only a minority, "the physically saner, the morally purer, the most conscious of national interest", can represent best the community and serve the less gifted in what Bardèche calls a new "feudal contract". Another influence on contemporary far-right thought has been the Traditionalist School which included Julius Evola and has influenced Steve Bannon and Aleksandr Dugin, advisors to Donald Trump and Vladimir Putin as well as the Jobbik party in Hungary. Regarding Latin America, Dr. Rene Leal of the University of Santiago, Chile notes that the oppressive exploitation of labor under neoliberal governments in the region precipitated the growth of far-right politics in the region. History by country Africa Rwanda A number of far-right extremist and paramilitary groups carried out the Rwandan genocide under the racial supremacist ideology of Hutu Power, developed by journalist and Hutu supremacist Hassan Ngeze. On 5 July 1975, exactly two years after the 1973 Rwandan coup d'état, the far right National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development (MRND) was founded under president Juvénal Habyarimana. Between 1975 and 1991, the MRND was the only legal political party in the country. It was dominated by Hutus, particularly from Habyarimana's home region of Northern Rwanda. An elite group of MRND party members who were known to have influence on the President and his wife Agathe Habyarimana are known as the akazu, an informal organization of Hutu extremists whose members planned and lead the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Prominent Hutu businessman and member of the akazu, Félicien Kabuga was one of the genocides main financiers, providing thousands of machetes which were used to commit the genocide. Kabuga also founded Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines, used to broadcast propaganda and direct the génocidaires. Kabuga was arrested in France On 16 May 2020, and charged with crimes against humanity. Interahamwe The Interahamwe was formed around 1990 as the youth wing of the MRND and enjoyed the backing of the Hutu Power government. The Interahamwe were driven out of Rwanda after Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front victory in the Rwandan Civil War in July 1994 and are considered a terrorist organisation by many African and Western governments. The Interahamwe and splinter groups such as the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda continue to wage an insurgency against Rwanda from neighboring countries, where they are also involved in local conflicts and terrorism. The Interahamwe were the main perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide, during which an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsi, Twa and moderate Hutus were killed from April to July 1994 and the term Interahamwe was widened to mean any civilian bands killing Tutsi. Coalition for the Defence of the Republic Other far-right groups and paramilitaries involved included the anti-democratic segregationist Coalition for the Defence of the Republic (CDR), which called for complete segregation of Hutus from Tutsis. The CDR had a paramilitary wing known as the Impuzamugambi. Together with the Interahamwe militia, the Impuzamugambi played a central role in the Rwandan genocide. South Africa Herstigte Nasionale Party The far right in South Africa emerged as the Herstigte Nasionale Party (HNP) in 1969, formed by Albert Hertzog as breakaway from the predominant right-wing South African National Party, an Afrikaner ethno-nationalist party that implemented the racist, segregationist program of apartheid, the legal system of political, economic and social separation of the races intended to maintain and extend political and economic control of South Africa by the White minority. The HNP was formed after the South African National Party re-established diplomatic relations with Malawi and legislated to allow Māori players and spectators to enter the country during the 1970 New Zealand rugby union team tour in South Africa. The HNP advocated for a Calvinist, racially segregated and Afrikaans-speaking nation. Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging In 1973, Eugène Terre'Blanche, a former police officer founded the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a South African neo-Nazi paramilitary organisation, often described as a white supremacist group. Since its founding in 1973 by Eugène Terre'Blanche and six other far-right Afrikaners, it has been dedicated to secessionist Afrikaner nationalism and the creation of an independent Boer-Afrikaner republic in part of South Africa. During negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa in the early 1990s, the organization terrorized and killed black South Africans. Togo Togo has been ruled by members of the Gnassingbé family and the far-right military dictatorship formerly known as the Rally of the Togolese People since 1969. Despite the legalisation of political parties in 1991 and the ratification of a democratic constitution in 1992, the regime continues to be regarded as oppressive. In 1993, the European Union cut off aid in reaction to the regime's human-rights offenses. After's Eyadema's death in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbe took over, then stood down and was re-elected in elections that were widely described as fraudulent and occasioned violence that resulted in as many as 600 deaths and the flight from Togo of 40,000 refugees. In 2012, Faure Gnassingbe dissolved the RTP and created the Union for the Republic. Throughout the reign of the Gnassingbé family, Togo has been extremely oppressive. According to a United States Department of State report based on conditions in 2010, human rights abuses are common and include "security force use of excessive force, including torture, which resulted in deaths and injuries; official impunity; harsh and life-threatening prison conditions; arbitrary arrests and detention; lengthy pretrial detention; executive influence over the judiciary; infringement of citizens' privacy rights; restrictions on freedoms of press, assembly, and movement; official corruption; discrimination and violence against women; child abuse, including female genital mutilation (FGM), and sexual exploitation of children; regional and ethnic discrimination; trafficking in persons, especially women and children; societal discrimination against persons with disabilities; official and societal discrimination against homosexual persons; societal discrimination against persons with HIV; and forced labor, including by children." Americas Brazil Prior to World War II, Nazis had been making and distributing propaganda among ethnic Germans in Brazil. The Nazi regime built close ties with Brazil through the estimated 100 thousand native Germans and 1 million German descendants living in Brazil at the time. In 1928, the Brazilian section of the Nazi Party was founded in Timbó, Santa Catarina. This section reached 2,822 members and was the largest section of the Nazi Party outside Germany. About 100 thousand born Germans and about one million descendants lived in Brazil at that time. During the 1920s and 1930s, a local brand of religious fascism appeared known as integralism a green-shirted paramilitary organization with uniformed ranks, highly regimented street demonstrations and rhetoric against Marxism and liberalism. After Germany's defeat in World War II, many Nazi war criminals fled to Brazil and hid among the German-Brazilian communities. The most famous case was Josef Mengele, a doctor who became known as the "Angel of Death" at the Auschwitz concentration camp. Mengele performed horrific medical experiments. Mengele drowned in Bertioga, on the coast of São Paulo state, without ever having been recognized. The far right has continued to operate throughout Brazil and a number of far-right parties existed in the modern era including Patriota, the Brazilian Labour Renewal Party, the Party of the Reconstruction of the National Order, the National Renewal Alliance and the Social Liberal Party as well as death squads such as the Command for Hunting Communists. President of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro is a member of the Alliance for Brazil, a far-right nationalist political group that aims to become a political party. Bolsonaro has been widely described by numerous media organizations as far right. Central American death squads In Guatemala, the far-right government of Carlos Castillo Armas utilized death squads after coming to power in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état. Along with other far-right extremists, Castillo Armas started the National Liberation Movement (Movimiento de Liberación Nacional, or MLN). The founders of the party described it as the "party of organized violence". The new government promptly reversed the democratic reforms initiated during the Guatemalan Revolution and the agrarian reform program (Decree 900) that was the main project of president Jacobo Arbenz Guzman and which directly impacted the interests of both the United Fruit Company and the Guatemalan landowners. Mano Blanca, otherwise known as the Movement of Organized Nationalist Action, was set up in 1966 as a front for the MLN to carry out its more violent activities, along with many other similar groups, including the New Anticommunist Organization and the Anticommunist Council of Guatemala. Mano Blanca was active during the governments of colonel Carlos Arana Osorio and general Kjell Laugerud García and was dissolved by general Fernando Romeo Lucas Garcia in 1978. Armed with the support and coordination of the Guatemalan Armed Forces, Mano Blanca began a campaign described by the United States Department of State as one of "kidnappings, torture, and summary execution." One of the main targets of Mano Blanca was the Revolutionary Party, an anti-communist group that was the only major reform oriented party allowed to operate under the military-dominated regime. Other targets included the banned leftist parties. Human rights activist Blase Bonpane described the activities of Mano Blanca as being an integral part of the policy of the Guatemalan government and by extension the policy of the United States government and the Central Intelligence Agency. Overall, Mano Blanca was responsible for thousands of murders and kidnappings, leading travel writer Paul Theroux to refer to them as "Guatemala's version of a volunteer Gestapo unit". Chile The National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) was created in the 1930s with the funding from the German population in Chile. In 1938, the MNSCH was dissolved after it attempted a coup and recreated itself as the Popular Freedom Alliance party, later merging with the Agrarian Party to create the Agrarian Labor Party (PAL). PAL would go through various mergers to become the , then National Action and finally the National Party. Following the fall of Nazi Germany, many Nazis fled to Chile. The National Party supported the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that established the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet with many members assuming positions in Pinochet's government. Pinochet headed a far-right dictatorship in Chile from 1973 to 1990. According to author Peter Levenda, Pinochet was "openly pro-Nazi" and used former Gestapo members to train his own Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA) personnel. Pinochet's DINA sent political prisoners to the Chilean-German town of Colonia Dignidad, with the town's actions being defended by the Pinochet government. The Central Intelligence Agency and Simon Wiesenthal also provided evidence of Josef Mengele – the infamous Nazi concentration camp doctor known as the "Angel of Death" for his lethal experiments on human subjects – being present in Colonia Dignidad. Former DINA member Michael Townley also stated that biological warfare weapons experiments occurred at the colony. Following the end of Pinochet's government, the National Party would split to become the more centrist National Renewal (RN), while individuals who supported Pinochet organized Independent Democratic Union (UDI). UDI is a far-right political party that was formed by former Pinochet officials. In 2019, the far-right Republican Party was founded by José Antonio Kast, a UDI politician who believed his former party criticized Pinochet too often. According to Cox and Blanco, the Republican Party appeared in Chilean politics in a similar manner to Spain's Vox party, with both parties splitting off from an existing right wing party to collect disillusioned voters. Death squads in El Salvador During the Salvadoran Civil War, far-right death squads known in Spanish by the name of Escuadrón de la Muerte, literally "Squadron of Death, achieved notoriety when a sniper assassinated Archbishop Óscar Romero while he was saying mass in March 1980. In December 1980, three American nuns and a lay worker were gangraped and murdered by a military unit later found to have been acting on specific orders. Death squads were instrumental in killing thousands of peasants and activists. Funding for the squads came primarily from right-wing Salvadoran businessmen and landowners. El Salvadorian death squads indirectly received arms, funding, training and advice during the Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations. Some death squads such as Sombra Negra are still operating in El Salvador. Death squads in Honduras Honduras also had far-right death squads active through the 1980s, the most notorious of which was Battalion 3–16. Hundreds of people, teachers, politicians and union bosses were assassinated by government-backed forces. Battalion 316 received substantial support and training from the United States through the Central Intelligence Agency. At least nineteen members were School of the Americas graduates. As of mid-2006, seven members, including Billy Joya, later played important roles in the administration of President Manuel Zelaya. Following the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis, former Battalion 3–16 member Nelson Willy Mejía Mejía became Director-General of Immigration and Billy Joya was de facto President Roberto Micheletti's security advisor. Napoleón Nassar Herrera, another former Battalion 3–16 member, was high Commissioner of Police for the north-west region under Zelaya and under Micheletti, even becoming a Secretary of Security spokesperson "for dialogue" under Micheletti. Zelaya claimed that Joya had reactivated the death squad, with dozens of government opponents having been murdered since the ascent of the Michiletti and Lobo governments. Mexico National Synarchist Union The largest far-right party in Mexico is the National Synarchist Union. It was historically a movement of the Roman Catholic extreme right, in some ways akin to clerical fascism and Falangism, strongly opposed to the left-wing and secularist policies of the Institutional Revolutionary Party and its predecessors that governed Mexico from 1929 to 2000 and 2012 to 2018. Peru During the internal conflict in Peru and a struggling presidency of Alan García, the Peruvian Armed Forces created Plan Verde, initially a coup plan that involved establishing a government that would carry out the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of media and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta in Peru. Military planners also decided against the coup as they expected Mario Vargas Llosa, a neoliberal candidate, to be elected in the 1990 Peruvian general election. Vargas Llosa later reported that Anthony C. E. Quainton, the United States Ambassador to Peru, personally told him that allegedly leaked documents of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) purportedly being supportive of his opponent Alberto Fujimori were authentic, reportedly due to Fujimori's relationship with Vladimiro Montesinos, a former National Intelligence Service (SIN) officer who was tasked with spying on the Peruvian military for the CIA. An agreement was ultimately adopted between the armed forces and Fujimori after he was inaugurated president, with the Fujimori implementing many of the objectives outlined in Plan Verde. Fujimori then established Fujimorism, an ideology with authoritarian and fascist traits, leading Peru beside Montesinos as a dictator following the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état until he fled to Japan in 2000 during the Vladivideos scandal. While in Japan, Fujimori announced plans to run in Japan's Upper House elections in July 2007 for the far-right People's New Party. Following Alberto Fujimori's arrest and trial, his daughter Keiko Fujimori assumed leadership of the Fujimoirst movement and established Popular Force, a far-right political party. The 2016 Peruvian general election resulted with the party holding the most power in the Congress of Peru from 2016 to 2019, marking the beginning of a political crisis. Approaching the 2021 Peruvian general election, far-right politician Rafael López Aliaga and his party Popular Renewal rose in popularity during the first round of campaigning. United States In United States politics, the terms "extreme right", "far-right", and "ultra-right" are labels used to describe "militant forms of insurgent revolutionary right ideology and separatist ethnocentric nationalism", such as Christian Identity, the Creativity Movement, the Ku Klux Klan, the National Socialist Movement, the National Alliance, the Joy of Satan Ministries, and the Order of Nine Angles. These far-right groups share conspiracist views of power which are overwhelmingly anti-Semitic and reject pluralist democracy in favour of an organic oligarchy that would unite the perceived homogeneously-racial Völkish nation. The far-right in the United States is composed of various Neo-fascist, Neo-Nazi, White nationalist, and White supremacist organizations and networks who have been known to refer to an "acceleration" of racial conflict through violent means such as assassinations, murders, terrorist attacks, and societal collapse, in order to achieve the building of a White ethnostate. Radical right Starting in the 1870s and continuing through the late 19th century, numerous white supremacist paramilitary groups operated in the South, with the goal of organizing against and intimidating supporters of the Republican Party. Examples of such groups included the Red Shirts and the White League. The Second Ku Klux Klan, which was formed in 1915, combined Protestant fundamentalism and moralism with right-wing extremism. Its major support came from the urban south, the midwest and the Pacific Coast. While the Klan initially drew upper middle class support, its bigotry and violence alienated these members and it came to be dominated by less educated and poorer members. The Ku Klux Klan claimed that there was a secret Catholic army within the United States loyal to the Pope, that one million Knights of Columbus were arming themselves and that Irish-American policemen would shoot Protestants as heretics. They claimed that the Catholics were planning to take Washington and put the Vatican in power and that all presidential assassinations had been carried out by Catholics. The prominent Klan leader D. C. Stephenson believed in the antisemitic canard of Jewish control of finance, claiming that international Jewish bankers were behind the World War I and planned to destroy economic opportunities for Christians. Other Klansmen in the Jewish Bolshevism conspiracy theory and claimed that the Russian Revolution and communism were controlled by Jews. They frequently reprinted parts of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and New York City was condemned as an evil city controlled by Jews and Catholics. The objects of the Klan fear tended to vary by locale and included African Americans as well as American Catholics, Jews, labour unions, liquor, Orientals and Wobblies. They were also anti-elitist and attacked "the intellectuals", seeing themselves as egalitarian defenders of the common man. During the Great Depression, there were a large number of small nativist groups, whose ideologies and bases of support were similar to those of earlier nativist groups. However, proto-fascist movements such as Huey Long's Share Our Wealth and Charles Coughlin's National Union for Social Justice emerged which differed from other right-wing groups by attacking big business, calling for economic reform and rejecting nativism. Coughlin's group later developed a racist ideology. During the Cold War and the Red Scares, the far right "saw spies and communists influencing government and entertainment. Thus, despite bipartisan anticommunism in the United States, it was the right that mainly fought the great ideological battle against the communists." The John Birch Society, founded in 1958, is a prominent example of a far-right organization mainly concerned with anti-communism and the perceived threat of communism. Neo-Nazi Robert Jay Matthews of the white supremacist group The Order came to support the John Birch Society, especially when conservative icon Barry Goldwater from Arizona ran for the presidency on the Republican Party ticket. Far-right conservatives consider John Birch to be the first casualty of the Cold War. In the 1990s, many conservatives turned against then-president George H. W. Bush, who pleasured neither the Republican Party's more moderate and far-right wings. As a result, Bush was primared by Pat Buchanan. In the 2000s, critics of President George W. Bush's conservative unilateralism argued it can be traced to both Vice President Dick Cheney who embraced the policy since the early 1990s and to far-right Congressmen who won their seats during the conservative revolution of 1994. Although small militias had existed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the groups became more popular during the early 1990s, after a series of standoffs between armed citizens and federal government agents such as the 1992 Ruby Ridge siege and 1993 Waco Siege. These groups expressed concern for what they perceived as government tyranny within the United States and generally held constitutionalist, libertarian and right-libertarian political views, with a strong focus on the Second Amendment gun rights and tax protest. They also embraced many of the same conspiracy theories as predecessor groups on the radical right, particularly the New World Order conspiracy theory. Examples of such groups are the Oath Keepers and the Three Percenters. A minority of militia groups such as the Aryan Nations and the Posse Comitatus were white nationalists and saw militia and patriot movements as a form of white resistance against what they perceived to be a liberal and multiculturalist government. Militia and patriot organizations were involved in the 2014 Bundy standoff and the 2016 occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the counter-jihad movement, supported by groups such as Stop Islamization of America and individuals such as Frank Gaffney and Pamela Geller, began to gain traction among the American right. The counter-jihad members were widely dubbed Islamophobic for their vocal condemnation of the Islamic faith and their belief that there was a significant threat posed by Muslims living in America. Its proponents believed that the United States was under threat from "Islamic supremacism", accusing the Council on American-Islamic Relations and even prominent conservatives such as Suhail A. Khan and Grover Norquist of supporting radical Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood. The alt-right emerged during the 2016 United States presidential election cycle in support of the Donald Trump's presidential campaign. It draws influence from paleoconservatism, paleolibertarianism, white nationalism, the manosphere and the Identitarian and neoreactionary movements. The alt-right differs from previous radical right movements due to its heavy internet presence on websites such as 4chan. Chetan Bhatt, in White Extinction: Metaphysical Elements of Contemporary Western Fascism, says that "The ‘fear of white extinction’, and related ideas of population population eugenics, have travelled far and represent a wider political anxiety about ‘white displacement’ in the US, UK and Europe that has fuelled the right-wing phenomena referred to by that sanitizing word ‘populism’, a term that neatly evades attention to the racism and white majoritarianism that energizes it." Asia Japan In 1996, the National Police Agency estimated that there were over 1,000 extremist right-wing groups in Japan, with about 100,000 members in total. These groups are known in Japanese as Uyoku dantai. While there are political differences among the groups, they generally carry a philosophy of anti-leftism, hostility towards China, North Korea and South Korea and justification of Japan's role in World War II. Uyoku dantai groups are well known for their highly visible propaganda vehicles fitted with loudspeakers and prominently marked with the name of the group and propaganda slogans. The vehicles play patriotic or wartime-era songs. Activists affiliated with such groups have used Molotov cocktails and time bombs to intimidate moderate politicians and public figures, including former Deputy Foreign Minister Hitoshi Tanaka and Fuji Xerox Chairman Yotaro Kobayashi. An ex-member of a right-wing group set fire to Liberal Democratic Party politician Koichi Kato's house. Koichi Kato and Yotaro Kobayashi had spoken out against Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine. Openly revisionist, Nippon Kaigi is considered "the biggest right-wing organization in Japan." Europe Croatia Individuals and groups in Croatia that employ far-right politics are most often associated with the historical Ustaše movement, hence they have connections to neo-Nazism and neo-fascism. That World War II political movement was an extremist organization at the time supported by the German Nazis and the Italian Fascists. The association with the Ustaše has been called neo-Ustashism by Slavko Goldstein. Most active far-right political parties in Croatia openly state their continuity with the Ustaše. These include the Croatian Party of Rights and Authentic Croatian Party of Rights. Croatia's far-right often advocates the false theory that the Jasenovac concentration camp was a "labour camp" where mass murder did not take place. The coalition led by Miroslav Škoro's far-right Homeland Movement came third at the 2020 parliamentary election, winning 10.89% of the vote and 16 seats. Estonia Estonia's most significant far-right movement was the Vaps movement. Its ideological predecessor Valve Liit was founded by Admiral Johan Pitka and later banned for maligning the government. The organization became politicized quickly Vaps soon turned into a mass fascist movement. In 1933, Estonians voted on Vaps' proposed changes to the constitution and the party later won a large proportion of the vote. However, the State Elder Konstantin Päts declared state of emergency and imprisoned the leadership of the Vaps. In 1935, all political parties were banned. In 1935, a Vaps coup attempt was discovered, which led to the banning of the Finnish Patriotic People's Movement's youth wing that had been secretly aiding and arming them. During World War II, the Estonian Self-Administration was a collaborationist pro-Nazi government set up in Estonia, headed by Vaps member Hjalmar Mäe. In the 21st century, the coalition-governing Conservative People's Party of Estonia been described as far right. The neo-Nazi terrorist organization Feuerkrieg Division was found and operates in the country, with some members of the Conservative People's Party of Estonia having been linked to the Feuerkrieg Division. The party's youth organisation Blue Awakening organises an annual torchlight march through Tallinn on Estonia's Independence Day. The event has been harshly criticized by the Simon Wiesenthal Center that described it as "Nuremberg-esque" and likened the ideology of the participants to that of the Estonian nazi collaborators. Finland In Finland, support for the far right was most widespread between 1920 and 1940 when the Academic Karelia Society, Lapua Movement, Patriotic People's Movement and Vientirauha operated in the country and had hundreds of thousands of members. Far-right groups exercised considerable political power during this period, pressuring the government to outlaw communist parties and newspapers and expel Freemasons from the armed forces. During the Cold War, all parties deemed fascist were banned according to the Paris Peace Treaties and all former fascist activists had to find new political homes. Despite Finlandization, many continued in public life. Three former members of the Waffen SS served as ministers of defense; Sulo Suorttanen and Pekka Malinen as well as . The skinhead culture gained momentum during the late 1980s and peaked during the late 1990s. Numerous hate crimes were committed against refugees, including a number of racially motivated murders. Today, the most prominent neo-Nazi group is the Nordic Resistance Movement, which is tied to multiple murders, attempted murders and assaults of political enemies was found in 2006 and proscribed in 2019. Prominent far-right parties include the Blue-and-Black Movement and Power Belongs to the People. France The largest far-right party in Europe is the French anti-immigration party National Rally, formally known as the National Front. The party was founded in 1972, uniting a variety of French far-right groups under the leadership of Jean-Marie Le Pen. Since 1984, it has been the major force of French nationalism. Jean-Marie Le Pen's daughter Marine Le Pen was elected to succeed him as party leader in 2012. Under Jean-Marie Le Pen's leadership, the party sparked outrage for hate speech, including Holocaust denial and Islamophobia. Germany In 1945, the Allied powers took control of Germany and banned the swastika, Nazi Party and the publication of Mein Kampf. Explicitly Nazi and neo-Nazi organizations are banned in Germany. In 1960, the West German parliament voted unanimously to "make it illegal to incite hatred, to provoke violence, or to insult, ridicule or defame 'parts of the population' in a manner apt to breach the peace." German law outlaws anything that "approves of, glorifies or justifies the violent and despotic rule of the National Socialists." Section 86a of the Strafgesetzbuch (Criminal Code) outlaws any "use of symbols of unconstitutional organizations" outside the contexts of "art or science, research or teaching". The law primarily outlaws the use of Nazi symbols, flags, insignia, uniforms, slogans and forms of greeting. In the 21st century, the German far right consists of various small parties and two larger groups, namely Alternative for Germany (AfD) and Pegida. In March 2021, the Germany domestic intelligence agency Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution placed the AfD under surveillance, the first time in the post-war period that a main opposition party had been subjected to such scrutiny. Greece Metaxism The far right in Greece first came to power under the ideology of Metaxism, a proto-fascist ideology developed by dictator Ioannis Metaxas. Metaxism called for the regeneration of the Greek nation and the establishment of an ethnically homogeneous state. Metaxism disparaged liberalism, and held individual interests to be subordinate to those of the nation, seeking to mobilize the Greek people as a disciplined mass in service to the creation of a "new Greece". The Metaxas government and its official doctrines are often compared to conventional totalitarian-conservative dictatorships such as Francisco Franco's Spain or António de Oliveira Salazar's Portugal. The Metaxist government derived its authority from the conservative establishment and its doctrines strongly supported traditional institutions such as the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Royal Family; essentially reactionary, it lacked the radical theoretical dimensions of ideologies such as Italian Fascism and German Nazism. Axis occupation of Greece and aftermath The Metaxis regime came to an end after the Axis powers invaded Greece. The Axis occupation of Greece began in April 1941. The occupation ruined the Greek economy and brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civilian population. The Jewish population of Greece was nearly eradicated. Of its pre-war population of 75–77,000, only around 11–12,000 survived, either by joining the resistance or being hidden. Following the short-lived interim government of Georgios Papandreou, the military seized power in Greece during the 1967 Greek coup d'état, replacing the interim government with the right-wing United States-backed Greek junta. The Junta was a series of military juntas that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974. The dictatorship was characterised by right-wing cultural policies, restrictions on civil liberties and the imprisonment, torture and exile of political opponents. The junta's rule ended on 24 July 1974 under the pressure of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, leading to the Metapolitefsi ("regime change") to democracy and the establishment of the Third Hellenic Republic. In the 21st century, the dominant far-right party in Greece is the neo-Nazi and Mataxist inspired Golden Dawn. At the May 2012 Greek legislative election, Golden Dawn won a number of seats in the Greek parliament, the party received 6.92% of the vote. Founded by Nikolaos Michaloliakos, Golden Dawn had its origins in the movement that worked towards a return to right-wing military dictatorship in Greece. Following an investigation into the 2013 murder of Pavlos Fyssas, an anti-fascist rapper, by a supporter of the party, Michaloliakos and several other Golden Dawn parliamentarians and members were arrested and held in pre-trial detention on suspicion of forming a criminal organization. The trial began on 20 April 2015 and is ongoing . Golden Dawn later lost all of its remaining seats in the Greek Parliament in the 2019 Greek legislative election. A 2020 survey showed the party's popularity plummeting to just 1.5%, down from 2.9% in previous year's elections. Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was an Axis power during World War II. By 1944, Hungary was in secret negotiations with the Allies. Upon discovering these secret negotiations Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944, effectively sabotaging the attempts to jump out of the war until the Budapest Offensive started later that same year. Italy The far right has maintained a continuous political presence in Italy since the fall of Mussolini. The neo-fascist party Italian Social Movement (1946–1995), influenced by the previous Italian Social Republic (1943–1945), became one of the chief reference points for the European far-right from the end of World War II until the late 1980s. Silvio Berlusconi and his Forza Italia party dominated politics from 1994. According to some scholars, it gave neo-fascism a new respectability. Caio Giulio Cesare Mussolini, great-grandson of Benito Mussolini, stood for the 2019 European Parliament election as a member of the far right Brothers of Italy party. In 2011, it was estimated that the neo-fascist CasaPound party had 5,000 members. The name is derived from the fascist poet Ezra Pound. It has also been influenced by the Manifesto of Verona, the Labour Charter of 1927 and social legislation of fascism. There has been collaboration between CasaPound and the identitarian movement. The European migrant crisis has become an increasingly divisive issue in Italy. Interior Minister Matteo Salvini has been courting far-right voters. His Northern League party has become an anti-immigrant, nationalist movement. Both parties are using Mussolini nostalgia to further their aims. Netherlands Despite being neutral, the Netherlands was invaded by Nazi Germany on 10 May 1940 as part of Fall Gelb. About 70% of the country's Jewish population were killed during the occupation, a much higher percentage than comparable countries such as Belgium and France. Most of the south of the country was liberated in the second half of 1944. The rest, especially the west and north of the country still under occupation, suffered from a famine at the end of 1944 known as the Hunger Winter. On 5 May 1945, the whole country was finally liberated by the total surrender of all German forces. Since the end of World War II, the Netherlands has had a number of small far-right groups and parties, the largest and most successful being the Party for Freedom lead by Geert Wilders. Other far-right Dutch groups include the neo-Nazi Dutch Peoples-Union (1973–present), the Centre Party (1982–1986), the Centre Party '86 (1986–1998), the Dutch Block (1992–2000), New National Party (1998–2005) and the ultranationalist National Alliance (2003–2007). Poland Following the collapse of Communist Poland, a number of far-right groups came to prominence including The National Revival of Poland, the European National Front, the Association for Tradition and Culture "Niklot". The All-Polish Youth and National Radical Camp were recreated in 1989 and 1993, respectively becoming Poland's most prominent far-right organizations. In 1995, the Anti-Defamation League estimated the number of far-right and white power skinheads in Poland at 2,000. Since late 2000s smaller fascist groups have merged to form the neo-Nazi Autonome Nationalisten. A number of far-right parties have run candidates in elections including the League of Polish Families, the National Movement with limited success. In 2019, the Confederation Liberty and Independence had the best performance of any far-right coalition to date, earning 1,256,953 votes which was 6.81% of the total vote in an election that saw a historically high turnout. Members of far-right groups make up a significant portion of those taking part in the annual Independence March in central Warsaw which started in 2009 to mark Independence Day. About 60,000 were in the 2017 march marking the 99th anniversary of independence, with placards such as "Clean Blood" seen on the march. Romania Greater Romania Party The preimenant far-right party in Romania is the Greater Romania Party, founded in 1991 by Tudor, who was formerly known as a "court poet" of Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu and his literary mentor, the writer Eugen Barbu, one year after Tudor launched the România Mare weekly magazine, which remains the most important propaganda tool of the PRM. Tudor subsequently launched a companion daily newspaper called Tricolorul. The historical expression Greater Romania refers to the idea of recreating the former Kingdom of Romania which existed during the interwar period. Having been the largest entity to bear the name of Romania, the frontiers were marked with the intent of uniting most territories inhabited by ethnic Romanians into a single country and it is now a rallying cry for Romanian nationalists. Due to internal conditions under Communist Romania after World War II, the expression's use was forbidden in publications until after the Romanian Revolution in 1989. The party's initial success was partly attributed to the deep rootedness of Ceaușescu's national communism in Romania. Both the ideology and the main political focus of the Greater Romania Party are reflected in frequently strongly nationalistic articles written by Tudor. The party has called for the outlawing of the ethnic Hungarian party, the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania, for allegedly plotting the secession of Transylvania. Serbia In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, multiple far-right organizations and parties operated during the late Interwar period such as the Yugoslav National Movement (Zbor), Yugoslav Radical Union (JRZ) and Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists (ORJUNA). Zbor was headed by Dimitrije Ljotić, who during the World War II collaborated with the Axis powers. Ljotić was a supporter of Italian fascism, and he advocated for the establishment of a centralized Yugoslav state that would be dominated by Serbs, and a return to Christian traditions. Zbor was the only registered political party in Yugoslavia that openly promoted antisemitism and xenophobia. JRZ was registered as a political party in 1934 by Milan Stojadinović, a right-wing politician who expressed his support towards Italian fascism during his premiership. JRZ was initially a coalition made up of Stojadinović's, Anton Korošec's and Mehmed Spaho's supporters, and the party was the main stronghold for Yugoslav ethnic nationalists and supporters of Karađorđević dynasty. ORJUNA was a prominent organization in the 1920s that was influenced by fascism. During World War II, Chetniks, an ethnic ultranationalist movement rose to prominence. Chetniks were staunchly anti-communist and they supported monarchism and the creation of a Greater Serbian state. They, including their leader Draža Mihailović, collaborated with the Axis powers in the second half of the World War II. After the re-establishment of the multi-party system in Serbia in 1990, multiple right-wing movements and parties began getting popularity from which the Serbian Radical Party was the most successful. Vojislav Šešelj, who founded the party, promoted popular notions of "international conspiracy against the Serbs" during the 1990s which gained him popularity in the 1992 and 1997 election. During the 1990s, SRS has been also described as neofascist due to their vocal support of ethnic ultranationalism and irredentism. Its popularity went into decline after the 2008 election when its acting leader Tomislav Nikolić seceded from the party to form the Serbian Progressive Party. Besides SRS, during the 2000s multiple neofascist and Neo-Nazi movements began getting popular, such as Nacionalni stroj, Obraz and 1389 Movement. Dveri, an organization turned political party, was also a prominent promoter of far-right content, and they were mainly known for their clerical-fascist, socially conservative and anti-Western stances. Since 2019, the far-right Serbian Party Oathkeepers has gained popularity mainly due to their ultranationalist views, including the openly neofascist Leviathan Movement. United Kingdom The British far-right rose out of the fascist movement. In 1932, Oswald Mosley founded the British Union of Fascists (BUF) which was banned during World War II. Founded in 1954 by A. K. Chesterton, the League of Empire Loyalists became the main British far-right group at the time. It was a pressure group rather than a political party, and did not contest elections. Most of its members were part of the Conservative Party and were known for politically embarrassing stunts at party conferences. Other fascist parties included the National Front (NF), the White Defence League and the National Labour Party who eventually merged to form the British National Party (BNP). With the decline of the British Empire becoming inevitable, British far-right parties turned their attention to internal matters. The 1950s had seen an increase in immigration to the UK from its former colonies, particularly India, Pakistan, the Caribbean and Uganda. Led by John Bean and Andrew Fountaine, the BNP opposed the admittance of these people to the UK. A number of its rallies such as one in 1962 in Trafalgar Square ended in race riots. After a few early successes, the party got into difficulties and was destroyed by internal arguments. In 1967 it joined forces with John Tyndall and the remnants of Chesterton's League of Empire Loyalists to form Britain's largest far-right organisation, the National Front (NF). The BNP and the NF supported extreme loyalism in Northern Ireland, and attracted Conservative Party members who had become disillusioned after Harold Macmillan had recognised the right to independence of the African colonies and had criticised Apartheid in South Africa. Some Northern Irish loyalist paramilitaries have links with far-right and neo-Nazi groups in Britain, including Combat 18, the British National Socialist Movement and the NF. Since the 1990s, loyalist paramilitaries have been responsible for numerous racist attacks in loyalist areas. During the 1970s, the NF's rallies became a regular feature of British politics. Election results remained strong in a few working-class urban areas, with a number of local council seats won, but the party never came anywhere near winning representation in parliament. Since the 1970s, the NF's support has been in decline whilst Nick Griffin and the BNP have grown in popularity. Around the turn of the 21st century, the BNP won a number of councillor seats. The party continued its anti-immigration policy and a damaging BBC documentary led to Griffin being charged with incitement to racial hatred, although he was acquitted. Oceania Australia Coming to prominence in Sydney with the formation of the New Guard (1931) and the Centre Party (1933), the far right has played a part in Australian political discourse since the second world war. These proto-fascist groups were monarchist, anti-communist and authoritarian in nature. Early far-right groups were followed by the explicitly fascist Australia First Movement (1941). The far right in Australia went on to acquire more explicitly racial connotations during the 1960s and 1970s, morphing into self-proclaimed Nazi, fascist and antisemitic movements, organisations that opposed non-white and non-Christian immigration such as the neo-Nazi National Socialist Party of Australia (1967) and the militant white supremacist group National Action (1982). Since the 1980s, the term has mainly been used to describe those who express the wish to preserve what they perceive to be Judeo-Christian, Anglo-Australian culture and those who campaign against Aboriginal land rights, multiculturalism, immigration and asylum seekers. Since 2001, Australia has seen the development of modern neo-Nazi, neo-fascist or alt-right groups such as the True Blue Crew, the United Patriots Front, Fraser Anning's Conservative National Party and the Antipodean Resistance. New Zealand A small number of far-right organisations have existed in New Zealand since World War II, including the Conservative Front, the New Zealand National Front and the National Democrats Party. Far-right parties in New Zealand lack significant support, with their protests often dwarfed by counter protest. After the Christchurch mosque shootings in 2019, the National Front "publicly shut up shop" and largely went underground like other far-right groups. Fiji Nationalist Vanua Tako Lavo Party The Nationalist Vanua Tako Lavo Party was a far-right political party which advocated Fijian ethnic nationalism. In 2009, party leader Iliesa Duvuloco was arrested for breaching the military regime's emergency laws by distributing pamphlets calling for an uprising against the military regime. In January 2013, the military regime introduced regulations that essentially de-registered the party. Online A number of far-right internet pages and forums are focused on and frequented by the far right. These include Stormfront and Iron March. Stormfront Stormfront is the oldest and most prominent neo-Nazi website, described by the Southern Poverty Law Center and other media organizations as the "murder capital of the internet". In August 2017, Stormfront was taken offline for just over a month when its registrar seized its domain name due to complaints that it promoted hatred and that some of its members were linked to murder. The Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law claimed credit for the action after advocating for Stormfront's web host, Network Solutions, to enforce its Terms of Service agreement which prohibits users from using its services to incite violence. Iron March Iron March was a fascist web forum founded in 2011 by Russian nationalist Alexander "Slavros" Mukhitdinov. An unknown individual uploaded a database of Iron March users to the Internet Archive in November 2019 and multiple neo-Nazi users were identified, including an ICE detention center captain and several active members of the United States Armed Forces. As of mid 2018, the Southern Poverty Law Center linked Iron March to nearly 100 murders. Mukhitdinov remained a murky figure at the time of the leaks. Right-wing terrorism Right-wing terrorism is terrorism motivated by a variety of far right ideologies and beliefs, including anti-communism, neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, racism, xenophobia and opposition to immigration. This type of terrorism has been sporadic, with little or no international cooperation. Modern right-wing terrorism first appeared in western Europe in the 1980s and it first appeared in Eastern Europe following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Right-wing terrorists aim to overthrow governments and replace them with nationalist or fascist-oriented governments. The core of this movement includes neo-fascist skinheads, far-right hooligans, youth sympathisers and intellectual guides who believe that the state must rid itself of foreign elements in order to protect rightful citizens. However, they usually lack a rigid ideology. According to Cas Mudde, far-right terrorism and violence in the West have been generally perpetrated in recent times by individuals or groups of individuals "who have at best a peripheral association" with politically relevant organizations of the far right. Nevertheless, Mudde follows, "in recent years far-right violence has become more planned, regular, and lethal, as terrorists attacks in Christchurch (2019), Pittsburgh (2018), and Utøya (2011) show." See also Adolf Hitler Antifeminism European New Right History of the far-right in Spain Manosphere Paul von Hindenburg Right-wing authoritarianism White ethnostate White power Wingnut (politics) References Bibliography Notes Further reading Akkerman, Tjitske, Sarah L. de Lange and Matthijs Rooduijn, eds. Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe (2016) Davies, Peter, and Derek Lynch, eds. The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right (Psychology Press, 2002). Kundnani, A. Blind Spot? Security Narratives and Far-Right Violence in Europe (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2012) Lazaridis, Gabriella, Giovanna Campani, and Annie Benveniste (eds.) The Rise of the Far Right in Europe: Populist Shifts and 'Othering' (2016) Macklin, Graham. "Transnational networking on the far right: The case of Britain and Germany." West European Politics 36.1 (2013): 176–198. Mieriņa, Inta, and Ilze Koroļeva. "Support for far right ideology and anti‐migrant attitudes among youth in Europe: A comparative analysis." Sociological Review 63 (2015): 183–205. online Mudde, Cas. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (2007) Mudde, Cas. The Ideology of the Extreme Right (2000) Mudde, Cas. 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221221	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach%20rumble	Stomach rumble	A stomach rumble, also known as a bowel sound, peristaltic sound, abdominal sound, bubble gut or borborygmus (pronounced ; plural borborygmi), is a rumbling, growling or gurgling noise produced by movement of the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract as they are propelled through the small intestine by a series of muscle contractions called peristalsis. A trained healthcare provider can listen to these intestinal noises with a stethoscope, but they may be audible enough to be heard with the naked ear as the fluid and gas move forward in the intestines (in the vicinity of, but not actually within the stomach). The lack of bowel sounds is indicative of ileus, intestinal obstruction, or some other serious pathology. Etymology The scientific name borborygmus is related to the 16th-century French word borborygme, itself from Latin, ultimately from Ancient Greek βορβορυγμός (borborygmós). The Greeks probably onomatopoetically coined the word. Other causes Other causes of stomach rumbles: Incomplete digestion of food can lead to excess gas in the intestine. In humans, this can be due to incomplete digestion of carbohydrate-containing foods, including milk and other dairy products (lactose intolerance or the use of α-glucosidase inhibitors by diabetics), gluten (protein in wheat, barley, and rye) (coeliac disease), fruit, vegetables, beans, legumes, and high-fiber whole grains. In rare instances, excessive abdominal noise may be a sign of digestive disease, especially when accompanied by abdominal bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea or constipation. Some examples of diseases that may be associated with this symptom include carcinoid neoplasm and coeliac sprue. Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. The sound of air moving around the lumen of the stomach is amplified by the empty space. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings. Stomach rumbles can form further along the gastrointestinal system when air is swallowed while talking, eating, and drinking. This phenomenon occurs in most people and is typical. Diseases and conditions Celiac disease is a condition that prevents the small intestine from absorbing parts of food that are needed to stay healthy. Consuming food containing gluten is dangerous for people with this disease: Intestinal villi help to absorb nutrients from food, but when gluten is consumed, the immune system attacks these villi as a result. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, nausea, and bulky or foul smelling stools. Colitis is swelling of the large intestine. The many different forms of colitis include cytomegalovirus or Cryptosporidium infection, and necrotizing and pseudomembranous colitis. The usual causes of colitis are infection and lack of blood flow. Symptoms may include bloody stools, chills, dehydration, diarrhea, and fever. Diverticulitis is a condition where small bulging sacs, usually found in the large intestine, become inflamed or infected. The most probable cause is a low-fiber diet, possibly a result of eating processed food. Diverticulitis is usually seen in about half the American population over the age of 60. Symptoms may include bloating, fever, and nausea. Irritable bowel syndrome, a disorder in the lower intestinal tract, is usually accompanied by other symptoms, such as abdominal pain and diarrhea. It is more common in women and it usually occurs during early adulthood. There are many risk factors such as emotional stress and a low-fiber diet. These can all cause stomach disorders. Nonmedical usage The word borborygmic has been used in literature to describe noisy plumbing. In Ada, Vladimir Nabokov wrote: "All the toilets and waterpipes in the house had been suddenly seized with borborygmic convulsions". In A Long Way Down (New York: Harper, 1959, p. 54), Elizabeth Fenwick wrote: "The room was very quiet, except for its borborygmic old radiator". Graham Greene's short story "Alas, Poor Maling" tells the tale of a luckless individual whose borborygmus takes the form of irritating noises that he has recently heard. The word borborygmus has also been used in journalism to describe political turbulence. In an article in The Atlantic, Graeme Wood used the word to describe the effects of mass refugee migration into Europe: "Central Europe had to digest a massive refugee flow from Syria and Afghanistan, and the resulting borborygmus upended European politics and enabled a populist wave that has yet to crest." See also Flatulence Ileus Migrating motor complex References Digestive system Symptoms and signs: Digestive system and abdomen Sounds by type Abdomen	[ 0.2829603850841522, 0.1622874140739441, -0.6400227546691895, -0.35777711868286133, -0.1588791459798813, 0.40811285376548767, 0.13587582111358643, 0.8392508029937744, -0.20613859593868256, -0.5170849561691284, -0.5178725719451904, 0.4188045263290405, -0.287139356136322, 0.47968024015426636, -0.07449019700288773, 0.11818613111972809, 0.40155622363090515, 0.3606809675693512, 0.15383675694465637, 0.2139805406332016, -0.31791582703590393, -0.1607843041419983, 0.20217226445674896, 0.49648433923721313, 0.44764769077301025, 0.04541969299316406, -0.019283078610897064, 0.053980328142642975, 0.1702999472618103, -0.3951092064380646, 0.08143782615661621, 1.077666997909546, 0.4414125382900238, -0.03806637227535248, -0.1445951759815216, -0.17293593287467957, -0.5104401111602783, -0.3477449417114258, -0.48877716064453125, -0.22783219814300537, 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221223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical%20court	Ecclesiastical court	An ecclesiastical court, also called court Christian or court spiritual, is any of certain courts having jurisdiction mainly in spiritual or religious matters. In the Middle Ages these courts had much wider powers in many areas of Europe than before the development of nation states. They were experts in interpreting canon law, a basis of which was the Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian which is considered the source of the civil law legal tradition. Catholic Church The tribunals of the Catholic Church are governed by the 1983 Code of Canon Law in the case of the Western Church (Latin Church), and the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches in the case of the Eastern Catholic Churches (Byzantine, Ukrainian, Maronite, Melkite, etc.). Both systems of canon law underwent massive revisions in the late 20th century, resulting in the new code for the Latin Church in 1983, and the compilation for the first time of the Eastern Code in 1990. First instance Cases normally originate in the tribunal of the particular church (i.e. the diocese or eparchy) of the parties to the case. This tribunal in canon law is called the tribunal of first instance. The bishop of the church possesses the power to judge for his church; however, since the bishop has many different duties in his diocese, most cases are handled by judges whom he appoints, led by a priest known as the judicial vicar or officialis. A single judge can handle normal contentious and penal cases. A college of at least three judges, however, must try cases involving an excommunication, the dismissal of a cleric, or the annulment of the bond of marriage or of sacred ordination (can. 1425 §1). The bishop can assign up to five judges to a case that is very difficult or important (can. 1425 §2). Otherwise, the judicial vicar assigns cases to the judges and, in those cases which require three or more judges, presides over the panel or assigns one of his assistant judicial vicars to preside, if there are any. The judicial vicar and the assistant judicial vicars must be priests with doctorates or at least licentiates in canon law. The other judges need only be clerics with licentiates, but the episcopal conference can permit members of the laity with the same academic qualifications to serve as judges on a panel. There are other officers of the tribunal. The promoter of justice, for instance, is a canon lawyer whose job is to represent the diocese as the prosecutor in penal cases and who also can intervene in contentious cases if they concern the "public good", acting as a watch dog for the people of the diocese. Another important officer is the defender of the bond, another canon lawyer whose job is to present reasons to the tribunal why a marriage is valid in cases of alleged nullity and why an ordination is valid in the rare cases of alleged nullity of Holy Orders. The tribunal also has notaries who swear in witnesses and commit their testimony to writing. Parties in a case have the right to appoint an advocate who can argue for them at the tribunal. If a person cannot afford an advocate, the tribunal can assign one to them free of charge. Unlike courts of common law tradition, ecclesiastical tribunals do not follow the adversarial system. Based on the same Roman civil law that is behind much European law, the procedure of a canonical court is more akin to the inquisitorial system, with the judges leading the investigation. As a general rule, the defendant has the favorable presumption of law, which means that the defendant will win by default unless a majority of the judges is convinced with moral certainty of the petitioner's case (can. 1608). This presumption also applies in penal cases (can. 1728). There are few exceptions to this rule; in those cases, the burden shifts to the defendant. Some matters cannot be introduced at the diocesan level and can only be introduced before the following: Appellate tribunal for the diocese: cases against the diocese itself or an institution represented by the diocesan bishop Roman Rota: cases against the heads of religious orders, cases against dioceses or church institutions that are immediately subject to the Holy See, and non-penal cases against bishops The Pope himself: any case where a cardinal, Eastern rite patriarch, papal legate, or head of state is a defendant and any penal case involving a bishop. Appeal The appellate tribunal is known as the tribunal of second instance. Normally the second instance tribunal is the tribunal of the metropolitan bishop. In the case where the appeal is from a first instance decision of the metropolitan's own tribunal, the appeal is taken to a court which the metropolitan designated with approval of the Holy See, usually another nearby metropolitan, thus ensuring that appeals from one diocese are never heard by the same diocese. As an example, a case in the Diocese of Springfield, Massachusetts, would be appealed to the tribunal of the Archdiocese of Boston, but a case originating in the Archdiocese of Boston would be appealed to the tribunal of the Archdiocese of New York, by agreement between the archbishops of New York and Boston. Some cases are automatically appealed (for instance, when a marriage is found to be null). The appealing party does not need to appeal to the metropolitan; the party can instead appeal to the Holy See, in which case the Roman Rota would hear the case in the second instance. If the case was before the Rota in the first instance, then a different panel of the Rota hears it in the second instance. With the exception of cases regarding personal status, if the first instance and second instance tribunals agree on the result of the case, then the case becomes res judicata and there is no further appeal. If they disagree, then the case can be appealed to the Roman Rota, which serves as the tribunal of third instance. The Rota is a court of fifteen judges called auditors who take cases in panels of three and serve as the final arbiters of most cases. There is no appeal from a court case that the Pope has decided personally. Other tribunals The Roman Curia has two other tribunals which either deal with specialized cases or which do not deal with cases at all. The first is the Apostolic Signatura, a panel of five cardinals which serves as the highest court in the Roman Catholic Church. Normal cases rarely reach the Signatura, the exception being if a party appeals to the Pope and he assigns the case to them or if the Pope on his own initiative pulls a case from another court and gives it to them. The court mainly handles cases regarding the use of administrative power, including penal cases which were decided using executive instead of judicial power, which is the usual case. It also handles disputes between dicasteries and other tribunals over jurisdiction, complaints that a Rotal decision is null and should be retried, and matters regarding advocates and inter-diocesan tribunals. There is normally no right of appeal from the decision of the Apostolic Signatura (can. 1629 #1); however, laypersons and clerics have, on rare occasions, convinced the Pope to hear their case afterwards. This is usually reserved for cases where they are facing excommunication or some other form of severe censure, such as the loss of the right to teach theology or to administer the sacraments. A theologian and priest, who faced censure, got Pope John Paul II to hear his case and even asked the Pope to alter his own decision, though the Pope did not reverse the ruling in either case. The other tribunal is the Apostolic Penitentiary. This tribunal has no jurisdiction in what is known as "the external forum", meaning cases and events which are publicly known, only matters of the "internal forum", which involve entirely confidential and secret matters, including (but not limited to) what is confessed in the Sacrament of Penance. It primarily deals with cases that arise only within the confessional and which by their nature are private, confidential or whose facts are secret. Such cases are normally brought before the court by a person's confessor, who writes up the relevant facts of the cases, but only what is absolutely necessary, using standardized Latin pseudonyms. The confidentiality of the person, and the priest's absolute obligation to preserve the secrecy of the Sacrament of Penance, are still in force in such cases. This court, under the authority of the Cardinal Major Penitentiary, who acts in the Pope's name, answers the confessor and empowers him to impose a penance and lift a penalty. For instance, the act of desecrating the Eucharist is one which incurs an automatic excommunication for the person who so acts (an excommunication from the moment of the act, which no court need actually meet to impose), and the power to lift this excommunication is reserved by the Pope to himself. Should this person then approach a priest in confession, repentant, and explain his act and the fact that he acted in secret, the confessor would write to the tribunal laying out the simplest outline of facts, keeping the person's identity secret, and would most likely be empowered to lift the excommunication and impose some private act of penance on the person. Anglican Communion Church of England In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts are a system of courts, held by authority of the Crown, who is ex officio the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The courts have jurisdiction over matters dealing with the rights and obligations of church members, now limited to controversies in areas of church property and ecclesiastical disciplinary proceedings. In England these courts, unlike common law courts, are based upon and operate along civil law procedures and Canon law-based jurisprudence. The ecclesiastical courts formerly had jurisdiction over the personal estates of deceased persons to grant probate or administration. This jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical Courts was transferred to the Court of Probate by the Court of Probate Act 1857. Offences against ecclesiastical laws are dealt with differently based on whether the laws in question involve church doctrine. For non-doctrinal cases, the lowest level of the court is the Archdeaconry Court, which is presided over by the local archdeacon. The next court in the hierarchy is the bishop's court, which is in the Diocese of Canterbury called the Commissary Court and in other dioceses the consistory court. The Commissary Court is presided over by a commissary-general; a consistory Court is presided over by a chancellor. The chancellor or commissary-general must be thirty years old and either have a seven-year general qualification under the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 section 71 or have held high judicial office. Specialist courts in the Province of Canterbury are the Court of Faculties, the Court of Peculiars and the Court of the Vicar-General of the Province of Canterbury. In the northern province there is the Court of the Vicar-General of the Province of York. The next court is the archbishop's court, which is in Canterbury called the Arches Court, and in York the Chancery Court. Each court includes five judges; one judge is common to both courts. The common judge is called the Dean of Arches in Canterbury and the Auditor in York; he or she is appointed jointly by both archbishops with the approval of the Crown, and must either hold a ten-year High Court qualification under the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990, s 71, or have held high judicial office. Two members of each court must be clergy appointed by the Prolocutor of the Lower House of the provincial convocation. Two further members of each court are appointed by the Chairman of the House of Laity of the General Synod; these must possess such legal qualifications as the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain requires. In cases involving church doctrine, ceremony or ritual, the aforementioned courts have no jurisdiction. Instead, the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved hears the case. The Court is composed of three diocesan bishops and two appellate judges; it has jurisdiction over both of the provinces of Canterbury and York. The Court, however, meets very rarely. Appeal from the Arches Court and Chancery Court (in non-doctrinal cases) lies to the Queen-in-Council. In practice, the case is heard by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which includes present and former Lords Chancellor, a number of Lords of Appeal and other high judicial officers. The Queen-in-Council does not have jurisdiction over doctrinal cases from the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved, which instead go to an ad hoc Commission of Review, composed of two diocesan bishops and three Lords of Appeal (who are also members of the Judicial Committee). Commissions of Convocation are appointed by the Upper House of the Convocation of Canterbury or of York to try a bishop for an offence (except for an offence of doctrine). Both Convocations make the appointment if an Archbishop is prosecuted. This would comprise four diocesan bishops and the Dean of the Arches. The Ecclesiastical Courts Acts 1787 to 1860 is the collective title of the following Acts: The Ecclesiastical Suits Act 1787 (27 Geo 3 c 44) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1813 (53 Geo 3 c 127) The Proctors (Ireland) Act 1814 (54 Geo 3 c 68) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1829 (10 Geo 4 c 53) The Privy Council Appeals Act 1832 (2 & 3 Will 4 c 92) The Ecclesiastical Courts (Contempt) Act 1832 (3 & 4 Will 4 c 93) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1840 (3 & 4 Vict c 93) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1844 (7 & 8 Vict c 68) The Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847 (10 & 11 Vict c 98) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1854 (17 & 18 Vict c 47) The Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1855 (18 & 19 Vict c 41) The Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1858 (21 & 22 Vict c 50) The Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860 (23 & 24 Vict c 32) Guernsey The Ecclesiastical Court in Guernsey predates its first written evidence from the 13th Century. Its powers have been reduced over the centuries but it still meets weekly to prove wills and to grant marriage licences. Episcopal Church in the United States of America Ecclesiastical courts in the American Episcopal Church have jurisdiction only over disciplinary cases involving clergy and are divided into two separate systems: one for trials of bishops (at the level of the national Episcopal Church) and the other for trials of priests and deacons (at the level of the diocese for original jurisdiction and at the provincial level for appeals). (At least one diocese, however, Diocese of Minnesota, has provided in its canons for a court with broader jurisdiction over a wide range of canonical issues, although such a court has not yet been implemented by the convention of that diocese.) In each disciplinary case, two courts are provided, one for trials and one for appeals. When a charge is first made, it is brought before an initial review committee (similar to a grand jury in secular criminal law) whose job is to determine when a case should be brought and to supervise the Church Attorney who acts as a sort of prosecutor. Courts and procedure for trials of bishops are provided for by the Canons of the General Convention (the triennial legislative body of the national church). There is one Court for the Trial of a Bishop, composed of nine bishops (though there have been proposals to include lay persons and lower clergy in this court). Appeals are heard by the Court of Review for the Trial of a Bishop, also comprising nine bishops. The Constitution of the national Episcopal Church provides that this court must be composed only of bishops. For priests and deacons, initial trial is held by an ecclesiastical court established by the diocese in which the cleric is canonically resident. Appeals are taken to the Court of Review for the Trial of a Priest or Deacon, one of which is established in each of the nine provinces of the Episcopal Church (a province is a geographic combination of dioceses). Dioceses have some discretion about the procedure and membership for the ecclesiastical court, but most rules and procedure are established church-wide by the national canons. Trial courts are made up of lay persons and of priests or deacons, with the clergy to have a majority by one. The various courts of review comprise one bishop, three priests or deacons, and three lay persons. Since the 18th century the Constitution of the national Episcopal Church has permitted the creation of a national Court of Appeal, which would be "solely for the review of the determination of any Court of Review on questions of Doctrine, Faith, or Worship". No such court has ever been created, though proposals have occasionally been made to establish the House of Bishops itself as such a court. Other denominations Eastern Orthodox churches The dioceses of many Eastern Orthodox denominations, such as the Russian Orthodox Church, have their own ecclesiastical courts. In addition, the Russian Orthodox Church has a General Ecclesiastical Court with jurisdiction throughout the Russian Orthodox Church, as well as the Court of the Bishops’ Council which serves as the court of final appeal. Under the Russian Empire, Russian Orthodox ecclesiastical courts held jursidiction over cases of adultery, incest, bestiality, and blasphemy. They also held responsibility for divorce, which could only be obtained in cases of adultery. The Greek Eastern Orthodox churches have ecclesiastical courts. For example, the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain under the spiritual jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople has such courts for determining whether to grant divorce after the State has. United Methodist Church The Judicial Council is the highest court in the United Methodist Church. It consists of nine members, both laity and clergy, elected by the General Conference for an eight-year term. The ratio of laity to clergy alternates every four years. The Judicial Council interprets the Book of Discipline between sessions of General Conference, and during General Conference the Judicial Council rules on the constitutionality of laws passed by General Conference. The Council also determines whether actions of local churches, annual conferences, church agencies, and bishops are in accordance with church law. The Council reviews all decisions of law made by bishops The Judicial Council cannot create any legislation; it can only interpret existing legislation. The Council meets twice a year at various locations throughout the world. The Judicial Council also hears appeals from those who have been accused of chargeable offenses that can result in defrocking or revocation of membership. Presbyterian Church USA The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has Permanent Judicial Commissions for each synod, presbytery and the General Assembly of the denomination, all of which are elected by members and are composed of ministers and elders subject to its jurisdiction. The PJC of the General Assembly consists of one member from each of the sixteen synods which compose the denomination and the PJC has original jurisdiction over remedial cases and appeals. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, church courts are formally known as church membership councils. Church courts consider possible membership withdrawal or restriction based on a member's violation of church standards. Any stake, ward, or mission of the church may convene a church court. The Common Council of the Church—which has only been convened twice—is a church court which has the authority to remove a president of the church or one of his counselors in the First Presidency for misbehavior. See also Acta Curiae Courts of England and Wales Ecclesiastical crime Ecclesiastical ordinances Ecclesiastical prison References External links Catholic history of court Courts of the Church of England (brief) Courts of the Church of England, detailed (archive link) Archives of the Court of Arches at Lambeth Palace Library Anglicanism Canon law Courts by type	[ 0.3483045995235443, 0.10454978048801422, -0.12751655280590057, -0.21867772936820984, -0.0406985878944397, 0.24620859324932098, 0.21162736415863037, 0.3113708198070526, -0.12031997740268707, -0.32920026779174805, -0.5455275177955627, 0.6033765077590942, 0.23624767363071442, -0.26170414686203003, -0.33212700486183167, 0.16805557906627655, 0.6804000735282898, -0.0005917089292779565, 0.07119344919919968, -0.64989173412323, -0.12937946617603302, -0.2102363258600235, -0.25924521684646606, 0.16574779152870178, 0.7055569291114807, -0.21910572052001953, 0.1904117912054062, 0.13044428825378418, -0.7594037055969238, 0.14595220983028412, 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221226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midsummer	Midsummer	Midsummer is the period of time in the middle of the summer. The exact dates vary among different cultures, but is primarily held close to the summer solstice. The celebration predates Christianity, and has existed under different names and traditions around the world. The undivided Christian Church designated June 24 as the feast day of the early Christian martyr St John the Baptist, and the observance of St John's Day begins the evening before, known as Saint John's Eve. These are commemorated by many Christian denominations, such as the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches, and Anglican Communion, as well as by freemasonry. In Sweden, the Midsummer is such an important festivity that there have been proposals to make the Midsummer's Eve the National Day of Sweden, instead of June 6. In Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Midsummer's festival is a public holiday. In Denmark and Norway, it may also be referred to as St. Hans Day. History Saint John's Day, the feast day of Saint John the Baptist, was established by the undivided Christian Church in the 4th century AD, in honour of the birth of the Saint John the Baptist, which the Gospel of Luke records as being six months before Jesus. As the Western Christian Churches mark the birth of Jesus on December 25, Christmas, the Feast of Saint John (Saint John's Day) was established at midsummer, exactly six months before the former feast. Within Christian theology, this carries significance as John the Baptist "was understood to be preparing the way for Jesus", with stating "He must increase, but I must decrease"; this is symbolized in the fact that the "sun begins to diminish at the summer solstice and eventually increases at the winter solstice." By the 6th century AD, several churches were dedicated in the honour of Saint John the Baptist and a vigil, Saint John's Eve, was added to the feast day of Saint John the Baptist and Christian priests held three Masses in churches for the celebration. In Florence, medieval midsummer celebrations were "an occasion for dramatic representations of the Baptist's life and death" and "the feast day was marked by processions, banquets, and plays, culminating in a fireworks show that the entire city attended." The historian Ronald Hutton states that the "lighting of festive fires upon Saint John's Eve is first recorded as a popular custom by Jean Belethus, a theologian at the University of Paris, in the early twelfth century". In England, the earliest reference to this custom occurs on in the 13th century AD, in the Liber Memorandum of the parish church at Barnwell in the Nene Valley, which stated that parish youth would gather on the day to sing songs and play games. A Christian monk of Lilleshall Abbey, in the same century, wrote: The 13th-century monk of Winchcomb, Gloucestershire, who compiled a book of sermons for Christian feast days, recorded how St. John's Eve was celebrated in his time: Let us speak of the revels which are accustomed to be made on St. John's Eve, of which there are three kinds. On St. John's Eve in certain regions the boys collect bones and certain other rubbish, and burn them, and therefrom a smoke is produced on the air. They also make brands and go about the fields with the brands. Thirdly, the wheel which they roll. Saint John's Fires, explained the monk of Winchcombe, were to drive away dragons, which were abroad on St. John's Eve, poisoning springs and wells. The wheel that was rolled downhill he gave its explanation: "The wheel is rolled to signify that the sun then rises to the highest point of its circle and at once turns back; thence it comes that the wheel is rolled." On St John's Day 1333 Petrarch watched women at Cologne rinsing their hands and arms in the Rhine "so that the threatening calamities of the coming year might be washed away by bathing in the river." 15th-century diarist Goro Dati, described the celebration of Saint John's Day at Midsummer in Italy as being one in which guilds prepared their workshops with fine displays, and one in which solemn church processions took place, with men dressed in the costumes of Christian saints and angels. In the 16th century AD, the historian John Stow, described the celebration of Midsummer: These fires are commonly called Saint John's Fires in various languages. Historian Ronald Hutton states that the "lighting of festive fires upon St. John's Eve is first recorded as a popular custom by Jean Belethus, a theologian at the University of Paris, in the early twelfth century". In England, the earliest reference to this custom occurs on in the 13th century A.D., in the Liber Memorandum of the parish church at Barnwell in the Nene Valley, which stated that parish youth would gather on the day to sing songs and play games. and served to repel witches and evil spirits. Saint John's Day is also a popular day for infant baptisms and in the 19th century, "baptisms of children who had died 'pagans' were acted out". In Sweden, young people visited holy springs as "a reminder of how John the Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan." In addition, historically, "it was a custom to carry lighted torches on Midsummer-eve, as an emblem of St. John the Baptist, who was 'a burning and shining light,' and the preparer of the way of Christ." Midsummer/Saint John's Day–related traditions, church services, and celebrations are particularly important in northern Europe – Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania – but is also very strongly observed in Poland, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Netherlands, Flanders, Ireland, parts of the United Kingdom (Cornwall especially), France, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain, Ukraine, other parts of Europe, and elsewhere – such as Canada, the United States, Puerto Rico, and also in the Southern Hemisphere (mostly in Brazil, Argentina and Australia). In Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Quebec (Canada), the traditional Midsummer day, June 24, is a public holiday. So it was formerly also in Sweden and Finland, but in these countries it was, in the 1950s, moved to the Friday and Saturday between June 19 and June 26, respectively. It is possible that the Christian Church may have adapted a pre-Christian festival celebrating the solstice into a Christian holiday. Contemporary national traditions Austria In Austria, the Midsummer solstice is celebrated each year with a procession of ships down the Danube River as it flows through the wine-growing Wachau Valley north of Vienna. Up to 30 ships sail down the river in line as fireworks erupt from the banks and hill tops while bonfires blaze and the vineyards are lit up. Lighted castle ruins also erupt with fireworks during the 90-minute cruise downstream. Brazil Portuguese St. John's Day, brought to Brazil during colonial times, has become a popular event that is celebrated during a period that starts one week before St. Anthony's Day (June 12) and ends after St. Peter's Day (June 29). Despite the Portuguese origin of this festival as a midsummer festival (due to the fact of Portugal being a nation located in the Northern hemisphere), this nationwide festival, called "Festa Junina" (June Festival), or São João (Saint John), takes place during midwinter in most of the country (due to the fact of great part of Brazil is located in the Southern hemisphere). Rural life is celebrated through typical clothing, food, and dance (particularly square dancing, or quadrilha). The quadrilha features couple formations around a mock wedding whose bride and groom are the central attraction of the dancing. A kind of maypole (called "pau-de-sebo") is also raised and used in some festivities. A typical hot drink is prepared called "quentão" (very hot) that consists in a mix of fruits and spices laced with cachaça. On St. John's Day eve celebration, sometimes a ritual takes place of walking barefoot at midnight on live-coal made of the remnants of the main bonfire, which is a traditional part of the party. It's believed that if the one who walks is strong in faith, he shall not be hurt. Two northeastern towns in particular have competed with each other for the title of "Biggest Saint John Festival in the World", namely Caruaru (in the state of Pernambuco), and Campina Grande, in Paraíba. The festivities also coincide with the corn harvest, dishes served during this period are commonly made with corn, such as canjica and pamonha; dishes also include boiled or baked vegetable corn (often buttered), sausages, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and numerous sweet dishes such as rice pudding. The celebrations are very colorful and festive and include the use of fireworks and bonfires. Bulgaria On Midsummer day, Bulgarians celebrate Enyovden. On the same day, the Eastern Orthodox church celebrates the day of John the Baptist and the rites and traditions of both holidays are often mixed. A fire-related ritual may also be performed in Bulgaria on that day; it involves barefoot dance on smoldering embers and is called Nestinarstvo. Bulgarian folklore states the beginning of summer starts on Enyovden. It is thought that in the morning of Enyovden, when the sun rises, it "winks’ and "plays". Anyone seeing the sunrise will be healthy throughout the year. It is believed that on Enyovden a variety of herbs have the greatest healing power, and that this is especially true at sunrise. Therefore, they have to be picked early in the morning before dawn. Women – sorceresses and enchantresses – go to gather herbs by themselves to cure and make charms. The herbs gathered for the winter must be 77 and a half – for all diseases and for the nameless disease. Canada In Newfoundland and Labrador, St. John's Day is observed on the Monday nearest June 24 and commemorates John Cabot's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497. In Quebec, the celebration of June 24 was brought to New France by the first French colonists. Great fires were lit at night. According to the Jesuit Relations, the first celebrations of St John's Day in New France took place around 1638. In 1834, Ludger Duvernay, printer and editor of La Minerve took the leadership of an effort to make June 24 the national holiday of the Canadiens (French Canadians). In 1908, Pope Pius X designated John the Baptist as the patron saint of the French-Canadians. In 1925, June 24 became a legal holiday in Quebec and in 1977, it became the secular National Holiday of Quebec. It still is the tradition to light great fires on the night of the 24th of June. Croatia The tradition of Sveti Ivan Krstitelj (St.John Baptist), also called Ivanjdan or Svitnjak in Western Herzegovina and coastal Croatia, is celebrated on June 23 in Croatia. The people light large bonfires in the name of Saint John Baptist, and the celebration can also be connected to the old Slavic traditions for Kresnik (South Slavic version of Perun) the god of Sun. There are places in Croatia like Ričice where saint St. John Baptist is the patron and their tradition is different. The village folk and especially children bring firewood to a designated place, and then a bonfire is lit at sunset, after the bonfire burns out the children jump, walk or run on the embers of the bonfire because it is believed their feet won't hurt if they do that. There is also the tradition of which village makes the bigger bonfire, a competition that the village folk will talk and boast about tomorrow after the church Eucharist ceremony. The tradition everywhere else in Croatia is pretty similar, but mostly the bonfires are lit but the walking on embers is not done anymore. Denmark In Denmark, the solstitial celebration is called sankthans or sankthansaften ("St. John's Eve"). It was an official holiday until 1770, and in accordance with the Danish tradition of celebrating a holiday on the evening before the actual day, it takes place on the evening of 23 June. It is the day where the medieval wise men and women (the doctors of that time) would gather special herbs that they needed for the rest of the year to cure people. Bonfires on the beach, speeches, picnics and songs are traditional, although they are built in many other places where beaches may not be close by (i.e. on the shores of lakes and other waterways, parks, etc.) Bonfires are lit in order to repel witches and other evil spirits, with the burnings sending the "witch" away to Bloksbjerg, the Brocken mountain in the Harz region of Germany where the great witch gathering was thought to be held on this day. Some Danes regard this tradition of burning witches as inappropriate. In Scandinavia, young people visited holy springs as "a reminder of how John the Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan." On Saint John's Eve and Saint John's Day, churches arrange Saint John's worship services and family reunions also occur, which are an occasion for drinking and eating. In 1885, Holger Drachmann wrote a midsommervise (Midsummer hymn) called "Vi elsker vort land..." ("We Love Our Country") with a melody composed by P.E. Lange-Müller that is sung at most bonfires on this evening. Estonia Jaanipäev ("Jaan's Day" or "Midsummer Day" in English or "St. John's Day" for Christians) was celebrated long before the arrival of Christianity in Estonia, although the day was given its name by the crusaders. The day is still known by its many names as: leedopäev, suvine pööripäiv, suvepööripäev, püäripääv, päevakäänak, päiväkäänäk, päiväkäändjäne, päevapesa, pesapäev and suured päevad. The arrival of Christianity, however, did not end pagan beliefs and fertility rituals surrounding this holiday. In 1578, Balthasar Russow wrote in his Livonian Chronicle about Estonians who placed more importance on the festival than going to church. He complained about those who went to church, but did not enter, and instead spent their time lighting bonfires, drinking, dancing, singing and following pagan rituals. Midsummer marks a change in the farming year, specifically the break between the completion of spring sowing and the hard work of summer hay-making. Understandably, some of the rituals of Jaanipäev have very strong folkloric roots. One of the best-known Jaanik or midsummer ritual is the lighting of the bonfire and jumping over it. This is seen as a way of guaranteeing prosperity and avoiding bad luck. Likewise, to not light the fire is to invite the destruction of your house by fire. The fire also frightened away mischievous spirits who avoided it at all costs, thus ensuring a good harvest. So, the bigger the fire, the further the mischievous spirits stayed away. Estonian midsummer traditions are most similar to Finnish midsummer traditions but also have some similarities with Latvian, Lithuanian and Scandinavian traditions. Estonians celebrate Jaaniõhtu on the eve of the Summer Solstice (June 23) with bonfires. On the islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, old fishing boats may be burned in the large pyres set ablaze. On Jaaniõhtu, Estonians all around the country will gather with their families, or at larger events to celebrate this important day with singing and dancing, as Estonians have done for centuries. The celebrations that accompany Jaaniõhtu carry on usually through the night, they are the largest and most important of the year, and the traditions are almost identical to Finland (read under Finland) and similar to neighbors Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden (read under Sweden). Jaanipäev is usually spent in a summer cottage, where people light bonfires, or at a festival, such as Pühajärve Jaanituli in Otepää. Since 1934, June 23 is also national Victory Day of Estonia and both 23rd and 24th are holidays and flag flying days. The Estonian flag is not lowered in the night between these two days. Faroe Islands On the Faroe Islands, St. John's Eve (jóansøka) is generally not celebrated. However, on the southernmost island of Suðuroy it is observed by lighting a bonfire. Only one bonfire is lit on the island as one of the two biggest towns hosts the celebration alternately every other year. Finland The summer solstice was called Ukon juhla ("Ukko's celebration") after the Finnish god Ukko. After the celebrations were Christianized, the holiday became known as juhannus after John the Baptist (Finnish: Johannes Kastaja). Since 1955, the holiday has always been on a Saturday (between June 20 and June 26). Earlier it was always on June 24. Many of the celebrations of midsummer take place on Friday, midsummer eve, when many workplaces are closed and shops may close their doors at noon. In the Finnish midsummer celebration, bonfires (Finnish kokko) are very common and are burned at lakesides and by the sea. Often branches from birch trees (koivu) are placed on both side of the front door to welcome visitors. Swedish-speaking Finns often celebrate by erecting a midsummer or maypole (Swedish midsommarstång, majstång). Some Swedish-speaking Finns call the holiday Johannes or Johanni after the Finnish term juhannus – or more accurately after the Biblical John the Baptist (="Johannes Döparen" in Swedish). In folk magic, midsummer was a very potent night and the time for many small rituals, mostly for young maidens seeking suitors and fertility. Will-o'-the-wisps were believed to appear at midsummer night, particularly to finders of the mythical "fern in bloom" and possessors of the "fern seed", marking a treasure. In the old days, maidens would use special charms and bend over a well, naked, in order to see their future husband's reflection. In another tradition that continues still today, an unmarried woman collects seven different flowers and places them under her pillow to dream of her future husband. An important feature of the midsummer in Finland is the white night and the midnight sun. Because of Finland's location around the Arctic Circle the nights near the midsummer day are short (with twilight even at midnight) or non-existent. This gives a great contrast to the darkness of the winter time. The temperature can vary between 0 °C and +30 °C, with an average of about 20 °C in the South. Many Finns leave the cities for Midsummer and spend time in the countryside. Nowadays many spend at least a few days there, and some Finns take their whole vacation at a summer cottage. Traditions include bonfires, cookouts, sauna and spending time together with friends or family. Heavy drinking is also associated with the Finnish midsummer. Many music festivals of all sizes are organized on the Midsummer weekend. It is also common to start summer vacation on Midsummer day. For many families Midsummer is the time when they move to the countryside to their summer cottage by the sea or lake. Midsummer is also a Finnish Flag Day: the national flag is hoisted at 6 pm on Midsummer's Eve and flown throughout the night until 9 pm the next evening. This is an exception to the normal rule of flying the flag from 8 am to sunset. Finnish Canadians in the New Finland district, Saskatchewan, Canada celebrate Juhannus. France In France, the (feast of St John), traditionally celebrated with bonfires () that are reminiscent of Midsummer's pagan rituals, is a Catholic festivity in celebration of Saint John the Baptist. It takes place on June 24, on Midsummer day (St John's day). In certain French towns, a tall bonfire is built by the inhabitants in order to be lit on St John's Day. In the region and in the Southern part of , this huge bonfire is named . France also rejoices on June 21 for the Fête de la Musique, which became an international celebration over time. Germany The day of sun solstice is called in German. On June 20, 1653, the Nuremberg town council issued the following order: "Where experience herefore have shown, that after the old heathen use, on John's day in every year, in the country, as well in towns as villages, money and wood have been gathered by young folk, and there upon the so-called or zimmet fire kindled, and thereat winebibbing, dancing about the said fire, leaping over the same, with burning of sundry herbs and flowers, and setting of brands from the said fire in the fields, and in many other ways all manner of superstitious work carried on — Therefore the Hon. Council of Nürnberg town neither can nor ought to forbear to do away with all such unbecoming superstition, paganism, and peril of fire on this coming day of St. John." Bonfires are still a custom in many areas of Germany. People gather to watch the bonfire and celebrate solstice. The date also marks the end of harvest for spring vegetables such as asparagus ("Spargelsilvester") or for rhubarb. Greece According to Eastern Orthodox tradition the eve of the day of the Nativity of John the Baptist is celebrated with festivals in many towns and villages, both in the mainland and in the Greek isles. Traditionally the midsummers celebration is called () meaning sign or oracle, and was considered a time when unmarried girls would discover their potential mates through a ritual. It is also customary to this day to burn the Mayday wreaths that are used to decorate the doors of the houses for the previous two months, in large communal bonfires, accompanied by music, dancing and jumping over the flames. It takes place on May 30 and May 31. Hungary On June 21 Hungarians celebrate "Saint Ivan's Night" () ( being derived from the Slavic form of Johannes/John, Ivan, which may correspond to Hungarian , , ). The whole month of June was once called the Month of St. Ivan until the 19th century. Setting fires is a folklore tradition this night. Girls jumped over it, while boys watched the spectacle. Most significant among the customs of the summer is lighting the fire of Midsummer Night () on the day of St. John (June 24), when the sun follows the highest course, when the nights are the shortest and the days the longest. The practice of venerating Saint John the Baptist developed in the Catholic Church during the 5th century, and at this time they put his name and day on June 24. The summer solstice was celebrated among most peoples, so the Hungarians may have known it even before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin. Although the Arab historian Ibn Rusta speaks of the Hungarians' fire worshipping, so far there is no data that could connect it to this day. In the Middle Ages it was primarily an ecclesiastical festivity, but from the 16th century on the sources recall it as a folk custom. The most important episode of the custom is the lighting of the fire. The custom survived longest and in the most complete form in the northwestern part of the linguistic region, where as late as the 1930s they still lit a Midsummer Night fire. The way of arranging the participants by age and by sex has suggested the possibility that these groups sang by answering each other, but there are hardly any remnants that appear to support this possibility. People jumped over the fire after they lit it. This practice is mentioned as early as the 16th century, although at that time in connection with a wedding; still, it is called "Midsummer Night fire". The purpose of jumping over the fire is partly to purify, partly because they believed that those whose jump was very successful would get married during the following carnival. India In India, within the context of Hinduism, the Summer Solstice, or Midsummer's day, takes place on the 21st of June and is known as the Uttarayana. It is a day denoted with celebration, observation, and practice of Yoga. Iran Tiregān () is one of ancient Iranian festival coinciding with the mid summer festivals, another midsummer festival is Gilaki Bal Nowrooz which is held in the north of Iran. Bal Nowrooz, meaning ‘the fire of Nowrooz’, is the name of a festival celebrated on the first day of ‘Our Nowrooz’ and this is the first day of Daylaman New Year. Lighting the fire, thanking God for his blessings and crops, and praying for the peace of the souls of the dead were parts of this ancient Iranian tradition. This ceremony coincides with harvesting in Gilan. On the first day of ‘Our Nowrooz’, the newly wed couples who have married in the past year, are given white horses to ride up to the foot of the mountain. As the brides and grooms reach the mountain foot, a yellow cow is set free, as a sign of happiness and abundance for the new couples. Ireland Many towns and cities have 'Midsummer Carnivals' with fairs, concerts and fireworks either on or on the weekend nearest to Midsummer. In rural spots throughout the west, northwest, southwest and County Cork, bonfires are lit on hilltops on Saint John's Eve. This tradition harks back to pagan times. The Irish Environmental Protection Agency, after much initial upset in the west of Ireland, has an exemption for the burning of fires outdoors during midsummer night. The longest day of the year in Ireland falls on 21 June 21, the same date as Midsummer. The Ballagh, a village in County Wexford, where the church is dedicated to St John the Baptist, holds its Patron on the first Sunday in July, this Sunday being the closest to the Old Calendar date for St John's Day. Italy San Giovanni's day has been celebrated in Florence since medieval times, and certainly in the Renaissance, with festivals sometimes lasting three days from 21 to 24 June. Such celebrations are held nowadays in Cesena from June 21 to 24, featuring a special street market. Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Genoa, Florence and Turin where fireworks displays take place during the celebration. In Turin Saint John's festival has been practiced since medieval times, with people from the surrounding areas coming to dance around the bonfire in the central square. Italian neopagans usually celebrate Midsummer with rites, dances and festivals all around the country. Jersey In Jersey most of the former midsummer customs are largely ignored nowadays. The custom known as Les cônes d'la Saint Jean was observed as late as the 1970s – horns or conch shells were blown. Ringing the bachîn (a large brass preserving pan) at midsummer to frighten away evil spirits survived as a custom on some farms until the 1940s and has been revived as a folk performance in the 21st century. Latvia In Latvia, Midsummer is called Jāņi (plural of Latvian name Jānis, which is equivalent to John) or Līgo svētki (svētki = festival). It is a national holiday celebrated from the night of June 23 through June 24 on a large scale by almost everyone in Latvia and by people of Latvian origin abroad. Celebrations consist of a lot of traditional and mostly pagan elements – eating, Jāņi cheese, drinking beer, baking pīrāgi, singing Latvian folk songs dedicated to Jāņi, burning bonfires to keep light all through the night and jumping over it, wearing wreaths of flowers (for women) and oak leaves (for men) together with modern commercial products and ideas. There are tens and hundreds of different beliefs and traditions all over Latvia on what should be done on that day for good harvest, for predicting the future, for attracting your future spouse etc. People decorate their houses and lands with birch or sometimes oak branches and flowers as well as leaves, especially fern. In rural areas livestock is also decorated. In modern days small oak branches with leaves are attached to the cars in Latvia during the festivity. Jāņi has been a strong aspect of Latvian culture throughout history, originating in pre-Christian Latvia as an ancient fertility cult. In the western town of Kuldīga, revellers mark the holiday by running naked through the town at three in the morning. The event has taken place since 2000. Runners are rewarded with beer, and police are on hand in case any "puritans" attempt to interfere with the naked run. Lithuania Midsummer is commonly called John's Day (Joninės) in Lithuania, and is also known as Saint Jonas' Festival, Rasos (Dew Holiday), Kupolė, Midsummer Day and St. John's Day. It is celebrated in the night from 23 June to 24 June and on 24 June. The traditions include singing songs and dancing until the sun sets, telling tales, searching to find the magic fern blossom at midnight, jumping over bonfires, greeting the rising midsummer sun and washing the face with a morning dew, young girls float flower wreaths on the water of river or lake. These are customs brought from pagan culture and beliefs. The latter Christian tradition is based on the reverence of Saint John. Lithuanians with the names Jonas, Jonė, Janina receive many greetings from their family, relatives and friends. Norway As in Denmark, Sankthansaften is celebrated on June 23 in Norway. The day is also called Jonsok, which means "John's wake", important in Roman Catholic times with pilgrimages to churches and holy springs. For instance, up until 1840, there was a pilgrimage to the Røldal Stave Church in Røldal (southwest Norway) whose crucifix was said to have healing powers. Today, however, Sankthansaften is largely regarded as a secular or even pre-Christian event. In most places, the main event is the burning of a large bonfire. In Western Norway, a custom of arranging mock weddings, both between adults and between children, is still kept alive. The wedding was meant to symbolize the blossoming of new life. Such weddings are known to have taken place in the 1800s, but the custom is believed to be older. It is also said that, if a girl puts flowers under her pillow that night, she will dream of her future husband. Poland Especially in northern Poland – the Eastern Pomeranian and Kashubian regions – midsummer is celebrated on June 21st or 22nd. Girls throw wreaths made of flowers and candles into the Baltic Sea, and into lakes or rivers. The midsummer day celebration starts at about 8:00 p.m. and lasts all night until sunrise. People celebrate this special day every year and call it Noc Świętojańska which means St. John's Night. On that day in big Polish cities (like Warsaw and Kraków) there are many organized events, the most popular event being in Kraków, called the Wianki, which means wreaths. In many parts of Poland the Summer solstice is celebrated as Kupala Night. Also, an important tradition is looking in the forest for the flower of the fern (as fern does not flower, this means something impossible to find without an interference of magic). Jumping above bonfires used to be a widely spread custom too. Portugal In Portugal, Midsummer festivities are included in what is known today as Santos Populares (Popular Saints celebrations), celebrating the three main saints of June: St. Anthony (13th June), celebrated in Lisbon, Estarreja, Vila nova de Famalicão, and Vila Real among others; São João (St. John's Day, 24 June) in Porto, Braga, Figueira da Foz, Vila do Conde, Almada and many others; St. Peter's day (29th June) in Seixal, Sintra, Póvoa de Varzim, Barcelos, and various other locations, mostly associated with fishermen. In anticipation of Popular Saints, streets are decorated with balloons and arches made out of brightly coloured paper, people dance in the city's squares, and Cascatas (makeshift altars), dedicated to the saints, are put up to show each neighbourhood's devotion and pride. These holidays are days of festivities with good food and refreshments. Typical dishes include Caldo verde (Portuguese cabbage and potato soup), sardinhas assadas na brasa (open grilled sardines), boroa (oven baked bread), funfair food (mostly cotton candy and farturas, a fried batter with sugar and cinnamon) and drink (mostly) red wine and água-pé (grape juice with a small percentage of alcohol). Around the day of the festivities, there is also group folk dancing, traditional music, including Cantar à desgarrada (musical rhyming duels), and the inescapable firework displays. Until fire regulations brought about by some serious forest fires discouraged them, bonfires and hot air balloons were lit, around which all these events used to happen. Revellers would try to jump over the bonfire, mostly young men trying to show off to the young women, and older men trying to convince themselves that they are still young. Other typical activities include trying to clime a pau-de-sebo (greased pole) to claim a reward (frequently a cod or ham) and Rusgas which are a mixture of running, singing, dancing and tomfoolery, mostly by youthful groups. Funfair attractions have also become a mainstay of festivities. In Lisbon, in Avenida da Liberdade, there are the Marchas, a parade of folklore and costumes of the inhabitants from the city's different traditional quarters, with hundreds of singers and dancers and a vast audience applauding their favourite participants. As St. Anthony is the matchmaker saint, it is still the tradition in Lisbon to celebrate multiple marriages (200 to 300) and according to tradition, one can declare oneself to someone one fancies in the heat of the festivities by offering the loved one a manjerico (a flower-pot with a sweet basil plant) and a love poem. In Porto and Braga St. John's is celebrated in the streets, where many normally frowned-upon things are permitted. People carry a plant of flowering leek (alho-porro, which has a pungent smell) with them, and run it over the face of other people. Starting in 1963, people have also carried a small plastic hammer which they use to bang their neighbors over the head. The tradition is that St. John was a scalliwag in his youth and the people hit him on the head with the garlic saying "return to the right path". In traditional fisher towns, festivities take place on Saint Peter's Day, Póvoa do Varzim, which became a municipal holiday in the 1960s. Póvoa de Varzim's Saint Peter Festival keeps traditional "Santos Populares" elements, such as the bonfire, street celebrations, and include the rusgas, in which inhabitants of one quarter (bairro) parade to other neighbourhoods in the evening of June 28. Women are dressed as tricana (women dressed in a traditional costume with a sensual walking style). Each neighbourhood has its own festival and colors for identification. Romania In Romania, the Midsummer celebrations are named Drăgaica or Sânziene. Drăgaica is celebrated by a dance performed by a group of 5–7 young girls of which one is chosen as the Drăgaica. She is dressed as a bride, with wheat wreath, while the other girls, dressed in white wear a veil with bedstraw flowers. Midsummer fairs are held in many Romanian villages and cities. The oldest and best known midsummer fair in Romania is the Drăgaica fair, held in Buzău between 10 and 24 June every year. There are many superstitions related to this day, particularly those involving marriage or death. The term Sânziene originates in the Latin "Sancta Diana", and superstitions relating to this day are mainly romantic in nature, referring to young girls and their marriage prospects. Russia Many rites of this holiday are connected with water, fertility and autopurification. The girls, for example, would float their flower garlands on the water of rivers and tell their fortunes from their movement. Lads and girls would jump over the flames of bonfires. Nude bathing is likewise practiced. Nights on the Eve of Ivan Kupala inspired Modest Mussorgsky to create his Night on Bald Mountain. A prominent Ivan Kupala night scene is featured in Andrei Tarkovsky's film Andrei Rublev. Also, in Saint Petersburg the White Nights Festival is also predominantly connected with water. The Yakut people of the Sakha Republic celebrate a solstitial ceremony, Ysyakh, involving tethering a horse to a pole and circle dancing around it. Betting on Reindeer or horse racing would often take place afterward. The traditions are derived from Tengriism, the ancient sun religion of the region which has since been driven out by the Russian empire, Russian Orthodox Church and finally the Communist Party. The traditions have since been encouraged. Serbia Ivanjdan is celebrated on July 7, according to the Serbian Orthodox Church. Saint John (Sveti Jovan) is known by the name Igritelj (dancer) because it is thought the sun is dancing on this day. Among traditions are that girls watch the sunrise through their wreath, to become red as the sun, towards the evening in the heights, Ivanjske vatre (kresovi, bonfire) are lit, and dancing and singing takes place. It is a tradition for people to become godfathers and blood brothers on this day, as John is a symbol of character and rectitude. Slovenia In Slovenia, Kresna noč (Midsummer Night) used to be celebrated on June 21, but the celebration was later moved to May 1, International Workers Day. Kresna noč used to be connected with the Slavic god Kresnik, who was later replaced by St. John the Baptist. Spain The traditional midsummer party in Spain is the celebration in honour of Saint John the Baptist (Spanish: San Juan, Catalan: Sant Joan, Galician: San Xoán, Asturian: San Xuan) and takes place in the evening of June 23 Saint John's Eve. It is common in many areas of the country. In some areas, bonfires are traditionally named tequeos, which means people of the dance. Parties are organized usually at beaches, where bonfires are lit and a set of firework displays usually take place. On the Mediterranean coast, especially in Catalonia and Valencia, special foods such as coca de Sant Joan are also served on this occasion. In Alicante, since 1928, the bonfires of Saint John were developed into elaborate constructions inspired by the Falles, or Fallas, of Valencia. Midsummer tradition is also especially strong in northern areas of the country, such as Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque Country, where one can easily identify the rituals that reveal the pagan beliefs widespread throughout Europe in Neolithic times. These beliefs pivot on three basic ideas: the importance of medicinal plants, especially in relation to health, youth and beauty; the protective character of fire to ward men off evil spirits and witches and, finally, the purifying, miraculous effects of water. What follows is a summary of Galician traditions surrounding St. John's festival in relation to these three elements. Medicinal plants: Traditionally, women collect several species of plants on St. John's eve. These vary from area to area, but mostly include fennel, different species of fern (e.g. Dryopteris filix-mas, Osmunda regalis), rue (herb of grace, Ruta graveolens), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dog rose (Rosa canina), lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora), St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), mallows (Malva sylvestris), laburnum, foxgloves (Digitalis purpurea) and elder (Sambucus) flowers. In some areas, these are arranged in a bunch and hung in doorways. In most others, they are dipped in a vessel with water and left outside exposed to the dew of night until the following morning (o dia de San Xoan – St. John's day), when people use the resulting flower water to wash their faces. Water: Tradition holds it that the medicinal plants mentioned above are most effective when dipped in water collected from seven different springs. Also, on some beaches, it was traditional for women who wanted to be fertile to bathe in the sea until they were washed by 9 waves. Fire: Bonfires are lit, usually around midnight both on beaches and inland, so much so that one usually cannot tell the smoke from the mist common in this Atlantic corner of Iberia at this time of the year, and it smells burnt everywhere. Occasionally, a dummy is placed at the top, representing a witch or the devil. Young and old gather around them and feast mostly on pilchards, potatoes boiled in their skins and maize bread. When it is relatively safe to jump over the bonfire, it is done three times (although it could also be nine or any odd number) for good luck at the cry of "meigas fora" (witches off!).It is also common to drink Queimada, a beverage resulting from setting alight Galician grappa mixed with sugar, coffee beans and pieces of fruit, which is prepared while chanting an incantation against evil spirits. Sweden Raising and dancing around a maypole (majstång or midsommarstång) is an activity that attracts families and many others. Greenery placed over houses and barns was supposed to bring good fortune and health to people and livestock; this old tradition of decorating with greens continues, though most people no longer take it seriously. To decorate with greens was called att maja (to may) and may be the origin of the word majstång, maja coming originally from the month May, or vice versa. Other researchers say the term came from German merchants who raised the maypole in June because the Swedish climate made it impossible to find the necessary greens and flowers in May, and continued to call it a maypole. In earlier times, small spires wrapped in greens were erected; this probably predates the maypole tradition, which is believed by many to have come from the continent in the Middle Ages. In Sweden Midsummer's day is a Saturday between June 20 and June 26, but as is usual in Sweden the actual celebration is on the eve, i.e. a Friday between June 19 and June 25. Midsummer's Eve is a de facto public holiday in Sweden with offices and many shops closed. Like in Norway and Finland, it is believed that if a girl picks 7 different flowers in silence of the midsummer night and puts them underneath her pillow, she will dream of her future husband. Another tradition on a Swedish Midsummer is to end it with a skinny dip at night. It's not mandatory to be naked, but many will be completely naked accompanied with an old or new partner after a couple of the famous schnapps. Ukraine Ivan Kupala was the old Kyiv Rus' name for John the Baptist. Up to the present day, the Rus' Midsummer Night (or Ivan's Day) is known as one of the most expressive Kyiv Rus' folk and pagan holidays. Ivan Kupala Day is the day of summer solstice celebrated in Ukraine on June 23 NS and July 6 OS. Before the day was named for St John, this was a celebration of a pagan fertility rite involving bathing in water. Since St John the Baptist's birth is celebrated at this time, some elements of Kupala's pagan origins were seen to be roughly synonymous with Christian meanings, most notably the parallel of Baptism as cleansing from sins, so the holiday in a Christian-modified form has been accepted into the Orthodox Christian calendar. In modern times, due to increasing secularization, it is possible to find Kupala being celebrated in a manner closer to its pagan roots. United Kingdom In Great Britain from the 13th century, Midsummer was celebrated on Midsummer Eve (St. John's Eve, June 23) and St. Peter's Eve (June 28) with the lighting of bonfires, feasting, and merrymaking. England In late 14th-century England, John Mirk of Lilleshall Abbey, Shropshire, gives the following description: "At first, men and women came to church with candles and other lights and prayed all night long. In the process of time, however, men left such devotion and used songs and dances and fell into lechery and gluttony turning the good, holy devotion into sin." The church fathers decided to put a stop to these practices and ordained that people should fast on the evening before, and thus turned waking into fasting. Mirk adds that at the time of his writing, "...in worship of St John the Baptist, men stay up at night and make three kinds of fires: one is of clean bones and no wood and is called a "bonnefyre"; another is of clean wood and no bones, and is called a wakefyre, because men stay awake by it all night; and the third is made of both bones and wood and is called, "St. John's fire" (Festial 182)." These traditions largely ended after the Reformation, but persisted in rural areas up until the 19th century before petering out. Other Midsummer festivities had uneasy relations with the Reformed establishment. The Chester Midsummer Watch Parade, begun in 1498, was held at every Summer Solstice in years when the Chester Mystery Plays were not performed. Despite the cancellation of the plays in 1575, the parade continued; in 1599, however, the Lord Mayor ordered that the parades be banned and the costumes destroyed. The parade was permanently banned in 1675. Traditional Midsummer bonfires are still lit on some high hills in Cornwall (see Carn Brea and Castle an Dinas on Castle Downs). This tradition was revived by the Old Cornwall Society in the early 20th century. Bonfires in Cornwall were once common as part of , which is now celebrated at Penzance, Cornwall. This week long festival normally starts on the Friday nearest St John's Day. lasts several days and culminates in Mazey Day. This is a revival of the Feast of St John () with fireworks and bonfires. In England, Midsummer Day (24 June) is traditionally one of the quarter days. Scotland Midsummer festivals are celebrated throughout Scotland, notably in the Scottish Borders where Peebles holds its Beltane Week. The Eve of St. John has special magical significance and was used by Sir Walter Scott as the title, and theme, for a pseudo-ballad poem. He invented a legend in which the lady of Smailholm Tower, near Kelso, keeps vigil by the midnight fires three nights in a row (see above) and is visited by her lover; but when her husband returns from battle, she learns he slew that lover on the first night, and she has been entertained by a very physical ghost. Wales In Wales it is called , or (St John's of Midsummer) to distinguish it from (St John's of Midwinter, the feast of John the Evangelist). Great agricultural fairs used to be held at this time, along with merriment and dancing. A bonfire was also kept this night. With the advent of non-conformist beliefs on the Welsh socio-political culture, this (among so many other similar festivals) suffered greatly, and its observance finally died out in south-east Wales by the end of the 19th century. However, since 1977, a folk-dance revival started in Cardiff, and is held now annually on this feast day United States Midsummer celebrations held throughout the United States are largely derived from the cultures of immigrants who arrived from various European nations since the 19th century. With the rise of earth-centered spirituality, many, including Unitarian Universalists, celebrate the summer solstice as a religious holiday. Alaska As the state of Alaska, northernmost state in the nation, straddles the Arctic Circle, midsummer is a time when most of the state is in daylight or civil twilight the entire day. The Midnight Sun Game is an annual tradition in the city of Fairbanks, in which a regulation game of baseball is played at 10:30 p.m. local time, through the midnight hour, with no artificial lighting. Arizona Tucson has announced its inaugural Earthwalk Solstice celebration, with sister events in San Francisco, Jerusalem, and other communities around the world. The event features a walk through a giant labyrinth, musicians, healers, ceremony, etc. California Since 1974, Santa Barbara has hosted an annual Summer Solstice celebration, typically on the weekend of or the weekend after the actual solstice. It includes a festival and parade. In Santa Clara County, the Swedish American Patriotic League has held a Midsummer celebration at Sveadal for more than 120 years. It includes a parade, decorating and raising a Maypole, dancing and other activities. Illinois Geneva hosts a Swedish Day () festival on the third Sunday of June. The event, featuring maypole-raising, dancing, and presentation of an authentic Viking ship, dates back to 1911. Michigan In Kaleva, is celebrated annually on or near the Summer Solstice by Gathering at the Village Roadside Park. Traditionally (Finnish Oven Baked Pancake) and strawberry shortcake is enjoyed followed by a bonfire or . was founded in 1900 by Finnish immigrants. Oregon The Astoria Scandinavian Midsummer Festival has been a tradition on the North Coast of Oregon for over forty years. The Festival takes place typically on the 3rd full weekend of June. The festival embodies the rich cultural heritage that was transplanted to the Astoria, Oregon region by emigrating Scandinavians. In the Pacific Northwest they found the same bounteous seas and forests as in their native lands and the demand for their skills at managing them. New York The NYC Swedish Midsummer celebrations in Battery Park, New York City, attracts some 3,000–5,000 people annually, which makes it one of the largest celebrations after the ones held in Leksand and at the Skansen Park in Stockholm. Sweden Day, a Midsummer celebration which also honors Swedish heritage and history, has been held annually on the sound in Throgs Neck in New York since 1941. Swedish Midsummer is also celebrated in other places with large Swedish and Scandinavian populations, such as Rockford, Illinois, Chicago, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Lindsborg, Kansas. The Swedish "language village" (summer camp) , run by Concordia College in Minnesota, also celebrates Midsummer. Washington The Seattle neighborhood of Fremont puts on a large Summer Solstice Parade and Pageant, which for many years has controversially included painted naked cyclists. In St. Edwards Park in Kenmore, the Skandia Folkdance Society hosts , which includes a Scandinavian solstice pole. Wyoming A solstitial celebration is held on Casper Mountain at Crimson Dawn park. Crimson Dawn is known in the area for the great stories of mythical creatures and people that live on Casper Mountain. The celebration is attended by many people from the community, and from around the country. A large bonfire is held and all are invited to throw a handful of red soil into the fire in hopes that they get their wish granted. Analogous summer solstice observances Neopaganism As forms of Neopaganism can be quite different and have very different origins, these representations can vary considerably, despite the shared name. Some celebrate in a manner as close as possible to how they believe ancient pagans observed the summer solstice, while others observe the holiday with rituals culled from numerous other unrelated sources, the Germanic culture being just one of the sources used. At the ancient monument of Stonehenge, in the English county of Wiltshire, many people like to gather for the Summer Solstice sunrise which is in alignment with the stones. In Neo-druidism, the term Alban Hefin is used for the summer solstice. The name was invented by the late 18th century Welsh Romantic author and prolific literary forger Iolo Morganwg. Germanic Neopaganism Germanic neopagans call their summer solstice festival Litha, which is part of the reconstructed Germanic calendar used by some Germanic Neopagans and takes its name from Bede's De temporum ratione that provides Anglo-Saxon names for the months roughly corresponding to June and July as sē ǣrra līþa and sē æfterra līþa (the "early Litha month" and the "later Litha month") with an intercalary month of līþa appearing after sē æfterra līþa on leap years. In modern times, Litha is celebrated by neopagans who emphasize what they believe to be the reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon Germanic paganism. See also Christianisation of saints and feasts Holi Midnight sun Winter solstice Notes References External links The Nativity of John the Baptist: The Midsummer Nativity De mensibus Anglorum ChXV – Bede's Anglo-Saxon Calendar (in Latin) Midsummer's Festival on Hill of Tara, Ireland Midsummer – 'WIANKI' in Krakow, Poland Traditional Summer Solstice Celebration in Turaida, Latvia – 360° panorama, photos and live sound / Virtual Latvia Celebrating Kupallie, a pagan midsummer holiday – Belarus photo digest Belarus Digest Thomas M Landy, "Feasts", Catholics & Cultures updated May 12, 2016 Articles containing video clips European culture International observances John the Baptist June observances Christian festivals and holy days Saints days Modern Pagan holidays Finnish flag flying days Public holidays in Finland Swedish flag flying days Public holidays in Sweden Public holidays in the United Kingdom Quarter days Summer holidays Culture of Altbayern et:Jaanipäev	[ -0.00017130716878455132, 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221228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoptysis	Hemoptysis	Hemoptysis is the coughing up of blood or blood-stained mucus from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs. In other words, it is the airway bleeding. This can occur with lung cancer, infections such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, or pneumonia, and certain cardiovascular conditions. Hemoptysis is considered massive at . In such cases, there are always severe injuries. The primary danger comes from choking, rather than blood loss. Diagnosis Past history, history of present illness, family history history of tuberculosis, bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, mitral stenosis, etc. history of cigarette smoking, occupational diseases by exposure to silica dust, etc. Blood duration, frequency, amount Amounts of blood: large amounts of blood, or is there blood-streaked sputum Probable source of bleeding: Is the blood coughed up, or vomited? Bloody sputum color, characters: blood-streaked, fresh blood, frothy pink, bloody gelatinous. Accompanying symptoms fever, chest pain, coughing, purulent sputum, mucocutaneous bleeding, jaundice. Imaging examination chest X-ray, CT scan and 3D reconstruction images or CT virtual bronchoscopy, bronchial angiography. Laboratory tests blood test: WBC Sputum: cells and bacterial examinations, sputum culture Bronchial fiber endoscopy Differential diagnosis The most common causes for hemoptysis in adults are chest infections such as bronchitis or pneumonia. In children, hemoptysis is commonly caused by the presence of a foreign body in the airway. Other common causes include lung cancers and tuberculosis. Less common causes include aspergilloma, bronchiectasis, coccidioidomycosis, pulmonary embolism, pneumonic plague, and cystic fibrosis. Rarer causes include hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT or Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome), Goodpasture's syndrome, and granulomatosis with polyangiitis. A rare cause of hemoptysis in women is endometriosis, which leads to intermittent hemoptysis coinciding with menstrual periods in 7% of women with thoracic endometriosis syndrome. Hemoptysis may be exacerbated or even caused by overtreatment with anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin. Blood-laced mucus from the sinus or nose area can sometimes be misidentified as symptomatic of hemoptysis (such secretions can be a sign of nasal or sinus cancer, but also a sinus infection). Extensive non-respiratory injury can also cause one to cough up blood. Cardiac causes like congestive heart failure and mitral stenosis should be ruled out.The origin of blood can be identified by observing its color. Bright-red, foamy blood comes from the respiratory tract, whereas dark-red, coffee-colored blood comes from the gastrointestinal tract. Sometimes hemoptysis may be rust-colored. Lung cancer, including both non-small cell lung carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma. Sarcoidosis Aspergilloma Tuberculosis Histoplasmosis Pneumonia Pulmonary edema Endometriosis and thoracic endometriosis syndrome Foreign body aspiration and aspiration pneumonia Goodpasture's syndrome Microscopic polyangiitis Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis Bronchitis Bronchiectasis Pulmonary embolism Anticoagulant use Trauma Lung abscess Mitral stenosis Tropical eosinophilia Bleeding disorders Hughes-Stovin syndrome and other variants of Behçet's disease Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations Massive Hemoptysis and Mortality Although there are reports that the fatality rate is as high as 80%, the in-hospital mortality rate for hospitalized hemoptysis patients is 2669/28539=9.4%, calculated from the data in the article by Kinoshita et al. This is probably the most reasonable figure considering the overwhelming number of cases. The general definition of massive hemoptysis is more than 200 ml within 24 hours, but there is a wide range in the literature (100-600 ml). Considering that the total volume of the tracheal and bronchial lumen is about 150 cc, it may be reasonable to define massive hemoptysis as 200 ml, which is a little more than 150 ml, in terms of setting the threshold for fatal hemoptysis. More than 400ml/day is not adequate for screening purposes. Treatment Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Treatments include iced saline, and topical vasoconstrictors such as adrenalin or vasopressin. Tranexamic acid was proved to improve in-hospital mortality. Selective bronchial intubation can be used to collapse the lung that is bleeding. Also, endobronchial tamponade can be used. Laser photocoagulation can be used to stop bleeding during bronchoscopy. Angiography of bronchial arteries can be performed to locate the bleeding, and it can often be embolized. Bronchial artery embolization (BAE) is the first line treatment nowadays. Surgical option is usually the last resort and can involve removal of a lung lobe or removal of the entire lung. Cough suppressants can increase the risk of choking. References Further reading External links Bleeding Respiratory diseases Symptoms and signs: Respiratory system	[ 0.39549973607063293, 0.6669747829437256, -0.49916842579841614, -0.3135317862033844, -0.2553882896900177, 0.046445347368717194, 0.6106900572776794, 0.5989334583282471, 0.034570347517728806, -0.7310972809791565, -0.6156482696533203, 0.13862638175487518, -0.7666178345680237, 0.4203527569770813, 0.522113025188446, 0.1426205337047577, 0.14432312548160553, 0.9909272789955139, 0.33741509914398193, 0.15745319426059723, -0.6268911361694336, -0.4503559172153473, -0.08495210111141205, 0.23335760831832886, 0.201295405626297, -0.22288022935390472, 0.018414262682199478, -0.008835328742861748, -0.0899101123213768, -0.39233899116516113, 0.5579960346221924, 0.43629327416419983, 0.40686386823654175, -0.2959827482700348, 0.14129921793937683, 0.5048718452453613, -0.4901580810546875, -0.7581149935722351, -0.31295672059059143, -0.20178379118442535, -0.36555343866348267, 0.33981242775917053, 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221230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kanji%20by%20stroke%20count	List of kanji by stroke count	This Kanji index method groups together the kanji that are written with the same number of strokes. Currently, there are 2,207 individual kanji listed. Characters followed by an alternate in (parentheses) indicate a difference between the official version of the character and the version used in JIS X 0208 (the JIS version is in parentheses). Note that their stroke count may differ. One stroke 一 \| 乙 \| 〇 Two strokes 丁 \| 七 \| 九 \| 了 \| 二 \| 人 \| 入 \| 八 \| 刀 \| 力 \| 十 \| 又 \| 乃 Three strokes 万 \| 丈 \| 三 \| 上 \| 下 \| 丸 \| 久 \| 亡 \| 凡 \| 刃 \| 千 \| 口 \| 土 \| 士 \| 夕 \| 大 \| 女 \| 子 \| 寸 \| 小 \| 山 \| 川 \| 工 \| 己 \| 干 \| 弓 \| 才 \| 之 \| 巾 \| 乞 \| 于 \| 也 \| 々 \| 勺 Four strokes 不 \| 与 \| 中 \| 丹 \| 予 \| 互 \| 五 \| 井 \| 仁 \| 今 \| 介 \| 仏 \| 元 \| 公 \| 六 \| 内 \| 円 \| 冗 \| 凶 \| 分 \| 切 \| 刈 \| 化 \| 匹 \| 区 \| 升 \| 午 \| 厄 \| 及 \| 友 \| 双 \| 反 \| 収 \| 天 \| 太 \| 夫 \| 孔 \| 少 \| 尺 \| 屯 \| 幻 \| 弔 \| 引 \| 心 \| 戸 \| 手 \| 支 \| 文 \| 斗 \| 斤 \| 方 \| 日 \| 月 \| 木 \| 欠 \| 止 \| 比 \| 毛 \| 氏 \| 水 \| 火 \| 父 \| 片 \| 牛 \| 犬 \| 王 \| 巴 \| 允 \| 爪 \| 牙 \| 匂 \| 勾 \| 乏 \| 勿 Five strokes 出 \| 世 \| 付 \| 仕 \| 代 \| 仙 \| 他 \| 以 \| 令 \| 兄 \| 只 \| 史 \| 号 \| 叶 \| 𠮟 \| (叱) \| 加 \| 占 \| 可 \| 句 \| 司 \| 召 \| 台 \| 古 \| 右 \| 石 \| 四 \| 囚 \| 凸 \| 凹 \| 冬 \| 処 \| 皮 \| 奴 \| 功 \| 巧 \| 包 \| 去 \| 圧 \| 庁 \| 広 \| 刊 \| 北 \| 半 \| 外 \| 央 \| 失 \| 矢 \| 尻 \| 尼 \| 左 \| 布 \| 平 \| 幼 \| 弁 \| 必 \| 打 \| 払 \| 斥 \| 丘 \| 未 \| 末 \| 本 \| 札 \| 正 \| 母 \| 民 \| 氷 \| 永 \| 汁 \| 氾 \| 犯 \| 生 \| 主 \| 玉 \| 巨 \| 用 \| 冊 \| 田 \| 由 \| 甲 \| 申 \| 白 \| 旧 \| 旦 \| 甘 \| 皿 \| 目 \| 且 \| 矛 \| 示 \| 礼 \| 写 \| 立 \| 市 \| 穴 \| 它 \| 玄 \| 辺 \| 込 \| 弘 \| 瓦 \| 丼 \| 丙 \| 叫 Six strokes 両 \| 争 \| 交 \| 仮 \| 仰 \| 仲 \| 件 \| 任 \| 企 \| 伏 \| 伐 \| 休 \| 会 \| 伝 \| 充 \| 兆 \| 先 \| 光 \| 全 \| 共 \| 再 \| 刑 \| 列 \| 劣 \| 匠 \| 印 \| 危 \| 各 \| 合 \| 吉 \| 同 \| 名 \| 后 \| 吏 \| 吐 \| 向 \| 回 \| 因 \| 団 \| 在 \| 地 \| 壮 \| 多 \| 好 \| 如 \| 妃 \| 妄 \| 存 \| 宅 \| 宇 \| 守 \| 安 \| 寺 \| 尽 \| 州 \| 巡 \| 帆 \| 年 \| 式 \| 弐 \| 当 \| 忙 \| 成 \| 旨 \| 早 \| 旬 \| 曲 \| 有 \| 朱 \| 朴 \| 机 \| 朽 \| 次 \| 死 \| 毎 \| 気 \| 汗 \| 汚 \| 江 \| 池 \| 灯 \| 灰 \| 百 \| 竹 \| 米 \| 糸 \| 缶 \| 羊 \| 羽 \| 老 \| 考 \| 耳 \| 肉 \| 肌 \| 自 \| 至 \| 舌 \| 舟 \| 色 \| 芋 \| 芝 \| 虫 \| 血 \| 行 \| 衣 \| 西 \| 迅 \| 字 \| 伊 \| 旭 \| 庄 \| 亘 \| 圭 \| 汐 \| 伎 \| 臼 \| 汎 Seven strokes 乱 \| 亜 \| 伯 \| 伴 \| 伸 \| 伺 \| 似 \| 但 \| 位 \| 低 \| 住 \| 佐 \| 体 \| 何 \| 余 \| 作 \| 克 \| 児 \| 兵 \| 冷 \| 初 \| 判 \| 別 \| 利 \| 助 \| 努 \| 励 \| 労 \| 医 \| 即 \| 却 \| 卵 \| 君 \| 吟 \| 否 \| 含 \| 吸 \| 吹 \| 呈 \| 呉 \| 告 \| 困 \| 囲 \| 図 \| 坂 \| 均 \| 坊 \| 坑 \| 声 \| 壱 \| 売 \| 妊 \| 妙 \| 妥 \| 妨 \| 孝 \| 完 \| 対 \| 寿 \| 尾 \| 尿 \| 局 \| 岐 \| 希 \| 床 \| 序 \| 廷 \| 弟 \| 形 \| 役 \| 忌 \| 忍 \| 志 \| 忘 \| 応 \| 快 \| 我 \| 戒 \| 戻 \| 扱 \| 扶 \| 批 \| 技 \| 抄 \| 把 \| 抑 \| 投 \| 抗 \| 折 \| 抜 \| 択 \| 改 \| 攻 \| 更 \| 杉 \| 材 \| 村 \| 束 \| 条 \| 来 \| 求 \| 決 \| 汽 \| 沈 \| 沖 \| 没 \| 沢 \| 災 \| 状 \| 狂 \| 男 \| 町 \| 社 \| 秀 \| 私 \| 究 \| 系 \| 肖 \| 肝 \| 臣 \| 良 \| 花 \| 芳 \| 芸 \| 見 \| 角 \| 言 \| 谷 \| 豆 \| 貝 \| 赤 \| 走 \| 足 \| 身 \| 車 \| 辛 \| 酉 \| 迎 \| 近 \| 返 \| 邦 \| 里 \| 防 \| 麦 \| 串 \| 李 \| 那 \| 沙 \| 呂 \| 杏 \| 冶 \| 汰 \| 肘 \| 阪 \| 弄 \| 沃 \| 妖 \| 吾 Eight strokes 並 \| 乳 \| 事 \| 享 \| 京 \| 佳 \| 併 \| 使 \| 例 \| 侍 \| 供 \| 依 \| 価 \| 侮 \| 免 \| 具 \| 典 \| 到 \| 制 \| 刷 \| 券 \| 刺 \| 刻 \| 効 \| 劾 \| 卒 \| 卓 \| 協 \| 参 \| 叔 \| 取 \| 受 \| 周 \| 味 \| 呼 \| 命 \| 和 \| 固 \| 国 \| 坪 \| 垂 \| 夜 \| 奇 \| 奉 \| 奔 \| 妹 \| 妻 \| 姉 \| 始 \| 姓 \| 委 \| 季 \| 学 \| 宗 \| 官 \| 宙 \| 定 \| 宜 \| 宝 \| 実 \| 尚 \| 居 \| 屈 \| 届 \| 岬 \| 岳 \| 岩 \| 岸 \| 幸 \| 底 \| 店 \| 府 \| 延 \| 弦 \| 彼 \| 往 \| 征 \| 径 \| 忠 \| 念 \| 怖 \| 性 \| 怪 \| 房 \| 所 \| 承 \| 披 \| 抱 \| 抵 \| 抹 \| 押 \| 抽 \| 担 \| 拍 \| 拐 \| 拒 \| 拓 \| 拘 \| 招 \| 拝 \| 拠 \| 拡 \| 放 \| 斉 \| 昆 \| 昇 \| 明 \| 易 \| 昔 \| 服 \| 杯 \| 東 \| 松 \| 板 \| 析 \| 林 \| 枚 \| 果 \| 枝 \| 枠 \| 枢 \| 欧 \| 武 \| 歩 \| 殴 \| 毒 \| 河 \| 沸 \| 油 \| 治 \| 沼 \| 沿 \| 況 \| 泊 \| 泌 \| 法 \| 泡 \| 波 \| 泣 \| 泥 \| 注 \| 泳 \| 炉 \| 炊 \| 炎 \| 牧 \| 物 \| 画 \| 的 \| 盲 \| 直 \| 知 \| 祈 \| 祉 \| 空 \| 突 \| 者 \| 肢 \| 肥 \| 肩 \| 肪 \| 肯 \| 育 \| 舎 \| 芽 \| 苗 \| 若 \| 苦 \| 英 \| 茂 \| 茎 \| 表 \| 迫 \| 迭 \| 述 \| 邪 \| 邸 \| 金 \| 長 \| 門 \| 阻 \| 附 \| 雨 \| 青 \| 非 \| 奈 \| 阿 \| 昌 \| 虎 \| 弥 \| 茅 \| 拙 \| 朋 \| 苑 \| 於 \| 尭 \| 旺 \| 采 \| 侃 \| 宛 \| 岡 \| 玩 \| 股 \| 呪 \| 刹 \| 狙 \| 妬 \| 阜 \| 枕 \| 拉 \| 版 Nine strokes 乗 \| 亭 \| 侯 \| 侵 \| 便 \| 係 \| 促 \| 俊 \| 俗 \| 保 \| 信 \| 冒 \| 冠 \| 則 \| 削 \| 前 \| 勅 \| 勇 \| 卑 \| 南 \| 卸 \| 厘 \| 厚 \| 叙 \| 咲 \| 単 \| 哀 \| 品 \| 型 \| 垣 \| 城 \| 変 \| 奏 \| 契 \| 姻 \| 姿 \| 威 \| 孤 \| 客 \| 宣 \| 室 \| 封 \| 専 \| 屋 \| 峠 \| 峡 \| 巻 \| 帝 \| 帥 \| 幽 \| 度 \| 建 \| 弧 \| 待 \| 律 \| 後 \| 怒 \| 思 \| 怠 \| 急 \| 恒 \| 恨 \| 悔 \| 括 \| 拷 \| 拾 \| 持 \| 指 \| 挑 \| 挟 \| 政 \| 故 \| 施 \| 星 \| 映 \| 春 \| 昨 \| 昭 \| 是 \| 昼 \| 枯 \| 架 \| 柄 \| 某 \| 染 \| 柔 \| 柱 \| 柳 \| 査 \| 栄 \| 段 \| 泉 \| 洋 \| 洗 \| 洞 \| 洒 \| 津 \| 洪 \| 活 \| 派 \| 浄 \| 浅 \| 海 \| 炭 \| 点 \| 為 \| 牲 \| 狩 \| 独 \| 狭 \| 珍 \| 甚 \| 界 \| 畑 \| 疫 \| 発 \| 皆 \| 皇 \| 盆 \| 相 \| 盾 \| 省 \| 看 \| 県 \| 砂 \| 研 \| 砕 \| 祖 \| 祝 \| 秋 \| 科 \| 秒 \| 窃 \| 糾 \| 紀 \| 約 \| 紅 \| 美 \| 耐 \| 肺 \| 胃 \| 胆 \| 背 \| 胎 \| 胞 \| 臭 \| 茶 \| 草 \| 荒 \| 荘 \| 衷 \| 要 \| 訂 \| 計 \| 貞 \| 負 \| 赴 \| 軌 \| 軍 \| 迷 \| 追 \| 退 \| 送 \| 逃 \| 逆 \| 郊 \| 郎 \| 重 \| 限 \| 面 \| 革 \| 音 \| 風 \| 飛 \| 食 \| 首 \| 香 \| 彦 \| 胡 \| 虹 \| 眉 \| 怨 \| 咽 \| 畏 \| 拶 \| 柵 \| 拭 \| 栃 \| 訃 \| 昧 \| 勃 \| 侶 \| 柿 \| 姦 \| Ten strokes 修 \| 俳 \| 俵 \| 俸 \| 倉 \| 個 \| 倍 \| 倒 \| 候 \| 借 \| 倣 \| 値 \| 倫 \| 倹 \| 俺 \| 党 \| 兼 \| 准 \| 凍 \| 剖 \| 剛 \| 剣 \| 剤 \| 勉 \| 匿 \| 原 \| 員 \| 哲 \| 唆 \| 唇 \| 唐 \| 埋 \| 姫 \| 娘 \| 娠 \| 娯 \| 夏 \| 孫 \| 宮 \| 宰 \| 害 \| 宴 \| 宵 \| 家 \| 容 \| 射 \| 将 \| 展 \| 峰 \| 島 \| 差 \| 師 \| 席 \| 帯 \| 帰 \| 座 \| 庫 \| 庭 \| 弱 \| 徐 \| 徒 \| 従 \| 恋 \| 恐 \| 恥 \| 恩 \| 恭 \| 息 \| 恵 \| 悟 \| 悦 \| 悩 \| 扇 \| 挙 \| 振 \| 挿 \| 捕 \| 捜 \| 敏 \| 料 \| 旅 \| 既 \| 時 \| 書 \| 朕 \| 朗 \| 栓 \| 校 \| 株 \| 核 \| 根 \| 格 \| 栽 \| 桃 \| 案 \| 桑 \| 桜 \| 桟 \| 梅 \| 殉 \| 殊 \| 残 \| 殺 \| 泰 \| 流 \| 浜 \| 浦 \| 浪 \| 浮 \| 浴 \| 浸 \| 消 \| 涙 \| 烈 \| 特 \| 珠 \| 班 \| 瓶 \| 畔 \| 留 \| 畜 \| 畝 \| 疲 \| 疾 \| 病 \| 症 \| 益 \| 真 \| 眠 \| 砲 \| 破 \| 神 \| 祥 \| 秘 \| 租 \| 秩 \| 称 \| 竜 \| 笑 \| 粉 \| 粋 \| 紋 \| 納 \| 純 \| 紙 \| 級 \| 紛 \| 素 \| 紡 \| 索 \| 翁 \| 耕 \| 耗 \| 胴 \| 胸 \| 能 \| 脂 \| 脅 \| 脈 \| 致 \| 航 \| 般 \| 荷 \| 華 \| 虐 \| 蚊 \| 蚕 \| 衰 \| 被 \| 討 \| 訓 \| 託 \| 記 \| 財 \| 貢 \| 起 \| 軒 \| 辱 \| 透 \| 逐 \| 逓 \| 途 \| 通 \| 逝 \| 速 \| 造 \| 連 \| 郡 \| 酌 \| 配 \| 酒 \| 針 \| 降 \| 陛 \| 院 \| 陣 \| 除 \| 陥 \| 隻 \| 飢 \| 馬 \| 骨 \| 高 \| 鬼 \| 浩 \| 栗 \| 桂 \| 桐 \| 拳 \| 唄 \| 冥 \| 挨 \| 挫 \| 桁 \| 恣 \| 脊 \| 凄 \| 芯 \| 捉 \| 捗 \| 酎 \| 剝 \| (剥) \| 脇 \| 哺 \| 釜 Eleven strokes 乾 \| 偏 \| 停 \| 健 \| 側 \| 偵 \| 偶 \| 偽 \| 副 \| 剰 \| 動 \| 勘 \| 務 \| 唯 \| 唱 \| 商 \| 問 \| 啓 \| 喝 \| 圏 \| 域 \| 執 \| 培 \| 基 \| 堀 \| 堂 \| 婆 \| 婚 \| 婦 \| 宿 \| 寂 \| 寄 \| 密 \| 尉 \| 崇 \| 崎 \| 崩 \| 巣 \| 帳 \| 常 \| 庶 \| 康 \| 庸 \| 張 \| 強 \| 彩 \| 彫 \| 得 \| 悠 \| 患 \| 悪 \| 悼 \| 情 \| 惜 \| 惨 \| 捨 \| 据 \| 掃 \| 授 \| 排 \| 掘 \| 掛 \| 採 \| 探 \| 接 \| 控 \| 推 \| 措 \| 掲 \| 描 \| 救 \| 敗 \| 教 \| 斎 \| 斜 \| 断 \| 旋 \| 族 \| 曹 \| 望 \| 械 \| 欲 \| 殻 \| 涯 \| 液 \| 涼 \| 淑 \| 淡 \| 深 \| 混 \| 添 \| 清 \| 渇 \| 済 \| 渉 \| 渋 \| 渓 \| 猛 \| 猟 \| 猫 \| 率 \| 現 \| 球 \| 理 \| 産 \| 略 \| 異 \| 盗 \| 盛 \| 眺 \| 眼 \| 票 \| 祭 \| 移 \| 窒 \| 窓 \| 章 \| 笛 \| 符 \| 第 \| 粒 \| 粗 \| 粘 \| 粛 \| 粧 \| 累 \| 細 \| 紳 \| 紹 \| 紺 \| 終 \| 組 \| 経 \| 翌 \| 習 \| 脚 \| 脱 \| 脳 \| 舶 \| 船 \| 菊 \| 菌 \| 菓 \| 菜 \| 著 \| 虚 \| 蛇 \| 蛍 \| 術 \| 街 \| 袋 \| 規 \| 視 \| 訟 \| 訪 \| 設 \| 許 \| 訳 \| 豚 \| 貧 \| 貨 \| 販 \| 責 \| 赦 \| 軟 \| 転 \| 逮 \| 週 \| 進 \| 逸 \| 部 \| 郭 \| 郵 \| 郷 \| 都 \| 酔 \| 釈 \| 野 \| 釣 \| 閉 \| 陪 \| 陰 \| 陳 \| 陵 \| 陶 \| 陸 \| 険 \| 隆 \| 雪 \| 頂 \| 魚 \| 鳥 \| 麻 \| 黄 \| 黒 \| 鹿 \| 梨 \| 亀 \| 淳 \| 猪 \| 笹 \| 渚 \| 爽 \| 陳 \| 淫 \| 葛 \| 崖 \| 苛 \| 惧 \| 痕 \| 頃 \| 梗 \| 舷 \| 斬 \| 埼 \| 戚 \| 羞 \| 袖 \| 曽 \| 堆 \| 唾 \| 貪 \| 捻 Twelve strokes 偉 \| 傍 \| 傘 \| 備 \| 割 \| 創 \| 勝 \| 募 \| 博 \| 善 \| 喚 \| 喜 \| 喪 \| 喫 \| 営 \| 堅 \| 堕 \| 堤 \| 堪 \| 報 \| 場 \| 塀 \| 塁 \| 塔 \| 塚 \| 奥 \| 婿 \| 媒 \| 富 \| 寒 \| 尊 \| 尋 \| 就 \| 属 \| 帽 \| 幅 \| 幾 \| 廃 \| 廊 \| 弾 \| 御 \| 復 \| 循 \| 悲 \| 惑 \| 惰 \| 愉 \| 慌 \| 扉 \| 掌 \| 提 \| 揚 \| 換 \| 握 \| 揮 \| 援 \| 揺 \| 搭 \| 敢 \| 散 \| 敬 \| 晩 \| 普 \| 景 \| 晴 \| 晶 \| 暁 \| 暑 \| 替 \| 最 \| 朝 \| 期 \| 棋 \| 棒 \| 棚 \| 棟 \| 森 \| 棺 \| 植 \| 検 \| 業 \| 極 \| 欺 \| 款 \| 歯 \| 殖 \| 減 \| 渡 \| 渦 \| 温 \| 測 \| 港 \| 湖 \| 湯 \| 湾 \| 湿 \| 満 \| 滋 \| 無 \| 焦 \| 然 \| 焼 \| 煮 \| 猶 \| 琴 \| 番 \| 畳 \| 疎 \| 痘 \| 痛 \| 痢 \| 登 \| 着 \| 短 \| 硝 \| 硫 \| 硬 \| 程 \| 税 \| 童 \| 筆 \| 等 \| 筋 \| 筒 \| 答 \| 策 \| 紫 \| 結 \| 絞 \| 絡 \| 給 \| 統 \| 絵 \| 絶 \| 腐 \| 腕 \| 落 \| 葉 \| 葬 \| 蛮 \| 衆 \| 裁 \| 裂 \| 装 \| 裕 \| 補 \| 覚 \| 訴 \| 診 \| 証 \| 詐 \| 詔 \| 評 \| 詞 \| 詠 \| 象 \| 貫 \| 貯 \| 貴 \| 買 \| 貸 \| 費 \| 貿 \| 賀 \| 超 \| 越 \| 距 \| 軸 \| 軽 \| 遂 \| 遅 \| 遇 \| 遊 \| 運 \| 遍 \| 過 \| 道 \| 達 \| 酢 \| 量 \| 鈍 \| 開 \| 閑 \| 間 \| 陽 \| 隅 \| 隊 \| 階 \| 随 \| 雄 \| 集 \| 雇 \| 雰 \| 雲 \| 項 \| 順 \| 飯 \| 飲 \| 智 \| 須 \| 萩 \| 敦 \| 媛 \| 嵐 \| 椎 \| 翔 \| 喬 \| 巽 \| 湧 \| 茨 \| 椅 \| 喉 \| 腎 \| 痩 \| 貼 \| 斑 \| 喩 \| 勤 Thirteen strokes 傑 \| 催 \| 債 \| 傷 \| 傾 \| 働 \| 僧 \| 勢 \| 勧 \| 嗣 \| 嘆 \| 園 \| 塊 \| 塑 \| 塗 \| 塩 \| 墓 \| 夢 \| 奨 \| 嫁 \| 嫌 \| 寛 \| 寝 \| 幕 \| 幹 \| 廉 \| 微 \| 想 \| 愁 \| 意 \| 愚 \| 愛 \| 感 \| 慈 \| 慎 \| 慨 \| 戦 \| 損 \| 搬 \| 携 \| 搾 \| 摂 \| 数 \| 新 \| 暇 \| 暖 \| 暗 \| 棄 \| 楼 \| 楽 \| 歳 \| 殿 \| 源 \| 準 \| 溝 \| 溶 \| 滅 \| 滑 \| 滝 \| 滞 \| 漠 \| 漢 \| 煙 \| 照 \| 煩 \| 献 \| 猿 \| 環 \| 痴 \| 盟 \| 睡 \| 督 \| 碁 \| 禁 \| 福 \| 稚 \| 節 \| 絹 \| 継 \| 続 \| 罪 \| 置 \| 署 \| 群 \| 義 \| 聖 \| 腰 \| 腸 \| 腹 \| 艇 \| 蒸 \| 蓄 \| 虜 \| 虞 \| 裏 \| 裸 \| 褐 \| 解 \| 触 \| 試 \| 詩 \| 詰 \| 話 \| 該 \| 詳 \| 誇 \| 誉 \| 誠 \| 豊 \| 賃 \| 賄 \| 資 \| 賊 \| 跡 \| 路 \| 跳 \| 践 \| 較 \| 載 \| 辞 \| 農 \| 違 \| 遠 \| 遣 \| 酪 \| 酬 \| 鈴 \| 鉄 \| 鉛 \| 鉢 \| 鉱 \| 隔 \| 雅 \| 零 \| 雷 \| 電 \| 靴 \| 預 \| 頑 \| 頒 \| 飼 \| 飽 \| 飾 \| 鼓 \| 睦 \| 彙 \| 詣 \| 窟 \| 僅 \| 嗅 \| 傲 \| 隙 \| 腫 \| 嫉 \| 塞 \| 詮 \| 煎 \| 羨 \| 頓 \| 塡 \| (填) \| 溺 \| 蜂 \| 慄 \| 楷 \| 賂 \| 毀 Fourteen strokes 像 \| 僕 \| 僚 \| 嘱 \| 塾 \| 境 \| 増 \| 墨 \| 奪 \| 嫡 \| 察 \| 寨 \| 寡 \| 寧 \| 層 \| 彰 \| 徳 \| 徴 \| 態 \| 慕 \| 慢 \| 憎 \| 摘 \| 旗 \| 暦 \| 暮 \| 概 \| 構 \| 様 \| 模 \| 歌 \| 歴 \| 滴 \| 漁 \| 漂 \| 漆 \| 漏 \| 演 \| 漫 \| 漬 \| 漸 \| 獄 \| 疑 \| 碑 \| 磁 \| 禅 \| 禍 \| 種 \| 稲 \| 穀 \| 端 \| 箇 \| 算 \| 管 \| 精 \| 維 \| 綱 \| 網 \| 綿 \| 総 \| 緑 \| 緒 \| 練 \| 罰 \| 聞 \| 膜 \| 製 \| 複 \| 誌 \| 認 \| 誓 \| 誘 \| 語 \| 誤 \| 説 \| 読 \| 豪 \| 踊 \| 適 \| 遭 \| 遮 \| 酵 \| 酷 \| 酸 \| 銀 \| 銃 \| 銅 \| 銘 \| 銭 \| 関 \| 閣 \| 閥 \| 際 \| 障 \| 隠 \| 雌 \| 雑 \| 需 \| 静 \| 領 \| 駄 \| 駅 \| 駆 \| 髪 \| 魂 \| 鳴 \| 鼻 \| 熊 \| 聡 \| 槙 \| 漱 \| 瑠 \| 璃 \| 萎 \| 裾 \| 遜 \| 遡 \| 箋 \| 綻 \| 蜜 \| 貌 \| 辣 \| 瘍 Fifteen strokes 儀 \| 億 \| 劇 \| 勲 \| 器 \| 噴 \| 墜 \| 墳 \| 審 \| 寮 \| 導 \| 履 \| 幣 \| 弊 \| 影 \| 徹 \| 慣 \| 慮 \| 慰 \| 慶 \| 憂 \| 憤 \| 戯 \| 摩 \| 撃 \| 撤 \| 撮 \| 撲 \| 敵 \| 敷 \| 暫 \| 暴 \| 槽 \| 標 \| 権 \| 横 \| 歓 \| 潔 \| 潜 \| 潟 \| 潤 \| 潮 \| 澄 \| 熟 \| 熱 \| 監 \| 盤 \| 確 \| 稼 \| 稿 \| 穂 \| 窮 \| 窯 \| 箱 \| 範 \| 緊 \| 線 \| 締 \| 編 \| 緩 \| 縁 \| 縄 \| 罷 \| 膚 \| 舗 \| 舞 \| 蔵 \| 衝 \| 褒 \| 誕 \| 課 \| 調 \| 談 \| 請 \| 論 \| 諸 \| 諾 \| 謁 \| 賓 \| 賛 \| 賜 \| 賞 \| 賠 \| 賦 \| 質 \| 趣 \| 踏 \| 輝 \| 輩 \| 輪 \| 遵 \| 遷 \| 選 \| 遺 \| 鋭 \| 鋳 \| 閲 \| 震 \| 霊 \| 養 \| 餓 \| 駐 \| 魅 \| 黙 \| 駒 \| 憧 \| 嬉 \| 潰 \| 稽 \| 憬 \| 畿 \| 餌 \| 摯 \| 踪 \| 嘲 \| 緻 \| 誰 \| 膝 \| 箸 \| 罵 \| 蝟 Sixteen strokes 儒 \| 凝 \| 墾 \| 壁 \| 壇 \| 壊 \| 壌 \| 奮 \| 嬢 \| 憩 \| 憲 \| 憶 \| 憾 \| 懐 \| 擁 \| 操 \| 整 \| 曇 \| 橋 \| 機 \| 激 \| 濁 \| 濃 \| 燃 \| 獣 \| 獲 \| 磨 \| 積 \| 穏 \| 築 \| 樹 \| 篤 \| 糖 \| 緯 \| 縛 \| 縦 \| 縫 \| 繁 \| 膨 \| 興 \| 薄 \| 薦 \| 薪 \| 薫 \| 薬 \| 融 \| 衛 \| 衡 \| 親 \| 諭 \| 諮 \| 謀 \| 謡 \| 賢 \| 輸 \| 避 \| 還 \| 鋼 \| 錠 \| 錬 \| 錯 \| 録 \| 隣 \| 隷 \| 頭 \| 頼 \| 館 \| 龍 \| 錦 \| 骸 \| 蓋 \| 諧 \| 醒 \| 膳 \| 賭 \| 諦 \| 麺 \| 頰 \| (頬) \| 錮 Seventeen strokes 償 \| 優 \| 厳 \| 嚇 \| 懇 \| 懲 \| 擦 \| 擬 \| 濯 \| 燥 \| 爵 \| 犠 \| 療 \| 矯 \| 礁 \| 縮 \| 績 \| 繊 \| 翼 \| 聴 \| 覧 \| 謄 \| 謙 \| 講 \| 謝 \| 謹 \| 購 \| 轄 \| 醜 \| 鍛 \| 霜 \| 頻 \| 鮮 \| 磯 \| 瞳 \| 瞭 \| 曖 \| 韓 \| 臆 \| 鍵 \| 鍋 \| 謎 \| 闇 \| 蔑 \| 璧 \| 餅 Eighteen strokes 曜 \| 濫 \| 癒 \| 癖 \| 瞬 \| 礎 \| 穫 \| 簡 \| 糧 \| 織 \| 繕 \| 繭 \| 翻 \| 職 \| 臨 \| 藩 \| 襟 \| 覆 \| 覇 \| 観 \| 贈 \| 鎖 \| 鎮 \| 闘 \| 離 \| 難 \| 題 \| 額 \| 顔 \| 顕 \| 類 \| 騎 \| 騒 \| 験 \| 蔽 \| 藤 \| 鎌 \| 藍 \| 鯉 \| 顎 \| 戴 Nineteen strokes 瀬 \| 爆 \| 璽 \| 簿 \| 繰 \| 羅 \| 臓 \| 藻 \| 識 \| 譜 \| 警 \| 鏡 \| 霧 \| 韻 \| 願 \| 髄 \| 鯨 \| 鶏 \| 麗 \| 艶 \| 蹴 \| 麓 Twenty strokes 懸 \| 欄 \| 競 \| 籍 \| 議 \| 譲 \| 醸 \| 鐘 \| 響 \| 騰 Twenty-one strokes 艦 \| 護 \| 躍 \| 露 \| 顧 \| 魔 \| 鶴 \| 櫻 Twenty-two strokes 襲 \| 驚 \| 籠 \| 攣 \| 龕 Twenty-three strokes 鑑 \| 靨 Twenty-four strokes 鷹 \| 魘 Twenty-nine strokes 鬱 Thirty strokes 驫 \| 鸞 Thirty-three strokes 麤 Thirty-four strokes 䯂 See also List of kanji by school year List of kanji by concept List of jōyō kanji Stroke count Japanese writing system	[ -0.674712061882019, 0.36229395866394043, -0.256608784198761, -0.31616705656051636, -0.8767337203025818, 0.6148453950881958, 0.38922980427742004, -0.14797034859657288, -0.3169427216053009, -0.5947251319885254, 0.04499764367938042, 0.07291439920663834, 0.0031883965712040663, 0.06181414797902107, 0.04196196421980858, 0.2071898877620697, 0.48978710174560547, 0.4838583767414093, 0.16828548908233643, -0.24333985149860382, 0.16854549944400787, 0.1841045618057251, 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221234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kanji%20by%20concept	List of kanji by concept	This Kanji index method groups together kanji that describe things that deal with the same concept, for example kanji for numbers or kanji for directions. Kanji with multiple meanings may appear more than once. Listed in alphabetical order. Physical Attributes and Properties Colours (色) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Form and Shape (形) Miscellaneous properties ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Directions (方) and Spatial Relationships ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Movement ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Numbers (数) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Calculations (算) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Counters (個) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Counting (計) & Sequence (序) ; ; ; ; . ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Units of Measurement (測) Units of Area: ; . Units of Length: ; ; ; . Units of Volume: ; ; ; . Units of Weight: Time (時) Days of the Week (曜) Divisions of the Day ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Divisions of the Year Seasons (季 / 候) Nature Sky ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Natural Substances Gas (气) ; ; ; . Liquid (液) ; ; ; . Solid (固) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Weather ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Other Natural Phenomena ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Land (陸) and Topography ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Coastal Geography: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Limnology: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Animals (獣) See also Food and Drink Amphibians ; . Birds (鳥) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Fish (魚); et al. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Insects (虫/昆); et al. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Mammals ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Reptiles (蜥蜴) ; ; ; . Parts of Animals ; ; ; ; ; ; . Plants (植) and Trees (樹) See also Food and Drink ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Bacteria and Fungi (菌) ; ; . Parts of Plants ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . People (人) General Male (雄) Female (雌) Roles and status Family (家 / 族) Groups (団) Body (身) General Head (頭) and Neck (首) Torso and organs Limbs (肢) Bodily Functions Health (体) Actions Emotions and Senses (感) Emotions (情) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Senses ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Judgment (評) ; ; ; ; . Food (食) and Drink (飲) See also Animals and Plants ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Cooking (炊) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Artificial Structures and Products Cities (市) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Buildings (房) and Structures ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Roads (路) ; ; ; ; ; . Vehicles (車) and Machines (機) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Clothing (服) and Textiles (布) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Miscellaneous Manufactured Items ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Human activities Culture Language (語) and Communication Money (銭) and Commerce (商) Religion (宗) and the Supernatural World ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . Signs of the Zodiac The four trines of the Chinese-Japanese horoscope: A. 01. 鼠 (子) Rat - 05. 龍 (辰) Dragon - 09. 猴 (申) Monkey; B. 02. 牛 (丑) Ox - 06. 蛇 (巳) Snake - 10. 雞 / 鷄 (酉) Rooster; C. 03. 虎 (寅) Tiger - 07. 馬 (午) Horse - 11. 狗 (戌) Dog; D. 04. 兔 (卯) Rabbit - 08. 羊 (未) Goat - 12. 豬 (亥) China: Pig Japan: Boar Note that in Japan the new sign of zodiac starts on January 1, while in China it starts, according to the traditional Chinese lunar calendar, at the new moon that falls between January 21 and February 20, so that persons born in January or February may have two different signs in the two countries. 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221237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Bank%20and%20Gaza%20Strip	West Bank and Gaza Strip	West Bank and Gaza Strip may refer to: West Bank and Gaza Strip, two areas in the middle east Palestinian territories, generally A,B and C areas within West Bank and Gaza Strip under control of the Palestinian Authority State of Palestine, a partially recognized de jure sovereign UN observer state, de facto occupied by Israel West Bank Areas in the Oslo II Accord Yesha See also Palestinian National Authority Israeli Civil Administration Israeli Military Governorate Status of territories occupied by Israel in 1967 Israeli-occupied territories Palestine (disambiguation) Judea and Samaria Area, a term used by Israeli authorities to refer to Area C of the West Bank	[ 0.2649460732936859, -0.22582359611988068, -0.3881564140319824, -0.27297237515449524, 0.2775722146034241, -0.06931622326374054, -0.885250985622406, 0.2866595983505249, 0.08645210415124893, -0.7080572843551636, -1.0571110248565674, 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221241	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naji%20Shawkat	Naji Shawkat	Muhammad Naji Shawkat Bey () (May 26, 1891 – May 11, 1980) was an Iraqi politician who served as the prime minister of Iraq under King Faisal I. Early life Muhammad Naji Shawkat was born to an Arabized family of Georgian origins in the Iraqi town of al-Kut where his father was stationed as provincial governor. He had three brothers: Saaib, Sami and Rifat and a sister. Concurrent with Naji's conclusion of his school education in Baghdad, his father was elected to the Ottoman parliament of 1909, thereby providing him with the opportunity to join the Ottoman Law School in Istanbul. Military service Naji Shawkat was the assistant general prosecutor in the Iraqi city of al-Hila when World War I broke out, upon which he interrupted his legal career and joined the Ottoman army as a reserve officer. After two years of involvement in the Ottoman military defense of Iraq, Shawkat was captured by the advancing British troops in March 1917. He was subsequently taken to a British Indian prison camp where he, like many other detained Arab officers, was offered the choice of joining the Arab Revolt, an offer he promptly accepted. Political career Naji Shawkat Ministry The Ministry of Nagy Shawkat consisted of the following ministers: Finance Minister, Nusrat Al-Farsi Minister of Justice, Jamil Al-Wadi Minister of Economy and Communications, Jalal Baban Minister of Defense, Rashid Al-Khoja Foreign Minister, Abdul Qadir Rashid Minister of Education, Abbas Mahdi Prime Minister of Iraq In 1932, Shawkat was called on by Faisal to head a non-partisan government that was intended to clear the political congestion which accompanied the signing of the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Faced with strong opposition from within the Iraqi political establishment and the anti-treaty campaign, Shawkat's government lasted only five months. Thereafter, he was appointed as representative of Iraq in Ankara where he cultivated strong relations with the Turkish ruling circles and developed a sense of admiration for modern Turkey. References External links 1893 births 1980 deaths Naji Shawkat Arabs of the Ottoman Empire Prime Ministers of Iraq Ambassadors of Iraq to Turkey Justice ministers of Iraq Istanbul University Faculty of Law alumni	[ -0.35249072313308716, 0.7567883133888245, -0.6498555541038513, -0.02105393446981907, -0.612136721611023, 0.6256096959114075, 0.26340898871421814, -0.14276142418384552, 0.05861299857497215, -0.2849631607532501, 0.021317636594176292, 0.15255896747112274, -0.7149677276611328, 0.5592618584632874, 0.08037698268890381, 0.3666532039642334, -0.12113300710916519, -0.17681807279586792, -0.6962034702301025, 0.41079241037368774, 0.07621929049491882, 0.026945803314447403, 0.13204412162303925, -0.15035299956798553, 0.5072507858276367, 0.278543621301651, 0.6794611811637878, 0.187737375497818, -0.0656055361032486, -0.10479410737752914, 0.05747385323047638, 0.07278843969106674, 0.14384685456752777, -0.46796804666519165, -0.661325991153717, 0.2052059918642044, 0.06457255780696869, 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221244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman%E2%80%93Ford%20algorithm	Bellman–Ford algorithm	The Bellman–Ford algorithm is an algorithm that computes shortest paths from a single source vertex to all of the other vertices in a weighted digraph. It is slower than Dijkstra's algorithm for the same problem, but more versatile, as it is capable of handling graphs in which some of the edge weights are negative numbers. The algorithm was first proposed by , but is instead named after Richard Bellman and Lester Ford Jr., who published it in 1958 and 1956, respectively. Edward F. Moore also published a variation of the algorithm in 1959, and for this reason it is also sometimes called the Bellman–Ford–Moore algorithm. Negative edge weights are found in various applications of graphs, hence the usefulness of this algorithm. If a graph contains a "negative cycle" (i.e. a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value) that is reachable from the source, then there is no cheapest path: any path that has a point on the negative cycle can be made cheaper by one more walk around the negative cycle. In such a case, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can detect and report the negative cycle. Algorithm Like Dijkstra's algorithm, Bellman–Ford proceeds by relaxation, in which approximations to the correct distance are replaced by better ones until they eventually reach the solution. In both algorithms, the approximate distance to each vertex is always an overestimate of the true distance, and is replaced by the minimum of its old value and the length of a newly found path. However, Dijkstra's algorithm uses a priority queue to greedily select the closest vertex that has not yet been processed, and performs this relaxation process on all of its outgoing edges; by contrast, the Bellman–Ford algorithm simply relaxes all the edges, and does this times, where is the number of vertices in the graph. In each of these repetitions, the number of vertices with correctly calculated distances grows, from which it follows that eventually all vertices will have their correct distances. This method allows the Bellman–Ford algorithm to be applied to a wider class of inputs than Dijkstra. The intermediate answers depend on the order of edges relaxed, but the final answer remains the same. Bellman–Ford runs in time, where and are the number of vertices and edges respectively. function BellmanFord(list vertices, list edges, vertex source) is // This implementation takes in a graph, represented as // lists of vertices (represented as integers [0..n-1]) and edges, // and fills two arrays (distance and predecessor) holding // the shortest path from the source to each vertex distance := list of size n predecessor := list of size n // Step 1: initialize graph for each vertex v in vertices do distance[v] := inf // Initialize the distance to all vertices to infinity predecessor[v] := null // And having a null predecessor distance[source] := 0 // The distance from the source to itself is, of course, zero // Step 2: relax edges repeatedly repeat \|V\|−1 times: for each edge (u, v) with weight w in edges do if distance[u] + w < distance[v] then distance[v] := distance[u] + w predecessor[v] := u // Step 3: check for negative-weight cycles for each edge (u, v) with weight w in edges do if distance[u] + w < distance[v] then error "Graph contains a negative-weight cycle" return distance, predecessor Simply put, the algorithm initializes the distance to the source to 0 and all other nodes to infinity. Then for all edges, if the distance to the destination can be shortened by taking the edge, the distance is updated to the new lower value. At each iteration that the edges are scanned, the algorithm finds all shortest paths of at most length edges (and possibly some paths longer than edges). Since the longest possible path without a cycle can be edges, the edges must be scanned times to ensure the shortest path has been found for all nodes. A final scan of all the edges is performed and if any distance is updated, then a path of length edges has been found which can only occur if at least one negative cycle exists in the graph. Proof of correctness The correctness of the algorithm can be shown by induction: Lemma. After i repetitions of for loop, if Distance(u) is not infinity, it is equal to the length of some path from s to u; and if there is a path from s to u with at most i edges, then Distance(u) is at most the length of the shortest path from s to u with at most i edges. Proof. For the base case of induction, consider i=0 and the moment before for loop is executed for the first time. Then, for the source vertex, source.distance = 0, which is correct. For other vertices u, u.distance = infinity, which is also correct because there is no path from source to u with 0 edges. For the inductive case, we first prove the first part. Consider a moment when a vertex's distance is updated by v.distance := u.distance + uv.weight. By inductive assumption, u.distance is the length of some path from source to u. Then u.distance + uv.weight is the length of the path from source to v that follows the path from source to u and then goes to v. For the second part, consider a shortest path P (there may be more than one) from source to v with at most i edges. Let u be the last vertex before v on this path. Then, the part of the path from source to u is a shortest path from source to u with at most i-1 edges, since if it were not, then there must be some strictly shorter path from source to u with at most i-1 edges, and we could then append the edge uv to this path to obtain a path with at most i edges that is strictly shorter than P—a contradiction. By inductive assumption, u.distance after i−1 iterations is at most the length of this path from source to u. Therefore, uv.weight + u.distance is at most the length of P. In the ith iteration, v.distance gets compared with uv.weight + u.distance, and is set equal to it if uv.weight + u.distance is smaller. Therefore, after i iterations, v.distance is at most the length of P, i.e., the length of the shortest path from source to v that uses at most i edges. If there are no negative-weight cycles, then every shortest path visits each vertex at most once, so at step 3 no further improvements can be made. Conversely, suppose no improvement can be made. Then for any cycle with vertices v[0], ..., v[k−1], v[i].distance <= v[i-1 (mod k)].distance + v[i-1 (mod k)]v[i].weight Summing around the cycle, the v[i].distance and v[i−1 (mod k)].distance terms cancel, leaving 0 <= sum from 1 to k of v[i-1 (mod k)]v[i].weight I.e., every cycle has nonnegative weight. Finding negative cycles When the algorithm is used to find shortest paths, the existence of negative cycles is a problem, preventing the algorithm from finding a correct answer. However, since it terminates upon finding a negative cycle, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can be used for applications in which this is the target to be sought – for example in cycle-cancelling techniques in network flow analysis. Applications in routing A distributed variant of the Bellman–Ford algorithm is used in distance-vector routing protocols, for example the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). The algorithm is distributed because it involves a number of nodes (routers) within an Autonomous system (AS), a collection of IP networks typically owned by an ISP. It consists of the following steps: Each node calculates the distances between itself and all other nodes within the AS and stores this information as a table. Each node sends its table to all neighboring nodes. When a node receives distance tables from its neighbors, it calculates the shortest routes to all other nodes and updates its own table to reflect any changes. The main disadvantages of the Bellman–Ford algorithm in this setting are as follows: It does not scale well. Changes in network topology are not reflected quickly since updates are spread node-by-node. Count to infinity if link or node failures render a node unreachable from some set of other nodes, those nodes may spend forever gradually increasing their estimates of the distance to it, and in the meantime there may be routing loops. Improvements The Bellman–Ford algorithm may be improved in practice (although not in the worst case) by the observation that, if an iteration of the main loop of the algorithm terminates without making any changes, the algorithm can be immediately terminated, as subsequent iterations will not make any more changes. With this early termination condition, the main loop may in some cases use many fewer than iterations, even though the worst case of the algorithm remains unchanged. The following improvements all maintain the worst-case time complexity. A variation of the Bellman-Ford algorithm known as Shortest Path Faster Algorithm, first described by , reduces the number of relaxation steps that need to be performed within each iteration of the algorithm. If a vertex v has a distance value that has not changed since the last time the edges out of v were relaxed, then there is no need to relax the edges out of v a second time. In this way, as the number of vertices with correct distance values grows, the number whose outgoing edges that need to be relaxed in each iteration shrinks, leading to a constant-factor savings in time for dense graphs. described another improvement to the Bellman–Ford algorithm. His improvement first assigns some arbitrary linear order on all vertices and then partitions the set of all edges into two subsets. The first subset, Ef, contains all edges (vi, vj) such that i < j; the second, Eb, contains edges (vi, vj) such that i > j. Each vertex is visited in the order v1, v2, ..., v\|V\|, relaxing each outgoing edge from that vertex in Ef. Each vertex is then visited in the order v\|V\|, v\|V\|−1, ..., v1, relaxing each outgoing edge from that vertex in Eb. Each iteration of the main loop of the algorithm, after the first one, adds at least two edges to the set of edges whose relaxed distances match the correct shortest path distances: one from Ef and one from Eb. This modification reduces the worst-case number of iterations of the main loop of the algorithm from to . Another improvement, by , replaces the arbitrary linear order of the vertices used in Yen's second improvement by a random permutation. This change makes the worst case for Yen's improvement (in which the edges of a shortest path strictly alternate between the two subsets Ef and Eb'') very unlikely to happen. With a randomly permuted vertex ordering, the expected number of iterations needed in the main loop is at most . Notes References Original sources Secondary sources , Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. . Section 24.1: The Bellman–Ford algorithm, pp. 588–592. Problem 24-1, pp. 614–615. Third Edition. MIT Press, 2009. . Section 24.1: The Bellman–Ford algorithm, pp. 651–655. 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221250	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions%20of%20Italy	Regions of Italy	The regions of Italy () are the first-level constituent entities of the Italian Republic, constituting its second NUTS administrative level. There are twenty regions, five of which have larger autonomy than the rest. Under the Italian Constitution, each region is an autonomous entity with defined powers. With the exception of the Aosta Valley (since 1945) and Friuli Venezia Giulia (since 2018), each region is divided into a number of provinces. History During the Kingdom of Italy, regions were mere statistical districts of the central state. Under the Republic, they were granted a measure of political autonomy by the 1948 Italian Constitution. The original draft list comprised the Salento region (which was eventually included in the Apulia). Friuli and Venezia Giulia were separate regions, and Basilicata was named Lucania. Abruzzo and Molise were identified as separate regions in the first draft. They were later merged into Abruzzi e Molise in the final constitution of 1948. They were separated in 1963. Implementation of regional autonomy was postponed until the first Regional elections of 1970. The ruling Christian Democracy party did not want the opposition Italian Communist Party to gain power in the regions where it was historically rooted (the red belt of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria and the Marches). Regions acquired a significant level of autonomy following a constitutional reform in 2001 (brought about by a centre-left government and confirmed by popular referendum), which granted them residual policy competence. A further federalist reform was proposed by the regionalist party Lega Nord and in 2005, the centre-right government led by Silvio Berlusconi proposed a new reform that would have greatly increased the power of regions. The proposals, which had been particularly associated with Lega Nord, and seen by some as leading the way to a federal state, were rejected in the 2006 Italian constitutional referendum by 61.7% to 38.3%. The results varied considerably among the regions, ranging from 55.3% in favor in Veneto to 82% against in Calabria. Political control Number of regions governed by each coalition since 1995: Regions Macroregions Macroregions are the first-level NUTS of the European Union.(it) Status Every region has a statute that serves as a regional constitution, determining the form of government and the fundamental principles of the organization and the functioning of the region, as prescribed by the Constitution of Italy (Article 123). Although all the regions except Tuscany define themselves in various ways as an "autonomous Region" in the first article of their Statutes, fifteen regions have ordinary statutes and five have special statutes, granting them extended autonomy. Regions with ordinary statute These regions, whose statutes are approved by their regional councils, were created in 1970, even though the Italian Constitution dates back to 1948. Since the constitutional reform of 2001 they have had residual legislative powers. The regions have exclusive legislative power with respect to any matters not expressly reserved to state law (Article 117). Yet their financial autonomy is quite modest: they keep just 20% of all levied taxes, mostly used to finance the region-based healthcare system. Autonomous regions with special statute Article 116 of the Italian Constitution grants home rule to five regions, namely Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Aosta Valley and Friuli Venezia Giulia, allowing them some legislative, administrative and financial power to a varying extent, depending on their specific statute. These regions became autonomous in order to take into account cultural differences and protect linguistic minorities. Moreover, the government wanted to prevent their secession from Italy after the Second World War. Institutions Each region has an elected parliament, called Consiglio Regionale (regional council), or Assemblea Regionale (regional assembly) in Sicily, and a government called Giunta Regionale (regional committee), headed by a governor called Presidente della Giunta Regionale (president of the regional committee) or Presidente della Regione (regional president). The latter is directly elected by the citizens of each region, with the exceptions of Aosta Valley and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol regions where the president is chosen by the regional council. Under the 1995 electoral law, the winning coalition receives an absolute majority of seats on the council. The president chairs the giunta, and nominates or dismisses its members, called assessori. If the directly elected president resigns, new elections are called immediately. In the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region, the regional council is made up of the joint session of the two provincial councils of Trentino and of South Tyrol. The regional president is one of the two provincial commissioners. Representation in the Senate Article 57 of the Constitution of Italy establishes that the Senate of the Italian Republic is elected on a regional basis (excluding 6 senators elected by Italians residing abroad and a small number of senators for life) by Italian citizens aged 25 or older. The 309 senators are assigned to each region proportionally according to their population. However, Article 57 of the Constitution provides that no region can have fewer than seven senators representing it, except for the Aosta Valley (which has one) and Molise (which has two). Economy of regions and macroregions See also Italian NUTS level 1 regions Regional Council (Italy) Presidents of Regions of Italy List of Italian regions by GDP List of Italian regions by GRP per capita List of Italian regions by Human Development Index Flags of regions of Italy ISO 3166-2:IT Other administrative divisions Provinces of Italy Municipalities of Italy References External links CityMayors article Regional Governments of Italy on Italia.gov.it Regional Governments of Italy on Governo.it Subdivisions of Italy Ranked lists of country subdivisions Regions Italy 1 Regions, Italy	[ 0.4701032340526581, -0.5489471554756165, 0.6279299855232239, 0.21169482171535492, 0.2114587426185608, -0.07744034379720688, -0.2636182904243469, 0.9464176297187805, -0.622734785079956, -0.7521524429321289, -0.5590807199478149, 0.5169607996940613, 0.06989855319261551, 0.3010392189025879, -0.39962106943130493, 0.7162022590637207, 0.5941423177719116, 0.11247988045215607, 0.44773006439208984, 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221251	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20and%20South%20Seas%20Exhibition	New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition	New Zealand and South Seas Exhibitions may refer to: New Zealand Exhibition (1865), Dunedin New Zealand Industrial Exhibition (1885), Wellington New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition (1889), Dunedin International Exhibition (1906), Christchurch New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition (1925), Dunedin New Zealand Centennial Exhibition (1939–1940), Wellington	[ 0.1481141895055771, -0.411649227142334, -0.01280205324292183, -0.07554435729980469, -0.23606237769126892, 0.44200459122657776, 0.18272662162780762, 0.31862685084342957, -1.1963255405426025, -0.1729779839515686, -0.09553468227386475, -0.18112245202064514, 0.17146208882331848, 0.9977191090583801, 0.10352249443531036, 0.5321418046951294, 0.30742180347442627, -0.2002943456172943, -0.43675777316093445, 0.11464244872331619, -0.08668418228626251, -0.32345038652420044, 0.4616668224334717, 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221252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract%20of%20sale	Contract of sale	A contract of sale, sales contract, sales order, or contract for sale is a legal contract for the purchase of assets (goods or property) by a buyer (or purchaser) from a seller (or vendor) for an agreed upon value in money (or money equivalent). An obvious ancient practice of exchange, in many common law jurisdictions, it is now governed by statutory law. See commercial law. Contracts of sale involving goods are governed by Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code in most jurisdictions in the United States and Canada. However in Quebec, such contracts are governed by the Civil Code of Quebec as a nominate contract in the book on the law of obligations. In some Muslim countries it is governed by sharia (Islamic law); however, many Muslim countries apply other law to contacts (e.g. the Egyptian Civil Code, based on the Napoleonic Code, which beyond its application in Egypt serves as the model for the civil codes of several other Arab states). A contract of sale lays out the terms of a transaction of goods or services, identifying the goods sold, listing delivery instructions, inspection period, any warranties and details of payment. See also Contract for future sale Denmark Danish Sale of Goods Act United Kingdom Sale of Goods Act 1893 Sale of Goods Act 1979 Consumer Rights Act 2015 Bill of sale Part exchange Tendering References Contract law Sales	[ 0.05914241448044777, -0.11591274291276932, 0.11125148087739944, -0.0748136043548584, 0.3915489614009857, 0.237498477101326, -0.2210698425769806, -0.01045629195868969, -0.11630597710609436, -0.5987420678138733, -0.6675449013710022, 0.9384295344352722, 0.22801660001277924, 0.49781540036201477, -0.1853208690881729, 0.20383231341838837, 0.2706558108329773, 0.18371659517288208, 0.19826996326446533, -0.2234543114900589, -0.747406542301178, 0.02953307516872883, 0.02661815471947193, -0.7526941895484924, 0.5007227659225464, -0.18359728157520294, 0.18992657959461212, 0.22757896780967712, -0.687166154384613, -0.03701578080654144, 0.349161833524704, 0.0043938118033111095, 0.10050291568040848, -0.08945297449827194, -0.184475377202034, 0.1522456854581833, -0.07206929475069046, 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221254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoppel	Estoppel	Estoppel is a judicial device in common law legal systems whereby a court may prevent or "estop" a person from making assertions or from going back on his or her word; the person being sanctioned is "estopped". Estoppel may prevent someone from bringing a particular claim. Legal doctrines of estoppel are based in both common law and equity. It is also a concept in international law. Types of estoppel There are many different types of estoppel which can arise, but the common thread between them is that a person is restrained from asserting a particular position in law where it would be inequitable to do so. By way of illustration: If a landlord promises the tenant that he will not exercise his right to terminate a lease, and relying upon that promise the tenant spends money improving the premises, the doctrine of promissory estoppel may prevent the landlord from exercising a right to terminate, even though his promise might not otherwise have been legally binding as a contract. The landlord is precluded from asserting a specific right. If a person brings legal proceedings in one country claiming that a second person negligently injured them and the courts of that country determine that there was no negligence, then under the doctrine of issue estoppel the first person will not normally be able to argue before the courts of another country that the second person was negligent (whether in respect of the same claim or a related claim). The first person is precluded from asserting a specific claim. Estoppel is an equitable doctrine. Accordingly, any person wishing to assert an estoppel must normally come to the court with "clean hands". The doctrine of estoppel (which may prevent a party from asserting a right) is often confused with the doctrine of waiver (which relates to relinquishing a right once it has arisen). It also substantially overlaps with, but is distinct from, the equitable doctrine of laches. Etymology and usage The verb is estop, which comes from Middle English estoppen, itself borrowed from Old French estop(p)er, estouper, presumably from Vulgar Latin *stuppāre. 'to stop up with tow, caulk', from Latin stuppa, 'broken flax', from Ancient Greek stuppe, 'broken flax'. The noun form estoppel is based on the Old French estoupail, 'stopper, bung', a derivative of estouper. Where a court finds that a party has done something warranting a form of estoppel, that party is said to be estopped from making certain related arguments or claiming certain related rights. The defendant is estopped from presenting the related defense, or the plaintiff is estopped from making the related argument against the defendant. Lord Coke stated, "It is called an estoppel or conclusion, because a man's own act or acceptance stoppeth or closeth up his mouth to allege or plead the truth." Overview Estoppel is sometimes said to be a rule of evidence whereby a person is barred from leading evidence of a fact that has already been settled or they are otherwise precluded from asserting, but that may be an oversimplification. Firstly, although some estoppels relate to preventing a party from asserting facts, others relate to preventing a party from asserting a right or a claim. Secondly, under the conflict of laws in common law jurisdictions, matters of evidence are usually treated as procedural matters for the law of the local court (the lex fori), whereas it is generally accepted that an estoppel may affect substantive rights and are therefore matters to be determined by the proper law (or lex causae) that governs the particular issue. There are many different types of estoppel that can arise under common law legal systems. It has been judicially noted on more than one occasion that the link between them is often somewhat tenuous. Treitel on Contracts notes that "unconscionability...provides the link between them", but they nevertheless have "separate requirements and different terrains of application". The courts have long abandoned an attempt to create a single general underlying rationale or principle: The plea of estoppel is often closely connected with the plea of waiver, the object of both being to ensure bona fides in day-to-day transactions. It is also related to the doctrines of variation and election. It is applied in many areas of contract law, including insurance, banking, and employment. In English law, the concept of legitimate expectation in the realm of administrative law and judicial review is estoppel's counterpart in public law. Promissory estoppel is often applied where there is a promise or an agreement made without consideration. When used as a defense by a defendant it is sometimes called a "shield", and when used affirmatively by a plaintiff it is sometimes called a "sword". It is most commonly used as a shield, with some commentators stating that it can only be used as a shield, although this varies with jurisdictions. Examples Estoppel can be understood by considering examples such as the following: A city entered into a contract with another party. The contract stated that it had been reviewed by the city's counsel and that the contract was proper. Estoppel applied to estop the city from claiming the contract was invalid. A creditor unofficially informs a debtor that the creditor forgives the debt between them. Even if such forgiveness is not formally documented, the creditor may be estopped from changing its mind and seeking to collect the debt, because that change would be unfair. A landlord informs a tenant that rent has been reduced, for example, because there was construction or a lapse in utility services. If the tenant relies on this statement in choosing to remain in the premises, the landlord could be estopped from collecting the full rent. Types Some types of estoppel under English, Australian, and American laws are as follows: In civil cases Reliance-based estoppels: These involve one party relying on something the other party has done or said. The party who performed/spoke is the one who is estopped. This category is discussed below. Estoppel by record: This frequently arises as issue/cause of action estoppel or judicial estoppel where the orders or judgments made in previous legal proceedings prevent the parties from relitigating the same issues or causes of action. Estoppel by deed: Situations where rules of evidence prevent a litigant from denying the truth of what was said or done. Estoppel by silence or acquiescence: Estoppel that prevents a person from asserting something when he had the right and opportunity to do so earlier, and such silence put another person at a disadvantage. Laches: Estoppel after a litigant deliberately and avoidably delays an action so as to disadvantage an adversary. In American criminal cases Entrapment by estoppel: In American criminal law, although "ignorance of the law is no excuse" is a principle which generally holds for traditional (older common law) crimes, courts sometimes allow this excuse as a defense, when defendant can show they reasonably relied on an interpretation of the law by the public official(s) charged with enforcement or interpretation of that law, such as a regulatory official (even if that official's interpretation is later determined to be wrong). The defense is based on "fairness" principles in the Fifth Amendment. It generally involves determination of fact, not of law, except as to determination of whether the interpreting government official had the legal status asserted by the defense. Reliance-based estoppels Reliance-based estoppels (at English law) include: by representation of fact, where one person asserts the truth of a set of facts to another; promissory estoppel, where one person makes a promise to another, but there is no enforceable contract; and proprietary estoppel, where the parties are litigating the title to land. Both Halsbury's and Spencer Bower (see below) describe these three estoppels collectively as estoppels by representation. More simply, one party must say or do something and see the other party rely on what is said or done to change behavior. All reliance-based estoppels require the victimised party to show both inducement and detrimental reliance, i.e.: there must be evidence to show that the representor actually intended the victim to act on the representation or promise, or the victim must satisfy the court that it was reasonable for him or her to act on the relevant representation or promise, and what the victim did must either have been reasonable, or the victim did what the representor intended, and the victim would suffer a loss or detriment if the representor was allowed to deny what was said or done—detriment is measured at the time when the representor proposes to deny the representation or withdraw the promise, not at the time when either was made, and in all the circumstances, the behavior of the representor is such that it would be "unconscionable" to allow him or her to resile. Simply put, promissory estoppel has four necessary elements which the plaintiff must prove: there was a promise that was reasonably relied upon resulting legal detriment to the promisee justice requires enforcement of the promise Estoppel by representation of fact and promissory estoppel are mutually exclusive: the former is based on a representation of existing fact (or of mixed fact and law), while the latter is based on a promise not to enforce some pre-existing right (i.e. it expresses an intention as to the future). A promissory estoppel operates only between parties who, at the time of the representation, were in an existing relationship, while this is not a requirement for estoppel by representation of fact. The test for unconscionability in the English and Australian courts takes many factors into account, including the behavior, state of mind and circumstances of the parties. Generally, the following eight factors are determinative: how the promise/representation and reliance upon it were induced; the content of the promise/representation; the relative knowledge of the parties; the parties' relative interest in the relevant activities in reliance; the nature and context of the parties' relationship; the parties' relative strength of position; the history of the parties' relationship; and the steps, if any, taken by the promisor/representor to ensure he has not caused preventable harm. But in Cobbe v Yeoman's Row, Lord Scott of Foscote stated the following: England and Wales Estoppel by representation of fact In English law, estoppel by representation of fact is a term coined by Spencer Bower. This species of estoppel is also referred to as "common law estoppel by representation" in Halsbury's Laws of England, vol 16(2), 2003 reissue. Spencer Bower defines estoppel by representation of fact as follows: A second definition comes from Sean Wilken and Theresa Villiers: A representation can be made by words or conduct. Although the representation must be clear and unambiguous, a representation can be inferred from silence where there is a duty to speak or from negligence where a duty of care has arisen. Under English law, estoppel by representation of fact usually acts as a defence, though it may act in support of a cause of action or counterclaim. Equitable estoppel Under English and Australian legal systems, estoppels in equity include promissory and proprietary estoppels, described below. (Contrast with estoppel by representation, which is a claim (under the English system) at law.) Proprietary estoppel In English law, proprietary estoppel is distinct from promissory estoppel. Proprietary estoppel is not a concept in American law, but a similar result is often reached under the general doctrine of promissory estoppel. Traditionally, proprietary estoppel arose in relation to rights to use the land of the owner, and possibly in connection with disputed transfers of ownership. Although proprietary estoppel was only traditionally available in disputes affecting title to real property, it has now gained limited acceptance in other areas of law. Proprietary estoppel is closely related to the doctrine of constructive trust. Fry J summarized the five elements for proprietary estoppel as: the claimant made a mistake as to his legal rights (typically because the actual owner attempted to convey the property, but the transfer is invalid or ineffective for some reason); did some act of reliance; the defendant knows of the existence of a legal right which he (the defendant) possesses, and which is inconsistent with the right claimed by the claimant; knows of the claimant's mistaken belief; and encouraged the claimant in his act of reliance. Example: A father promised a house to his son who took possession and spent a large sum of money improving the property, but the father never actually transferred the house to the son. Upon the father's death, the son claimed to be the equitable owner. The court found the testamentary trustees (as representatives of the deceased father's estate) were estopped from denying the son's proprietary interest, and ordered them to convey the land to the son. Promissory estoppel The doctrine of promissory estoppel prevents one party from withdrawing a promise made to a second party if the latter has reasonably relied on that promise. A promise made without consideration is generally not enforceable. It is known as a bare or gratuitous promise. Thus, if a car salesman promises a potential buyer not to sell a certain car over the weekend, but does so, the promise cannot be enforced. But should the car salesman accept from the potential buyer even one penny in consideration for the promise, the promise will be enforceable in court by the potential buyer. Estoppel extends the court's purview even to cases where there is no consideration, though it is generally not a 'sword': not a basis on which to initiate a lawsuit. In English jurisprudence, the doctrine of promissory estoppel was first developed in Hughes v. Metropolitan Railway Co [1877] but was lost for some time until it was resurrected by Denning J in the controversial case of Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd. Promissory estoppel requires: an unequivocal promise by words or conduct evidence that there is a change in position of the promisee as a result of the promise (reliance but not necessarily to their detriment) inequity if the promisor were to go back on the promise In general, estoppel is "a shield not a sword"—it cannot be used as the basis of an action on its own. It also does not extinguish rights. In High Trees the plaintiff company was able to restore payment of full rent from early 1945, and could have restored the full rent at any time after the initial promise was made provided a suitable period of notice had been given. In this case, the estoppel was applied to a "negative promise", that is, one where a party promises not to enforce full rights. Estoppel is an equitable (as opposed to common law) construct and its application is therefore discretionary. In the case of D & C Builders v. Rees the courts refused to recognise a promise to accept a part payment of £300 on a debt of £482 on the basis that it was extracted by duress. In Combe v. Combe Denning elaborated on the equitable nature of estoppel by refusing to allow its use as a "sword" by an ex-wife to extract funds from the destitute husband. The general rule is that when one party agrees to accept a lesser sum in full payment of a debt, the debtor has given no consideration, and so the creditor is still entitled to claim the debt in its entirety. This is not the case if the debtor offers payment at an earlier date than was previously agreed, because the benefit to the creditor of receiving payment early can be thought of as consideration for the promise to waive the rest of the debt. This is the rule formulated in Pinnel's Case, and affirmed in Foakes v Beer. The decision of the Court of Appeal in Collier v P & MJ Wright (Holdings) Ltd suggests that the doctrine of promissory estoppel can now operate to mitigate the harshness of this common law rule. Moreover, Arden LJ held that allowing a creditor to renege on his promise to forebear seeking the balance of a debt in return for part payment would be, in and of itself, inequitable. Therefore, the only reliance that the promisee must demonstrate is the actual making of the part payment. This approach has been criticised as doing violence to the principle set down in Hughes and the extent to which the other members of the Court, namely Longmore LJ, agreed with it is uncertain. United States Equitable estoppel Equitable estoppel is the American counterpart to estoppel by representation. Its elements are summarized as: Facts misrepresented or concealed Knowledge of true facts Fraudulent intent Inducement and reliance Injury to complainant Clear, concise, unequivocal proof of actus (not by implication) For example, in Aspex Eyewear v. Clariti Eyewear, eyeglass frame maker Aspex sued competitor Clariti for patent infringement. Aspex waited three years, without responding to a request that it list the infringed patent claims, before asserting its patent in litigation. During this period, Clariti expanded its marketing and sales of the products. The Federal Circuit found that Aspex misled Clariti to believe it would not enforce its patent, and thus estopped Aspex from proceeding with the suit. Another example of equitable estoppel is the case of Sakharam Ganesh Pandit, an Indian emigrant and lawyer who was granted American citizenship in 1914 due to his designation as "white." Subsequently, Pandit bought property, was admitted to the California bar, married a white woman, and renounced his rights to property and inheritance in British India. Following the Supreme Court case United States v. Thind, which found that Indians were considered non-white, and in which Pandit represented the applicant, Bhagat Singh Thind, the US government moved to strip Pandit of his "illegally procured" citizenship. Pandit successfully challenged the denaturalization, arguing that under equitable estoppel, he would be unjustly harmed by losing his citizenship, as it would cause him to become stateless, lose his profession as a lawyer, and make his marriage illegal. In U.S. v. Pandit, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld Pandit's citizenship, ending denaturalization processes against him and other Indian-Americans. Promissory estoppel In many jurisdictions of the United States, promissory estoppel is an alternative to consideration as a basis for enforcing a promise. It is also sometimes called detrimental reliance. The American Law Institute in 1932 included the principle of estoppel into § 90 of the Restatement of Contracts, stating: However: Suppose that B goes to a store and sees a sign that the price of a radio is $10. B tells the shopkeeper that he will get the money and come back later that day to purchase it; there is no discussion of price. The shopkeeper says that when B returns, he will welcome B as a customer—unless he sells all three of his radios first. Hearing this, B goes and sells his watch for $10 (it was really worth $15, but since B wanted the money right away, he chose not to wait for the best price). When B returns, the sign says $11, and the owner tells B that he has raised the price. In equity, can you argue that the shopkeeper is estopped by conduct? B relied upon the implied representation that a radio would be sold for $10 when he returned with the money; B has sold his watch at a discount, to his detriment. (This element would be absent if B sold the watch at the market price.) But the shopkeeper did not guarantee to hold one of the radios against the possibility of B's return nor did they agree a fixed price. In some common-law jurisdictions, a promise by the shopkeeper to hold a specific radio would create a binding contract, even if B had to go for the money. A promise to pay the owner in the future is good consideration if it is made in exchange for a promise to sell a specific radio (one from three is probably sufficiently specific): one promise in exchange for a second promise creates equal value. So the shopkeeper's actual words and knowledge are critical to deciding whether either a contract or an estoppel arises. The drafters of the Second Restatement debated how to calculate the amount of damages flowing from a promissory estoppel, using the following example: A young man's uncle promises to give him $1,000 to buy a car. The young man buys a car for $500, but the uncle refuses to pay any money. Is the young man entitled to $1,000 (the amount promised), or merely $500 (the amount he actually lost)? The Restatement states that "The remedy granted for breach may be limited as justice requires."—leaving quantification to the discretion of the court. Other estoppels Pais Estoppel in pais (literally "by act of notoriety", or "solemn formal act") is the historical root of common law estoppel by representation and equitable estoppel. The terms Estoppel in pais and equitable estoppel are used interchangeably in American law. Convention Estoppel by convention in English law (also known as estoppel by agreement) occurs where two parties negotiate or operate a contract but make a mistake. If they share an assumption, belief, or understanding of the contract's interpretation or legal effect, then they are bound by it, if: They both knew the other had the same belief, and They both based their subsequent dealings on those beliefs. Estoppel by convention is most commonly invoked if one party wishes to rely on pre-contract negotiation as an aid to construction of the contract. It is debatable whether estoppel by convention is a separate estoppel doctrine, or merely a case of reliance-based estoppel (estoppel by representation would be its most frequent form), or of the rule of interpretation that, where words in a contract are ambiguous, one always interprets those words so as to give effect to the actual intentions of the parties even if that would not be the usual legal outcome (see Amalgamated Investment and Property Co. Ltd. v Texas Commerce International Bank Ltd [1982] QB 84). Acquiescence Estoppel by acquiescence may arise when one person gives a legal warning to another based on some clearly asserted facts or legal principle, and the other does not respond within "a reasonable period of time". By acquiescing, the other person is generally considered to have lost the legal right to assert the contrary. As an example, suppose that Jill has been storing her car on Jack's land with no contract between them. Jack sends a registered letter to Jill's legal address, stating: "I am no longer willing to allow your car to stay here for free. Please come get your car, or make arrangements to pay me rent for storing it. If you do not do so, within 30 days, I will consider the car abandoned and will claim ownership of it. If you need more time to make arrangements, please contact me within 30 days, and we can work something out." If Jill does not respond, she may be said to have relinquished her ownership of the car, and estoppel by acquiescence may prevent any court from invalidating Jack's actions of registering the car in his name and using it as his own. Contractual The law relating to contractual estoppel (in English law) was summarised in : Deed Estoppel by deed is a rule of evidence arising from the status of a contract signed under seal—such agreements, called deeds, are more strictly enforced than ordinary contracts and the parties are expected to take greater care to verify the contents before signing them. Hence, once signed, all statements of fact (usually found in the opening recital which sets out the reason(s) for making the deed) are conclusive evidence against the parties who are estopped from asserting otherwise. Conflict estoppel "[O]ne who by his speech or conduct has induced another to act in a particular manner ought not be permitted to adopt an inconsistent position, attitude or course of conduct may not be adopted to loss or injury of another". For example, as between two or more claimants, a party that takes multiple and inconsistent legal positions is estopped to assert its positions against another consistent and certain claim, i.e. preferential treatment for certain over uncertain claims. Issue estoppel Issue estoppel (more commonly known as issue preclusion) prevents, in some cases, an issue that has already been litigated and decided on the merits from being re-litigated, even when the parties are different. In the world of crime, some cases have achieved notoriety, e.g. in the Birmingham Six saga, the House of Lords ruled in Hunter v Chief Constable of the West Midlands Police (1982) that issue estoppel applied. Lord Diplock said: A variant of issue estoppel also precludes a party from bringing a claim in subsequent proceedings which ought properly to have been brought as part of earlier legal proceedings. In other countries Australia The doctrine of promissory estoppel was adopted into Australian law in Legione v Hateley. However, the plaintiffs were unsuccessful in that case because the reliance was unreasonable and the promise not unequivocal. Australian law has now gone beyond the position espoused in the English High Trees case, to cases where there is no pre-existing legal relationship between the two parties, and promissory estoppel can be wielded as a "sword", not just as a "shield". Mason CJ and Wilson J in Waltons Stores (Interstate) Ltd v Maher held that if estoppel is proven, it gives rise to an equity in favour of the plaintiff, and the court will do the minimum equity that is just in the circumstances. From this case, it is also possible for the promise to come from silence or inaction. Stated by Brennan J in Waltons Stores: Although there is some debate as to whether "unconscionability" is an element that English courts need to take into account when considering estoppel by representation of fact, the Australian courts clearly do. This element is satisfied if one party encourages the other party to create assumptions that lead to reliance. Today, the principle of estoppel may give birth to an enforceable obligation even without a consideration under the following conditions: promise dishonest behaviour of the promisor special relationship between the promisor and the promisee, (e.g., duty of information); irreversible change of position on the part of the promisee When enforcing an estoppel, Australian courts will look to the impact that enforcement will have on others, especially third parties. Relief in estoppel thus remains discretionary, and will not always be granted based on the expectation of the plaintiff. The status of estoppel by representation of fact is less clear in Australia. Two seminal decisions purport to fuse common law and equitable estoppels into a single unified doctrine, but the New South Wales Court of Appeal continues to treat estoppel by representation at common law as distinct from equitable estoppel. This can be significant in deciding which court has jurisdiction to adjudicate on the issue. Whilst there also exists a doctrine of proprietary estoppel, the High Court of Australia merged this doctrine with the doctrine of promissory estoppel by virtue of their similar criteria. Nonetheless, authority for the doctrine of proprietary estoppel indicates that if a landlord allows a licensee to expend money on the land under an expectation created or encouraged by the landlord that he/she will be able to remain there, and the licensee suffers a detriment in relying on that expectation, an equity arises in the licensee such as to entitle him/her to stay. Where a proprietary estoppel is found to exist, the court does not have to grant the plaintiff a proprietary interest in the land subject to the dispute. It may instead make an order that the plaintiff receive equitable compensation. India Section 115 of the Indian Evidence Act defines estoppel: "When one person has, by his declaration, act or omission, intentionally caused or permitted another person to believe a thing to be true and to act upon such belief, neither he nor his representative shall be allowed, in any suit or proceeding between himself and such person or his representative, to deny the truth of that thing." So, for instance, if A intentionally and falsely leads B to believe that certain land belongs to A, and thereby induces B to buy and pay for it, and only later does A acquire the land, then A is not allowed to argue to void the sale on the ground that, at the time of the sale, he had no title. The doctrine of estoppel is based on the principle that consistency in word and action imparts certainty and honesty to human affairs. If a person makes a representation to another, on the faith of which the latter acts, to his prejudice, the former cannot recant the representation. However, estoppel has no application to representations made regarding the fundamental rights conferred by the Constitution of India, the source of all laws, which exists not only to benefit individuals but to secure collective rights. Thus, no one can barter away the freedoms conferred upon him by the Constitution. A concession made by him in a proceeding, whether under a mistake of law or otherwise, that he does not possess or will not enforce any particular fundamental right, cannot estop him, as enforcing estoppel would defeat the purpose of the Constitution. See also Acquiescence and Estoppel by acquiescence Assignor estoppel Collateral estoppel (US) De facto corporation and corporation by estoppel (US) Direct estoppel Estoppel by deed (US) Judicial estoppel Licensee estoppel McDonald v Attorney-General Principle of venire contra factum proprium non valet in legal systems based on civil law Prosecution history estoppel also known as file-wrapper estoppel (US) res judicata Notes External links Proprietary estoppel Tenant Estoppel Agreements Promissory Estoppel Contract law Equity (law) Equitable defenses French legal terminology Legal doctrines and principles	[ 0.03206581622362137, 0.016409188508987427, -0.14572706818580627, 0.08126147091388702, 0.0504993312060833, -0.20268084108829498, 0.43639305233955383, -0.13020330667495728, 0.10973712056875229, 0.06731820106506348, -0.49060726165771484, 0.5371238589286804, -0.34813782572746277, 0.2524486780166626, -0.5896978974342346, 0.3838232159614563, 0.10084749758243561, 0.48902735114097595, 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221256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Blackstone	William Blackstone	Sir William Blackstone (10 July 1723 – 14 February 1780) was an English jurist, judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century. He is most noted for writing the Commentaries on the Laws of England. Born into a middle-class family in London, Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1738. After switching to and completing a Bachelor of Civil Law degree, he was made a fellow of All Souls, Oxford, on 2 November 1743, admitted to Middle Temple, and called to the Bar there in 1746. Following a slow start to his career as a barrister, Blackstone became heavily involved in university administration, becoming accountant, treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746 and Senior Bursar in 1750. Blackstone is considered responsible for completing the Codrington Library and Warton Building, and simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college. On 3 July 1753 he formally gave up his practice as a barrister and instead embarked on a series of lectures on English law, the first of their kind. These were massively successful, earning him a total of £453 (£ in terms), and led to the publication of An Analysis of the Laws of England in 1756, which repeatedly sold out and was used to preface his later works. On 20 October 1759 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law, immediately embarking on another series of lectures and publishing a similarly successful second treatise, titled A Discourse on the Study of the Law. With his growing fame, he successfully returned to the bar and maintained a good practice, also securing election as Tory Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Hindon on 30 March 1761. In November 1765 he published the first of four volumes of Commentaries on the Laws of England, considered his magnum opus; the completed work earned Blackstone £14,000 (£ in terms). After repeated failures, he successfully gained appointment to the judiciary as a Justice of the Court of King's Bench on 16 February 1770, leaving to replace Edward Clive as a Justice of the Common Pleas on 25 June. He remained in this position until his death, on 14 February 1780. Blackstone's four-volume Commentaries were designed to provide a complete overview of English law and were repeatedly republished in 1770, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783. Reprints of the first edition, intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest, were published until the 1870s in England and Wales, and a working version by Henry John Stephen, first published in 1841, was reprinted until after the Second World War. Legal education in England had stalled; Blackstone's work gave the law "at least a veneer of scholarly respectability". William Searle Holdsworth, one of Blackstone's successors as Vinerian Professor, argued that "If the Commentaries had not been written when they were written, I think it very doubtful that the United States, and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the common law." In the United States, the Commentaries influenced Alexander Hamilton, John Marshall, James Wilson, John Jay, John Adams, James Kent and Abraham Lincoln, and remain frequently cited in Supreme Court decisions. Early life and education William's father, Charles Blackstone, was a silk mercer from Cheapside, the son of a wealthy apothecary. He became firm friends with Thomas Bigg, a surgeon and the son of Lovelace Bigg, a gentleman from Wiltshire. After Bigg's sister Mary came to London, Charles eventually persuaded her to marry him in 1718. This was not seen as a good match for her, but the couple lived happily and had four sons, three of whom lived into adulthood. Charles (born August 1719) and Henry (May 1722), both became fellows of New College, Oxford and took holy orders. Their last son, William, was born on 10 July 1723, five months after Charles' death in February. Although Charles and Mary Blackstone were members of the middle class rather than landed gentry, they were particularly prosperous. Tax records show Charles Blackstone to have been the second most prosperous man in the parish in 1722, and death registers show that the family had several servants. This, along with Thomas Bigg's assistance to the family following Charles' death, helps explain the educational upbringing of the children. William Blackstone was sent to Charterhouse School in 1730, nominated by Charles Wither, a relative of Mary Blackstone. William did well there, and became head of the school by age 15. However, after Charles' death the family fortunes declined, and after Mary died (5 January 1736) the family's resources largely went to meet unpaid bills. William was able to remain at Charterhouse as a "poor scholar", having been named to that position in June 1735 after being nominated by Sir Robert Walpole. Blackstone revelled in Charterhouse's academic curriculum, particularly the Latin poetry of Ovid and Virgil. He began to attract note as a poet at school, writing a 30-line set of rhyming couplets to celebrate the wedding of James Hotchkis, the headmaster. He also won a silver medal for his Latin verses on John Milton, gave the annual Latin oration in 1738, and was noted as having been the favourite student of his masters. On 1 October 1738, taking advantage of a new scholarship available to Charterhouse students, Blackstone matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford. Oxford Study There are few surviving records of Blackstone's undergraduate term at Oxford, but the curriculum of Pembroke College had been set out in 1624, and Prest notes that it was probably still followed in 1738, so Blackstone would have studied Greek, science, logic, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, geography and poetry. Blackstone was particularly good at Greek, mathematics and poetry, with his notes on William Shakespeare being included in George Steevens' 1781 edition of Shakespeare's plays. Many of Blackstone's undergraduate texts survive, and they include few legal texts, instead being wide-ranging; politics, current affairs, poetry, geometry and controversial theological texts. The last element is understandable, given his family's theological interests, but the more surprising element is the sheer number of texts he owned given his relative poverty as a student. On 9 July 1740, after only a year and a half as a Bachelor of Arts student, Blackstone was admitted to study for a Bachelor of Civil Law degree, civil law being the only legal area recognised by his university. This degree course was seven years long, the first two "supposedly devoted to a broad course of reading in humane studies", which allowed him to study his own interests. On 20 November 1741 he was admitted to the Middle Temple, the first step on the road to becoming a barrister, but this imposed no obligations and simply allowed a legal career to be an option. At the time there was no proper legal education system, and Blackstone read (in his own time) Coke on Littleton, the works of Henry Finch, and related legal tracts. In addition to his formal studies, Blackstone published a collection of poetry which included the draft version of The Lawyer to his Muse, his most famous literary work. In 1743 he published Elements of Architecture and An Abridgement of Architecture, two treatises on the rules governing the art of construction. His next work (1747) was The Pantheon: A Vision, an anonymously published book of poetry covering the various religions in the world. It depicts a narrator's walking dream through the buildings of various religions, which are all (other than Christianity) depicted in a negative light. This followed his election as a Fellow of All Souls, Oxford on 2 November 1743, and his call to the Bar by the Middle Temple on 28 November 1746. His call to the Bar saw Blackstone begin to alternate between Oxford and London, occupying chambers in Pump Court but living at All Souls College. As the central courts only sat for three months of the year, the rest of his time was spent on Assize when his work at All Souls permitted. He regularly acted as a law reporter; his personal notes on cases start with Hankey v Trotman (1746). Blackstone's barrister practice began slowly; his first case in the Court of King's Bench was in 1748, and he had only 6 additional motions there through 1751. Two appearances in the Court of Chancery are also noted, and he is known to have been consulted in Roger Newdigate's long-running lawsuit there, but his early court appearances are infrequent. This is considered to have been due to bad luck, with his call to the Bar occurring at the same time as the massive contraction in business by the central courts, along with his singular lack of connections due to his status as an orphan from the middle class; he was described as "unrecognised and unemployed". He filled his time by acting as counsel for Oxford, and from May 1749 with his election as Recorder of Wallingford. University administration While dividing his time, Blackstone became an administrator at All Souls, securing appointment as accountant, treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746. Completion of the Codrington Library and Warton Building, first started in 1710 and 1720 respectively but not built until 1748, is attributed to his work. In 1749 he became Steward of the Manors, and in 1750 was made Senior Bursar. Records show a "perfectionist zeal" in organising the estates and finances of All Souls, and Blackstone was noted for massively simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college. In 1750 Blackstone completed his first legal tract, An Essay on Collateral Consanguinity, which dealt with those claiming a familial tie to the founder or All Souls in an attempt to gain preeminence in elections. Completion of his Doctor of Civil Law degree, which he was awarded in April 1750, admitted him to Convocation, the governing body of Oxford, which elected the two burgesses who represented it in the House of Commons, along with most of the university officers. With this and with his continuing work at the university, Blackstone announced on 3 July 1753 his intentions to "no longer attend the Courts at Westminster, but to pursue my Profession in a Way more agreeable to me in all respects, by residing at Oxford [and] to engraft upon this Resolution a Scheme which I am told may be beneficial to the University as well as myself", which was to give a set of lectures on the common law – the first lectures of that sort in the world. This was not entirely out of benevolence; according to Prest, Blackstone was likely aware that an Oxford alumnus, Charles Viner, was planning to endow a professorship of English law. The Regius Professorship of Civil Law had also become vacant in 1753; despite support from Lord Mansfield, Blackstone had been rejected in favour of Robert Jenner, widely considered Blackstone's lesser intellectually but a far greater political mind. In addition, a private lecture series would be extremely lucrative. While his All Souls fellowship gave him £70 a year, records show that the lecture series brought him £116, £226 and £111 a year respectively from 1753 to 1755 – a total of £453 (£ in terms). A prospectus was issued on 23 June 1753, and with a class of approximately 20 students, the first set of lectures were completed by July 1754. Despite Blackstone's limited oratory skills and a speaking style described by Jeremy Bentham as "formal, precise and affected", Blackstone's lectures were warmly appreciated. The second and third series were far more popular, partly due to the then unusual use of printed handouts and lists of suggested reading. No copies of these handouts exist, but Alexander Popham, later a close friend of Blackstone, attended the lectures and made notes, which survive. These show Blackstone's attempts to reduce English law to a logical system, with the division of subjects later being the basis for his Commentaries. Following his lecture series, Blackstone became more prominent in convocation and other university activities. Oxford and Cambridge at the time had a strange system of law; due to their unique natures, they had exclusive jurisdiction over both academics and students in a fashion which followed either the common law or their own customs, based on the civil law. With his appointment as assessor (or chief legal officer) of the Chancellor's Court, Blackstone became far more involved in the university's peculiar legal system, and records show him sitting between eight and ten times a year from 1753 to 1759, mainly dealing with small claims of debt. He also wrote a manual on the Court's practice, and through his position gained a large number of contacts and connections, as well as visibility, which aided his legal career significantly. This period also saw Blackstone write his last known piece of poetry, Friendship: An Ode, in 1756. In 1756 Blackstone published the first of his full legal texts, the 200 page An Analysis of the Laws of England. Published by the Clarendon Press, the treatise was intended to demonstrate the "Order, and principal Divisions" of his lecture series, and a structured introduction to English law. Prest calls this "a marked advance on any previous introduction to English law . . including constitutional, civil and criminal law, public and private law, substantive law and procedure, as well as some introductory jurisprudential content". The initial print run of 1,000 copies almost immediately sold out, leading to the printing of three more 1,000-book lots over the next three years, which all sold out. A fifth edition was published in 1762, and a sixth, edited to take into account Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, in 1771. Because of the success of the Commentaries, Prest remarks that "relatively little scholarly attention has been paid to this work"; at the time, however, it was hailed as "an elegant performance . . calculated to facilitate this branch of knowledge". Vinerian Professor of English Law On 8 March 1758, the group executing Charles Viner's will reported to Convocation that Viner recommended creating a Chair of English Law, with a £200 salary. After much debate, this position was created, and on 20 October 1758 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law. On 24 October he gave his first lecture, to "a crowded audience"; the text was soon printed and published as A Discourse on the Study of the Law. The lecture was tremendously popular, being described as a "sensible, spirited and manly exhortation to the study of the law"; the initial print run sold out, necessitating the publication of another 1,000 copies, and it was used to preface later versions of the Analysis and the first volume of the Commentaries. Within the university, however, Blackstone was not as popular. As soon as the lecture series opened, an anonymously written open letter was published charging that Blackstone had "violated the Statutes of the University, by arbitrarily changing the Day appointed for reading his solemn Lectures". Blackstone suffered a nervous breakdown soon after the first lecture, and on 24 November he launched a suit in the Chancellor's Court against "William Jackson of the City of Oxford Printer" for £500 damages, justified by Jackson "printing and publishing a scandalous Libell notoriously reflecting on the Character of him the said William Blackstone". Jackson had refused to reveal who ordered the anonymous pamphlet, leading to the suit, but it evidently did not proceed further. This suit, along with the struggle over the Vinerian Professorship and other controversies, damaged his reputation within the university, as evidenced by his failure to win election as Vice Warden in April 1759, losing to John White. Prest attributes Blackstone's unpopularity to specific personality traits, saying his "determination...in pursuit of causes to which he committed himself could irritate as well as intimidate those of a more relaxed disposition. While quick to take offence at perceived slights on his own character and motives, he could also show surprising indifference to the effect his words and actions might have on others". This marked the beginning of his break with Oxford, which coincided with his growing influence outside the university. In 1759 Lord Bute, Prince George's official tutor, requested copies of Blackstone's lectures, which he forwarded. Later that year Blackstone was paid £200 by the Prince, who became an "appreciative, loyal, and soon to be incomparably influential patron". This patronage, and Blackstone's purchase of a set of chambers in the Inner Temple, also transferring to that Inn, were significant steps in his departure from Oxford. In 1759 Blackstone published another two works, The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest, with other authentic Instruments, described as a "major piece of pioneering scholarship" leading to Blackstone's election to the Society of Antiquaries in February 1761, and A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple, which was later used, almost verbatim, as chapters 14 and 15 of the Commentaries. London Work at the Bar With sponsorship from the Prince of Wales and his success with the Analysis, Blackstone began work as a barrister, although he kept up his lecture series at Oxford. By 1760 he had become "a very eminent figure indeed in the world of letters", and his legal practice grew as a result. Although not considered a great barrister of the period, he maintained a steady flow of cases, primarily in the King's Bench and Exchequer of Pleas. On the death of the third Earl of Abingdon, Blackstone was retained as counsel for the executors and trustees to oversee the family's attempts to pay off debts and meet other obligations. On 5 May 1761 he married Sarah Clitherow, a member of a family of lesser gentry from Middlesex. Their first child, William Bertie Blackstone, born 21 August 1762, did not survive to adulthood. Seven more children were born; Henry, James, Sarah, Mary, Philippa, William, Charles, and George, who also died in childhood. The Blackstones had a large estate in Wallingford in Berkshire, including 120 acres (46 ha) of pastureland around the River Thames and the right of advowson over St Peter's Church. In February 1761 Blackstone was considered as a potential Tory candidate for the rotten borough of Hindon in Wiltshire. After consultation with friends, he agreed to this prospect – at the same time refusing the offer of appointment as Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. On 30 March 1761 he was returned for Hindon, and took his seat. This did not limit his legal work, initially, with the seat being given without a requirement to attend or vote in a particular way, and the grant of a patent of precedence at the same time actually increased the demand on his time. Court records show him pleading before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King's Bench soon after his election, and acting as counsel in Tonson v Collins, a copyright case, Thiquet v Bath, an important case on international law, and R v d'Eon, acting for the prosecution in a feud over Louis XV's newly appointed cross-dressing Ambassador to the United Kingdom. With this increase in his practice, Blackstone also saw an increase in his out-of-court work, writing opinions and recommendations for various Oxford colleges, the MP Jonathan Rashleigh and the fourth Earl of Abingdon, who paid him to draft several private Acts of Parliament. In December 1761, he asked Lord Shelburne, a patron, for his assistance in gaining appointment as Chief Justice of Chester, writing again in July 1762 to "prevail upon Lord Bute to recommend me to his Majesty's Notice", anticipating an upcoming vacancy in the Court of Common Pleas. Parliamentary service was considered a "desirable if never absolutely essential qualification for would-be English judges", something that did not necessarily bode well for Blackstone. Naturally inarticulate and reticent, he was an infrequent and "indifferent" speaker during his first session of Parliament, speaking only 14 times in seven years. His chosen career did lend him to politics, in that the lawyers in the House of Commons were often added to select committees to provide them with technical expertise in drafting legislation. He again applied for a judicial post in December 1762, after an opening in the Exchequer of Pleas came up, but lost to George Perrott, a leading Exchequer barrister. The next five vacancies also failed to go to Blackstone, after the appointment of Lord Camden (a Whig) as Lord Chancellor. Commentaries on the Laws of England In 1765 Blackstone announced his resignation from the Vinerian Chair, effective after his 1766 lectures. These were divided into two 14-lecture series, on "private wrongs" and "public wrongs" delivered between 12 February and 24 April. At this point Blackstone had published nothing new since A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple in 1759. The decision to resign was most likely due to the increasing demands of his legal practice and the reduced profit from the lectures, which, after peaking at £340 in 1762, dropped to £239 a year later and to £203 for the final round of lectures in 1765–6. In response, Blackstone decided to publish a new book – Commentaries on the Laws of England. The first volume was published in November 1765, bringing the author £1,600 – the full work would eventually bring in over £14,000. Owen Ruffhead described Volume I as "masterly", noting that "Mr Blackstone is perhaps the first who has treated the body of the law in a liberal, elegant and constitutional manner. A vein of good sense and moderation runs through every page". Every copy was sold within six months, and the second and third volumes, published in October 1766 and June 1768, received a similar reception. The fourth and final volume appeared in 1770, dealing with Criminal Law. With the financial success of the Commentaries, Blackstone moved in 1768 from his London property in Carey Fields to No. 55 Lincoln's Inn Fields. Neighbours included the Sardinian ambassador, Sir Walter Rawlinson, Lord Northington, John Morton and the Third Earl of Abingdon, making it an appropriate house for a "great and able Lawyer". Blackstone's treatise was republished in 1770, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783. Reprints of the first edition, intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest, were published until the 1870s in England and Wales, and a working version by Henry John Stephen, first published in 1841, was reprinted until after the Second World War. The first American edition was produced in 1772; prior to this, over 1,000 copies had already been sold in the Thirteen Colonies. Judge Even after the publication of the Commentaries, Blackstone's chances of judicial appointment remained slim. While he was old enough, experienced enough and widely respected, the presence of Lord Camden as Lord Chancellor and Blackstone's lack of aristocratic patrons at the time hindered his chances. In January 1770, however, Lord Grafton's government began to fall, with Camden resigning on 17 January and Solicitor-General John Dunning, following him. George III appointed Lord North as Prime Minister, and North picked Charles Yorke as Lord Chancellor. Yorke's death on 20 January, after holding the position for less than three days, left several important legal positions within the government open. As such, Blackstone, now MP for Westbury, was apparently approached to become Solicitor-General; he refused, not wanting to deal with the complicated duties attached to the position. On 9 February 1770 – apparently with the intervention of the King, and possibly Lord Mansfield – Blackstone became a Justice of the Common Pleas, succeeding Edward Clive, and was made a Serjeant-at-Law on 12 February. After only four days it was announced that Joseph Yates was to move to the Common Pleas, and Blackstone was again sworn in as a judge, this time of the Court of King's Bench. This was apparently due to Yates' poor health; Lord Mansfield ran a busy court as Lord Chief Justice, and it was felt that his transfer to the Common Pleas was for the best. Others commented that it was instead due to political and judicial disagreement, with Yates unwilling to stomach the changes which Mansfield made to English law. Blackstone sat regularly as a judge, despite bouts of ill health, and also served on various circuit courts. Prest describes him as an "exceptionally careful, conscientious and well-respected judge . . his judgments ranging between narrowly framed technicalities [and] broad statements of public commentary". He was, however, considered a poor trial judge, being reversed on appeal more frequently than any of his peers. Blackstone returned to the Common Pleas on 25 June 1770, having spent less than six months in the King's Bench; Jeremy Bentham asserted that this was due to Mansfield's having Blackstone removed similarly to his removal of Yates. Bentham asserted that in the King's Bench, Blackstone was "always in hot water", and that there was "heartburning" between the two; Bentham's account is considered dubious because historically, Mansfield and Blackstone had an excellent relationship, with the third volume of the Commentaries describing Mansfield as "a judge, whose masterly acquaintance with the law of nations was known and revered by every state in Europe". There is only one recorded King's Bench case, R v Proprietors of Birmingham Canal Navigation, in which Blackstone and Mansfield disagreed. In the Common Pleas, Blackstone operated under a civil jurisdiction rather than a mixed civil and criminal one. This played to his strengths, and many of his decisions are considered farsighted; the principle in Blaney v Hendricks, for example, that interest is due on an account where money was lent, which anticipated Section 3 of the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1934. Blackstone's decision in Goldswain's Case was later repeated by Lord Denning in Falmouth Boat Construction Co v Howell in 1950. Criticism English jurist Jeremy Bentham was a critic of Blackstone's theories. Others saw Blackstone's theories as inaccurate statements of English law, using the Constitutions of Clarendon, the Tractatus of Glanville and the 1689 Bill of Rights as particularly obvious examples of laws Blackstone omitted. Death Blackstone had long suffered from gout, and by November 1779 also had a nervous disorder which caused dizziness, high blood pressure, and possibly diabetes. By 3 February 1780 he was too weak to write, and after "some Days almost totally insensible", he died on 14 February at age 56. After a service conducted by Bishop Barrington on 22 February, Blackstone was buried in the family vault under St Peter's Church, Wallingford. His estate at his death was worth less than £15,000; therefore William Eden secured a £400 annual royal pension for Sarah Blackstone. The initial reaction to Blackstone's death was subdued, but in December 1780 the Fellows of All Souls College agreed that "a Statue be erected to the memory of Sr W Blackstone deceased". Constructed by John Bacon, the life-sized statue of Blackstone in his judicial robes cost £539, and has rested in the Codrington Library since 1872. His brother-in-law, James Clitherow, also published two volumes of his law reports which added £1,287 to the estate, and in 1782 the Biographical History of Sir William Blackstone appeared. Legacy Blackstone's primary legacy is his written work, specifically the Commentaries on the Laws of England. Demand for reprinted, abridged and translated versions was "almost inexhaustible" in the 18th and 19th centuries, although the Commentaries''' emphasis on the sovereignty of Parliament drew ire. Alexis de Tocqueville described Blackstone as "an inferior writer, without liberality of mind or depth of judgment". Other commentators differ; one described him as "the core element in the British Enlightenment", comparing him to Montesquieu, Beccaria and Voltaire. Academics have said that the Commentaries were crucial in changing English Law from a system based on actions to a system of substantive law. At the time of publication, the common law of England was still, in some ways, in its infancy, with people uncertain as to what the law was. The Commentaries helped to solidify legal thinking. At the same time, legal education had stalled, and Blackstone's work gave the Law "at least a veneer of scholarly respectability". William Searle Holdsworth, one of Blackstone's successors as Vinerian Professor, argued that "if the Commentaries had not been written when they were written, I think it very doubtful that [the United States], and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the [common] law". The Commentaries had a particular influence in the United States; James Iredell, an original Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States wrote that the Commentaries were "Books admirably calculated for a young Student, and indeed may instruct the most learned . . Pleasure and Instruction go hand in hand". When the Commentaries were first printed in North America, 1,400 copies were ordered for Philadelphia alone. Academics have also noted the early reliance of the Supreme Court on the Commentaries, probably due to a lack of US legal tradition at that time. The US academic Robert Ferguson notes that "all our formative documents – the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Federalist Papers and the seminal decisions of the Supreme Court under John Marshall – were drafted by attorneys steeped in Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. So much was this the case that the Commentaries rank second only to the Bible as a literary and intellectual influence on the history of American institutions". Even towards the end of the twentieth century, the Commentaries were cited in Supreme Court decisions between 10 and 12 times a year.Alschuler (1994) p. 898 Within United States academia and practise, as well as within the judiciary, the Commentaries had a substantial impact; with the scarcity of law books on the frontier, they were "both the only law school and the only law library most American lawyers used to practise law in America for nearly a century after they were published". Blackstone had drawn up a plan for a dedicated School of Law, and submitted it to the University of Oxford; when the idea was rejected he included it in the Commentaries. It is from this plan that the modern system of American law schools comes. Subscribers to the first edition of Blackstone, and later readers who were profoundly influenced by it, include James Iredell, John Marshall, James Wilson, John Jay, John Adams, James Kent and Abraham Lincoln. In the early 1920s the American Bar Association presented a statue of Blackstone to the English Bar Association; however, at the time, the sculpture was too tall to be placed in the Royal Courts of Justice in London. The sculpture, designed by Paul Wayland Bartlett was eventually cast in Europe and presented back to the US for display. Congress approved the placement of the sculpture in Washington, D.C. on 15 March 1943, and appropriated $10,000 for the installation. The bronze statue is a nine-foot (2.7 m) standing portrait of Blackstone wearing judicial robes and a long curly wig, holding a copy of Commentaries. It is placed on a tall granite base and stands on Constitution Avenue and 3rd Street NW.Holdsworth (1928) p. 163 The town of Blackstone, Virginia is named after him. The North Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts William Blackstone, as one of the most influential legal commentators in world history. Blackstone's Ratio or Blackstone's Formulation Among the most well-known of Blackstone's contributions to judicial theory is his own statement of the principle that it "is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer". While this argument originates at least as far back as Genesis 18:23–32 in the Bible,Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the Threat, Responding to the Challenge, Yale University Press, Alan M. Dershowitz, 2003 as well as versions by MaimonidesMoses Maimonides, The Commandments, Neg. Comm. 290, at 269–271 (Charles B. Chavel trans., 1967). and Sir John Fortescue, Blackstone's analysis is the one picked up by Benjamin Franklin and others, so that the term has become known as "Blackstone's Ratio". As John Adams, having studied Blackstone, put it: Blackstone's Ratio is a maxim of English law, having been established as such within a few decades of Blackstone's work being published. It is also cited in courts and law in the US, and is strongly emphasised to American law students. Works Elements of Architecture (1743) An Abridgement of Architecture (1743) The Pantheon: A Vision (1747) An Analysis of the Laws of England (1756) A Discourse on the Study of the Law (1758) The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest, with other authentic Instruments (1759) A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple (1759) Commentaries on the Laws of England (1766) Reports in K.B. and C.P., from 1746 to 1779'' (1780) See also US Constitution, influences References Bibliography External links Sir William Blackstone at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) The Commentaries online at Archive.Org 1723 births 1780 deaths 18th-century English non-fiction writers 18th-century English male writers Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford British MPs 1761–1768 British MPs 1768–1774 English barristers English legal professionals English legal scholars English legal writers Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford Justices of the Common Pleas Justices of the King's Bench Knights Bachelor 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221257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstone	Blackstone	Blackstone may refer to: People Charles Blackstone (born 1977), fiction writer Elliott Blackstone (1924–2006), former police sergeant and LGBT advocate Gay Blackstone (born 1952), widow of Harry Blackstone, Jr. Harriet Blackstone (1864–1939), American painter Harry Blackstone, Sr. (1885–1965), famous American magician known as "The Great Blackstone" and father of Harry Blackstone, Jr. Harry Blackstone, Jr. (1934–1997), popular stage magician and television performer of the late 20th century Ian Blackstone (born 1964), English former footballer Jerry Blackstone, director of choirs at the University of Michigan John Wilford Blackstone, Jr. (1835–1911), American lawyer and legislator John Wilford Blackstone, Sr. (1796–1868), American lawyer and legislator Milton Blackstone (1906–1983), publicity agent for Eddie Fisher (singer) Tessa Blackstone, Baroness Blackstone (born 1942), British politician Timothy Blackstone (1829–1900), Chicago Railroad and Stock Yard president Sir William Blackstone (1723–1780), English jurist Blackstone's formulation, a principle in criminal law named for the jurist The Commentaries on the Laws of England by William Blackstone, a 1769 major legal text of the 18th century; often referred to as "Blackstone" or "Blackstone's Commentaries William Eugene Blackstone (1841–1935), American evangelist and Christian Zionist William Seymour Blackstone (1809–1881), 19th-century British MP and grandson of William Blackstone the jurist, above William Blackstone, aka William Blaxton (1595–1675), early English settler in New England Businesses Blackstone & Co, a diesel engine and agricultural engineering company in Stamford, Lincolnshire, which became Mirrlees Blackstone Blackstone Audio, publisher of audiobooks Blackstone Career Institute, online training institute Blackstone Legal Fellowship, legal training and internship program Black Stone Minerals, a Houston, Texas-based oil and natural gas corporation Blackstone Press, a subsidiary of OUP Blackstone Winery, a Gonzales, California winery owned by Constellation Brands The Blackstone Group, U.S. private equity, investment banking, and asset management firm Blackstones Bar Maine's longest operating LGBTQ bar, and currently Portland's only LGBTQ bar. Places Australia Blackstone, Queensland, a suburb in the City of Ipswich Blackstone, Western Australia, known as Papulankutja Blackstone Heights, Tasmania United Kingdom Blackstone Edge, an area of moorland along the Lancashire (Greater Manchester) and West Yorkshire county boundary in England Blackstone, West Sussex, England United States Blackstone, Illinois Blackstone, Massachusetts Blackstone, Pennsylvania Blackstone, Providence, Rhode Island, a neighborhood Blackstone Boulevard Park, in Providence, Rhode Island Blackstone Park Conservation District, in Providence, Rhode Island Blackstone Park Historic District, in Providence, Rhode Island Blackstone, Virginia Blackstone Army Airfield, Virginia The Blackstone River in Massachusetts and Rhode Island The Blackstone Valley, a National Heritage Corridor along the Blackstone River Blackstone River Bikeway, a planned rail trail Blackstone Valley Regional Vocational Technical High School, Upton, Massachusetts Canada Blackstone Lake, Ontario Fiction Blackstone (novel), a 1972 novel featuring the character Edmund 'Beau' Blackstone, a fictional 19th century detective created by "Richard Falkirk" (Derek Lambert); the first of six such novels Blackstone Chronicles, a series of mystery and thriller novels authored by John Saul Blackstone Fortress, a type of space station in the fictional universe of Warhammer 40,000 Blackstone (TV series), the fictional Blackstone First Nation's struggles with corruption, politics, and the need for change Blackstone, the Magic Detective, a radio series starring a fictionalized version of Harry Blackstone, Sr. The Blackstone, a country club in the TV series Royal Pains Other Black Stone, a Muslim object of reverence Blackstone Avenue, a major roadway in Fresno, California, USA Blackstone Hall, a dormitory at the University of Chicago The Blackstone Hotel, a Chicago hotel Blackstone Hotel (Omaha, Nebraska), a 1915 Omaha landmark currently known as the Blackstone Center Blackstone Library, Chicago's first public library Blackstone Memorial, a Zionist petition written by William Eugene Blackstone Blackstone, a codename for ColdFusion 7.0 - beta of ColdFusion MX 7.0, a product of Macromedia Blackstone, in reference to the Black P. Stones gang HTC BlackStone, a Windows Mobile phone also known as the HTC Touch HD Operation Blackstone, part of Operation Torch, the Allied landings in Africa during World War II See also Black Stone (disambiguation) Blackstones (disambiguation) Blackstone River (disambiguation) Black Rock (disambiguation)	[ 0.13798590004444122, 0.3838407099246979, -0.6844172477722168, -0.5048514604568481, 0.32333904504776, 0.5345447063446045, 0.5850335955619812, 0.1214858815073967, -0.3818856477737427, -0.14925236999988556, -0.33826035261154175, 0.27656272053718567, -0.4883953332901001, 0.456730455160141, -0.09622809290885925, 0.7066052556037903, 0.05122537538409233, 0.32949498295783997, -0.4424508213996887, -0.2904408276081085, -0.2267068773508072, -0.10900862514972687, 0.7353111505508423, -0.31094127893447876, 0.4414246380329132, -0.04035570099949837, 0.3089320957660675, -0.4517354369163513, 0.26085346937179565, 0.7978034019470215, -0.191797137260437, 0.03101992979645729, 0.5209547281265259, 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221259	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt%20Russell	Kurt Russell	Kurt Vogel Russell (born March 17, 1951) is an American actor. He began acting on television at the age of 12 in the western series The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters (1963–1964). In the late 1960s, he signed a 10-year contract with The Walt Disney Company where, according to Robert Osborne, he became the studio's top star of the 1970s. Russell was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for his performance in Silkwood (1983). In the 1980s, he starred in several films directed by John Carpenter, including anti-hero roles such as army hero-turned-robber Snake Plissken in the futuristic action film Escape from New York (1981), and its sequel Escape from L.A. (1996), helicopter pilot R.J. MacReady in the horror film The Thing (1982), truck driver Jack Burton in the kung-fu comedy action film Big Trouble in Little China (1986), and rock and roll superstar Elvis Presley in Elvis (1979), for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award. Russell starred in several other notable films, including The Best of Times (1986), Overboard (1987), Tango & Cash (1989), Backdraft (1991) Tombstone (1993), Stargate (1994), Executive Decision (1996), Vanilla Sky (2001), Miracle (2004), Sky High (2005), Death Proof (2007), The Hateful Eight (2015) and Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019). He also appeared in The Fast and the Furious franchise as Mr. Nobody, having starred in Furious 7 (2015), The Fate of the Furious (2017) and F9 (2021), portrayed Ego in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) installments Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017) and What If...? (2021), and subsequently portrayed Santa Claus in The Christmas Chronicles (2018) and The Christmas Chronicles 2 (2020). Early life Born in Springfield, Massachusetts, Russell is the son of actor Bing Russell (1926–2003) and dancer Louise Julia () Russell. He has three sisters, Jill, Jamie and Jody. His family relocated to California when he was a child, and Russell was raised in the Los Angeles suburb of Thousand Oaks. Russell played little league baseball throughout his grade school years and also on his high school baseball teams. He graduated from Thousand Oaks High School in California in 1969. His father, Bing, played professional baseball. His sister, Jill, is the mother of baseball player Matt Franco. From 1969 to 1975, Russell served in the California Air National Guard, and belonged to the 146th Tactical Airlift Wing, then based in Van Nuys. Career Child actor Russell made his film debut with an uncredited part for It Happened at the World's Fair, playing a boy who kicked a pilot (Elvis Presley) in a leg. On April 24, 1963, Russell guest-starred in the ABC series Our Man Higgins, starring Stanley Holloway as an English butler in an American family. Later, he played the title role in the ABC western series The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters (1963–64). The show was based on Robert Lewis Taylor's eponymous novel, which won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1959. In 1964, Russell guest-starred in "Nemesis", an episode of the ABC series The Fugitive in which, as the son of police Lt. Phillip Gerard, he is unintentionally kidnapped by his father's quarry, Doctor Richard Kimble. In NBC's The Virginian, he played the mistaken orphan whose father was an outlaw played by Rory Calhoun who was still alive and recently released from prison looking for his son. Russell played a similar role as a kid named Packy Kerlin in the 1964 episode "Blue Heaven" for the western series Gunsmoke. In the storyline, he teams up with a wanted man, played by Tim O'Connor who helps Packy reunite with his mother while avoiding bounty hunters from Texas. In another story line, he works for an outlaw gang, but the Rangers take him under their wing and the boy proves helpful when gunslingers try to occupy Laredo, Texas. At age 13, Russell played the role of Jungle Boy on an episode of CBS's Gilligan's Island, which aired on February 6, 1965. Disney star In 1966, the last thing Walt Disney wrote were the words "Kurt Russell" on a piece of paper. That same year, Russell was signed to a ten-year contract with The Walt Disney Company, where he became, according to Robert Osborne, the "studio's top star of the '70s". Russell's first film for Disney was Follow Me, Boys! (1966). In January 1967, Russell played Private Willie Prentiss in the episode "Willie and the Yank: The Mosby Raiders" in Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, released theatrically in some markets as Mosby's Marauders (1967). During this time, Russell continued to guest star on non-Disney TV shows. He, Jay C. Flippen and Tom Tryon appeared in the episode "Charade of Justice" of the NBC western series The Road West starring Barry Sullivan. In a March 1966 episode of CBS's Lost in Space entitled "The Challenge", he played Quano, the son of a planetary ruler. While filming the Sherman Brothers theatrical film musical The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band (1968), Russell met his future partner Goldie Hawn. For Disney he made The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit (1969) and Guns in the Heather (1969). Stardom Disney promoted Russell to star roles with The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes (1969) which was a big hit. He followed it with The Barefoot Executive (1971), another success. In 1971, he co-starred as a young robber released from jail, alongside James Stewart in Fools' Parade. Later, he guest-starred in an episode of Room 222 as an idealistic high school student who assumed the costumed identity of Paul Revere to warn of the dangers of pollution. However, the bulk of his film work was for Disney in films such as Now You See Him, Now You Don't (1971), Charley and the Angel (1973), and Superdad (1973). Baseball career Russell, like his father, had a baseball career. In the early 1970s, Russell was a switch-hitting second baseman for the California Angels minor league affiliates, the Bend Rainbows (1971) and Walla Walla Islanders (1972) in the short season Class A-Short Season Northwest League, then moved up to Class AA in 1973 with the El Paso Sun Kings of the Texas League. While in the field turning the pivot of a double play early in the season, the incoming runner at second base collided with him and tore the rotator cuff in Russell's right (throwing) shoulder. He did not return to El Paso, but was a designated hitter for the independent Portland Mavericks in the Northwest League late in their short season. The team was owned by his father, and he had been doing promotional work for them in the interim. The injury forced his retirement from baseball in 1973 and led to his return to acting. TV star In the autumn of 1974, he appeared in the ABC series The New Land, inspired by the 1972 Swedish film of the same name. Critically acclaimed, it suffered very low ratings and aired only six of the 13 episodes. He returned to Disney for The Strongest Man in the World (1975). John Carpenter and Goldie Hawn In 1980, Russell was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or a Special for the made-for-television film Elvis. This 1979 movie would transition Russell's Hollywood career after years as a child actor. It was directed by John Carpenter and led to a series of collaborations between the two men. Russell starred in Amber Waves (1980) and the comedy Used Cars (1980). He then played Snake Plissken in Escape from New York (1981), directed by Carpenter. He returned to Disney to provide the voice for The Fox and the Hound (1981) then reunited with Carpenter for The Thing (1982), based upon the short story Who Goes There? by John W. Campbell, Jr., which had been interpreted on film before, albeit loosely, in 1951's The Thing from Another World. He was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for his performance in Silkwood (1983). Russell made Swing Shift (1984) co-starring Goldie Hawn, who became Russell's romantic partner. He starred in The Mean Season (1986) and The Best of Times (1986) then played an antihero truck driver caught in an ancient Chinese war in Big Trouble in Little China, which, like The Thing, was initially a critical and commercial disappointment but has since gained a cult audience. More popular at the box office was Overboard (1987), a comedy with Goldie Hawn. 1988–present Russell credited his performance in Tequila Sunrise (1988) with getting Hollywood to regard him differently. He was in Winter People (1989) then co starred with Sylvester Stallone in Tango & Cash (1989). Russell played Lt. Stephen "Bull" McCaffrey in Backdraft (1991), Wyatt Earp in Tombstone (1993) and Colonel Jack O'Neil in the military science fiction film Stargate (1994). He also had an uncredited role as the voice of Elvis Presley in the 1994 film Forrest Gump. His portrayal of U.S. Olympic hockey coach Herb Brooks in the 2004 film Miracle, won the praise of critics. "In many ways", wrote Claudia Puig of USA Today, "Miracle belongs to Kurt Russell." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "Russell does real acting here." Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote, "Mr. Russell's cagey and remote performance gives ''Miracle'' its few breezes of fresh air." In 2006, Russell claimed in one interview that he had ghost-directed the hit 1993 western film Tombstone on behalf of credited director George P. Cosmatos, saying he gave Cosmatos shot lists. Russell claimed Stallone recommended Cosmatos to him after the removal of the first director, writer Kevin Jarre, but Cosmatos had also worked with Tombstone executive producer Andrew G. Vajna before on Rambo: First Blood Part II. Russell said he promised Cosmatos he would keep it a secret as long as Cosmatos was alive; Cosmatos died in April 2005. Russell said he did not get a chance to edit his version, but Vajna gave him a tape of "everything on the movie" and that he might try to "reconstruct the movie", although he would need to go back to the script and all his notes. Russell played the villainous Stuntman Mike in Quentin Tarantino's segment Death Proof of the film Grindhouse (2007). After a remake of Escape from New York was announced, Russell was reportedly upset with Gerard Butler for playing his signature character, Snake Plissken, as he believed the character 'was quintessentially [...] American.' Russell appeared in The Battered Bastards of Baseball, a documentary about his father and the Portland Mavericks, which debuted at the Sundance Film Festival in 2014. He co-starred in the action thriller Furious 7 in 2015. On May 4, 2017, Russell and Goldie Hawn received stars in a double star ceremony on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their achievements in motion pictures, located at 6201 Hollywood Boulevard. Personal life Russell married actress Season Hubley, whom he met while filming Elvis, in 1979, and had a son, Boston (born February 16, 1980). After his divorce from Hubley in 1983, Russell began his relationship with Goldie Hawn, and appeared alongside her in Swing Shift and Overboard, having previously appeared with her in The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band in 1968. They have a son, Wyatt Russell (born July 10, 1986), and own homes in Vancouver, British Columbia; Snowmass Village, Colorado; Manhattan, New York; Brentwood and Palm Desert, California. Hawn's daughter with Bill Hudson, actress Kate Hudson, considers Russell to be her father. In an interview with People in December 2020, Russell revealed that he and Hawn never felt the need to marry, stating that a "marriage certificate wasn't going to create anything that otherwise we wouldn't have." Russell is a libertarian. In 1996, he was quoted in the Toronto Sun saying: "I was brought up as a Republican, but when I realized that at the end of the day there wasn't much difference between a Democrat and Republican, I became a libertarian." In 2020, however, he stated that celebrities should keep their political opinions to themselves, believing that it negatively impacts their work. Russell is a hunter and a staunch supporter of gun rights, and said that gun control will not reduce terrorism. He is also an FAA-licensed private pilot holding single/multi-engine and instrument ratings, and is an Honorary Council Member of the humanitarian aviation organization Wings of Hope. In February 2003, Russell and Hawn moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, so that their son could play hockey. Filmography Film Television Accolades References Bibliography Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 291–292. External links 1951 births 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors Actors from Springfield, Massachusetts American gun rights activists American male child actors American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors American aviators American libertarians Baseball players from California Bend Rainbows players Disney people El Paso Sun Kings players Living people Male actors from California Male actors from Massachusetts People from Palm Desert, California People from Greater Los Angeles Portland Mavericks players Walla Walla Islanders players California National Guard personnel	[ -0.31884491443634033, 0.004779869690537453, -0.7927520275115967, -0.42059561610221863, 0.630975067615509, 0.9511206746101379, 0.46357786655426025, 0.06487028300762177, -0.18274571001529694, 0.08139127492904663, -0.2185741811990738, 0.9200015664100647, -0.03981701284646988, 0.16836294531822205, -0.10176920890808105, 0.5213077068328857, 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221261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threepence%20%28British%20coin%29	Threepence (British coin)	The British threepence (3d) coin, usually simply known as a threepence, thruppence, or thruppenny bit, was a unit of currency equalling one eightieth of a pound sterling, or three old pence sterling. It was used in the United Kingdom, and earlier in Great Britain and England. Similar denominations were later used throughout the British Empire and Commonwealth countries, notably in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The sum of three pence was pronounced variously , or , reflecting different pronunciations in the various regions of the United Kingdom. Likewise, the coin was often referred to in conversation as a , or bit. Before Decimal Day in 1971 there were two hundred and forty pence in one pound sterling. Twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence, e.g. forty-two pence would be three shillings and six pence (3/6), phrased as "three and six". Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence, e.g. eight pence would be 8d. Early threepences The three pence coin – expressed in writing as "3d" – first appeared in England during the fine silver coinage of King Edward VI (1547–53), when it formed part of a set of new denominations. Although it was an easy denomination to work with in the context of the old sterling coinage system, being a quarter of a shilling, initially it was not popular with the public who preferred the groat (four pence). Hence the coin was not minted in the following two reigns. Edward VI threepences were struck at the London and York mints. The obverse shows a front-facing bust of the king, with a rose to the left and the value numeral III to the right, surrounded by the legend . The reverse shows a long cross over the royal shield, surrounded by the legend (London mint) (I have made God my helper), or (York mint) (City of York). Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) produced threepences during her third coinage (1561–1577). Most 1561 issues are 21 mm in diameter, while later ones are 19 mm in diameter. These coins are identifiable from other denominations by the rose behind the queen's head on the obverse, and the date on the reverse. The obverse shows a left-facing crowned bust of the queen with a rose behind her, surrounded by the legend , while the reverse shows shield over a long cross, dated 1561, surrounded by the legend . Dates used for the smaller coins were 1561–77. Threepences of the fourth coinage (1578–1582) are identical except for having a slightly lower silver content. There was also a fairly rare milled coinage threepence, produced between 1561 and 1564 with similar designs and inscriptions to the hammered coinage threepences. The threepence denomination fell out of use again during the reign of King James I, while during King Charles I's reign (1625–49) it was not produced at the London Tower mint, but was produced (sometimes in some quantity) at various provincial mints. The denomination is identified by the numeral III appearing behind the king's head. Threepences reintroduced By far the most common Charles I threepences were produced at the Aberystwyth mint between 1638 and 1642. They feature a left-facing crowned bust of the king with plumes in front of his face and the numeral III behind him, with the legend (or a combination of M(A) B F(R) ET H(I)(B) depending on the engraver), with the reverse showing the royal arms on a large oval shield with plumes above the shield, and the legend – I reign under the auspices of Christ. Plumes were the identifying symbol of the Aberystwyth mint, but the Bristol and Oxford mints often used dies from the Aberystwyth mint so plumes often appear on their output too. Milled coins were produced at the York mint between 1638 and 1649, which look similar to the Aberystwyth product but without the plumes – the obverse features a left-facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him, with the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross, with over the shield and the legend . Coins were produced at the Oxford mint between 1644 and 1646, using the Aberystwyth dies for the obverse, while the reverse of the 1644 coin shows the Declaration of Oxford in three lines: – The religion of the Protestants, the laws of England, the liberty of Parliament. 1644 Oxford, while around the outside of the coin is the legend – Let God arise and His enemies be scattered. This coin also appears dated 1646. A further type produced at Oxford had on the obverse the king's bust with the denomination behind him, and the letter "R" (for Rawlins, the maker of the die) below the king's shoulder and the legend and the Aberystwyth reverse. Rarer threepences The mint at Bristol produced rare threepences in 1644 and 1645. In 1644 the Aberystwyth obverse was used to produce a coin with the reverse showing the Declaration of Oxford: – The religion of the Protestants, the laws of England, the liberty of Parliament 1644, while around the outside of the coin is the legend – Let God arise and His enemies be scattered. This was repeated in 1645, but with a plumelet instead of a plume in front of the king's face. In 1644 the Exeter mint produced a fairly scarce threepence. It features a left-facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him, with the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield with the date 1644 above the shield, and the legend . No threepences were produced by the Commonwealth of England. Mid-to-late 17th century The final hammered coinage threepences were produced at the start of the reign of King Charles II. In style they are very reminiscent of his father's issues, the obverse featuring the bust of the king, with the numeral III and the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross, and the legend . The milled silver threepences of Charles II form two types. There is the undated issue which looks very like the earlier hammered coinage, with a crowned left-facing bust of the king with the denomination indicated by III behind his head, and the inscription , with the reverse showing a shield encircling the arms of England, Scotland, Ireland and France with the legend . This was followed by the dated issue, issued each year from 1670 to 1684, where the obverse features a right-facing uncrowned bust of the king and the inscription , with the reverse showing three crowned interlinked "C"s (indicating the value) and the inscription . All milled silver threepences were 17 millimetres in diameter and weighed 1.5 grams – dimensions which were unchanged until near the end of the reign of George III. A similar threepence was produced for King James II, dated 1685 to 1688, the obverse showing a left-facing bust of the king and the inscription , with the reverse showing three crowned "I"s (indicating the value) and the inscription . For the joint reign of King William III and Queen Mary II, threepences were produced in all years from 1689 to 1694. For the first two years a somewhat caricatured portrait of the monarchs was used, replaced by a rather more staid portrait in 1691, with the inscription , while the reverse shows a crowned Arabic number "3" and the inscription . For the sole reign of William III, the design remained very similar, with the inscriptions changed to and . Early 18th century In the reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714), the same basic design was used, with threepences produced in 1703–10 and 1713. The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the Queen, with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned "3" and (1703–05, 1707), (1706), or (1708–13). The design continued in the reign of King George I, when threepences were produced in 1717, 1721, 1723, and 1727. The obverse shows a right-facing bust of the King, with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned "3" and . Unusually, the same young portrait of King George II was used on the threepence throughout his reign (1727–60), despite an older portrait being used on other denominations from 1743. Threepences were produced in 1729, 1731, 1732, 1735, 1737, 1739, 1740, 1743, 1746, and 1760. The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the King, with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned "3" and . Change of role While the silver threepence was minted as a currency coin until nearly the middle of the 20th century, it is clear that the purpose of the coin changed during the reign of King George III (1760–1820). In the first two years of minting, 1762 and 1763, the coin was obviously produced for general circulation as examples are generally found well worn; on the other hand, coins from the late issue (1817–20) are usually found in very fine condition, indicating that they were probably issued as Maundy money. Over the length of the reign there were several different designs of obverse and reverse in use. Threepences were issued in 1762–63, 1765–66, 1770, 1772, 1780, 1784, 1786, 1792, 1795, 1800, 1817, 1818, and 1820. From 1817 the dimensions of the coin were reduced to a weight of 1.4 grams (defined as troy ounce) and diameter of 16 millimetres, following the Great Recoinage of 1816. The inscription on the obverse reads up to 1800, and from 1817. The reverse inscription reads up to 1800 and from 1817. By the start of the reign of King George IV (1820–30) the coin was being struck primarily as a Maundy coin, although some coins were produced for use in the colonies. See Maundy money for full details of these issues. Threepences were struck in all years from 1822 to 1830, though the king's head is smaller on the 1822 issue, apparently because the correct punch broke and the one from the twopence was used instead. The obverse inscription reads , while the reverse shows a new-style crowned "3" and date, all within a wreath. In King William IV's reign (1830–37), maundy coins were produced in 1831–37, and identical circulation coins were produced for the colonies, identifiable only through not having a prooflike surface. The obverse inscription reads , while the reverse shows the new-style crowned "3" and date, all within a wreath. Queen Victoria During the reign of Queen Victoria, threepences were produced both for Maundy use and for normal circulation in all years between 1838 and 1901 except 1847, 1848, and 1852 (perhaps because of the proposal for a decimal currency at the time (see florin); the 3d at pound would not have fitted within a decimal system). Currency silver threepences from 1838 to 1926 were of identical design and cannot usually be distinguished except in the best conditions when the higher striking standard of the Maundy coins stands out; when the currency was decimalised in 1971, all silver threepences from 1870 onwards were revalued at three new pence, not just the Maundy coins. Threepences were produced both with the "young head" (1838–87) and with the "Jubilee head" (1887–93), inscribed , while those produced with the "old head" (1893–1901) are inscribed . Early 20th century The currency threepence was issued for each of the nine years of the reign of King Edward VII from 1902. The reverse design remained the same, while the obverse showed the right-facing effigy of the king, with the inscription . The reign of King George V (1910–1936) features several changes to the threepence denomination. As with all British silver coins, the silver content was reduced from sterling (0.925) silver to 50% silver, 40% copper, 10% nickel in 1920, 50% silver, 50% copper in 1922, and 50% silver, 40% copper, 5% nickel, 5% zinc in 1927, while the design of the reverse of the circulating threepence (but not the maundy threepence) was completely changed in 1927 to three oak sprigs with three acorns and a "G" in the centre, and the inscription . The inscription on the obverse throughout the reign was . The threepences of King Edward VIII were all patterns awaiting royal approval at the time of the abdication in December 1936. The silver threepence had another completely new reverse – three interlinked rings of Saint Edmund, with the inscription , while the obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king with the inscription and a very small silver engravement. Brass vs silver threepences By the end of George V's reign the threepence had become unpopular in England because of its small size (George Orwell comments on this in Keep the Aspidistra Flying), but it remained popular in Scotland. It was consequently decided to introduce a more substantial threepenny coin which would have a more convenient weight/value ratio than the silver coinage. The silver threepence continued to be minted, as there may have been some uncertainty about how well the new coin would be accepted. The reign of Edward VIII saw the planned introduction of a new, larger, nickel-brass (79% copper, 20% zinc, 1% nickel) twelve-sided threepence coin. This coin weighed and the diameter was across the sides and across the corners. The obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king (not right as would have been the convention to alternate the direction) with the inscription , and the reverse shows a three-headed thrift plant with the inscription . A total of just 12 of these coins were struck for experimental purposes and sent to a slot machine manufacturing company for testing. The whereabouts of six of those 12 are known. However, the other six are still out there somewhere and, as such, they are extremely rare today. An example was put up for auction in 2013, expecting £30,000. There are two types of Edward VIII brass threepences. The first type has the date broken by a thrift plant design and the second has the date below. During the reign of King George VI, circulation silver threepences were produced only in 1937–45 (and almost all the 1945 examples were subsequently melted down). The obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king with the inscription , while the reverse has an elegant design of a shield of St George lying on a Tudor rose, dividing the date, with the inscription . The nickel-brass threepence took over the bulk of the production of the denomination, being produced in all years between 1937 and 1952 except 1947. Apart from the king's head and name, and the weight being increased to , the coin was identical to that prepared for Edward VIII. Coins dated 1946 and 1949 were minted in far fewer numbers than the rest, and as nickel-brass wears very quickly; higher grade specimens of these coins are expensive to buy now (both over £500 for uncirculated examples). The scarce dates are 1948, 1950 and 1951 and these are now selling for £60–£80 in mint state. Elizabeth II threepences The physical dimensions of the brass threepence remained the same in the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. The effigy of the queen produced by Mary Gillick was used, with the inscription used in 1953, and used in all other years. The reverse shows a Tudor portcullis with chains and a coronet, with the inscription . This coin was produced in all years from 1953 to 1967, and in 1970 (in proof sets only). Following decimalisation, the brass threepence ceased to be legal tender after 31 August 1971. The Commonwealth A three pence coin was also used in the pre-decimalisation currencies of Commonwealth of Nations countries such as Fiji, Australia, and New Zealand. It was called a tickey in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia. Building No. 1 Croydon was known for many years as the "threepenny bit building" for its resemblance to a stack of threepenny coins. After the coins were phased out (beginning in 1970) the building eventually gained a new nickname, the "50p building". Nickname The silver threepenny bit was known as a 'joey'. The 12-sided coin reprised In March 2014, the Royal Mint announced that a new design of one pound coin would be introduced in 2017, reprising the twelve-sided shape. The new coin was designed to be more difficult to counterfeit. October 2019 – sale of 120,000 threepences In October 2019, it was announced that 120,000 silver threepences dated to 1935 and earlier were to be sold to the general public, as part of a move to encourage people to pick up coin collecting and numismatics. The London Mint Office oversaw the sale of the coins, which all date from George V's reign and were valued at a total of approximately £1m, although a more realistic valuation would be in the region of £60,000. See also Irish three-pence coin Australian threepence coin New Zealand pound References External links British Coins – Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum. History of the Threepence Threepence (Circulating), Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club History of British coinage Pre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom Coins of Great Britain	[ -0.31982162594795227, 0.05198138579726219, -0.2586176097393036, -0.32895299792289734, -0.7242450714111328, 0.9122766256332397, 0.3849780559539795, 0.05910102277994156, -0.3496813178062439, 0.16897761821746826, 0.2862224578857422, 0.07485566288232803, -0.22121769189834595, 0.4884585738182068, -0.14055612683296204, 0.3408452868461609, 0.5216904282569885, 0.1804891675710678, -0.1296926736831665, -0.6188530921936035, -0.4003574550151825, 0.17750540375709534, 0.16869841516017914, -1.033719778060913, 0.02028442919254303, 0.4271218478679657, 0.8764641284942627, -0.548146665096283, -0.27839505672454834, -0.5419891476631165, -0.06457771360874176, 0.9853174090385437, 0.20700675249099731, 0.06131443753838539, 0.016005786135792732, -0.12443133443593979, 0.3397495448589325, -0.5523031949996948, 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221270	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pianist%20%281991%20film%29	The Pianist (1991 film)	The Pianist is a 1991 film directed by Claude Gagnon. It is based on the novel A Certain Mr. Takahashi by Ann Ireland. The central premise of the film -- in which two teenage girls develop a crush on, and begin stalking, a celebrated concert pianist -- is very similar to the 1964 film The World of Henry Orient. Plot A newly arrived celebrated Japanese pianist Takahashi (Eiji Okuda) is spied on by two teenage neighbor sisters, Jean (Gail Travers and Colette Macha Grenon). A family reunion to announce that the parents will be managing an institution in China recalls their experiences at attempting to meet him, then interacting with him in a supposedly one time sexual experience — a ménage à troi. The father of the sisters imitates Colette is unaware that Jean has seen her at a New York City night club dancing with him. Colette visited Jean in New York City and makes explorations of the city on her own. Takahashi is to sign posters at an event in Vancouver where the parents of the sisters have relocated. Colette does not want to go to the signing on the reasoning that they all have changed. Colette comes clean that she has slept with him and does not want him to known that she is aware of their trysts. A former boyfriend of the sister's mother attends the reunion and Jean has a tryst with him during the banquet. They go to the poster signing, are welcomed by him and invited to a lunch. Following the lunch he makes his goodbyes to the sisters and Colette indicates to him that they are still friends. His limousine drives away. Cast Gail Travers Macha Grenon Eiji Okuda Dorothée Berryman Maury Chaykin Ralph Allison Carl Alacchi External links 1991 films Canadian films English-language films Films based on Canadian novels Films about classical music and musicians Films about pianos and pianists 1991 drama films Films directed by Claude Gagnon	[ -0.49060747027397156, 0.47073179483413696, -0.28267401456832886, -0.1640421450138092, 0.07829292118549347, 0.18485350906848907, 0.15167230367660522, -0.2944950759410858, -0.8257487416267395, -0.1361674666404724, -0.16405099630355835, 0.5734334588050842, -0.2592643201351166, 0.019946560263633728, 0.29933425784111023, 0.4415041208267212, 0.44755977392196655, -0.430233359336853, 0.1906542032957077, -1.2612699270248413, -0.2661624848842621, -0.3287978172302246, 0.5208468437194824, -0.31921300292015076, -0.3483177423477173, 0.4779703915119171, -0.03643475100398064, 0.8290113806724548, 0.1541678011417389, 0.27614742517471313, 0.09284814447164536, -0.220468670129776, 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221271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pianist%20%281998%20film%29	The Pianist (1998 film)	The Pianist (El Pianista) was a 1998 Catalan-language film directed by Mario Gas, and based on a novel by Manuel Vázquez Montalbán. It tells the story of two musicians, played in their old age by Serge Reggiani and Laurent Terzieff and in their youth by Pere Ponce and Jordi Mollà, who were friends at the onset of the Spanish Civil War. They meet 60 years later, and we are presented with the strikingly different paths which they took in the circumstances of the war. Cast Pascale Roberts as Sra. Amparo Michel Robin as Floreal External links 1998 films Catalan-language films Films based on Spanish novels Spanish-language films Films about classical music and musicians Films about pianos and pianists 1998 drama films	[ -0.3411024808883667, 0.3524632155895233, -0.07185215502977371, -0.03033265471458435, -0.01769026555120945, 0.07156834751367569, -0.18338161706924438, 0.03612624853849411, -0.5822463035583496, -0.014408634975552559, -0.28065598011016846, 0.41247549653053284, -0.28368860483169556, 0.03428398817777634, 0.025732407346367836, 0.4407990574836731, 0.3476698696613312, -0.17996159195899963, 0.025993527844548225, -1.2073010206222534, -0.4524820148944855, -0.1603519767522812, 0.27030816674232483, -0.2975262403488159, -0.4356972873210907, 0.5703157782554626, -0.32327038049697876, 0.8565327525138855, 0.11909110099077225, 0.06444770097732544, 0.3383011519908905, -0.2000787854194641, 0.12207645922899246, -0.19337202608585358, -0.11931195110082626, 0.7058765888214111, 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221272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pianist%20%28memoir%29	The Pianist (memoir)	The Pianist is a memoir by the Polish-Jewish pianist and composer Władysław Szpilman in which he describes his life in Warsaw in occupied Poland during World War II. After being forced with his family to live in the Warsaw Ghetto, Szpilman manages to avoid deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp, and from his hiding places around the city witnesses the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943 and the Warsaw Uprising (the rebellion by the Polish resistance) the following year. He survives in the ruined city with the help of friends and strangers, including Wilm Hosenfeld, a German army captain who admires his piano playing. The book was first published in Polish in 1946 as Śmierć Miasta. Pamiętniki Władysława Szpilmana 1939–1945 ("Death of a City: Memoirs of Władysław Szpilman 1939–1945"), edited by Jerzy Waldorff, a Polish music critic and friend of Szpilman's. In his introduction, Waldorff explained that he had written down the story as told by Szpilman. A 1950 Polish film based on the book was heavily censored by the Communist government. A German translation by Karin Wolff in 1998, Das wunderbare Überleben: Warschauer Erinnerungen ("The Miraculous Survival: Warsaw Memories"), named Władysław Szpilman as the sole author, and in 1999 an English translation by Anthea Bell was published as The Pianist: The Extraordinary Story of One Man's Survival in Warsaw, 1939–45. Two years after Szpilman's death, Roman Polanski's The Pianist (2002) won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, and the following year three Academy Awards (best adapted screenplay, best actor and best director), and BAFTA Awards for best film and best direction. Synopsis Władysław Szpilman Władysław Szpilman (1911–2000) was born in Sosnowiec, Poland, and studied piano in the early 1930s at the Fryderyk Chopin University of Music in Warsaw and at the Berlin Academy of Arts. In Berlin he was instructed by Leonid Kreutzer and Artur Schnabel. During his time at the academy he also studied composition with Franz Schreker. In 1933, after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, Szpilman returned to Warsaw, where he worked as a pianist for Polish Radio. During the invasion of Poland in September 1939, German bombs destroyed the power station that kept Polish Radio running. Szpilman played the station's last pre-war live recording (a Chopin recital) on 23 September 1939, the day it went off the air. Days after Warsaw's surrender, German leaflets were hung on the walls of buildings, promising Poles the protection of the German state. A section of the leaflets were devoted to Jews, guaranteeing that their rights, property and lives would be secure. Decrees applying to Jews were posted around the city. From 1 December Jews over the age of 12 had to wear a blue Star of David on a white armband; they were given five days to comply. They had to hand real estate and valuables over to German officials. Jewish families were permitted to own just 2,000 złoty; the rest had to be deposited in a bank in a blocked account. Very few people complied. Szpilman's family—he was living with his parents, his brother Henryk, and his sisters Regina and Halina—hid their money in the window frame, an expensive gold watch under a cupboard, and the watch's chain beneath the fingerboard of Szpilman's father's violin. Creation of the ghetto By 1940 many of the roads leading to the area set aside for the Warsaw ghetto were being blocked off with walls. No reason was given for the construction work. Notices appeared in the streets that were to mark the ghetto's boundary announcing that the area was infected by typhus. Szpilman describes a newspaper article that appeared soon after the ghetto was announced: [T]he only Warsaw newspaper published in Polish by the Germans provided an official comment on this subject: not only were the Jews social parasites, they also spread infection. They were not, said the report, to be shut up in a ghetto; even the word ghetto was not to be used. The Germans were too cultured and magnanimous a race, said the newspaper, to confine even parasites like the Jews to ghettos, a medieval remnant unworthy of the new order in Europe. Instead, there was to be a separate Jewish quarter of the city where only Jews lived, where they would enjoy total freedom, and where they could continue to practise their racial customs and culture. Purely for hygienic reasons, this quarter was to be surrounded by a wall so that typhus and other Jewish diseases could not spread to other parts of the city. Szpilman's family was already living in the ghetto-designated area; other families had to find new homes within its confines. They were given just over a month's warning, and many had to pay exorbitant rents for tiny slums in bad areas. (By May 1941, 445,000 Jews were living in the ghetto, which covered 4.5 percent of the city's area.) Life in the ghetto By the time the Germans closed the gates of the ghetto on 15 November 1940, Szpilman's family had sold all their belongings, including their "most precious household possession", the piano. Szpilman found he was able to earn a living by playing piano, first in the ghetto's Café Nowoczesna in Nowolipki Street, then in a café in Sienna Street frequented by the Jewish intelligentsia, and later in the ghetto's largest café, the Sztuka in Leszno Street. The Café Nowoczesna pandered to the ghetto's upper class, largely smugglers and their guests. The closure of the ghetto had made little difference to the trade. Food, drink and luxury goods arrived heaped on wagons; Kon and Heller, who ran the business (both in the service of the Gestapo), paid the guards to turn a blind eye. There were other, less organized, forms of smuggling too. Every afternoon carts would pass by the ghetto wall, a whistle would be heard, and bags of food would be thrown over the wall. Several smugglers were children who squeezed through the gutters that ran from the Aryan to the Jewish side. Szpilman describes watching such an operation in progress; the goods had been thrown over, and the child was about to follow: His skinny little figure was already partly in view when he suddenly began screaming, and at the same time I heard the hoarse bellowing of a German on the other side of the wall. I ran to the child to help him squeeze through as quickly as possible, but in defiance of our efforts his hips stuck in the drain. I pulled at his little arms with all my might, while his screams became increasingly desperate, and I could hear the heavy blows struck by the policeman on the other side of the wall. When I finally managed to pull the child through, he died. His spine had been shattered. As time went on, the ghetto slowly split into a small ghetto, made up of the intelligentsia and middle and upper classes, and a large one that held the rest of the Warsaw Jews. The two were connected by a crossing on Chłodna Street. Szpilman and his family lived in the small ghetto, which was less crowded and dangerous. Whenever he went into the large ghetto, he would visit a friend, Jehuda Zyskind, who worked as a smuggler, trader, driver or carrier as the need arose. Zyskind would supply Szpilman with the latest news from outside the ghetto, which he received via radio. In the winter of 1942, Zyskind and his family were shot after being caught producing underground publications. After completing whatever other business he had, Szpilman would head back to his house in the small ghetto. On his way he would meet up with his brother, Henryk, who made a living trading books in the street. Henryk, like Władysław, was cultured and well educated. Many of his friends advised him to do as most young men of the intelligentsia and join the Jewish Ghetto Police, an organization of Jews who worked under the SS, upholding their laws in the ghetto. Henryk refused to work with "bandits". In May 1942 the Jewish police began to carry out the task of "human hunting" for the Germans: You could have said, perhaps, that they caught the Gestapo spirit. As soon as they put on their uniforms and police caps and picked up their rubber truncheons, their natures changed. Now their ultimate ambition was to be in close touch with the Gestapo, to be useful to Gestapo officers, parade down the street with them, show off their knowledge of the German language and vie with their masters in the harshness of their dealings with the Jewish population. During a "human hunt" conducted by the Jewish police, Henryk was picked up and arrested. Szpilman went to the labour bureau building, hoping that his popularity as a pianist would be enough to secure Henryk's release and stop himself from being arrested as well, for none of his papers were in order. After much effort, he managed to extract a promise from the deputy director of the labour bureau that Henryk would be home by that night. The other men arrested during the sweep were taken to Treblinka. Umschlagplatz The deportations began on 22 July 1942. Buildings, randomly selected from all areas of the ghetto, were surrounded by German officers leading troops of Jewish police. The inhabitants were called out and the buildings searched, then everyone was loaded into wagons and taken to the Umschlagplatz (assembly area) in Stawki Street next to the Warszawa Gdańska station. From there, they were loaded onto trains. Notices posted around the city said that all Jews fit to work were going to the East to work in German factories. They would each be allowed 20 kilograms of luggage, jewelry, and provisions for two days. Only Jewish officials from the Judenräte or other social institutions were exempt from resettlement. In the hope of being allowed to stay in Warsaw if they were useful to the German community, Jews tried to find work at German firms that were recruiting within the ghetto. If they managed to find work, often by paying their employer to hire them, Jews would be issued with certificates of employment. They would pin notices bearing the name of the place where they were working onto their clothing. After six days searching and deal making, Szpilman managed to procure six work certificates, enough for his entire family. At this time, Henryk, Władysław and their father were given work sorting the stolen possessions of Jewish families at the collection centre near the Umschlagplatz. They and the rest of the family were allowed to move into the barracks for Jewish workers at the centre. On 16 August 1942, their luck ran out. A selection was carried out at the collection centre, and only Henryk and Halina passed as fit to work. The rest of the family was taken to the Umschlagplatz. Henryk and Halina, working in the collection centre, heard about the family's plight and volunteered to go there too. Szpilman was horrified by his siblings' headstrong decision, and only accepted their presence after his appeal to the guards had failed to secure their release. The family sat together in the large open space: At one point a boy made his way through the crowd in our direction with a box of sweets on a string round his neck. He was selling them at ridiculous prices, although heaven knows what he thought he was going to do with the money. Scraping together the last of our small change, we bought a single cream caramel. Father divided it into six parts with his penknife. That was our last meal together. By six o'clock that night, the first wagons were full. There was a strong smell of chlorine. The SS were pushing people with their rifle butts, and those already inside were crying and shouting. Szpilman had walked halfway down the train with his family when he heard someone shout his name: "Here! Here, Szpilman!" Someone grabbed him by the collar, and he was pulled out of the police cordon. Szpilman never saw his family again. The train took them to the Treblinka extermination camp, and none survived the war. Death of a city Szpilman got work to keep himself safe. His first job was demolishing the walls of the large ghetto; now that most of the Jews had been deported, it was being reclaimed. While doing this, Szpilman was allowed to go to the Gentile side of Warsaw. When they could slip away, he and the other workers visited Polish food stalls and bought potatoes and bread. By eating some of the food and selling or trading the rest in the ghetto (where the value skyrocketed), the workers could feed themselves and raise enough money to repeat the exercise the next day. Szpilman survived another selection and was sent to other jobs. Eventually, he was posted to a steady job as "storeroom manager", where he organized the stores at the SS accommodation. At around this time, the Germans in charge of Szpilman's group decided to allow each man five kilograms of potatoes and a loaf of bread every day, to make them feel more secure under the Germans; fears of deportation had been running at high levels since the last selection. To get this food, the men were allowed to choose a representative to go into the city with a cart every day and buy it. They chose a young man known as "Majorek" (Little Major). Majorek acted not only to collect food, but as a link between the Jewish resistance in the ghetto and similar groups outside. Hidden inside his bags of food every day, Majorek would bring weapons and ammunition into the ghetto to be passed to the resistance by Szpilman and the other workers. Majorek was also a link to Szpilman's Polish friends on the outside; through Majorek, Szpilman managed to arrange his escape from the ghetto. On 13 February 1943, Szpilman slipped through the ghetto gate and met up with his friend Andrzej Bogucki on the other side. As soon as he saw Szpilman coming, Bogucki turned away and began to walk towards the hiding place they had arranged for him. Szpilman followed, careful not to reveal himself as Jewish by straying into the light of a street lamp while a German was passing. Szpilman only stayed in his first hiding place for a few days before he moved on. While hiding in the city, he had to move many times from flat to flat. Each time he would be provided with food by friends involved in the Polish resistance who, with one or two exceptions, came irregularly but as often as they were able. These months were long and boring for Szpilman; he passed his time by learning to cook elaborate meals silently and out of virtually nothing, by reading, and by teaching himself English. During the entire period he lived in fear of capture by the Germans. If he were ever discovered and unable to escape, Szpilman planned to commit suicide so that he would be unable to compromise any of his helpers under questioning. During the months spent in hiding, he came extremely close to suicide on several occasions. Warsaw uprising Szpilman continued to live in his hiding places until August 1944. That month, just weeks after the first Soviet shells had fallen on the city, the Warsaw uprising began, the Polish Home Army's effort to fight the German occupiers. As a result of the Soviet attack, the Germans had begun evacuating the civilian population, but there was still a strong military presence in Warsaw. This was the target of the Warsaw rebellion. From the window of the fourth-floor flat in which he was hiding, Szpilman had a good vantage point from which to watch. Hiding in a predominantly German area, he was not in a good position to join the fighting—he would need to get past several units of German soldiers who were holding the area—so he stayed in his building. On 12 August 1944, the German search for those behind the rebellion reached Szpilman's building. It was surrounded by Ukrainian fascists and the inhabitants were ordered to evacuate before the building was destroyed. A tank fired a couple of shots into the building, then it was set alight. Szpilman could only hope that the flats on the first floor were the only ones burning, and that he would escape the flames by staying high. But within hours, his room filled with smoke, and he began to feel the effects of carbon monoxide poisoning. He was resigned to dying, and decided to commit suicide by swallowing sleeping pills followed by a bottle of opium. But as soon as he took the sleeping pills, which acted almost instantly on his empty stomach, he fell asleep. When he woke up, the fire was no longer burning as powerfully. All the floors below Szpilman's were burned out to varying degrees, and he left the building to escape the smoke that filled the rooms. He sat down just outside the building, leaning against a wall to conceal himself from the Germans on the road on the other side. He remained hidden until dark, then he struck out across the road to an unfinished hospital building that had been evacuated. He crossed the road on hands and knees, lying flat and pretending to be a corpse (of which there were many on the road) whenever a German unit came into sight. When he eventually reached the hospital, he collapsed on the floor and fell asleep. The next day Szpilman explored the hospital thoroughly. It was full of items the Germans intended to take with them, meaning he would have to be careful travelling around the building in case a group should arrive to loot. To avoid the patrols that occasionally swept the building, Szpilman hid in a lumber room, tucked in a remote corner of the hospital. Food and drink were scarce in the hospital, and for the first four or five days of his stay in the building, Szpilman was unable to find anything. When, again, he went searching for food and drink, Szpilman managed to find some crusts of bread and a fire bucket full of water. The stinking water was covered in an iridescent film, but Szpilman drank deeply, although he stopped after inadvertently swallowing a considerable amount of dead insects. On 30 August Szpilman moved back into his old building, which by now had entirely burnt out. Here, in larders and bathtubs (now open to the air because of the fire), Szpilman found bread and rainwater, which kept him alive. During his time in this building the Warsaw uprising was defeated and the evacuation of the civilian population was completed. The Polish Home Army signed the capitulation agreement on 2 October 1944; 150,000 civilians are thought to have died. By October 14 Szpilman and the German army were all but the only humans still living in Warsaw, which had been completely destroyed by the Germans: [The city] now consisted of the chimneys of burnt-out buildings pointing to the sky, and whatever walls the bombing had spared: a city of rubble and ashes under which the centuries-old culture of my people and the bodies of hundreds of thousands of murdered victims lay buried, rotting in the warmth of these late autumn days and filling the air with a dreadful stench. As November set in, so did winter. Living in the attic of the block of flats, with very little protection from the cold and the snow, Szpilman began to get extremely cold. As a result of the cold and the squalor, he eventually developed an insatiable craving for hot porridge. So, at great risk, Szpilman came down from the attic to find a working oven in one of the flats. He was still trying to get the stove lit when he was discovered by a German soldier: From then on, Szpilman decided to stay hidden on the roof, coming down only at dusk to search for food. He was soon forced to change his plans. Lying on the roof one day, he suddenly heard a burst of gunfire; two Germans were standing on the roof shooting at him. Szpilman slithered through the trapdoor onto the stairway, and down into the expanse of burnt-out buildings. Wilm Hosenfeld Szpilman soon found a similar building that he could live in. It was the only multi-story building in the area and, as was now his custom, he made his way up to the attic. Days later, while raiding one of its kitchens, he suddenly heard a German voice ask what he was doing. Szpilman said nothing, but sat down in despair by the larder door. The German officer, Wilm Hosenfeld, asked for his occupation, and Szpilman replied that he was a pianist. Hosenfeld led him to a piano in the next room and instructed him to play: Hosenfeld went with Szpilman to take a look at his hiding place. Inspecting the attic thoroughly, he found a loft above the attic that Szpilman hadn't noticed. He helped Szpilman find a ladder and climb up into the loft. From then until his unit retreated from Warsaw, he supplied Szpilman with food, water and encouraging news of the Soviet advance. Hosenfeld's unit left during the first half of December 1944. He left Szpilman with supplies and a German army greatcoat. Szpilman had little to offer by way of thanks, but told him that if he should ever need help, he should ask for the pianist Szpilman of the Polish Radio. The Soviets finally arrived on 15 January 1945. When the city was liberated, troops began to arrive, with civilians following them, alone or in small groups. Wishing to be friendly, Szpilman came out of his hiding place and greeted one of these civilians, a woman carrying a bundle on her back. Before he had finished speaking, she dropped her bundle, turned and fled, shouting that Szpilman was "a German!" He ran back inside his building. Minutes later, the building was surrounded by troops who were making their way in via the cellars. Szpilman came down the stairs slowly, shouting "Don't shoot! I'm Polish!" A young Polish officer came up the stairs towards him, pointing his pistol and telling him to put his hands up. The officer inspected him closely; he eventually agreed that Szpilman was Polish and lowered the pistol. Career after the war, last years and death Szpilman resumed his musical career at Radio Poland in Warsaw, in 1945. His first piece at the newly reconstructed recording room of Radio Warsaw, Chopin's Nocturne in C sharp minor, was the last piece he had played six years before. A violinist friend, Zygmunt Lednicki, told Szpilman about a German officer he had met at a Soviet POW camp. The officer, learning that Lednicki was a musician, had asked if he knew Władysław Szpilman. Lednicki had said that he did, but before the German could tell him his name, the guards at the camp had asked Lednicki to move on and sat the German back down again. When Szpilman and Lednicki returned to where the camp had been, it had gone. Szpilman did everything in his power to find the officer, but it took him five years even to discover his name. He went to the government in an attempt to secure Hosenfeld's release, but Hosenfeld and his unit, which was suspected of spying, had been moved to a POW camp at a secret location somewhere in Soviet Russia, and there was nothing the Polish government could do. Hosenfeld died in captivity in 1952. He was recognized by Israel as Righteous Among the Nations in 2008. Szpilman went on to become the head of Polish Radio's music department until 1963, when he retired to devote more time to composing and touring as a concert pianist. In 1986 he retired from the latter and became a full-time composer. Szpilman died in Warsaw on 6 July 2000, aged 88. Publication history First edition Part of the memoir first appeared as "Pamietniki Szpilmana" ("Szpilman's Memoirs") in the summer of 1946 in Przekrój, a Polish weekly magazine, under the byline of Jerzy Waldorff, a Polish music critic and popular author whom Szpilman had met on vacation in Krynica in 1938. The book, Śmierć Miasta. Pamiętniki Władysława Szpilmana 1939–1945 ("Death of a City: Memoirs of Władysław Szpilman 1939–1945"), was published in 1946 by Wiedza. Waldorff was named as the editor, rather than author. He added a commentary and introduction, explaining in the latter that he had written down the story as told by Szpilman. The decision to present Szpilman as the author was made by the publishing house, according to Krzysztof Lichtblau of Szczecin University, citing Waldorff's biographer, Mariusz Urbanek. The oral testimonies of Holocaust survivors were regularly put down on paper by professional writers. According to Wolf Biermann in his afterword in the German and English editions, Śmierć Miasta was withdrawn from circulation after a few months by the Polish censors. An eyewitness account of the collaboration of Jews, Russians and Poles with Germans did not sit well with Stalinist Poland or, indeed, with anyone, he wrote. German and English translations In 1998 a German translation by Karin Wolff was published by Econ Verlag as Das wunderbare Überleben: Warschauer Erinnerungen ("The Miraculous Survival: Warsaw Memories"). This new edition named Władysław Szpilman as the sole author, and included Biermann's afterword, part of a memoir by Wilm Hosenfeld, and a foreword by Szpilman's son, Andrzej Szpilman. Waldorff told Życie Warszawy that he was hurt that his name had been omitted, although everything was legal because Szpilman owned the copyrights. After the interview, Szpilman reportedly stopped talking to Waldorff. Waldorff filed a lawsuit, and the Polish Society of Authors and Composers (ZAiKS) worked out a settlement, which stipulated that Waldorff's name be included in subsequent editions. He was also compensated financially. In 1999 Victor Gollancz published an English translation by Anthea Bell as The Pianist: The Extraordinary Story of One Man's Survival in Warsaw, 1939–45. The English edition was probably translated from the German; Bell did not translate from Polish. Władysław Szpilman was named as the author and copyright holder, and Jerzy Waldorff as responsible for the compilation of the first edition. Victor Gollancz Ltd holds the copyright of Bell's translation. New editions: Polish, German A new Polish edition, Pianista: Warszawskie Wspomnienia 1939–1945, appeared in 2000. A new German edition, Der Pianist: Mein wunderbares Überleben, appeared in 2002. Screen Polish writers Jerzy Andrzejewski and Czesław Miłosz wrote a screenplay, Robinson Warszawski ("Robinson of Warsaw"), based on the book, but communist government censors insisted on drastic revisions: Szpilman, for example, became the non-Jewish Rafalski, and the German army officer became Austrian. Miłosz withdrew his name from the credits. The censored version was released in 1950 as Miasto nieujarzmione ("Unvanquished City"), directed by Jerzy Zarzycki. Two years after Szpilman's death, Roman Polanski, who lived in the Kraków ghetto as a child, directed The Pianist (2002), starring Adrien Brody as Szpilman and Thomas Kretschmann as Hosenfeld, with a screenplay by Ronald Harwood. The film won the Palme d'Or at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. In 2003 at the 75th Academy Awards, it won best adapted screenplay for Harwood, best actor for Brody, and best director for Polanski; the best film and best direction at the 56th British Academy Film Awards; and the César Award for best film. Concerts and readings As part of the 2007 Manchester International Festival, passages from Szpilman's book were recited by Peter Guinness, accompanied by the pianist Mikhail Rudy. Directed by Neil Bartlett, the performance took place in the warehouse attic of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. The disused railway tracks outside the building recalled the trains that took the Jews from the ghetto to the concentration camps. The idea for the performance was conceived by Rudy, who gained the backing of Andrzej Szpilman. Rudy also performed at a concert dedicated to Szpilman's music, where he met his relatives. A presentation of The Pianist was organized by Andrzej Szpilman in 2014 in Germany, with music by Frédéric Chopin and Władyslaw Szpilman performed by Ewa Kupiec. Szpilman recited parts of the book. Release details Władysław Szpilman (1946). Śmierć Miasta. Pamiętniki Władysława Szpilmana 1939–1945. Opracował [developed by] Jerzy Waldorff, Warsaw: Wiedza. Władysław Szpilman (1998). Das wunderbare Überleben: Warschauer Erinnerungen, trans. Karin Wolff. Düsseldorf: Econ Verlag. Władysław Szpilman (1999). The Pianist: The Extraordinary Story of One Man's Survival in Warsaw, 1939–45, trans. Anthea Bell. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. Władysław Szpilman (1999). The Pianist: The Extraordinary Story of One Man's Survival in Warsaw, 1939–45, trans. Anthea Bell. New York: Picador. Władysław Szpilman (2000). Le Pianiste: L'extraordinaire destin d'un musicien juif dans le ghetto de Varsovie, 1939-1945, trans. Bernard Cohen. Paris: Robert Laffont. Władysław Szpilman (2000). Pianista: Warszawskie Wspomnienia 1939–1945. Kraków: Znak. Władysław Szpilman (2002). Der Pianist: Mein wunderbares Überleben, trans. Karin Wolff. Berlin: Ullstein Taschenbuch. Notes References All references to The Pianist are to the 2000 Picador edition. Further reading Władysław Szpilman information and biography, szpilman.net. "Szpilman's Warsaw: The History behind The Pianist", United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Kerner, Aaron (2011). Film and the Holocaust, New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 72–74. 1946 non-fiction books 1999 non-fiction books Jewish Polish history Personal accounts of the Holocaust Polish memoirs Polish non-fiction books Władysław Szpilman	[ -0.1565726399421692, 0.47879329323768616, -0.2530288100242615, -0.2162885218858719, 0.04649859294295311, 0.18455129861831665, 0.404549241065979, -0.220295250415802, -0.31625768542289734, -0.45162686705589294, -0.35502663254737854, -0.2160588800907135, -0.11170648038387299, 0.40245506167411804, -0.19046813249588013, 0.35462814569473267, -0.07807924598455429, -0.22844122350215912, -0.34972646832466125, -0.9911286234855652, 0.34978464245796204, 0.10468856990337372, 0.4425380527973175, -0.03119829297065735, 0.360241562128067, 0.16535449028015137, 0.02906590886414051, 0.027302337810397148, -0.19848385453224182, 0.10400939732789993, -0.41938021779060364, -0.06924130022525787, 0.10549266636371613, -0.4415977895259857, 0.06071368232369423, 0.2804313600063324, 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221274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germersheim%20%28district%29	Germersheim (district)	Germersheim () is a district in the south-east of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Südliche Weinstraße, Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis, the district Karlsruhe as well as the district-free city of Karlsruhe, and the French département Bas-Rhin. History Most of the region was part of the Palatinate from the 11th century on. The bishops of Speyer owned some lands, too. The Palatinate was destroyed in the Napoleonic Wars, and the clerical states of Germany were dissolved in 1803. After a period of French occupation the Congress of Vienna decided to hand the territories over to Bavaria. The region remained a part of Bavaria until World War II; afterwards it was incorporated into the newly established state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Geography The Rhine river marks (with a few exceptions) the eastern boundary of the district, the river Lauter most of the southern boundary. The landscape of the district consists of the Rhine valley, in the north and east meeting the jungle-like areas of old Rhine arms, in the south covering the Bienwald (a forest stretching into the north of Alsace). Coat of arms The coat of arms shows the lion of Palatinate in the top part, and the cross of Speyer in the bottom part. The wavy line in the middle symbolizes the Rhine river, and the escutcheon in the middle is from the coat of arms of the city of Germersheim. Towns and municipalities References External links Official website (German) Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate South Palatinate Anterior Palatinate	[ -0.16597293317317963, 1.0305460691452026, 0.25177663564682007, -0.533506453037262, -0.6391291618347168, 0.20298068225383759, 0.8216524720191956, 0.2036387175321579, 0.0162081029266119, -0.6673270463943481, -0.23435558378696442, -0.08394209295511246, -0.009256422519683838, 0.6844038367271423, 0.13544227182865143, 0.6321487426757812, 0.5653886795043945, 0.42137694358825684, -0.3467588424682617, -0.9618454575538635, -0.10806788504123688, -0.3083752393722534, 0.6325584650039673, 0.3053562045097351, -0.7910029888153076, -0.054949015378952026, 0.6184189915657043, 0.15442624688148499, 0.37825340032577515, -0.1180245578289032, -0.1002931073307991, 0.6646814346313477, -0.2541118860244751, -0.48158180713653564, 0.6188180446624756, 0.7604193687438965, -0.14706633985042572, -0.5863463878631592, 0.5087753534317017, -0.7148668766021729, 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221276	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Showstopper	Showstopper	Showstopper (originally a performance or segment of a theatrical production that induces a positive audience reaction strong enough to pause the production) may refer to: Computing A hardware or software bug which must be fixed before the product being worked on is considered ready for release People One of several nicknames of professional wrestler Shawn Michaels Film and TV "Show Stopper" (CSI: Miami), the twelfth episode in season eight of CSI: Miami "Show Stoppers", an episode of Garfield and Friends from 1989 "Showstoppers", an episode of The Simple Life Musical Theatre "Showstopper! The Improvised Musical", an Olivier-award winning comedy improvised musical theatre show. Music Albums Showstoppers (album) Barry Manilow, 1991 American Idol Season 4: The Showstoppers, 2005 album from the American Idol compilation series Songs "The Showstoppa" by Salt-N-Pepa, 1985 "Show Stopper", by Danity Kane, 2006 "Show Stopper", a song by Peaches from I Feel Cream, 2009 "Showstopper" (song), by TobyMac, 2010 "Showstopper", a song by Brandon & Leah, around 2012	[ 0.02731337584555149, -0.12821505963802338, 0.10249578207731247, 0.14160412549972534, 0.06968231499195099, -0.36414527893066406, 0.41229042410850525, 0.3123806416988373, -0.5195436477661133, 0.06356430053710938, -0.20228137075901031, 0.5363749861717224, -0.2770576477050781, -0.05934911221265793, -0.5412935018539429, 0.49434399604797363, 0.023005567491054535, 0.10154745727777481, -0.0758357122540474, -0.3150683343410492, -0.024108799174427986, -0.07459745556116104, 0.06042799726128578, -0.47144630551338196, 0.059085410088300705, 0.22872233390808105, -0.8773229122161865, -0.2645677626132965, -0.08151965588331223, 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221277	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel%20panic	Kernel panic	A kernel panic (sometimes abbreviated as KP) is a safety measure taken by an operating system's kernel upon detecting an internal fatal error in which either it is unable to safely recover or continuing to run the system would have a higher risk of major data loss. The term is largely specific to Unix and Unix-like systems. For Microsoft Windows operating systems the equivalent term is "Stop error", resulting in a bug check screen that presents the bug check code on a blue background in Windows (colloquially known as a "Blue Screen of Death" or BSoD), or on a green background on the Xbox One platform and some Windows Insider builds. The kernel routines that handle panics, known as panic() in AT&T-derived and BSD Unix source code, are generally designed to output an error message to the console, dump an image of kernel memory to disk for post-mortem debugging, and then either wait for the system to be manually rebooted, or initiate an automatic reboot. The information provided is of a highly technical nature and aims to assist a system administrator or software developer in diagnosing the problem. Kernel panics can also be caused by errors originating outside kernel space. For example, many Unix operating systems panic if the init process, which runs in user space, terminates. History The Unix kernel maintains internal consistency and runtime correctness with assertions as the fault detection mechanism. The basic assumption is that the hardware and the software should perform correctly and a failure of an assertion results in a panic, i.e. a voluntary halt to all system activity. The kernel panic was introduced in an early version of Unix and demonstrated a major difference between the design philosophies of Unix and its predecessor Multics. Multics developer Tom van Vleck recalls a discussion of this change with Unix developer Dennis Ritchie: I remarked to Dennis that easily half the code I was writing in Multics was error recovery code. He said, "We left all that stuff out. If there's an error, we have this routine called panic, and when it is called, the machine crashes, and you holler down the hall, 'Hey, reboot it.'" The original panic() function was essentially unchanged from Fifth Edition UNIX to the VAX-based UNIX 32V and output only an error message with no other information, then dropped the system into an endless idle loop. Source code of panic() function in V6 UNIX: /* * In case console is off, * panicstr contains argument to last * call to panic. / char panicstr; /* * Panic is called on unresolvable * fatal errors. * It syncs, prints "panic: mesg" and * then loops. / panic(s) char s; { panicstr = s; update(); printf("panic: %s\n", s); for(;;) idle(); } As the Unix codebase was enhanced, the panic() function was also enhanced to dump various forms of debugging information to the console. Causes A panic may occur as a result of a hardware failure or a software bug in the operating system. In many cases, the operating system is capable of continued operation after an error has occurred. However, the system is in an unstable state and rather than risking security breaches and data corruption, the operating system stops to prevent further damage and facilitate diagnosis of the error and, in usual cases, restart. After recompiling a kernel binary image from source code, a kernel panic while booting the resulting kernel is a common problem if the kernel was not correctly configured, compiled or installed. Add-on hardware or malfunctioning RAM could also be sources of fatal kernel errors during start up, due to incompatibility with the OS or a missing device driver. A kernel may also go into panic() if it is unable to locate a root file system. During the final stages of kernel userspace initialization, a panic is typically triggered if the spawning of init fails. A panic might also be triggered if the init process terminates, as the system would then be unusable. The following is an implementation of the Linux kernel final initialization in kernel_init(): static int __ref kernel_init(void unused) { ... / * We try each of these until one succeeds. * * The Bourne shell can be used instead of init if we are * trying to recover a really broken machine. */ if (execute_command) { if (!run_init_process(execute_command)) return 0; pr_err("Failed to execute %s. Attempting defaults...\n", execute_command); } if (!run_init_process("/sbin/init") \|\| !run_init_process("/etc/init") \|\| !run_init_process("/bin/init") \|\| !run_init_process("/bin/sh")) return 0; panic("No init found. Try passing init= option to kernel. " "See Linux Documentation/init.txt for guidance."); } Operating system specifics Linux Kernel panics appear in Linux like in other Unix-like systems, but they can also generate another kind of error condition, known as a kernel oops. In this case, the kernel normally continues to run after killing the offending process. As an oops could cause some subsystems or resources to become unavailable, they can later lead to a full kernel panic. On Linux, a kernel panic causes keyboard LEDs to blink as a visual indication of a critical condition. macOS When a kernel panic occurs in Mac OS X 10.2 through 10.7, the computer displays a multilingual message informing the user that they need to reboot the system. Prior to 10.2, a more traditional Unix-style panic message was displayed; in 10.8 and later, the computer automatically reboots and displays a message after the restart. The format of the message varies from version to version: 10.0–10.1: The system displays text on the screen, giving details about the error, and becomes unresponsive. 10.2: Rolls down a black transparent curtain then displays a message on a white background informing the user that they should restart the computer. The message is shown in English, French, German and Japanese. 10.3–10.5: The kernel panic is almost the same as version 10.2 but the background of the error screen is black. 10.6–10.7: The text has been revised and now includes a Spanish translation. 10.8 and later: The computer becomes unresponsive before it immediately reboots. When the computer starts back up, it shows a warning message for a few seconds about the computer restarting because of a kernel panic, and then the computer restarts back up. The message now includes a Chinese translation. Sometimes when there are five or more kernel panics within three minutes of the first one, the Mac will display a prohibitory sign for 30 seconds, and then shut down; this is known as a "recurring kernel panic". In all versions above 10.2, the text is superimposed on a standby symbol and is not full screen. Debugging information is saved in NVRAM and written to a log file on reboot. In 10.7 there is a feature to automatically restart after a kernel panic. In some cases, on 10.2 and later, white text detailing the error may appear in addition to the standby symbol. See also Core dump Blue screen of death Screen of death References Computer errors Operating system kernels Screens of death	[ -0.5155382752418518, 0.30892863869667053, -0.3397948741912842, 0.05898839235305786, -0.0745701938867569, 0.13716787099838257, 0.5428147912025452, 0.445376992225647, -0.22597052156925201, -0.0004711276851594448, -0.7641231417655945, 0.1747748702764511, -0.23141483962535858, 0.3725581467151642, -0.5074240565299988, -0.15686944127082825, 0.6492246985435486, 0.5597924590110779, -0.1430935263633728, -0.05061972513794899, -0.3129149377346039, -0.2188134491443634, -0.0950922966003418, -0.02419169992208481, -0.5182958841323853, 0.03985917568206787, 0.20818553864955902, -0.2799021601676941, -0.10894671082496643, 0.13136962056159973, -0.027799654752016068, 0.6710487604141235, -0.001966981217265129, -0.11798574030399323, 0.32192856073379517, 0.37525826692581177, -0.032952629029750824, -0.19272461533546448, 0.035628750920295715, -0.29955971240997314, 0.06420230120420456, 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221278	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20People%27s%20Political%20Consultative%20Conference	Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference	The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC, ), also known as the People's PCC (, ) or simply the PCC (), is a political advisory body in the People's Republic of China and a central part of the Chinese Communist Party's United Front system. The body traditionally consists of delegates from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and its allied front organizations, eight legally-permitted political parties subservient to the CCP, as well as nominally independent members. The CPPCC is chaired by a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. In keeping with the United Front strategy, prominent non-CCP members have been included among the Vice Chairs, examples being Chen Shutong, Li Jishen and Soong Ching-ling. The National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (, shortened ) typically holds a yearly meeting at the same time as plenary sessions of the National People's Congress (NPC). The CPPCC National Committee and NPC plenary sessions are collectively called the Quanguo Lianghui ("National Two Sessions"). The organisational hierarchy of the CPPCC consists of a National Committee and regional committees. Regional committees extend to the provincial, prefecture, and county level. According to Article 19, Section 2 of the constitution of the CPPCC, the relationship between the National Committee and the regional committees is one of guidance and not direct leadership. However, an indirect leadership exists via the United Front Work Department at each level. The CPPCC is intended to be more representative of a broader range of people than is typical of government office in the People's Republic of China. According to Sinologist Peter Mattis, the CPPCC is "the one place where all the relevant actors inside and outside the party come together: party elders, intelligence officers, diplomats, propagandists, soldiers and political commissars, united front workers, academics, and businesspeople." In practice, the CPPCC serves "the place where messages are developed and distributed among party members and the non-party faithful who shape perceptions of the CCP and China." The composition of the members of the CPPCC changes over time according to national strategic priorities. Previously dominated by senior figures in real-estate, state-owned enterprises, and "princelings", the CPPCC in 2018 was primarily composed of individuals from China's technology sector. History The Conference dated prior to the existence of the People's Republic of China. During negotiations between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang in 1945, the two parties agreed to open multiparty talks on post-World War II political reforms via a Political Consultative Conference. This was included in the Double Tenth Agreement. This agreement was implemented by the National Government of the Republic of China, who organised the first Political Consultative Assembly from January 10–31, 1946. Representatives of the Kuomintang, CCP, Chinese Youth Party, and China Democratic League, as well as independent delegates, attended the conference in Chongqing. In 1949, with the Communist Party having gained control of most of mainland China, they organised a "new" Political Consultative Conference in September, inviting delegates from various friendly parties to attend and discuss the establishment of a new state. This conference was then renamed the People's Political Consultative Conference. The first conference approved the Common Program, which served as the de facto constitution for the next five years. The conference approved the new national anthem, flag, capital city, and state name, and elected the first government of the People's Republic of China. In effect, the first People's Political Consultative Conference served as a constitutional convention. From 1949 to 1954, the conference became the de facto legislature of the PRC. In 1954, the Constitution transferred this function to the National People's Congress. Present role The role that CPPCC plays in the Chinese government is stated in the preamble of the PRC Constitution. In practice, its role and powers are somewhat analogous to an advisory legislative upper house and there have been proposals to formalise this role in the PRC Constitution, making its National Committee a de facto national senate and its committees in all of the administrative divisions the upper chambers of their respective legislative branches. According to state media Xinhua News Agency, it is neither a body of state power nor a policymaking organ, but a platform for participating in state affairs. In practice, CPPCC members serve as advisors for the government and legislative and judicial organs. The CCP and the aligned "democratic parties" participate in the CPPCC. Besides political parties, CPPCC has also representatives from various sectors of society in its ranks. The parties and groups with representatives to the CPPCC are as follows: Chinese Communist Party Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang China Democratic League China Democratic National Construction Association China Association for Promoting Democracy Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party China Party for Public Interest September 3 Society Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League Communist Youth League of China All-China Federation of Trade Unions All-China Women's Federation All-China Youth Federation All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce China Association for Science and Technology All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots All-China Federation of Returned Overseas Chinese Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions Liberal Party (Hong Kong) New Century Forum New Territories Association of Societies Macau United Citizens Association Macau Business Interest Union Macau Union of Professional Interests Progress Promotion Union/General Union of the Macao Residents' Associations Union for Development/The Women's General Association of Macau National Committee The National Committee CPPCC is the national level organization that represents the CPPCC nationally and is made up of deputies coming from various sectors of society. Deputies of the NC-CPPCC are elected for 5 year terms. Standing Committee In between plenary sessions of the National Committee the duties of the CPPCC are performed by the Standing Committee of the NC-CPPCC. It is responsible for all actions taken by the whole of the National Committee of the Conference or by individual deputies of it. Chairpersons Past Chairpersons of the committee and the current Chairman: Mao Zedong Zhou Enlai Deng Xiaoping Deng Yingchao (female, widow of Zhou Enlai) Li Xiannian Li Ruihuan Jia Qinglin Yu Zhengsheng Wang Yang (since March 2018) Current Vice Chairpersons Current Secretary-General Xia Baolong (2018–incumbent) Special Committees The CPPCC National Committee has 10 Special Committees: Committee for Handling Proposals () Committee for Economic Affairs () Committee for Agriculture and Rural Affairs () Committee of Population, Resources and Environment () Committee of Education, Science, Health and Sports () Committee for Social and Legal Affairs () Committee for Ethnic and Religious Affairs () Committee of Culture, History and Study () Committee for Liaison with Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and Overseas Chinese () Committee of Foreign Affairs () Composition of members 6512 members in the 13th National Committee of CPPCC: Seats for Political Parties (536 in all) Chinese Communist Party (97) Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang (65) China Democratic League (65) China National Democratic Construction Association (64) China Association for Promoting Democracy (45) Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party (45) China Zhi Gong Party (29) Jiusan Society (44) Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League (20) Independents (62) Seats for People's organizations (307 in all) Communist Youth League of China (9) All-China Federation of Trade Unions (60) All-China Women's Federation (64) All-China Youth Federation (28) All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce (61) China Association for Science and Technology (43) All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots (15) All-China Federation of Returned Overseas (27) Seats for Sectoral representatives (1357 in all) Sector of Literature and Arts (142) Sector of Science and Technology (110) Sector of Social Science (71) Sector of Economics (149) Sector of Agriculture (67) Sector of Education (113) Sector of Sports (21) Sector of Press and Publication (44) Sector of Medicine and Health (88) Sector of International Friendship Activists (42) Sector of Social Welfare and Social Security (37) Sector of the Ethnic Minorities (101) Sector of Religions (65) Specially Invited Hong Kong Representatives (124) Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (25) Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (4) Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (2) Liberal Party (Hong Kong) (4) New Century Forum (1) New Territories Association of Societies (2) Specially Invited Macao Representatives (29) Macau United Citizens Association (1) Macau Business Interest Union (1) Macau Union of Professional Interests (2) Progress Promotion Union/General Union of the Macao Residents' Associations (1) Union for Development/The Women's General Association of Macau (1) Other Specially Invited Dignitaries to the Conference (including service personnel of the People's Liberation Army and the People's Armed Police) (154) The People’s Political Consultative Daily The People’s Political Consultative Daily () is the press window of information on direct policies and viewpoints of the CPPCC. Like most of the Chinese political organs, the newspaper serves as the mouthpiece for the conference. Compared with other governmental newspapers, such as The People's Daily or The PLA Daily, The People’s Political Consultative Daily is not as hardline, but rather smooth in terms of wording. Regional committees The following regional committees are modelled after the National Committee with identical composition of deputies elected to them and are each supervised by regional level Standing Committees: CPPCC province-level committees including regional committees of the autonomous regions and city committees of directly controlled municipal governments (Beijing, Tianjin, Chongqing and Shanghai) CPPCC prefecture-level committees including autonomous prefectural committees and city committees of sub-provincial and prefectural cities CPPCC county-level committees including committees of autonomous counties and country-level cities See also Chinese Literature and History Press, the CPPCC's publishing house People's organization United Front (China) List of current members of CPPCC by sector References External links Official news website Official newspaper website 1949 establishments in China China	[ 0.028548477217555046, 0.5499727129936218, -0.2062138020992279, 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221280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Ferlinghetti	Lawrence Ferlinghetti	Lawrence Monsanto Ferlinghetti (March 24, 1919 – February 22, 2021) was an American poet, painter, social activist, and co-founder of City Lights Booksellers & Publishers. The author of poetry, translations, fiction, theatre, art criticism, and film narration, Ferlinghetti was best known for his second collection of poems, A Coney Island of the Mind (1958), which has been translated into nine languages and sold over a million copies. When Ferlinghetti turned 100 in March 2019, the city of San Francisco turned his birthday, March 24, into "Lawrence Ferlinghetti Day". Early life Ferlinghetti was born on March 24, 1919, in Yonkers, New York. Shortly before his birth, his father, Carlo, a native of Brescia, died of a heart attack; and his mother, Clemence Albertine (née Mendes-Monsanto), of Sephardic Jewish descent, was committed to a mental hospital shortly after. He was raised by an aunt, and later by foster parents. He attended the Mount Hermon School for Boys (later Northfield Mount Hermon) graduating in 1937, then the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he earned a B.A. in journalism in 1941. He began his journalism career by writing sports for The Daily Tar Heel, and published his first short stories in Carolina Magazine, for which Thomas Wolfe had written. He served in the U.S. Navy throughout World War II, as the captain of a submarine chaser in the Normandy invasion. In 1947, he earned an M.A. degree in English literature from Columbia University with a thesis on John Ruskin and the British painter J. M. W. Turner. From Columbia, he went to the University of Paris and earned a Ph.D. in comparative literature with a dissertation on Paris as a symbol in modern poetry. Ferlinghetti met his wife-to-be, Selden Kirby-Smith, the granddaughter of Edmund Kirby-Smith, in 1946 aboard a ship en route to France. They were both heading to Paris to study at the Sorbonne. Kirby-Smith went by the name Kirby. He moved to San Francisco in 1951 and founded City Lights in North Beach in 1953, in partnership with Peter D. Martin, a student at San Francisco State University. They both invested $500. In 1955 Ferlinghetti bought Martin's share and established a publishing house with the same name. The first series he published was the Pocket Poets Series. He was arrested for publishing Allen Ginsberg's Howl, resulting in a First Amendment trial in 1957, where Ferlinghetti was charged with publishing an obscene work—and acquitted. Poetry Ferlinghetti published many of the Beat poets and is considered by some as a Beat poet as well. Yet Ferlinghetti did not consider himself to be a Beat poet, as he said in the 2013 documentary Ferlinghetti: Rebirth of Wonder: "Don't call me a Beat. I was never a Beat poet." Ferlinghetti penned much of his early poetry in the vein of T. S. Eliot. Ferlinghetti told poet and critic Jack Foley, "Everything I wrote sounded just like him." Yet, even in his poems inspired by Eliot such as Ferlinghetti's "Constantly Risking Absurdity," Ferlinghetti is ever the populist as he compares the poet first to a trapeze artist in a circus and then to a "little charleychaplin man." Critics have noted that Ferlinghetti's poetry often takes on a highly visual dimension as befits this poet who was also a painter. As the poet and critic Jack Foley states, Ferlinghetti's poems "tell little stories, make 'pictures'." Ferlinghetti as a poet paints with his words pictures full of color capturing the average American experience as seen in his poem "In Golden Gate Park that Day: "In Golden Gate Park that day/ a man and his wife were coming along/ ... He was wearing green suspenders ... while his wife was carrying a bunch of grapes." In the first poem in A Coney Island of the Mind entitled, "In Goya's Greatest Scenes, We Seem To See," Ferlinghetti describes with words the "suffering humanity" that Goya portrayed by brush in his paintings. Ferlinghetti concludes his poem with the recognition that "suffering humanity" today might be painted as average Americans drowning in the materialism: "on a freeway fifty lanes wide/ a concrete continent/ spaced with bland billboards/ illustrating imbecile illusions of happiness." Ferlinghetti took a distinctly populist approach to poetry, emphasizing throughout his work "that art should be accessible to all people, not just a handful of highly educated intellectuals." Larry Smith, an American author and editor, stated that Ferlinghetti is a poet, "of the people engaged conscientiously in the creation of new poetic and cultural forms." This perception of art as a broad socio-cultural force, as opposed to an elitist academic enterprise, is explicitly evident in Poem 9 from Pictures of the Gone World, wherein the speaker states: Truth is not the secret of a few' / yet / you would maybe think so / the way some / librarians / and cultural ambassadors and / especially museum directors / act" (1–8). In addition to Ferlinghetti's aesthetic egalitarianism, this passage highlights two additional formal features of the poet's work, namely, his incorporation of a common American idiom as well as his experimental approach to line arrangement which, as Crale Hopkins notes, is inherited from the poetry of William Carlos Williams. Reflecting his broad aesthetic concerns, Ferlinghetti's poetry often engages with several non-literary artistic forms, most notably jazz music and painting. William Lawlor asserts that much of Ferlinghetti's free verse attempts to capture the spontaneity and imaginative creativity of modern jazz; the poet is noted for having frequently incorporated jazz accompaniments into public readings of his work. Political engagement Soon after settling in San Francisco in 1951, Ferlinghetti met the poet Kenneth Rexroth, whose concepts of philosophical anarchism influenced his political development. He self-identified as a philosophical anarchist, regularly associated with other anarchists in North Beach, and sold Italian anarchist newspapers at the City Lights Bookstore. A critic of U.S. foreign policy, Ferlinghetti took a stand against totalitarianism and war. While Ferlinghetti said he was "an anarchist at heart", he conceded that the world would need to be populated by "saints" in order for pure anarchism to be lived practically. Hence he espoused what can be achieved by Scandinavian-style democratic socialism. On January 14, 1967, he was a featured presenter at the Gathering of the tribes "Human Be-In," which drew tens of thousands of people and launched San Francisco's "Summer of Love." In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. In 1998, in his inaugural address as Poet Laureate of San Francisco, Ferlinghetti urged San Franciscans to vote to remove a portion of the earthquake-damaged Central Freeway and replace it with a boulevard. "What destroys the poetry of a city? Automobiles destroy it, and they destroy more than the poetry. All over America, all over Europe in fact, cities and towns are under assault by the automobile, are being literally destroyed by car culture. But cities are gradually learning that they don't have to let it happen to them. Witness our beautiful new Embarcadero! And in San Francisco right now we have another chance to stop Autogeddon from happening here. Just a few blocks from here, the ugly Central Freeway can be brought down for good if you vote for Proposition E on the November ballot." Painting Alongside his bookselling and publishing, Ferlinghetti painted for 60 years and much of his work was displayed in galleries and museums throughout the United States. In 2009, Ferlinghetti became a member of the Honour Committee of the Italian artistic literary movement IMMAGINE&POESIA, founded under the patronage of Aeronwy Thomas. A retrospective of Ferlinghetti's artwork, 60 Years of Painting, was staged in Rome and Reggio Calabria in 2010. Jack Kerouac Alley In 1987, he was the initiator of the transformation of Jack Kerouac Alley, located at the side of his shop. He presented his idea to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors calling for repavement and renewal. Death Ferlinghetti died of interstitial lung disease on February 22, 2021, at his home in San Francisco at age 101. Awards Ferlinghetti received numerous awards, including the Los Angeles Times''' Robert Kirsch Award, the BABRA Award for Lifetime Achievement, the National Book Critics Circle Ivan Sandrof Award for Contribution to American Arts and Letters, and the ACLU Earl Warren Civil Liberties Award. He won the Premio Taormina in 1973, and thereafter was awarded the Premio Camaiore, the Premio Flaiano, the Premio Cavour, among other honors in Italy. The Career Award was conferred on October 28, 2017 at the XIV edition of the Premio di Arti Letterarie Metropoli di Torino in Turin. Ferlinghetti was named San Francisco's Poet Laureate in August 1998 and served for two years. In 2003 he was awarded the Poetry Society of America's Frost Medal, the Author's Guild Lifetime Achievement Award, and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. The National Book Foundation honored him with the inaugural Literarian Award (2005), given for outstanding service to the American literary community. In 2007 he was named Commandeur, French Order of Arts and Letters. In 2008, Ferlinghetti was awarded the John Ciardi Award for Lifetime Achievement in Poetry. This award is handed out by the National Italian American Foundation to honor the author who has made the greatest contribution to the writing of Italian American poetry. In 2012, Ferlinghetti was awarded the inaugural Janus Pannonius International Poetry Prize from the Hungarian PEN Club. After learning that the government of Hungary under Prime Minister Viktor Orbán is a partial sponsor of the prize, he declined to accept the award. In declining, Ferlinghetti cited his opposition to the "right-wing regime" of Prime Minister Orbán, and his opinion that the ruling Hungarian government under Mr. Orbán is curtailing civil liberties and freedom of speech for the people of Hungary. In popular culture The Italian band Timoria dedicated the song "Ferlinghetti Blues" (from the album El Topo Grand Hotel) to the poet, where Ferlinghetti recites one of his poems. Recordings of Ferlinghetti reading want ads, as featured on radio station KPFA in 1957, were recorded by Henry Jacobs and are featured on the Meat Beat Manifesto album 'At the Center'. Ferlinghetti gave Canadian punk band Propagandhi permission to use his painting The Unfinished Flag of the United States, which features a map of the world painted in the stars and stripes, as the cover of their 2001 release Today's Empires, Tomorrow's Ashes. Before this, the same painting was used for the cover of Michael Parenti's 1995 book, Against Empire, which was published by City Lights. Ferlinghetti recited the poem Loud Prayer at The Band's final performance; the concert was filmed by Martin Scorsese and released as a documentary entitled The Last Waltz, which included Ferlinghetti's recitation. Julio Cortázar, in his Rayuela (Hopscotch) (1963), references a poem from A Coney Island of the Mind in Chapter 121. He appears as himself in the 2006 comedy film The Darwin Awards. Bob Dylan used Ferlinghetti's "Baseball Canto" on the Baseball show of Theme Time Radio Hour. Roger McGuinn, the former leader of the Byrds, refers to Ferlinghetti and "A Coney Island of the Mind" in his song "Russian Hill", from his 1977 album Thunderbyrd. Cyndi Lauper was inspired by A Coney Island of the Mind to write the song "Into the Nightlife" for her 2008 album Bring Ya to the Brink. Seamus McNally's 2007 filmed adaptation of Jacques Prévert's "To Paint the Portrait of a Bird" uses Ferlinghetti's English translation as its narrative text. The Residents mention Ferlinghetti in the lyrics of their song "Sinister Exaggerator" (from the EP Duck Stab!). The Blue Devils Drum and Bugle Corps's 2008 marching show was entitled "Constantly Risking Absurdity", with movements entitled after various lines in Ferlinghetti's poem. The corps took second place at the Drum Corps International Finals. Aztec Two-Step is an American folk-rock band formed by Rex Fowler and Neal Shulman at a chance meeting on open stage at a Boston coffee house, the Stone Phoenix, in 1971. The band was named after a line from the poem "A Coney Island of the Mind" by Ferlinghetti. Bristol Sound band Unforscene used Ferlinghetti's poem "Pictures of the Gone World 11" (or "The World is a Beautiful Place ...") in the song "The World Is" on its 2002 album New World Disorder. Ferlinghetti was played in the 2010 film Howl by Andrew Rogers. In 2011, Ferlinghetti contributed two of his poems to the celebration of the 150th anniversary of Italian unification, Song of the Third World War and Old Italians Dying inspired by the artists of the exhibition Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Italy 150 held in Turin, Italy (May–June 2011). On the book of lithographs The Sea Within Us first published in Italy as Il Mare Dentro in 2012, Ferlinghetti collaborated with lithographer and abstract artist James Claussen. Christopher Felver made the 2013 documentary on Ferlinghetti Lawrence Ferlinghetti: A Rebirth of Wonder. BibliographyTentative Description of a Dinner Given to Promote the Impeachment of President Eisenhower (Golden Mountain Press, 1958) Broadside poemHer (New Directions, 1960) ProseOne Thousand Fearful Words for Fidel Castro (City Lights, 1961) Broadside poemStarting from San Francisco (New Directions, 1961) Poetry (HC edition includes LP of author reading selections)Journal for the Protection of All Beings (City Lights, 1961) JournalUnfair Arguments with Existence (New Directions, 1963) Short PlaysWhere is VietNam? (Golden Mountain Press, 1963) Broadside poemRoutines (New Directions, 1964) 12 Short PlaysTwo Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes (1968)On the Barracks: Journal for the Protection of All Beings 2 (City Lights, 1968) JournalTyrannus Nix? (New Directions, 1969) PoetryThe Secret Meaning of Things (New Directions, 1970) PoetryThe Mexican Night (New Directions, 1970) Travel journalBack Roads to Far Towns After Basho (City Lights, 1970) PoetryLove Is No Stone on the Moon (ARIF, 1971) PoetryOpen Eye, Open Heart (New Directions, 1973) PoetryWho Are We Now? (New Directions, 1976) PoetryNorthwest Ecolog (City Lights, 1978) PoetryLandscapes of Living and Dying (1980) Endless Life, Selected Poems (A New Directions Paperbook, 1981) Over All the Obscene Boundaries (1986)Love in the Days of Rage (E. P. Dutton, 1988; City Lights, 2001) NovelA Buddha in the Woodpile (Atelier Puccini, 1993)These Are My Rivers: New & Selected Poems, 1955–1993 (New Directions, 1993) City Lights Pocket Poets Anthology (City Lights, 1995) A Far Rockaway Of The Heart (New Directions, 1998) How to Paint Sunlight: Lyrics Poems & Others, 1997–2000 (New Directions, 2001) San Francisco Poems (City Lights Foundation, 2001) Poetry Life Studies, Life Stories (City Lights, 2003) Americus: Part I (New Directions, 2004)A Coney Island of the Mind (Arion Press, 2005), with portraiture by R.B. KitajPoetry as Insurgent Art (New Directions, 2007) PoetryA Coney Island of the Mind: Special 50th Anniversary Edition with a CD of the author reading his work (New Directions, 2008)50 Poems by Lawrence Ferlinghetti 50 Images by Armando Milani (Rudiano, 2010) Poetry and Graphics Time of Useful Consciousness, (Americus, Book II) (New Directions, 2012) , 88p.City Lights Pocket Poets Anthology: 60th Anniversary Edition (City Lights, 2015)I Greet You At The Beginning Of A Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg 1955–1997. (City Lights, 2015)Pictures of the Gone World: 60th Anniversary Edition (City Lights, 2015)Writing Across the Landscape: Travel Journals, 1960-2010'' (Norton, 2015) Novel Discography References Further reading External links at The Bancroft Library at The Bancroft Library Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: reference site of early first edition Penguin Books. Translated Penguin Book Finding aid to Lawrence Ferlinghetti papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. "How a San Francisco bookstore owner made America freer, braver and more interesting," The Washington Post, Feb. 25, 2021. 1919 births 2021 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American poets 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American poets American anarchists American anti-war activists American booksellers American centenarians American democratic socialists American male poets American people of French-Jewish descent American people of Portuguese-Jewish descent American tax resisters American writers of Italian descent Artists from San Francisco Beat Generation writers California socialists City Lights Books Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Deaths from lung disease Jewish American writers Jewish anarchists Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Men centenarians Military personnel from New York (state) National Book Award winners Northfield Mount Hermon School alumni People from Yonkers, New York Poets Laureate of San Francisco San Francisco Bay Area literature UNC Hussman School of Journalism and Media alumni United States Navy officers United States Navy personnel of World War II University of Paris alumni Writers from New York (state) Writers from San Francisco American expatriates in France	[ 0.49069449305534363, -0.3008679151535034, -0.3307565152645111, 0.31341320276260376, 0.12549687922000885, 0.26906776428222656, 0.40568864345550537, -0.060617655515670776, -0.2194342315196991, -0.5178927779197693, -0.28020334243774414, 0.2097594290971756, -0.7027781009674072, 0.37988221645355225, 0.11723154038190842, -0.3419135510921478, -0.2883824110031128, -0.22837120294570923, -0.5565546751022339, 0.2133234441280365, -0.6854131817817688, 0.1500318944454193, 0.3114946782588959, -0.30183592438697815, -0.3047124445438385, 0.24764646589756012, -0.019687356427311897, -0.5689895153045654, -0.004237127490341663, 0.7568446397781372, 0.2633041739463806, 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221281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid%20Ali%20al-Gaylani	Rashid Ali al-Gaylani	Rashid Ali al-Gaylani (, ) (1892 – 28 August 1965) was an Iraqi politician who served as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Iraq on three occasions: from March to November 1933, from March 1940 to February 1941 and from April to May 1941. He is chiefly remembered as an ardent Arab nationalist who attempted to remove the British influence from Iraq by starting a coup against the government in 1941. During his brief tenures as Prime Minister in 1940 and 1941, he attempted to negotiate settlements with the Axis powers during World War II in order to counter British influence in Iraq. Early life Rashid Ali was the son of Sayyid Abdul Wahhab al-Gaylani and born into the prominent Baghdad-based Gaylani family. He also had origins in the Circassian governors of the Ottoman Vilayet. Members of the Gaylani family were known as sayed, as the family's ancestry can be traced back to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Rashid Ali enrolled in law school in Baghdad and was a lawyer until his political career. Political career In 1924, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani began his career in politics in the first government led by Prime Minister Yasin al-Hashimi. Yasin al-Hashimi appointed Gaylani as the Minister of Justice. The two men were ardent nationalists and were opposed to any British involvement in the internal politics of Iraq. They rejected the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty signed by the government of Prime Minister Nuri as-Said in 1930. They formed the Party of National Brotherhood to promote nationalist aims. Gaylani served as Prime Minister for the first time in 1933 but held office for less than eight months. In 1938 he was seized and exiled to 'Ana for his suspected role in the Baghdad bomb-throwing of November and the general political upheaval. He was elected as the president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1925 and 1926. During the Hashimi government, Gaylani served as Minister of Interior with the additional benefit of the lucrative trusteeship of the Qadiri Awqaf. Later, as prime minister, he would retain the interior portfolio as public works projects progressed, including the laying of the foundations for a mosque to be named the Faysal Mosque. On 31 March 1940, when Gaylani was again appointed Prime Minister, World War II had started and Iraq had just experienced the premature death of King Ghazi. Ghazi's reign was followed by a Regency for his four-year-old son who was now the new King Faisal II. Faisal's Regent was Ghazi's uncle, Emir Abdul-Illah. Abdul-Illah supported Britain in the war, but he was unable to control Gaylani, who used the war to further his own nationalist goals by refusing to allow Allied troops passage through Iraq to the front. He also rejected calls for Iraq to break its ties with Fascist Italy and sent his Justice Minister, Naji Shawkat, to Ankara to meet with Germany's ambassador to Turkey, Franz von Papen, to win German support for his government. German Foreign Ministry archives record that Shawkat met von Papen on July 5, 1940, and he carried a letter of introduction from Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, expressing a desire for a treaty of friendship and collaboration. Baghdad was the early base for Nazi Middle East intelligence operations during World War II. 1941 Iraqi coup d'état Britain responded with severe economic sanctions against Iraq. Meanwhile, news of British victories against Italian forces in North Africa weakened support for Gaylani. On 31 January 1941, under pressure from Regent Abdul-Illah, he resigned as Prime Minister. This only exacerbated his mistrust of Britain and its supporters in the government. Together with the members of the Golden Square, Gaylani made plans to assassinate Regent Abdul-Illah and seize power. On 31 March, Abdul-Illah discovered the plot to assassinate him and fled the country. On April 1, the Golden Square executed their coup d'état; on April 3, the "National Defence Government" replaced the government of the Regent with Gaylani as Prime Minister. As one of his first acts, Gaylani sent an Iraqi artillery force to confront the RAF base in Habbaniya. By the end of April, Iraqi forces held in strong positions on the escarpment above the base, and a siege began. Iraq had been a major supplier of petroleum to the Allied war effort and represented an important landbridge between British forces in Egypt and India. To secure Iraq, Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered General Archibald Wavell to protect the air base at Habbaniya. On 18 April, British forces from India landed in Basra, Sabine Force. In the British Mandate of Palestine, another force was created to enter Iraq from the west and relieve RAF Habbaniya, Habbaniya Force. Anglo-Iraqi War At Habbaniya, the besieging Iraqis demanded the cessation of all training activities and of all flights in and out of the base. On 2 May, the commander at RAF Habbaniya, Air Vice-Marshal Harry George Smart, responded to the Iraqi demands by launching a pre-emptive strike against the Iraqi forces overlooking the air base. This action initiated the Anglo-Iraqi War. Within a week, the Iraqis abandoned the escarpment. By mid-May, British forces consisting mainly of Assyrian levies from Habbaniya had moved on to Fallujah and, after overcoming Iraqi resistance there, moved on to Baghdad. On 29 May, as British troops were closing in on his position, Gaylani fled to Iran. Before he left Baghdad, Gaylani contacted Mulla Effendi and informed him that he had chosen his house as a safe haven for the royal family to stay until the conflict ended. On 31 May, an armistice between the British and the Iraqis was signed. On 1 June, the Regent returned to Baghdad and his government was restored. Immediately afterwards, the Farhud, a violent pogrom against Jews, took place in Baghdad. Iran, Italy, Germany and Saudi Arabia Gaylani was not to stay long in Iran. On 25 August 1941, British and Soviet forces invaded Iran and removed Reza Shah from power. Gaylani then fled to Italy. Later he was received by German dictator Adolf Hitler in Berlin, and he was recognized as the leader of the Iraqi government in exile. Upon the defeat of Germany, Gaylani again fled and found refuge, this time in Saudi Arabia. Later life and death Gaylani did not return from exile until after the revolution that overthrew the Iraqi monarchy, in 1958. Once again, he attempted to seize power; he plotted a revolt against Abdul Karim Qasim's government. The revolt was foiled and Gaylani was sentenced to death, but later pardoned, allowing him to live in Lebanon until 1965 when he died at the age of 72. See also Fritz Grobba Nazi relations with the Arab world Notes References Bibliography External links 1892 births 1965 deaths Hashemite people Heads of government who were later imprisoned Iraq in World War II Iraqi anti-communists Iraqi Arab nationalists Iraqi nationalists Iraqi Sunni Muslims Leaders who took power by coup Arab collaborators with Nazi Germany Party of National Brotherhood politicians People from Baghdad Prime Ministers of Iraq Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq World War II political leaders 20th-century Iraqi people Justice ministers of Iraq	[ -0.20957334339618683, 0.7260482311248779, -0.6508810520172119, 0.008791593834757805, -0.6551443338394165, 0.5351003408432007, 0.1939174085855484, -0.1743844896554947, 0.001727089169435203, -0.14987455308437347, -0.22578467428684235, 0.38347482681274414, -0.2246987521648407, 0.691781222820282, 0.030995910987257957, 0.298368364572525, -0.14162616431713104, -0.00906918291002512, -0.5745056867599487, 0.33518677949905396, 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221283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Sweden	Coat of arms of Sweden	The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Sweden () has a greater and a lesser version. Regulated usage The usage of the coats of arms is regulated by Swedish Law, Act 1970:498, which states (in unofficial translation) that "in commercial activities, the coats of arms, the flag or other official insignia of Sweden may not be used in a trademark or other insignias for products or services without proper authorisation. This includes any mark or text referring to the Swedish State which this can give the commercial mark a sign of official endorsement. This includes municipal coats of arms which are registered." Any representation consisting of three crowns ordered two above one are considered to be the lesser coat of arms, and its usage is therefore restricted by law 1970:498. Variants The arms of Sweden were first formally codified by law in 1908. This law also formally codifies the differences between the "greater" and "lesser" arms. The present law prescribing the two arms dates from 1982. Greater version The greater coat of arms is blazoned in Swedish law as follows: A shield azure, quartered by a cross Or with outbent arms, and an inescutcheon containing the dynastic arms of the Royal House. In the first and fourth fields three open crowns Or, placed two above one. In the second and third fields three sinisterbendwise streams argent, a lion crowned with an open crown Or armed gules. The inescutcheon is party per pale the arms for the House of Vasa (Bendwise azure, argent and gules, a vasa Or); and the House of Bernadotte (Azure, issuant from a wavy base a bridge with three arches and two towers embattled argent, in honor point an eagle regardant with wings inverted resting on thunderbolts Or, and in chief the Big Dipper constellation of the same). The main shield is crowned by a royal crown and surrounded by the insignia of the Order of the Seraphim. Supported by two lions regardant, crowned and with forked tails Or armed gules, standing on a compartment Or. All surrounded by purpure mantling doubled ermine, crowned with a royal crown and tied up with tasseled strings Or. The greater arms may also be displayed only with the crowned escutcheon. While the arms have undergone significant changes over the years, such as changing the inescutcheon with the ruling dynasty, they are based on arms created by King Karl Knutsson in 1448. The escutcheon used in the greater blazon has in total five elements: 4 quarterings on the main escutcheon (two coats of arms duplicated), and three coat of arms incorporated into an escutcheon of pretense. However, Bernadotte never used any stars in the arms of Pontecorvo (neither as Prince of Pontecorvo, nor as King of Sweden and Norway). The stars were introduced as an element in the royal coat of arms in the 19th century, chosen as a symbol of Sweden's eternal existence, as in the poem by Esaias Tegnér: This symbol became especially popular through its allusion to the name that had been borne by so many famous Swedish kings. The Big Dipper, or as it is called in Swedish, Karlavagnen (Charles' Wain), adds a Swedish accent to the Bernadotte dynastic coat of arms much in the same way as do the Vasa arms. The arms are supported by two lions with forked tails (queue fourchée), facing away from the shield and crowned with Royal Crowns. For centuries, the lion has been an important element in Swedish heraldry and especially for the State Coat of Arms. The shield may be surmounted by the Collar of the Order of Seraphim, the foremost order in Sweden, and the highest honour the Swedish state can bestow on an individual. Besides being the official national coat of arms, the greater coat of arms is also the personal coat of arms of the king, and as such he can decree its use as a personal coat of arms by other members of the Royal House, with the alterations and additions decided by him. Blazon: "The greater state arms consist of a head shield azure, quartered by a cross or with outbent arms, and an inescutcheon containing the dynastic arms of the Royal House. In the first and fourth fields three coronets or, placed two above one. In the second and third fields three sinisterbendwise streams argent, a lion crowned with an open crown or with armaments gules. The inescutcheon is party per pale the arms for the House of Vasa and the House of Bernadotte. The main shield is crowned by a royal crown and surrounded by the insignia of the Order of the Seraphim. Supported by two lions regardant or crowned, with parted tails and armaments gules, standing on a postament. All surrounded by hermine mantling crowned with a royal crown and tied up with tasseled strings or." Lesser version The lesser coat of arms is mainly used by the Government of Sweden and subordinate State authorities. As such it may be joined by insignias symbolising the activity of individual government agencies, following approval by the State Board of Heraldry. It is, for instance, embroidered on all Swedish police uniforms and in various coats of arms of the Swedish Armed Forces, and is displayed on Sweden's passports and embassies. Blazon: "Azure, with three coronets Or, ordered two above one." Crowned with a royal crown. The shield may also be surrounded by the insignias of the Order of the Seraphim." See also Swedish heraldry Three Crowns Flag of Sweden List of flags of Sweden References Sweden National symbols of Sweden Sweden Sweden Swedish heraldry Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden	[ 0.1629965603351593, 0.29446670413017273, 0.41187790036201477, 0.039113469421863556, -0.5119363069534302, 0.3506948947906494, 0.5315991640090942, 0.14351414144039154, -0.9418880939483643, -0.33609500527381897, 0.1599082350730896, -0.3648424744606018, 0.03365105390548706, 0.4652266502380371, -0.5511625409126282, 0.48420044779777527, 0.33985021710395813, 1.306852102279663, 0.07558975368738174, -0.5339245796203613, 0.04734969139099121, -0.1071077287197113, 0.5185383558273315, -0.15378156304359436, 0.4316272437572479, 0.07344667613506317, 0.7671261429786682, 0.2603503465652466, 0.15950697660446167, 0.5455142259597778, -0.2528623640537262, 0.40279343724250793, -0.2772374451160431, 0.24429212510585785, 0.0279940664768219, -0.8705267906188965, -0.2830321788787842, -0.40856459736824036, 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221284	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersed%20knowledge	Dispersed knowledge	Dispersed knowledge in economics is the notion that no single agent has information as to all of the factors which influence prices and production throughout the system. The term has been both expanded upon and popularized by American economist Thomas Sowell. Overview Each agent in a market for assets, goods, or services possesses incomplete knowledge as to most of the factors which affect prices in that market. For example, no agent has full information as to other agents' budgets, preferences, resources or technologies, not to mention their plans for the future and numerous other factors which affect prices in those markets. Market prices are the result of price discovery, in which each agent participating in the market makes use of its current knowledge and plans to decide on the prices and quantities at which it chooses to transact. The resulting prices and quantities of transactions may be said to reflect the current state of knowledge of the agents currently in the market, even though no single agent commands information as to the entire set of such knowledge. Some economists believe that market transactions provide the basis for a society to benefit from the knowledge that is dispersed among its constituent agents. For example, in his Principles of Political Economy, John Stuart Mill states that one of the justifications for a laissez faire government policy is his belief that self-interested individuals throughout the economy, acting independently, can make better use of dispersed knowledge than could the best possible government agency. Key characteristics Friedrich Hayek claimed that "dispersed knowledge is essentially dispersed, and cannot possibly be gathered together and conveyed to an authority charged with the task of deliberately creating order". Today, the best and most comprehensive book on dispersed knowledge is Knowledge and Decisions by Thomas Sowell, which Hayek called "the best book on general economics in many a year." Phenomena "Dispersed knowledge will give rise to genuine uncertainty, which necessitates the contractual structure that we recognize as a firm." "Dispersion of knowledge and genuine uncertainty contribute to the heterogeneity of expectations that must exist in order for one or more individuals to exploit the potential of the contractual structure of the firm." "Dispersion of knowledge, genuine uncertainty, and heterogeneous expectations give rise to the nexus of the enterprising individual and the opportunity to discover, create, and exploit new markets." Drivers Large numbers: Large numbers have a great impact on actions in terms of two aspects. On the one hand, there will be an increase in time and other resource requirements. On the other hand, actors with bounded cognitive resources will lose overview. Asymmetries: Asymmetries have a two-sides effect. Firstly, asymmetries enable more possibilities regarding learning and competence development. Secondly, asymmetries "increase differences between interpretative frameworks and the knowledge and competence profile of the different actors and thus make integration more difficult". Uncertainty: Uncertainty is defined to be one of the drivers of dispersed knowledge which can give rise to management problems. Uncertainty Dispersed knowledge will give rise to uncertainty which will lead to different kinds of results. 1. Dispersed knowledge causes different opinions and sources in cooperate organizations and it brings creativity. Richard LeFauve highlights the advantages of organizational structure in companies: "Before if we had a tough decision to make, we would have two or three different perspectives with strong support of all three. In a traditional organization the bossman decides after he’s heard all three alternatives. At Saturn we take time to work it out, and what generally happens is that you end up with a fourth answer which none of the portions had in the first place. but one that all three portions of the organization fully support (AutoWeeR, Oct. 8, 1990. p. 20)." Companies are supposed to think highly of the dispersed knowledge and make adjustments to meet demands. 2. Dispersed knowledge causes management problems at the same time. Tsoukas stated: "A firm’s knowledge is distributed, not only in a computational sense . . . or in Hayek’s (1945, p. 521) sense that the factual knowledge of the particular circumstances of time and place cannot be surveyed as a whole. But, more radically, a firm’s knowledge is distributed in the sense that it is inherently indeterminate: nobody knows in advance what that knowledge is or need be. Firms are faced with radical uncertainty: they do not, they cannot, know what they need to know." Strategies There are several strategies targeting at the problems caused by dispersed knowledge. First of all, replacing knowledge by getting access to knowledge can be one of the strategies. What's more, the capability to complete incomplete knowledge can deal with knowledge gaps created by the dispersed knowledge. In addition, making a design of institutions with reasonable coordination mechanisms can be regarded as the third strategy. Besides, resolving organization units into smaller ones should be taken into consideration. Last but not least, providing more data to decision maker will be helpful for making a correct decision. See also Distributed knowledge Efficient-market hypothesis The Use of Knowledge in Society The Cathedral and the Bazaar Knowledge sharing Transparency Data acquisition Crowdsourcing Research Sensor References Austrian School Economic theories Friedrich Hayek Knowledge Information economics	[ -0.3458772897720337, 0.0970723032951355, 0.08028615266084671, 0.5317860841751099, -0.10794790089130402, 0.23766736686229706, -0.23748713731765747, 0.32772770524024963, -0.23781798779964447, -0.4930851459503174, -0.6032727360725403, 0.3432883322238922, -0.4051739275455475, 0.7507113218307495, 0.10274308174848557, 0.3821309506893158, 0.18581119179725647, 0.07798726111650467, -0.4967556893825531, 0.12960632145404816, 0.21510523557662964, 0.35460296273231506, -0.08991166204214096, 0.1291218250989914, 0.07195381075143814, -0.12178345769643784, 0.2898065149784088, 0.19839371740818024, -0.01324683427810669, 0.1126614660024643, -0.24520812928676605, 0.6648828387260437, 0.23885077238082886, 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221286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPCC	PPCC	PPCC may refer to: PPCC, the major debut single of the Japanese idol group BiS Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Pikes Peak Community College Països Catalans (i.e. Catalan Countries) Punjab Pradesh Congress Committee	[ 0.008204282261431217, 0.29316967725753784, 0.1312222182750702, 0.18660613894462585, -0.8306812644004822, -0.15316547453403473, -0.02137460932135582, 0.36233869194984436, -0.23086223006248474, 0.418245404958725, -0.12742683291435242, 0.08966442942619324, 0.22569793462753296, -0.11813610047101974, -0.4938812851905823, 0.28266873955726624, 0.4421076476573944, 0.6969422698020935, 0.35122254490852356, -0.7750552892684937, 0.17266061902046204, -0.12958966195583344, 0.0027947560884058475, -0.17177368700504303, -0.14011244475841522, 0.5924142599105835, -0.10840993374586105, 0.08133170753717422, 0.14782416820526123, -0.23115304112434387, -0.08702090382575989, 0.7231910824775696, 0.6597003936767578, 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221292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundaboutness	Roundaboutness	Roundaboutness, or roundabout methods of production, is the process whereby capital goods are produced first and then, with the help of the capital goods, the desired consumer goods are produced. A disproof of roundaboutness in economies with compound interest was presented by Paul Samuelson during the Cambridge capital controversy. The concept, interpreted as rising technical composition of capital, is also used by some Marxian authors. References Austrian School	[ 0.20726452767848969, 0.2574656903743744, -0.4518258571624756, 0.3452463150024414, 0.16393423080444336, 0.6721649169921875, 0.10438420623540878, 0.6023721098899841, -0.050607308745384216, -0.4362857937812805, -0.41413500905036926, 0.6691664457321167, -0.5720637440681458, 0.3684632182121277, -0.5826172828674316, 0.47344985604286194, 0.1643391251564026, 0.06853583455085754, 0.24838215112686157, 0.2937964200973511, -0.13386614620685577, 0.31617292761802673, 0.1023036316037178, -0.24206934869289398, 0.2428123503923416, -0.2935755252838135, -0.01213240996003151, 0.001855048700235784, -0.5746676921844482, -0.00970744900405407, -0.24890045821666718, 0.31457963585853577, 0.05136290192604065, -0.2431584894657135, -0.14353543519973755, -0.08569187670946121, -0.4067016541957855, -0.531851589679718, -0.3536863625049591, -0.2014612853527069, 0.3982274532318115, 0.055540814995765686, 0.07108914852142334, 0.1711592823266983, -0.699545681476593, -0.2662372887134552, 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221294	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Mathews	Charles Mathews	Charles Mathews (28 June 1776, London – 28 June 1835, Devonport) was an English theatre manager and comic actor, well known during his time for his gift of impersonation and skill at table entertainment. His play At Home, in which he played every character, was the first monopolylogue and the defining work in the genre. Early life Charles was born to James Mathews (died 1804), a Wesleyan Methodist bookseller, printer, and pharmacist on the Strand, who also served as minister in one of the Countess of Huntingdon's chapels. Charles was educated at Merchant Taylors' School in London, which had some openings for common boys. He was next apprenticed to his father. For religious reasons, the father forbade his children from visiting theatres. During his youth, Charles met the actor Robert William Elliston; after attending the Drury Lane theatre, he was utterly fascinated by that world. Charles left his father in September 1793 for his first public stage appearance at Richmond. The following year his father allowed him to take up acting in Dublin, writing, "Charles, there are your indentures, and there are twenty guineas; I do not approve of the stage, but I will not oppose your wishes. At any time hereafter, should you feel inclined to turn to an honest calling, there are twenty guineas more, if you send for them, and your father's house is open to you." Charles never claimed the extra 20 guineas. Career For several years Mathews took bit parts, but on 15 May 1803 he made his first London appearance at the Haymarket, as Jabel in Cumberland's The Jew and as Lingo in The Agreeable Surprise. As a continued public success, he was taken on at the Drury Lane. His gift for mimicry enabled him to disguise his personality without a change of costume. His versatility and originality were displayed in his one man show, or "monodramatic entertainment," entitled At Home or Matthews at Home, which he initiated in the Lyceum Theatre in 1808. Leigh Hunt wrote that his table entertainments "for the richness and variety of his humour, were as good as half a dozen plays distilled." The show combined mimicry, storytelling, recitations, improvisation, quick-change artistry, and comic song. In 1822–1823 Mathews toured the United States to great success, though he was libeled by the Philadelphia Gazette. When he brought suit against the paper, he was awarded 3,000 crowns for damages. During his stay, he developed a number of impressions of American types. One of these was the African American, said to have been based on the American black actor James Hewlett, who performed Shakespeare roles at the African Grove. In his next show, A Trip to America, Mathews sang a version of the popular slave freedom song, "Possum Up a Gum Tree", performing in dialect and possibly in blackface. One author called him "the paterfamilias of the Yankee theatre and the progenitor of all native American dialect comedy." A Trip to America also sparked an exchange of critical essays between Mathews and American critic John Neal in The European Magazine and London Review over what Neal considered the actor's inaccurate portrayal of New Englanders. "He knows, in his own heart," said Neal, "that his Jonathan is a very poor, and very feeble counterfeit, unworthy of America, unworthy of Mr. M., as an actor, and altogether unworthy of his country. It is untrue and he knows it". Returning to England in autumn 1823, he joined Frederick Henry Yates, manager of the Adelphi Theatre. During his successful career, Mathews, together with John Kemble and John Braham, was received as a guest by George IV. A few years after his return from the US, Mathews bought a half-share in the Adelphi Theatre. His connection with the Adelphi was a critical and popular success for Mathews, but not a financial success. In 1834, he made a second tour performing in the United States. He cut his trip short and returned ill from the tour, after his last appearance in New York City on 11 February 1835. Failing to recover his health, Mathews died poor in Plymouth in June 1835, without appearing again on a British stage. Personal life In 1797, Mathews married Eliza Kirkham Strong (1772–1802) of Exeter, the author of a volume of poems and some novels, and an actress. She retired from the stage in 1801 and died in 1802. In 1803, Mathews married Anne Jackson (died 1869), an actress and half sister to the actress Frances Maria Kelly. Anne Jackson Mathews wrote a biography of Mathews. His only child by his second wife was Charles James Mathews, who became a successful actor in turn. In popular culture The character of Alfred Jingle in Charles Dickens' novel, The Pickwick Papers, is said to have been inspired by Mathews. References Notes Bibliography The 1828-29 and 1834-35 Seasons at Adelphi Theatre, two of several articles from an E. Michigan University website "Charles Mathews", Special Collections, Princeton University Library, some of the papers of Mathews and his son Watkins, Mel (1994). On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying, and Signifying—The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor that Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor, New York: Simon & Schuster. The Works of Art Collection, Garrick Club, started with works collected by Mathews External links 1776 births 1835 deaths English male stage actors English impressionists (entertainers) English male comedians English theatre managers and producers Actor-managers Male actors from London People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood 19th-century English male actors 19th-century English comedians	[ -0.37877288460731506, 0.3273125886917114, -0.3355318605899811, -0.06719448417425156, 0.7083348631858826, 0.7062782049179077, 0.7713945508003235, 0.36345502734184265, -0.4469462037086487, -0.2030559629201889, -0.5370358824729919, 0.17377044260501862, -0.19282928109169006, -0.05050394684076309, -0.2578808665275574, 0.6773278117179871, -0.1887328028678894, -0.1275406777858734, -0.08835095912218094, -0.6779249906539917, -0.6115280389785767, 0.21652144193649292, 0.5183582305908203, -0.43775907158851624, -0.5524795651435852, 0.30605608224868774, -0.2681814432144165, -0.10716056823730469, 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221296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20intensity	Capital intensity	Capital intensity is the amount of fixed or real capital present in relation to other factors of production, especially labor. At the level of either a production process or the aggregate economy, it may be estimated by the capital to labor ratio, such as from the points along a capital/labor isoquant. Growth The use of tools and machinery makes labor more effective, so rising capital intensity (or "capital deepening") pushes up the productivity of labor. Capital intensive societies tend to have a higher standard of living over the long run. Calculations made by Robert Solow claimed that economic growth was mainly driven by technological progress (productivity growth) rather than inputs of capital and labor. However recent economic research has invalidated that theory, since Solow did not properly consider changes in both investment and labor inputs. Dale Jorgenson, of Harvard University, President of the American Economic Association in 2000, concludes that: 'Griliches and I showed that changes in the quality of capital and labor inputs and the quality of investment goods explained most of the Solow residual. We estimated that capital and labor inputs accounted for 85 percent of growth during the period 1945–1965, while only 15 percent could be attributed to productivity growth… This has precipitated the sudden obsolescence of earlier productivity research employing the conventions of Kuznets and Solow.' John Ross has analysed the long term correlation between the level of investment in the economy, rising from 5-7% of GDP at the time of the Industrial Revolution in England, to 25% of GDP in the post-war German 'economic miracle', to over 35% of GDP in the world's most rapidly growing contemporary economies of India and China. Taking the G7 and other largest economies, Jorgenson and Vu conclude: 'the growth of world output between input growth and productivity… input growth greatly predominated… Productivity growth accounted for only one-fifth of the total during 1989-1995, while input growth accounted for almost four-fifths. Similarly, input growth accounted for more than 70 percent of growth after 1995, while productivity accounted for less than 30 percent.' Regarding differences in output per capita Jorgenson and Vu conclude: 'differences in per capita output levels are primarily explained by differences in per capital input, rather than variations in productivity'. Some economists claimed that the Soviet Union missed the lessons of the Solow growth model, because starting in the 1930s, the Stalin government attempted to force capital accumulation through state direction of the economy. However, Solow's calculations have been proven invalid, so this is a poor explanation. Modern research shows the main factor for economic growth is the growth of labor and capital inputs, not increases in productivity. Therefore, other factors besides capital accumulation must have been big contributors to the Soviet economic crisis. Free market economists tend to believe that capital accumulation should be not be managed by government, but instead be determined by market forces. Monetary stability (which increases confidence), low taxation, and greater freedom for the entrepreneur would then promote capital accumulation. The Austrian School maintains that the capital intensity of any industry is due to the roundaboutness of the particular industry and consumer demand. Capital-intensive industry Capital-intensive industries use a large portion of capital to buy expensive machines, compared to their labor costs. The term came about in the mid- to late-nineteenth century as factories such as steel or iron sprung up around the newly industrialized world. With the added expense of machinery, there was greater financial risk. This makes new capital-intensive factories with high tech machinery a small share of the marketplace, even though they raise productivity and output. Some businesses commonly thought to be capital-intensive are railways, aircraft manufacturing, airlines, oil production and refining, telecommunications, semiconductor fabrication, mining, chemical plants, electric power plants, etc. Measurement The degree of capital intensity is easy to measure in nominal terms. It is simply the ratio of the total money value of capital equipment to the total potential output. However, this measure need not be related to real economic activity because it can rise due to inflation. Then the question arises, how do we measure the "real" amount of capital goods? Do we use book value (historical price)? or replacement cost? or the price justified by the present discounted value of future profits? Or do we simply "deflate" the total current money value of capital equipment by the average price of capital goods? This capital controversy points out that measure of capital intensity is not independent of the distribution of income, so that changes in the ratio of profits to wages lead to changes in measured capital intensity. See also Labor intensity Organic composition of capital References Capital (economics)	[ 0.13376283645629883, -0.39102301001548767, -0.2108331173658371, 0.10550929605960846, -0.3057754337787628, 0.6354802846908569, 0.19837014377117157, 0.4481378495693207, -0.8456997871398926, -0.705372154712677, -0.412835031747818, 0.6806684136390686, -0.2990414500236511, 0.5863112211227417, 0.22158819437026978, 0.43617188930511475, 0.05562688782811165, -0.013997378759086132, 0.2782650887966156, 0.035754431039094925, -0.3122658431529999, 0.21380361914634705, 0.5812297463417053, -0.5584168434143066, 0.6467431783676147, -0.8042126893997192, 0.24820229411125183, 0.22070418298244476, 0.06270456314086914, -0.032507650554180145, -0.5160614848136902, 0.6600626707077026, -0.15746118128299713, 0.4412243962287903, 0.0027781613171100616, 0.15791335701942444, -0.11062555760145187, -0.3307672142982483, -0.2507759928703308, -0.5137392282485962, -0.28795522451400757, -0.06540315598249435, -0.08776424825191498, 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221299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertemporal%20choice	Intertemporal choice	Intertemporal choice is the process by which people make decisions about what and how much to do at various points in time, when choices at one time influence the possibilities available at other points in time. These choices are influenced by the relative value people assign to two or more payoffs at different points in time. Most choices require decision-makers to trade off costs and benefits at different points in time. These decisions may be about saving, work effort, education, nutrition, exercise, health care and so forth. Greater preference for immediate smaller rewards has been associated with many negative outcomes ranging from lower salary to drug addiction. Since early in the twentieth century, economists have analyzed intertemporal decisions using the discounted utility model, which assumes that people evaluate the pleasures and pains resulting from a decision in much the same way that financial markets evaluate losses and gains, exponentially 'discounting' the value of outcomes according to how delayed they are in time. Discounted utility has been used to describe how people actually make intertemporal choices and it has been used as a tool for public policy. Policy decisions about how much to spend on research and development, health and education all depend on the discount rate used to analyze the decision. Portfolio allocation Intertemporal portfolio choice is the allocation of funds to various assets repeatedly over time, with the amount of investable funds at any future time depending on the portfolio returns at any prior time. Thus the future decisions may depend on the results of current decisions. In general this dependence on prior decisions implies that current decisions must take into account their probabilistic effect on future portfolio constraints. There are some exceptions to this, however: with a logarithmic utility function, or with a HARA utility function and serial independence of returns, it is optimal to act with (rational) myopia, ignoring the effects of current decisions on the future decisions. Consumption The Keynesian consumption function was based on two major hypotheses. Firstly, the marginal propensity to consume lies between 0 and 1. Secondly, the average propensity to consume falls as income rises. Early empirical studies were consistent with these hypotheses. However, after World War II it was observed that saving did not rise as income rose. The Keynesian model therefore failed to explain the consumption phenomenon, and thus the theory of intertemporal choice was developed. The analysis of intertemporal choice was introduced by John Rae in 1834 in the "Sociological Theory of Capital". Later, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk in 1889 and Irving Fisher in 1930 elaborated on the model. A few other models based on intertemporal choice include the life-cycle hypothesis proposed by Franco Modigliani and the permanent income hypothesis proposed by Milton Friedman. The concept of Walrasian equilibrium may also be extended to incorporate intertemporal choice. The Walrasian analysis of such an equilibrium introduces two "new" concepts of prices: futures prices and spot prices. Fisher's model of intertemporal consumption Irving Fisher developed the theory of intertemporal choice in his book Theory of interest (1930). Contrary to Keynes, who related consumption to current income, Fisher's model showed how rational forward looking consumers choose consumption for the present and future to maximize their lifetime satisfaction. According to Fisher, an individual's impatience depends on four characteristics of his income stream: the size, the time shape, the composition and risk. Besides this, foresight, self-control, habit, expectation of life, and bequest motive (or concern for lives of others) are the five personal factors that determine a person's impatience which in turn determines his time preference. In order to understand the choice exercised by a consumer across different periods of time we take consumption in one period as a composite commodity. Suppose there is one consumer, commodities, and two periods. Preferences are given by where . Income in period is . Savings in period 1 is , spending in period is , and is the interest rate. If the person is unable to borrow against future income in the first period, then he is subject to separate budget constraints in each period: (1) (2) On the other hand, if such borrowing is possible then the person is subject to a single intertemporal budget constraint: (3) The left hand side shows the present value of expenditure and right hand side depicts the present value of income. Multiplying the equation by would give us the corresponding future values. Now the consumer has to choose a and so as to Maximize subject to A consumer may be a net saver or a net borrower. If he's initially at a level of consumption where he's neither a net borrower nor a net saver, an increase in income may make him a net saver or a net borrower depending on his preferences. An increase in current income or future income will increase current and future consumption (consumption smoothing motives). Now, consider a scenario where the interest rates are increased. If the consumer is a net saver, he will save more in the current period due to the substitution effect and consume more in the current period due to the income effect. The net effect thus becomes ambiguous. If the consumer is a net borrower, however, he will tend to consume less in the current period due to the substitution effect and income effect thereby reducing his overall current consumption. Modigliani's life cycle income hypothesis The life cycle hypothesis is based on the following model: subject to where U(Ct) is satisfaction received from consumption in time period t, Ct is the level of consumption at time t, Yt is income at time t, δ is the rate of time preference ( a measure of individual preference between present and future activity), W0 is the initial level of income producing assets. Typically, a person's MPC (marginal propensity to consume) is relatively high during young adulthood, decreases during the middle-age years, and increases when the person is near or in retirement. The Life Cycle Hypothesis(LCH) model defines individual behavior as an attempt to smooth out consumption patterns over one's lifetime somewhat independent of current levels of income. This model states that early in one's life consumption expenditure may very well exceed income as the individual may be making major purchases related to buying a new home, starting a family, and beginning a career. At this stage in life the individual will borrow from the future to support these expenditure needs. In mid-life however, these expenditure patterns begin to level off and are supported or perhaps exceeded by increases in income. At this stage the individual repays any past borrowings and begins to save for her or his retirement. Upon retirement, consumption expenditure may begin to decline however income usually declines dramatically. In this stage of life, the individual dis-saves or lives off past savings until death. Friedman's permanent income hypothesis After the Second World War, it was noticed that a model in which current consumption was just a function of current income clearly was too simplistic. It could not explain the fact that the long-run average propensity to consume seemed to be roughly constant despite the marginal propensity to consume being much lower. Thus Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis is one of the models which seeks to explain this apparent contradiction. According to the permanent income hypothesis, permanent consumption, CP, is proportional to permanent income, YP. Permanent income is a subjective notion of likely average future income. Permanent consumption is a similar notion of consumption. Actual consumption, C, and actual income, Y, consist of these permanent components plus unanticipated transitory components, CT and YT, respectively: CPt =β2YPt Ct = CPt + CTt Yt = YPt + YTt Labor supply The choice of an individual as to how much labor to currently supply involves a trade-off between current labor and leisure. The amount of labor currently supplied influences not only current consumption opportunities but also future ones, and in particular influences the future choice of when to retire and supply no more labor. Thus the current labor supply choice is an intertemporal choice. When the laborers face an increase in wage, three things happen: substitution effect, ordinary income effect, and endowment effect. Keep in mind that wage is the price of leisure, since wage is the foregone opportunity cost of consuming leisure. Substitution Effect: As wage goes up, leisure becomes expensive. Therefore, a laborer would consume less leisure and supply more labor. With this, if real income is not changed then there would be an increase in hours worked. Income Effect: As wage goes up, leisure becomes expensive. Therefore, the purchasing power of each dollar would decrease. Since leisure is a normal good, the laborer would buy less leisure. This will create a negative relationship between the number of hours worked and the wage rate. Endowment Effect:As wage goes up, the value of the endowment (= wage times leisure + consumption) goes up. Therefore, income would increase holding labor fixed. Since leisure is a normal good, the laborer would buy more leisure. Fixed investment Fixed investment is the purchasing by firms of newly produced machinery, factories, and the like. The reason for such purchases is to increase the amount of output that can potentially be produced at various times in the future, so this is an intertemporal choice. Hyperbolic discounting The article so far has considered cases where individuals make intertemporal choices by considering the present discounted value of their consumption and income. Every period in the future is exponentially discounted with the same interest rate. A different class of economists, however, argue that individuals are often affected by what is called the temporal myopia. The consumer's typical response to uncertainty in this case is to sharply reduce the importance of the future of their decision making. This effect is called hyperbolic discounting. Mathematically, it may be represented as follows: where f(D) is the discount factor, D is the delay in the reward, and k is a parameter governing the degree of discounting. When choosing between $100 or $110 a day later, individuals may impatiently choose the immediate $100 rather than wait for tomorrow for an extra $10. Yet, when choosing between $100 in a month or $110 in a month and a day, many of these people will reverse their preferences and now patiently choose to wait the additional day for the extra $10. See also Decision theory Discount function Discounted utility Intertemporal budget constraint Keynes–Ramsey rule Temporal discounting References Decision theory Consumer behaviour Intertemporal economics Utility	[ -0.025820793583989143, -0.10782010853290558, -0.4830760359764099, 0.26460954546928406, 0.19099506735801697, 0.5538640022277832, -0.22122538089752197, 0.2775616943836212, -0.19652631878852844, -1.031311273574829, -0.1688416749238968, 0.33378106355667114, -0.14815349876880646, 0.03073076717555523, 0.21749331057071686, 0.24645790457725525, 0.25176188349723816, 0.5773096084594727, -0.08082958310842514, -0.07128728926181793, -0.13252492249011993, 0.5229229927062988, -0.30344444513320923, 0.03246108815073967, 0.6191550493240356, -0.21399261057376862, 0.0775078535079956, -0.2717697024345398, -0.09136247634887695, -0.156835675239563, 0.12209596484899521, 0.6236491799354553, -0.3248012363910675, 0.1150117963552475, 0.27164819836616516, -0.6502923369407654, 0.11760865151882172, 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221300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion%20Boucicault	Dion Boucicault	Dionysius Lardner "Dion" Boucicault (né Boursiquot; 26 December 1820 – 18 September 1890) was an Irish actor and playwright famed for his melodramas. By the later part of the 19th century, Boucicault had become known on both sides of the Atlantic as one of the most successful actor-playwright-managers then in the English-speaking theatre. Although The New York Times hailed him in his obituary as "the most conspicuous English dramatist of the 19th century," he and his second wife, Agnes Robertson Boucicault, had applied for and received American citizenship in 1873. Life and career Early life Boucicault was born Dionysius Lardner Boursiquot in Dublin, where he lived on Gardiner Street. His mother was Anne Darley, sister of the poet and mathematician George Darley. The Darleys were an important Dublin family influential in many fields and related to the Guinnesses by marriage. Anne was married to Samuel Smith Boursiquot, of Huguenot ancestry, but the identity of the boy's father is uncertain. He was probably Dionysius Lardner, a lodger at his mother's house at a time when she was recently separated from her husband, with Lardner later giving Dion Boucicault financial support until about 1840. In 1828, Lardner was elected as professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London, a position he held until he resigned in 1831. Anne Boursiquot followed him to London in 1828, taking all but one of her children with her. Consequently, from then on Boucicault attended various schools in and around London, about which there is a good deal of confusion, which has been dealt with by Richard Fawkes in a biography. For about four years, from 1829, he seems to have attended a very small private school in Hampstead kept by a Mr Hessey, then between 1833 and 1835 was at University College School, where he began his friendship with Charles Kenney. He later recalled having boarded in Euston Square with a Rev. Henry Stebbing, a historian. There is then a gap of two years, when Fawkes believes Boucicault may have attended Rowland Hill's Bruce Castle School, as stated in the Dictionary of National Biography. In 1837, he was enrolled at Wyke House, a school at Sion Hill, Brentford, kept by a Dr Alexander Jamieson, where he appeared in a school play, in the part of Rolla in Sheridan's Pizarro, and wrote his own first play, The Old Guard, which was produced some years later. After that, according to some accounts he attended a school in Dublin, before returning to London as an apprentice civil engineer to Lardner. Work as actor and playwright Boucicault abandoned his apprenticeship to take up an acting offer in Cheltenham, adopting the stage name of Lee Morton. He joined William Charles Macready and made his first appearance on stage with Benjamin Webster at Bristol. Soon after this he began to write plays, occasionally in conjunction with his acting. Boucicault's first play, A Legend of the Devil's Dyke, opened in Brighton in 1838. Three years later, he had a big success as a dramatist with London Assurance. First produced at Covent Garden on 4 March 1841, its cast included such well-known actors as Charles Mathews, William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. Boucicault rapidly followed this with a number of other plays, among the most successful being The Bastile , an "after-piece" (1842), Old Heads and Young Hearts (1844), The School for Scheming (1847), Confidence (1848), and The Knight Arva (1848), all produced at Her Majesty's Theatre. He had further great successes with The Corsican Brothers (1852, for Charles Kean) and Louis XI (1855), both adaptations of French plays. In his The Vampire (1852), Boucicault made his début as a leading actor, appearing as the vampire Sir Alan Raby. Although the play itself had mixed reviews, Boucicault's characterisation was praised as "a dreadful and weird thing played with immortal genius". In 1854 he wrote Andy Blake; or, The Irish Diamond and also appeared in it, playing the title character. From 1854 to 1860, Boucicault resided in the United States, where he was always a popular favourite. Boucicault and his actress wife, Agnes Robertson, toured America. He also wrote many successful plays there, acting in most of them. These included the popular Jessie Brown; or, The Relief of Lucknow in 1858. Work as theatre manager and producer From around 1855 his business manager and partner in New York was William Stuart, an expatriate Irish MP and adventurer. Together they leased Wallack's Theatre in 1855-1856, and put on a short season at the Washington Theatre in Washington D.C. In late 1855, while his wife was performing in St. Louis, Boucicault became the lessee of the Varieties Theatre in New Orleans. He quickly renamed it the Gaity and was set to open its doors on the 28th of November. A short delay pushed the opening night back to December 1st with his play Used Up. During his stay in New Orleans, a false report of his death began to circulate, this rumor was proven false when days later on December 20th he presented The Chameleon at the Gaiety. This was the first appearance of Agnes Robertson at the Gaiety. Shortly after, on February 26th of 1856 Boucicualt was in the market to sell his lease. By March 8th he was out and heading to New York. In the summer of 1859, Boucicault and William Stuart became joint lessees of Burton's New Theatre (originally Tripler's Theatre) on Broadway just below Amity Street. After extensive remodeling, he renamed his new showplace the Winter Garden Theatre. There on 5 December 1859, he premiered his new sensation, the anti-slavery potboiler The Octoroon, in which he also starred. This was the first play to treat seriously the Black American population. Boucicault fell out with Stuart over money matters, and he went back to England. On his return he produced at the Adelphi Theatre a dramatic adaptation of Gerald Griffin's novel, The Collegians, entitled The Colleen Bawn. This play, one of the most successful of the times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom and the United States. Julius Benedict used it as the basis for his Opera The Lily of Killarney. Although it made its author a handsome fortune, he lost it in the management of various London theatres. After his return to England, Boucicault was asked by the noted American comedian Joseph Jefferson, who also starred in the production of Octoroon, to rework Jefferson's adaptation of Washington Irving's Rip van Winkle. Their play opened in London in 1865 and on Broadway in 1866. Boucicault's next marked success was at the Princess's Theatre, London in 1864 with Arrah-na-Pogue in which he played the part of a County Wicklow, Ireland carman. This, and his admirable creation of "Conn" in his play The Shaughraun (first produced at Wallacks Theatre, New York City, in 1874, then at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best "Stage Irishman" of his time. His reputation was also mentioned by W. S. Gilbert in the libretto of his 1881 operetta Patience in the line: "The pathos of Paddy, as rendered by Boucicault". Again in partnership with William Stuart he built the New Park Theatre in 1873–1874. However, Boucicault withdrew just before the theatre opened, and Stuart teamed up instead with the actor, playwright and theatre manager Charles Fechter to run the house. In 1875 Boucicault returned to New York City, where he made his home and for a time his manager was Harry J. Sargent. He wrote the melodrama Contempt of Court (poster, left) in 1879, but he paid occasional visits to London and elsewhere (e.g. Toronto). He made his last appearance in London in his play, The Jilt, in 1885. Boucicault was an excellent actor, especially in pathetic parts. His uncanny ability to play these low-status roles earned him the nickname "Little Man Dion" in theatrical circles. His plays are for the most part adaptations, but are often very ingenious in construction. They have had great popularity. Family life Boucicault was married three times. He married the much older Anne Guiot at St Mary-at-Lambeth on 9 July 1845. He claimed that she died in a Swiss mountaineering accident later in the same year, though she may in fact have died as late as 1848. In 1853, he eloped with Agnes Kelly Robertson (1833–1916) to marry in New York. She was Charles Kean's ward; the juvenile lead in his company and an actress of unusual ability. She would bear Dion six children: Dion William Boucicault (1855–1876); Eva Boucicault (1857–1909); Dion Jr. (1859–1929); Patrice Boucicault (1862–1890); Nina Boucicault (1867–1950); Aubrey (1868–1913); three of whom became distinguished actors in their own right. Patrice became a society singer, marrying George Pitman in 1885 but died in childbirth in 1890. His granddaughter Rene Boucicault (1898–1935), Aubrey's daughter, became an actress and acted in silent films. Between 11 July and 8 October 1885, Boucicault toured Australia, where his brother Arthur lived. Towards the end of this tour, he suddenly left Agnes to marry Josephine Louise Thorndyke (c. 1864–1956), a young actress, on 9 September 1885, in Sydney. This aroused scandal on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, as his marriage to Agnes was not finally dissolved until 21 June 1888, by reason of "bigamy with adultery." The rights to many of his plays were later sold to finance alimony payments to his second wife. His last play, A Tale of a Coat, opened at Daly's Theatre in New York on 14 August 1890, and closed on 13 September 1890. Boucicault died in 1890 in New York City, and was buried in Mount Hope Cemetery, Hastings, Westchester County, New York. Selected works London Assurance (1841) The Bastile (1842) Old Heads and Young Hearts (1844) The School for Scheming (1847) Confidence (1848) The Knight Arva (1848) The Corsican Brothers (1852) The Vampire (1852) Louis XI (1855) The Phantom (1856) The Poor of New York (1857) The Octoroon or Life in Louisiana (1859) The Colleen Bawn or The Brides of Garryowen (1860) Jeanie Deans (1860) Arrah-na-Pogue (1864) Rip van Winkle or The Sleep of Twenty Years (1865) After Dark: A Tale of London Life (1868) Formosa, The Most Beautiful or The Railroad to Ruin (1869) The Shaughraun (1874) The Jilt (1885) See also Dionysius Lardner (probably Boucicault's natural father) See a man about a dog References Notes Bibliography Asimov's Annotated Gilbert & Sullivan, Patience, note 31 Michael Diamond, Victorian Sensation, (Anthem Press, 2003) . Chapter 7. Richard Fawkes, Dion Boucicault (Quartet books, 1979) External links The Fawkes Boucicault Collection at the University of Kent Dion Boucicault Theatre Collection at the University of South Florida Dion Boucicault Digital Collection at the University of South Florida Irish male dramatists and playwrights Irish male stage actors American male dramatists and playwrights American male stage actors Male actors from Dublin (city) People educated at University College School People educated at Bruce Castle School 1822 births 1890 deaths 19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights 19th-century Irish male actors 19th-century American dramatists and playwrights 19th-century American male actors	[ -0.10911861062049866, 0.5574471950531006, -0.962276041507721, -0.20201705396175385, -0.04290192574262619, 1.216262698173523, 0.7474648952484131, 0.7111856341362, -0.3890586495399475, -0.44702646136283875, -0.5860611200332642, 0.5523581504821777, -0.33676013350486755, -0.05469067767262459, 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221303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Farren	William Farren	William Farren (13 May 1786 – 24 September 1861), English actor, was born the son of an actor (born 1725) of the same name, who played leading roles from 1784 to 1795 at Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. Life Raised on Gower Street in London, he was raised in comparative affluence, supported not only by his father's wealth but also by a large gift from surgeon Percival Pott. He attended school in Soho and may have apprenticed as an attorney in Wolverhampton; by 1806, however, he had joined his brother Percy's troupe in Plymouth. His first appearance on the stage was at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth in Charles Macklin's Love à la mode. From the beginning he specialized in comic old men and Irish parts. A decade of provincial apprenticeship followed in southern England and in Dublin (where he married); his first roles included Adam Contest in Elizabeth Inchbald's The Wedding Day and Lovegold in Henry Fielding's translation of Molière's The Miser; however, his name is associated with a wide variety of roles. His first London appearance was in 1818 at Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle (in Sheridan's The School for Scandal), a part with which his name was always associated: he was an instant popular and critical success. He succeeded also in Colman and Garrick's The Clandestine Marriage. He played at Covent Garden every winter until 1828, and began in 1824 a series of summer engagements at the Haymarket which also lasted some years. At these two theatres he played an immense variety of comedic characters. After 1821, he separated from his first wife and began living with Harriet Elizabeth Savill, who was at the time married to John Saville Faucit. After an unsuccessful attempt to annul the marriage, Farren and Savill lived together under common law marriage, though they did not marry formally until Saville's death in 1853. Farren and his brother played important roles in training Savill's daughter, Helen Faucit, for her successful acting career. From 1828 until 1837 he was at Drury Lane, where he essayed a wider range of characters, including Polonius and Caesar. He was again at Covent Garden for a few years, where he continued to expand his repertoire. Apart from an unsuccessful turn as Shylock, he attempted female roles such as Meg Merrilies in a dramatization of Scott's Guy Mannering. In fall of 1837, he joined the troupe run by Lucia Elizabeth Vestris at the Olympic Theatre, and he stayed with Vestris during her management of Covent Garden, ending in 1842. His most notable new role during this period was as Sir Harcourt Courtly in Dion Boucicault's London Assurance. He next joined Benjamin Webster at the Haymarket as stage-manager as well as actor. Now nearly sixty, he succeeded in two notable old-men roles by Mark Lemon: the title characters in Grandfather Whitehead and Old Parr. His performance as Thomas Parr was praised by The Times as a breakthrough in English acting. He was performing in that role in 1843 when he suffered an on-stage stroke. He was, however, able to reappear the following year, and he remained at the Haymarket ten years more, though his acting never again reached its former level; Edward Dutton Cook recalls an 1851 performance in which Farren, though "acting admirably", did not utter a single intelligible word. For a time he managed the Strand, and between 1850 and 1853, was lessee of the Olympic. During his later years he confined himself to parts portraying old men, in which he was unrivalled. In 1855 he made his final appearance at the Haymarket, as Lord Ogleby in a scene from the Clandestine Marriage. With Faucit, he left two sons, Henry (1826–1860) and William (1825–1908), both actors. The former was the father of Nellie Farren, long famous for boy's parts in Gaiety musical burlesques, in the days of Edward Terry and Fred Leslie. As Jack Sheppard, and in similar roles, she had a unique position at the Gaiety, and was an unrivalled public favourite. In 1892 her health failed, and her retirement, coupled with Fred Leslie's death, brought to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque associated with them. Art and reputation In the types of characters he favored, "crusty old bachelors, jealous old husbands, stormy fathers, worrying uncles, or ancient fops with ghastly pretensions to amiability" (as Lewes described them), he was among the most highly regarded actors of his time. His performances were known for their polish and subtlety; in more sentimental roles, such as Old Parr, he was able to mix sentiment with cool irony. He was at home in Augustan and other eighteenth century roles, but he is not remembered as a Shakespearian actor. Macready remembered him as justly famous for "studious correctness", but described him as second to William Dowton and Joseph Munden in "the rich quality of humor." William Hazlitt praised the conservatism of his style in the older plays. Leigh Hunt disagreed, disparaging Farren in favor of Dowton as Anthony Absolute (Sheridan's The Rivals). Even Hunt, though, acknowledged Farren's exceptional self-possession. Writing in The Times in 1855, Henry Morley called Farren "one of the most finished actors by whom the stage has been adorned in the present century." Writing after the actor's death, John Westland Marston recalls that the actor excelled in portraying "the vanity, the self-love, the inconsistency, and now and then the redeeming good-feeling of worldly, well-bred people, and occasionally the credulous faith of simple, guileless people." Notes Bibliography Adams, W. D. (1904). A Dictionary of the Drama. London: Chatto and Windus. Carlisle, Carol (2004). "William Farren." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2004. Cook, Dutton (1880). "Old Farren." The Gentleman's Magazine. CCXLVI. Hazlitt, William (1903). Collected Works. A. R. Waller and Arnold Glover, editors. London: J.M. Dent. Hunt, Leigh (1949). Leigh Hunt's Dramatic Criticism, 1808-1831. Lawrence Huston Houtchens and Carolyn Washburn Houtchens, editors. New York: Columbia University Press. Macready, William (1875). Macready's Reminiscences and Selections from His Diaries and Letters. Frederick Pollock, editor. London: Macmillan. Marston, Westland (1888). Our Recent Actors. London: Sampson, Low. Sandars, Harry (1879). "Deaths on or Associated with the Stage." 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221306	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20O%27Connor%20Terry	Edward O'Connor Terry	Edward O'Connor Terry (10 March 1844 – 2 April 1912) was an English actor, who became one of the most influential actors and comedians of the Victorian era. Life and career Terry was born in London, allegedly the illegitimate son of Feargus O'Connor, Irish Chartist leader and advocate of the land plan. The younger Terry made his debut in 1863 as Wormwood in The Lottery Ticket. He began his stage career in small companies in the provinces playing in Shakespeare with the young Henry Irving and sometimes in pieces employing his singing talents. In 1867, Terry played for a season at London's Surrey Theatre in both comedy and drama. Between 1868 and 1875, he was the leading comedian at the Royal Strand Theatre in London. He reached the peak of his popularity after he joined John Hollingshead's company at the Gaiety Theatre, London in 1876, starring in the musical burlesques produced there during the next eight years. With Nellie Farren, Kate Vaughan and E. W. Royce, he made the fortune of this house, his eccentric acting and singing creating a style which had many imitators. Some of the roles in which he appeared there included Mephistopheles in Little Doctor Faust (1878). In 1887 he went into management, opening Terry's Theatre, built on the site of the old Coal Hole public house and music hall on the Strand. There, he produced and starred as Dick Phenyl in Arthur Wing Pinero's Sweet Lavender, which was perhaps his greatest success, running for 670 nights. He then revived Pinero's The Magistrate and The Times. In subsequent years, he was only occasionally seen at his own theatre and made many tours in the British provinces and in Australia, North and South America, South Africa and India. He returned to Terry's in 1890, producing and starring in King Kodak, The Blue Boar and several other notable productions. Terry brought four plays to New York in 1904. In this, his only Broadway engagement, he and his touring company played the former Princess Theatre on West 29th St. for eight weeks from December 1904 to February 1905, in The House of Burnside, Sweet Lavender, Love in Idleness, and The Passport. Terry married twice; his first marriage was to Ellen Seitz in 1870. He married his second wife, Florence, Lady Harris, widow of Augustus Harris, in 1904. Off the stage, he was a Freemason and served on the councils of many charities and of public bodies. Terry died of neuritis at his home in Barnes, England, at the age of 68. Notes References Hollingshead, John. Gaiety Chronicles (1898) A. Constable & co.: London Hollingshead, John. Good Old Gaiety: An Historiette & Remembrance (1903) London:Gaity Theatre Co Mantle, Burns and Garrison P. Sherwood, eds., The Best Plays of 1899-1909, (Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company), 1944. 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221308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-assessment	Self-assessment	In social psychology, self-assessment is the process of looking at oneself in order to assess aspects that are important to one's identity. It is one of the motives that drive self-evaluation, along with self-verification and self-enhancement. Sedikides (1993) suggests that the self-assessment motive will prompt people to seek information to confirm their uncertain self-concept rather than their certain self-concept and at the same time people use self-assessment to enhance their certainty of their own self-knowledge. However, the self-assessment motive could be seen as quite different from the other two self-evaluation motives. Unlike the other two motives, through self-assessment people are interested in the accuracy of their current self view, rather than improving their self-view. This makes self-assessment the only self-evaluative motive that may cause a person's self-esteem to be damaged. Functions If through self-assessing there is a possibility that a person's self-concept, or self-esteem is going to be damaged why would this be a motive of self-evaluation, surely it would be better to only self-verify and self-enhance and not to risk damaging self-esteem? Trope in a 1986 paper suggests that self-assessment is a way in which self-esteem can be enhanced in the future. For example, self-assessment may mean that in the short-term self-assessment may cause harm to a person's self-concept through realising that they may not have achieved as highly as they may like; however in the long term this may mean that they work harder in order to achieve greater things in the future, and as a result their self-esteem would be enhanced further than where it had been before self-assessment. Within the self-evaluation motives however there are some interesting interactions. Self-assessment is found a lot of the time to be associated with self-enhancement as the two motives seem to contradict each other with opposing aims; whereas the motive to self-assess sees it as important to ensure that the self-concept is accurate the motive to self-enhance sees it as important to boost the self-concept in order to protect it from any negative feedback. Research In 1993, Constantine Sedikides performed an experiment investigating the roles of each of the self-evaluation motives, investigated if one was stronger and held more weight than others and tried to draw out specifically the self-assessment and self-verification motives. The first experiment conducted the results showed that when choosing what questions they wanted to be asked they were more likely to request those that would verify their self-concept rather than assess it. This finding supports the idea that certain traits are more central to a person's self-concept, however shows little support for the self-assessment motive. When considering the interaction between how strong and how central certain traits are to a person's self-concept Sedikides again found evidence in support of the self-verification and self-enhancement motives, though again none for the self-assessment motive. The second experiment conducted by Sedikides (1993) investigated the possibility that the ability for greater reflection than experiment one may show greater levels of self-assessment in the participants. However the results of this experiment showed that though through some analysis there was evidence of some self-verification there was no real evidence pointing towards self-assessment and all the results supported self-enhancement. The third experiment again tried to draw out evidence for self-verification and self-assessment and though, as with experiment two, there was some evidence to support the self-verification motive most of the results pointed towards the self-enhancement method and not self-assessment. In experiment four Sedikides suggests that the reason past experiments have not supported self-assessment is because participants reflect more on the central traits than peripheral traits, which are generally ones that are assessed so as to be able to improve at the same time as not harming the self-concept too much. This experiment therefore looked at whether this was true and whether it was the central traits that were being looked at in this study rather than peripheral. The results showed exactly what Sedikides expected, though because of this the results of the other parts of the experiment gave support to the self-enhancement motive rather than self-assessment of self-verification. The fifth experiment carried out by Sedikides suggests that in the past experiments the possibility of self-assessing was less likely than self-verification or self-enhancement as the participants would not have been objective in their self-evaluation. For this experiment therefore the experimental group were asked to approach their reflections in an objective way, as if they were approaching their self-concept as a scientist, bringing each of their traits under scrutiny. Results of this study showed that those subjects who were asked to be objective in their assessment strove more for accuracy than those not asked to be specifically objective. The authors then conducted one final experiment looking at the validation of self-enhancement when reflecting on the self. Sedikides and Strube (1997) reviewed past research into the self-assessment motive and looked at whether participants would be more attracted to tasks that were high or low in accuracy about their characteristics, whether they would choose to take part in tasks that were more or less accurate and if they would prefer to create highly or less accurate tasks. This review showed that people are more attracted to taking part in tasks that are more accurate about them than those that are less accurate and would prefer to take part in higher accuracy tests. However, when only being asked if they would like to take part in high or low accuracy tasks does not give a complete accurate view of self-assessment; if there is no threat of actually taking part in the tasks the participants may not be as honest as if they actually had to take part. Brown therefore showed that self-assessment is can be seen when participants are asked to actually take part in tasks that will be high in their accuracy or low in their accuracy of a person's characteristics. This research found that participants were more likely to choose to take part in tasks that were higher in accuracy about their characteristics. The last area of self-assessment Sedikides and Strube reviewed was whether participants would want to construct highly or less accurate tasks and if participants would be more persistent or more likely to succeed if they were taking part in highly or less accurate tasks. The review showed that participants would prefer to make highly accurate tasks which measured their abilities; however they will be more persistent in tasks which are lower in accuracy. The review also showed though that participants were more likely to succeed on tasks that they were told were high in accuracy. It is suggested that this is because when completing tasks that are highly accurate about a person's characteristics there is more to gain from succeeding in a task as it will therefore give more information about the person's characteristics than if it was low in accuracy. Though self-assessment is one of the self-evaluation motives it could be suggested that it may not be the most popular one. Self-enhancement was displayed in each of the experiments conducted by Sedikides and self-assessment, and even self-verification to an extent was only displayed when it was teased out. This is not to say that self-assessment is not a self-evaluation motive, however most of the experiments conducted by Sedikides ended up with the participants reflecting on central traits rather than peripheral traits. This is unsurprising as they are the most important traits to a person's self-concept, however it is not therefore surprising that these are the traits that are enhanced rather than assessed as if someone assessed their central traits and found fault it would be more of an issue than finding a fault with a peripheral trait. The fifth experiment carried out by Sedikides shows that self-assessment does exist and is one of the self-evaluation motives; if people didn't self-assess then even in this experiment there would have been no difference between the reflections of those asked to be objective and those who were not. Self-assessment is a difficult motive to assess, as discovered by Sedikides but it is important to self-evaluation as it means that people are able to realize ways in which to improve themselves. 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221309	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Nottingham%20Webster	Benjamin Nottingham Webster	Benjamin Nottingham Webster (3 September 17973 July 1882) was an English actor-manager and dramatist. Early life Webster was born in Bath, the son of a dancing master. Career First appearing as Harlequin, and then in small parts at Drury Lane, he went to the Haymarket Theatre in 1829, and was given leading comedy character business. Webster was the lessee of the Haymarket from 1837 to 1853; he built the new Adelphi Theatre (1859); later the Olympic Theatre, Princess's Theatre, London and St James's Theatres came under his control; and he was the patron of all the contemporary playwrights and many of the best actors, who owed their opportunity of success to him. He wrote, translated or adapted nearly a hundred plays. As a character actor he was unequalled in his day, especially in such parts as Triplet in Masks and Faces, Joey Ladle in No Thoroughfare, and John Peerybingle in his own dramatization of The Cricket on the Hearth. Webster took his formal farewell of the stage in 1874. Later life Webster died in 1882, and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. The grave lies 10m east of the main path, midway between the north entrance and the colonnades on an east–west path. Personal life His daughter, Harriette Georgiana (died 1897), was the first wife of Edward Levy-Lawson, 1st Baron Burnham. His son, W.S. Webster, had three children – Benjamin Webster (b. 1864; married to Miss (Dame) May Whitty), Annie (Mrs A.E. George) and Lizzie (Mrs Sydney Brough) – all well known on the London stage, and further connected with it in each case by marriage. References Further reading Scott, The Drama of Yesterday and To-Day (London, 1899) Matthews and Hutton, Actors and Actresses of Great Gritain and the United States (New York, 1886) External links 1797 births 1882 deaths English male stage actors English dramatists and playwrights English theatre managers and producers Burials at Brompton Cemetery 19th-century English male actors Actor-managers English male dramatists and playwrights 19th-century English dramatists and playwrights 19th-century English male writers 19th-century English businesspeople	[ -0.3652052879333496, 0.38203364610671997, -0.9098902940750122, -0.678708016872406, 0.334428608417511, 1.2600566148757935, 0.8806292414665222, 0.0014494062634184957, -0.20432549715042114, 0.09427737444639206, -0.21038255095481873, 0.2007995992898941, -0.31917887926101685, 0.17246797680854797, 0.03588752821087837, 0.44954541325569153, -0.38727065920829773, -0.2703555226325989, -0.19589319825172424, -0.35041725635528564, -0.5308690071105957, 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221312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junglefowl	Junglefowl	Junglefowl are the only four living species of bird from the genus Gallus in the bird order Galliformes, and occur in parts of South and Southeast Asia. They diverged from their common ancestor about 4–6 million years ago. Although originating in Asia, remains of junglefowl bones have also been found in regions of Chile, which date back to 1321–1407 CE, providing evidence of possible Polynesian migration through the Pacific Ocean. These are large birds, with colourful plumage in males, but are nevertheless difficult to see in the dense vegetation they inhabit. As with many birds in the pheasant family, the male takes no part in the incubation of the egg or rearing of the precocial young. These duties are performed by the drab and well-camouflaged female. Females and males do not form pair bonds; instead, the species has a polygynandrous mating system in which each female will usually mate with several males. Aggressive social hierarchies exist among both females and males, from which the term "pecking order" originates. The junglefowl are omnivorous, eating a variety of leaves, plant matter, invertebrates such as slugs and insects, and occasionally small mice and frogs. One of the species in this genus, the red junglefowl, is of historical importance as the ancestor of the domesticated chicken, although the grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and green junglefowl are likely to have also been involved. The Sri Lankan junglefowl is the national bird of Sri Lanka. Taxonomy The genus Gallus was erected by the French scientist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Ornithologie published in 1760. The type species is the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus). The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus had introduced the genus Gallus in the 6th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1748, but Linnaeus dropped the genus in the important tenth edition of 1758 and put the red junglefowl together with the common pheasant in the genus Phasianus. However, the red junglefowl and common pheasant are now known to have diverged about 18–23 million years ago, and belong to different subfamilies. This pairwise divergence time was also the same between the other three junglefowls and the pheasant. As the publication date of Linnaeus's sixth edition was before the 1758 starting point of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Brisson and not Linnaeus is considered as the authority for the genus. More recent phylogenetic evidence supports the closest relatives of Gallus being the bamboo partridges in the genus Bambusicola, from which they diverged about 15 million years ago. Extant species The genus contains four species. Fossils Prehistorically, the genus Gallus was found all over Eurasia; in fact, it appears to have evolved in southeastern Europe. Several fossil species have been described, but their distinctness is not firmly established in all cases: Gallus aesculapii (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Greece) - possibly belongs into Pavo Gallus moldovicus (Late Pliocene of Moldavia) - sometimes misspelt moldavicus, may be synonym of Pavo bravardi Gallus beremendensis (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Eastern Europe) Giant junglefowl Gallus karabachensis (Early Pleistocene of Nagorno-Karabakh) Gallus tamanensis (Early Pleistocene? of Taman Peninsula) Gallus kudarensis (Early/Middle Pleistocene of Kudaro, South Ossetia) Gallus europaeus (Middle Pleistocene of Italy) Gallus sp. (Middle/Late Pleistocene of Trinka Cave, Moldavia) Gallus imereticus (Late Pleistocene of Gvardjilas-Klde, Imeretia) Gallus meschtscheriensis (Late Pleistocene of Soungir, Russia) Gallus georgicus (Late Pleistocene - Early Holocene of Georgia) Gallus sp. (Late Pleistocene of Krivtcha Cave, Ukraine) Gallus sp. (Early Holocene of Dnieper region) References Extant Miocene first appearances Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson	[ 0.19392818212509155, -0.01775136962532997, -0.49186280369758606, -0.19832205772399902, 0.10586032271385193, 0.7154794931411743, -0.08104042708873749, 0.570804238319397, -0.9815866351127625, -0.03709086775779724, -0.03500178083777428, -0.013400137424468994, -0.6873655915260315, -0.11604233831167221, 0.35708025097846985, 0.7249227166175842, 0.1700916290283203, 0.4027843177318573, 0.2981516420841217, -0.4370070695877075, -0.3344575762748718, -0.6769669651985168, 0.4238832890987396, -0.12426075339317322, 0.26538321375846863, -0.17762815952301025, 0.4445565938949585, 1.0953311920166016, 0.4385243356227875, 0.144797682762146, 0.6138039231300354, 0.6159189939498901, 0.2543497383594513, 0.37090709805488586, -0.11003867536783218, -0.27783286571502686, -0.7457683682441711, -0.26040592789649963, 0.3238959312438965, -0.64552903175354, 0.04172658547759056, -0.32123345136642456, 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221314	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Rocky%20Mountain%20Parks%20World%20Heritage%20Site	Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site	The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site is located in the Canadian Rockies. It consists of seven contiguous parks including four national parks: Banff Jasper Kootenay Yoho and three British Columbia provincial parks: Hamber Provincial Park Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park Mount Robson Provincial Park The parks include mountains, glaciers, and hot springs and the headwaters of major North American river systems including: North Saskatchewan River Athabasca River Columbia River Fraser River The area is known for its natural environment and biological diversity. It includes the Burgess Shale site, a World Heritage Site in its own right from 1980 to 1984, when it was included in the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks WHS designation. World Heritage Site In 1983 Canada nominated Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho national parks for inclusion on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. UNESCO accepted this nomination in 1984 on the basis of a recommendation by IUCN. The original nomination and IUCN's recommendation drew attention to the area's "exceptional natural beauty", "habitats of rare and endangered species" and its natural landforms such as mountain peaks, glaciers, lakes, canyons, limestone caves, and the unique Burgess Shale fossils. That year the UNESCO World Heritage Committee "requested the Canadian authorities to consider adding the adjacent Provincial Parks of Mount Robson, Hamber, Mount Assiniboine and Kananaskis" to the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks site. At a 1990 meeting, "the Committee welcomed the Canadian proposal to include, in the Rocky Mountains Parks site, Mount Robson, Hamber and Assiniboine Provincial Parks, following its request at its Eighth Session in 1984." Kananaskis (renamed Peter Lougheed Provincial Park) has not been included within the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage site. See also List of National Parks of Canada List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas List of British Columbia provincial parks List of protected areas of Alberta References External links Park page at UNESCO World Heritage Site Climbing the clouds Virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering Canadian Rockies World Heritage Sites in Canada National parks of the Rocky Mountains Parks in the Canadian Rockies Parks in Alberta Parks in British Columbia Protected areas of the Rocky Mountains Provincial and state parks in the Rocky Mountains	[ -0.2704843282699585, 0.6357691884040833, -0.509100615978241, 0.023390833288431168, -0.22136329114437103, -0.08088759332895279, 0.8700233697891235, 0.7266571521759033, -0.4256281852722168, -0.2935551106929779, -0.5490025877952576, 0.08382163941860199, -0.22565433382987976, 0.5502961874008179, -0.026572465896606445, 0.600806474685669, -0.333300918340683, 0.6828435063362122, 0.40905529260635376, -0.5776060223579407, 0.1772797703742981, 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221315	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20X-15	North American X-15	The North American X-15 is a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft. It was operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft. The X-15 set speed and altitude records in the 1960s, reaching the edge of outer space and returning with valuable data used in aircraft and spacecraft design. The X-15's highest speed, , was achieved on 3October 1967, when William J. Knight flew at Mach6.7 at an altitude of , or 19.34miles. This set the official world record for the highest speed ever recorded by a crewed, powered aircraft, which remains unbroken. During the X-15 program, 12pilots flew a combined 199flights. Of these, 8pilots flew a combined 13flights which met the Air Force spaceflight criterion by exceeding the altitude of , thus qualifying these pilots as being astronauts. The Air Force pilots qualified for military astronaut wings immediately, while the civilian pilots were eventually awarded NASA astronaut wings in 2005, 35years after the last X-15 flight. Design and development The X-15 was based on a concept study from Walter Dornberger for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) for a hypersonic research aircraft. The requests for proposal (RFPs) were published on 30December 1954 for the airframe and on 4February 1955 for the rocket engine. The X-15 was built by two manufacturers: North American Aviation was contracted for the airframe in November 1955, and Reaction Motors was contracted for building the engines in 1956. Like many X-series aircraft, the X-15 was designed to be carried aloft and drop launched from under the wing of a B-52 mother ship. Air Force NB-52A, "The High and Mighty One" (serial 52-0003), and NB-52B, "The Challenger" (serial 52-0008, a.k.a. Balls 8) served as carrier planes for all X-15 flights. Release of the X-15 from NB-52A took place at an altitude of about and a speed of about . The X-15 fuselage was long and cylindrical, with rear fairings that flattened its appearance, and thick, dorsal and ventral wedge-fin stabilizers. Parts of the fuselage (the outer skin) were heat-resistant nickel alloy (Inconel-X750). The retractable landing gear comprised a nose-wheel carriage and two rear skids. The skids did not extend beyond the ventral fin, which required the pilot to jettison the lower fin just before landing. The lower fin was recovered by parachute. Cockpit and pilot systems The X-15 was the product of developmental research, and changes were made to various systems over the course of the program and between the different models. The X-15 was operated under several different scenarios, including attachment to a launch aircraft, drop, main engine start and acceleration, ballistic flight into thin air/space, re-entry into thicker air, unpowered glide to landing, and direct landing without a main-engine start. The main rocket engine operated only for a relatively short part of the flight but boosted the X-15 to its high speeds and altitudes. Without main engine thrust, the X-15's instruments and control surfaces remained functional, but the aircraft could not maintain altitude. As the X-15 also had to be controlled in an environment where there was too little air for aerodynamic flight control surfaces, it had a reaction control system (RCS) that used rocket thrusters. There were two different X-15 pilot control setups: one used three joysticks, the other, one joystick. The X-15 type with multiple control sticks for the pilot placed a traditional rudder and stick between a left joystick that sent commands to the Reaction Control System, and a third joystick on the right used during high-G maneuvers to augment the center stick. In addition to pilot input, the X-15 "Stability Augmentation System" (SAS) sent inputs to the aerodynamic controls to help the pilot maintain attitude control. The Reaction Control System (RCS) could be operated in two modes – manual and automatic. The automatic mode used a feature called "Reaction Augmentation System" (RAS) that helped stabilize the vehicle at high altitude. The RAS was typically used for approximately three minutes of an X-15 flight before automatic power off. The alternative control setup used the MH-96 flight control system, which allowed one joystick in place of three and simplified pilot input. The MH-96 could automatically blend aerodynamic and rocket controls, depending on how effective each system was at controlling the aircraft. Among the many controls were the rocket engine throttle and a control for jettisoning the ventral tail fin. Other features of the cockpit included heated windows to prevent icing and a forward headrest for periods of high deceleration. The X-15 had an ejection seat designed to operate at speeds up to and/or altitude, although it was never used during the program. In the event of ejection, the seat was designed to deploy fins, which were used until it reached a safer speed/altitude at which to deploy its main parachute. Pilots wore pressure suits, which could be pressurized with nitrogen gas. Above altitude, the cockpit was pressurized to with nitrogen gas, while oxygen for breathing was fed separately to the pilot. Propulsion The initial 24 powered flights used two Reaction Motors XLR11 liquid-propellant rocket engines, enhanced to provide a total of of thrust as compared to the that a single XLR11 provided in 1947 to make the Bell X-1 the first aircraft to fly faster than the speed of sound. The XLR11 used ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen. By November 1960, Reaction Motors delivered the XLR99 rocket engine, generating of thrust. The remaining 175flights of the X-15 used XLR99 engines, in a single engine configuration. The XLR99 used anhydrous ammonia and liquid oxygen as propellant, and hydrogen peroxide to drive the high-speed turbopump that delivered propellants to the engine. It could burn of propellant in 80seconds; Jules Bergman titled his book on the program Ninety Seconds to Space to describe the total powered flight time of the aircraft. The X-15 reaction control system (RCS), for maneuvering in the low-pressure/density environment, used high-test peroxide (HTP), which decomposes into water and oxygen in the presence of a catalyst and could provide a specific impulse of 140seconds. The HTP also fueled a turbopump for the main engines and auxiliary power units (APUs). Additional tanks for helium and liquid nitrogen performed other functions; the fuselage interior was purged with helium gas, and liquid nitrogen was used as coolant for various systems. Wedge tail and hypersonic stability The X-15 had a thick wedge tail to enable it to fly in a steady manner at hypersonic speeds. This produced a significant amount of base drag at lower speeds; the blunt end at the rear of the X-15 could produce as much drag as an entire F-104 Starfighter. Stability at hypersonic speeds was aided by side panels that could be extended from the tail to increase the overall surface area, and these panels doubled as air brakes. Operational history Altitudes attained by X-15 aircraft fell short of those of Alan Shepard's and Gus Grissom's Project Mercury space capsules in 1961, or of any other human spacecraft except the SpaceShipTwo spaceplane. However, the X-15 ranks supreme among crewed rocket-powered aircraft, becoming the world's first operational spaceplane in the early 1960s. Before 1958, United States Air Force (USAF) and NACA officials discussed an orbital X-15 spaceplane, the X-15B that would launch into outer space from atop an SM-64 Navaho missile. This was canceled when the NACA became NASA and adopted Project Mercury instead. By 1959, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar space-glider program was to become the USAF's preferred means for launching military crewed spacecraft into orbit. This program was canceled in the early 1960s before an operational vehicle could be built. Various configurations of the Navaho were considered, and another proposal involved a Titan I stage. Three X-15s were built, flying 199test flights, the last on 24October 1968. The first X-15 flight was an unpowered glide flight by Scott Crossfield, on 8June 1959. Crossfield also piloted the first powered flight on 17September 1959, and his first flight with the XLR-99 rocket engine on 15November 1960. Twelve test pilots flew the X-15. Among these were Neil Armstrong, later a NASA astronaut and the first man to set foot on the Moon, and Joe Engle, later a commander of NASA Space Shuttle missions. In a 1962 proposal, NASA considered using the B-52/X-15 as a launch platform for a Blue Scout rocket to place satellites weighing up to into orbit. In July and August 1963, pilot Joe Walker exceeded in altitude, joining NASA astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts as the first human beings to cross that line on their way to outer space. The USAF awarded astronaut wings to anyone achieving an altitude of , while the FAI set the limit of space at . On 15November 1967, U.S. Air Force test pilot Major Michael J. Adams was killed during X-15 Flight 191 when X-15-3, , entered a hypersonic spin while descending, then oscillated violently as aerodynamic forces increased after re-entry. As his aircraft's flight control system operated the control surfaces to their limits, acceleration built to vertical and lateral. The airframe broke apart at altitude, scattering the X-15's wreckage across . On 8May 2004, a monument was erected at the cockpit's locale, near Johannesburg, California. Major Adams was posthumously awarded Air Force astronaut wings for his final flight in X-15-3, which had reached an altitude of . In 1991, his name was added to the Astronaut Memorial. The second plane, X-15-2, was rebuilt after a landing accident on 9November 1962 which damaged the craft and injured its pilot, John McKay (although McKay returned to flight as an X-15 pilot after this crash, his injuries contributed to an early death and he died in 1975, aged 52). It was lengthened by , had a pair of auxiliary fuel tanks attached beneath its fuselage and wings, and a complete heat-resistant ablative coating was added. The plane was renamed the X-15A-2, and took flight for the first time on 25June 1964. It reached its maximum speed of in October 1967 with pilot William "Pete" Knight of the U.S. Air Force in control. Five principal aircraft were used during the X-15 program: three X-15 planes and two modified "nonstandard" NB-52 bombers: 56-6670, 81 free flights 56-6671, 31 free flights as X-15-2, 22 free flights as X-15A-2; 53 in total 56-6672, 65 free flights, including the Flight 191 disaster 52-003 nicknamed The High and Mighty One (retired in October 1969) 52-008 nicknamed The Challenger, later Balls 8 (retired in November 2004) Additionally, F-100, F-104 and F5D chase aircraft and C-130 and C-47 transports supported the program. The 200th flight over Nevada was first scheduled for 21November 1968, to be flown by William "Pete" Knight. Numerous technical problems and outbreaks of bad weather delayed this proposed flight six times, and it was permanently canceled on 20December 1968. This X-15 (56-6670) was detached from the B-52 and then put into indefinite storage. The aircraft was later donated to the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum for display. Current static displays X-15-1 (AF Ser. No. 56-6670) was on display in the National Air and Space Museum "Milestones of Flight" gallery, Washington, D.C., (Due to renovations of the museum, the aircraft is temporarily no longer on display). X-15A-2 (AF Ser. No. 56-6671) is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Dayton, Ohio. It was retired to the museum in October 1969. The aircraft is displayed in the museum's Research and Development Gallery alongside other "X-planes", including the Bell X-1B and Douglas X-3 Stiletto. Mockups Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards AFB, California, United States (painted with ) Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, Arizona (painted with ) Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon (painted with ). A full-scale wooden mockup of the X-15, it is displayed along with one of the rocket engines. Stratofortress mother ships NB-52A (AF Ser. No. 52-003) is displayed at the Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis–Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona. It launched the X-15-1 30times, the X-15-2, 11times, and the X-15-3 31times (as well as the M2-F2 four times, the HL-10 11times and the X-24A twice). NB-52B (AF Ser. No. 52-008) is on permanent display outside the north gate of Edwards AFB, California. It launched the majority of X-15 flights. Record flights Highest flights During 13 of the 199 total X-15 flights, eight pilots flew above 264,000feet or 50miles, thereby qualifying as astronauts according to the United States definition of the space border. All five Air Force pilots flew above 50miles and were awarded military astronaut wings contemporaneously with their achievements, including Adams, who received the distinction posthumously following the flight191 disaster. However the other three were NASA employees and did not receive a comparable decoration at the time. In 2004, the Federal Aviation Administration conferred its first-ever commercial astronaut wings on Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie, pilots of the commercial SpaceShipOne, another spaceplane with a flight profile comparable to the X-15's. Following this in 2005, NASA retroactively awarded its civilian astronaut wings to Dana (then living), and to McKay and Walker (posthumously). Forrest S. Petersen, the only Navy pilot in the X-15 program, never took the aircraft above the requisite altitude and thus never earned astronaut wings. Of the thirteen flights, only flights 90 and 91, piloted by exceeded the Kármán line, the internationally recognized 100 km altitude used by the FAI to denote the edge of space. † fatal Fastest recorded flights Pilots † Killed in the crash of X-15-3 Specifications Other configurations include the Reaction Motors XLR11 equipped X-15, and the long version. See also References Notes Bibliography External links NASA X-15: Hypersonic Research at the Edge of Space Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X-15 Research Airplane Non-NASA X-15A at Encyclopedia Astronautica X-15: Advanced Research Airplane, design summary by North America Aviation X-015 1950s United States experimental aircraft Rocket-powered aircraft Mid-wing aircraft Hypersonic aircraft Spaceplanes Crewed spacecraft Suborbital spaceflight High-test peroxide 1963 in spaceflight Aircraft first flown in 1959 Reusable spacecraft Cruciform tail aircraft	[ 0.10750721395015717, 0.4190744459629059, 0.2536529302597046, 0.3956819474697113, -0.2707829177379608, -0.4689384698867798, -0.40070873498916626, 0.18843160569667816, 0.10139624029397964, -0.13551980257034302, -0.15057910978794098, 0.2576490640640259, -0.4530908465385437, 0.10413303971290588, 0.11536633223295212, 0.1684989482164383, 0.3081527650356293, 0.3146369159221649, -0.08457786589860916, -0.2602071166038513, 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221319	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental%20attribution%20error	Fundamental attribution error	In social psychology, fundamental attribution error (FAE), also known as correspondence bias or attribution effect, is the tendency for people to under-emphasize situational and environmental explanations for an individual's observed behavior while over-emphasizing dispositional and personality-based explanations. This effect has been described as "the tendency to believe that what people do reflects who they are", that is, to overattribute their behaviors (what they do or say) to their personality and underattribute them to the situation or context. The error is in seeing someone's actions as solely reflective of their personality rather than somewhat reflective of it and also largely prompted by circumstances. It involves a type of circular reasoning in which the answer to the question "why would they do that" is only "because they would do that." Although things like personality differences and predispositions are in fact real, the fundamental attribution error is an error because it misinterprets their effects; it wrongly ascribes unduly supreme importance to them. Origins The phrase was coined by Lee Ross some years after a classic experiment by Edward E. Jones and Victor Harris (1967). Ross argued in a popular paper that the fundamental attribution error forms the conceptual bedrock for the field of social psychology. Jones wrote that he found Ross's phrase "overly provocative and somewhat misleading", and also joked: "Furthermore, I'm angry that I didn't think of it first." Some psychologists, including Daniel Gilbert, have used the phrase "correspondence bias" for the fundamental attribution error. Other psychologists have argued that the fundamental attribution error and correspondence bias are related but independent phenomena, with the former being a common explanation for the latter. As a simple example of the behavior which attribution error theory seeks to explain, consider the situation where Alice, a driver, is cut off in traffic by Bob. Alice attributes Bob's behavior to his fundamental personality, e.g., he thinks only of himself, he is selfish, he is a jerk, he is an unskilled driver; she does not think it is situational, e.g., he is going to miss his flight, his wife is giving birth at the hospital, his daughter is convulsing at school. Alice might well make the opposite mistake and excuse herself by saying she was influenced by situational causes, e.g., I am late for my job interview, I must pick up my son for his dental appointment, rather than thinking she has a character flaw, e.g., I am such a jerk, I treat others with contempt, I am bad at driving. Classic demonstration study: Jones and Harris (1967) Jones and Harris hypothesized, based on the correspondent inference theory, that people would attribute apparently freely chosen behaviors to disposition and apparently chance-directed behaviors to situation. The hypothesis was confounded by the fundamental attribution error. Subjects in an experiment read essays for and against Fidel Castro. Then they were asked to rate the pro-Castro attitudes of the writers. When the subjects believed that the writers freely chose positions for or against Castro, they would normally rate the people who liked Castro as having a more positive attitude towards Castro. However, contradicting Jones and Harris' initial hypothesis, when the subjects were told that the writers' positions were determined by a coin toss, they still rated writers who spoke in favor of Castro as having, on average, a more positive attitude towards Castro than those who spoke against him. In other words, the subjects were unable to properly see the influence of the situational constraints placed upon the writers; they could not refrain from attributing sincere belief to the writers. The experimental group provided more internal attributions towards the writer. Criticism The hypothesis that people systematically overattribute behavior to traits (at least for other people's behavior) is contested. Epstein and Teraspulsky tested whether subjects over-, under-, or correctly estimate the empirical correlation among behaviors. (These behavioral consistencies are what "traits" describe.) They found that estimates of correlations among behaviors correlated strongly with empirically-observed correlations among these behaviors. Subjects were sensitive to even very small correlations, and their confidence in the association tracked how far they were discrepant (i.e., if they knew when they did not know), and was higher for the strongest relations. Subjects also showed awareness of the effect of aggregation over occasions and used reasonable strategies to arrive at decisions. Epstein concluded that "Far from being inveterate trait believers, as has been previously suggested, [subjects'] intuitions paralleled psychometric principles in several important respects when assessing relations between real-life behaviors." While described as "robust, firmly established, and pervasive", meta-analyses of the 173 qualified studies of the actor-observer asymmetry available by 2005 established, surprisingly, an effect size of near zero. These analyses allowed a systematic review of where, if at all, the effect holds. These analyses showed that the asymmetry was found only when 1) the other person was portrayed as being very unusual, 2) when hypothetical (rather than real) events were explained, 3) when people were intimate (knew each other well), or 4) when researcher degrees of freedom were high. It appeared that, in these circumstances, two asymmetries were observed: negative events were asymmetrically attributed to traits in others, but the reverse held for positive events, supporting a self-serving bias rather than an actor–observer asymmetry. See also the 2006 meta-analysis by Malle. Explanations Several theories predict the fundamental attribution error, and thus both compete to explain it, and can be falsified if it does not occur. Leading examples include: Just-world fallacy. The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, the concept of which was first theorized by Melvin J. Lerner (1977). Attributing failures to dispositional causes rather than situational causes—which are unchangeable and uncontrollable—satisfies our need to believe that the world is fair and that we have control over our lives. We are motivated to see a just world because this reduces our perceived threats, gives us a sense of security, helps us find meaning in difficult and unsettling circumstances, and benefits us psychologically. However, the just-world hypothesis also results in a tendency for people to blame and disparage victims of an accident or a tragedy, such as rape and domestic abuse, to reassure themselves of their insusceptibility to such events. People may even blame the victim's faults in a "past life" to pursue justification for their bad outcome. Salience of the actor. We tend to attribute an observed effect to potential causes that capture our attention. When we observe other people, the person is the primary reference point while the situation is overlooked as if it is nothing but mere background. As such, attributions for others' behavior are more likely to focus on the person we see, not the situational forces acting upon that person that we may not be aware of. (When we observe ourselves, we are more aware of the forces acting upon us. Such a differential inward versus outward orientation accounts for the actor–observer bias.) Lack of effortful adjustment. Sometimes, even though we are aware that the person's behavior is constrained by situational factors, we still commit the fundamental attribution error. This is because we do not take into account behavioral and situational information simultaneously to characterize the dispositions of the actor. Initially, we use the observed behavior to characterize the person by automaticity. We need to make deliberate and conscious effort to adjust our inference by considering the situational constraints. Therefore, when situational information is not sufficiently taken into account for adjustment, the uncorrected dispositional inference creates the fundamental attribution error. This would also explain why people commit the fundamental attribution error to a greater degree when they're under cognitive load; i.e. when they have less motivation or energy for processing the situational information. Culture. It has been suggested cultural differences occur in attribution error: people from individualistic (Western) cultures are reportedly more prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures are less prone. Based on cartoon-figure presentations to Japanese and American subjects, it has been suggested that collectivist subjects may be more influenced by information from context (for instance being influenced more by surrounding faces in judging facial expressions). Alternatively, individualist subjects may favor processing of focal objects, rather than contexts. Others suggest Western individualism is associated with viewing both oneself and others as independent agents, therefore focusing more on individuals rather than contextual details. Versus correspondence bias The fundamental attribution error is commonly used interchangeably with "correspondence bias" (sometimes called "correspondence inference"), although this phrase refers to a judgment which does not necessarily constitute a bias, which arises when the inference drawn is incorrect, e.g. dispositional inference when the actual cause is situational). However, there has been debate about whether the two terms should be distinguished from each other. Three main differences between these two judgmental processes have been argued: They seem to be elicited under different circumstances, as both correspondent dispositional inferences and situational inferences can be elicited spontaneously. Attributional processing, however, seems to only occur when the event is unexpected or conflicting with prior expectations. This notion is supported by a study conducted by Semin and Marsman (1994), which found that different types of verbs invited different inferences and attributions. Correspondence inferences were invited to a greater degree by interpretative action verbs (such as "to help") than state action or state verbs, thus suggesting that the two are produced under different circumstances. Correspondence inferences and causal attributions also differ in automaticity. Inferences can occur spontaneously if the behavior implies a situational or dispositional inference, while causal attributions occur much more slowly (e.g. Smith & Miller, 1983). It has also been suggested that correspondence inferences and causal attributions are elicited by different mechanisms. It is generally agreed that correspondence inferences are formed by going through several stages. Firstly, the person must interpret the behavior, and then, if there is enough information to do so, add situational information and revise their inference. They may then further adjust their inferences by taking into account dispositional information as well. Causal attributions however seem to be formed either by processing visual information using perceptual mechanisms, or by activating knowledge structures (e.g. schemas) or by systematic data analysis and processing. Hence, due to the difference in theoretical structures, correspondence inferences are more strongly related to behavioral interpretation than causal attributions. Based on the preceding differences between causal attribution and correspondence inference, some researchers argue that the fundamental attribution error should be considered as the tendency to make dispositional rather than situational explanations for behavior, whereas the correspondence bias should be considered as the tendency to draw correspondent dispositional inferences from behavior. With such distinct definitions between the two, some cross-cultural studies also found that cultural differences of correspondence bias are not equivalent to those of fundamental attribution error. While the latter has been found to be more prevalent in individualistic cultures than collectivistic cultures, correspondence bias occurs across cultures, suggesting differences between the two phrases. Further, disposition correspondent inferences made to explain the behavior of nonhuman actors (e.g., robots) do not necessarily constitute an attributional error because there is little meaningful distinction between the interior dispositions and observable actions of machine agents. See also Attribution (psychology) Base rate fallacy Cognitive miser Dispositional attribution Explanatory style Self-serving bias Cognitive biases Actor-observer asymmetry Attributional bias Cognitive bias Defensive attribution hypothesis False consensus effect Group attribution error List of cognitive biases Locus of control Omission bias Ultimate attribution error Extrinsic incentives bias References Further reading Heider, Fritz. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York, John Wiley & Sons. . Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A., & Reisberg D. (1999). Psychology webBOOK: Psychology Fifth Edition / Basic Psychology Fifth Edition. W. W. Norton and Company. Accessed online 18 April 2006 . 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221324	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princelings	Princelings	The Princelings (), also translated as the Party's Crown Princes, are the descendants of prominent and influential senior communist officials in the People's Republic of China. It is an informal, and often derogatory, categorization to signify those benefiting from nepotism and cronyism, by analogy with crown princes in hereditary monarchies. Many of its members hold high-level political and business positions in the upper echelons of power. Opportunities are available to princelings that are not available to common people. Using their powerful connections they have the opportunity to obtain profitable opportunities for themselves and for others. The more aggressive of the princelings have amassed fortunes of hundreds of millions of dollars. However, there is no discernible political cohesion within the group, and as such they should not be compared to other informal groupings such as the Shanghai clique or the Tuanpai ("Youth League clique"), which resemble intra-party factions with some degree of affinity on policy issues. In Mainland China, the term initially came into use during the 1960s to describe Mao Zedong's nephew Mao Yuanxin and Lin Biao's son Lin Liguo, as well as their close friends and allies who had been promoted alongside them in elite positions of the People's Liberation Army. After the death of Lin Liguo following a failed coup and the dismissal of Mao Yuanxin, the term briefly fell out of use until the 1980s to label the children of the Eight Elders and other First and Second Generation leaders who had been increasingly promoted in the party and were opposed to the efforts of reformers Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang to curb corruption and cronyism. Notable contemporary Princelings include Xi Jinping (son of Xi Zhongxun), China's top leader and Party General Secretary since 2012, and Bo Xilai (son of Bo Yibo), a disgraced former Party Committee Secretary of Chongqing who was also a member of the Politburo. History The term was coined in the early 20th century in the Republic of China, referring to the son of Yuan Shikai (a self-declared emperor) and his cronies. It was later used to describe the relatives of the top four nationalist families; Chiang Kai-shek's kin, Soong Mei-ling's kin, Chen Lifu's kin, and Kong Xiangxi's kin. After the 1950s, the term was used in Taiwan to describe Chiang Ching-kuo, son of Chiang Kai-shek, and his friends. The latest generation of "crown princes" are in mainland China. Many senior leaders often lobby directly or indirectly for their descendants and relatives to succeed them. Xiang Lanxin, professor of international history and politics at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, explains it thus: Historically, how to control local officials who possessed imperial lineage was always a problem. The Politburo is equivalent to the inner circle of the imperial household. Its members, if assigned a local administrative position, can easily overrule any opposition in their jurisdictions as no other party officials can match them in rank and prestige. Some of these crown princes are able to hold senior positions at the vice-ministerial level or above while still in their thirties, for which other ordinary cadres would struggle for decades. Others run companies involved in large- scale corruption and smuggling schemes. All of these misdeeds raise widespread sentiments of resentment and jealousy, and some "crown princes" have fallen victim to the trend towards enmity that is apparent in China. Most political observers see the Princelings as having been at the pinnacle of their power in the 1980s and to have had their power reduced after 1989 for a number of reasons: First, not only did the Princelings cause resentment among the general public, but they also caused resentment within the vast majority of Party members who did not have a powerful relative; for example, Chen Yuan, son of Chen Yun; and Chen Haosu, son of Chen Yi lost their election in Beijing and had to be transferred to other positions. Second, the booming Chinese economy caused a new wealthy class to emerge, many of whom demanded fair play and protection of their property. Third, as the public was unsatisfied with the plague of corruption and cronyism, with resentment and discontent mounting to a degree that could wreak havoc on the CCP's reign, the CCP had to take measures to appease these strong feelings. One watershed event occurred during the 15th National Congress of the CCP in 1997, when several prominent Princelings suffered great losses as candidates. Xi Jinping, son of Xi Zhongxun, and Deng Pufang, eldest son of Deng Xiaoping, were narrowly elected as alternate members of the Central Commission of the CCP, but were listed at the very bottom, due to the low number of votes received. Bo Xilai, son of Bo Yibo, was unable to get elected as an alternate member. However, both Xi and Bo emerged as major figures in China's next generation of leadership in 2007 (though Bo fell from power in 2012). Indeed, Xi succeeded Hu Jintao as General Secretary at the 18th Party Congress in 2012, and became president in 2013. It is speculated that when Jiang Zemin was close to the end of his term for his age, he put many Princelings into important positions to appeal to senior leaders of the CCP and win their support for his continued influence. There is a trend towards Princelings taking over power step by step. Of these, Yu Zhengsheng, son of Huang Jing, former mayor of Tianjin, was already a member of the powerful politburo of the CCP; Wang Qishan, son-in-law of Yao Yilin (former vice premier and member of politburo), mayor of Beijing; Xi Jinping, Bo Xilai, Zhou Xiaochuan, son of Zhou Jiannan (former minister of the First Machinery Ministry and Jiang Zemin's former boss), governor of the People's Bank of China, have also occupied important positions since the 17th Party Congress. In 2013 a "sons and daughters" program instituted by JPMorgan Chase to hire young princelings for positions in its Chinese operations came to light during a bribery investigation by the SEC. At times standards for hiring young princelings were more lenient than those imposed on other Chinese. At least twelve of the princelings were revealed to have used companies in the offshore tax haven of the British Virgin Islands to store wealth in an investigation by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. The leader or Godfather of the Princelings was Ye Xuanning, the second son of Ye Jianying. Ye Xuanning was low-profile but influential in political, military and business circles. Many people who ran into troubles looked for Ye and Ye was known for being able to resolve their problems. Examples The following are some of the most famous crown princes: Son of Ye Jianying: Ye Xuanning, the leader of the Princelings Son of elder Xi Zhongxun: Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the CCP, President of China, Chairman of the Central Military Commission. Son and daughters of former leader Deng Xiaoping: Deng Pufang, honorary chairman of the Handicapped Association; Deng Nan, former vice minister Science and Technology; Deng Rong, deputy president of the China Association for International Friendly Contact Son of former President Li Xiannian: Li Ping, high-ranking military official, daughter Li Xiaolin Chairperson of Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries, son in law Liu Yazhou (husband of Li Xiaolin) Political Commissar, National Defense University. Son of elder Chen Yun: Chen Yuan, governor of the China Development Bank (1998—2013) Son of elder Bo Yibo: Bo Xilai, former secretary of the CCP of Chongqing, and by extension, his own son, Bo Guagua. Son of Zeng Shan (former interior minister of CCP): Zeng Qinghong, former Politburo Standing Committee member, vice-president of China, and, by extension, his own son, Zeng Wei, who purchased a $32.4 million property in Sydney, Australia. Zeng's source of income is unknown. Son of Huang Jing: Yu Zhengsheng, former Politburo Standing Committee member and the Chairman of the CPPCC National Committee. Son in law of Yao Yilin: Wang Qishan, vice-president of China, former Politburo Standing Committee member and the Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection. Son and daughter of former Premier Li Peng (as son of a martyr and protégé of Zhou Enlai, a member of Crown Prince Party, too): Li Xiaopeng, Governor of Shanxi, former chairman of Huaneng Power Group; Li Xiaolin, president of China Power International Development. Sons of former General Secretary Jiang Zemin: Jiang Mianheng, vice dean of the Chinese Academy of Science, director of several major SOEs such as SAIC; Jiang Miankang, a major general of the PLA Son of Wang Zhen, Wang Jun chairman of CITIC; Wang Zhi, former chairman of Great Wall Group Son of former President Liu Shaoqi: Liu Yuan, lieutenant general of the military police Son of Marshal He Long, He Pengfei, Deputy Commander in Chief of the Chinese Navy, Vice-Admiral Former son-in-law of General Liu Huaqing: Pan Yue, vice director of the State Environmental Protection Administration Son of Marshal Chen Yi: Chen Haosu, former vice minister of the Ministry of Culture Grandson of former leader Mao Zedong, Mao Xinyu, major general of the PLA. Son of former Premier Wen Jiabao: Wen Yunsong (Winston Wen), chairman of China Satellite Communications Corporation A list of 226 princelings has been published (see link below). Popular Culture In late 2015 and early 2016 the term "Zhao family" from Lu Xun’s novella The True Story of Ah Q, went viral in China after it was used in an anonymous article “Barbarians at the Gate, Zhao Family Inside” to allude to princelings involvement in a business dispute. See also Hua Jing Society Li Gang incident Zhao family Mazhory, a similar Russian term Fuerdai References External links 中共太子党名单及任职一览表 (2004版) (A list of names of "Crown Princes"). China's former 'first family' about the children of Deng Xiaoping The Princelings, John Garnaut, Sydney Morning Herald, 2 October 2010] "China's 'Princelings' Pose Issue for Party, Jeremy Page, The Wall Street Journal, 26 November 2011 Factions of the Chinese Communist Party Politics of China	[ -0.2905343174934387, 0.1878942996263504, 0.03177101910114288, 0.047748878598213196, -0.274577260017395, 0.005397292319685221, -0.007599095813930035, 0.3627072274684906, -0.16971473395824432, 0.017763154581189156, -0.9988487362861633, -0.1582985669374466, 0.06559854745864868, 0.020971357822418213, -0.3271157741546631, -0.1804586797952652, 0.37424546480178833, 0.8882933259010315, -0.40743571519851685, -0.42560383677482605, -0.2100539356470108, 0.026162726804614067, 0.15338024497032166, -0.5708397030830383, 0.35046058893203735, -0.25201335549354553, 0.5572360157966614, -0.03156429901719093, 0.02582932636141777, -0.08843810111284256, -0.4779134690761566, -0.010797019116580486, 0.32195135951042175, 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221325	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20North%2C%20Lord%20North	Frederick North, Lord North	Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford (13 April 17325 August 1792), better known by his courtesy title Lord North, which he used from 1752 to 1790, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence. He also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer. North's reputation among historians has swung back and forth. It reached its lowest point in the late nineteenth century, when he was depicted as a creature of the king and an incompetent who lost the American colonies. In the early twentieth century, a revisionism emphasised his strengths in administering the Treasury, handling the House of Commons, and in defending the Church of England. Historian Herbert Butterfield, however, argued that his indolence was a barrier to efficient crisis management; he neglected his role in supervising the entire war effort. Early life (1732–1754) Lord North was born in London on 13 April 1732 at the family house at Albemarle Street, just off Piccadilly. He spent much of his youth at Wroxton Abbey in Oxfordshire. North's strong resemblance to King George III suggested to contemporaries that George III's father, Frederick, Prince of Wales, might have been North's real father, making North the king's half-brother, a theory compatible with the prince's reputation but supported by little else other than the circumstantial evidence. King George IV famously remarked that "either his royal grandmother or North's mother must have played her husband false", North's father, Francis North, 1st Earl of Guilford, was from 1730 to 1751 Lord of the Bedchamber to Frederick, Prince of Wales, who stood as godfather to the infant, christened Frederick, possibly in memory of his real father. North was descended from Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester, paternal uncle of Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich and was related to Samuel Pepys and the 3rd Earl of Bute. He at times had a slightly turbulent relationship with his father Francis North, yet they were very close. In his early years, the family was not wealthy, though their situation improved in 1735 when his father inherited property from his cousin. Frederick's mother, Lady Lucy Montagu, a daughter of George Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax and his first wife, Ricarda Posthuma Staltonstall, died in 1734. His father remarried, but his stepmother, Elizabeth Kaye, widow of George Legge, Viscount Lewisham, eldest son of William Legge, 1st Earl of Dartmouth and his wife, Lady Anne Finch, third daughter of Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Aylesford, died in 1745, when Frederick was thirteen. One of his stepbrothers was William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, who remained a close friend for life. He was educated at Eton College between 1742 and 1748 and at Trinity College, Oxford, where in 1750 he was awarded an MA. After leaving Oxford, he travelled in Europe on a Grand Tour with Lord Dartmouth. They stayed in Leipzig for nearly nine months, studying under the constitutional scholar Johann Jacob Mascov. They continued through Austria and Italy, staying in Rome from December 1752 to Easter 1753, then through Switzerland to Paris, returning to England in early 1754. Early political career (1754–1770) On 15 April 1754, North, then twenty-two, was elected unopposed as the Member of Parliament for the constituency of Banbury. He served as an MP from 1754 to 1790 and joined the government as a junior Lord of the Treasury on 2 June 1759 during the Pitt–Newcastle ministry (an alliance between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt the Elder). He soon developed a reputation as a good administrator and parliamentarian and was generally liked by his colleagues. Although he initially considered himself a Whig, he did not closely align with any of the Whig factions in Parliament, and it became obvious to many contemporaries that his sympathies were largely Tory. In November 1763, he was chosen to speak for the government concerning radical MP John Wilkes. Wilkes had made a savage attack on both the Prime Minister and the king in his newspaper The North Briton, which many thought libelous. North's motion that Wilkes be expelled from the House of Commons passed by 273 votes to 111. Wilkes' expulsion took place in his absence, as he had already fled to France following a duel. When a government headed by the Whig magnate Lord Rockingham came to power in 1765, North left his post and served for a time as a backbench MP. He turned down an offer by Rockingham to rejoin the government, not wanting to be associated with the Whig grandees that dominated the Ministry. He returned to office when Pitt returned to head a second government in 1766. North was appointed Joint Paymaster of the Forces in Pitt's ministry and became a Privy Counsellor. As Pitt was constantly ill, the government was effectively run by the Duke of Grafton, with North as one of its most senior members. Chancellor of the Exchequer In December 1767, he succeeded Charles Townshend as Chancellor of the Exchequer. With the resignation of the secretary of state Henry Seymour Conway in early 1768, North became Leader of the Commons as well. He continued to serve when Pitt was succeeded by Grafton in October. Prime Minister (1770–1782) Appointment When the Duke of Grafton resigned as Prime Minister, North formed a government on 28 January 1770. His ministers and supporters tended to be known as Tories, though they were not a formal grouping and many had previously been Whigs. He took over with Great Britain in a triumphant state following the Seven Years' War, which had seen the First British Empire expand to a peak by taking in vast new territories on several continents. Circumstances forced him to keep many members of the previous cabinet in their jobs, despite their lack of agreement with him. In contrast to many of his predecessors, North enjoyed a good relationship with George III, partly based on their shared patriotism and desire for decency in their private lives. Falklands Crisis North's ministry had an early success during the Falklands Crisis in 1770, in which Great Britain faced down a Spanish attempt to seize the Falkland Islands, nearly provoking a war. Both France and Spain had been left unhappy by Great Britain's perceived dominance following the British victory in the Seven Years War. Spanish forces seized the British settlement on the Falklands and expelled the small British garrison. When Britain opposed the seizure, Spain sought backing from her ally France. King Louis XV of France did not believe his country was ready for war, however, and in the face of a strong mobilisation of the British fleet, the French compelled the Spanish to back down. Louis also dismissed the Duc de Choiseul, the hawkish Chief Minister of France, who had advocated war and a large invasion of Great Britain by the French. The British government's prestige and popularity were enormously boosted by the incident. It had successfully managed to drive a wedge between France and Spain and demonstrated the power of the Royal Navy, although it was suggested by critics that this gave Lord North a degree of complacency and an incorrect belief that the European powers would not interfere in British colonial affairs. This was contrasted with the previous administration's failure to prevent France from annexing the Republic of Corsica, a British ally, during the Corsican Crisis two years earlier. Using his newly found popularity, North took a chance and appointed Lord Sandwich to the cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty. American War of Independence Most of North's government was focused first on the growing problems with the American colonies. Later on, it was preoccupied with conducting the American War of Independence that broke out in 1775 with the Battle of Lexington. Following the Boston Tea Party in 1773, Lord North proposed a number of legislative measures that were supposed to punish the Bostonians. These measures were known as the Coercive Acts in Great Britain, while dubbed the Intolerable Acts in the colonies. By shutting down the Boston government and cutting off trade, he hoped they would keep the peace and dispirit the rebellious colonists. Instead, the acts further inflamed Massachusetts and the other colonies, eventually resulting in open war during the Boston campaign of 1775–76. North deferred overall strategy of the war to his key subordinates Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich. Despite a series of victories and the capture of New York and Philadelphia, the British were unable to secure a decisive victory. In 1778, the French allied themselves with the American rebels, and Spain joined the war in 1779 as an ally of France, followed by the Dutch Republic in 1780. The British found themselves fighting a global war on four continents without a single ally. After 1778, the British switched the focus of their efforts to the defence of the West Indies, as their sugar wealth made them much more valuable to Great Britain than the Thirteen Colonies. In 1779, Great Britain was faced with the prospect of a major Franco-Spanish invasion, but the Armada of 1779 was ultimately a failure. Several peace initiatives fell through, and an attempt by Richard Cumberland to negotiate a separate peace with Spain ended in frustration. The country's problems were augmented by the First League of Armed Neutrality, which was formed to counter the British blockade strategy, and threatened British naval supplies from the Baltic. With severe manpower shortages, North's government passed an act abandoning previous statutes placing restrictions on Catholics serving in the military. This provoked an upsurge of anti-Catholic feelings and the formation of the Protestant Association that led to the Gordon Riots in London in June 1780. For around a week, the city was in the control of the mob until the military was called out and martial law imposed. Public opinion, especially in middle-class and elite circles, repudiated anti-Catholicism and violence, and rallied behind the North government. Demands were made for a London police force. Britain's fortunes in the war in America had temporarily improved following the failure of a Franco-American attack on Newport and the prosecution of a Southern strategy that saw the capture of Charleston, South Carolina and its garrison. During 1780 and 1781, the North government gained strength in the House of Commons. In October 1781, British forces under Lord Cornwallis surrendered at the conclusion of the Siege of Yorktown, dealing a crushing blow to British morale. When the news reached North, he took it “as he would have taken a ball in his breast,” and exclaimed repeatedly "Oh God! It is all over!" Resignation North was the second British Prime Minister to be forced out of office by a motion of no confidence; the first was Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. Lord North resigned on 20 March 1782 on account of the British defeat at Yorktown the year before. In an attempt to end the war, he proposed the Conciliation Plan, in which he promised that Great Britain would eliminate all disagreeable acts if the colonies ended the war. The colonies rejected the plan, as their goal had become full independence. In April 1782, it was suggested in cabinet by Lord Shelburne that North should be brought to public trial for his conduct of the American War, but the prospect was soon abandoned. Ironically, the war began to turn in Great Britain's favour again in 1782 through naval victories, owing largely to policies adopted by Lord North and the Earl of Sandwich. The British naval victory at the Battle of the Saintes took place after the government's fall. Despite predictions that Gibraltar's fall was imminent, that fortress managed to hold out and was relieved. Great Britain was able to make a much more favourable peace in 1783 than had appeared likely at the time when North had been ousted. In spite of this, North was critical of the terms agreed by the Shelburne government which he felt undervalued the strength of the British negotiating position. Fox–North coalition (1783) In April 1783, North returned to power as Home Secretary in an unlikely coalition with the radical Whig leader Charles James Fox known as the Fox–North Coalition under the nominal leadership of the Duke of Portland. King George III, who detested the radical and republican Fox, never forgave this supposed betrayal, and North never again served in government after the ministry fell in December 1783. One of the major achievements of the coalition was the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the American War of Independence. The new Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, was not expected to last long, and North, a vocal critic, still entertained hopes of regaining high office. In this, he was to be frustrated, as Pitt dominated the British political scene for the next twenty years, leaving both North and Fox in the political wilderness. Later life (1783–1792) North was an active speaker until he began to go blind in 1786. He succeeded his father as 2nd Earl of Guilford on 4 August 1790 and entered the House of Lords, by which time he had entirely lost his sight. Lord Guilford died in Mayfair, England (now part of London), and was buried at All Saints' Church, Wroxton (Oxfordshire), near his family home of Wroxton Abbey. His son George North, Lord North, took over the constituency of Banbury, and in 1792 acceded to his father's title. Wroxton Abbey is now owned by Fairleigh Dickinson University, ironically an American college, and the modernised abbey serves as a location for American students to study abroad in England. Legacy Lord North is today predominantly remembered as the Prime Minister "who lost America". A preserved 18th-century door on display in Edinburgh Castle shows a hangman's scaffold labelled "Lord Nord" carved by a prisoner captured during the American War of Independence. Both Lord North Street and Guilford Street in London are named after him. Marriage and progeny On 20 May 1756 Lord North married Anne Speke (before 17411797), daughter of George Speke MP, of Whitelackington in Somerset. She was the sole heiress of the Devonshire estates of the Drake family of Ash, which subsequently were sold piecemeal by Lord North. By Anne he had seven children: George Augustus North, 3rd Earl of Guilford (11 September 175720 April 1802), who married, firstly, Maria Frances Mary Hobart-Hampden (died 23 April 1794), daughter of the 3rd Earl of Buckinghamshire, on 30 September 1785 and had issue. He married, secondly, Susan Coutts (died 24 September 1837), on 28 February 1796. Catherine Anne North (1760–1817), who married Sylvester Douglas, 1st Baron Glenbervie, and had no children. Francis North, 4th Earl of Guilford (1761–1817) Lady Charlotte North (died 25 October 1849), who married Lt. Col. The Hon. John Lindsay (15 March 17626 March 1826), son of the 5th Earl of Balcarres, on 2 April 1800. Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford (1766–1827) Lady Anne North (before 178318 January 1832), who married the 1st Earl of Sheffield on 20 January 1798 and had two children Titles, styles and arms The Honourable Frederick North (1732–1752) Lord North (1752–1790) The Earl of Guilford (1790–1792) References Citations Sources Aston, Nigel. "North, Frederick, 2nd Earl of Guilford" in David Loads, ed., Readers Guide to British History(2003) pp 960–62; Historiography Butterfield, Herbert. George III, Lord North, and the People, 1779–80 (1949) Cannon, John. Lord North: The Noble Lord in the Blue Ribbon (1970), Short survey Hibbert, Christopher. King Mob: The Story of Lord George Gordon and the Riots of 1780. London, 1958. Rodger, N.A.M. Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815, (2007) O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale UP, 2014). Smith, Charles Daniel. The Early Career of Lord North, the Prime Minister, (1979) Valentine, Alan. Lord North (1967, 2 vol.), the standard biography Whiteley, Peter. Lord North: The Prime Minister who lost America,'' (1996) Primary sources Lord North, The Correspondence of King George the Third with Lord North from 1768 to 1783'', William Bodham Donne, ed. (1867) online edition External links More about Lord North on the Downing Street website. 1732 births 1792 deaths 18th-century heads of government 18th-century English nobility Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford Blind people from England British MPs 1754–1761 British MPs 1761–1768 British MPs 1768–1774 British MPs 1774–1780 British MPs 1780–1784 British MPs 1784–1790 British officials in the American Revolution British Secretaries of State Chancellors of the Exchequer of Great Britain Chancellors of the University of Oxford Guildford, Frederick North, 1st Earl of Knights of the Garter Leaders of the House of Commons of Great Britain Lord-Lieutenants of Somerset Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain People educated at Eton College Paymasters of the Forces Prime Ministers of Great Britain Frederick Barons Guilford Barons North	[ -0.5642648935317993, -0.0720595195889473, 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221328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Hobson%20Leslie	Frederick Hobson Leslie	Frederick George Hobson, known as Fred Leslie (1 April 1855 – 7 December 1892), was an English actor, singer, comedian and dramatist. Beginning his career in operetta, Leslie became best known for starring in, and writing (under the pseudonym A. C. Torr, a pun on the word "actor"), popular burlesque plays and other comic works of theatre. Biography Leslie was born in Woolwich, London. He was the youngest son of Charles Hobson, a wealthy military outfitter, and Sarah Hobson, née Pye. Leslie was educated in Woolwich, Lewisham and Pas-de-Calais. As a young man, he performed in amateur plays while working in commerce. He married Louisa (Louie) Agate in 1879. The couple had three children. The oldest of them, William Herbert Leslie Hobson (1880–1945), became a stage and film actor and singer also using the name "Fred Leslie". Career After briefly touring the British provinces, he made his first stage appearance in London at the Royalty Theatre as old Colonel Hardy in Paul Pry in 1878. He was soon engaged by Kate Santley at the Royalty, where he played the title role in Mr Lewis. At the same theatre in 1879, he played the part of Po-Hi opposite Santley in Tita in Thibet, a two-act comedy musical by Frank Desprez. He next played Agamemnon (under the name of "Mr Leslie") in La belle Hélène by Jacques Offenbach. His vocal quality suited him to play the comic baritone roles in French operettas. He soon appeared in operettas such as Madame Favart, La fille du tambour-major (1880) and Olivette; and he played Faust in Mefistofele (1880) with Constance Loseby as Marguerite and Lionel Brough as Valentine. In addition, he played some leading roles in musical theatre pieces under the management of Selina Dolaro at the Folly Theatre and at the Alhambra Theatre in The Bronze Horse (1891) La petite mademoiselle and Les manteaux noirs, among others. In 1882, Leslie found wide success as the title character in the operetta Rip Van Winkle, by Robert Planquette, at the Comedy Theatre, also starring W. S. Penley. In 1882 and 1883 he played in America at the Casino Theatre and elsewhere with the McCaull Comic Opera Company in The Merry War and The Beggar Student. In 1884 he played in Fay o' Fire, which featured Marie Tempest in one of her first roles. The same year, at the Comedy Theatre, he played in H. B. Farnie and Edmond Audran's adaptation, The Great Mogul with Florence St. John, Frank Wyatt and Arthur Roberts. In 1885 Leslie joined the Gaiety Theatre, London company as Jonathan Wild in H. P. Stephens and W. Yardley's burlesque Little Jack Sheppard, with music by Meyer Lutz, and also starring Nellie Farren as Jack. The piece was a hit, and for the next seven years he and Farren were the pillars of the popular Gaiety Theatre burlesques. In 1887, his Miss Esmeralda was successful; Frankenstein, or The Vampire's Victim, in which he played a monster in touch with his feminine side, was a flop. In 1888–89, Leslie, with Farren's Gaiety company, toured in the US and Australia, in Monte Cristo Jr. and Miss Esmeralda (together with Sylvia Grey, Marion Hood and Letty Lind). At the same time, Leslie played roles in other pieces, for example David Garrick by Thomas W. Robertson at the Gaiety in 1886. Leslie's Don Caesar de Bazan in Ruy Blas and the Blasé Roué (1888, a take off of Victor Hugo's play Ruy Blas), was perhaps the most popular of his later parts, and he and Farren starred at the Gaiety and toured in this production and in Miss Esmeralda, and Joan of Arc (1891). In 1891, Leslie and Farren again toured Australia with the Gaiety company in Ruy Blas and Cinder Ellen up too Late (with Sidney Jones as conductor). Leslie died while rehearsing for his last burlesque, Don Juan (with lyrics by Adrian Ross). His early death, coupled with Farren's illness and retirement in 1892, brought to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque associated with them, at the same time that Edwardian musical comedy came to dominate the London theatre. Leslie was known for his versatility, agility, entertaining personality and talent as a mimic. His performances, including singing (he was a baritone), dancing, clowning and whistling, were noted for their high spirits and ludicrous charm. Under the pseudonym of "A. C. Torr", he was part-author of many of his burlesques and also wrote the burlesque Guy Fawkes Jr for Arthur Roberts in 1890. Although Leslie is remembered best for the burlesques, he was a fine comic actor whom the critic Clement Scott called "one of the great lyric and comic artists of my time." Early death Leslie died of typhoid fever at his home in London at the age of 37. He was buried in Charlton Cemetery in Greenwich, England. Notes References Adams, William Davenport. A Dictionary of the Drama, Burt Franklin, 1904 Gänzl, Kurt. The British musical theatre, 2 vols. (1986) Gänzl, Kurt. The encyclopaedia of the musical theatre, 2 vols. (1994) Hollingshead, John. Gaiety Chronicles (1898) A. Constable & co.: London Hollingshead, John. Good Old Gaiety: An Historiette & Remembrance (1903) London:Gaity Theatre Co Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History, Routledge, 2003 Vincent, William Thomas and Clement Scott. Recollections of Fred Leslie, (1894) London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. 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221331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Planquette	Robert Planquette	Jean Robert Planquette (31 July 1848 – 28 January 1903) was a French composer of songs and operettas. Several of Planquette's operettas were extraordinarily successful in Britain, especially Les cloches de Corneville (1878), the length of whose initial London run broke all records for any piece of musical theatre up to that time. Rip Van Winkle (1882) also earned international fame. Life and career The son of a singer, Planquette was born in Paris and educated at the Paris Conservatoire. He did not finish his studies, lacking the funds to do so, and worked as a café pianist and composer and singing (he was a tenor). A few romances that he composed brought less fame than did his song, "Sambre et Meuse", first sung in 1867 by Lucien Fugère, who went on to be one of the foremost French opera singers of his day. In 1876, the director of the Théâtre des Folies-Dramatiques gave Planquette a commission to compose his first operetta, Les cloches de Corneville. It opened in Paris in 1877, running for an extremely successful 480 performances, and then enjoyed an astonishing London run, beginning in 1878, of a record-breaking 708 performances. Planquette's music has been praised for its pathos and romantic feeling. Le Chevalier Gaston was produced in 1879 with little success. In 1880 came Les Voltigeurs du 32ieme which had a long run in London in 1887 as The Old Guard, and La Cantiniére, which was translated into English as Nectarine, though never produced. In 1882 Rip Van Winkle was produced in London and subsequently given in Paris as Rip, in both cases with great success. The libretto is an adaptation by H. B. Farnie of Washington Irving's famous tale. In 1884 the phenomenon of an opera by a French composer being produced in London before being heard in Paris was repeated in Nell Gwynne, which was modestly successful, but failed when produced in Paris as La Princesse Colombine. It was followed by La Crémaillere (Paris, 1885), Surcouf (Paris, 1887; London, as Paul Jones, 1889), Captain Thérése (London, 1887), La Cocarde tricolore (Paris, 1892), Le Talisman (Paris, 1892), Panurge (Paris, 1895) and Mam'zelle Quat'sous (Paris, 1897). Another Planquette composition, the march Le Régiment de Sambre et Meuse, has achieved fame in an arrangement for brass band; it is the tune used by the Ohio State University Marching Band when performing their famed Script Ohio formation. The original orchestral version has been recorded by the Boston Pops Orchestra conducted by Arthur Fiedler and appears on the RCA Living Stereo CD Marches in Hi-Fi. "The Song of the Cabin Boy," a barcarolle from Planquette's Les cloches de Corneville was played on the violin by W.K.L. Dickson in the first experiment in history in synchronizing sound and motion pictures (1894). It is viewable online as The Dickson Experimental Sound Film. Works All operettas and all premieres in Paris, unless otherwise noted. Méfie-toi de Pharaon, one act, 1872, Eldorado Le serment de Mme Grégoire, 1874, Eldorado Paille d'avoine, one act, 12 March 1874, Théâtre des Délassements-Comiques Le valet de coeur, saynète, one act, 1875, Alcazar d'Eté Le péage, c 1876, Eldorado Les cloches de Corneville, opéra comique, four acts, 19 April 1877, Théâtre des Folies-Dramatiques Le chevalier Gaston, one act, 8 February 1879, Opéra, Monte Carlo Les voltigeurs de la 32ème, three acts, 7 January 1880, Renaissance La cantinière, three acts, 26 October 1880, Théâtre de Nouveautés Rip van Winkle (Rip-Rip), three acts, 14 October 1882, Comedy Theatre, London Les chevaux-légers, one act, 1882 Nell Gwynne (La princesse Colombine), three acts, 7 February 1884, Avenue Theatre, London La crémaillere, three acts, 28 November 1885, Nouveautés Surcouf, three acts, 6 October 1887, Folies-Dramatiques Captain Thérése, 1887, three acts, 25 August 1890, Prince of Wales Theatre, London La cocarde tricolore, three acts, 12 February 1892, Folies-Dramatiques Le talisman, three acts, 20 January 1893, Théâtre de la Gaîté Les vingt-huit jours de Champignolette, 17 September 1895, République Panurge, 1895, three acts, 22 November 1895, Gaîté Mam'zelle Quat'sous, four acts, 19 April 1897 Gaîté Le fiancé de Margot, one act, 1900 Le paradis de Mahomet, three acts, completed by Louis Ganne, 15 May 1906, Variétés Sources Sadie, S. (ed.) (1980) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, [vol. # 14]. Obituary for Robert Planquette in The Musical Times, Vol. 44, No. 721 (Mar. 1, 1903), p. 177 External links Robert Planquette on data.bnf.fr Information about Planquette and Les Cloches de Corneville Dickson Experimental Sound Film brief discussion of film's recovery and restoration, with downloadable version of the film; part of the Internet Archive Musicians from Paris 1848 births 1903 deaths French Romantic composers French operetta composers French musical theatre composers French opera composers Male opera composers Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery 20th-century French male musicians 19th-century French male musicians	[ -0.3899756371974945, 0.33526232838630676, -0.458000510931015, 0.004074145574122667, 0.04405263066291809, 0.8691017627716064, 0.23129919171333313, 0.1719706654548645, -0.36217620968818665, -0.8165333867073059, -0.2705448865890503, 0.321197509765625, -0.29524701833724976, 0.09408710151910782, -0.21555529534816742, 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221348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Kean	Charles Kean	Charles John Kean (18 January 181122 January 1868), was an English actor and theatre manager, best known for his revivals of Shakespearean plays. Life Kean was born at Waterford, Ireland, a son of actor Edmund Kean and actress Mary Kean (nee Chambers). After preparatory education at Worplesdon and at Greenford, near Harrow, he was sent to Eton College, where he remained three years. In 1827, he was offered a cadetship in the East India Company's service, which he was prepared to accept if his father would settle an income of £400 on his mother. The elder Kean refused to do this, and his son determined to become an actor. He made his first appearance at Drury Lane on 1 October 1827 as Norval in Home's Douglas, but his continued failure to achieve popularity led him to leave London in the spring of 1828 for the provinces. In Glasgow, on 1 October in that year, father and son acted together in Arnold Payne's Brutus, the elder Kean in the title-part and his son as Titus. After a visit to the United States in 1830, where he was received with much favour, he appeared in 1833 at Covent Garden as "Sir Edmund Mortimer" in Colman's The Iron Chest, but his success was not pronounced enough to encourage him to remain in London, especially as he had already won a high position in the provinces. In January 1838, however, he returned to Drury Lane, and played Hamlet with a success which gave him a place among the principal tragedians of his time. He married the actress Ellen Tree (1805–1880) on 25 January 1842, they performed on the Lincoln Circuit in April and May 1845 appearing at Stamford, Peterborough, Boston, Lincoln (where the theatre was uncommonly well attended) and the Georgian Angles Theatre, Wisbech before making a second visit to America with her from 1845 to 1847. Returning to England, he entered on a successful engagement at the Haymarket Theatre, and in 1850, with Robert Keeley, became lessee of the Princess's Theatre, London. The most noteworthy feature of his management was a series of gorgeous Shakespearean revivals that aimed for "authenticity". Kean also mentored the young Ellen Terry in juvenile roles. In melodramatic parts such as the king in Dion Boucicault's adaptation of Casimir Delavigne's Louis XI, and Louis and Fabian dei Franchi in Boucicault's adaptation of Dumas's The Corsican Brothers, his success was complete. In 1854 the writer Charles Reade created a play The Courier of Lyons for Kean to appear in, which became one of the most popular plays of the Victorian era. From his "tour round the world" Kean returned in 1866 in broken health, and died in London on 22 January 1868 at the age of 57. He is buried at Horndean, Hampshire. Family His daughter Mary Maria Kean, married the eminent military surgeon, Surgeon general Cosmo Gordon Logie. Notes References The Life and Theatrical Times of Charles Kean, by John William Cole (1859). 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221350	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism	Narcoterrorism	Narcoterrorism, in its original context, is understood to refer to the attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or a society through violence and intimidation, and to hinder the enforcement of anti-drug laws by the systematic threat or use of such violence. Pablo Escobar's violence in his dealings with the Colombian government is probably one of the most known and best documented examples of narcoterrorism. The term itself was coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry of Peru in 1983 when describing terrorist-type attacks against his nation's anti-narcotics police. As with most definitions of terrorism, it typically only refers to non-state actors. The term has become a subject of controversy, largely due to its use in discussing violent opposition to the US government's War on Drugs. The term is being increasingly used for terrorist organizations that engage in drug trafficking activity to fund their operations and gain recruits and expertise. Such organizations include FARC, ELN, AUC in Colombia, PCP-SL in Peru, Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Taliban. A 2013 Congressional Research Service report noted that in 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reported that 14 of 36 (39%) of the groups designated by the U.S. as foreign terrorist organizations "were involved 'to some degree' in illicit narcotics activity" while in fiscal year 2010, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) "reported that 29 of the top 63 international drug syndicates, identified as such on the consolidated priority organization target (CPOT) list, were associated with terrorists." In 2000 the U.S. began funding, continued under the U.S. Bush administration, of Plan Colombia, intending to eradicate drug crops and to act against drug lords accused of engaging in narcoterrorism, including among them the leaders of the Marxist FARC and the AUC paramilitary forces. The U.S. government is funding large-scale drug eradication campaigns and supporting Colombian military operations, seeking the extradition of commanders. Although al-Qaeda is often said to finance its activities through drug trafficking, the 9/11 Commission Report notes that "while the drug trade was a source of income for the Taliban, it did not serve the same purpose for al Qaeda, and there is no reliable evidence that bin Laden was involved in or made his money through drug trafficking." The organization gains most of its finances through donations, particularly those by "wealthy Saudi individuals". Critics of the prohibition of drugs say that it is this prohibition itself which funds terrorism. Examples Areas or countries that have active or historical narcoterrorism or narco-war include: Afghanistan, to fund operations with sales of opium and heroin in the Afghanistan War Brazil, has several organized and trained groups that dominate territories, carry out offensives against state and federal security forces, control the clandestine market for drugs, weapons and ammunition and apply violence through psychological, communal and indiscriminate terrorism against the civilian population. Chilean indigenist armed group Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco uses cocaine selling as one of their source of revenue. Colombia which have influential right-wing paramilitary "narco-terrorists", Clan del Golfo, Los Rastrojos, The Black Eagles and left-wing revolutionary guerrillas Popular Liberation Army. India's D-Company, a Mumbai-based crime syndicate which carried out the 1993 Bombay bombings. Said to be involved in large-scale drug trafficking via their contacts in Pakistani intelligence. Kosovo, during the civil war in 1999. Kosovo liberation Army (KLA) was using "Narcoterrorism" for financing its operations. Lebanon – Hezbollah is said to derive its income from drug trafficking operations in both the Middle East and Latin America. According to a research conducted by the Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, Hezbollah makes a profit in the cocaine smuggling market to leverage it for terrorist activities. Hezbollah operatives are overseeing illicit finance and drug trafficking activities, moving about $200 million a month. Mexico, drug cartels and gangs Sinaloa Cartel - Gente Nueva, Los Zetas, Jalisco New Generation Cartel, La Línea (gang), La Resistencia (gang), Los Mexicles, Los Pelones, Artistas Asesinos, Barrio Azteca United Kingdom (Northern Ireland), where loyalist paramilitaries like the Ulster Volunteer Force are believed to be involved in drug dealing. Peru left-wing revolutionary guerrillas Shining Path The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan is said to fund itself through heroin trafficking. Sweden, in the form of a large quantity of gang related bombings, in retaliation to law enforcement, and other gangs. Bombings in Sweden. Venezuela, in the form of the Cartel of the Suns, among others. See generally Illegal drug trade in Venezuela. Narcoterrorism in Colombia During the 1984–1993 period Colombia was known as one of the countries that suffered a number of terrorist attacks at the hands of narcotic traffickers. Belisario Betancourt, Virgilio Barco and Cesar Gaviria were three Colombian presidents that constantly battled against drug cartels, especially the one known as Los Extraditables led by Pablo Escobar Gaviria and Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha. A number of crimes by “Los Extraditables”, also known as the Medellin Cartel were due to their constant battles against the government law. History Pablo Escobar was elected as a representative as an alternative congress delegate, but allegations from politicians, the newspaper “El Espectador” and the minister of justice declared him a drug trafficker and he was eventually dismissed from Congress on January 4, 1984. On April 30, 1984, a motorcycle gunman from the Medellin Cartel killed the minister of Justice Rodrigo Lara Bonilla. On November 6, 1985 the 19th of April Movement (Marxist guerrillas) sieged the palace of Justice in order to hold all supreme magistrates hostage. The organized military reaction caused the building to burn resulting in 91 people dead, of which eleven were judges. Although the M-19 denies being funded from outside sources, multiple sources say the Medellin Cartel funded them. Additionally, numerous bombs detonated across the country, the most memorable bomb being the one that brought down Avianca Flight 203 during its flight over Soacha Cundinamarca resulting in 107 dead in 1989. In Colombian history, the FARC were initially major enemies of the drug cartels. The MAS (Muerte a los secuestradores - Death to the kidnappers) was a group created by the most eminent members of the Cali cartel, including Escobar and Ochoa against the guerrillas who had kidnapped one of Ochoa's sister. The MAS was responsible for the deaths of 500 members of the Patriotic Union, a political party that emerged from the demobilization of part of the FARC in the 1990s. Significantly, it is worth recalling that Medellin cartel refused to buy coca from peasants living in areas under FARC control. From then on, even when there was evidence of collaboration between FARC and the drug traffickers, these connections were described as « temporary alliances ». President Alvaro Uribe, who was elected on the idea of waging an all-out war against the FARC, over-emphasized the link between drugs and the FARC as well as the terrorist nature of the guerilla group in a post 2001 context: “(Álvaro Uribe) increasingly equated the guerrillas with drug traffickers and terrorists” . This policy has provoked much criticism which has enriched the debate on the nature of the conflict in Colombia, and consequently on the character of the FARC. See also Anti-Narcotics Force Drug cartel Illegal drug trade Terruqueo References External links The Drug War in Mexico: By Any Other Name it's Terrorism, by Barnard R. 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221351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krabi%20province	Krabi province	Krabi ( ) is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand, on the shore of the Andaman Sea. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga, Surat Thani, Nakhon Si Thammarat, and Trang. Phuket province lies to the west across Phang Nga Bay. Krabi town is the seat of provincial government. Geography The area is dotted with solitary limestone peaks, both on land and in the sea. Rock climbers from all over travel to Ton Sai Beach and Railay Beach. The beaches form part of Krabi's Phra Nang Peninsula. Of the 154 islands in the province, Ko Phi Phi Le is the most famous, as it was the site of the movie The Beach. Other notable islands include Ko Phi Phi Don, part of the Phi Phi Islands, and Ko Lanta, a larger island to the south. The coast was damaged by the tsunami of 26 December 2004. Krabi's limestone hills contain many caves, most having stalactites and stalagmites. Tham Chao Le and Tham Phi Hua To, both in Ao Luek District, contain prehistoric rock-paintings depicting humans, animals, and geometrical shapes. In Lang Rong Rien cave in 1986 archaeologists found 40,000-year-old human artifacts: stone tools, pottery, and bones. It is one of the oldest traces of human occupation in Southeast Asia. Krabi's caves are one of the main sources of nests of the edible-nest swiftlet, used in the making of bird's nest soup. Krabi's farmland is dominated by a duopoly of rubber and palm oil plantations. Palm plantations alone occupy or 52 percent of the province's farmland. Together, palm oil and rubber cover 95 percent of Krabi's cultivated area with many smallholder farms amidst industrial plantations. The total forest area is or 17.2 percent of provincial area. History From archaeological evidence, it is assumed that Krabi town used to be an ancient prehistoric community, this land was a small community based on the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom. In the reign of King Rama II, people have migrated to settled and become a large community, which later upgraded to Mueang Kasai or Pakasai based on Nakhon Si Thammarat. In 1872, King Rama V ordered to raised the status of Pakasai to be a city and gave it name as "Krabi" and ordered to set up an office in Krabi Yai (Baan Talat Kao) in the present area of Mueang Krabi District. In 1875, Krabi was separated from the rule of Nakhon Si Thammarat. In 1900, Krabi has been relocated to Pak Nam Subdistrict near the estuary to be the location of the city hall until the present. It is believed the town may have taken its name from the word "krabi", which means 'sword'. This may stem from a legend that an ancient sword was unearthed prior to the city's founding. Symbols The seal of the province shows two ancient crossed swords (krabi is a word for an ancient Siamese sword) in front of the Indian Ocean and Khao Phanom Bencha mountain which, at above sea level, is the highest mountain of the province. The provincial slogan is, "Krabi, the liveable city, friendly people." The provincial tree is the blue sky (Thai: thung-fa ทุ้งฟ้า) or Alstonia macrophylla. Administrative divisions Provincial government Krabi is subdivided into eight districts (amphoe), which are further divided into 53 subdistricts (tambon) and 374 villages (muban). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Krabi Provincial Administration Organisation () and 13 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Krabi has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 12 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 48 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Population and culture Krabi's population includes Buddhists, Thai-Chinese, Moken (sea gypsies), and Muslims. Population is most dense in the coastal area in Nuea Khlong District and Krabi city districts, both with population densities above 150 people per km2. The least densely populated area is the inland mountain Khao Phanom District at 61 persons per km2. Buddhism is the religion most observed (65 percent) followed by Islam (34 percent). Traditionally Krabi's inhabitants worked in agriculture, for the province is rich in rubber, palm oil, and oranges. In recent years tourism has become an important source of income. Economy Agriculture, tourism, and, to a lesser extent, fisheries, form the backbone of Krabi's economy. Rubber is the primary cash crop of the province, followed by palm oil. Thailand's largest producer of palm oil products, Univanich Palm Oil PCL, is headquartered in Krabi. It employs 1,000 persons directly and purchases feed stock from 2,000 small and medium-sized Krabi growers. Tourism Krabi province ranks fifth in tourism income in Thailand with six million arrivals. Only Bangkok, Phuket, Chonburi, and Chiang Mai earn more from tourism. Arrivals are concentrated from November to April. The crush of high-season visitors has come at considerable cost to the environment. Local authorities have devised a program, "Krabi 365 Days" to move some high-season visitors to the off-season, from May to October, called the "green season" by tourism officials, partly due to the seasonal rains. Tourism revenue has grown at an average of eight percent annually. In 2018, tourism income is expected to hit 100 billion baht, up from 96 billion in 2017. The top visitors are Chinese and Malaysians. Scandinavians number in the top five visiting nationalities. According to the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) there are 460 hotels in the province, with some 200 additional hotels in the process of being licensed and another 200 in the preliminary stages of consideration. Transport Since 1999 the province has been served by the international Krabi International Airport. Phetkasem Road (Thailand Route 4) passes through the province. Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Environment In mid-2015, government plans to build an 800 megawatt coal-fired electricity generating station (EGAT Coal-Fired TH #3) in Tambon Pakasai in Amphoe Nuea Khlong have generated protests and hunger strikes by those opposed to the plant who say that it would endanger Krabi's relatively pristine environment. The Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) has pushed forward with development. The government intends to start the bidding process without an environmental assessment in order to "save time". The Krabi site is one of nine coal-fired plants planned for southern Thailand to be constructed over the next two decades to off-set the depletion of natural gas fields in the Gulf of Thailand. Opponents of the plan say their demands—which include a three-year waiting period to see if the province can produce 100 percent renewable energy—have been ignored. Thailand's resolve to go ahead with the massive new coal-fired power station in Krabi, a 315 MWe, 48 billion baht undertaking, presents a problem. Coal is a major source of mercury poisoning and has been found in toxic amounts up to 12 times more than the maximum acceptable dose in the inhabitants of Tha Thum in Prachinburi province. Possible vectors are fly ash from the local coal power plant, coal dust from outdoor coal storage piles, or coal ash, used as fertiliser. These present risks to Krabi. Coal pollution mitigation technology, sometimes called "clean coal", is still in its infancy and at the moment can only handle sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. Carbon dioxide sequestering is much more complex and costly. Two academics, referring to coal pollution mitigation in general, point out that, "So-called 'clean coal' is expensive, untested, unwieldy and unworkable, yet it is raised as a panacea." In mid-2016, a pro-renewables working group in Krabi published a "Green Power Development Plan". It concludes that Krabi province can depend on renewables—mainly biomass and biogas—for 100 percent of its electricity needs. The report calculates that biomass could generate 118 MW in an initial three-year period; solar could generate 55 MW; biogas, 54 MW; and wind energy 40 MW. During a subsequent three-year period, renewables could generate 287 MW, exceeding the province's peak demand year of 2015, when it consumed 143 MW. If adopted, the plan would obviate the need to import coal, saving 175 billion baht over a 25-year period. In August 2016, EGAT solicited bids for the plant's construction and received bids in the range of 32–34.9 billion baht. The bidding process and the environmental and health impact assessment report were completed simultaneously. "After being delayed for almost two years, this November [2016] will be the time to decide whether to proceed or scrap the plan," said Energy Minister Gen Anantaporn Kanjanarat. EGAT power plant opponents in Krabi have formed a coalition of local administration officials, academics, businesspersons, and concerned citizens that is proving to be a formidable opponent of EGAT's fossil fueled plans. Krabi is a leading tourist destination on the Andaman Coast. Local government has described coal as "filthy" and in conflict with tourism. The province has set itself the goal of being "...solely dependent on renewable energy." Projected impact of changes in climate In a 2008 study of the impact of climate change on Krabi province to the year 2033, the following effects were projected: Temperature: The study forecasts modest temperature changes, slightly more than 1˚C at inland locations over the next 10–25 years. Coastal temperatures are projected to rise slightly less than 1˚C. Rainfall: Annual monsoons will be two weeks shorter by 2018 and four weeks shorter by 2033. Total rainfall may decrease by 10 percent by 2033 according to the study. Sea level: Sea level will rise substantially, with negative implications for Krabi's mangrove wetlands. The rise of mean sea level on the Krabi coastline is projected to rise by about 1 cm annually over the next 25 years. A sea level rise of 20 cm over the next 25 years would cause existing (2008) shorelines will retreat 10–35 m. Tropical storms: Fewer cyclones are forecasted, although higher sea levels may result in storms doing more damage to coastal infrastructure. National park Hat Noppharat Thara–Mu Ko Phi Phi National Park is a marine national park. Established in 1983, it is an IUCN Category II protected area with coral reefs, and an area measuring . Mu Ko Lanta National Park is a national park in the southern part of Krabi province, consisting of several islands. The two largest islands are Ko Lanta Noi and Ko Lanta Yai. Although both are inhabited, Ko Lanta Yai is the primary tourist destination. The park was established in 1990. Sport Football Krabi football club participates in Thai League 3 Lower Region, the third tier of Thai football league system. The Andaman Eagles (Thai:อินทรีอันดามัน) plays their home matches at Krabi Provincial Stadium. Gallery References External links Provincial Website Golden Jubilee Network province guide Provinces of Thailand Southern Thailand Strait of Malacca	[ -0.027681296691298485, -0.00409125629812479, 0.15154606103897095, -0.09946953505277634, -0.17657162249088287, -0.30687543749809265, 0.7130249738693237, 0.16039204597473145, -0.3465352952480316, 0.22961968183517456, -0.32186731696128845, -0.43715745210647583, -0.6913345456123352, 0.1172746792435646, -0.25630655884742737, 0.9864412546157837, 1.106122374534607, 0.033087827265262604, 0.26827844977378845, -0.3945055305957794, -0.3277163803577423, -0.4273662567138672, 0.4114632308483124, -0.1761762499809265, 0.4552830457687378, 0.13004553318023682, 0.6047292351722717, 0.7751731872558594, 0.5133498311042786, -0.3161040246486664, -0.3568708598613739, 0.4051615297794342, -0.6280457377433777, 0.15733489394187927, 0.5847511887550354, 0.32680544257164, 0.09984484314918518, -0.005679621826857328, -0.1696285605430603, -0.11882057040929794, 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221353	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Lous%20Lange	Christian Lous Lange	Christian Lous Lange (17 September 1869 – 11 December 1938) was a Norwegian historian, teacher, and political scientist. He was one of the world's foremost exponents of the theory and practice of internationalism. He was born in Stavanger; his father was a military engineer and he was the grandson of the historian Christian C. A. Lange. He graduated from secondary school in 1887 and proceeded to travel and study history, English, and French at the University of Oslo, from which he received the cand. philol. degree in 1893. He taught at secondary schools for many years and eventually returned to the University of Oslo to receive a doctorate. In 1899, he had his first official role in the internationalist movement when he was appointed secretary of the committee organizing an Oslo conference of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, an organization dedicated to fostering discussion between parliamentarians of different countries. The next year, he was made secretary of the Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parliament and, although he gave up the position in 1909, he would play a key role in the early days of the Norwegian Nobel Institute. During this time he was the Norwegian technical delegate to the Second Hague Peace Conference. Lange rejoined the Inter-Parliamentary Union in 1909 when he was appointed secretary general of the organization, a position he would retain until 1933. As secretary general he oversaw the Union's move to Brussels, sustained it in Oslo through the challenging times of World War I, then moved it again to Geneva after the war. He remained active in numerous other organizations as well, acting as Norway's delegate or alternate delegate to the League of Nations from its founding until 1938, writing reports and acting as a correspondent for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and participating in the Dutch sponsored Central Organisation for Durable Peace, among other activities. He was often called upon for his expertise in arbitration and arms control, in particular. His intellectual support of internationalism was demonstrated by the first of a three volume historical treatise (Histoire de l'internationalisme). The work, published in 1919, was said to contribute to the ideological preparation for the League of Nations. For this and all his other activities, Lange shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Hjalmar Branting in 1921. Lange died at the age of 69, one day after the 17th anniversary of his receipt of the Nobel Prize. He was the father of Carl Viggo Manthey Lange, Halvard Lange and Christian August Manthey Lange. His daughter Thora was a history and language teacher, from 1938 at Oslo Cathedral School. During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany she joined the resistance movement while her husband went in exile. She was imprisoned at Grini concentration camp in September 1943, but fell ill and died at Ullevål Hospital in December. Lange was a member of the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights. See also List of peace activists References External links including the Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1921 Internationalism 1869 births 1938 deaths People from Stavanger Norwegian historians Norwegian political scientists Norwegian Nobel laureates Nobel Peace Prize laureates University of Oslo alumni Inter-Parliamentary Union Norwegian anti-war activists Norwegian Association for Women's Rights people	[ -0.029858600348234177, 0.7457664012908936, -0.2927713394165039, -0.3929992616176605, -0.3950755000114441, 1.1429328918457031, 1.3724696636199951, -0.046884842216968536, -0.38774093985557556, -0.5779029130935669, -0.0023918289225548506, 0.3923627436161041, 0.1254543662071228, 0.4613151252269745, -0.06309559941291809, -0.18129953742027283, -0.49551790952682495, -0.038414664566516876, -0.4952634871006012, -0.1983765810728073, -0.395926296710968, -0.27043741941452026, 0.5527792572975159, -0.035815492272377014, -0.49463701248168945, -0.24657419323921204, 0.5286799073219299, 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221355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident	Resident	Resident may refer to: People and functions Resident minister, a representative of a government in a foreign country Resident (medicine), a stage of postgraduate medical training Resident (pharmacy), a stage of postgraduate pharmaceutical training Resident engineer, an engineer or expert who works at client-side Resident, a person who maintains residency (domicile) in a given place Resident, a person who has tax residence in a country or jurisdiction Resident, a patient at a long-term care facility or senior center Resident (Second Life), a member of the Second Life community Resident DJ, a DJ who performs at a venue on a regular basis or permanently Resident spy, a spy who operates in a foreign country Culture Resident (magazine), an Austrian music magazine The Resident (film), a 2011 film starring Hilary Swank, Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Christopher Lee The Resident (TV series), a 2018 American medical drama television series airing on Fox that was created by Amy Holden Jones The Residents, an American avant garde music and visual arts group Other Resident module, a program that stays in memory throughout the lifetime of a computing session Resident bird, a bird that does not migrate See also Residence Chief resident (disambiguation) Residency (disambiguation)	[ 0.44199085235595703, 0.3288443982601166, 0.37116125226020813, 0.1136750802397728, 0.4846298098564148, 0.013675324618816376, 0.313193142414093, -0.040257133543491364, -0.4152732789516449, -0.25376519560813904, -0.9084553122520447, 0.4671717584133148, 0.180759996175766, 0.3878822326660156, 0.39984411001205444, 0.3800082206726074, 1.056060791015625, 0.022571025416254997, -0.5475483536720276, -0.36298996210098267, -0.2397458851337433, 0.21976806223392487, 0.1680794060230255, -0.462931752204895, -0.20087376236915588, 0.19170133769512177, 0.13477137684822083, 0.132594496011734, -0.5824320316314697, -0.15349777042865753, -0.028173187747597694, 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221362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management%20system	Management system	A management system is a set of policies, processes and procedures used by an organization to ensure that it can fulfill the tasks required to achieve its objectives. These objectives cover many aspects of the organization's operations (including financial success, safe operation, product quality, client relationships, legislative and regulatory conformance and worker management). For instance, an environmental management system enables organizations to improve their environmental performance, and an occupational safety and health management system enables an organization to control its occupational health and safety risks. The international standard ISO 9000:2015 (Title: Quality management systems - fundamentals and vocabulary) defines the term in chapter 3.5.3 as a "set of interrelated or interacting elements of an organization to establish policies and objectives, and processes to achieve those objectives". A simplification of the main aspects of a management system is the 4-element "plan, do, check, act" approach. A complete management system covers every aspect of management and focuses on supporting the performance management to achieve the objectives. The management system should be subject to continuous improvement as the organization learns. Examples Examples of management system standards include: ISO 9000: standards for quality management systems (QMS) ISO 13485: standard for medical devices ISO 14000: standards for environmental management systems ISO/IEC 20000: standards for service management systems (SMS) ISO 22000: standards for food safety management systems (FSMS) ISO/IEC 27000: information security management systems (ISMS) ISO 30301: standard for records (information and documentation) ISO 37001: standard for anti-bribery ISO 45001: standard for occupational health and safety management systems ISO 50001: standard for energy management systems ISO 55000: standards for asset management systems ISO 56002: innovation management systems FitSM: standards for lightweight IT service management ILO-OSH: occupational safety and health management systems SA8000: social accountability IAEA management system safety standards See also Environmental management system (EMS) Lean integration Process safety management system (PSMS) Quality management system (QMS) Total quality management (TQM) Warehouse management system (WMS) Welfare management system (WMS) References Further reading International Organization for Standardization (2001) Guidelines for the justification and development of management system standards. International Standard ISO Guide 72, Geneva, Switzerland. International Organization for Standardization (2004) Environmental Management Systems-Specifications with Guidance for Use. International Standard ISO 14001, Geneva, Switzerland. Commission for Environmental Cooperation (2000): “Improving Environmental Performance and Compliance: 10 Elements of Effective Environmental Management Systems.” Report. British Standards Institution (1999): Occupational health & safety management systems - Specification; BS OHSAS 18001:1999. 389 Chiswick High Road, London, W4 4AL, United Kingdom. International Organization for Standardization (2000) Quality Systems - Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production, Installation and Servicing. International Standard ISO 9001:2000(E), Geneva, Switzerland. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (1989); "Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines." Federal Register, January 26, 1989. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2001): “Integrated Environmental Management Systems: Implementation Guide.” Report written by Abt Associates for the USEPA’s Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Design for the Environment Program; Economics, Exposure, and Technology Division. Washington, DC. 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221364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Colman%20the%20Younger	George Colman the Younger	George Colman (21 October 1762 – 17 October 1836), known as "the Younger", was an English dramatist and miscellaneous writer. He was the son of George Colman the Elder. Life He passed from Westminster School to Christ Church, Oxford, and King's College, University of Aberdeen, and was finally entered as a student of law at Lincoln's Inn, London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing Charles James Fox, called The Man of the People; and in 1782 he produced, at his father's playhouse in the Haymarket, his first play, The Female Dramatist. The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish the management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the younger George succeeded him, at a yearly salary of £600. On the death of the father the patent was continued to the son; but difficulties arose in his way, he was involved in litigation with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay the expenses of the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take sanctuary within the Rules of the King's Bench Prison. Here he resided for many years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre. Released at last through the kindness of George IV, who had appointed him exon. of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity disposed of by Colman to the highest bidder. In 1824 he was made examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then Lord Chamberlain. This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists, to whose manuscripts he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his death. Although his own productions were open to charges of indecency and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others that he would not pass even such words as "heaven", "providence" or "angel". He had, as early as 1784, contracted a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays were written especially for Maria Gibbs (née Logan), whom he married at Clerkenwell in June 1836, after the death of his first wife in January that year. He died in Brompton, London. He was buried alongside his father in Kensington Church. Works His comedies are a curious mixture of genuine comic force and sentimentality. A collection of them was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the author, by J. W. Lake. His first play, The Female Dramatist (1782), for which Smollett's Roderick Random supplied the materials, was unanimously condemned, but Two to One (1784) was entirely successful. It was followed by Turk and no Turk (1785), a musical comedy; Inkle and Yarico (1787), an opera; Ways and Means (1788); The Battle of Hexham (1793); The Iron Chest (1796), taken from William Godwin's Adventures of Caleb Williams; The Heir at Law (1797), which enriched the stage with one immortal character, "Dr Pangloss" (borrowed of course from Voltaire's Candide); The Poor Gentleman (1802); John Bull, or an Englishman's Fireside (1803), his most successful piece; and numerous other pieces, many of them adapted from the French. His comic opera Love Laughs at Locksmiths is the first known appearance of the folk song The Unfortunate Miss Bailey, which became a popular hit in early 1800's New York. The song was later included in folk song collections including the Burl Ives songbook, and was recorded by The Kingstone Trio on their album Here We Go Again! in 1959. Folklorists at the Traditional Ballad Index attribute authorship of the song to either of the George Colmans, but surmise that the Younger is the more likely. Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was also the author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry (mostly coarse, though much of it was popular) – My Night Gown and Slippers (1797), reprinted under the name of Broad Grins, in 1802; and Poetical Vagaries (1812). Some of his writings were published under the assumed name of Arthur Griffinhood of Turnham Green. Literary hoaxes After his death, Colman was falsely stated to have been the author of certain pornographic works. The Rodiad, on flagellation, was published by John Camden Hotten in 1871, falsely dated to 1810 and ascribed to Colman; the true author seems to have been Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton. Canadian author John Glassco maintained and extended the hoax in 1967 by repeating the attribution and also claiming that his own Squire Hardman had been written by Colman. Further reading See the second George Colman's memoirs of his early life, entitled Random Records (1830), and RB Peake, Memoirs of the Colman Family (1842). References Attribution External links 1762 births 1836 deaths English dramatists and playwrights People educated at Westminster School, London Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford Alumni of the University of Aberdeen English male dramatists and playwrights English male poets	[ -0.5778700113296509, 0.0019860584288835526, -0.320506751537323, -0.3358742892742157, 0.3382493853569031, 0.8196290731430054, 0.5760167837142944, 0.05507607012987137, -0.29991674423217773, -0.40400195121765137, -0.08740939199924469, 0.20115770399570465, -0.3223719000816345, 0.016364142298698425, -0.255365788936615, 0.2453722357749939, -0.11026521772146225, -0.4674346446990967, -0.43152013421058655, -0.4666217267513275, -0.6865110993385315, 0.2870817482471466, 0.4266302287578583, -0.43124058842658997, -0.2356119304895401, -0.024873683229088783, 0.18458883464336395, -0.6360994577407837, 0.15539023280143738, -0.24340882897377014, 0.24902768433094025, 0.49999603629112244, 0.19330157339572906, -0.004800202790647745, 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221368	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Colman%20the%20Elder	George Colman the Elder	George Colman (April 1732 – 14 August 1794) was an English dramatist and essayist, usually called "the Elder", and sometimes "George the First", to distinguish him from his son, George Colman the Younger. He was also a theatre owner. Early life He was born in Florence, where his father was stationed as British Resident Minister (diplomatic envoy) at the court of the Grand duke of Tuscany. Colman's father died within a year of his son's birth, and the boy's education was undertaken by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath, whose wife was Mrs Colman's sister. After attending a private school in Marylebone, George was sent to Westminster School. Colman left school in due course for Christ Church, Oxford. There he made the acquaintance of Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded The Connoisseur (1754–1756), a periodical which although it reached its 140th number, "wanted weight," as Johnson said. He left Oxford after taking his degree in 1755, and having been entered at Lincoln's Inn before his return to London, he was called to the bar in 1757. A friendship formed with David Garrick did not help his career as a barrister, but he continued to practise until the death of Lord Bath, out of respect for his wishes. Plays In 1760, Colman produced his first play, Polly Honeycomb, which met with great success. In 1761, The Jealous Wife, a comedy partly founded on Tom Jones, made Colman famous. The death of Lord Bath in 1764 placed him in possession of independent means. In 1765, his metrical translation of the plays of Terence appeared, and in 1766, he produced The Clandestine Marriage, jointly with Garrick, whose refusal to take the part of Lord Ogleby led to a quarrel between the two authors. In the next year he purchased a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a step which is said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by which he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. There was a riot at the third performance of his play The Oxonian in Town on 9 November 1767, apparently sparked by a claque of card-sharpers. Theatre ownership Colman was acting manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during that period he produced several "adapted" plays of Shakespeare. He directed Mary Bulkley, Ann Catley and others in the première of She Stoops to Conquer there in 1773. In 1768 he was elected to the Literary Club, then nominally consisting of twelve members. In 1771 Thomas Arne's masque The Fairy Prince premièred at Covent Garden, for which Colman wrote the libretto. In 1774 he sold to James Leake his share in the playhouse, which had involved him in much litigation with his partners, and three years later purchased the little theatre in the Haymarket from Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits. Colman was attacked by paralysis in 1785; in 1789 his brain became affected, and he died on 14 August 1794. He was buried in Kensington Church. Other works Besides the works already cited, Colman was author of adaptations of Beaumont and Fletcher's Bonduca, Ben Jonson's Epicoene and Volpone, Milton's Comus, and of other plays. He also produced an edition of the works of Beaumont and Fletcher (1778), a version of the Ars Poëtica of Horace, an excellent translation from the Mercator of Plautus for Bonnell Thornton's edition (1769–1772), some thirty plays, and many parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his dramatic works was published in 1777 in four volumes. Selected plays Polly Honeycombe (1760) The Jealous Wife (1761) The Clandestine Marriage (1766) The Oxonian in Town (1767) The Manager in Distress (1780) The Genius of Nonsense (1780) References Colman, George, New Brooms!, London, 1776. Facsimile ed., with The Manager in Distress (1780), introduced by J. Terry Frazier, 1980, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, . 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221372	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hogg	James Hogg	James Hogg (1770 – 21 November 1835) was a Scottish poet, novelist and essayist who wrote in both Scots and English. As a young man he worked as a shepherd and farmhand, and was largely self-educated through reading. He was a friend of many of the great writers of his day, including Sir Walter Scott, of whom he later wrote an unauthorised biography. He became widely known as the "Ettrick Shepherd", a nickname under which some of his works were published, and the character name he was given in the widely read series Noctes Ambrosianae, published in Blackwood's Magazine. He is best known today for his novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner. His other works include the long poem The Queen's Wake (1813), his collection of songs Jacobite Relics (1819), and his two novels The Three Perils of Man (1822), and The Three Perils of Woman (1823). Biography Early life James Hogg was born on a small farm near Ettrick, Selkirkshire, Scotland in 1770 and was baptised there on 9 December, his actual date of birth having never been recorded. His father, Robert Hogg (1729–1820), was a tenant farmer while his mother, Margaret Hogg (née Laidlaw) (1730–1813), was noted for collecting native Scottish ballads. Margaret Laidlaw's father, known as Will o' Phawhope, was said to have been the last man in the Border country to speak with the fairies. James was the second eldest of four brothers, his siblings being William, David, and Robert (from eldest to youngest). Robert and David later emigrated to the United States, while James and William remained in Scotland for their entire lives. James attended a parish school for a few months before his education was stopped due to his father's bankruptcy as a stock-farmer and sheep-dealer. Robert Hogg was then given the position of shepherd at Ettrickhouse farm by one of his neighbours. James worked as a farm servant throughout his childhood, tending cows, doing general farm work, and acting as a shepherd's assistant. His early experiences of literature and story telling came from the Bible and his mother's and uncle's stories. In 1784 he purchased a fiddle with money that he had saved, and taught himself how to play it. In 1785 he served a year working for a tenant farmer at Singlee. In 1786 he went to work for Mr. Laidlaw of Ellibank, staying with him for eighteen months. In 1788 he was given his first job as a shepherd by Laidlaw's father, a farmer at Willenslee. He stayed here for two years, learning to read while tending sheep, and being given newspapers and theological works by his employer's wife. In 1790 he began ten years of service to James Laidlaw of Blackhouse in the Yarrow valley. Hogg later said that Laidlaw was more like a father to him than an employer. Seeing how hard he was working to improve himself, Laidlaw offered to help by making books available for Hogg from his own library, and through a local lending library. Hogg also began composing songs to be sung by local girls. He became a lifelong friend of his master's son, William Laidlaw, himself a minor writer and later the amanuensis of Walter Scott. It was at this time that Hogg, his eldest brother, and several cousins, formed a debating society of shepherds. Hogg first became familiar with the work of the recently deceased Robert Burns in 1797, after having the poem Tam o' Shanter read to him. During this period Hogg wrote plays and pastorals, and continued producing songs. His work as a sheep drover stimulated an interest in the Scottish Highlands. In 1800 he left Blackhouse to help take care of his parents at Ettrickhouse. Early in 1801 he published a booklet Scottish Pastorals. His patriotic song "Donald Macdonald", printed as a broadside probably in 1803, achieved considerable popularity. Career In 1801 Hogg was recruited to collect ballads for Walter Scott's collection Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. He met Scott himself the following year and began working for the Edinburgh Magazine. In the summer of 1802 he embarked on the first of three tours of the Highlands with a view to securing a farm of his own. He eventually found a farm on Harris but due to trouble with his finances and a legal issue he was unable to secure a lease by 1804. He may not have been really committed to the project in any case. His experiences on his Highland tours were described in letters to Scott which were published in the Scots Magazine. On his way back to Ettrickhouse in 1803 he dined with the novelist John Galt in Greenock. In 1805–06 he worked as a shepherd in Dumfriesshire, meeting the poet Allan Cunningham and becoming friends with him and his family. In October 1806 he became the lover of a young woman named Catherine Henderson, and in the same autumn he attempted unsuccessfully to establish himself as an independent farmer. Hogg's first collection, The Mountain Bard, was published in February 1807 by Constable. At the end of summer 1807 his daughter by Catherine Henderson was born, baptised on 13 December as Catherine Hogg. In 1837 she married David Lauder and they named their son James Hogg Lauder. Catherine Henderson herself went on to marry David Laidlaw in 1812. Hogg continued working as a sheep-grazer for other farmers, but his debts began to grow throughout 1808–1809. At the end of 1809 he began an affair with Margaret Beattie, and soon after absconded from his creditors, returning in disgrace to Ettrick. In 1810 Hogg moved to Edinburgh to start a literary career. In March 1810 his daughter by Margaret Beattie was born, christened Elizabeth Hogg in June. At the end of 1810 he met his future wife Margaret Phillips. His magazine The Spy, begun in 1810, ended after a year. At this time he became a founder member of a debating society called The Forum, eventually serving as its secretary. In 1812 he composed a long poetical work. The Queen's Wake (the setting of which was the return to Scotland of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1561 after her exile in France) was published early in 1813 and was a success. It was, in the guise of a competition, a collection of verse tales, of which Kilmeny became and remained the best known. At the end of 1813 Hogg began writing a narrative poem Mador of the Moor set in the central Highlands; he completed it the spring of 1814 but it was not published for another two years. In 1814 Hogg completed a visionary poetic narrative The Pilgrims of the Sun in three weeks, and in the same year he met William Wordsworth and made a visit to the Lake District to see Wordsworth and other poets. In 1815 the Duke of Buccleuch granted him a small farm at Eltrive Moss, where he could live rent-free for his lifetime. He continued to write songs and poems, including "The Field of Waterloo" and "To the Ancient Banner of Buccleuch". His poem Mador of the Moor was published in 1816. Later in the year he published his collection of parodies The Poetic Mirror, achieving a marked success. Hogg first met the publisher William Blackwood in the aftermath of his own publisher John Goldie's 1814 bankruptcy, and in 1817 he helped with the start of Blackwood's Edinburgh Monthly Magazine. He published his two volume collection Dramatic Tales in May. In 1818 his collection The Brownie of Bodsbeck; and Other Tales was published by Blackwood. At this time Hogg was busy with his work Jacobite Relics. In 1819 he proposed marriage to Margaret Phillips. At the end of the year he published the first volume of Jacobite Relics. He married Margaret Phillips on 28 April 1820. His second tales collection Winter Evening Tales was published a month later. At the end of the year his father died. The second volume of Jacobite Relics was published in February 1821, and his son James Robert Hogg was born in March 1821. Around this time, Hogg began having serious financial problems. It was through the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine, soon renamed Blackwood's Magazine, that Hogg found fame, although it was not the sort that he wanted. Launched as a counter-blast to the Whig Edinburgh Review, Blackwood wanted punchy content in his new publication. He found his ideal contributors in John Wilson (who wrote as Christopher North) and John Gibson Lockhart (later Walter Scott's son-in-law and biographer). Their first published article, "The Chaldee Manuscript", a thinly disguised satire of Edinburgh society in biblical language which Hogg started and Wilson and Lockhart elaborated, was so controversial that Wilson fled and Blackwood was forced to apologise. Soon Blackwood's Tory views and reviews – often scurrilous attacks on other writers – were notorious, and the magazine, or "Maga" as it came to be known, had become one of the best-selling journals of its day. But Hogg quickly found himself forced out of the inner circle. As other writers such as Walter Maginn and Thomas de Quincey joined, he became not merely excluded from the lion's share of publication in Maga, but a figure of fun in its pages. Wilson and Lockhart were dangerous friends. Hogg's Memoirs of the Author's Life were savagely attacked by an anonymous reviewer, causing Hogg to temporarily break with Blackwood's, and go to work for Constable's smaller Edinburgh Magazine. In 1822 the Maga launched the Noctes Ambrosianae or "Nights at Ambrose's", imaginary conversations in a drinking-den between semi-fictional characters such as North, O'Doherty, The Opium Eater and the Ettrick Shepherd. The Shepherd was Hogg. The Noctes continued until 1834, and were written after 1825 mostly by Wilson, although other writers, including Hogg himself, had a hand in them. The Shepherd of the Noctes is a part-animal, part-rural simpleton, and part-savant. He became one of the best-known figures in topical literary affairs, famous throughout Britain and its colonies. Quite what the real James Hogg made of this is mostly unknown, although some of his letters to Blackwood and others express outrage and anguish. Hogg's Poetical Works in four volumes were published in 1822, as was his novel The Three Perils of Man. In 1823, in debt to Blackwood, Hogg began publishing his work The Shepherd's Calendar in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. Hogg's daughter Jessie was born in April, and later in the year he published his novel The Three Perils of Woman. In June 1824 he published his best known work, the novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner. His epic poem Queen Hynde was published at the end of the year. In 1825 he found a new and lucrative market for his works as he began publishing in a literary annual called the Literary Souvenir. In 1825 Hogg's daughter Maggie was born, and he began writing a new prose work, later titled Tales of the Wars of Montrose. In 1826 Hogg was in serious trouble with his debts, while the firm of Constable collapsed, involving Walter Scott and Hogg's friend John Aiken. In 1827 his debts began to lighten as his Shepherd's Calendar pieces were being published, and he was getting more and more applications to contribute to annuals. The death of his father-in-law, whose family Hogg had been supporting, gave him relief. His third daughter Harriet was born at the end of the year. Hogg's collection Select and Rare Scotish Melodies was published in 1829, and he continued to write songs and contribute to annuals throughout 1828–29, while The Shepherd's Calendar was published in book form in Spring, 1829. Later life In 1830 he started publishing in the new Fraser's Magazine, which helped to alleviate a further financial crisis, and at the end of the year he met with Walter Scott for the last time. In early 1831 Hogg's Songs, by The Ettrick Shepherd was published, but the publishing of the companion volume A Queer Book was held up by Blackwood. Hogg's last child, his daughter Mary, was born in August. At the end of the year he quarrelled with Blackwood, and decided to publish his works in London. In 1832 his Altrive Tales was published in London, while Blackwood finally published A Queer Book in April or May. Hogg was offered a large sum to edit a collection of the works of Robert Burns, but the bankruptcy of his London publisher stopped the publication of his Altrive Tales after the first of the twelve projected volumes. In 1833 Hogg had an accident while curling, falling through the ice, causing a serious illness. In 1834 his biographical work Familiar Anecdotes of Sir Walter Scott was published in the United States, while a pirated version published in Glasgow led to a break with Lockhart. Hogg mended his relationship with Blackwood in May, but Blackwood died at the end of the year. Hogg published Tales of the Wars of Montrose in March 1835. Death James Hogg died on 21 November 1835 and was buried in Ettrick Churchyard, close to his childhood home in the Scottish Borders. In 2021, it was reported that his grave had been preemptively toppled by Scottish Borders Council out of safety concerns and that independent restoration efforts were planned by the community. Wordsworth's 1835 "Extempore Effusion upon the Death of James Hogg", written in the year of his death, includes the lines: The mighty Minstrel breathes no longer, 'Mid mouldering ruins low he lies; And death upon the braes of Yarrow, Has closed the Shepherd-poet's eyes. This eulogy notwithstanding, Wordsworth's notes state "He was undoubtedly a man of original genius, but of coarse manners and low and offensive opinions." Legacy Among the reading public at large Hogg was, during his lifetime, one of the most admired writers of the day, but this admiration was largely for his success in overcoming the disadvantages of his peasant birth and lack of education. He was considered a man of great natural genius whose uncouth style and subject-matter, so natural for the clownish figure depicted in the Noctes Ambrosianae, should not be held against him. A collected edition of his works was published in the 1830s, after Hogg's death, pruned of some passages which offended the increasing delicacy of the age, and another Works of the Ettrick Shepherd was prepared in the 1860s which took the process even further; some works, for example The Three Perils of Woman, were excluded altogether. Victorian readers of these emasculated texts naturally came to the conclusion that Hogg had been overrated, and that he was notable mainly as an example of triumph over adverse circumstances. Apart from Justified Sinner, which even his detractors acknowledged as unusually powerful (and often attributed to someone else, usually Lockhart), his novels were regarded as turgid, his verse as light, his short tales and articles as ephemera. This situation only began to change in 1924, when the French writer André Gide was loaned Justified Sinner by Raymond Mortimer. Gide was amazed, writing that "It is long since I can remember being so taken hold of, so voluptuously tormented by any book." Its republication in 1947, with an enthusiastic introduction by Gide, helped bring about the modern critical and academic appreciation of this novel. Growing interest in The Confessions led to the rediscovery and reconsideration of his other work in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Now his novel The Three Perils of Woman is also considered a classic and all his work, including his letters, is undergoing major publication in the Stirling/South Carolina editions. However, Justified Sinner remains his most important work and is now seen as one of the major Scottish novels of its time, and absolutely crucial in terms of exploring one of the key themes of Scottish culture and identity: Calvinism. In a 2006 interview with Melvyn Bragg for ITV1, Scottish novelist Irvine Welsh cited Hogg, especially The Confessions as a major influence on his writing. A James Hogg Society was founded in 1981 to encourage the study of his life and writings. Hogg's story "The Brownie of the Black Haggs" was dramatised for BBC Radio 4 in 2003 by Scottish playwright Marty Ross as part of his "Darker Side of the Border" series. More recently Ross returned to the villain of that story, Merodach, making him the villain of a Doctor Who audiobook, Night's Black Agents (Big Finish Productions 2010), in which this demonic figure assumes the pose of a Minister of the Kirk. Thomas Wilson's Opera, The Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1972–75), commissioned by Scottish Opera, is based on the novel. Hogg is a direct ancestor of Nobel Prize-winning Canadian writer Alice Munro. Works Scottish Pastorals (1801) (poetry) The Shepherd's Guide (1807) (treatise on sheep) The Mountain Bard (1807) (poetry) The Forest Minstrel (1810) (poetry) The Spy (1810–11) (weekly periodical) The Queen's Wake (1813) (poetry) The Pilgrims of the Sun (1815) (poetry) Mador of the Moor (1816) (poetry) The Brownie of Bodsbeck (1817) (novel) The Surpassing Adventures of Allan Gordon (1818) (novella) Jacobite Relics (1819) (collection of Jacobite protest songs) Winter Evening Tales (1820) (short stories, novellas, poems) The Three Perils of Man (1822) (novel) The Three Perils of Woman (1823) (novel) The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) (novel) Queen Hynde (1824) (poetry) The Brownie of the Black Haggs (1828) (short story/tale) The Shepherd's Calendar (1829) (collected essays) Songs, by The Ettrick Shepherd (1831) (songs) Altrive Tales (1832) (short stories) A Queer Book (1832) (poems) Familiar Anecdotes of Sir Walter Scott (1834) (memoir) A Series of Lay Sermons (1834) (moral and religious discourses) Tales of the Wars of Montrose(1835) (short stories) Tales and Sketches of the Ettrick Shepherd (1837) See also Aikwood Tower, the home of Lord Steel, houses an exhibition on the life and work of James Hogg. Jean Lorimer (Chloris) Footnotes References The Electric Shepherd: A Likeness of James Hogg (2004) Karl Miller James Hogg (1899) Sir George Douglas in the "Famous Scots Series" published by Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier. Further reading Parr, Norah (1980), James Hogg at Home: Being the Domestic Life and Letters of the Ettrick Shepherd , Douglas S. Mack, Dollar, Petrie, Elaine E. (1981), Hogg at Home and Abroad, review of The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner, in Murray, Glen (ed.), Cencrastus No. 6, Autumn 1981, pp. 39 & 40 Gilkison, Bruce (2016), Walking with James Hogg: The Ettrick Shepherd's Journeys through Scotland, Edinburgh University Press, External links James Hogg (1822) The Three Perils of Man; or, War, Women, and Witchcraft Google eBook James Hogg (1823) The Three Perils of Woman: or, Love, Leasing, and Jealousy The James Hogg Society by the Department of English Studies, University of Stirling BBC – Writing Scotland – James Hogg James Hogg Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. 1770 births 1835 deaths People from the Scottish Borders Lallans poets Scottish biographers Scottish non-fiction writers 19th-century Scottish novelists Scottish poets Scottish political writers Scottish short story writers Scottish songwriters Scottish horror writers Yarrow Valley 19th-century British novelists 19th-century British short story writers Scottish folk-song collectors Writers of Gothic fiction	[ -0.22139465808868408, 0.41126275062561035, -0.09547973424196243, -1.0035772323608398, 0.35378503799438477, 0.9703737497329712, 0.738283097743988, 0.25747090578079224, -0.28691843152046204, -0.3736022710800171, -0.3077388405799866, 0.01483598630875349, -0.38962772488594055, -0.09139535576105118, 0.19845622777938843, 0.3290414810180664, -0.28451746702194214, -0.2011590600013733, -0.16118775308132172, -0.5087789297103882, -0.346792072057724, -0.16346623003482819, 0.20686420798301697, -0.08728891611099243, 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221373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceptive%20Records	Deceptive Records	Deceptive Records was a British independent record label formed in 1992 by Steve Lamacq, Tony Smith and Alan James, which concentrated on rock and alternative rock. The most famous group signed to the label were Elastica. Steve Lamacq left the company after the release of Elastica's first album to avoid accusations of partiality on the Evening Session, his BBC Radio 1 show. The label closed in 2001. Bands and artists Angelica Collapsed Lung Elastica Scarfo Snuff Earl Brutus Jonathan Fire*Eater Shriek Spare Snare Superfine Unun The Pin Ups Lauren Laverne Idlewild Placebo Ten Benson See also List of record labels External links Profile of Label on Discogs British record labels Record labels established in 1992 Record labels disestablished in 2001 Rock record labels Alternative rock record labels	[ 0.27865684032440186, 0.23980388045310974, -0.6221528053283691, 0.3603614270687103, -0.22977572679519653, 0.36559978127479553, -0.006317138671875, 0.35243338346481323, 0.37054452300071716, 0.3289611041545868, 0.25612708926200867, 0.4492845833301544, -0.1599119007587433, 0.621614396572113, -0.07023356854915619, -0.053175754845142365, -0.060292162001132965, -0.308904230594635, 0.043663542717695236, 0.11716482043266296, -0.18437698483467102, -0.035246592015028, -0.02054695598781109, -0.7708865404129028, 0.06945689767599106, -0.07946830242872238, 0.19336800277233124, 0.21170157194137573, 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221374	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantic%20telegraph%20cable	Transatlantic telegraph cable	Transatlantic telegraph cables were undersea cables running under the Atlantic Ocean for telegraph communications. Telegraphy is now an obsolete form of communication and the cables have long since been decommissioned, but telephone and data are still carried on other transatlantic telecommunications cables. The first cable was laid in the 1850s from Valentia in western Ireland to Bay of Bulls, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. The first communications occurred on 16 August 1858, but the line speed was poor and efforts to improve it caused the cable to fail after three weeks. The Atlantic Telegraph Company led by Cyrus West Field constructed the first transatlantic telegraph cable. The project began in 1854 and was completed in 1858. The cable functioned for only three weeks, but was the first such project to yield practical results. The first official telegram to pass between two continents was a letter of congratulations from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom to President of the United States James Buchanan on August 16. Signal quality declined rapidly, slowing transmission to an almost unusable speed. The cable was destroyed the following month when Wildman Whitehouse applied excessive voltage to it while trying to achieve faster operation. It has been argued that the cable's faulty manufacture, storage and handling would have caused its premature failure in any case. Its short life undermined public and investor confidence and delayed efforts to restore a connection. The second cable was laid in 1865 with much-improved material. It was laid from the ship SS Great Eastern, built by John Scott Russell and Isambard Kingdom Brunel and skippered by Sir James Anderson. More than halfway across, the cable broke and after many rescue attempts, it was abandoned. In July 1866 a third cable was laid from The Anglo-American Cable house on the Telegraph Field, Foilhomurrum. On 13 July, Great Eastern steamed westward to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and on July 27 the successful connection was put into service. The 1865 cable was also retrieved and spliced so two cables were in service. These cables proved more durable. Line speed was very good and the slogan "Two weeks to two minutes" was coined to emphasize the great improvement over ship-borne dispatches. The cable altered for all time personal, commercial and political relations between people across the Atlantic. Since 1866 there has been a permanent cable connection between the continents. In the 1870s duplex and quadruplex transmission and receiving systems were set up that could relay multiple messages over the cable. Before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas took place only by ship, and could be delayed for weeks by severe winter storms. By contrast, the transatlantic cable allowed a message and a response in the same day. Early history In the 1840s and 1850s several people proposed or advocated construction of a telegraph cable across the Atlantic, including Edward Thornton and Alonzo Jackman. As early as 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse proclaimed his faith in the idea of a submarine line across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1850 a cable was run between England and France. That year, Bishop John T. Mullock, head of the Catholic Church in Newfoundland, proposed a telegraph line through the forest from St. John's to Cape Ray, and cables across the Gulf of St. Lawrence from Cape Ray to Nova Scotia across the Cabot Strait. Around the same time, a similar plan occurred to Frederic Newton Gisborne, a telegraph engineer in Nova Scotia. In the spring of 1851 he procured a grant from the Newfoundland legislature and, having formed a company, began building the landline. In 1853 his company collapsed, he was arrested for debt, and he lost everything. A plan takes shape In 1854, businessman and financier Cyrus West Field invited Gisborne to his house to discuss the project. From his visitor, Field considered the idea that the cable to Newfoundland might be extended across the Atlantic Ocean. Field was ignorant of submarine cables and the deep sea. He consulted Morse as well as Lieutenant Matthew Maury, an authority on oceanography. The charts Maury constructed from soundings in the logs of multiple ships indicated that there was a feasible route across the Atlantic. It seemed so ideal for cable laying that Maury named it Telegraph Plateau. Maury's charts also indicated that a route directly to the US was too rugged to be tenable, and considerably longer. Field adopted Gisborne's scheme as a preliminary step to the bigger undertaking, and promoted the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company to establish a telegraph line between America and Europe. The first step was to finish the line between St. John's and Nova Scotia, which was undertaken by Gisborne and Field's brother, Matthew. In 1855 an attempt was made to lay a cable across the Cabot Strait in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was laid out from a barque in tow of a steamer. When half the cable was laid, a gale rose, and the line was cut to keep the barque from sinking. In 1856 a steamboat was fitted out for the purpose, and the link from Cape Ray, Newfoundland to Aspy Bay, Nova Scotia was successfully laid. The project's final cost exceeded $1 million, and the transatlantic segment would cost much more. In 1855, Field crossed the Atlantic, the first of 56 crossings in the course of the project, to consult with John Watkins Brett, the greatest authority on submarine cables at the time. Brett's Submarine Telegraph Company laid the first ocean cable in 1850 across the English Channel, and his English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company had laid a cable to Ireland in 1853, the deepest cable to that date. Further reasons for the trip were that all the commercial manufacturers of submarine cable were in Britain, and Field had failed to raise significant funds for the project in New York. Field pushed the project ahead with tremendous energy and speed. Even before forming a company to carry it out, he ordered 2,500 nautical miles of cable from the Gutta Percha Company. The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in October 1856 with Brett as president and Field as vice president. Charles Tilston Bright, who already worked for Brett, was made chief engineer, and Wildman Whitehouse, a medical doctor self-educated in electrical engineering, was appointed chief electrician. Field provided a quarter of the capital himself. After the remaining shares were sold, largely to existing investors in Brett's company, an unpaid board of directors was formed which included William Thomson (the future Lord Kelvin), a respected scientist. Thomson also acted as a scientific advisor. Morse, a shareholder in the Nova Scotia project and acting as the electrical advisor, was also on the board. First transatlantic cable The cable consisted of seven copper wires, each weighing 26 kg/km (107 pounds per nautical mile), covered with three coats of gutta-percha (as suggested by Jonathan Nash Hearder), weighing 64 kg/km (261 pounds per nautical mile), and wound with tarred hemp, over which a sheath of 18 strands, each of seven iron wires, was laid in a close helix. It weighed nearly 550 kg/km (1.1 tons per nautical mile), was relatively flexible, and could withstand tension of several tens of kilonewtons (several tons). The cable from the Gutta Percha Company was armoured separately by wire rope manufacturers, the standard practice at the time. In the rush to proceed, only four months were allowed for the cable's completion. As no wire rope maker had the capacity to make so much cable in such a short period, the task was shared by two English firms: Glass, Elliot & Co. of Greenwich; and R.S. Newall and Company of Birkenhead. Late in manufacturing, it was discovered that the two batches had been made with strands twisted in opposite directions. This meant that they could not be directly spliced wire-to-wire, as the iron wire on both cables would unwind when it was put under tension during laying. The problem was solved by splicing through an improvised wooden bracket to hold the wires in place, but the mistake created negative publicity for the project. The British government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a year (£ today) and loaned ships for cable laying and support. Field also solicited aid from the U.S. government, and a bill authorizing a subsidy was submitted in Congress. It passed the Senate by a single vote, due to opposition from protectionist senators. It passed in the House of Representatives despite similar resistance, and was signed by President Franklin Pierce. The first attempt, in 1857, was a failure. The cable-laying vessels were the converted warships HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara, borrowed from their respective governments. Both were needed as neither could hold 2,500 miles of cable alone. The cable was started at the white strand near Ballycarbery Castle in County Kerry, on the southwest coast of Ireland, on August 5, 1857. It broke on the first day, but was grappled and repaired. It broke again over Telegraph Plateau, nearly deep, and the operation was abandoned for the year. 300 miles of cable were lost, but the remaining 1,800 miles was sufficient to complete the task. During this period, Morse clashed with Field, was removed from the board, and took no further part in the enterprise. The problems with breakage were due largely to difficulty controlling the cables' tensions with the braking mechanism as the cable was payed out. A new mechanism was designed and successfully tested in the Bay of Biscay with Agamemnon in May 1858. On June 10, Agamemnon and Niagara set sail to try again. Ten days out they encountered a severe storm and the enterprise was nearly brought to a premature end. The ships were top-heavy with cable that could not all fit in the holds, and the ships struggled to stay upright. Ten sailors were hurt and Thomson's electrical cabin was flooded. The vessels arrived at the middle of the Atlantic on June 25 and spliced cable from the two ships together. Agamemnon payed out eastwards towards Valentia Island, and Niagara westward towards Newfoundland. The cable broke after less than 5.5 km (three nautical miles), again after some 100 km (54 nautical miles), and for a third time when about 370 km (200 nautical miles) had been run out of each vessel. The expedition returned to Queenstown, County Cork, Ireland. Some directors were in favour of abandoning the project and selling off the cable, but Field persuaded them to keep going. The ships set out again on July 17 and the middle splice was finished on July 29, 1858. The cable ran easily this time. Niagara arrived in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland on August 4 and the next morning the shore end was landed. Agamemnon arrived at Valentia Island on August 5; the shore end was landed at Knightstown and laid to the nearby cable house. First contact Test messages were sent from Newfoundland beginning August 10, 1858. The first was successfully read at Valentia on August 12, and in Newfoundland on August 13. Further test and configuration messages followed until August 16, when the first official message was sent via the cable: "Directors of Atlantic Telegraph Company, Great Britain, to Directors in America:—Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest; on earth peace, good will towards men." Next was the text of a congratulatory telegram from Queen Victoria to President James Buchanan at his summer residence in the Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania, expressing hope that the cable would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem." The President responded: "It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May the Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world." The messages were hard to decipher; Queen Victoria's message of 98 words took sixteen hours to send. Nonetheless, they engendered an outburst of enthusiasm. The next morning a grand salute of 100 guns resounded in New York City, streets were hung with flags, bells of the churches were rung, and at night the city was illuminated. On September 1 there was a parade, followed by an evening torchlight procession, and a fireworks display that caused a fire in the Town Hall. Bright was knighted for his part, the first such honour to the telegraph industry. Failure of the first cable Operation of the 1858 cable was plagued by conflict between two of the project's senior members, Thomson and Whitehouse. Whitehouse was a medical doctor by training, but had taken an enthusiastic interest in the new electrical technology and given up his medical practice to follow a new career. He had no formal training in physics; all his knowledge was gained through practical experience. The two clashed even before the project began when Whitehouse disputed Thomson's law of squares when the latter presented it to a British Association meeting in 1855. Thomson's law predicted that transmission speed on the cable would be very slow due to an effect called retardation. To test the theory, Bright gave Whitehouse overnight access to the Magnetic Telegraph Company's long underground lines. Whitehouse joined several lines together to a distance similar to the transatlantic route and declared that there would be no problem. Morse was also present at this test and supported Whitehouse. Thomson believed Whitehouse's measurements were flawed and that underground and underwater cables were not fully comparable. Thomson believed a larger cable was needed to mitigate the retardation problem. In mid-1857, on his own initiative, he examined samples of copper core of alleged identical specification and found variations in resistance up to a factor of two. But cable manufacture was already underway and Whitehouse supported use of a thinner cable, so Field went with the cheaper option. Another point of contention was the itinerary for deployment. Thomson favoured starting mid-Atlantic and the two ships heading in opposite directions, which would halve the time required. Whitehouse wanted both ships to travel together from Ireland so that progress could be reported back to the base in Valentia through the cable. Whitehouse overruled Thomson's suggestion on the 1857 voyage, but Bright convinced the directors to approve a mid-ocean start on the subsequent 1858 voyage. Whitehouse, as chief electrician, was supposed to be on board the cable-laying vessel, but repeatedly found excuses for the 1857 attempt, the trials in the Bay of Biscay, and the two attempts in 1858. In 1857, Thomson was sent in his place, and in 1858 Field diplomatically assigned the two to different ships to avoid conflict—but as Whitehouse continued to evade the voyage, Thomson went alone. Thomson's mirror galvanometer After his experience on the 1857 voyage, Thomson realised a better method of detecting the telegraph signal was required. While waiting for the next voyage, he developed his mirror galvanometer, an extremely sensitive instrument, much better than any till then. He requested £2,000 from the board to build several, but was given only £500 for a prototype, and permission to try it on the next voyage. It was extremely good at detecting the positive and negative edges of telegraph pulses that represented a Morse 'dash' and 'dot' respectively (the standard system on submarine cables—as, unlike overland telegraphy, both pulses were of the same length). Thomson believed he could use the instrument with the low voltages from regular telegraph equipment even over the vast length of the Atlantic cable. He successfully tested it on 2,700 miles of cable in underwater storage at Plymouth. The mirror galvanometer proved yet another point of contention. Whitehouse wanted to work the cable with a very different scheme, driving it with a massive high-voltage induction coil producing several thousand volts, so enough current would be available to drive standard electromechanical printing telegraphs used on inland telegraphs. Thomson's instrument had to be read by hand, and was not capable of printing. Nine years later, he invented the syphon recorder for the second transatlantic attempt in 1866. The decision to start mid-Atlantic, combined with Whitehouse dropping out of another voyage, left Thomson on board Agamemnon sailing towards Ireland, with a free hand to use his equipment without Whitehouse's interference. Although Thomson had the status of a mere advisor to engineer C. W. de Sauty, it was not long before all electrical decisions were deferred to him. Whitehouse, staying behind in Valentia, remained out of contact until the ship reached Ireland and landed the cable. Around this time, the board started having doubts over Whitehouse's generally negative attitude. Not only did he repeatedly clash with Thomson, but was also critical of Field, and his repeated refusals to carry out his primary duty as chief electrician onboard ship made a very bad impression. With the removal of Morse, Whitehouse had lost his only ally on the board, but at this time no action was taken. Cable is damaged and Whitehouse dismissed When Agamemnon reached Valentia on August 5, Thomson handed over to Whitehouse and the project was declared a success to the press. Thomson received clear signals throughout the voyage using the mirror galvanometer, but Whitehouse immediately connected his own equipment. The effects of the cable's poor handling and design, and Whitehouse's repeated attempts to drive up to 2,000 volts through the cable, compromised the cable's insulation. Whitehouse attempted to hide the poor performance and was vague in his communications. The expected inaugural message from Queen Victoria had been widely publicised, and when it was not forthcoming, the press speculated that there were problems. Whitehouse announced that five or six weeks would be required for "adjustments". The Queen's message had been received in Newfoundland, but Whitehouse was unable to read the confirmation copy sent back the other way. Finally, on August 17, he announced receipt. What he did not announce was that the message had been received on the mirror galvanometer when he finally gave up trying with his own equipment. Whitehouse had the message reentered into his printing telegraph locally so he could send on the printed tape and pretend it had been received that way. In September 1858, after several days of progressive deterioration of the insulation, the cable failed altogether. The reaction to the news was tremendous. Some writers even hinted that the line was a mere hoax; others pronounced it a stock exchange speculation. Whitehouse was recalled for the board's investigation and Thomson took over in Valentia, tasked with reconstructing the events that Whitehouse had obfuscated. Whitehouse was held responsible for the failure, and dismissed. The cable might have failed eventually anyway, but Whitehouse certainly brought it about much sooner. The cable was particularly vulnerable in the first hundred miles from Ireland, consisting of the old 1857 cable that was spliced into the new lay and known to be poorly manufactured. Samples showed that in places the conductor was badly off centre, and could easily break through the insulation through mechanical strains during laying. Tests were conducted on samples of cable submerged in seawater. When perfectly insulated, there was no problem applying thousands of volts. However, a sample with a pinprick hole "lit up like a lantern" when tested and a large hole was burned in the insulation. Although the cable was never put in service for public use, and never worked well, there was time for a few messages to be passed that went beyond testing. The collision between the Cunard Line ships Europa and Arabia was reported on 17 August. The British Government used the cable to countermand an order for two regiments in Canada to embark for England, saving £50,000. A total of 732 messages were passed before the cable failed. Preparing a new attempt Field was undaunted by the failure. He was eager to renew the work, but the public had lost confidence in the scheme and his efforts to revive the company were futile. It was not until 1864 that, with the assistance of Thomas Brassey and John Pender, he succeeded in raising the necessary capital. The Glass, Elliot, and Gutta-Percha Companies were united to form the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company (Telcon, later part of BICC), which undertook to manufacture and lay the new cable. C.F. Varley replaced Whitehouse as chief electrician. In the meantime, long cables had been submerged in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. With this experience, an improved cable was designed. The core consisted of seven twisted strands of very pure copper weighing 300 pounds per nautical mile (73 kg/km), coated with Chatterton's compound, then covered with four layers of gutta-percha, alternating with four thin layers of the compound cementing the whole, and bringing the weight of the insulator to 400 lb/nmi (98 kg/km). This core was covered with hemp saturated in a preservative solution, and on the hemp were helically wound eighteen single strands of high tensile steel wire produced by Webster & Horsfall Ltd of Hay Mills Birmingham, each covered with fine strands of manila yarn steeped in the preservative. The weight of the new cable was 35.75 long hundredweight (4000 lb) per nautical mile (980 kg/km), or nearly twice the weight of the old. The Haymills site successfully manufactured of wire (1,600 tons), made by 250 workers over eleven months. Great Eastern and the second cable The new cable was laid by the ship SS Great Eastern captained by Sir James Anderson. Her immense hull was fitted with three iron tanks for the reception of of cable, and her decks furnished with the paying-out gear. At noon on July 15, 1865, Great Eastern left the Nore for Foilhommerum Bay, Valentia Island, where the shore end was laid by Caroline. This attempt failed on August 2 when, after 1,062 miles (1968 km) had been payed out, the cable snapped near the stern of the ship, and the end was lost. Great Eastern steamed back to England, where Field issued another prospectus, and formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, to lay a new cable and complete the broken one. On July 13, 1866, Great Eastern started paying out once more. Despite problems with the weather on the evening of Friday, July 27, the expedition reached the port of Heart's Content in a thick fog. The next morning at 9 a.m. a message from England cited these words from the leader in The Times: "It is a great work, a glory to our age and nation, and the men who have achieved it deserve to be honoured among the benefactors of their race." "Treaty of peace signed between Prussia and Austria." The shore end was landed at Heart's Content Cable Station during the day by Medway. Congratulations poured in, and friendly telegrams were again exchanged between Queen Victoria and the United States. In August 1866, several ships, including Great Eastern, put to sea again in order to grapple the lost cable of 1865. Their goal was to find the end of the lost cable, splice it to new cable, and complete the run to Newfoundland. They were determined to find it, and their search was based solely upon positions recorded "principally by Captain Moriarty, R.N." who placed the end of the lost cable at longitude 38° 50' W. There were some who thought it hopeless to try, declaring that to locate a cable down would be like looking for a small needle in a large haystack. However, Robert Halpin, first officer of Great Eastern, navigated HMS Terrible and grappling ship Albany to the correct location. Albany moved slowly here and there, "fishing" for the lost cable with a five-pronged grappling hook at the end of a stout rope. Suddenly, on August 10, Albany "caught" the cable and brought it to the surface. It seemed to be an unrealistically easy success. During the night, the cable slipped from the buoy to which it had been secured and the process had to start all over again. This happened several more times, with the cable slipping after being secured in a frustrating battle against rough seas. One time, a sailor even was flung across the deck when the grapnel rope snapped and recoiled around him. Great Eastern and another grappling ship, Medway, arrived to join the search on the 12th. It was not until over a fortnight later, in early September 1866, that the cable was finally retrieved so that it could be worked on; it took 26 hours to get it safely on board Great Eastern. The cable was carried to the electrician's room, where it was determined that the cable was connected. All on the ship cheered or wept as rockets were sent up into the sky to light the sea. The recovered cable was then spliced to a fresh cable in her hold, and payed out to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, where she arrived on Saturday, September 7. There were now two working telegraph lines. Repairing the cable Broken cables required an elaborate repair procedure. The approximate distance to the break was determined by measuring the resistance of the broken cable. The repair ship navigated to the location. The cable was hooked with a grapple and brought on board to test for electrical continuity. Buoys were deployed to mark the ends of good cable and a splice was made between the two ends. Communication speeds Initially messages were sent by an operator sending Morse code. The reception was very bad on the 1858 cable, and it took two minutes to transmit just one character (a single letter or a single number), a rate of about 0.1 words per minute. This was despite the use of the highly sensitive mirror galvanometer. The inaugural message from Queen Victoria took 67 minutes to transmit to Newfoundland, but it took a staggering 16 hours for the confirmation copy to be transmitted back to Whitehouse in Valentia. For the 1866 cable, the methods of cable manufacture, as well as sending messages, had been vastly improved. The 1866 cable could transmit eight words a minute80 times faster than the 1858 cable. Oliver Heaviside and Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin in later decades understood that the bandwidth of a cable is hindered by an imbalance between capacitive and inductive reactance, which causes a severe dispersion and hence a signal distortion; see telegrapher's equations. This has to be solved by iron tape or by load coils. It was not until the 20th century that message transmission speeds over transatlantic cables would reach even 120 words per minute. London became the world centre in telecommunications. Eventually, no fewer than eleven cables radiated from Porthcurno Cable Station near Land's End and formed with their Commonwealth links a "live" girdle around the world; the All Red Line. Later cables Additional cables were laid between Foilhommerum and Heart's Content in 1873, 1874, 1880, and 1894. By the end of the 19th century, British-, French-, German-, and American-owned cables linked Europe and North America in a sophisticated web of telegraphic communications. The original cables were not fitted with repeaters, which potentially could completely solve the retardation problem and consequently speed up operation. Repeaters amplify the signal periodically along the line. On telegraph lines this is done with relays, but there was no practical way to power them in a submarine cable. The first transatlantic cable with repeaters was TAT-1 in 1956. This was a telephone cable and used a different technology for its repeaters. Impact A 2018 study in the American Economic Review found that the transatlantic telegraph substantially increased trade over the Atlantic and reduced prices. The study estimates that "the efficiency gains of the telegraph to be equivalent to 8 percent of export value". See also 1929 Grand Banks earthquake Commercial Cable Company Transatlantic telephone cable Western Union Telegraph Expedition – overland alternative via Russia Notes References and further reading Bright, Charles Tilston, Submarine Telegraphs, London: Crosby Lockwood, 1898 . Burns, Russell W., Communications: An International History of the Formative Years, IET, 2004 . Clarke, Arthur C. Voice Across the Sea (1958) and How the World was One (1992); the two books include some of the same material. Clayton, Howard, Atlantic Bridgehead: The Story of Transatlantic Communications, Garnstone Press, 1968 . Cookson, Gillian, The Cable, Tempus Publishing, 2006 . Cowan, Mary Morton, Cyrus Field's Big Dream: The Daring Effort to Lay the First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable, Boyds Mills Press, 2018 . Gordon, John Steele. A Thread across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable. New York: Walker & Co, 2002. . Hearn, Chester G., Circuits in the Sea: The Men, the Ships, and the Atlantic Cable, Westport, Connecticut: Prager, 2004 . Huurdeman, Anton A., The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, Wiley, 2003 . Kieve, Jeffrey L., The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History, David and Charles, 1973 . Lindley, David, Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, Invention, and Tragedy, Joseph Henry Press, 2004 . Rozwadowski, Helen M. Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea, Harvard University Press, 2009 . Standage, Tom. The Victorian Internet (1998). . The story of the men and women who were the earliest pioneers of the on-line frontier, and the global network they created – a network that was, in effect, the Victorian Internet. External links The Atlantic Cable by Bern Dibner (1959) – Complete free electronic version of The Atlantic Cable by Bern Dibner (1959), hosted by the Smithsonian Institution Libraries History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications – Comprehensive history of submarine telegraphy with much original material, including photographs of cable manufacturers samples PBS, American Experience: The Great Transatlantic Cable The History Channel: Modern Marvels: Transatlantic Cable: 2500 Miles of Copper A collection of articles on the history of telegraphy Cabot Strait Telegraph Cable 1856 between Newfoundland and Nova Scotia American Heritage: The Cable Under the Sea Alan Hall – First Transatlantic Cable and First message sent to USA 1856 Memorial Travelogue around the world's communications cables by Neal Stephenson IEEE History Centre: County Kerry Transatlantic Cable Stations, 1866 IEEE History Centre: Landing of the Transatlantic Cable, 1866 Laying Of The Atlantic Cable The Great Eastern – Robert Dudley Lithographs 1865–66 Special Service in Commemoration of the Laying of the Atlantic Ocean Telegraph, Trinity Church, New-York, September First, 1858. Reconstructed and digitized by Cynthia McFarland and Richard Mammana, 2011 19th century in the United Kingdom 19th century in the United States Mass media in Newfoundland and Labrador Submarine communications cables in the North Atlantic Ocean Telegraphy Victorian era History of the Atlantic Ocean 19th century in technology it:Cavo sottomarino	[ 0.457080602645874, 0.04467922821640968, 0.017188291996717453, 0.583126962184906, 0.2741965055465698, -0.011554413475096226, 0.051899030804634094, 0.5374329686164856, -0.34384411573410034, -0.06446892768144608, -0.5570125579833984, -0.0762007012963295, -0.5039424896240234, 0.2735508978366852, -0.18155056238174438, -0.01364766713231802, 0.41122910380363464, 0.3467038869857788, 0.18712744116783142, -1.0184866189956665, -0.592881441116333, 0.6466811299324036, 0.2914590835571289, -0.023157430812716484, 0.16417351365089417, -0.2316506803035736, -0.38681885600090027, -0.22445541620254517, 0.08947533369064331, 0.09541492164134979, 0.5910813212394714, 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221375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts%20of%20Portugal	Districts of Portugal	The Districts of Portugal (), are the most important first-level administrative subdivisions of continental Portugal. Currently, mainland Portugal is divided into 18 districts. The Portuguese Autonomous Regions of Açores and Madeira are no longer divided into districts. As an administrative division, each district served mainly as the area of jurisdiction of a civil governor, who acted as the local delegate of the Central Government of Portugal. Overview The Districts of Portugal were established by a royal decree of 18 July 1835. On the Portuguese mainland, they correspond to the current districts, with the exception of Setúbal District, which is the result of a split of Lisbon District in 1926. This decree didn't affect the then extensive colonial empire. The Portuguese Constitution of 1976 specifies that Portugal has only, as first level divisions, the autonomous regions (Azores and Madeira) and the administrative regions (to be created in mainland Portugal). According to the Constitution, the districts shall be disestablished in the territories where an autonomous or administrative region has been created. So, the districts were abolished in Azores and Madeira when these autonomous regions were created, in 1976. In 1998, a proposal was submitted to referendum to create eight administrative regions in mainland Portugal, and, therefore, to extinguish the districts. This proposal was rejected in the ballot and so the districts continued to exist in mainland Portugal. It is worth noting that, despite their abolition in the autonomous regions, the areas of the three former districts of Azores are still used as areas of jurisdiction of some Government and non-government entities, like the district finance directorates (Tax Authority regional offices) or the district football championships. However, the importance of the districts has been decreasing. In recent years, some administrative, financial and political competencies have been delivered to the CCDR's (Comissão de Coordenação e Desenvolvimento Regional, English:Commission for Regional Coordination and Development) and to the municipalities, to the detriment of the districts. In 2003, the Portuguese municipalities were allowed to organize themselves into intermunicipal communities (comunidades intermunicipais) and metropolitan areas (áreas metropolitanas), which allowed for a lessening in the importance of the districts. Besides, the abolition of the districts is a subject that came back for discussion in Portuguese society. In 2009, during the campaign for the legislative election of 2009, the leader of the Socialist Party, José Sócrates, promised a new referendum to the administrative regions and therefore, the abolition of districts, if he won the election. Other personalities support the creation of administrative regions and therefore the abolition of districts. Nowadays, despite being in the process of being phased out due to the decentralisation policies of the government, the districts still remain the most relevant subdivision in the country, serving as a basis for a series of administrative divisions such as electoral constituencies, police and civil protection regional commands, sports district associations and championships. On September 8, 2011, a decree from the Portuguese Government de facto extinguished all the offices of civil governor, transferring most of their functions to other bodies. As the existence of the civil governors is still included in the Portuguese Constitution, its de jure extinction can only be done after a constitutional amendment. Present purpose In mainland Portugal, for administrative purposes, the districts are still used as the areas of jurisdiction of the local branches and field offices of several Government ministries and agencies. Some of the bodies that have each district as their jurisdiction area are: District and metropolitan commands of the Public Security Police; Territorial commands of the Portuguese National Republican Guard; District rescue operations commands of the National Civil Protection Authority; Finance directorates of the Ministry of Finance / Tax and Customs Authority (in this case, including the former districts of Azores, that are still used as the jurisdiction areas for the three finance directorates existing in this autonomous region); District Social Security centers of the Portuguese Social Security; District motor vehicle delegations of the Mobility and Land Transports Institute; District archives of the Directorate-General of Archives; Regional delegations of the Estradas de Portugal (Road Agency). Furthermore: The area of each of the 18 electoral constituencies (círculo eleitoral, electoral circle) of mainland Portugal coincides with the area of each district; In the new judicial division of Portugal, the area of each of the comarcas (first instance judicial districts) of mainland Portugal coincides with the area of an administrative district (with the exception of the comarcas of Greater Lisbon and Greater Oporto). For non-Government purposes, the districts are used as the area of jurisdiction of many entities, including: The regional organizations of the major political parties, The regional organizations of most of the Portuguese sports federations (football, athletics, roller skating, etc.) and its district championships (including the three former districts of Açores); Regional federations of trade unions; District delegations of the Institutions of Engineers. List Former districts of Portugal Azores Angra do Heroísmo District – 1835 to 1976 Horta District – 1835 to 1976 Ponta Delgada District – 1835 to 1976 Madeira – 1835 to 1976 Mainland Portugal Lamego District – in 1835 and 1919 Districts of the Portuguese Overseas Following the model of European Portugal, the major Portuguese overseas territories (Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese India) were also divided in districts. In these territories, each district was headed by a district governor, subordinated to the governor-general. In Angola and Mozambique, the former district areas mostly coincide with the modern province areas. In the former Portuguese India, the Damão and Diu districts are still divisions of the present union territory of Daman and Diu, while the present state of Goa (former Goa District) is now divided into two districts. Angola Bengo Benguela District Bié Cabinda Cuando-Cubango District Cuanza Norte District Cuanza Sul District Cunene Huambo District Huíla Luanda District Lunda Norte District Lunda Sul District Malanje District Moxico Moçâmedes District Uíge District Zaire District Mozambique Niassa District Cabo Delgado District Nampula District Zambézia District Tete District Manica District Sofala District Gaza District Inhambane District Lourenço Marques District Portuguese India Goa District Damão District Diu District See also Ranked list of Portuguese districts Subdivisions of Portugal References Notes Sources Subdivisions of Portugal Districts Portugal 1 Districts, Portugal	[ -0.16898128390312195, 0.06390340626239777, 0.06723526865243912, -0.10005340725183487, 0.054321274161338806, 0.08423791825771332, -0.16021905839443207, 0.6491401195526123, -0.497469425201416, -0.2805687189102173, 0.01628650166094303, 0.0905316099524498, -0.11073532700538635, -0.2005196511745453, -0.7097111940383911, 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221376	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Kean	Edmund Kean	Edmund Kean (4 November 178715 May 1833) was a celebrated British Shakespearean stage actor born in England, who performed, among other places, in London, Belfast, New York, Quebec, and Paris. He was known for his short stature, tumultuous personal life, and controversial divorce. Biography Early life Kean was born in Westminster, London. His father was probably Edmund Kean, an architect's clerk, and his mother was an actress, Anne Carey, daughter of the 18th-century composer and playwright Henry Carey. Kean made his first appearance on the stage, aged four, as Cupid in Jean-Georges Noverre's ballet of Cymon. As a child his vivacity, cleverness and ready affection made him a universal favorite, but his harsh circumstances and lack of discipline, both helped develop self-reliance and fostered wayward tendencies. About 1794 a few benevolent persons paid for him to go to school, where he did well; but finding the restraint intolerable, he shipped as a cabin boy at Portsmouth. Finding life at sea even more restricting, he pretended to be both deaf and lame so skilfully that he deceived the doctors at Madeira. On his return to England, he sought the protection of his uncle, Moses Kean, a mimic, ventriloquist and general entertainer, who, besides continuing his pantomimic studies, introduced him to the study of Shakespeare. At the same time, Charlotte Tidswell, an actress who had been especially kind to him from infancy, taught him the principles of acting. On the death of his uncle, she took charge of him, and he began the systematic study of the principal Shakespearean characters, displaying the peculiar originality of his genius by interpretations entirely different from those of John Philip Kemble, then considered the great exponent of these roles. Kean's talents and interesting countenance caused a Mrs Clarke to adopt him, but he took offense at the comments of a visitor and suddenly left her house and went back to his old surroundings. Discovery Aged 14, he obtained an engagement to play leading characters for 20 nights in the York Theatre, appearing as Hamlet, Hastings and Cato. Shortly afterwards, while he was in Richardson's Theatre, a travelling theatre company, the rumor of his abilities reached George III, who commanded him to appear at Windsor Castle. He subsequently joined Saunders's circus, where in the performance of an equestrian feat he fell and broke both legs—the accident leaving traces of swelling in his insteps throughout his life. About this time, he picked up music from Charles Incledon, dancing from D’Egville, and fencing from Angelo. In 1807, he played leading parts in the Belfast theater with Sarah Siddons, who began by calling him "a horrid little man" and on further experience of his ability said that he "played very, very well," but that "there was too little of him to make a great actor." He made an early appearance with Mrs. Baker's company. In 1808, he joined the provincial troupe of the actor Samuel Butler and went on to marry Mary Chambers of Waterford, the leading actress, on 17 July. His wife gave birth to two sons, one of whom was actor Charles Kean. Drury Lane and New York For several years, his prospects were very gloomy, but in 1814, the committee of Drury Lane Theatre, which was on the verge of bankruptcy, resolved to give him a chance among the "experiments" they were making to win a return of popularity. When the expectation of his first appearance in London was close upon him, he was so feverish that he exclaimed, "If I succeed I shall go mad." As he was unable to afford medical treatment for some time, his elder son died the day after he signed the three-year Drury Lane contract. His opening at Drury Lane on 26 January 1814 as Shylock roused the audience to almost uncontrollable enthusiasm. Contemporaries recognized that Kean had brought dignity and humanity to his portrayal of the character. Jane Austen refers to his popularity in a letter to her sister Cassandra dated 2 March 1814: "Places are secured at Drury Lane for Saturday, but so great is the rage for seeing Kean that only a third and fourth row could be got". Successive appearances in Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and King Lear demonstrated his mastery of the range of tragic emotion. His triumph was so great that he himself said on one occasion, "I could not feel the stage under me." In 1817, a local playwright named Charles Bucke submitted his play The Italians, or; The Fatal Accusation to Drury Lane, for which Kean was to play the lead. The play was well received by both council and actors until Kean seemed to have a change of heart and began to make several offhand remarks that his part was not big enough for him. Then, after a performance in February 1819 where Kean went out of his way to botch the opening night of Switzerland by historical novelist Jane Porter, for whom Kean had had a personal dislike, Bucke pulled the play out of contempt for Kean's conduct. After much cajoling to still perform the play by the theater staff, Mr. Bucke then later had it republished with a preface concerning the incident, including excerpts from correspondences between the involved parties, which was later challenged in two books, The Assailant Assailed and A Defense of Edmund Kean, Esq. The result was loss of face on both sides and the play being performed anyway on 3 April 1819 to a disastrous reception thanks to the controversy already surrounding the play and Kean's previous conduct. On 29 November 1820, Kean appeared for the first time in New York City as Richard III at the Anthony Street Theatre. The success of his visit to America was unequivocal, although he fell into a vexatious dispute with the press. In 1821, he appeared in Boston with Mary Ann Duff in The Distrest Mother, by Ambrose Philips, an adaptation of Racine's Andromaque. On 4 June 1821, he returned to England. Kean was the first to restore the tragic ending to Shakespeare's King Lear, which had been replaced on stage since 1681 by Nahum Tate's happy ending adaptation The History of King Lear. Kean had previously acted Tate's Lear, but told his wife that the London audience "have no notion of what I can do till they see me over the dead body of Cordelia." Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received, though one critic described his dying scene as "deeply affecting", and with regret, he reverted to Tate. Private life Kean's lifestyle became a hindrance to his career. As a result of his relationship with Charlotte Cox, the wife of a London city alderman, Kean was sued by Mr Cox for damages for criminal conversation (adultery). Damages of £800 were awarded against him by a jury that had deliberated for just 10 minutes. The Times launched a violent attack on him. The adverse decision in the criminal conversation case of Cox v. Kean on 17 January 1825 caused his wife to leave him, and aroused against him such bitter feeling that he was booed and pelted with fruit when he re-appeared at Drury Lane and nearly compelled him to retire permanently into private life. For many years, he lived at Keydell House, Horndean. Second American visit A second visit to America in 1825 was largely a repetition of the persecution which he had suffered in England. Some cities showed him a spirit of charity; many audiences subjected him to insults and even violence. In Quebec City, he was much impressed with the kindness of some Huron Indians who attended his performances, and he was purportedly made an honorary chief of the tribe, receiving the name Alanienouidet. Kean's last appearance in New York was on 5 December 1826 in Richard III, the role in which he was first seen in America. Decline and death He returned to England and was ultimately received with favour, but by now he was so dependent on the use of stimulants that the gradual deterioration of his gifts was inevitable. Still, his great powers triumphed during the moments of his inspiration over the absolute wreck of his physical faculties. His appearance in Paris was a failure owing to a fit of drunkenness. His last appearance on the stage was at Covent Garden on 15 March 1833, when he played Othello to the Iago of his son, Charles Kean, who was also an accomplished actor. At the words "Villain, be sure," in scene 3 of act iii, he suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice "O God, I am dying. Speak to them, Charles," fell insensible into his son's arms. He died a few weeks later in Surrey, and is commemorated in the Parish Church where there is a floor plaque marking his grave as well as a wall plaque that was originally on the outside, but was moved inside and heavily restored during restoration work in 1904. He is buried in the parish church of All Saints, in the village of Catherington, Hampshire. His last words were alleged to have been "dying is easy; comedy is hard." In Dublin, Gustavus Vaughan Brooke took up the part of William Tell vacated by Kean. Artistic legacy According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, it was in the impersonation of the great creations of Shakespeare's genius that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting of Kean were displayed in their highest form, although probably his most powerful character was Sir Giles Overreach in Philip Massinger's A New Way to Pay Old Debts, the effect of his first performance of which was such that the pit rose en masse, and even the actors and actresses themselves were overcome by the terrific dramatic illusion. His main disadvantage as an actor was his small stature. Coleridge said, "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning." Eccentricity His eccentricities at the height of his fame were numerous. Sometimes he would ride recklessly on his horse, Shylock, throughout the night. He was presented with a tame lion with which he might be found playing in his drawing-room. The prize-fighters Mendoza and Richmond the Black were among his visitors and Henry Grattan was his devoted friend. Appraisals In his earlier days, François Talma said of him, "He is a magnificent uncut gem; polish and round him off and he will be a perfect tragedian." William Macready, who was much impressed by Kean's Richard III and met the actor at supper, speaks of his "unassuming manner ... partaking in some degree of shyness" and of the "touching grace" of his singing. Kean's delivery of the three words "I answer—No!" in the part of Sir Edward Mortimer in The Iron Chest, cast Macready into an abyss of despair at rivalling him in this role. So full of dramatic interest is the life of Edmund Kean that it formed the subject for the play "Kean" by Jean-Paul Sartre as well as a play by Alexandre Dumas, entitled Kean, ou Désordre et génie, in which the actor Frédérick Lemaître achieved one of his greatest triumphs. In 1924 director Alexandre Volkoff adapted the Dumas play into a French silent feature film starring Russian actor Ivan Mosjoukine, who was then living in Paris. Kean: Genius or Scoundrel (Italian: Kean - Genio e sregolatezza) co-written, directed by and starring Vittorio Gassman, is a 1956 Italian dramatization of the life of Kean. It is based on the drama play Kean (1836) by Alexandre Dumas and its 1953 adaptation by Jean-Paul Sartre. It was screened at the Locarno Film Festival in 1957. The film's sets were designed by the art director Gianni Polidori. Much of the film was shot at the Teatro Valle in Rome. Theatrical works Several theatrical works have been based on Kean's life: Kean, a drama by Alexandre Dumas, père, 1836 Kean, a comedy by Jean-Paul Sartre, 1953 (produced 1954 with Pierre Brasseur, revived London 1990 starring Derek Jacobi and in 2007 starring Antony Sher) Kean, a Broadway musical by Peter Stone, Robert Wright, and George Forrest, 1961 Kean, 1978, a BBC Play of the Month with Anthony Hopkins Kean, 1983, a YTV biography with Ben Kingsley Kean IV, a tragicomedy by Grigoriy Gorin, 1991 Cultural influence The acclaimed latter 20th century British theatre and film actor Peter O'Toole owned a finger-ring that had once belonged to Kean, and used it as a literary muse for the writing of the second volume of his autobiography Loitering With Intent: The Apprentice (1997). O'Toole delivered the line, "dying is easy; comedy is hard" and attributed it to the last words of Kean in the 1982 movie My Favorite Year. References Sources Francis Phippen, Authentic memoirs of Edmund Kean, containing a specimen of his talent at composition (London, 1814) B. W. Procter, The Life of E. K. (London, 1835) Frederick William Hawkins, The life of Edmund Kean (Tinsley Brothers, London, 1869) George Henry Lewes, On Actors and the Art of Acting (Smith Elder, London, 1875) Henry Barton Baker Our Old Actors, (R. Bentley & Son, London, 1881) Edwin Booth, "Edmund Kean," in Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States from the days of David Garrick to the present time, edited by Brander Matthews and Laurence Hutton, volume iii (Cassell & Co., New York, 1886) Joseph Fitzgerald Molloy, The Life and Adventures of Edmund Kean, Tragedian, 1787-1833 (Downey & Co. Limited, London, 1897) Edward Stirling, Old Drury Lane: Fifty Years' Recollections of Author, Actor, and Manager (Chatto and Windus, London, 1887). Lynch, Jack (2007). Becoming Shakespeare: The Strange Afterlife That Turned a Provincial Playwright into the Bard. New York: Walker & Co. Hillebrand, Harold Newcomb: Edmund Kean, New York, Columbia University Press, 1933 External links Richard Henry Dana on Edmund Kean's Acting, report by Carol McCluer of an Aesthetic Realism lecture by Eli Siegel Caricatures, cartoons and portraits of Edmund Kean, 1812-1833, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts English male stage actors 19th-century English male actors English male Shakespearean actors Freemasons of the United Grand Lodge of England People from Horndean Male actors from London 1789 births 1833 deaths English people of Irish descent People from the City of Westminster	[ -0.3590969145298004, 0.2317781001329422, -0.6894829869270325, -0.7078104019165039, 0.6353061199188232, 1.0936872959136963, 0.8591116070747375, 0.13098649680614471, 0.015558401122689247, -0.1018948033452034, -0.24848827719688416, 0.11553986370563507, 0.170270636677742, 0.17609238624572754, -0.19825479388237, 0.42485323548316956, 0.09897865355014801, 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221377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Gregory	Lady Gregory	Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory (née Persse; 15 March 1852 – 22 May 1932) was an Irish dramatist, folklorist and theatre manager. With William Butler Yeats and Edward Martyn, she co-founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre, and wrote numerous short works for both companies. Lady Gregory produced a number of books of retellings of stories taken from Irish mythology. Born into a class that identified closely with British rule, she turned against it. Her conversion to cultural nationalism, as evidenced by her writings, was emblematic of many of the political struggles to occur in Ireland during her lifetime. Lady Gregory is mainly remembered for her work behind the Irish Literary Revival. Her home at Coole Park in County Galway served as an important meeting place for leading Revival figures, and her early work as a member of the board of the Abbey was at least as important as her creative writings for that theatre's development. Lady Gregory's motto was taken from Aristotle: "To think like a wise man, but to express oneself like the common people." Biography Early life and marriage Gregory was born at Roxborough, County Galway, the youngest daughter of the Anglo-Irish gentry family Persse. Her mother, Frances Barry, was related to Viscount Guillamore, and her family home, Roxborough, was a 6,000-acre (24 km²) estate located between Gort and Loughrea, the main house of which was later burnt down during the Irish Civil War. She was educated at home, and her future career was strongly influenced by the family nurse (i.e. nanny), Mary Sheridan, a Catholic and a native Irish speaker, who introduced the young Augusta to the history and legends of the local area. She married Sir William Henry Gregory, a widower with an estate at Coole Park, near Gort, on 4 March 1880 in St Matthias' Church, Dublin. Sir William, who was 35 years her elder, had just retired from his position as Governor of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), having previously served several terms as Member of Parliament for County Galway. He was a well-educated man with many literary and artistic interests, and the house at Coole Park housed a large library and extensive art collection, both of which Lady Gregory was eager to explore. He also had a house in London, where the couple spent a considerable amount of time, holding weekly salons frequented by many leading literary and artistic figures of the day, including Robert Browning, Lord Tennyson, John Everett Millais and Henry James. Their only child, Robert Gregory, was born in 1881. He was killed during the First World War while serving as a pilot, an event which inspired W. B. Yeats's poems "An Irish Airman Foresees His Death", "In Memory of Major Robert Gregory" and "Shepherd and Goatherd". Early writings The Gregorys travelled in Ceylon, India, Spain, Italy and Egypt. While in Egypt, Lady Gregory had an affair with the English poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, during which she wrote a series of love poems, A Woman's Sonnets. Her earliest work to appear under her own name was Arabi and His Household (1882), a pamphlet—originally a letter to The Times—in support of Ahmed Orabi Pasha, leader of what has come to be known as the Urabi Revolt, an 1879 Egyptian nationalist revolt against the oppressive regime of the Khedive and the European domination of Egypt. She later said of this booklet, "whatever political indignation or energy was born with me may have run its course in that Egyptian year and worn itself out". Despite this, in 1893 she published A Phantom's Pilgrimage, or Home Ruin, an anti-Nationalist pamphlet against William Ewart Gladstone's proposed second Home Rule Act. She continued to write prose during the period of her marriage. During the winter of 1883, whilst her husband was in Ceylon, she worked on a series of memoirs of her childhood home, with a view to publishing them under the title An Emigrant's Notebook, but this plan was abandoned. She wrote a series of pamphlets in 1887 called Over the River, in which she appealed for funds for the parish of St. Stephens in Southwark, south London. She also wrote a number of short stories in the years 1890 and 1891, although these also never appeared in print. A number of unpublished poems from this period have also survived. When Sir William Gregory died in March 1892, Lady Gregory went into mourning and returned to Coole Park; there she edited her husband's autobiography, which she published in 1894. She was to write later, "If I had not married I should not have learned the quick enrichment of sentences that one gets in conversation; had I not been widowed I should not have found the detachment of mind, the leisure for observation necessary to give insight into character, to express and interpret it. Loneliness made me rich—'full', as Bacon says.". Cultural nationalism A trip to Inisheer in the Aran Islands in 1893 re-awoke for Lady Gregory an interest in the Irish language and in the folklore of the area in which she lived. She organised Irish lessons at the school at Coole, and began collecting tales from the area around her home, especially from the residents of Gort workhouse. One of the tutors she employed was Norma Borthwick, who would visit Coole numerous times. This activity led to the publication of a number of volumes of folk material, including A Book of Saints and Wonders (1906), The Kiltartan History Book (1909) and The Kiltartan Wonder Book (1910). She also produced a number of collections of "Kiltartanese" versions of Irish myths, including Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902) and Gods and Fighting Men (1903). ("Kiltartanese" is Lady Gregory's term for English with Gaelic syntax, based on the dialect spoken in Kiltartan.) In his introduction to Cuchulain of Muirthemne Yeats wrote "I think this book is the best that has come out of Ireland in my time". James Joyce was to parody this claim in the Scylla and Charybdis chapter of his novel Ulysses. Towards the end of 1894, encouraged by the positive reception of the editing of her husband's autobiography, Lady Gregory turned her attention to another editorial project. She decided to prepare selections from Sir William Gregory's grandfather's correspondence for publication as Mr Gregory's Letter-Box 1813–30 (1898). This entailed her researching Irish history of the period; one outcome of this work was a shift in her political position, from the "soft" Unionism of her earlier writing on Home Rule to a definite support of Irish nationalism and Republicanism, and to what she was later to describe as "a dislike and distrust of England". Founding of the Abbey Edward Martyn was a neighbour of Lady Gregory, and it was during a visit to his home, Tullira Castle, in 1896 that she first met W. B. Yeats. Discussions between the three of them, over the following year or so, led to the founding of the Irish Literary Theatre in 1899. Lady Gregory undertook fundraising, and the first programme consisted of Martyn's The Heather Field and Yeats's The Countess Cathleen. The Irish Literary Theatre project lasted until 1901, when it collapsed owing to lack of funding. In 1904, Lady Gregory, Martyn, Yeats, John Millington Synge, Æ, Annie Horniman and William and Frank Fay came together to form the Irish National Theatre Society. The first performances staged by the society took place in a building called the Molesworth Hall. When the Hibernian Theatre of Varieties in Lower Abbey Street and an adjacent building in Marlborough Street became available, Horniman and William Fay agreed to their purchase and refitting to meet the needs of the society. On 11 May 1904, the society formally accepted Horniman's offer of the use of the building. As Horniman was not normally resident in Ireland, the Royal Letters Patent required were paid for by her but granted in the name of Lady Gregory. One of her own plays, Spreading the News, was performed on the opening night, 27 December 1904. At the opening of Synge's The Playboy of the Western World in January 1907, a significant portion of the crowd rioted, causing the remainder of the performances to be acted out in dumbshow. Lady Gregory did not think as highly of the play as Yeats did, but she defended Synge as a matter of principle. Her view of the affair is summed up in a letter to Yeats where she wrote of the riots: "It is the old battle, between those who use a toothbrush and those who don't." Later career Lady Gregory remained an active director of the theatre until ill-health led to her retirement in 1928. During this time she wrote more than 19 plays, mainly for production at the Abbey. Many of these were written in an attempted transliteration of the Hiberno-English dialect spoken around Coole Park that became widely known as Kiltartanese, from the nearby village of Kiltartan. Her plays had been among the most successful at the Abbey in the earlier years, but their popularity declined. Indeed, the Irish writer Oliver St. John Gogarty once wrote "the perpetual presentation of her plays nearly ruined the Abbey". In addition to her plays, she wrote a two-volume study of the folklore of her native area called Visions and Beliefs in the West of Ireland in 1920. She also played the lead role in three performances of Cathleen Ni Houlihan in 1919. During her time on the board of the Abbey, Coole Park remained her home; she spent her time in Dublin staying in a number of hotels. For example, at the time of the 1911 national census, she was staying in a hotel at 16 South Frederick Street. In these she dined frugally, often on food she had brought with her from home. She frequently used her hotel rooms to interview would-be Abbey dramatists and to entertain the company after opening nights of new plays. She spent many of her days working on her translations in the National Library of Ireland. She gained a reputation as being a somewhat conservative figure. For example, when Denis Johnston submitted to the Abbey his first play, Shadowdance, it was rejected by Lady Gregory and returned to the author with "The Old Lady says No" written on the title page. Johnston decided to rename the play, and The Old Lady Says 'No!' was eventually staged by the Gate Theatre in 1928. Retirement and death When she retired from the Abbey board, Lady Gregory returned to live in Galway, although she continued to visit Dublin regularly. The house and demesne at Coole Park had been sold to the Irish Forestry Commission in 1927, with Lady Gregory retaining life tenancy. Her Galway home had long been a focal point for the writers associated with the Irish Literary Revival, and this continued after her retirement. On a tree in what were the grounds of the house, one can still see the carved initials of Synge, Æ, Yeats and his artist brother Jack, George Moore, Seán O'Casey, George Bernard Shaw, Katharine Tynan and Violet Martin. Yeats wrote five poems about, or set in, the house and grounds: "The Wild Swans at Coole", "I walked among the seven woods of Coole", "In the Seven Woods", "Coole Park, 1929" and "Coole Park and Ballylee, 1931". Lady Gregory, whom Shaw once described as "the greatest living Irishwoman", died at home aged 80 from breast cancer, and is buried in the New Cemetery in Bohermore, County Galway. The entire contents of Coole Park were auctioned three months after her death, and the house was demolished in 1941. Legacy Her plays fell out of favour after her death, and are now rarely performed. Many of the diaries and journals she kept for most of her adult life have been published, providing a rich source of information on Irish literary history during the first three decades of the 20th century. Her Cuchulain of Muirthemne is still considered a good retelling of the Ulster Cycle tales such as Deidre, Cuchulainn, and the Táin Bó Cúailnge stories. Thomas Kinsella wrote "I emerged with the conviction that Lady Gregory's Cuchul-ian of Muirthemne, though only a paraphrase, gave the best idea of the Ulster stories". However her version omitted some elements of the tale, usually assumed to avoid offending Victorian sensibilities, as well being an attempt as presenting a "respectable" nation myth for the Irish, though her paraphrase is not considered dishonest. Other critics find the bowdlerisations in her works more offensive, not only the removal of references to sex and bodily functions, but also the loss of Cuchulain's "battle frenzy" (Ríastrad); in other areas she censored less than some of her male contemporaries, such as Standish O'Grady. In November 2020 it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library's forty busts previously represented men only was commissioning four additional busts of women and that one of them would be a bust of Lady Gregory. Published works, collaborations and translations Arabi and His Household (1882) Over the River (1888) A Phantom's Pilgrimage, or Home Ruin (1893) (anonymously) Sir William Gregory, K.C.M.G., Formerly Member of Parliament and Sometime Governor of *Ceylon: An Autobiography (editor 1894) Mr. Gregory's Letter Box 1813–1830 (editor 1898) Casadh an t-súgáin; or, The Twisting of the Rope (translator 1902) Cuchulain of Muirthemne: The Story of the Men of the Red Branch of Ulster (Irish folk tales 1902) Poets and Dreamers: Studies and Translations from the Irish by Lady Gregory (1903) Gods and Fighting Men: The Story of the Tuatha de Danann and of the Fianna of Ireland (1904) Kincora: A Drama in Three Acts (1905) Spreading the News, The Rising of the Moon By Lady Gregory. The Poorhouse by Lady Gregory and Douglas Hyde (1906) The Hyacinth Galvey: A Comedy (1906) A Book of Saints and Wonders, Put Down Here by Lady Gregory According to the Old Writings and the Memory of the People of Ireland (1907) Seven Short Plays: Spreading the News. Hyacinth Halvey. The Rising of the Moon. The Jackdaw. The Workhouse Ward. The Travelling Man. The Gaol Gate (1909) The Kiltartan History Book (1909) The Kiltartan Molière: The Miser. The Doctor in Spite of Himself. The Rogueries of Scapin. Translated by Lady Gregory (1910) Spreading the News (1911) The Kiltartan Wonder Book by Lady Gregory (1911) Irish Folk-History Plays, 1st series. The Tragedies: Grania – Kincora—Dervorgilla (1912) Irish Folk-History Plays, 2nd series: The Tragic-Comedies: The Canavans – The White Cockade – The Deliverer (1912) New Comedies: The Bogie Men; The Full Moon; Coats; Damer's Gold; McDonough's Wife (1913) Damer's Gold: A Comedy in Two Acts (1913) Coats (1913) Our Irish Theatre – A Chapter of Autobiography (1913) The Unicorn from the Stars: And Other Plays, by W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory (1915) Shanwalla (1915) The Golden Apple: A Play for Kiltartan Children (1916) The Kiltartan Poetry Book: Prose Translations from the Irish (1919) The Dragon: A Wonder Play in Three Acts (1920) Visions and Beliefs in the West of Ireland Collected and Arranged by Lady Gregory: With Two Essays and Notes by W.B. Yeats (1920) Hugh Lane's Life and Achievement, with Some Account of the Dublin Galleries. With Illustrations (1921) The Image and Other Plays (Hanranhan's Ghost; Shanwalla; The Wrens(1922) Three Wonder Plays: The Dragon. Aristotle's Bellows. The Jester (1922) Plays in Prose and Verse: Written for an Irish Theatre, and Generally with the Help of a Friend, by W. B. Yeats and Lady Gregory (1922) The Story Brought by Brigit (1924) Mirandolina (1924) On the Racecourse (1926) Three Last Plays: Sancho's Master. Dave. The Would-Be Gentleman (1928) My First Play (Colman and Guair) (1930) Coole (1931) Lady Gregory's Journals (1947) Seventy Years, 1852-1922, Being the Autobiography of Lady Gregory (1974) The Journals. Part 1. 10 October 1916 – 24 February 1925 (1978) The Journals. Part 2. 21 February 1925 – 9 May 1932 (1987) Lady Gregory's Diaries 1892-1902 (1996) Lady Gregory's Early Irish Writings 1883-1893 (2018) See also Cathleen Ní Houlihan References Sources Further reading External links Archival Material at 1852 births 1932 deaths Abbey Theatre Anglo-Irish artists 19th-century Anglo-Irish people 20th-century Anglo-Irish people Deaths from cancer in the Republic of Ireland Deaths from breast cancer Irish Anglicans Irish diarists Irish folklorists Irish philanthropists Irish translators Irish patrons of literature Irish patrons of music Irish women dramatists and playwrights Irish women poets 19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights 19th-century translators 19th-century Irish women writers 19th-century Irish writers People from County Galway Translators from Irish 20th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights 20th-century Irish writers 20th-century Irish women writers 20th-century translators Women diarists People from Howth Theatre people from Dublin 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221378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties%20of%20Denmark	Counties of Denmark	The Counties of Denmark () were former subdivisions of metropolitan Denmark and overseas territories, used primarily for administrative regions, with each county having its own council with substantial powers. Originally there had been twenty-four counties, but the number was reduced to roughly fourteen in 1970 – the number fluctuated slightly over the next three decades. In 2006 there were thirteen traditional counties as well as three municipalities with county status (the island of Bornholm, which was a county from 1660 until 2002, became a regional municipality with county powers, but only briefly from 2003 until 2006). On 1 January 2007 the counties were abolished and replaced by five larger regions which, unlike the counties, are not municipalities. Copenhagen County comprised all the municipalities of Metropolitan Copenhagen, except Copenhagen Municipality and Frederiksberg Municipality which, on account of their peculiarity of being outside any of the traditional counties, had the equivalent of "county status". On 1 January 2007 these two municipalities lost their special status. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are also part of the Danish Realm, but both enjoy internal autonomy. Both are largely self-governing, and each community sends two members to the Danish Parliament. The Faroe Islands obtained self-government in 1948; from 1816 to 1948 the islands had the status of a Danish county. Greenland changed from a colony to an overseas county in 1953. Abolition A government proposal in 2004 called for the counties to be abolished and replaced by five large regions with health care as their main responsibilities: two regions in Jutland, two regions in Zealand and one region covering Funen and the southernmost part of Jutland. The proposal also required the municipalities to merge reducing them from 271 to 98, with a minimum of 20,000 inhabitants in each municipality, although some exceptions were made to this rule. In 2007, 25 municipalities had fewer than 30,000 inhabitants each, with the average number of inhabitants over 55,500 per municipality. Only the United Kingdom and Ireland have more populous entities at the lowest political administrative level. The reform was confirmed by the Danish Parliament on 24 February 2005 and the counties were abolished on 1 January 2007. List of counties (1970–2006) The counties and county-level municipalities are listed below. Ringkjøbing County used an old spelling of its name, while its capital city and state authorities used the modern Danish spelling, Ringkøbing. The archipelago Ertholmene, located northeast of Bornholm, have never been a part of a municipality, county, or (from 2007) region. Statistics Denmark calls them Christiansø and Frederiksø, named after the two inhabited islets. They are included in numbers for Denmark (92 inhabitants; 0.39 square kilometers). The land area of Denmark is 42394 square kilometers. See also ISO 3166-2:DK NUTS:DK Administrative divisions of Greenland List of municipalities of Denmark (1970-2006) References External links Statistics Denmark Map of Denmark Explanation of Municipal Reform Map with named (new) municipalities Map of Faroe Islands Map of Greenland Former subdivisions of Denmark Denmark Lists of populated places in Denmark de:Verwaltungsgliederung Dänemarks lt:Danijos administracinis suskirstymas pt:Subdivisões da Dinamarca	[ -0.17092713713645935, -0.18966706097126007, 0.1880888044834137, 0.14999394118785858, -0.8427850008010864, 0.012706296518445015, 0.3095877170562744, 0.3479810357093811, -0.4912911057472229, 0.09653956443071365, -0.23855619132518768, -0.5142101049423218, -0.1825532764196396, -0.17776243388652802, -0.6802565455436707, 0.6499842405319214, -0.07619207352399826, 0.7028529644012451, 0.04626195505261421, -0.7924814224243164, 0.015443405136466026, -0.14808398485183716, -0.036778658628463745, 0.012832272797822952, 0.5687887072563171, 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221379	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parma%20wallaby	Parma wallaby	The parma wallaby (Notamacropus parma) is the smallest member of the marsupial genus Notamacropus. It inhabits wet sclerophyll (hard-leaved) forests of northern New South Wales, Australia. Adult parma wallabies typically weigh 4–5 kg, with the body length of about . The parma wallaby was first described by British naturalist John Gould in the 1840s. Shy, nocturnal, and rarely encountered by people, it was believed to be extinct, but was rediscovered in the 1960s on several locations. The species remains rarely seen, with some evidence for a recent population decline. Taxonomy The parma wallaby was first described by British naturalist John Gould in about 1840. Its epithet parma (Waterhouse 1846) comes after a word from a New South Wales Aboriginal language, but the exact source word and language have not been identified. In 2019, a reassessment of macropod taxonomy determined that Osphranter and Notamacropus, formerly considered subgenera of Macropus, should be moved to the genus level. This change was accepted by the Australian Faunal Directory in 2020. Sightings and conservation A shy cryptic creature of the wet sclerophyll forests of northern New South Wales (Australia), it was never commonly encountered and, even before the end of the 19th century, it was believed to be extinct. In 1965 workers on Kawau Island of New Zealand (near Auckland), trying to control a plague of introduced tammar wallabies (a widespread and fairly common species in Australia), were astonished to discover that some of the pests were not tammar wallabies, but a miraculously surviving population of parma wallabies - a species long thought extinct. The extermination effort was put on hold while individuals were captured and sent to institutions in Australia and around the world in the hope that they would breed in captivity and could eventually be reintroduced to their native habitat. The renewed interest in the parma wallaby soon led to another milestone: in 1967 it was found that they still existed in the forests near Gosford, New South Wales. Further investigation showed that the parma wallaby was alive and well, and although not common, was to be found in forests along the Great Dividing Range from near Gosford almost as far north as the Queensland border. The offspring of the Kawau Island population are smaller than their fully wild relatives, even when provided with ample food: it appears that competition for limited food resources on the island selected for smaller individuals, an incipient example of the phenomenon of insular dwarfism. Description The parma wallaby is the smallest member of the genus Notamacropus, at between , less than one-tenth the size of the red kangaroo. It is about in length, with a sparsely furred, blackish tail about the same length again. The fur is a reddish or greyish brown above, greyer about the head, and fading to pale grey underneath. Presumably, individuals had been sighted many times during the years when it was "extinct", but mistaken for an especially slender and long-tailed example of the otherwise similar red-legged and red-necked pademelons. Like the pademelons, it prefers to occupy wet sclerophyll forest with thick undergrowth, and grassy patches, although parma wallabies are also found occasionally in dry eucalypt forest and even rainforest. It is mainly nocturnal and usually shelters in thick scrub during the day, through which it can travel at speed along the runways it makes. It emerges from cover shortly before dusk to feed on grasses and herbs in forest clearings. The parma wallaby is largely solitary, with two or at most three animals sometimes coming together to feed in favourable circumstances. Although the parma wallaby remains rare, with some evidence that numbers have recently declined. It is classified as Near Threatened according to the 2015 IUCN assessment. References External links Photos at ARKive The Aussie Parma Wallaby Ark Conservation Project Macropods Mammals of New South Wales Marsupials of Australia Mammals described in 1846 Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN	[ -0.5214490294456482, -0.0650976300239563, -0.6384230256080627, -0.16093619167804718, -0.06381676346063614, 0.6430923342704773, 0.4812035858631134, -0.12987738847732544, -0.14426805078983307, -0.32126620411872864, 0.14760814607143402, 0.68992680311203, -0.16535042226314545, 0.10803534835577011, -0.164463609457016, 0.4634164869785309, 0.40302774310112, 0.5721677541732788, 0.1344083845615387, 0.015691354870796204, 0.12114875763654709, -0.4698927104473114, 0.5714581608772278, -0.28339099884033203, -0.21328070759773254, 0.6445141434669495, 1.1276190280914307, 0.6827925443649292, 0.4717452824115753, -0.0442853644490242, -0.4941471219062805, 0.5147032141685486, 0.2006460726261139, -0.029069364070892334, 0.35585498809814453, 0.11883120238780975, 0.07118585705757141, 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221380	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki%20Prefecture	Nagasaki Prefecture	is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. Nagasaki Prefecture has a population of 1,314,078 (1 June 2020) and has a geographic area of 4,130 km2 (1,594 sq mi). Nagasaki Prefecture borders Saga Prefecture to the northeast. Nagasaki is the capital and largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture, with other major cities including Sasebo, Isahaya, and Ōmura. Nagasaki Prefecture is located in western Kyūshū with a territory consisting of many mainland peninsulas centered around Ōmura Bay, as well as islands and archipelagos including Tsushima and Iki in the Korea Strait and the Gotō Islands in the East China Sea. Nagasaki Prefecture is known for its century-long trading history with the Europeans and as the sole place of direct trade and exchange between Japan and the outside world during the Sakoku period. Nagasaki Prefecture is home to several of the Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region which have been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. History Nagasaki Prefecture was created by merging of the western half of the former province of Hizen with the island provinces of Tsushima and Iki. Facing China and Korea, the region around Hirado was a traditional center for traders and pirates. During the 16th century, Catholic missionaries and traders from Portugal arrived and became active in Hirado and Nagasaki, which became a major center for foreign trade. After being given free rein in Oda Nobunaga's period, the missionaries were forced out little by little, until finally, in the Tokugawa era, Christianity was banned under the Sakoku national isolation policy: Japanese foreign trade was restricted to Chinese and Dutch traders based at Dejima in Nagasaki. However, Kirishitan (Japanese Christian) worship continued underground. These Kakure Kirishitan (hidden Christians) were tried at every step, forced to step on fumi-e ("trample pictures", images of the Virgin Mary and saints) to prove that they were non-Christian. With the banishment of all Catholic missionaries, traders from Catholic countries were also forced out of the country. Along with them, their children, half Japanese and half European, were forced to leave. The majority was sent to Jagatara (Jakarta) and are still remembered by the locals as the people who wrote the poignant letters which were smuggled across the sea to their homeland. Today, Nagasaki has prominent Catholic churches, and the Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region, have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List. During the Meiji Restoration, Nagasaki and Sasebo became major ports for foreign trade, and eventually major military bases and shipbuilding centers for the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries up to World War II. On August 9, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, which destroyed all buildings in a radius from the point of impact and extensively damaged other parts of the city. Roughly 39,000 people were killed, including 27,778 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers. About 68-80% of the industrial production was destroyed to the point it would not recover for months or at least a year. Nagasaki Prefecture contains many areas prone to heavy rain and landslide damage. In July 1957, mainly in the Isahaya area, damage from heavy rains, flooding and landslides lead to a death toll of 586, with 136 people missing and 3,860 injured. In July 1982, typhoon damage in the Nagasaki area lead to 299 fatalities, according to a report by the Japanese government. Geography Nagasaki borders Saga Prefecture on the east, and is otherwise surrounded by water, including Ariake Bay, the Tsushima Straits (far from Busan and South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea), and the East China Sea. It also includes a large number of islands such as Tsushima, Iki and Goto. Most of the prefecture is near the coast and there are a number of ports such as Nagasaki and a United States Navy base at Sasebo. As of 1 April 2014, 18% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Saikai and Unzen-Amakusa National Parks; Genkai and Iki-Tsushima Quasi-National Parks; and Hokushō, Nishi Sonogi Hantō, Nomo Hantō, Ōmurawan, Shimabara Hantō, and Taradake Prefectural Natural Parks. Cities Thirteen cities are located in Nagasaki Prefecture: Districts These are the towns and villages of each district: Mergers The following municipalities have been dissolved since the year 2000. Kitamatsuura District: Emukae, Fukushima, Ikitsuki, Kosaza, Ōshima, Sechibaru, Shikamachi, Tabira, Takashima, Uku, Yoshii Minamimatsuura District: Arikawa, Kamigotō, Kishiku, Miiraku, Narao, Naru, Shin'uonome, Tamanoura, Tomie, Wakamatsu Nishisonogi District: Iōjima, Kinkai, Kōyagi, Nomozaki, Ōseto, Ōshima, Saikai, Sakito, Sanwa, Seihi, Sotome, Takashima, Tarami Kitatakaki District: Iimori, Konagai, Moriyama, Takaki Minamitakaki District: Aino, Ariake, Arie, Azuma, Chidiwa, Fukae, Futsu, Kazusa, Kitaarima, Kuchinotsu, Kunimi, Minamiarima, Minamikushiyama, Mizuho, Nishiarie, Obama Kamiagata District: Kamiagata, Kamitsushima, Mine Shimoagata District: Izuhara, Mitsushima, Toyotama Iki District: Ashibe, Gonoura, Ishida, Katsumoto Culture Religion Nagasaki is the most Christianized area in Japan with Roman Catholic missions having been established there as early as the 16th century. Shusaku Endo's novel Silence draws from the oral history of the local Christian (Kirishitan) communities, both Kakure Kirishitan and Hanare Kirishitan. As of 2002, there are 68,617 Catholics in Nagasaki Prefecture, accounting for 4.52 percent of the population of the prefecture. Sports The city has one football team, V-Varen Nagasaki, which plays in the J2 League. The Nagasaki Saints of the former Shikoku-Kyūshū Island League made Nagasaki Prefecture their home prior to their dissolving. Tourism Nagasaki (capital city) Ōura Church Urakami Cathedral Confucius Shrine, Nagasaki Glover Garden Nagasaki Shinchi Chinatown Mount Inasa Kōfuku-ji Sōfuku-ji Suwa Shrine Hirado Hirado Castle Sakikata Park Sasebo Kujū-ku Islands Huis Ten Bosch (theme park) Tenkaihō Saikai Nagasaki Bio Park Shimabara Peninsula Mount Unzen Shimabara Castle Transportation Rail JR Kyushu Nagasaki Main Line Sasebo Line Omura Line Shimabara Railway Matsuura Railway Nishi-Kyūshū Line Tram Nagasaki Electric Tramway Roads Expressways and toll roads Nagasaki Expressway West Kyushu Expressway Nagasaki Dejima Road Kawahira Toll Road Kunimi Toll Road Kawahira Toll Road National highways Route 34 Route 35 Route 57 Route 202 Route 204 Route 205 Route 206 Route 207 Route 251 Route 324 Route 382 Route 383 Route 384 Route 389 Route 444 Route 498 Route 499 Ports Nagasaki Port Sasebo Port Matsuura Port Hirado Port Shimabara Port Fukue Port Izuhara Port of Tsushima Gonoura Port of Iki Island Airports Nagasaki Airport Fukue Airport Iki Airport Tsushima Airport Politics The current governor of Nagasaki is former vice-governor Hōdō Nakamura. First elected in 2010 to succeed Genjirō Kaneko, he was reelected for a second term in 2014. The prefectural assembly of Nagasaki has a regular membership of 46, elected in 16 electoral districts in unified regional elections (last round: 2011). As of April 2014, the LDP-led caucus has 23 members, the DPJ-SDP-led caucus 17. In the National Diet, Nagasaki is represented by four directly elected members of the House of Representatives and two (one per ordinary election) of the House of Councillors. After the most recent national elections of 2010, 2012 and 2013, Nagasaki sends an all-LDP delegation to the Diet (excluding members who lost election in Nagasaki districts, but were elected to the proportional representation segment of the House of Representatives in the Kyūshū block). Citations General references Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. 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221381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araucariaceae	Araucariaceae	Araucariaceae – also known as araucarians – is an extremely ancient family of coniferous trees. The family achieved its maximum diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, when it was distributed almost worldwide. Most of the Araucariaceae in the Northern Hemisphere vanished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, and they are now largely confined to the Southern Hemisphere, except for a few species of Agathis in Southeast Asia. Description Members of Araucariaceae are typically extremely tall evergreen trees, reaching heights of or more. They can also grow very large stem diameters; a New Zealand kauri tree (Agathis australis) named Tāne Mahuta ("The Lord of the Forest") has been measured at tall with a diameter at breast height of . Its total wood volume is calculated to be , making it the third-largest conifer after Sequoia and Sequoiadendron (both from the Cupressaceae subfamily Sequoioideae). The trunks are columnar and have relatively large piths with resinous cortices. The branching is usually horizontal and tiered, arising regularly in whorls of three to seven branches or alternating in widely separated pairs. The leaves can be small, needle-like, and curved, or they can be large, broadly ovate, and flattened. They are spirally arranged, persistent, and usually have parallel venation. Like other conifers, they produce cones. Each tree can have both male and female cones (monoecious) or they can have only male or female cones (dioecious). Male cones are among the largest among all conifer cones, on average. They are cylindrical and drooping, somewhat resembling catkins. They are borne singly on the tips of branches or the axils of leaves. They contain numerous sporophylls arranged in whorls or spirals. Each has four to 20 elongated pollen sacs attached to the lower surface at one end. The pollen grains are round and do not possess wings or air sacs. Female cones are also very large. They are spherical to ovoid in shape and borne erect on thick, short shoots at branch tips. The numerous bracts and scales are either fused to each other or separate for half of their lengths. The scales almost always bear only one seed on its upper surface, in contrast to two in true pines (family Pinaceae). They are very large, among the largest seeds among conifers. They are dispersed by wind, usually using wing-like structures. On maturity, the female cones detach and fall to the ground. Due to their size, they can cause serious injuries if they hit a person. The cones of the bunya bunya, Araucaria bidwillii, for example, weigh , about the size and weight of a large pineapple. They can drop from heights of . Classification and genera Araucariaceae is classified under the order Pinales, class Pinopsida of the division Pinophyta. The division includes all living conifers. Recently however, some authorities treat Araucariaceae as a separate order, Araucariales. Araucariaceae contains three extant genera and about 41 species. Araucaria Jussieu contains 19 living species found in New Caledonia (where 13 species are endemic), Norfolk Island, Australia, New Guinea, Argentina, Chile, and Brazil. Agathis Salisbury contains 21 living species found in New Zealand, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines Wollemia W.G. Jones, K.D. Hill & J.M. Allen contains only one living species endemic to Australia. It was known only from fossil remains before the discovery of the living species in 1994. Phylogeny Below is the phylogeny of the Pinophyta based on cladistic analysis of molecular data. It shows the position of Araucariaceae within the division. Relationships between living members of Araucariaceae. Molecular evidence supports Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae having diverged from each other during the late Permian. Distribution and habitat Today, 41 species are known, in three genera: Agathis, Araucaria and Wollemia, distributed largely in the Southern Hemisphere. By far the greatest diversity is in New Caledonia (18 species), with others in Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Chile, southern Brazil, and Malesia. In Malesia, Agathis extends a short distance into the Northern Hemisphere, reaching 18°N in the Philippines. Uses Several species are very popular ornamental trees in gardens in subtropical regions, and some are also very important timber trees, producing wood of high quality. Several have edible seeds similar to pine nuts, and others produce valuable resin and amber. In the forests where they occur, they are usually dominant trees, often the largest species in the forest; the largest is Araucaria hunsteinii, reported to 89 m tall in New Guinea, with several other species reaching 50–65 m tall. A. heterophylla, the Norfolk Island pine, is a well-known landscaping and house plant from this taxon. Skillful artisans in the Erzurum Province, Turkey, have used fossilized wood of Araucariaceae for centuries to manufacture jewelry and decorative items. It is known as "Oltustone", the name deriving from the town of Oltu, where it is most commonly excavated. Despite the fact that this semiprecious gemstone is classified as “stone”, wood anatomy reveals it was fossilized pieces of trunks of Araucariacea. Oltustone, also called ‘Black Amber’ is unique to Turkey. It is dull and black, but when polished, acquires an attractive black sheen. Fossil record Fossils widely believed to belong to Araucariaceae include the form genera Araucarites (various), Agathoxylon and Araucarioxylon (wood), Brachyphyllum (leaves), Araucariacites and Dilwynites (pollen), and Protodammara (cones). The oldest definive records of Araucariaceae are from the Early Jurassic, though there are potential earlier Late Triassic records. Early representatives of Araucaria are widespread across both hemispheres by the Middle Jurassic, such as Araucaria mirabilis and Araucaria sphaerocarpa from the Middle Jurassic of Argentina and England respectively. The oldest records of the Wollemia-Agathis lineage from the Cretaceous, including Emwadea microcarpa from the Albian aged Winton Formation of Australia and Wairarapaia mildenhallii from the Albian-Cenomanian of New Zealand. In Arizona, the petrified woods of the famous Petrified Forest National Park belong to several species of Araucarioxylon, the most common of them being Araucarioxylon arizonicum. During the Upper (Late) Triassic, the region was moist and mild. The trees washed from where they grew in seasonal flooding and accumulated on sandy delta mudflats, where they were buried by silt and periodically by layers of volcanic ash which mineralized the wood. Some of the segments of trunk represent giant trees that are estimated to have been over 50 m tall when they were alive. The Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest of Argentina, also buried by volcanic ash during the Middle Jurassic, are composed primarily of exquisitely preserved cones and wood of Araucaria mirabilis. The occurrence of Araucariaceae in the Dutlu Formation (Late Cretaceous) Erzurum-Turkey, possibly reflects the southernmost record of the family in the northern supercontinent Laurasia, as well as one of the latest examples ever recorded in southern Eurasia. Araucariaceae possibly grew in forests in the coastal areas of Laurasia which was separated by the Tethyan Ocean from the supercontinent Gondwana. See also Paleobotany Te Matua Ngahere References Further reading Pinales families Extant Jurassic first appearances Araucariales	[ -0.14594240486621857, 0.28930944204330444, -0.498280793428421, 0.38874295353889465, -0.18824411928653717, 0.5669097900390625, -0.3026033341884613, 0.8562940955162048, -0.44258955121040344, 0.12460824847221375, 0.14001129567623138, 0.1473139524459839, -0.398490309715271, 0.588431179523468, -0.023222550749778748, 0.38207942247390747, 0.022258978337049484, 0.565561830997467, 0.16860739886760712, -0.3322286903858185, -0.3106974959373474, -0.8118472695350647, 0.23578129708766937, -0.010563192889094353, 0.48236915469169617, -0.6507495045661926, 0.02287173829972744, 0.19352936744689941, 0.31390413641929626, -0.6034737825393677, -0.149535670876503, 0.47684526443481445, 0.25480711460113525, -0.44475969672203064, -0.5015929341316223, -0.5022331476211548, -0.7058645486831665, -0.9103041887283325, -0.11406306177377701, -0.8116664886474609, 0.19783826172351837, 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221383	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Georges%20Noverre	Jean-Georges Noverre	Jean-Georges Noverre (29 April 1727 19 October 1810) was a French dancer and balletmaster, and is generally considered the creator of ballet d'action, a precursor of the narrative ballets of the 19th century. His birthday is now observed as International Dance Day. His first professional appearances occurred as a youth in Paris at the Opéra-Comique, at Fontainebleau, in Berlin before Frederick II and his brother Prince Henry of Prussia, in Dresden and Strasburg. In 1747 he moved to Strasbourg, where he remained until 1750 before moving to Lyon. In 1751, he composed his first great work, Les Fêtes Chinoises for Marseilles. The work was revived in Paris in 1754 to great acclaim. In 1755, he was invited by Garrick to London, where he remained for two years. Between 1758 and 1760 he produced several ballets at Lyon, and published his . It is from this period that the revolution in the art of the ballet for which Noverre was responsible can be dated. Prior to Noverre, ballets were large spectacles that focused mainly on elaborate costumes and scenery and not on the physical and emotional expression of the dancers. He was next engaged by Duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg, and later Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, until 1774. In 1776, he was appointed maître des ballets of the Paris Opera at the request of Queen Marie Antoinette. He returned to Vienna in Spring of 1776 to stage ballets there, but in June 1776 he returned again to Paris. He regained this post until the French Revolution reduced him to poverty. He died on 19 October 1810 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Noverre's friends included Voltaire, Mozart, Frederick the Great and David Garrick (who called him "the Shakespeare of the dance"). The ballets of which he was most proud were his La Toilette de Vénus, Les Jalousies du sérail, L'Amour corsaire and Le Jaloux sans rival. Besides the Lettres sur la danse, Noverre wrote Observations sur la construction d'une nouvelle salle de l'Opéra (1781); Lettres sur Garrick écrites à Voltaire (1801); and Lettre à un artiste sur les fêtes publiques (1801). Early life and career Noverre was born in Paris on 29 April 1727 to Marie Anne de la Grange and Jean Louys, a Swiss soldier. The couple expected their son to pursue a military career but the boy chose dance, studying with M. Marcel and then with the famous Louis Dupré. Noverre's first professional experience probably occurred at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 8 June 1743 in Le Coq du village. In his middle and late teenage years, Noverre performed at Fontainebleau, and in Berlin before Frederick II and his brother Prince Henry of Prussia. Appearances in Dresden and Strasbourg followed before his return to the Opéra-Comique. In 1747, Noverre became ballet master in Strasbourg and created his first great success, the exotic Les Fêtes Chinoises. In 1748 in Strasbourg he married the actress Marie-Louise Sauveur. In 1750, he became principal dancer in Lyon and created his first ballet-pantomime, Le Jugement de Pâris in 1751. Noverre traveled to Vienna, where he worked under Queen Maria Theresa and became Maître de danse for her twelve-year-old daughter, Marie-Antoinette. Noverre and Marie Antoinette's relationship grew and they became very close. Marie-Antoinette became a patron to Noverre. In early 1754 Noverre produced a frightening and moving scene that disturbed the conservative queen, and he lost his job. He moved to Strasbourg for one year in 1754, and returned to the Opéra-Comique, where Les Fêtes was staged with great success on 1 July 1754. In 1755, he went to London with his wife, his sister and brother, and his company. There, he worked with David Garrick of the Drury Lane Theatre, learning new concepts of theatre and the then-developing natural style of performance. When the London production of Les Fêtes Chinoises was completely destroyed by rioters on the eve of the Seven Years' War, Noverre and his family were forced to go into hiding. He continued to supervise dance spectacles at Drury Lane, but without billing. In 1774 King Louis XV died and Noverre's dear friend Marie-Antoinette became the Queen of France. Marie-Antoinette did not forget about her dear Dance Master, and appointed Noverre to the Paris Opera. This was Noverre's shining moment, but the loyalty and backing of Marie-Antoinette could switch. In 1779 Noverre was unseated from his position because Dauberval, Maximilien Gardel and Mlle Guimard gathered prominent people and poisoned them against Noverre. However, Noverre didn't leave the Opera until 1781. Noverre's fitting effect on the Paris ballet world would be preserved by the production of his tragic ballet Jason et Médée in 1763. In 1787, Pierre Gardel inherited the throne and Paris Opera, and carried out Noverre's ideas on costume and thoughts on ballet pantomime. (Chazin-Bennhaum) He composed Les Caprices de Galathée, for example, and garbed his dancers in tiger skins and shoes made of tree bark. His naturalist attitude towards costume placed him in the front rank of the French Enlightenment. Les Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets Context Noverre's treatise on dancing and theater expressed his aesthetic theories on the production of ballets and his method of teaching ballet. Noverre wrote this text in London in 1756 and published it in 1760 in Lyon, France. He began his research for his essays in Drury Lane, London, where he choreographed for his own troupe of dancers at the Theatre Royal under the direction of David Garrick. It was in David Garrick's library that Noverre read modern French literature and ancient Latin treatises on pantomime. Noverre was inspired by the pantomimes that he thought stirred up the audience's emotions by the use of expressive movement. He proclaimed in his text that ballet should unfold through dramatic movement, and the movement should express the relationship between the characters. Noverre named this type of ballet, ballet d’action or pantomime ballet (International Dictionary of Ballet 1032). From 1757 to 1760, he produced thirteen new works with composer François Granier at the Lyon Opera. His lighter, colorful pantomime ballets like Les Caprices de Galathée, La Toilette de Vénus, and Les Jalousies du sérail, received great success. Inspiration Noverre was most immediately influenced by Jean-Philippe Rameau, David Garrick, and Marie Sallé. Rameau was a very influential French composer and music theorist, and Noverre was inspired by his dance music that combined programmatic and strongly individual elements. David Garrick was an actor and theatre director at the Theatre Royal. Noverre was inspired by his talent for "histrionics" and vivid mime work where Noverre wanted to shake from the traditional forms of Ballet. (The Encyclopedia of Dance and Ballet 695). With the content that follows it is imperative to closer examine the profound influence of Marie Sallé on Jean-George Noverre. Sallé and Noverre had an intertwining history that began at the Paris Opera Ballet. Sallé had studied in Paris with Françoise Prévost, who was a known predecessor of dramatizing ballet with her virtuosic acting and expressive performance. * Salle had studied in Paris with Francoise Prevost who was an established predecessor of the dramatic style of ballet demonstrated through her virtuosic acting and expressive performances. Sallé made her debut at the Paris Opera in 1727 where she established a reputation for her “delicate grace and expressive mime” abilities. Sallé's London season of 1733-34 at Covent Garden saw her two pantomimes—Pygmalion and Bacchus and Ariadne—which were both staged in the spring of 1734. Additionally, she collaborated with the naturalised British composer George Frideric Handel during his 1734-35 London Opera season during which her pantomimes became a forerunner of Noverre's ballet d'action--. When she returned to Paris in 1735, she choreographed and danced in scenes for Jean-Philippe Rameau's Opera-ballets. Although she retired from the public stage in 1741, she continued to influence the dance community through her coaching and choreographic innovations at Opéra-Comique in 1743, which happens to be when Noverre made his debut. Social and economic factors, in what was unequivocally a “man’s world” allowed Noverre to bring forth his ideologies surrounding the evolution of dance. By contrast, the recognition given to Sallé was largely limited to her significance as a performer. Her role as a creative choreographer, and progressive innovator was not only ignored during her lifetime, but it has failed to have been recognized by historians of the dance arts even to this day. Blanked for her virtuosic movements and expressive talents, Sallé laid the foundations for which Noverre was able to move forward. Her choreographic work in Pygmalion brought forth a combination of expressive gestures and dance movements to mediate its narrative. Although historians have grappled with the duality of Sallé's role in dance history, it is precisely these aspects that deem her the true inventor of the ballet d'action that was to sweep the late eighteenth-century stage under Noverre's creative efforts and leadership. In addition to her performance and choreographic work, Sallé worked to create reforms within the rigid ballet world predating Noverre. Sallé revolutionized ballet by her combination of artistic dance movement, the expressive use of gestures matched to the music, and her redesign of costumes and stage scenery in unique ways that broke new ground in the dance world. The simple act of omitting the Mask and the reworking of costumes was later picked up by Noverre in his Les Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets. Sallé's shifting public image, influenced the reception of her costume reforms. She was performing at the time when the dancers’ costumes were not realistic. Noverre's notion of costume reform clearly stemmed from his association with her. Although he is recognized for his rejection of the dancer's mask, it is most probable that his action would have been motivated by Sallé's “noble, expressive and spiritual countenance,” which inspired particular comment in his Letter. When contemplating the speed of Noverre's rapid shifts in style, one has to consider all the work Sallé created before him. Given her background and gender—with all its discriminatory limitations—Sallé's achievements were nothing short of incredible. Given the continuing battle for gender equality in the contemporary world of both business and the business of the arts world, her accomplishments are even more extraordinary recognizing that they were done in the 18th century, a time when men held all the most important positions of influence and power in the theatrical world, as well as the political world. Going against the grain of a woman's role being limited to interpret the dance creations of men, Sallé broke barriers to stage and perform her own creations. One cannot recognize the work of Noverre's innovations without including the paradigm shifts that grew out of her life and work. Content Noverre's text demanded an end to repressive traditions peculiar to the Paris Opera Ballet, such as stereotypical and cumbersome costumes, and old-fashioned musical styles and choreography. Noverre also discussed the methods for training dancers such as encouraging a student to capitalize on his or her own talents (The Encyclopedia of Dance and Ballet 699). Most of Noverre's criticisms of dance in his book were directed towards the Paris Opera Ballet because he felt the Paris Opera Ballet created ballets that were an isolated event within Opera lacking meaningful connection with the main theme of the Opera. He criticized the Paris Opera Ballet use of the mask because it restricted the dancer from showing facial expressions that could bear meaning on their characters. Noverre devoted the whole of his Ninth Letter to the subject of masks and wrote, " Destroy the masks and" he argued, "we shall gain a soul, and be the best dancers in the world." Noverre specifically dealt with seven major points in his treatise: Regarding the training of dancers, he emphasized that correctness in dance technique as laid down by Pierre Beauchamp and others must be held with sensitivity to the individual's anatomy. Of prime concern, the pedagogical consideration of the dancer's personality and style is prerequisite to artistic development. Noverre stressed that within a dramatic context, validity and sincerity of gestural expression are of the utmost importance in creating a ballet. Noverre called for the logical development of plots. According to Noverre, plots should be thematically integrated with movement. Additionally, all superfluous solos and irrelevant dance techniques should be omitted from the ballet. Noverre was adamant that music be appropriately suited to the dramatic development of the plot. He insisted that costumes, décor, and lighting be compatible with the introduction, plot, and climax of each act within the ballet. With the disappearance of masks in his own ballets, Noverre pronounced his advanced ideas on stage make-up for dancers that would allow for the dancer's expression to be seen rather than hidden behind a mask (Lee 111). Impact Noverre's Les Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets had lasting impact on ballet ideology as his text has been printed in almost every European language and his name is one of the most frequently quoted in the literature of dance (Lynham 13). Many of his theories have been implemented in dance classes today and remain a part today's ideology of dance. For example, his idea that a teacher should encourage students to profit from his or her own talents rather than to imitate a teacher or the style of a popular dancer is a present ideology of dance. Noverre did receive criticism from many of his prominent ballet contemporaries, however his theories have survived longer than any of his ballets, which have not been reproduced for at least two centuries (Lynham 127). Lettres sur la Danse in English Lettres sur la danse was first published in English in 1782, where it was titled The Works of Monsieur Noverre translated from the French. The translator, Parkyns MacMahon, also translated Noverre's ballet Adela of Ponthieu, and was in touch with him while working on The Works of Monsieur Noverre. In 2014, MacMahon's translation was transcribed with commentary by Michael Burden and Jennifer Thorp, and published with eight essays by dance historians and musicologists as The Works of Monsieur Noverre Translated from the French: Noverre, His Circle, and the English Lettres sur la Danse (Hillsdale, New York: Pendragon, 2014). Although snippets appear in Letters on Dancing and Ballets (London: Beaumont, 1930), by Cyril Beaumont, the Burden and Thorp transcription is the only complete English translation. The essays in the volume, which cover a number of aspects of Noverre's life and career in depth are as follows: Jennifer Thorp: From Les fêtes chinoises to Agamemnon revenged: Ange Goudar as commentator on the ballets of Jean-Georges Noverre; Samantha Owens: "Just as great as Noverre": the ballet composer Florian Johann Deller (1729–73) and music at the Württemberg court; Kathleen Kuzmick Hansell: Noverre in Milan: a turning point; Adeline Mueller: A peep into Mozart and Le Picq's Serraglio (Milan, 1772): Noverre's tragic reworking of a comic ballet; Edward Nye: Outrageous dancing and respectable Noverre; Bruce Alan Brown: Weiß und Rosenfarb: the end of Noverrian ballet in Vienna and the beginnings of the Wienerischer Musenalmanach; Michael Burden: Regular meetings: Noverre and Gallini in London, 1756-1795; Anna Karin Ståhle: Jean-Georges Noverre applying for jobs. The Jean-Georges Noverre bicentenary To mark the bicentenary of the death of Jean-Georges Noverre, two academic meetings were held which explored aspects of biography, dance, and performance. The first was ‘Celebrating Jean-Georges Noverre 1727-1810: his world, and beyond’, which was the 11th Annual Oxford Dance Symposium on 16–17 April 2010 at New College, Oxford. Some of the papers were included in Burden and Thorp (2014). The second was the ‘Colloque International à l’occasion du bicentenaire de la mort de Noverre’, les jeudi 21, vendredi 22 et samedi 23 octobre 2010, A l’initiative de L’Association pour un Centre de recherches sur les Arts du spectacle aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (ACRAS, société savante), at Centre National de la Danse, 1 rue Victor Hugo – 93500 Pantin, and Maison de la Recherche, 28 rue Serpente, 75006 Paris. The proceedings were published in the Revue Musicorum, X. Accueil Major works Les Fêtes Chinoises (Paris 1754) (mus. Jean-Philippe Rameau) La Fontaine de jouvence (Paris 1754) La Toilette de Vénus (Lyon 1757) (mus. François Granet) L'Impromptu du sentiment (Lyon 1758) La Mort d'Ajax (Lyon 1758) (mus. François Granet) Alceste (Stuttgart 1761Wien 1767) (mus. Christoph Willibald Gluck) La Mort d'Hercule (Stuttgart 1762) Psyché et l'Amour (Stuttgart 1762) (mus. Jean-Joseph Rodolphe) Jason et Médée (Stuttgart 1763Wien 1767Paris 1776 e 1780London 1781) (mus. Jean-Joseph Rodolphe) Hypermnestre (Stuttgart 1764) Diane et Endymion (Wien 1770) Don Chisciotte, alle nozze di Gamace (Wien 1772) (mus. Antonio Salieri) Le Judgement de Pâris (Wien 1771) Roger et Bradamante (Wien 1771) Agamemnon vengé (Wien 1772) Iphigénie en Tauride (Wien 1772) (mus. Christoph Willibald Gluck) Thésée (Wien 1772) Acis et Galathée (Wien 1773) Adèle de Ponthieu (Wien 1773London 1782) Alexandre et Campaspe de Larisse (Wien 1773) Les Horaces et les Curiaces (Wien 1774Paris 1777) Renaud et Armide (Milan 1775London 1782) Apelle et Campaspe (Paris 1776Lyon 1787) Les Caprices de Galatée (Paris 1776London 1789) Annette et Lubin (Paris 1778) Les petits riens (Paris 1778) (mus. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) Les Amours d'Énée et de Didon (Lyon 1781) La Fête du Sérail (Paris 1788) L'Amour et Psyché (London 1788) (mus. Jean-Joseph Rodolphe) La Fête de Tempé (London 1788) Admète (London 1789) La Bergère des Alpes (London 1794) La Vittoria (London 1794) Windsor Castle (London 1795) See also Eugène Hus References Further reading Burden, Michael, "A return to London’s Opera House in 1782, with an English translation of Jean-Georges Noverre’s Observations sur la construction d’une nouvelle salle d’opéra by Tom Hamilton and Michael Burden", Music in Art, 42/1–2 (2017), pp. 11–26. External links French ballet masters French male ballet dancers 18th-century French ballet dancers French didactic writers 18th-century French writers 18th-century French male writers French information and reference writers Dancers from Paris 1727 births 1810 deaths 18th-century French male actors French male stage actors Ballet choreographers Jean-Georges Noverre French male non-fiction writers History of ballet French choreographers	[ -0.44709816575050354, -0.13498423993587494, -0.3243449628353119, 0.33924156427383423, -0.2787729799747467, 1.2033982276916504, 0.6378541588783264, -0.1497034728527069, -0.9085553288459778, -0.46516138315200806, -0.6704243421554565, -0.058853358030319214, -0.3904823660850525, 0.10506018996238708, -0.028572717681527138, 0.2557610869407654, 0.43643611669540405, -0.651965320110321, -0.2900486886501312, -0.27661916613578796, -0.6554730534553528, 0.17006540298461914, -0.14164501428604126, 0.14303821325302124, -0.05481301620602608, -0.2547019422054291, 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221385	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertemporal%20equilibrium	Intertemporal equilibrium	Intertemporal equilibrium is a notion of economic equilibrium conceived over many periods of time. In modern economic theory, most models explicitly take into account the fact that the economy evolves over time, and that its equilibrium cannot be fruitfully analyzed from a purely static perspective. Therefore the general equilibrium of the economy is conceived as an intertemporal equilibrium, meaning that households and firms are assumed to make intertemporal decisions. That is, households are assumed to choose consumption and labor on the basis of wages, prices, utility, and wealth over their whole lifetimes, instead of considering these quantities at just one point in time. Likewise, firms are assumed to choose hiring, investment, and output on the basis of productivity and demand over the foreseeable future, instead of considering these quantities at just one point in time. The intertemporal general equilibrium is then analyzed as the Nash equilibrium or competitive equilibrium of the intertemporal strategies of all the households and firms (and any other economic agents under consideration, such as governments). 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221386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo%20Monaco	Lorenzo Monaco	Lorenzo Monaco (born Piero di Giovanni; 1370 – c. 1425) was an Italian painter of the late Gothic-early Renaissance age. He was born Piero di Giovanni in Siena. Little is known about his youth, apart from the fact that he was apprenticed in Florence. He was influenced by Giotto and his followers Spinello Aretino and Agnolo Gaddi. In 1390 he joined the Camaldolese monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli. He was thenceforth generally known as Lorenzo Monaco (English: "Lawrence the Monk"). Starting from around 1404 his works show the influence of the International Gothic, of Lorenzo Ghiberti's earliest works and of Gherardo Starnina. From this period is the Pietà in the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Florence. His works, often over a gilded background, showed in general a spiritual value, and usually did not feature profane elements. In 1414 he painted the Coronation of the Virgin (now at the Uffizi), characterized by a great number of saints and brilliant colours. In the late part of his life, Lorenzo did not accept the early Renaissance innovations introduced by artists such as Masaccio and Brunelleschi. This is visible in the Adoration of the Magi of 1420–1422, where the now widespread geometrical perspective is totally absent. Lorenzo's works remained popular in the 1420s, as testified by the numerous commissions he received, such as the Stories of the Virgin in the Bartolini Salimbeni Chapel of Santa Trinita, one of his few frescoes. Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Lorenzo Monaco in his Lives. According to the Florentine historian, he died from an unidentified infection, perhaps gangrene or a tumour. Selected works His works include: Coronation of the Virgin (1388-90), Courtauld Gallery, London Madonna and Child with Saints (1395–1402) Episodes in the Life of Saint Benedict (c. 1407–1409) Nativity (1409), a panel believed to form part of a predella Coronation of the Virgin (1414), also for Santa Maria degli Angeli Annunciation Triptych (1410–1415), Gallerie dell'Accademia, Florence Bartolini Salimbeni Chapel (1410–1415), Santa Trinita, Florence Adoration of the Magi (1422) Beheading of St Paul, Princeton University Art Museum Processional Cross, Chicago Art Institute Crucifixion of St Peter, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore Madonna and Child, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Madonna of Humility, Treasure Museum of the Basilica of Saint Francis, Assisi "Virgin and Christ Child",{National Gallery of Scotland,Edinburgh} Images See also Sienese School Further reading (see index; plates 71-72) External links National Gallery of Art Biography and works Italian Paintings: Florentine School, a collection catalog containing information about Monaco and his works (see pages: 62-68). 1370s births 1420s deaths People from Siena 14th-century Italian painters Italian male painters 15th-century Italian painters Painters from Tuscany Gothic painters Catholic painters	[ -0.020097943022847176, -0.09916140139102936, 0.322685569524765, 0.37974023818969727, -0.5917811989784241, 0.32937511801719666, 0.8950473666191101, -0.5320034027099609, -0.5231812596321106, -0.7692857980728149, 0.2096351534128189, 0.3035568594932556, -0.6137034296989441, 0.10623587667942047, -0.5579406023025513, -0.1770908683538437, 0.7727684378623962, 0.0833282470703125, -0.27838999032974243, 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221389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2%20Piccinni	Niccolò Piccinni	Niccolò Piccinni (; 16 January 1728 – 7 May 1800) was an Italian composer of symphonies, sacred music, chamber music, and opera. Although he is somewhat obscure today, Piccinni was one of the most popular composers of opera—particularly the Neapolitan opera buffa—of the Classical period. Life Piccinni was born in Bari, in the Apulia region. Since the age of fourteen, he was educated at the S. Onofrio Conservatory by Leonardo Leo and Francesco Durante, thanks to the intervention of the Bishop of Bari (his father, although himself a musician, was opposed to his son following the same career). Piccinni's first opera, Le donne dispettose, was produced in 1755 with the patronage of Prince Vintimille. In 1760 he composed, at Rome, the chef d'œuvre of his early life, La Cecchina, ossia la buona Figliuola, an opera buffa with a libretto by Goldoni, which "enjoyed a two-year run in Rome and was played in all the important European capitals. It can probably be called the most popular opera buffa of the 18th century...[even more than]... Pergolesi's La serva padrona...[and]... The first of the new era, culminating in the masterworks of Mozart." La buona figliuola represents a special moment in the history of eighteenth-century music in which comedy began to take on a new dramatic force. It is the moment at which the self-consciously sentimental theatrical project of Carlo Goldoni (the opera's librettist) is married with the developing musical language of classicism. This can especially be seen in the sensitive writing of Cecchina's Act II aria "Una povera ragazza." The opera was such a success that fashions of dress, shops, and houses were all named after La Cecchina. It also set off a debate about the merits of the new sentimental style, especially in England, where conservative reactionaries were wary of the supposed feminizing influence of modern Italian music. Antonio Baretti commented in 1768 that individuals “of weight and consideration” should not be blamed for condemning “those puny gentlemen” who, as enthusiasts of Italian opera, were able to “feel its minuet niceties, and to be of course in rapture with the languishing Cecchina’s of Piccini .” This modern music, Baretti decried, “far from having any power of increasing courage or any manly virtues, has on the contrary a tendency towards effeminacy and cowardliness.” Six years after this Piccinni was invited by Queen Marie Antoinette to Paris. He became the first Italian after Jean-Baptiste Lully to write operas for the Academie Royale de Musique, as the opera was called. He collaborated with the poet and dramatist Marmontel on several projects designed to advance the cause of the operatic reform. Marmontel's first librettos took as their foundation texts Philippe Quinault had written for Lully, Roland 1778, and Atys, 1779, then the subsequent efforts, starting with Didon, were original texts. All his later works were successful; but the directors of the Grand Opera conceived the idea of deliberately opposing him to Gluck, by persuading the two composers to treat the same subject – Iphigénie en Tauride – simultaneously. The Parisian public was divided into two rival parties, which, under the names of Gluckists and Piccinnists, carried on an unworthy and disgraceful war. Gluck's masterly Iphigénie en Tauride was first produced on 18 May 1779. Piccinni's Iphigénie followed on 23 January 1781. The antagonism of the rival parties continued, even after Gluck left Paris in 1780; and an attempt was afterwards made to inaugurate a new rivalry with Sacchini. Piccinni remained popular, and on the death of Gluck, in 1787, proposed that a public monument be erected to his memory—a suggestion which the Gluckists refused to support. In 1784 Piccinni became professor at the Royal School of Music, one of the institutions from which the Conservatoire was formed in 1794. On the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Piccinni returned to Naples, where he was at first well received by King Ferdinand IV; but the marriage of his daughter Claire to a French democrat named Pierre Prades-Prestreau brought him disgrace – he was accused of being a revolutionary and placed under house arrest for four years. For the next nine years he maintained a precarious existence in Venice, Naples and Rome; but he returned in 1798 to Paris, where the public received him with enthusiasm, but he made no money. He died at Passy, near Paris. During his life, he worked with the greatest librettists of his age, including Metastasio. After his death a memorial tablet was set up in the house in which he was born at Bari. He had married in 1756 his pupil Vincenza Sibilla, a singer, whom he never allowed to appear on the stage after their marriage. A grandson, Louis Alexandre Piccinni, became a successful repetiteur and composer in Paris. The most complete list of his works was given in the Rivista musicale italiana, viii. 75. He produced over eighty operas, but although his later work shows the influence of the French and German stage, he belongs to the conventional Italian school of the 18th century. Works Librettos La buona figliuola (La Cecchina) 1760, libretto See also Les Neuf Sœurs Notes References Pierre-Louis Ginguené, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Niccolo Piccinni (Paris, 1801). External links Istituto Internazionale per lo studio del '700 musicale napoletano 1728 births 1800 deaths 18th-century Italian male musicians Classical-period composers Neapolitan school composers 18th-century Italian composers Italian male classical composers Italian opera composers Italian musicians Male opera composers People from Bari	[ -0.6087857484817505, -0.16272032260894775, -0.0019211998442187905, -0.02719014324247837, 0.3887304961681366, 0.7033239603042603, 0.09214834123849869, 0.3174723982810974, -0.7400355935096741, -1.0521647930145264, -0.3268563151359558, -0.13090993463993073, -0.3379962146282196, 0.38510388135910034, 0.051896728575229645, 0.15840119123458862, 0.7428062558174133, -0.7909751534461975, -0.30787885189056396, -0.4518657922744751, 0.1115947887301445, 0.2495093196630478, 0.0063274395652115345, 0.26928001642227173, -0.7051425576210022, 0.11186178028583527, -0.16118058562278748, -0.019208412617444992, 0.27647867798805237, -0.07874566316604614, 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221390	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxodiaceae	Taxodiaceae	Taxodiaceae is a formerly recognized coniferous plant family comprising the following ten genera: Athrotaxis Cryptomeria Cunninghamia †Cunninghamites Glyptostrobus Metasequoia Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Taiwania Taxodium However, research has shown that the Taxodiaceae genera, with the exception of Sciadopitys, are phylogenetically part of the family Cupressaceae. There are no consistent characters by which they can be separated, and genetic evidence demonstrates close relationships. The one exception, the genus Sciadopitys, is genetically very distinct from all other conifers, and now treated in a family of its own, Sciadopityaceae. As proposed, genera of the former Taxodiaceae are grouped in the following subfamilies within the larger Cupressaceae: Athrotaxidoideae Quinn (Athrotaxis) Cunninghamioideae (Sieb. & Zucc.) Quinn (Cunninghamia) Sequoioideae (Luerss.) Quinn (Sequoia, Sequoiadendron, and Metasequoia) Taiwanioideae (Hayata) Quinn (Taiwania) Taxodioideae Endl. ex K. Koch (Taxodium, Glyptostrobus, and Cryptomeria) Evolution In earth's history Taxodiaceae were widespread. They are known since the Jurassic and can be found as fossil from Tertiary times. See also Taxodioideae External links Gymnosperm Database - Cupressaceae Gymnosperm Database - Sciadopityaceae Cupressaceae Pinales families Historically recognized plant families	[ 0.03317973017692566, 0.27816224098205566, -0.48471078276634216, 0.4264640212059021, -0.3100264370441437, 0.5399066209793091, 0.04926887899637222, 0.22068609297275543, 0.06183468550443649, 0.10611206293106079, 0.4318198561668396, 0.06179645285010338, -0.6662511825561523, 0.1404767632484436, 0.024633416905999184, 0.5550558567047119, 0.3089984655380249, 0.7031499743461609, 0.021714093163609505, -0.45828977227211, -0.11690431833267212, -0.7231405973434448, 0.31375250220298767, -0.3805241584777832, 0.5616655945777893, 0.3338683545589447, 0.22576966881752014, 0.396666020154953, 0.6101752519607544, -0.23471979796886444, -0.4813365936279297, 0.7956781387329102, 0.4281831681728363, -0.23011356592178345, -0.01137265283614397, 0.08527250587940216, -0.4685952663421631, -0.5686839818954468, -0.22654381394386292, 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221397	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative%20regions%20of%20Greece	Administrative regions of Greece	The administrative regions of Greece () are the country's thirteen first-level administrative entities, each comprising several second-level units, originally known as prefectures and, since 2011, as regional units. History The current regions were established in July 1986 (the Presidential Decree officially establishing them was signed in 1987), by decision of the Interior Minister Menios Koutsogiorgas as second-level administrative entities, complementing the prefectures (Law 1622/1986). Before 1986, there was a traditional division into broad historical–geographical regions (γεωγραφικά διαμερίσματα), which, however, was often arbitrary; not all of the pre-1986 traditional historical-geographic regions had official administrative bodies. Although the post-1986 regions were mostly based on the earlier divisions, they are usually smaller and, in a few cases, do not overlap with the traditional definitions: for instance, the region of Western Greece, which had no previous analogue, comprises territory belonging to the Peloponnese peninsula and the traditional region of Central Greece. As part of a decentralization process inspired by Interior Minister Alekos Papadopoulos, they were accorded more powers in the 1997 Kapodistrias reform of local and regional government. They were transformed into fully separate entities by the 2010 Kallikratis Plan (Law 3852/2010), which entered into effect on 1 January 2011. In the 2011 changes, the government-appointed general secretary (γενικός γραμματέας) was replaced with a popularly elected regional governor (περιφερειάρχης) and a regional council (περιφερειακό συμβούλιο) with 5-year terms. Many powers of the prefectures, which were also abolished or reformed into regional units, were transferred to the region level. The regional organs of the central government were in turn replaced by seven decentralized administrations, which group from one to three regions under a government-appointed general secretary. List of administrative regions Bordering the region of Central Macedonia there is one autonomous region, Mount Athos (Agion Oros, or "Holy Mountain"), an autonomous monastic community under Greek sovereignty. It is located on the easternmost of the three large peninsulas jutting into the Aegean from the Chalkidiki peninsula. See also Administrative divisions of Greece ISO 3166-2:GR List of Greek regions by Human Development Index References Subdivisions of Greece Greece 1 regions, Greece Greece geography-related lists 1987 establishments in Greece	[ 0.7118688821792603, 0.056794196367263794, -0.16505052149295807, 0.2739834487438202, 0.16270466148853302, 0.18726880848407745, 0.16816911101341248, 0.4136964976787567, -0.15930232405662537, -0.398211270570755, -0.8270300030708313, 0.14462968707084656, -0.4016217887401581, 0.4243498742580414, -0.7671582698822021, 0.636175274848938, 0.7064955234527588, 0.5582098364830017, 0.5261853337287903, -0.40838614106178284, -0.18579119443893433, 0.5325905084609985, -0.017478907480835915, -0.07650299370288849, -0.5426768064498901, -0.4192597270011902, 0.3962846100330353, 0.4110552668571472, 0.051686838269233704, 0.19187186658382416, -0.4772222340106964, 0.5391480922698975, -0.6433669924736023, 0.2896324396133423, 0.46169552206993103, -0.012557991780340672, 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221398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures%20of%20Greece	Prefectures of Greece	During the first administrative division of independent Greece in 1833–1836 and again from 1845 until their abolition with the Kallikratis reform in 2010, the prefectures () were the country's main administrative unit. They are now defunct, and have been approximately replaced by regional units. They are called departments in ISO 3166-2:GR and by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. The prefectures were the second-degree organization of local government, grouped into 13 regions or (before 1987) 10 geographical departments, and in turn divided into provinces and comprising a number of communities and municipalities. The prefectures became self-governing entities in 1994, when the first prefectural-level elections took place. The prefects were previously appointed by the government. By 2010, their number had risen to 51, of which one, the Attica Prefecture, where more than a third of the country's population resided, was further subdivided into four prefecture-level administrations (νομαρχίες, sing. νομαρχία). In addition, there were three super-prefectures (υπερνομαρχίες, sing. υπερνομαρχία) controlling two or more prefectures. With the Kallikratis reform, which entered into force on 1 January 2011, the prefectures were abolished. Many, especially in the mainland, were retained in the form of regional units (περιφερειακές ενότητες) within the empowered regions, which largely took over the prefectures' administrative role. Organization The current "Prefectural Self-Governments" were formed in 1994 and replaced the previous prefectures, whose councils and prefects were appointed by the government. Prefectures are governed by a Prefectural Council (νομαρχιακό συμβούλιο) made up of 21 to 37 members, led by the Prefect (νομάρχης) and presided by a Council President (πρόεδρος). Other organs of the prefectures are: The Prefectural Committee, consisted of the Prefect or an assistant appointed by him and 4 to 6 members, elected by the Prefectural Council. The Provincial Council and The Eparchos (Sub-prefect, έπαρχος). Super-prefectures have their own organs (Council, Committee and Super-prefect). Prefectural councillors are elected via public election every four years. Three-fifths of all seats go to the combination winning a majority and two-fifths of the seats go to remaining parties based on a proportional system. Prefect becomes the president of the victorious electoral combination. Electoral is a combination which attains more than 42% in the first round of the prefectural elections. If no combination passes this threshold, a second round takes place between the two combinations that took the most votes in the first round Duties The State ultimately oversees the actions of local governments, including the prefectures, but the Constitution of Greece and the Code of Prefectural Self-Government still provide communities and municipalities with legal control over the administration of their designated areas. The Code of Prefectural Self-Government does not include a non-restrictive list of prefectural duties, but a general rule, according to which the newly formed Prefectural Self-Governments have all the duties of the previous prefectures, which are related to their local affairs. Nonetheless, the affairs of "(central) state administration" belonging to the prefects before 1994 are now exerted by the Presidents of the Regions (περιφερειάρχης). The current Prefectural Self-Governments have kept the "local affairs of prefectureal level" not belonging to the "(central) state administration". With certain laws specific affairs of certain ministries were transferred to the Prefectural Self-Governments (sanitary committees, urban-planning services etc.). List of prefectures History The following prefectures have been part of the Greek state since independence: Notes: Many of the prefectures were originally combined in pairs: Attica and Boeotia formed the Attica and Boeotia Prefecture Phthiotis Prefecture and Phocis Prefecture formed the Phthiotis and Phocis Prefecture (in 1833–1836 the Phocis and Locris Prefecture) Corinthia Prefecture and Argolis Prefecture formed Argolis and Corinthia Prefecture Achaea Prefecture and Elis Prefecture formed the Achaea and Elis Prefecture Aetolia-Acarnania originally also included Evrytania. Unlike the rest mentioned above, the prefecture never broke up into two prefectures, thus being the only one left with a composite appellation. Messenia originally included the southern half of what is now Elis. Laconia originally included the southern-eastern half of what is now Messinia. Euboea originally included the Sporades, which now belong to Magnesia. The territory of Phthiotis Prefecture did not originally include the Domokos Province, which was part of Thessaly (under Ottoman rule until 1881). The area currently constituting the Domokos Province of the Fthiotis Prefecture only became a part of the Greek state in general, and of Phthiotis in particular, after the annexation of Thessaly to Greece in 1881. Arcadia Prefecture and the Cyclades Prefecture are the only prefectures to have their borders unchanged since independence. The capital of Argolis Prefecture, Nafplion was the first capital of the modern Greek state (1828–1834), before the move of the capital to Athens by King Otto. There were several short-lived prefectures in areas of present Albania and Turkey, during the Greek occupation of those areas during World War I and the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) respectively: Argyrokastron (1915–1916), in Northern Epirus (southern Albania) Korytsa (1915–1916), in Northern Epirus (southern Albania) Adrianople (1920–1922), in Eastern Thrace (European Turkey) Kallipolis (1920–1922), in Eastern Thrace (European Turkey) Rhaedestos (1920–1922), in Eastern Thrace (European Turkey) Saranta Ekklisies (1920–1922), in Eastern Thrace (European Turkey) See also ISO 3166-2:GR Notes External links Former subdivisions of Greece Prefectures Greece geography-related lists	[ 0.43153998255729675, 0.25031888484954834, -0.9171682000160217, 0.5164681673049927, -0.23780837655067444, 0.2781854569911957, 0.42541220784187317, 0.40404146909713745, -0.1253547966480255, -0.4644908905029297, -0.355599045753479, 0.03496921434998512, -0.7817789912223816, 0.676310658454895, -0.6665721535682678, 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221399	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttonquail	Buttonquail	Buttonquail or hemipodes are members of a small family of birds, Turnicidae, which resemble, but are unrelated to, the quails of Phasianidae. They inhabit warm grasslands in Asia, Africa, Europe, and Australia. There are 16 species in two genera, with most species being found in the genus Turnix and only one being found in the genus Ortyxelos. Buttonquails are small, drab, running birds, which avoid flying. The female is the more richly colored of the sexes. While the quail-plover is thought to be monogamous, Turnix buttonquails are sequentially polyandrous; both sexes cooperate in building a nest in the earth, but normally only the male incubates the eggs and tends the young, while the female may go on to mate with other males. The eggs hatch after an incubation period of 12 or 13 days, and the young are able to fly within two weeks of hatching. Taxonomy Buttonquail were traditionally placed in Gruiformes or Galliformes (the crane and pheasant orders). The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy elevated them to ordinal status as the Turniciformes and basal to other Neoaves either because their accelerated rate of molecular evolution exceeded the limits of sensitivity of DNA-DNA hybridization or because the authors did not perform the appropriate pairwise comparisons or both. Morphological, DNA-DNA hybridization and sequence data indicate that turnicids correctly belong to the shorebirds (Charadriiformes). They seem to be an ancient group among these, as indicated by the buttonquail-like Early Oligocene fossil Turnipax and the collected molecular data. Description The buttonquails are a group of small terrestrial birds. The smallest species is the quail-plover, the only species in the genus Ortyxelos, which is in length and weighs only . The buttonquails in the genus Turnix range from in length and weigh between . They superficially resemble the true quails of the genus Coturnix, but differ from them in lacking a hind toe and a crop. The females of this family also possess a unique vocal organ created by an enlarged trachea and inflatable bulb in the oesophagus, which they use to produce a booming call. Species Family: Turnicidae Genus: Ortyxelos Quail-plover, Ortyxelos meiffrenii Genus: Turnix Small buttonquail, Turnix sylvaticus Tawitawi small buttonquail, Turnix sylvaticus suluensis (extinct: mid-20th century) Andalusian hemipode, Turnix sylvaticus sylvaticus (possibly extinct: late 20th century?) Red-backed buttonquail, Turnix maculosus Fynbos buttonquail, Turnix hottentottus Black-rumped buttonquail, Turnix nanus Yellow-legged buttonquail, Turnix tanki Spotted buttonquail, Turnix ocellatus Barred buttonquail, Turnix suscitator Madagascar buttonquail, Turnix nigricollis Black-breasted buttonquail, Turnix melanogaster Chestnut-backed buttonquail, Turnix castanotus Buff-breasted buttonquail, Turnix olivii Painted buttonquail, Turnix varius Abrolhos painted buttonquail, Turnix varius scintillans New Caledonian buttonquail, Turnix novaecaledoniae (possibly extinct: early 20th century) Worcester's buttonquail, Turnix worcesteri Sumba buttonquail, Turnix everetti Red-chested buttonquail, Turnix pyrrhothorax Little buttonquail, Turnix velox References Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward (1990): Phylogeny and classification of birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. External links Buttonquail videos on the Internet Bird Collection Extant Rupelian first appearances Taxa named by George Robert Gray	[ -0.31750014424324036, -0.25116077065467834, -0.5134950876235962, -0.04421651363372803, 0.2911328673362732, 0.848992645740509, 0.055773522704839706, 0.5584492087364197, -0.543696403503418, -0.6087201833724976, -0.09748831391334534, 0.30288565158843994, -0.793984591960907, -0.3617495596408844, -0.4106506109237671, 0.34611666202545166, 0.1610424816608429, 0.29528728127479553, 0.1047559380531311, -0.23761074244976044, -0.3458593189716339, -0.29788827896118164, 0.038017842918634415, -0.47284814715385437, 0.7613363265991211, 0.056991398334503174, 0.16505256295204163, 0.07367558032274246, 0.24199053645133972, 0.27225786447525024, -0.17813099920749664, 0.6088437438011169, 0.59511798620224, 0.23258978128433228, -0.5019936561584473, -0.2912348508834839, -0.28224343061447144, -0.27319979667663574, 0.2744907736778259, -0.5459280014038086, -0.13931836187839508, 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221400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight%20dynamics%20%28fixed-wing%20aircraft%29	Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)	Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle's center of gravity (cg), known as pitch, roll and yaw. Control systems adjust the orientation of a vehicle about its cg. A control system includes control surfaces which, when deflected, generate a moment (or couple from ailerons) about the cg which rotates the aircraft in pitch, roll, and yaw. For example, a pitching moment comes from a force applied at a distance forward or aft of the cg, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Roll, pitch and yaw refer to rotations about the respective axes starting from a defined steady flight equilibrium state. The equilibrium roll angle is known as wings level or zero bank angle. The most common aeronautical convention defines roll as acting about the longitudinal axis, positive with the starboard (right) wing down. Yaw is about the vertical body axis, positive with the nose to starboard. Pitch is about an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal plane of symmetry, positive nose up. A fixed-wing aircraft increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose up or down by increasing or decreasing the angle of attack (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce drag making it advantageous to keep the sideslip angle near zero, though an aircraft may be deliberately "sideslipped" to increase drag and descent rate during landing, to keep aircraft heading same as runway heading during cross-wind landings and during flight with asymmetric power. Introduction Reference frames Three right-handed, Cartesian coordinate systems see frequent use in flight dynamics. The first coordinate system has an origin fixed in the reference frame of the Earth: Earth frame Origin - arbitrary, fixed relative to the surface of the Earth xE axis - positive in the direction of north yE axis - positive in the direction of east zE axis - positive towards the center of the Earth In many flight dynamics applications, the Earth frame is assumed to be inertial with a flat xE,yE-plane, though the Earth frame can also be considered a spherical coordinate system with origin at the center of the Earth. The other two reference frames are body-fixed, with origins moving along with the aircraft, typically at the center of gravity. For an aircraft that is symmetric from right-to-left, the frames can be defined as: Body frame Origin - airplane center of gravity xb axis - positive out the nose of the aircraft in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft zb axis - perpendicular to the xb axis, in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft, positive below the aircraft yb axis - perpendicular to the xb,zb-plane, positive determined by the right-hand rule (generally, positive out the right wing) Wind frame Origin - airplane center of gravity xw axis - positive in the direction of the velocity vector of the aircraft relative to the air zw axis - perpendicular to the xw axis, in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft, positive below the aircraft yw axis - perpendicular to the xw,zw-plane, positive determined by the right hand rule (generally, positive to the right) Asymmetric aircraft have analogous body-fixed frames, but different conventions must be used to choose the precise directions of the x and z axes. The Earth frame is a convenient frame to express aircraft translational and rotational kinematics. The Earth frame is also useful in that, under certain assumptions, it can be approximated as inertial. Additionally, one force acting on the aircraft, weight, is fixed in the +zE direction. The body frame is often of interest because the origin and the axes remain fixed relative to the aircraft. This means that the relative orientation of the Earth and body frames describes the aircraft attitude. Also, the direction of the force of thrust is generally fixed in the body frame, though some aircraft can vary this direction, for example by thrust vectoring. The wind frame is a convenient frame to express the aerodynamic forces and moments acting on an aircraft. In particular, the net aerodynamic force can be divided into components along the wind frame axes, with the drag force in the −xw direction and the lift force in the −zw direction. In addition to defining the reference frames, the relative orientation of the reference frames can be determined. The relative orientation can be expressed in a variety of forms, including: Rotation matrices Direction cosines Euler angles Quaternions The various Euler angles relating the three reference frames are important to flight dynamics. Many Euler angle conventions exist, but all of the rotation sequences presented below use the z-y'-x" convention. This convention corresponds to a type of Tait-Bryan angles, which are commonly referred to as Euler angles. This convention is described in detail below for the roll, pitch, and yaw Euler angles that describe the body frame orientation relative to the Earth frame. The other sets of Euler angles are described below by analogy. Transformations (Euler angles) From Earth frame to body frame First, rotate the Earth frame axes xE and yE around the zE axis by the yaw angle ψ. This results in an intermediate reference frame with axes denoted x,y,z, where z'=zE. Second, rotate the x and z axes around the y axis by the pitch angle θ. This results in another intermediate reference frame with axes denoted x",y",z", where y"=y. Finally, rotate the y" and z" axes around the x" axis by the roll angle φ. The reference frame that results after the three rotations is the body frame. Based on the rotations and axes conventions above: Yaw angle ψ: angle between north and the projection of the aircraft longitudinal axis onto the horizontal plane; Pitch angle θ: angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis and horizontal; Roll angle φ: rotation around the aircraft longitudinal axis after rotating by yaw and pitch. From Earth frame to wind frame Heading angle σ: angle between north and the horizontal component of the velocity vector, which describes which direction the aircraft is moving relative to cardinal directions. Flight path angle γ: is the angle between horizontal and the velocity vector, which describes whether the aircraft is climbing or descending. Bank angle μ: represents a rotation of the lift force around the velocity vector, which may indicate whether the airplane is turning. When performing the rotations described above to obtain the body frame from the Earth frame, there is this analogy between angles: σ, ψ (heading vs yaw) γ, θ (Flight path vs pitch) μ, φ (Bank vs Roll) From wind frame to body frame sideslip angle β: angle between the velocity vector and the projection of the aircraft longitudinal axis onto the xw,yw-plane, which describes whether there is a lateral component to the aircraft velocity angle of attack α: angle between the xw,yw-plane and the aircraft longitudinal axis and, among other things, is an important variable in determining the magnitude of the force of lift When performing the rotations described earlier to obtain the body frame from the Earth frame, there is this analogy between angles: β, ψ (sideslip vs yaw) α, θ (attack vs pitch) (φ = 0) (nothing vs roll) Analogies Between the three reference frames there are hence these analogies: Yaw / Heading / Sideslip (Z axis, vertical) Pitch / Flight path / Attack angle (Y axis, wing) Roll / Bank / nothing (X axis, nose) Design cases In analyzing the stability of an aircraft, it is usual to consider perturbations about a nominal steady flight state. So the analysis would be applied, for example, assuming: Straight and level flight Turn at constant speed Approach and landing Takeoff The speed, height and trim angle of attack are different for each flight condition, in addition, the aircraft will be configured differently, e.g. at low speed flaps may be deployed and the undercarriage may be down. Except for asymmetric designs (or symmetric designs at significant sideslip), the longitudinal equations of motion (involving pitch and lift forces) may be treated independently of the lateral motion (involving roll and yaw). The following considers perturbations about a nominal straight and level flight path. To keep the analysis (relatively) simple, the control surfaces are assumed fixed throughout the motion, this is stick-fixed stability. Stick-free analysis requires the further complication of taking the motion of the control surfaces into account. Furthermore, the flight is assumed to take place in still air, and the aircraft is treated as a rigid body. Forces of flight Three forces act on an aircraft in flight: weight, thrust, and the aerodynamic force. Aerodynamic force Components of the aerodynamic force The expression to calculate the aerodynamic force is: where: Difference between static pressure and free current pressure outer normal vector of the element of area tangential stress vector practised by the air on the body adequate reference surface projected on wind axes we obtain: where: Drag Lateral force Lift Aerodynamic coefficients Dynamic pressure of the free current Proper reference surface (wing surface, in case of planes) Pressure coefficient Friction coefficient Drag coefficient Lateral force coefficient Lift coefficient It is necessary to know Cp and Cf in every point on the considered surface. Dimensionless parameters and aerodynamic regimes In absence of thermal effects, there are three remarkable dimensionless numbers: Compressibility of the flow: Mach number Viscosity of the flow: Reynolds number Rarefaction of the flow: Knudsen number where: speed of sound specific heat ratio gas constant by mass unity absolute temperature mean free path According to λ there are three possible rarefaction grades and their corresponding motions are called: Continuum current (negligible rarefaction): Transition current (moderate rarefaction): Free molecular current (high rarefaction): The motion of a body through a flow is considered, in flight dynamics, as continuum current. In the outer layer of the space that surrounds the body viscosity will be negligible. However viscosity effects will have to be considered when analysing the flow in the nearness of the boundary layer. Depending on the compressibility of the flow, different kinds of currents can be considered: Incompressible subsonic current: Compressible subsonic current: Transonic current: Supersonic current: Hypersonic current: Drag coefficient equation and aerodynamic efficiency If the geometry of the body is fixed and in case of symmetric flight (β=0 and Q=0), pressure and friction coefficients are functions depending on: where: angle of attack considered point of the surface Under these conditions, drag and lift coefficient are functions depending exclusively on the angle of attack of the body and Mach and Reynolds numbers. Aerodynamic efficiency, defined as the relation between lift and drag coefficients, will depend on those parameters as well. It is also possible to get the dependency of the drag coefficient respect to the lift coefficient. This relation is known as the drag coefficient equation: drag coefficient equation The aerodynamic efficiency has a maximum value, Emax, respect to CL where the tangent line from the coordinate origin touches the drag coefficient equation plot. The drag coefficient, CD, can be decomposed in two ways. First typical decomposition separates pressure and friction effects: There's a second typical decomposition taking into account the definition of the drag coefficient equation. This decomposition separates the effect of the lift coefficient in the equation, obtaining two terms CD0 and CDi. CD0 is known as the parasitic drag coefficient and it is the base drag coefficient at zero lift. CDi is known as the induced drag coefficient and it is produced by the body lift. Parabolic and generic drag coefficient A good attempt for the induced drag coefficient is to assume a parabolic dependency of the lift Aerodynamic efficiency is now calculated as: If the configuration of the plane is symmetrical respect to the XY plane, minimum drag coefficient equals to the parasitic drag of the plane. In case the configuration is asymmetrical respect to the XY plane, however, minimum drag differs from the parasitic drag. On these cases, a new approximate parabolic drag equation can be traced leaving the minimum drag value at zero lift value. Variation of parameters with the Mach number The Coefficient of pressure varies with Mach number by the relation given below: where Cp is the compressible pressure coefficient Cp0 is the incompressible pressure coefficient M∞ is the freestream Mach number. This relation is reasonably accurate for 0.3 < M < 0.7 and when M = 1 it becomes ∞ which is impossible physical situation and is called Prandtl–Glauert singularity. Aerodynamic force in a specified atmosphere see Aerodynamic force Static stability and control Longitudinal static stability see Longitudinal static stability Directional stability Directional or weathercock stability is concerned with the static stability of the airplane about the z axis. Just as in the case of longitudinal stability it is desirable that the aircraft should tend to return to an equilibrium condition when subjected to some form of yawing disturbance. For this the slope of the yawing moment curve must be positive. An airplane possessing this mode of stability will always point towards the relative wind, hence the name weathercock stability. Dynamic stability and control Longitudinal modes It is common practice to derive a fourth order characteristic equation to describe the longitudinal motion, and then factorize it approximately into a high frequency mode and a low frequency mode. The approach adopted here is using qualitative knowledge of aircraft behavior to simplify the equations from the outset, reaching the result by a more accessible route. The two longitudinal motions (modes) are called the short period pitch oscillation (SPPO), and the phugoid. Short-period pitch oscillation A short input (in control systems terminology an impulse) in pitch (generally via the elevator in a standard configuration fixed-wing aircraft) will generally lead to overshoots about the trimmed condition. The transition is characterized by a damped simple harmonic motion about the new trim. There is very little change in the trajectory over the time it takes for the oscillation to damp out. Generally this oscillation is high frequency (hence short period) and is damped over a period of a few seconds. A real-world example would involve a pilot selecting a new climb attitude, for example 5° nose up from the original attitude. A short, sharp pull back on the control column may be used, and will generally lead to oscillations about the new trim condition. If the oscillations are poorly damped the aircraft will take a long period of time to settle at the new condition, potentially leading to Pilot-induced oscillation. If the short period mode is unstable it will generally be impossible for the pilot to safely control the aircraft for any period of time. This damped harmonic motion is called the short period pitch oscillation; it arises from the tendency of a stable aircraft to point in the general direction of flight. It is very similar in nature to the weathercock mode of missile or rocket configurations. The motion involves mainly the pitch attitude (theta) and incidence (alpha). The direction of the velocity vector, relative to inertial axes is . The velocity vector is: where , are the inertial axes components of velocity. According to Newton's Second Law, the accelerations are proportional to the forces, so the forces in inertial axes are: where m is the mass. By the nature of the motion, the speed variation is negligible over the period of the oscillation, so: But the forces are generated by the pressure distribution on the body, and are referred to the velocity vector. But the velocity (wind) axes set is not an inertial frame so we must resolve the fixed axes forces into wind axes. Also, we are only concerned with the force along the z-axis: Or: In words, the wind axes force is equal to the centripetal acceleration. The moment equation is the time derivative of the angular momentum: where M is the pitching moment, and B is the moment of inertia about the pitch axis. Let: , the pitch rate. The equations of motion, with all forces and moments referred to wind axes are, therefore: We are only concerned with perturbations in forces and moments, due to perturbations in the states and q, and their time derivatives. These are characterized by stability derivatives determined from the flight condition. The possible stability derivatives are: Lift due to incidence, this is negative because the z-axis is downwards whilst positive incidence causes an upwards force. Lift due to pitch rate, arises from the increase in tail incidence, hence is also negative, but small compared with . Pitching moment due to incidence - the static stability term. Static stability requires this to be negative. Pitching moment due to pitch rate - the pitch damping term, this is always negative. Since the tail is operating in the flowfield of the wing, changes in the wing incidence cause changes in the downwash, but there is a delay for the change in wing flowfield to affect the tail lift, this is represented as a moment proportional to the rate of change of incidence: The delayed downwash effect gives the tail more lift and produces a nose down moment, so is expected to be negative. The equations of motion, with small perturbation forces and moments become: These may be manipulated to yield as second order linear differential equation in : This represents a damped simple harmonic motion. We should expect to be small compared with unity, so the coefficient of (the 'stiffness' term) will be positive, provided . This expression is dominated by , which defines the longitudinal static stability of the aircraft, it must be negative for stability. The damping term is reduced by the downwash effect, and it is difficult to design an aircraft with both rapid natural response and heavy damping. Usually, the response is underdamped but stable. Phugoid If the stick is held fixed, the aircraft will not maintain straight and level flight (except in the unlikely case that it happens to be perfectly trimmed for level flight at its current altitude and thrust setting), but will start to dive, level out and climb again. It will repeat this cycle until the pilot intervenes. This long period oscillation in speed and height is called the phugoid mode. This is analyzed by assuming that the SSPO performs its proper function and maintains the angle of attack near its nominal value. The two states which are mainly affected are the flight path angle (gamma) and speed. The small perturbation equations of motion are: which means the centripetal force is equal to the perturbation in lift force. For the speed, resolving along the trajectory: where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface. The acceleration along the trajectory is equal to the net x-wise force minus the component of weight. We should not expect significant aerodynamic derivatives to depend on the flight path angle, so only and need be considered. is the drag increment with increased speed, it is negative, likewise is the lift increment due to speed increment, it is also negative because lift acts in the opposite sense to the z-axis. The equations of motion become: These may be expressed as a second order equation in flight path angle or speed perturbation: Now lift is very nearly equal to weight: where is the air density, is the wing area, W the weight and is the lift coefficient (assumed constant because the incidence is constant), we have, approximately: The period of the phugoid, T, is obtained from the coefficient of u: Or: Since the lift is very much greater than the drag, the phugoid is at best lightly damped. A propeller with fixed speed would help. Heavy damping of the pitch rotation or a large rotational inertia increase the coupling between short period and phugoid modes, so that these will modify the phugoid. Lateral modes With a symmetrical rocket or missile, the directional stability in yaw is the same as the pitch stability; it resembles the short period pitch oscillation, with yaw plane equivalents to the pitch plane stability derivatives. For this reason, pitch and yaw directional stability are collectively known as the "weathercock" stability of the missile. Aircraft lack the symmetry between pitch and yaw, so that directional stability in yaw is derived from a different set of stability derivatives. The yaw plane equivalent to the short period pitch oscillation, which describes yaw plane directional stability is called Dutch roll. Unlike pitch plane motions, the lateral modes involve both roll and yaw motion. Dutch roll It is customary to derive the equations of motion by formal manipulation in what, to the engineer, amounts to a piece of mathematical sleight of hand. The current approach follows the pitch plane analysis in formulating the equations in terms of concepts which are reasonably familiar. Applying an impulse via the rudder pedals should induce Dutch roll, which is the oscillation in roll and yaw, with the roll motion lagging yaw by a quarter cycle, so that the wing tips follow elliptical paths with respect to the aircraft. The yaw plane translational equation, as in the pitch plane, equates the centripetal acceleration to the side force. where (beta) is the sideslip angle, Y the side force and r the yaw rate. The moment equations are a bit trickier. The trim condition is with the aircraft at an angle of attack with respect to the airflow. The body x-axis does not align with the velocity vector, which is the reference direction for wind axes. In other words, wind axes are not principal axes (the mass is not distributed symmetrically about the yaw and roll axes). Consider the motion of an element of mass in position -z, x in the direction of the y-axis, i.e. into the plane of the paper. If the roll rate is p, the velocity of the particle is: Made up of two terms, the force on this particle is first the proportional to rate of v change, the second is due to the change in direction of this component of velocity as the body moves. The latter terms gives rise to cross products of small quantities (pq, pr, qr), which are later discarded. In this analysis, they are discarded from the outset for the sake of clarity. In effect, we assume that the direction of the velocity of the particle due to the simultaneous roll and yaw rates does not change significantly throughout the motion. With this simplifying assumption, the acceleration of the particle becomes: The yawing moment is given by: There is an additional yawing moment due to the offset of the particle in the y direction: The yawing moment is found by summing over all particles of the body: where N is the yawing moment, E is a product of inertia, and C is the moment of inertia about the yaw axis. A similar reasoning yields the roll equation: where L is the rolling moment and A the roll moment of inertia. Lateral and longitudinal stability derivatives The states are (sideslip), r (yaw rate) and p (roll rate), with moments N (yaw) and L (roll), and force Y (sideways). There are nine stability derivatives relevant to this motion, the following explains how they originate. However a better intuitive understanding is to be gained by simply playing with a model airplane, and considering how the forces on each component are affected by changes in sideslip and angular velocity: Side force due to side slip (in absence of yaw). Sideslip generates a sideforce from the fin and the fuselage. In addition, if the wing has dihedral, side slip at a positive roll angle increases incidence on the starboard wing and reduces it on the port side, resulting in a net force component directly opposite to the sideslip direction. Sweep back of the wings has the same effect on incidence, but since the wings are not inclined in the vertical plane, backsweep alone does not affect . However, anhedral may be used with high backsweep angles in high performance aircraft to offset the wing incidence effects of sideslip. Oddly enough this does not reverse the sign of the wing configuration's contribution to (compared to the dihedral case). Side force due to roll rate. Roll rate causes incidence at the fin, which generates a corresponding side force. Also, positive roll (starboard wing down) increases the lift on the starboard wing and reduces it on the port. If the wing has dihedral, this will result in a side force momentarily opposing the resultant sideslip tendency. Anhedral wing and or stabilizer configurations can cause the sign of the side force to invert if the fin effect is swamped. Side force due to yaw rate. Yawing generates side forces due to incidence at the rudder, fin and fuselage. Yawing moment due to sideslip forces. Sideslip in the absence of rudder input causes incidence on the fuselage and empennage, thus creating a yawing moment counteracted only by the directional stiffness which would tend to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind in horizontal flight conditions. Under sideslip conditions at a given roll angle will tend to point the nose into the sideslip direction even without rudder input, causing a downward spiraling flight. Yawing moment due to roll rate. Roll rate generates fin lift causing a yawing moment and also differentially alters the lift on the wings, thus affecting the induced drag contribution of each wing, causing a (small) yawing moment contribution. Positive roll generally causes positive values unless the empennage is anhedral or fin is below the roll axis. Lateral force components resulting from dihedral or anhedral wing lift differences has little effect on because the wing axis is normally closely aligned with the center of gravity. Yawing moment due to yaw rate. Yaw rate input at any roll angle generates rudder, fin and fuselage force vectors which dominate the resultant yawing moment. Yawing also increases the speed of the outboard wing whilst slowing down the inboard wing, with corresponding changes in drag causing a (small) opposing yaw moment. opposes the inherent directional stiffness which tends to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind and always matches the sign of the yaw rate input. Rolling moment due to sideslip. A positive sideslip angle generates empennage incidence which can cause positive or negative roll moment depending on its configuration. For any non-zero sideslip angle dihedral wings causes a rolling moment which tends to return the aircraft to the horizontal, as does back swept wings. With highly swept wings the resultant rolling moment may be excessive for all stability requirements and anhedral could be used to offset the effect of wing sweep induced rolling moment. Rolling moment due to yaw rate. Yaw increases the speed of the outboard wing whilst reducing speed of the inboard one, causing a rolling moment to the inboard side. The contribution of the fin normally supports this inward rolling effect unless offset by anhedral stabilizer above the roll axis (or dihedral below the roll axis). Rolling moment due to roll rate. Roll creates counter rotational forces on both starboard and port wings whilst also generating such forces at the empennage. These opposing rolling moment effects have to be overcome by the aileron input in order to sustain the roll rate. If the roll is stopped at a non-zero roll angle the upward rolling moment induced by the ensuing sideslip should return the aircraft to the horizontal unless exceeded in turn by the downward rolling moment resulting from sideslip induced yaw rate. Longitudinal stability could be ensured or improved by minimizing the latter effect. Equations of motion Since Dutch roll is a handling mode, analogous to the short period pitch oscillation, any effect it might have on the trajectory may be ignored. The body rate r is made up of the rate of change of sideslip angle and the rate of turn. Taking the latter as zero, assuming no effect on the trajectory, for the limited purpose of studying the Dutch roll: The yaw and roll equations, with the stability derivatives become: (yaw) (roll) The inertial moment due to the roll acceleration is considered small compared with the aerodynamic terms, so the equations become: This becomes a second order equation governing either roll rate or sideslip: The equation for roll rate is identical. But the roll angle, (phi) is given by: If p is a damped simple harmonic motion, so is , but the roll must be in quadrature with the roll rate, and hence also with the sideslip. The motion consists of oscillations in roll and yaw, with the roll motion lagging 90 degrees behind the yaw. The wing tips trace out elliptical paths. Stability requires the "stiffness" and "damping" terms to be positive. These are: (damping) (stiffness) The denominator is dominated by , the roll damping derivative, which is always negative, so the denominators of these two expressions will be positive. Considering the "stiffness" term: will be positive because is always negative and is positive by design. is usually negative, whilst is positive. Excessive dihedral can destabilize the Dutch roll, so configurations with highly swept wings require anhedral to offset the wing sweep contribution to . The damping term is dominated by the product of the roll damping and the yaw damping derivatives, these are both negative, so their product is positive. The Dutch roll should therefore be damped. The motion is accompanied by slight lateral motion of the center of gravity and a more "exact" analysis will introduce terms in etc. In view of the accuracy with which stability derivatives can be calculated, this is an unnecessary pedantry, which serves to obscure the relationship between aircraft geometry and handling, which is the fundamental objective of this article. Roll subsidence Jerking the stick sideways and returning it to center causes a net change in roll orientation. The roll motion is characterized by an absence of natural stability, there are no stability derivatives which generate moments in response to the inertial roll angle. A roll disturbance induces a roll rate which is only canceled by pilot or autopilot intervention. This takes place with insignificant changes in sideslip or yaw rate, so the equation of motion reduces to: is negative, so the roll rate will decay with time. The roll rate reduces to zero, but there is no direct control over the roll angle. Spiral mode Simply holding the stick still, when starting with the wings near level, an aircraft will usually have a tendency to gradually veer off to one side of the straight flightpath. This is the (slightly unstable) spiral mode. Spiral mode trajectory In studying the trajectory, it is the direction of the velocity vector, rather than that of the body, which is of interest. The direction of the velocity vector when projected on to the horizontal will be called the track, denoted (mu). The body orientation is called the heading, denoted (psi). The force equation of motion includes a component of weight: where g is the gravitational acceleration, and U is the speed. Including the stability derivatives: Roll rates and yaw rates are expected to be small, so the contributions of and will be ignored. The sideslip and roll rate vary gradually, so their time derivatives are ignored. The yaw and roll equations reduce to: (yaw) (roll) Solving for and p: Substituting for sideslip and roll rate in the force equation results in a first order equation in roll angle: This is an exponential growth or decay, depending on whether the coefficient of is positive or negative. The denominator is usually negative, which requires (both products are positive). This is in direct conflict with the Dutch roll stability requirement, and it is difficult to design an aircraft for which both the Dutch roll and spiral mode are inherently stable. Since the spiral mode has a long time constant, the pilot can intervene to effectively stabilize it, but an aircraft with an unstable Dutch roll would be difficult to fly. It is usual to design the aircraft with a stable Dutch roll mode, but slightly unstable spiral mode. See also Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics Aeronautics Steady flight Aircraft flight control system Aircraft flight mechanics Aircraft heading Aircraft bank Crosswind landing Dynamic positioning Flight control surfaces Helicopter dynamics JSBSim (An open source flight dynamics software model) Longitudinal static stability Rigid body dynamics Rotation matrix Ship motions Stability derivatives Static margin Weathervane effect 1902 Wright Glider References Notes Bibliography NK Sinha and N Ananthkrishnan (2013), Elementary Flight Dynamics with an Introduction to Bifurcation and Continuation Methods, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis. External links Open source simulation framework in C++ An open source, platform-independent, flight dynamics & control software library in C++ Aerodynamics Avionics	[ -0.14778360724449158, 0.3118780553340912, 0.2943496108055115, 0.23891395330429077, -0.38041263818740845, 0.2828873097896576, -0.3821534514427185, -0.08497992157936096, -0.36863237619400024, -0.6261200904846191, -0.3224949240684509, 0.6534231305122375, -0.2759830355644226, -0.15058088302612305, -0.03616337478160858, 0.5551211833953857, 0.07061736285686493, -0.1155952587723732, 0.2159019559621811, -0.03340679034590721, -0.5237025618553162, -0.3358173966407776, 0.4839220941066742, -0.1333872228860855, -0.030187290161848068, -0.2857610881328583, 0.026040105149149895, 0.7873965501785278, 0.2873324155807495, 0.22888346016407013, -0.0028571004513651133, 0.4883700907230377, -0.4145604968070984, -0.20541289448738098, 0.06390117853879929, 0.10910603404045105, 0.06778625398874283, -0.07980756461620331, 0.1678801327943802, 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221408	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Louis%20Ginguen%C3%A9	Pierre-Louis Ginguené	Pierre-Louis Ginguené (25 April 1748 – 16 November 1816) was a French author. Biography He was born at Rennes, in Brittany, and educated at a Jesuit college there. He came to Paris in 1772, and wrote criticisms for the Mercure de France. He also composed a comic opera, Pomponin (1777). The Satire des satires (1778) and the Confession de Zulmé (1779) followed. The Confession was claimed by several different authors and was very successful. Ginguené's defence of Niccola Piccinni against the partisans of Gluck made him more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms of the French Revolution, and joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the Mémoire pour le peuple français (1788), and others in producing the Feuille villageoise, a weekly paper addressed to the villages of France. He also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening of the states-general. In his Lettres sur les confessions de J.-J. Rousseau (1791), he defended the life and principles of his author. He was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror and escaped with life only by the downfall of Maximilien Robespierre. After his release he assisted, as director-general of the "commission exécutive de l'instruction publique", in reorganizing the system of public instruction, and he was an original member of the Institute of France. In 1797, the Directory appointed him minister plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia. After seven months, Ginguené retired to his country house of St Prix, in the valley of Montmorency. He was appointed a member of the tribunate, but Napoleon, finding that he was not sufficiently tractable, had him expelled at the first "purge", and Ginguené returned to his literary pursuits. Career He was one of the commission appointed to continue the Histoire littéraire de la France, and he contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared in 1814, 1817 and 1820. Ginguené's most important work is the Histoire littéraire d'Italie (14 vols., 1811–1835). He was putting the finishing touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died. The last five volumes were written by Francesco Salfi and revised by Pierre Daunou. In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was guided for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi, but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model. Ginguené edited the Décade philosophique, politique et littéraire until it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely to the Biographie universelle, the Mercure de France and the Encyclopidie méthodique; and he edited the works of Nicolas Chamfort and of Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, Pomponin on le tuteur mystifié (1777); La Satire des satires (1778); De l'autorité de Rabelais dans la revolution présente (1791); De M. Neckar (1795); Fables nouvelles (1810); Fables inédites (1814). Legacy Ginguené is buried in the Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris. The Rue Ginguené in Rennes is named after him. Works Pomponin, ou le tuteur mystifié, opéra bouffon en 2 actes, représenté au château de Fontainebleau en 1777 La Satire des satires, 1778 Épître au poète Le Brun pour l’engager à publier le recueil de ses poésies, avril 1785 Éloge de Louis XII, Père du peuple, discours qui a concouru pour le prix de l’Académie française in 1788 Ode sur les États généraux, 1789 De l’Autorité de Rabelais dans la révolution présente et dans la constitution civile du clergé, ou institutions royales, politiques et ecclésiastiques, tirées de "Gargantua" et de "Pantagruel", 1791 Lettres sur les Confessions de J.-J. Rousseau, 1791 Tableaux de la Révolution française, ou Collection de quarante-huit gravures, représentant les événements principaux qui ont eu lieu en France depuis la transformation des États généraux en Assemblée nationale, le 20 juin 1789, en collaboration avec l’abbé Claude Fauchet, Chamfort et Pagès, 1791-1804 De M. Necker, et de son livre intitulé : "De la révolution française", 1796 Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicolas Piccinni, 1800 Coup d’œil rapide sur le ″Génie du christianisme″, ou Quelques pages sur les cinq volumes in-8° publiés sous ce titre par François-Auguste Chateaubriand, 1802 Lettres de P.-L. Ginguené, ... à un académicien de l’Académie impériale de Turin [l’abbé Valperga de Caluso] sur un passage de la vie de Vittorio Alfieri, 1809 Fables nouvelles, 1810 Histoire littéraire d’Italie, 1811 Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M.-J. de Chénier, 1811 Les Noces de Thétis et de Pélée, poème de Catulle, traduit en vers français, 1812 See also Les Neuf Sœurs Bibliography Paolo Grossi, Pierre-Louis Ginguené, historien de la littérature italienne, Bern, Lang, 2006 () Édouard Guitton, Ginguené : idéologue et médiateur, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 1995 () Paul Hazard, Journal de Ginguené, 1807-1808, avec une étude, Paris, Hachette, 1910 Cristina Trinchero, Pierre-Louis Ginguené (1748-1816) e l’identità nazionale italiana nel contesto culturale europeo, Roma, Bulzoni, 2004 () Sergio Zoppi, P.-L. Ginguené journaliste et critique littéraire, Torino, G. Giappichelli, 1968 "Eloge de Ginguené" by Dacier, in the Mémoires de l'institut, tom. vii.; "Discours" by M. Daunou, prefixed to the second ed. of the Hist. litt. d'Italie; Dominique Joseph Garat, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de PL Guingené, prefixed to a catalogue of his library (Paris, 18I7). External links Pierre-Louis Ginguené on Data.bnf.fr 1748 births 1816 deaths People from Rennes 18th-century French male writers 19th-century French writers 18th-century French poets 18th-century French dramatists and playwrights 18th-century French journalists Ambassadors of France to the Kingdom of Sardinia Breton writers Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery French literary critics Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres French male non-fiction writers 19th-century French male writers	[ -0.5023986101150513, 0.5695347189903259, -0.9265252351760864, 0.022626614198088646, 0.027147438377141953, 0.8799711465835571, 0.49281617999076843, 0.1380341798067093, -0.5474545359611511, -0.7506404519081116, 0.1084655299782753, 0.7483451962471008, -0.04271618649363518, -0.00551966717466712, 0.02823605202138424, 0.08356165885925293, -0.057347651571035385, -0.31987306475639343, -0.29691559076309204, -0.42778581380844116, -0.5203444361686707, -0.041483309119939804, 0.2935246229171753, 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221410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castells	Castells	Castells () is a Catalan name, the plural form of Castell (castle). It may refer to: Castells (surname) The Castells, American early 1960s pop band Castells, the Catalan tradition of building human towers See also Castel (disambiguation) Castell (disambiguation) Castella (disambiguation) Castelli (disambiguation) Castello (disambiguation) Castells (disambiguation) Castile (disambiguation)	[ -0.3378359377384186, 0.5815466642379761, 0.3011331558227539, -0.47303345799446106, -0.014308069832623005, 0.7934163212776184, -0.0278648491948843, 0.5320401191711426, -0.7747281789779663, -0.44498568773269653, 0.2904288172721863, -0.01883554458618164, 0.20241804420948029, 0.3428318202495575, -1.0475891828536987, 0.7843661308288574, 0.5827760100364685, 0.2879711091518402, 0.37875649333000183, -0.7679284811019897, 0.3986290693283081, -0.4959034025669098, -0.3536759614944458, -0.24784249067306519, -0.1790681630373001, -0.05628364160656929, -0.03967326506972313, 0.2521171569824219, 0.5555468201637268, -0.13114506006240845, 0.013599949888885021, 0.5260218977928162, 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221411	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxodium	Taxodium	Taxodium is a genus of one to three species (depending on taxonomic opinion) of extremely flood-tolerant conifers in the cypress family, Cupressaceae. The generic name is derived from the Latin word taxus, meaning "yew", and the Greek word εἶδος (eidos), meaning "similar to." Within the family, Taxodium is most closely related to Chinese swamp cypress (Glyptostrobus pensilis) and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica). Species of Taxodium occur in the southern part of the North American continent and are deciduous in the north and semi-evergreen to evergreen in the south. They are large trees, reaching tall and (exceptionally ) trunk diameter. The needle-like leaves, long, are borne spirally on the shoots, twisted at the base so as to appear in two flat rows on either side of the shoot. The cones are globose, diameter, with 10-25 scales, each scale with 1-2 seeds; they are mature in 7–9 months after pollination, when they disintegrate to release the seeds. The male (pollen) cones are produced in pendulous racemes, and shed their pollen in early spring. Taxodium species grow pneumatophores, or cypress knees, when growing in or beside water. The function of these knees is currently a subject of ongoing research. Species The three extant taxa of Taxodium are treated here as distinct species, though some botanists treat them in just one or two species, with the others considered as varieties of the first described. The three are distinct in ecology, growing in different environments, but hybridise where they meet. †Taxodium dubium (Sternb.) Heer Formerly placed here Glyptostrobus pensilis (Staunton ex D.Don) K.Koch (as T. japonicum var. heterophyllum Brongn.) Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. (as T. sempervirens D.Don) Uses The trees are especially prized for their wood, of which the heartwood is extremely rot- and termite-resistant. The heartwood contains a sesquiterpene called cypressene, which acts as a natural preservative. It takes decades for cypressene to accumulate in the wood, so lumber taken from old-growth trees is more rot resistant than that from second-growth trees. However, age also increases susceptibility to Pecky Rot fungus (Stereum taxodii), which attacks the heartwood and causes some damaged trees to become hollow and thus useless for timber. Bald Cypress wood was much used in former days in the southeastern United States for roof shingles. The shredded bark of these trees is used as a mulch. Evolution In earth's history Taxodium was much more widespread in the Northern Hemisphere than today. The oldest fossils were found in Late Cretaceous deposits from North America. The trees persisted in Europe until around 2.5 million years ago, during the Pliocene. See also Bükkábrány mummified forest References External links Gymnosperm Database - Taxodium Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary website National Audubon Society, undated. Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary. A Companion Field Guide. Artype Inc., Ft. Myers. 25 p. 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221413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo%20Tiraboschi	Girolamo Tiraboschi	Girolamo Tiraboschi S.J. (; 18 December 1731 – 9 June 1794) was an Italian literary critic, the first historian of Italian literature. Biography Born in Bergamo, he studied at the Jesuit college in Monza, entered the order, and was appointed in 1755 professor of eloquence in the University of Milan. There he produced (1766–1768) Vetera humiliatorum monumenta (3 vols), a history of the extinct order of the Humiliati, which made his literary reputation. Nominated in 1770 as librarian to Francis III, duke of Modena, he turned to account the copious materials there accumulated for the composition of his Storia della letteratura italiana. This vast work, in which Italian literature from the time of the Etruscans to the end of the 17th century is traced in detail, occupied eleven years, 1771–1782, and the thirteen quarto volumes embodying it appeared successively in Modena during that period. A second enlarged edition (16 vols) was issued from 1787 to 1794, and was succeeded by many others, besides abridgments in German, French and English. Tiraboschi died in Modena on 3 June 1794, leaving a high reputation for virtue, learning and piety. Tiraboschi also wrote, among many other works: Biblioteca modenese (6 vols, 1781–1786) Memorie storiche modenesi (5 vols, 1793–1794) He edited the Nuovo giornale dei letterati d'Italia (1773–1790), and left materials for a work of great research entitled Dizionario topografico-storico degli stati estensi (2 vols, 1824–1825), Selected publications De patriae historia, Milano 1760; Storia della letteratura italiana, Modena, I edizione in 13 volumi, 1772–1782; II ed. rivista e ampliata, in 15 volumi, più un sedicesimo che contiene l'indice generale, 1787–1794); Vita del Conte D. Fulvio Testi, Modena, 1780; Biblioteca Modenese 1781–1786 ; Notizie biografiche e letterarie in continuazione della Biblioteca modonese, Reggio, 1796 (on-line) Storia dell'augusta abbazia di San Silvestro dì Nonantola, aggiuntovi il Codice Diplomatico della medesima illustrato con note, 2 volumi, Modena, 1784–1789; Notizie de' pittori, scultori, incisori, architetti natii degli stati del duca di Modena, Modena, 1786; Notizie della Confraternita di San Pietro Martire in Modena, Modena, 1789; Riflessioni sugli Scrittori Genealogici, Padova 1789; Dell'origine della poesia rimata, opera di Giammaria Barbieri modenese, pubblicata e con annotazioni illustrata dal cav. ab. Girolamo Tiraboschi, Modena 1790; Memorie storiche modenesi col Codice Diplomatico illustrato con note, 3 volumi, Modena, 1793–1795; Dizionario topografico storico degli stati estensi, Modena, 1824–1825 (postumo) Notes Attribution References Balduino, Armando; (Vittore Branca, ed.) (1973) Dizionario critico della letteratura italiana. Torino: UTET; vol. III, 502-506: Tiraboschi, Girolamo. Binni, Walter; (Emilio Cecchi & Natalino Sapegno, eds.) (1966) Storia della letteratura italiana . Milano: Garzanti; vol. VI, 628-630: La critica fra Illuminismo e Preromanticismo: Bettinelli e Baretti. 1731 births 1794 deaths Writers from Bergamo Italian historians Italian art historians 18th-century Italian Jesuits University of Milan faculty	[ -0.6159369349479675, 0.3908657133579254, 0.12520086765289307, -0.3567429780960083, -1.0133781433105469, 0.39693745970726013, 0.5028990507125854, 0.14734041690826416, -1.2949066162109375, -1.11404287815094, 0.04998563602566719, 0.08686242997646332, -0.3594770133495331, 0.4995020627975464, -0.08441518992185593, -0.16048023104667664, 0.29129257798194885, 0.04450390487909317, -0.22563931345939636, -0.1963609904050827, 0.573491096496582, 0.29921644926071167, 0.33977648615837097, -0.31695035099983215, -0.6878399848937988, 0.23749463260173798, 0.07671169191598892, 0.13736474514007568, 0.4323529899120331, 0.2121826857328415, 0.5970599055290222, 0.7245845794677734, -0.21668501198291779, 0.009851961396634579, -0.06511828303337097, 0.5156688094139099, 0.7553426623344421, 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221415	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp%20cypress	Swamp cypress	Swamp cypress is a common name for more than one species of plants in the family Cupressaceae (cypresses): Species of the genus Taxodium Taxodium distichum, native to the Southeastern and Gulf Coastal Plains of the United States Glyptostrobus pensilis, native to subtropical southeastern China Actinostrobus pyramidalis, native to southwest Western Australia	[ 0.06064307689666748, -0.022419733926653862, -0.7041015625, 0.2923712134361267, 0.32043033838272095, 0.4135633707046509, 0.31020697951316833, 0.26789647340774536, -0.42162755131721497, 0.2085801213979721, 0.21261394023895264, 0.1278122514486313, -0.8576415181159973, 0.6277791261672974, -0.12306040525436401, 1.015856385231018, 0.5402953028678894, 0.5630684494972229, -0.2700922191143036, 0.21769867837429047, -0.39704206585884094, -0.816960871219635, 0.8232736587524414, 0.11954964697360992, 0.10189580172300339, 0.32216784358024597, 0.5831656455993652, 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221416	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predella	Predella	A predella is the platform or step on which an altar stands (predel or pretel, Langobardic for "a low wooden platform that serves as a basis in a piece of furniture"). In painting, the predella is the painting or sculpture along the frame at the bottom of a polyptych or multipanel altarpiece. In later Christian medieval and Renaissance altarpieces, where the main panel consisted of a scene with large static figures, it was normal to include a predella below with a number of small-scale narrative paintings depicting events from the life of the dedicatee, whether the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin or a saint. Typically there would be three to five small scenes, in a horizontal format. They are significant in art history, as the artist had more freedom from iconographic conventions than in the main panel as they could only be seen from close up. As the main panels themselves became more dramatic, during Mannerism, predellas were no longer painted, and they are rare by the middle of the 16th century. Predella scenes are now often separated from the rest of the altarpiece in museums. Examples Examples of predellas include: Duccio – the predella of his Maestà – one of the earliest predellas. Lorenzo Monaco – Incidents in the Life of Saint Benedict (c. 1407–1409) Luca Signorelli – The Adoration of the Shepherds (c. 1496) Andrea Mantegna – San Zeno Altarpiece (1459) Stanley Spencer – Sandham Memorial Chapel, Burghclere, Hants. Pre-Raphaelite Dante Rossetti revisited the predella in his second Beata Beatrix (1871-1872). Leigh Behnke – a 20th-century realist, she has made use of the predella format in numerous works (c. 1981–2019) References External links Altarpieces	[ 0.08339811861515045, -0.054483674466609955, -0.18421216309070587, -0.0836821123957634, 0.06628486514091492, 0.4135085940361023, 0.3232378363609314, 0.48329412937164307, -0.5237262845039368, -0.7435335516929626, -0.2851810157299042, 0.07163427025079727, 0.42729392647743225, 0.013264676555991173, -0.2936054766178131, 0.091997891664505, 0.7381640672683716, 0.37839576601982117, 0.35892996191978455, -0.4651910066604614, 0.0796554684638977, -0.0790228620171547, -0.3660924434661865, -0.2672889232635498, 0.7961443066596985, -0.049247484654188156, 0.01666850596666336, -0.1501404196023941, -0.002426478313282132, 0.1305326223373413, 0.13866977393627167, 0.48915356397628784, 0.00036517652915790677, -0.9672963619232178, 0.3672771453857422, -0.2646835744380951, 0.6117382049560547, -0.6165589690208435, -1.0130527019500732, -0.6606387495994568, 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221417	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevation%20%28disambiguation%29	Elevation (disambiguation)	Elevation is the height of a geographic location above a fixed reference point. Elevation may also refer to: Math and science Elevation (ballistics), the angle between a weapon barrel and the horizontal plane Elevation (astronomy), one component of the horizontal coordinate system Elevation (view), used in architectural drawing to represent a building facade Elevation (kinesiology), an anatomical term of motion Elevation (emotion) Elevation, a type of semantic change in linguistics Music "Elevation" (song), by U2 "Elevation", a song by the American band Television from the album Marquee Moon "Elevation", a song by Zion I from the album Mind Over Matter "Elevation", a Dutch trance song composed by Jack Molenschot "Elevation", a jazz song written by Gerry Mulligan and recorded by Elliot Lawrence Elevation (Yonder Mountain String Band album), 1999 Elevation (Anggun album), 2008 Elevation (Pharoah Sanders album), 1974 Elevation (Lawson Rollins album), 2011 "Elevation", a pop song by English band Erasure, 2014 Other uses Elevation, New Zealand, a locality in the Marlborough District Elevation (liturgy), the lifting of consecrated bread and wine in Mass Elevation (novella), a 2018 novella by Stephen King Elevation, or privilege escalation, use of a computer security exploit to access protected information or functions AEW Dark: Elevation, professional wrestling web television program See also Elevated (disambiguation) Elevator (disambiguation)	[ -0.21580404043197632, 0.5252311825752258, 0.013574516400694847, -0.22662867605686188, 0.0922192931175232, 0.08497095108032227, 0.7892010807991028, 0.2591928243637085, 0.009158206172287464, -0.6545066833496094, -0.4750950038433075, 0.4750884473323822, 0.12207541614770889, 0.38331708312034607, 0.1367259919643402, 0.44127029180526733, 0.21457163989543915, 0.4364032745361328, -0.1493503451347351, 0.16774533689022064, -0.22952330112457275, -0.23308145999908447, 0.15910117328166962, -0.8013026714324951, 0.1801333874464035, -0.27672436833381653, 0.4606190025806427, 0.1696671098470688, 0.24218928813934326, 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221419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalism	Marginalism	Marginalism is a theory of economics that attempts to explain the discrepancy in the value of goods and services by reference to their secondary, or marginal, utility. It states that the reason why the price of diamonds is higher than that of water, for example, owes to the greater additional satisfaction of the diamonds over the water. Thus, while the water has greater total utility, the diamond has greater marginal utility. Although the central concept of marginalism is that of marginal utility, marginalists, following the lead of Alfred Marshall, drew upon the idea of marginal physical productivity in explanation of cost. The neoclassical tradition that emerged from British marginalism abandoned the concept of utility and gave marginal rates of substitution a more fundamental role in analysis. Marginalism is an integral part of mainstream economic theory. Important marginal concepts Marginality For issues of marginality, constraints are conceptualized as a border or margin. The location of the margin for any individual corresponds to his or her endowment, broadly conceived to include opportunities. This endowment is determined by many things including physical laws (which constrain how forms of energy and matter may be transformed), accidents of nature (which determine the presence of natural resources), and the outcomes of past decisions made both by others and by the individual. A value that holds true given particular constraints is a marginal value. A change that would be affected as or by a specific loosening or tightening of those constraints is a marginal change. Neoclassical economics usually assumes that marginal changes are infinitesimals or limits. Although this assumption makes the analysis less robust, it increases tractability. One is therefore often told that "marginal" is synonymous with "very small", though in more general analysis this may not be operationally true and would not in any case be literally true. Frequently, economic analysis concerns the marginal values associated with a change of one unit of a resource, because decisions are often made in terms of units; marginalism seeks to explain unit prices in terms of such marginal values. Marginal use The marginal use of a good or service is the specific use to which an agent would put a given increase, or the specific use of the good or service that would be abandoned in response to a given decrease. Marginalism assumes, for any given agent, economic rationality and an ordering of possible states-of-the-world, such that, for any given set of constraints, there is an attainable state which is best in the eyes of that agent. Descriptive marginalism asserts that choice amongst the specific means by which various anticipated specific states-of-the-world (outcomes) might be affected is governed only by the distinctions amongst those specific outcomes; prescriptive marginalism asserts that such choice ought to be so governed. On such assumptions, each increase would be put to the specific, feasible, previously unrealized use of greatest priority, and each decrease would result in abandonment of the use of lowest priority amongst the uses to which the good or service had been put. Marginal utility The marginal utility of a good or service is the utility of its marginal use. Under the assumption of economic rationality, it is the utility of its least urgent possible use from the best feasible combination of actions in which its use is included. In 20th century mainstream economics, the term "utility" has come to be formally defined as a quantification capturing preferences by assigning greater quantities to states, goods, services, or applications that are of higher priority. But marginalism and the concept of marginal utility predate the establishment of this convention within economics. The more general conception of utility is that of use or usefulness, and this conception is at the heart of marginalism; the term "marginal utility" arose from translation of the German "Grenznutzen", which literally means border use, referring directly to the marginal use, and the more general formulations of marginal utility do not treat quantification as an essential feature. On the other hand, none of the early marginalists insisted that utility were not quantified, some indeed treated quantification as an essential feature, and those who did not still used an assumption of quantification for expository purposes. In this context, it is not surprising to find many presentations that fail to recognize a more general approach. Quantified marginal utility Under the special case in which usefulness can be quantified, the change in utility of moving from state to state is Moreover, if and are distinguishable by values of just one variable which is itself quantified, then it becomes possible to speak of the ratio of the marginal utility of the change in to the size of that change: (where “c.p.” indicates that the only independent variable to change is ). Mainstream neoclassical economics will typically assume that is well defined, and use "marginal utility" to refer to a partial derivative Law of diminishing marginal utility The law of diminishing marginal utility, also known as a Gossen's First Law, is that ceteris paribus, as additional amounts of a good or service are added to available resources, their marginal utilities are decreasing. This law is sometimes treated as a tautology, sometimes as something proven by introspection, or sometimes as a mere instrumental assumption, adopted only for its perceived predictive efficacy. It is not quite any of these things, although it may have aspects of each. The law does not hold under all circumstances, so it is neither a tautology nor otherwise proveable; but it has a basis in prior observation. An individual will typically be able to partially order the potential uses of a good or service. If there is scarcity, then a rational agent will satisfy wants of highest possible priority, so that no want is avoidably sacrificed to satisfy a want of lower priority. In the absence of complementarity across the uses, this will imply that the priority of use of any additional amount will be lower than the priority of the established uses, as in this famous example: A pioneer farmer had five sacks of grain, with no way of selling them or buying more. He had five possible uses: as basic feed for himself, food to build strength, food for his chickens for dietary variation, an ingredient for making whisky and feed for his parrots to amuse him. Then the farmer lost one sack of grain. Instead of reducing every activity by a fifth, the farmer simply starved the parrots as they were of less utility than the other four uses; in other words they were on the margin. And it is on the margin, and not with a view to the big picture, that we make economic decisions. However, if there is a complementarity across uses, then an amount added can bring things past a desired tipping point, or an amount subtracted cause them to fall short. In such cases, the marginal utility of a good or service might actually be increasing. Without the presumption that utility is quantified, the diminishing of utility should not be taken to be itself an arithmetic subtraction. It is the movement from use of higher to lower priority, and may be no more than a purely ordinal change. When quantification of utility is assumed, diminishing marginal utility corresponds to a utility function whose slope is continually or continuously decreasing. In the latter case, if the function is also smooth, then the law may be expressed as Neoclassical economics usually supplements or supplants discussion of marginal utility with indifference curves, which were originally derived as the level curves of utility functions, or can be produced without presumption of quantification, but are often simply treated as axiomatic. In the absence of complementarity of goods or services, diminishing marginal utility implies convexity of indifference curves, although such convexity would also follow from quasiconcavity of the utility function. Marginal rate of substitution The rate of substitution is the least favorable rate at which an agent is willing to exchange units of one good or service for units of another. The marginal rate of substitution (MRS) is the rate of substitution at the margin; in other words, given some constraint. When goods and services are discrete, the least favorable rate at which an agent would trade A for B will usually be different from that at which she would trade B for A: When the goods and services are continuously divisible in the limiting case and the marginal rate of substitution is the slope of the indifference curve (multiplied by ). If, for example, Lisa will not trade a goat for anything less than two sheep, then her If she will not trade a sheep for anything less than two goats, then her However, if she would trade one gram of banana for one ounce of ice cream and vice versa, then When indifference curves (which are essentially graphs of instantaneous rates of substitution) and the convexity of those curves are not taken as given, the "law" of diminishing marginal utility is invoked to explain diminishing marginal rates of substitution – a willingness to accept fewer units of good or service in substitution for as one's holdings of grow relative to those of . If an individual has a stock or flow of a good or service whose marginal utility is less than would be that of some other good or service for which he or she could trade, then it is in his or her interest to effect that trade. As one thing is traded-away and another is acquired, the respective marginal gains or losses from further trades are now changed. On the assumption that the marginal utility of one is diminishing, and the other is not increasing, all else being equal, an individual will demand an increasing ratio of that which is acquired to that which is sacrificed. One important way in which all else might not be equal is when the use of the one good or service complements that of the other. In such cases, exchange ratios might be constant. If any trader can better his or her own marginal position by offering an exchange more favorable to other traders with desired goods or services, then he or she will do so. Marginal cost At the highest level of generality, a marginal cost is a marginal opportunity cost. In most contexts, marginal cost refers to marginal pecuniary cost, that is to say marginal cost measured by forgone money. A thorough-going marginalism sees marginal cost as increasing under the law of diminishing marginal utility, because applying resources to one application reduces their availability to other applications. Neoclassical economics tends to disregard this argument, but to see marginal costs as increasing in consequence of diminishing returns. Application to price theory Marginalism and neoclassical economics typically explain price formation broadly through the interaction of curves or schedules of supply and demand. In any case buyers are modelled as pursuing typically lower quantities, and sellers offering typically higher quantities, as price is increased, with each being willing to trade until the marginal value of what they would trade-away exceeds that of the thing for which they would trade. Demand Demand curves are explained by marginalism in terms of marginal rates of substitution. At any given price, a prospective buyer has some marginal rate of substitution of money for the good or service in question. Given the "law" of diminishing marginal utility, or otherwise given convex indifference curves, the rates are such that the willingness to forgo money for the good or service decreases as the buyer would have ever more of the good or service and ever less money. Hence, any given buyer has a demand schedule that generally decreases in response to price (at least until quantity demanded reaches zero). The aggregate quantity demanded by all buyers is, at any given price, just the sum of the quantities demanded by individual buyers, so it too decreases as price increases. Supply Both neoclassical economics and thorough-going marginalism could be said to explain supply curves in terms of marginal cost; however, there are marked differences in conceptions of that cost. Marginalists in the tradition of Marshall and neoclassical economists tend to represent the supply curve for any producer as a curve of marginal pecuniary costs objectively determined by physical processes, with an upward slope determined by diminishing returns. A more thorough-going marginalism represents the supply curve as a complementary demand curve – where the demand is for money and the purchase is made with a good or service. The shape of that curve is then determined by marginal rates of substitution of money for that good or service. Markets By confining themselves to limiting cases in which sellers or buyers are both "price takers" – so that demand functions ignore supply functions or vice versa – Marshallian marginalists and neoclassical economists produced tractable models of "pure" or "perfect" competition and of various forms of "imperfect" competition, which models are usually captured by relatively simple graphs. Other marginalists have sought to present what they thought of as more realistic explanations, but this work has been relatively uninfluential on the mainstream of economic thought. Paradox of water and diamonds The law of diminishing marginal utility is said to explain the paradox of water and diamonds, most commonly associated with Adam Smith, although it was recognized by earlier thinkers. Human beings cannot even survive without water, whereas diamonds, in Smith's day, were ornamentation or engraving bits. Yet water had a very small price, and diamonds a very large price. Marginalists explained that it is the marginal usefulness of any given quantity that matters, rather than the usefulness of a class or of a totality. For most people, water was sufficiently abundant that the loss or gain of a gallon would withdraw or add only some very minor use if any, whereas diamonds were in much more restricted supply, so that the loss or gain was much greater. That is not to say that the price of any good or service is simply a function of the marginal utility that it has for any one individual nor for some ostensibly typical individual. Rather, individuals are willing to trade based upon the respective marginal utilities of the goods that they have or desire (with these marginal utilities being distinct for each potential trader), and prices thus develop constrained by these marginal utilities. History Proto-marginalist approaches Perhaps the essence of a notion of diminishing marginal utility can be found in Aristotle's Politics, wherein he writes There has been marked disagreement about the development and role of marginal considerations in Aristotle's' value theory. A great variety of economists concluded that there was some sort of inter-relationship between utility and rarity that effected economic decisions, and in turn informed the determination of prices. Eighteenth-century Italian mercantilists, such as Antonio Genovesi, Giammaria Ortes, Pietro Verri, Cesare Beccaria, and Giovanni Rinaldo, held that value was explained in terms of the general utility and of scarcity, though they did not typically work-out a theory of how these interacted. In Della Moneta (1751), Abbé Ferdinando Galiani, a pupil of Genovesi, attempted to explain value as a ratio of two ratios, utility and scarcity, with the latter component ratio being the ratio of quantity to use. Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, in Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution de richesse (1769), held that value derived from the general utility of the class to which a good belonged, from comparison of present and future wants, and from anticipated difficulties in procurement. Like the Italian mercantilists, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac saw value as determined by utility associated with the class to which the good belongs, and by estimated scarcity. In De commerce et le gouvernement (1776), Condillac emphasized that value is not based upon cost but that costs were paid because of value. This last point was famously restated by the 19th-century proto-marginalist Richard Whately, who wrote as follows in Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1832): Whately's student Nassau William Senior is noted below as an early marginalist. Frédéric Bastiat in chapters V and XI of his Economic Harmonies (1850) also develops a theory of value as ratio between services that increment utility, rather than between total utility. Marginalists before the Revolution The first unambiguous published statement of any sort of theory of marginal utility was by Daniel Bernoulli, in "Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis". This paper appeared in 1738, but a draft had been written in 1731 or in 1732. In 1728, Gabriel Cramer produced fundamentally the same theory in a private letter. Each had sought to resolve the St. Petersburg paradox, and had concluded that the marginal desirability of money decreased as it was accumulated, more specifically such that the desirability of a sum were the natural logarithm (Bernoulli) or square root (Cramer) thereof. However, the more general implications of this hypothesis were not explicated, and the work fell into obscurity. In "A Lecture on the Notion of Value as Distinguished Not Only from Utility, but also from Value in Exchange", delivered in 1833 and included in Lectures on Population, Value, Poor Laws and Rent (1837), William Forster Lloyd explicitly offered a general marginal utility theory, but did not offer its derivation nor elaborate its implications. The importance of his statement seems to have been lost on everyone (including Lloyd) until the early 20th century, by which time others had independently developed and popularized the same insight. In An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836), Nassau William Senior asserted that marginal utilities were the ultimate determinant of demand, yet apparently did not pursue implications, though some interpret his work as indeed doing just that. In "De la mesure de l'utilité des travaux publics" (1844), Jules Dupuit applied a conception of marginal utility to the problem of determining bridge tolls. In 1854, Hermann Heinrich Gossen published Die Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fließenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln, which presented a marginal utility theory and to a very large extent worked-out its implications for the behavior of a market economy. However, Gossen's work was not well received in the Germany of his time, most copies were destroyed unsold, and he was virtually forgotten until rediscovered after the so-called Marginal Revolution. Marginal Revolution Marginalism as a formal theory can be attributed to the work of three economists, Jevons in England, Menger in Austria, and Walras in Switzerland. William Stanley Jevons first proposed the theory in articles in 1863 and 1871. Similarly, Carl Menger presented the theory in 1871. Menger explained why individuals use marginal utility to decide amongst trade-offs, but while his illustrative examples present utility as quantified, his essential assumptions do not. Léon Walras introduced the theory in Éléments d'économie politique pure, the first part of which was published in 1874. The American John Bates Clark is also associated with the origins of Marginalism, but did little to advance the theory. This new way of thinking was a very drastic shift in thinking from the classical school of economics, founded in part by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus. The classical school of economics believed in a concept called the labor theory of value which emphasized the idea that the amount of time it took to produce a good determined the value of that good. This concept’s rival, marginal utility on the other hand, focused on the value that the consumer received from the good when determining its value. What the marginalists understood was that the exchange value of goods can be used to describe the use value of goods. Meghnad Desai puts it this way, “Individuals in their daily activity so managed their resources that they balanced the marginal utility - the utility(use value) derived from an extra unit of a commodity they consumed - with the price (exchange value) they paid for it”. Thus, when consumption of a good goes up, the utility of that good decreases as it’s consumed. Each person would continue to consume until the marginal utility would be equal to the price. Jevons also wanted to formulate a price theory that accounted for this marginal utility and discovered the following: cost production determines supply; supply determines final degree of utility; and final degree of utility determines value. Walras was able to articulate the utility maximization of the consumer far better than Jevons and Menger by assuming that utility was linked to the consumption of each good. Second generation Although the Marginal Revolution flowed from the work of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, their work might have failed to enter the mainstream were it not for a second generation of economists. In England, the second generation were exemplified by Philip Wicksteed, by William Smart, and by Alfred Marshall; in Austria by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and by Friedrich von Wieser; in Switzerland by Vilfredo Pareto; and in America by Herbert Joseph Davenport and by Frank A. Fetter. There were significant, distinguishing features amongst the approaches of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, but the second generation did not maintain distinctions along national or linguistic lines. The work of von Wieser was heavily influenced by that of Walras. Wicksteed was heavily influenced by Menger. Fetter referred to himself and Davenport as part of "the American Psychological School", named in imitation of the Austrian "Psychological School". Clark's work from this period onward similarly shows heavy influence by Menger. William Smart began as a conveyor of Austrian School theory to English-language readers, though he fell increasingly under the influence of Marshall. Böhm-Bawerk was perhaps the most able expositor of Menger's conception. He was further noted for producing a theory of interest and of profit in equilibrium based upon the interaction of diminishing marginal utility with diminishing marginal productivity of time and with time preference. (This theory was adopted in full and then further developed by Knut Wicksell and with modifications including formal disregard for time-preference by Wicksell's American rival Irving Fisher.) Marshall was the second-generation marginalist whose work on marginal utility came most to inform the mainstream of neoclassical economics, especially by way of his Principles of Economics, the first volume of which was published in 1890. Marshall constructed the demand curve with the aid of assumptions that utility was quantified, and that the marginal utility of money was constant, or nearly so. Like Jevons, Marshall did not see an explanation for supply in the theory of marginal utility, so he paired a marginal explanation of demand with a more classical explanation of supply, wherein costs were taken to be objectively determined. Marshall later actively mischaracterized the criticism that these costs were themselves ultimately determined by marginal utilities. Marginal Revolution as a response to socialism The doctrines of marginalism and the Marginal Revolution are often interpreted as a response to the rise of the worker's movement, Marxian economics and the earlier (Ricardian) socialist theories of the exploitation of labour. The first volume of Das Kapital was not published until July 1867, when marginalism was already developing, but before the advent of Marxian economics, proto-marginalist ideas such as those of Gossen had largely fallen on deaf ears. It was only in the 1880s, when Marxism had come to the fore as the main economic theory of the workers' movement, that Gossen found (posthumous) recognition. Aside from the rise of Marxism, E. Screpanti and S. Zamagni point to a different 'external' reason for marginalism's success, which is its successful response to the Long Depression and the resurgence of class conflict in all developed capitalist economies after the 1848–1870 period of social peace. Marginalism, Screpanti and Zamagni argue, offered a theory of the free market as perfect, as performing optimal allocation of resources, while it allowed economists to blame any adverse effects of laissez-faire economics on the interference of workers' coalitions in the proper functioning of the market. Scholars have suggested that the success of the generation who followed the preceptors of the Revolution was their ability to formulate straightforward responses to Marxist economic theory. The most famous of these was that of Böhm-Bawerk, "" (1896), but the first was Wicksteed's "The Marxian Theory of Value. Das Kapital: a criticism" (1884, followed by "The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder" in 1885). The most famous early Marxist responses were Rudolf Hilferding's (1904) and The Economic Theory of the Leisure Class (1914) by Nikolai Bukharin. Eclipse In his 1881 work Mathematical Psychics, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth presented the indifference curve, deriving its properties from marginalist theory which assumed utility to be a differentiable function of quantified goods and services. But it came to be seen that indifference curves could be considered as somehow given, without bothering with notions of utility. In 1915, Eugen Slutsky derived a theory of consumer choice solely from properties of indifference curves. Because of the World War, the Bolshevik Revolution, and his own subsequent loss of interest, Slutsky's work drew almost no notice, but similar work in 1934 by John Hicks and R. G. D. Allen derived much the same results and found a significant audience. Allen subsequently drew attention to Slutsky's earlier accomplishment. Although some of the third generation of Austrian School economists had by 1911 rejected the quantification of utility while continuing to think in terms of marginal utility, most economists presumed that utility must be a sort of quantity. Indifference curve analysis seemed to represent a way of dispensing with presumptions of quantification, albeït that a seemingly arbitrary assumption (admitted by Hicks to be a "rabbit out of a hat") about decreasing marginal rates of substitution would then have to be introduced to have convexity of indifference curves. For those who accepted that superseded marginal utility analysis had been superseded by indifference curve analysis, the former became at best somewhat analogous to the Bohr model of the atom—perhaps pedagogically useful, but "old fashioned" and ultimately incorrect. Revival When Cramer and Bernoulli introduced the notion of diminishing marginal utility, it had been to address a paradox of gambling, rather than the paradox of value. The marginalists of the revolution, however, had been formally concerned with problems in which there was neither risk nor uncertainty. So too with the indifference curve analysis of Slutsky, Hicks, and Allen. The expected utility hypothesis of Bernoulli et alii was revived by various 20th century thinkers, including Frank Ramsey (1926), John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern (1944), and Leonard Savage (1954). Although this hypothesis remains controversial, it brings not merely utility but a quantified conception thereof back into the mainstream of economic thought, and would dispatch the Ockhamistic argument. It should perhaps be noted that in expected utility analysis the law of diminishing marginal utility corresponds to what is called risk aversion. Criticism Marxist criticism of marginalism Karl Marx died before marginalism became the interpretation of economic value accepted by mainstream economics. His theory was based on the labor theory of value, which distinguishes between exchange value and use value. In his Capital, he rejected the explanation of long-term market values by supply and demand: Nothing is easier than to realize the inconsistencies of demand and supply, and the resulting deviation of market-prices from market-values. The real difficulty consists in determining what is meant by the equation of supply and demand. [...] If supply equals demand, they cease to act, and for this very reason commodities are sold at their market-values. Whenever two forces operate equally in opposite directions, they balance one another, exert no outside influence, and any phenomena taking place in these circumstances must be explained by causes other than the effect of these two forces. If supply and demand balance one another, they cease to explain anything, do not affect market-values, and therefore leave us so much more in the dark about the reasons why the market-value is expressed in just this sum of money and no other. In his early response to marginalism, Nikolai Bukharin argued that "the subjective evaluation from which price is to be derived really starts from this price", concluding: Whenever the Böhm-Bawerk theory, it appears, resorts to individual motives as a basis for the derivation of social phenomena, he is actually smuggling in the social content in a more or less disguised form in advance, so that the entire construction becomes a vicious circle, a continuous logical fallacy, a fallacy that can serve only specious ends, and demonstrating in reality nothing more than the complete barrenness of modern bourgeois theory. Similarly a later Marxist critic, Ernest Mandel, argued that marginalism was "divorced from reality", ignored the role of production, further arguing: It is, moreover, unable to explain how, from the clash of millions of different individual "needs" there emerge not only uniform prices, but prices which remain stable over long periods, even under perfect conditions of free competition. Rather than an explanation of constants, and of the basic evolution of economic life, the "marginal" technique provides at best an explanation of ephemeral, short-term variations. Maurice Dobb argued that prices derived through marginalism depend on the distribution of income. The ability of consumers to express their preferences is dependent on their spending power. As the theory asserts that prices arise in the act of exchange, Dobb argues that it cannot explain how the distribution of income affects prices and consequently cannot explain prices. Dobb also criticized the motives behind marginal utility theory. Jevons wrote, for example, "so far as is consistent with the inequality of wealth in every community, all commodities are distributed by exchange so as to produce the maximum social benefit." (See Fundamental theorems of welfare economics.) Dobb contended that this statement indicated that marginalism is intended to insulate market economics from criticism by making prices the natural result of the given income distribution. Marxist adaptations to marginalism Some economists strongly influenced by the Marxian tradition such as Oskar Lange, Włodzimierz Brus, and Michał Kalecki have attempted to integrate the insights of classical political economy, marginalism, and neoclassical economics. They believed that Marx lacked a sophisticated theory of prices, and neoclassical economics lacked a theory of the social frameworks of economic activity. Some other Marxists have also argued that on one level there is no conflict between marginalism and Marxism as one could employ a marginalist theory of supply and demand within the context of a big picture understanding of the Marxist notion that capitalists exploit surplus labor. See also Theory of value References External links Backhouse, Roger E. "Marginal Revolution." eds. Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume (2008). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. 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221421	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod%20Laver	Rod Laver	Rodney George Laver (born 9 August 1938) is an Australian former tennis player. Laver was the World No. 1 ranked professional in some sources in 1964, in all sources from 1965 to 1969 and in some sources in 1970, spanning four years before and three years after the start of the Open Era in 1968. He also was ranked the world No. 1 amateur in 1961 by Lance Tingay and 1962 by Tingay and Ned Potter. Laver's 198 singles titles are the most in tennis history. This included his all-time men's record of 10 or more titles per year for seven consecutive years (1964–70). He excelled on all of the court surfaces of his time: grass, clay, hard, carpet, and wood. Laver won 11 Grand Slam singles titles, though he was banned from playing those tournaments for the five years prior to the Open Era. Laver is the only player, male or female, to win a Grand Slam (winning all four major titles in the same calendar year) twice in singles, in 1962 and 1969; the latter remains the only time a man has done so in the Open Era. He is second of four male players to win each major title twice (preceded by Roy Emerson and followed by Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal). Laver also won eight Pro Slam titles, including the "pro Grand Slam" in 1967, and he contributed to five Davis Cup titles for Australia during an age when the Davis Cup was deemed as significant as the four majors. The Laver Cup tournament and the Rod Laver Arena are named after him. Personal life Rodney George Laver was born in Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia, on 9 August 1938. He was the third of four children of Roy Laver, a cattleman and butcher, and his wife Melba Roffey. In 1966, Laver, aged 27, married Mary Benson in San Rafael, California. Born Mary Shelby Peterson in Illinois, she was a divorcee with three children. After their wedding ceremony, a group of well-known tennis players in attendance, including Lew Hoad, Ken Rosewall, Roy Emerson, Mal Anderson and Barry MacKay, stood outside the church with raised tennis rackets that formed an archway for the newlyweds to walk under. Laver and Mary had a son and the family lived at various locations in California including Rancho Mirage, Corona del Mar, a ranch near Santa Barbara and Carlsbad. Mary Laver died in November 2012 at the age of 84 at their home in Carlsbad. Career Amateur (1956–62) Laver was a teenager when he left school to pursue a tennis career that lasted 24 years. He was coached in Queensland by Charlie Hollis and later by the Australian Davis Cup team captain Harry Hopman, who gave Laver the nickname "Rocket". Laver was both Australian and US Junior champion in 1957. He had his breakthrough on the world stage in 1959, when he reached all three finals at Wimbledon, winning the mixed doubles title with Darlene Hard. As an unseeded player, he lost the singles final to Peruvian Alex Olmedo after surviving an 87-game semifinal against American Barry MacKay. His first major singles title was the Australian Championships in 1960, where he defeated fellow Australian Neale Fraser in a five-set final after coming back from two sets down and saving a Fraser championship point in the fourth set. Laver captured his first Wimbledon singles crown in 1961 beating Chuck McKinley in straight sets in the final, which lasted just 53 minutes (one of the shortest men's singles Wimbledon finals on record). Laver was ranked the world No. 1 amateur in 1961 by Lance Tingay. In 1962, Laver became the first male player since Don Budge in 1938 to win all four Grand Slam singles titles in the same year. He won an additional 18 titles, for a season total of 22. Among those titles were the Italian Championships and the German Championships, giving Laver the "clay court triple" of Paris, Rome, and Hamburg that had been achieved previously only by Lew Hoad in 1956. At the Australian championships, Laver beat Roy Emerson in the final. The biggest hurdle to Laver's winning the Grand Slam was the French Championships on slow clay, where Laver won three consecutive five-setters beginning with the quarterfinals. In his quarterfinal with Martin Mulligan, Laver saved a matchpoint in the fourth set with a backhand volley after coming to the net behind a second serve. In the final, Laver lost the first two sets and was down 0–3 in the fourth set before coming back to defeat Emerson. At Wimbledon, his progress was much easier. Laver lost only one set the whole tournament, to Manuel Santana in a quarterfinal, who held a set point for a two set lead. In the final, Laver beat Mulligan in 52 minutes (a minute shorter than the previous year's final). At the US Championships, Laver lost only two sets during the tournament and defeated Emerson again in the final. Laver was ranked world number one amateur for 1962 by Tingay and Ned Potter. In February 1963, he appeared on the panel game show To Tell the Truth, where all four panelists identified him based on his knowledge of the history of tennis. Professional Before the Open Era (1963–68) In December 1962 Laver turned professional after winning the Davis Cup with the Australian team. After an initial period of adjustment he quickly established himself among the leading professional players such as Ken Rosewall, Lew Hoad and Andrés Gimeno, and also Pancho Gonzales when Gonzales returned to a full-time schedule in 1964. During the next seven years, Laver won the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships five times, including four in a row beginning in 1966. In the beginning of 1963, Laver was beaten consistently by both Rosewall and Hoad on an Australasian tour. Hoad won the first eight matches against Laver, and Rosewall won 11 out of 13. However, Laver won the best-of-five set matches against Rosewall at Kooyong Stadium and at Adelaide's Memorial Stadium. By the end of the year, with six tournament titles, Laver had become the No. 2 professional player behind Rosewall. In the first phase of the World Series tour, Laver finished second, with a 25–16 record. The top two players Rosewall and Laver then played a series of matches against each other to determine the champion. Rosewall won 14–4. Laver's gross earnings for 1963 were first among the pro players. In 1964, Laver and Rosewall both won seven important titles (in minor tournaments Laver won four and Rosewall won three), but Laver won 17 of 24 matches against Rosewall and captured the two most prestigious titles, the US Pro Championships over Gonzales and the Wembley Championships over Rosewall. In Tennis Week, Raymond Lee described the Wembley match, where Laver came from 5–3 down in the fifth set to win 8–6, as possibly their best ever and one that changed tennis history. Lee regards this win as the one that began and established Laver's long reign as world number one. The other prestige title, the French pro, was won by Rosewall. Rosewall finished top of the official points table in 1964 and after winning at Wembley, Laver said "I’ve still plenty of ambitions left and would like to be the world's No. 1. Despite this win, I am not there yet – Ken is." In 1965, Laver was clearly the No. 1 professional player, winning 17 titles and 13 of 18 matches against Rosewall. In ten finals, Laver won eight against the still dangerous Gonzales. Laver won the Wembley Pro, beating Gimeno in the final. In 1966, Laver won 16 events, including the US Pro Championships (beating Rosewall in a five-set final), the Wembley Pro Championship (beating Rosewall easily in the final), and eight other important tournaments. In 1967, Laver won 19 titles, including the Wimbledon Pro (beating Rosewall in straight sets in the final), the US Pro Championships (beating Gimeno in the final), the Wembley Pro Championships (beating Rosewall in the final), and the French Pro Championship (beating Gimeno in the final), which gave him a clean sweep of the four most important professional titles, a professional Grand Slam. The Wimbledon Pro tournament in 1967 was the only professional event ever staged on Wimbledon's Centre Court before the Open Era began. During the Open Era (1968–76) With the dawn of the Open Era in 1968, professional players were once again allowed to compete in Grand Slam events. Laver became Wimbledon's first Open Era champion in 1968, beating the best amateur, American Arthur Ashe, in a semifinal and fellow-Australian Tony Roche in the final, both in straight sets. Laver was also the runner-up to Ken Rosewall in the first French Open. In this first "open" year, there were only eight open events besides Wimbledon and the French Open, where professionals, registered players, and amateurs could compete against each other. The professionals mainly played their own circuit, with two groups – National Tennis League (NTL) and World Championships Tennis (WCT) – operating. Laver was ranked No. 1 universally, winning the US Professional Championships on grass and the French Pro Championship on clay (both over John Newcombe). Laver also won the last big open event of the year, the Pacific Southwest in Los Angeles on hard courts. Ashe regarded Laver's 4–6, 6–0, 6–0 final win over Ken Rosewall as one of his finest performances. Laver's post-match comment was, "This is the kind of match you always dream about. The kind you play at night in your sleep." Laver ranked No. 1 for 1968 by the panel of journalists for the 'Martini and Rossi' Award, by a panel of 15 journalists, by World Tennis, by Lance Tingay, by Rino Tommasi, by Bud Collins and by The Times. In 1969, Laver won all four Grand Slam tournaments in the same calendar year for the second time, sealing the achievement with a four-set win over Roche in the US Open final. He won 18 of the 32 singles tournaments he entered (still the Open Era titles record) and compiled a 106–16 win-loss record. In beating Newcombe in four sets in the Wimbledon final, he captured the title at the All England Club for the fourth consecutive time that he had entered the tournament (and reached the final for the sixth consecutive time as he had been runner-up in 1959 and 1960). He set a record of 31 consecutive match victories at Wimbledon between 1961 and 1970, which lasted until 1980 when it was eclipsed by Björn Borg. Unlike his first Grand Slam year in 1962, Laver in 1969 played in events open to all the best professional and amateur players of the world. In the year's Grand Slam tournaments, Laver had five five-set-matches, twice coming back from two sets down in early rounds. In the four finals, however, he lost a total of only two sets. His hardest match was a marathon 90-game semifinal against Roche at the Australian Open under tropical hot conditions. Other opponents at the Australian Open included Roy Emerson, Fred Stolle, and Andrés Gimeno. At the French Open, Laver beat Gimeno, Tom Okker, and Rosewall. At Wimbledon, Laver overcame strong challenges from Stan Smith, Cliff Drysdale, Ashe, and Newcombe. At the US Open on slippery grass courts, he defeated Dennis Ralston, Emerson, Ashe, and Roche. Laver proved his versatility by winning the Grand Slam tournaments on grass and clay, plus the two most important hard court titles (South African Open at Ellis Park, Johannesburg and the US Professional Championships at Boston) and the leading indoor tournaments (Philadelphia US Pro Indoor and Wembley British Indoor). Laver ranked No. 1 for 1969 by the panel of 13 international journalists for the 'Martini and Rossi' Award, by Tingay, by Collins,, by Tommasi, and by World Tennis. In the early 1970s, Laver lost his grip on the major tournaments. He played only five Grand Slam tournaments from 1970 through 1972. This was partly because of his contracts with NTL and WCT. But on the WCT tours, he remained the leading player and by far the leading prize money winner. In 1970, Laver won 15 titles and US$201,453 in prize money, including the rich "Tennis Champions Classic" and five other big events (Sydney Dunlop Open, Philadelphia, Wembley, Los Angeles, South African Open). Those were the equivalent of the modern day ATP Masters Series and most had 8 or more of the world's top ranked players participating. With only two majors played by all the best players (Wimbledon and the US Open), there was no clear-cut World No. 1 in 1970. Wimbledon champion Newcombe, US champion Rosewall, and Laver (who won the most titles and had a 3–0 win-loss record against Newcombe and a 5–0 record against Rosewall) were ranked the highest by different journalists and expert panels. The panel of 10 international journalists who voted for the 'Martini and Rossi' Award, ranked Rosewall No. 1 with 97 points over Laver (89 pts) and Newcombe (81 pts). The panel of 12 journalists which made the WCT draw for 1971 ranked Laver 1st, Rosewall 2nd and Newcombe 3rd. Rex Bellamy ranked Laver No. 1, with Rosewall No. 2. Judith Elian of L'Equipe Magazine (Paris) and Rino Tommasi placed Rosewall No. 1, while Robert Geist co-ranked Rosewall, Laver and Newcombe No. 1. Newcombe later wrote in his autobiography "Newk-Life On and Off the Court" (2002) that the top honour for 1970 belonged to Laver. Lance Tingay, John McCauley and Bud Collins. ranked Newcombe ahead of Rosewall and Laver. In 1971 he won seven titles, including the Italian Open in Rome on clay over Jan Kodeš, the reigning French Open champion. Laver successfully defended his title at the "Tennis Champions Classic", winning 13 consecutive winner-take-all matches against top opponents and US$160,000. For the year, Laver won a then-record US$292,717 in tournament prize money and became the first tennis player to surpass US$1 million in career prize money. In 1971 and 1972, Laver finished as the points leader of the WCT tournament series but lost the playoff finals at Dallas to Rosewall. The last match is rated as one of the best of all time and drew a TV audience of over 20 million. In 1972, Laver cut back his tournament schedule, partly because of back and knee injuries and his tennis camp businesses, but he still won five titles that year. In 1973, Laver won seven titles and successfully participated in the semifinals and final of the Davis Cup, where he won all six of his rubbers for Australia. In 1974 Laver won six titles from 13 tournaments and ended the year as World No. 4 based on the ATP point system. At 36, he was the oldest player during the Open Era to have been included in the year-ending top five. In 1975, Laver set a record for WCT tournaments by winning four titles and 23 consecutive matches but in 1976, he semi-retired from the main tour, playing only a few selected events. He also signed with World Team Tennis, where he became "Rookie of the Year" at the age of 38 but won five titles overall that season. Overall, despite turning 30 just months after the Open Era began, Laver had tremendous success, winning 74 singles titles, which remains seventh most of the era. Plus, like most players of his day, he regularly played doubles, winning 37 titles. Laver's career earnings were approximately $1,540,000. Rivalries Laver had a long-running, friendly rivalry with Ken Rosewall between 1963, when he started out as a pro, and 1976, when both were semi-retired from the main tour. Including tournaments and one-night stands, they played over 130 matches, all of them as professionals, with some results from the barnstorming pro tours lost or badly recorded. Overall a match score of 89–75 in favour of Laver can be documented. Against the older Pancho Gonzales, whom he played 1964 to 1970 on the pro tour, Laver had a lead of 43–22. Laver had another, even longer rivalry with his fellow Queenslander Roy Emerson. They met first on the senior amateur tour in 1958 and dominated the amateur circuit until 1962, before Laver turned pro. When open tennis arrived in 1968, Emerson joined the pro tour, and had many new battles with Laver. Overall the score is 49–18 in favour of Laver, with 7–2 in major Grand Slam tournaments. Laver had also many battles with Lew Hoad in his first years on the pro circuit 1963–1966. Although he lost the first eight matches in January 1963, Laver later in the year began to turn around their rivalry, and until 1966, he had built a 38–21 lead. Against Arthur Ashe, Laver had a head-to-head lead of 21–3, winning all of the first 18 matches. Ashe's first win came in 1974, when Laver was 35. Another younger rival in the Open Era was John Newcombe, whom Laver led 16–5 in their head-to-head score. Davis Cup Laver helped Australia win the Davis Cup four consecutive times from 1959 to 1962. In 1973, professionals were permitted to play in the Davis Cup for the first time, and Laver was on a winning team for the fifth time, claiming two singles and a doubles rubber in the final as Australia beat the United States 5–0. Australia were crowned Davis Cup champions in each of the five seasons Laver played in the competition. Laver won 16 out of 20 Davis Cup singles matches and all four of his doubles. Playing style Although of a slightly short and medium build (1.73 m/5 ft 8"), Laver developed a technically complete serve-and-volley game, with aggressive groundstrokes to back it up. Commentator Dan Maskell described him as "technically faultless". His left-handed serve was well disguised and wide swinging. His groundstrokes on both flanks were hit with topspin, as was the attacking topspin lob, which Laver developed into a weapon. His stroke technique was based on quick shoulder turns, true swings, and accurate timing. His backhand, often hit on the run, was a point-ender that gave him an advantage. Laver was very quick and had a strong left forearm. Rex Bellamy wrote, "The strength of that wrist and forearm gave him blazing power without loss of control, even when he was on the run and at full stretch. The combination of speed and strength, especially wrist strength, enabled him to hit ferocious winners when way out of court." At the net, he had forcing volleys, often hit as stroke volleys. Especially on the backhand, he could hit sharp underspin angles as well. He was difficult to lob, because of his springing agility, and when forced to retreat, he could come up with a vicious counterpunch. As an amateur, Laver was a somewhat flashy player, often a late starter. He had to learn to control his adventurous shot-making and integrate percentage tennis into his game when he turned professional. In his prime, he could adapt his style to all surfaces and to all conditions. Laver had a strong record in five-set-matches, often turning things around with subtle changes of tactics. Tennis legacy Laver is widely regarded as one of the greatest tennis players in the history of the sport. Laver was ranked the world No. 1 amateur in 1961 by Lance Tingay and in 1962 by Tingay and Ned Potter. Laver was the number one professional in some rankings in 1964, in all rankings from 1965 to 1969 and in some rankings in 1970. Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter, ranked Laver only in the "second echelon" of great players, just behind the six best. He writes that although Laver was "absolutely unbeatable for a year or two late in the 1960s", a "careful comparison" could be made between Laver and the somewhat older Gonzales and that Kramer is "positive that Gonzales could have beaten Laver regularly." Kramer's main argument for downgrading Laver is that, "Ken Rosewall beat Laver in those two World Championship of Tennis finals and that was a title Laver really wanted." Kramer sees as evidence of Gonzales' superiority over Laver the fact that Gonzales defeated Laver in a five-set match before 15,000 spectators in New York City's Madison Square Garden in January 1970, when Gonzales was 41 years old and Laver was still considered the World No. 1 player. On the other hand, Gonzales was still a top ten player when this match took place and Laver subsequently won this event, beating Gonzales in a straight-sets semifinal. Overall, his head-to-head-record with Gonzales was either 35–19 or 38–21 in favour of Laver, depending on the source. Laver was 12–5 against Gonzales during the Open Era, although Gonzales was then in his late thirties. In 1975, Don Budge ranked his top five players of all time and rated Laver number five behind Vines, Kramer, Perry and Tilden. In 1978, Ellsworth Vines ranked his all time top 10 in Tennis Myth and Method and rated Laver number four behind Budge, Kramer and Gonzales. Many experts disagree with Kramer's assessment of Laver. For example, Dan Maskell, John Barrett, Joe McCauley, Ted Schroeder, and Tony Trabert rank Laver as the best of all time. Schroeder has been quoted by Alan Trengove as saying, "You take all the criteria – longevity, playing on grass and clay, amateur, professional, his behaviour, his appearance – in all criteria, Laver's the best player of all time." Trabert said in January 2008, "I still maintain that Rod Laver is the best player who ever played the game because he's done something no one has ever done in the 120 or 140-year history of our sport: he won the Grand Slam as an amateur and he won the Grand Slam as a pro. If someone in some other sport held a world record no one else had, you would say that person was the best in that sport. So in my view, you've got to say Laver is the best player of all time." Similarly, the tennis author Peter Bodo wrote in May 2008, "Give him credit? Shoot, the only real issue is whether the GOAT [Greatest of All Time] argument is a debate at all, given that posting those two Slams puts Laver in a league of his own." Other experts cite the fact that during his amateur, touring professional, and Open Era careers, Laver won a record 184 singles titles. He also holds the record for most titles won in a single year during the amateur era (22 in 1962), during the touring pro era (19 in 1967), and during the Open Era (18 in 1969). After turning professional in 1963, Laver won the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships five times and the Wembley Pro Championship four times from 1964 to 1967. In 1967, Laver won a "Professional Grand Slam" by winning all four of the major professional tournaments: the US Pro Championships, the Wembley Pro Championships, the French Pro Championship, and the Wimbledon Pro. Laver came out on top in various experts polls for the best of all time. In 1986, the US magazine Inside Tennis polled 37 experts, which resulted in a computerised tournament. Laver ranked first on this list ahead of John McEnroe, Don Budge, Kramer, Björn Borg, Gonzales, Tilden, Jimmy Connors, Fred Perry, and Lew Hoad. In a poll by the Associated Press in 2000, Laver was voted "The Male Tennis Player of the Century", ahead of Pete Sampras, Tilden, Borg, Budge, McEnroe and Hoad (tied), Rosewall and Roy Emerson (tied), and Kramer. In an article in Tennis Week in 2007, the tennis historian Raymond Lee statistically analysed the all-time best players. Laver topped his list ahead of Tilden and Borg (tied), Roger Federer, Gonzales, Rosewall, Budge, Ivan Lendl, Connors, Sampras, McEnroe, and Kramer. In 2009 it was written that Rod Laver "is considered by most folks who saw him play and many who've heard of his accomplishments, to be as great a tennis player that ever lived—current players included.". In July 2017, tennis player Roger Federer called Rod Laver the greatest of all-time. In 1989, Bud Collins wrote, "I remain unconvinced that there ever was a better player than Rod Laver". Thirteen years later, however, as editor of the "Total Tennis, The Ultimate Tennis Encyclopedia", Collins was more guarded. He wrote that Laver would "be known as possibly the greatest player ever", but also said that Gonzales was "probably as good as anyone who ever played the game, if not better"—and called Tilden "perhaps the greatest player of them all". In an August 2006 article for MSNBC, Collins ranked Laver as one of the five top men's tennis stars of all time, along with Tilden, Gonzales, Borg, and Sampras. He pointed to Tilden's "phenomenal .938 winning percentage", and said "If I had to choose someone to play for my life it would be Pancho Gonzalez", praised Borg's uncanny transition from the French Open to Wimbledon, cited Sampras's "assault on the citadels of the past", and called Laver "in my eyes, the greatest player ever". In 1973, the ATP's computer rankings were established. Laver attained his highest ranking on that computer of World No. 3 in 1974. Laver's highest year-end ranking by the ATP was World No. 4 in 1974. Laver semi-retired from the main professional tennis tour in 1975 while still being ranked in the top 10. In terms of yearly prize money won, Laver was the leader from 1964 until 1971. The number of tournament singles titles that Laver won during his career varies depending on the source. The ATP credits Laver with 72 Open Era titles while "Total Tennis: The Ultimate Tennis Encyclopedia" (edited by Bud Collins), give him 47 or 54 titles during the Open Era. Collins credits him with 184 titles in amateur, professional, and open competition, without listing them in detail. Laver's eleven Grand Slam singles titles currently place him tied with Borg for sixth place on the all-time list. Among his contemporaries, only Emerson won more Grand Slam singles titles during his career (12 to Laver's 11), though more recently Federer, Nadal, Sampras, and Djokovic have surpassed this number. Laver also won eight Major doubles titles. Laver is the only player to have twice won all four Grand Slam singles tournaments during the same calendar year – the Australian Open, US Open, and Wimbledon. Because none of the Majors were played on hardcourts in Laver's era, he never won a Grand Slam tournament on that surface. The tennis landscape today is different as half of the year's Majors are played on hardcourts. Only six players have won Major titles on clay, grass and hardcourts: Jimmy Connors, Mats Wilander, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic. Federer, Nadal and Djokovic are the only players in history to have simultaneously held Grand Slam tournament titles on the three surfaces. Previous observations change substantially if we also consider professional grand slam majors, which were played on three different surfaces (clay, grass and wood/parquet), and wherein Laver, like Rosewall, excelled. Furthermore, the ATP Performance Zone website lists his (partial) career win/loss percentage on hardcourt as .813, on carpet as .766, on grass as .827 and on clay as .764. Laver was unable to compete in the Grand Slam tournaments during his professional career between 1963 and 1968 and it is argued he would likely have won more titles had he been able to do so. Sports columnist Malcolm Knox of the Sydney Morning Herald assesses the effect of Laver's ban on competing in Grand Slams. He states: "..if grand slams are taken as the benchmark, consider this. Laver won 11 of the 16 grand slam titles he contested in his prime. The pro tour put him out of 20 grand slams from age 23 to 28". Based on this he puts Laver and Rosewall in "a class of two". Honours The hall at the Rockhampton Tennis Association's Victoria Park precinct in Wandal where Laver competed until the age of 14 was named the Rod Laver Hall upon its completion in December 1963 in recognition of his Grand Slam win the previous year. In 1969, Laver was awarded the ABC Sportsman of the Year Award. He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1981. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1985 and upgraded to a Legend of Australian Sport in 2002. He is also an Australian Living Treasure. In 1998, Laver received the Philippe Chatrier Award (the ITF's highest accolade) for his contributions to tennis and in 2000, Centre Court at the National Tennis Centre in Melbourne was renamed Rod Laver Arena. Laver was named as a Queensland Great in June 2005. In 2009, he was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame. Also in 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, Laver was named one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland. Bronze busts of Laver and Margaret Court by sculptor Barbara McLean were unveiled at Melbourne Park in 1993 upon their induction into the Australian Tennis Hall of Fame. Another bronze bust of Laver, also by McLean, was installed on the banks of the Fitzroy River in Rockhampton's city centre which was unveiled by Laver and Rockhampton City Council deputy mayor Dell Bunt on 7 December 2002. There was some concern raised by the local community when the bust was removed in 2016 during the riverbank redevelopment. However, the bust was re-installed upon the completion of the redevelopment which was officially opened in 2018, with the recreational precinct on the low bank being named Rod Laver Plaza. A bronze statue of Laver by sculptor Lis Johnson was unveiled at Melbourne Park prior to the 2017 Australian Open. Post-retirement On 27 July 1998, Laver suffered a stroke while being interviewed by ESPN-TV in the United States for their SportsCentury 20th Century sports retrospective series. He was hospitalised for a month and suffered from memory and speech difficulties after the stroke, but recovered over the course of the following year. In 2000, the centre court at Melbourne Park, which today hosts the Australian Open, was named the Rod Laver Arena in his honour. In 2003, Laver, along with his fellow Australian tennis superstar Margaret Court, was honoured with his portrait on a postage stamp by the "Australia Post Australian Legends Award". Laver returned to his native country to present Roger Federer in 2006 and 2017, Rafael Nadal in 2009, and Novak Djokovic in 2012, the Norman Brookes Challenge Cup, which is awarded to the Men's Singles winner of the Australian Open. He was present at Wimbledon to witness Federer make tennis history, when he surpassed Pete Sampras' record by winning his 15th Grand Slam Title. After the short-lived reintroduction of knighthoods in Australia in 2014, there were calls for Laver to be knighted within the Order of Australia. In 2016 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia, by which time knighthoods had again been abolished and the Companion was the highest honour available in the Order. Laver resides in Carlsbad, California, and attended San Diego Chargers games on occasion. On October 1, 2017, he was inducted into the Southern California Tennis Hall of Fame. Performance timeline Laver joined the professional tennis circuit in 1963 and as a consequence was banned from competing in the amateur Grand Slams until the start of the Open Era at the 1968 French Open. Career statistics and records All-time tournament records Records in bold indicate peerless achievements. Combined tours: NTL, WCT and Grand Prix Notes on sources: John Bercow's book Tennis Maestros: The Twenty Greatest Male Tennis Players of All Time confirms in chapter 9 Rod Laver's titles for the following years 1962 (22), 1965 (17), 1966 (16), 1967 (19), 1970 (15), 1971 (7), 1972 (5), 1973 (7), 1974 (6). The ITF confirms titles in 1975 (5) titles. Open Era records See also All-time tennis records – men's singles Open Era tennis records – men's singles Notes References Sources Bercow, John (2014). Tennis Maestros: The Twenty Greatest Male Tennis Players of All Time, Biteback Publishing, ASIN: B00KPSCV40 Bellamy, Rex (1990). Love Thirty. Three Decades of Champions. Heldman, Julius. The Style of Rod Laver. In Newcombe, John; Writer, Larry (2002). Newk – Life on and Off the Court. Sutter, Michel (1992). Vainqueurs-Winners 1946–1991 (forewords by Arthur Ashe and Mark Miles). Trengove, Alan (2003). Advantage Australia. Rod Laver and Margaret Court: Legends of the Grand Slam. External links Official Wimbledon website profile BBC profile Living people 1938 births Australian Championships (tennis) champions Australian Championships (tennis) junior champions Australian Members of the Order of the British Empire Australian male tennis players Australian Open (tennis) champions Companions of the Order of Australia French Championships (tennis) champions French Open champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees People from Carlsbad, California Professional tennis players before the Open Era Queensland Greats Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees Sportspeople from Rockhampton Tennis people from Queensland United States National champions (tennis) US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon 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221422	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca%20Signorelli	Luca Signorelli	Luca Signorelli ( – 16 October 1523) was an Italian Renaissance painter who was noted in particular for his ability as a draftsman and his use of foreshortening. His massive frescoes of the Last Judgment (1499–1503) in Orvieto Cathedral are considered his masterpiece. Biography He was born Luca d'Egidio di Ventura in Cortona, Tuscany (some sources call him Luca da Cortona). The precise date of his birth is uncertain, but birth dates between 1441 and 1445 have been proposed. He died in 1523 in his native Cortona, where he is buried. He was likely between seventy-eight and eighty-two years old. He is considered to be part of the Tuscan school, although he also worked extensively in Umbria and Rome. His first impressions of art seem to originate in Perugia – including the styles of artists such as Benedetto Bonfigli, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo and Pinturicchio. Lazzaro Vasari, the great-grandfather of art historian Giorgio Vasari, was Luca's maternal uncle. According to Giorgio Vasari, Lazzaro had Luca apprenticed to Piero della Francesca. In 1472 the young artist was painting at Arezzo, and in 1474 at Città di Castello. He presented to Lorenzo de' Medici a work which is likely School of Pan. Janet Ross and her husband Henry discovered the painting in Florence circa 1870 and subsequently sold it to the Kaiser Frederick Museum in Berlin, though it was destroyed by allied bombs in WWII. The painting's subject is almost the same as that which he also painted on the wall of the Petrucci palace in Siena – the principal figures being Pan himself, Olympus, Echo, a man reclining on the ground, and two listening shepherds. Signorelli worked in Rome from 1478 to 1484. In 1484 he returned to his native Cortona, which remained his home until his death. In the Monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore south of Siena he painted eight frescoes, forming part of a vast series depicting the life of St. Benedict; they are at present much injured. In the palace of Pandolfo Petrucci he worked upon various classic or mythological subjects, including the aforementioned School of Pan. Signorelli remained healthy until his death, continuing to paint and accept commissions into his final year, including the altarpiece of the Church at Foiano. Work in Orvieto From the Monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore near Siena, Signorelli went to Orvieto and produced his masterpiece, the frescoes in the chapel of S. Brizio (then called the Cappella Nuova), in the cathedral. The Cappella Nuova already contained two groups of images in the vaulting over the altar, the Judging Christ and the Prophets, murals initially begun by Fra Angelico fifty years prior. The works of Signorelli in the vaults and on the upper walls represent the events surrounding the Apocalypse and the Last Judgment. The events of the Apocalypse fill the space which surrounds the entrance into the large chapel. The Apocalyptic events begin with the Preaching of Antichrist, and proceed to the Doomsday and The Resurrection of the Flesh. They occupy three vast lunettes, each of them a single continuous narrative composition. In one of them, the Antichrist, after his portents and impious glories, falls headlong from the sky, crashing down into an innumerable crowd of men and women. The events of the Last Judgment fill the facing vault and the walls around the altar. The series is composed of Paradise, the Elect and the Condemned, Hell, the Resurrection of the Dead, and the Destruction of the Reprobate. To Angelico's ceiling, which contained the Judging Christ and the Prophets led by John the Baptist, Signorelli added the Madonna leading the Apostles, the Patriarchs, Doctors of the Church, Martyrs, and Virgins. The unifying factor of the paintings is found in the scripture readings in the Roman liturgies for the Feast of All Saints and Advent. Stylistically, the daring and terrible inventions, with their powerful treatment of the nude and arduous foreshortenings, were striking in their day. Michelangelo is claimed to have borrowed, in his own fresco at the Sistine Chapel wall, some of Signorelli's figures or combinations. The lower walls, in an unprecedented style, are richly decorated with a great deal of subsidiary work connected with Dante, specifically the first eleven books of his Purgatorio, and with the poets and legends of antiquity. A Pietà composition in a niche in the lower wall contains explicit references to two important Orvietan martyr saints, San Pietro Parenzo and San Faustino. The contract for Signorelli's work is still on record in the archives of the Cathedral of Orvieto. He undertook the task of completing the ceiling on April 5, 1499 for 200 ducats, as well as 600 ducats for the walls, along with lodging, and a monthly payment of two measures of wine and two quarters of corn. The contract directed Signorelli to consult the Masters of the Sacred Page for theological matters. This is the first such recorded instance of an artist receiving theological advice, although art historians believe such discussions were routine. Signorelli's first stay in Orvieto lasted no more than two years. In 1502 he returned to Cortona, later returning to Orvieto to continue the lower walls. He painted a dead Christ, with Mary Magdalene, the Virgin Mary, and the local martyr Saints Pietro Parenzo and Faustino. The figure of the dead Christ, according to Vasari, is the image of Signorelli's son Antonio, who died from the plague during the course of the execution of the paintings. Work in Siena, Cortona, Rome, and Arezzo After finishing the frescoes at Orvieto, Signorelli was often in Siena. In 1507 he executed a great altarpiece for S. Medardo at Arcevia in the Marche, the Madonna and Child, with the Massacre of the Innocents and other episodes. In 1508 Pope Julius II summoned artists to Rome, including Signorelli, Perugino, Pinturicchio and Il Sodoma to paint the large rooms in the Vatican Palace. They began work, but soon the Pope dismissed all to make way for Raphael. Their work was taken down, except for the ceiling in the Stanza della Segnatura. Luca returned to Siena, but mostly lived in his hometown of Cortona. He was constantly at work, but the products of his closing years were not of the quality of his works from 1490–1505. In 1520 Signorelli went with one of his pictures to Arezzo. He was partially paralyzed when he began a fresco of the Baptism of Christ in the chapel of Cardinal Passerini's palace near Cortona, which is the last picture attributed to him (alternatively, a Coronation of the Virgin at Foiano della Chiana). Signorelli stood in great repute as a citizen, entering the magistracy of Cortona as early as 1488 and holding a leading position by 1523, the year of his death. Signorelli paid great attention to anatomy. It is said that he carried on his studies in burial grounds, and his mastery of the human form implies a familiarity resulting from dissections. He surpassed contemporaries in showing the structure and mechanism of the nude in immediate action, even going beyond nature in experiments of this kind, trying hypothetical attitudes and combinations. His drawings in the Louvre demonstrate this and bear a close analogy to the method of Michelangelo. He aimed at powerful truth rather than nobility of form; comparatively neglecting color, and his chiaroscuro exhibits sharp oppositions of lights and shadows. He had a vast influence over the painters of his own and of succeeding times, but had no pupils or assistants of high repute; one being a nephew named Francesco. Vasari, who claimed Signorelli as a relative, described him as kindly, and a family man, and said that he always lived more like a nobleman than a painter. Vasari included Signorelli's portrait, one of seven, in his study in Arezzo, along with Michelangelo and himself. The Torrigiani Gallery in Florence contains a grand life-sized portrait by Signorelli of a man in a red cap and vest, and corresponds with Vasari's observation. In the National Gallery, London, are the Circumcision of Jesus and three other works. Legend holds that Signorelli depicted himself in the left foreground of his Orvietan mural The Preaching of the Antichrist. Fra Angelico, his predecessor in the Orvieto cycle, is thought to stand behind him in the piece. However, the figure thought to be Fra Angelico is not dressed as a Dominican friar, and Signorelli's supposed portrait does not match that in Vasari's study. Major works The Scourging of Christ (c. 1480) – Tempera on roundheaded panel, 84 x 57 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan Testament and Death of Moses (1481–1482) – Fresco, 350 x 572 cm, Sistine Chapel, Vatican Sant'Onofrio Altarpiece (1484) – Panel, 221 x 189 cm, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Perugia Martyrdom of St Sebastian – Pinacoteca Comunale, Città di Castello Madonna and Child (1484) – Panel, 170 x 117,5 cm, Uffizi, Florence The Circumcision (c. 1490–91) – Oil on panel transferred to canvas, 259 x 180 cm, National Gallery, London Madonna and Child with St. Joseph and Another Saint (1490–1492) – Panel, diameter: 99 cm, Galleria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, Florence Portrait of a Man (c. 1492) – Tempera on panel, 50 x 32, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin The Adoration of the Shepherds (1496) – Painted for the church of San Francesco, Città di Castello The Damned Cast into Hell (c. 1499) – San Brizio Chapel, Orvieto Cathedral, Orvieto, Italy Allegory of Fertility and Abundance (c. 1500) – Tempera on panel, Uffizi, Florence Lamentation over the Dead Christ (1502) – Wood, 270 x 240 cm, Museo Diocesano, Cortona Portrait of Vitelozzo Vitelli (1500–1503) – Panel, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Orvieto Mary Magdalene (1504) – Panel, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Orvieto Calvary (1505) The Coronation of the Virgin (1508) – painted for the Filippini Chapel in the church of San Francesco, Arcevia The Trinity, the Virgin and Two Saints (1510) – Tempera on wood, 272 x 180 cm, Uffizi, Florence Communion of the Apostles (1512) – Panel, 232 x 220 cm, Museo Diocesano, Cortona Saint Catherine of Alexandria (c. 1512) – Tempera on panel, Museo Horne, Florence Madonna with Child and Saints (1515) – Painted for church of San Francesco, Montone, now in the National Gallery, London Madonna and Child with Saints (c. 1519–1523) – Tempera on panel, Museo di arte medievale e moderna, Arezzo Immaculate Conception (c. 1523) – Panel, 217 x 210 cm, Museo Diocesano, Cortona Madonna and Child with Saints (mid or late 1510s) – Panel, Museo Nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome See also Signorelli parapraxis Sources Cruttwell, Maud, Signorelli. George Bell & Sons in London, 1899 (online) Henry, Tom, The Life and Art of Luca Signorelli. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012 (Review) James, Sara Nair, Signorelli and Fra Angelico at Orvieto: Liturgy, Poetry, and a Vision of the Endtime. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing,2003. James, Sara Nair, “Penance and Redemption: The Role of the Roman Liturgy in Luca Signorelli’s Frescoes at Orvieto” in Artibus et Historiae vol XXII, no. 44 Fall, 2001. James, Sara Nair. "Vasari on Signorelli: The Origins of 'The Grand Manner of Painting,'" in Reading Vasari, edited by Anne B. Barriault, Andrew Ladis, Norman E. Land, and Jeryldene M. Wood. London and Athens, GA: Philip Wilson Publishers and the Georgia Museum of Art, 2005. James, Sara Nair, “Apocalypse in the Visual Arts” for the Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, published by Verlag Walter de Gruyter in Berlin (Germany), Volume A, 2009. James, Sara Nair, “Antichrist in the Visual Arts” for the Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, published by Verlag Walter de Gruyter in Berlin (Germany), Volume A, 2009. Riess, Jonathan B. The Renaissance Antichrist: Luca Signorelli’s Orvieto Frescoes, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995. Mauro Zanchi, Signorelli, Giunti, Firenze 2016. References External links Art UK Luca Signorelli by Maud Cruttwell Cortona the Town where Luca Signorelli was born Luca Signorelli at the National Gallery of Art 1440s births 1523 deaths People from Cortona Italian Renaissance painters Italian draughtsmen Painters from Tuscany 15th-century Italian painters Italian male painters 16th-century Italian painters Catholic painters Catholic draughtsmen	[ 0.24201880395412445, 0.16638000309467316, 0.09554577618837357, -0.420928031206131, 0.6853722929954529, 0.7951071858406067, 0.12617145478725433, -0.4516308307647705, -0.7790685296058655, -0.7646965384483337, -0.10474034398794174, 0.26545608043670654, -0.45382049679756165, 0.005722996313124895, -0.28986868262290955, -0.3163992464542389, 0.37963536381721497, -0.26608240604400635, -0.2602425813674927, -0.558255136013031, 0.1253078728914261, -0.6974766850471497, -0.07167526334524155, -0.20996201038360596, -0.2290356606245041, 0.23755687475204468, 0.13391003012657166, 0.04848378896713257, 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221425	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Massinger	Philip Massinger	Philip Massinger (1583 – 17 March 1640) was an English dramatist. His finely plotted plays, including A New Way to Pay Old Debts, The City Madam, and The Roman Actor, are noted for their satire and realism, and their political and social themes. Early life The son of Arthur Massinger or Messanger, he was baptised at St. Thomas's Salisbury on 24 November 1583. He apparently belonged to an old Salisbury family, for the name occurs in the city records as early as 1415. He is described in his matriculation entry at St. Alban Hall, Oxford (1602), as the son of a gentleman. His father, who had also been educated at St. Alban Hall, was a member of parliament, and was attached to the household of Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke. Herbert recommended Arthur in 1587 for the office of examiner in the Court of the Marches. William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, who would come to oversee the London Stage and the royal company as King James's Lord Chamberlain, succeeded to the title in 1601. It has been suggested that he supported Massinger at Oxford, but the omission of any reference to him in any of Massinger's prefaces points to the contrary. Massinger left Oxford without a degree in 1606. His father had died in 1603, and that may have left him without financial assistance. The lack of a degree and the want of patronage from Lord Pembroke may both be explained on the supposition that he had become Roman Catholic. On leaving the university he went to London to make his living as a dramatist, but his name cannot be definitely affixed to any play until fifteen years later, when The Virgin Martyr (registered with the Stationers Company, 7 December 1621) appeared as the work of Massinger and Thomas Dekker. First plays During these years he worked in collaboration with other dramatists. A joint letter, from Nathan Field, Robert Daborne and Philip Massinger, to Philip Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five pounds to release them from their "unfortunate extremity," the money to be taken from the balance due for the "play of Mr. Fletcher's and ours." A second document shows that Massinger and Daborne owed Henslowe £3 on 4 July 1615. The earlier note probably dates from 1613, and from this time Massinger apparently worked regularly with John Fletcher. Sir Aston Cockayne, Massinger's constant friend and patron, refers in explicit terms to this collaboration in a sonnet addressed to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his folio edition of Beaumont and Fletcher (Small Poems of Divers Sorts, 1658), and in an epitaph on the two poets he says: "Plays they did write together, were great friends, And now one grave includes them in their ends." Massinger and the King's Men After Philip Henslowe's death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher began to write for the King's Men. Between 1623 and 1626 Massinger produced unaided for the Lady Elizabeth's Men, then playing at the Cockpit Theatre, three pieces, The Parliament of Love, The Bondman and The Renegado. With the exception of these plays and The Great Duke of Florence, produced in 1627 by Queen Henrietta's Men, Massinger continued to write regularly for the King's Men until his death. The tone of the dedications of his later plays affords evidence of his continued poverty. In the preface to The Maid of Honour (1632) he wrote, addressing Sir Francis Foljambe and Sir Thomas Bland: "I had not to this time subsisted, but that I was supported by your frequent courtesies and favours." The prologue to The Guardian (licensed 1633) refers to two unsuccessful plays and two years of silence, when the author feared he had lost the popular favour. It is probable that this break in his production was owing to his free handling of political matters. In 1631, Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels, refused to license an unnamed play by Massinger because of "dangerous matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of Portugal," calculated presumably to endanger good relations between England and Spain. There is little doubt that this was the same piece as Believe as You List, in which time and place are changed, Antiochus being substituted for Sebastian, and Rome for Spain. In the prologue, Massinger ironically apologises for his ignorance of history, and professes that his accuracy is at fault if his picture comes near "a late and sad example." The obvious "late and sad example" of a wandering prince could be no other than Charles I's brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine. An allusion to the same subject may be traced in The Maid of Honour. In another play by Massinger, not extant, Charles I is reported to have himself struck out a passage put into the mouth of Don Pedro, king of Spain, as "too insolent." The poet seems to have adhered closely to the politics of his patron, Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke, who had leanings to democracy and was a personal enemy of the Duke of Buckingham. The servility towards the Crown displayed in Beaumont and Fletcher's plays reflected the temper of the court of James I. The attitude of Massinger's heroes and heroines towards kings is very different. Camiola's remarks on the limitations of the royal prerogative (Maid of Honour, Act V, Scene v) could hardly be acceptable at court. Death Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe Theatre, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Saviour's, Southwark, on 18 March 1640. In the entry in the parish register he is described as a "stranger", which, however, implies nothing more than that he belonged to another parish. He is buried in the same tomb as Fletcher. That grave can be seen to this day in the chancel of what is now Southwark Cathedral near London Bridge on the south bank of the Thames. There the names of Fletcher and Massinger appear on adjacent plaques laid in the floor between the choir stalls. Next to these is a plaque commemorating Edmund Shakespeare (William's younger brother) who is buried in the cathedral, although the exact location of his grave is unknown. Religion and politics The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The Renegado (licensed 1624) and The Maid of Honour (c. 1621). The Virgin Martyr, in which Dekker probably had a large share, is really a miracle play, dealing with the martyrdom of Dorothea in the time of Diocletian, and the supernatural element is freely used. Caution must be used in interpreting this play as an elucidation of Massinger's views; it is not entirely his work. In The Renegado, however, the action is dominated by the beneficent influence of a Jesuit priest, Francisco, and the doctrine of baptismal regeneration is enforced. In The Maid of Honour a complicated situation is solved by the decision of the heroine, Camiola, to take the veil. For this she is held up "to all posterity a fair example for noble maids to imitate." Conversely, characters in Massinger's plays sometimes masquerade as Catholic clergy (The Bashful Lover) and even hear believers' confessions (The Emperor of the East)—a violation of a sacrament that would be surprising for a Catholic. As noted above, Massinger placed moral and religious concerns over political considerations, in ways that offended the interests of king and state in his generation. While not a "democrat" in any modern sense (no one in his society was), Massinger's political sympathies, insofar as we can determine them from his works, might have placed him in a predicament similar to that of the head of the house he revered, the Earl of Pembroke—who found that he could not support King Charles in the English Civil War, and became one of the few noblemen to back the Parliamentary side. Massinger did not live long enough to have to take a position in that conflict. Style and influence It seems doubtful whether Massinger was ever a popular playwright, for the best qualities of his plays would appeal rather to politicians and moralists than to the ordinary playgoer. He contributed, however, at least one great and popular character to the English stage. Sir Giles Overreach, in A New Way to Pay Old Debts, is a sort of commercial Richard III, a compound of the lion and the fox, and the part provides many opportunities for a great actor. He made another considerable contribution to the comedy of manners in The City Madam. In Massinger's own judgment The Roman Actor was "the most perfect birth of his Minerva." It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court. Other favourable examples of his grave and restrained art are The Duke of Milan, The Bondman and The Great Duke of Florence. For an examination of William Shakespeare's influence on Massinger, see T. S. Eliot's essay on Massinger. It includes the famous line, "Immature poets imitate; mature poets steal...." In 2021, Making Massinger, a play by Simon Butteriss, was recorded and streamed by Wiltshire Creative, who commissioned it. The play is in verse and described as a revenge tragicomedy. The cast includes Samuel Barnett, Edward Bennett, Hubert Burton, Julia Hills, Jane How and Nina Wadia. Canon of Massinger's works The following scheme is based on the work of Cyrus Hoy, Ian Fletcher, and Terence P. Logan. (See References.) Solo plays The Maid of Honour, tragicomedy (c. 1621; printed 1632) The Duke of Milan, tragedy (c. 1621–3; printed 1623, 1638) The Unnatural Combat, tragedy (c. 1621–6; printed 1639) The Bondman, tragicomedy (licensed 3 December 1623; printed 1624) The Renegado, tragicomedy (licensed 17 April 1624; printed 1630) The Parliament of Love, comedy (licensed 3 November 1624; MS) A New Way to Pay Old Debts, comedy (c. 1625; printed 1632) The Roman Actor, tragedy (licensed 11 October 1626; printed 1629) The Great Duke of Florence, tragicomedy (licensed 5 July 1627; printed 1636) The Picture, tragicomedy (licensed 8 June 1629; printed 1630) The Emperor of the East, tragicomedy (licensed 11 March 1631; printed 1632) Believe as You List, tragedy (rejected by the censor in January, but licensed 6 May 1631; MS) The City Madam, comedy (licensed 25 May 1632; printed 1658) The Guardian, comedy (licensed 31 October 1633; printed 1655) The Bashful Lover, tragicomedy (licensed 9 May 1636; printed 1655) Collaborations With John Fletcher: Sir John van Olden Barnavelt, tragedy (August 1619; MS) The Little French Lawyer, comedy (c. 1619–23; printed 1647) A Very Woman, tragicomedy (c. 1619–22; licensed 6 June 1634; printed 1655) The Custom of the Country, comedy (c. 1619–23; printed 1647) The Double Marriage, tragedy (c. 1619–23; Printed 1647) The False One, history (c. 1619–23; printed 1647) The Prophetess, tragicomedy (licensed 14 May 1622; printed 1647) The Sea Voyage, comedy (licensed 22 June 1622; printed 1647) The Spanish Curate, comedy (licensed 24 October 1622; printed 1647) The Lovers' Progress or The Wandering Lovers, tragicomedy (licensed 6 December 1623; revised 1634; printed 1647) The Elder Brother, comedy (c. 1625; printed 1637). With John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont: Thierry and Theodoret, tragedy (c. 1607?; printed 1621) The Coxcomb, comedy (1608–10; printed 1647) Beggars' Bush, comedy (c. 1612–15?; revised 1622?; printed 1647) Love's Cure, comedy (c. 1612–15?; revised 1625?; printed 1647). With John Fletcher and Nathan Field: The Honest Man's Fortune, tragicomedy (1613; printed 1647) The Queen of Corinth, tragicomedy (c. 1616–18; printed 1647) The Knight of Malta, tragicomedy (c. 1619; printed 1647). With Nathan Field: The Fatal Dowry, tragedy (c. 1619, printed 1632); adapted by Nicholas Rowe: The Fair Penitent With John Fletcher, John Ford, and William Rowley (?), or John Webster (?): The Fair Maid of the Inn, comedy (licensed 22 January 1626; printed 1647). With John Fletcher, Ben Jonson, and George Chapman (?): Rollo Duke of Normandy, or The Bloody Brother, tragedy (c. 1616–24; printed 1639). With Thomas Dekker: The Virgin Martyr, tragedy (licensed 6 October 1620; printed 1622). With Thomas Middleton and William Rowley: The Old Law, comedy (c. 1615–18; printed 1656). Some of these "collaborations" are in fact more complex: revisions by Massinger of older plays by Fletcher and others, etc. (It is not necessary to suppose that Massinger, Fletcher, Ford, and Rowley-or-Webster sat down in a room together to write a play.) More than a dozen of Massinger's plays are said to be lost, though the titles of some of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Eleven of these lost plays were manuscripts used by John Warburton's cook for lighting fires and making pies. The tragedy The Jeweller of Amsterdam (c. 1616–19) may be a lost collaboration, with Fletcher and Field. The list given above represents a consensus of scholarship; individual critics have assigned various other plays, or portions of plays, to Massinger—like The Faithful Friends, or the first two acts of The Second Maiden's Tragedy (1611). Massinger's independent works were collected by Thomas Coxeter (4 vols., 1759, revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies, 1779), by J. Monck Mason (4 vols., 1779), by William Gifford (4 vols., 1805, 1813), by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lt. Col. Cunningham (1867), and selections by Arthur Symons in the Mermaid Series (1887–1889). Subsequent work on Massinger includes Philip Edwards and Colin Gibson, eds., The Plays and Poems of Philip Massinger (5 vols., Oxford, 1976), Martin Garrett, ed., Massinger: the Critical Heritage (London, 1991), chapters in Annabel Patterson, Censorship and Interpretation: the Conditions of Writing and Reading in Early Modern England (Madison, 1984) and Martin Butler, Theatre and Crisis 1632–1642 (Cambridge, 1984), and Martin Garrett, "Philip Massinger" in the revised Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2005). Notes References Francis Cunningham (Ed.): William Gifford: The plays of Philip Massinger; From the text of William Gifford. With the addition of the tragedy "Believe as you list" ed. by Francis Cunningham. London: Chatto and Windus, ca. 1887. Alfred Jean-François Mézières: Contemporains et successeurs de Shakespeare. 5. rev. a. corr. Ed. Paris: Hachette, 1913. James Phelan: On Philip Massinger. (in Vol. 2 of Anglia: Zeitschrift für englische Philologie), Halle 1879 (Leipzig: Univ., Diss., 1878). Irmgard Röhricht: Das Idealbild der Frau bei Philip Massinger. Munich: Piloty & Loehle, 1920. Cyrus Hoy: The Shares of Fletcher and His Collaborators in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon. Studies in Bibliography, 1956–62. Samuel A. and Dorothy R. Tannenbaum: Philip Massinger. Michel de Montaigne. Anthony Mundy. Thomas Nashe. George Peele. Thomas Randolph. (Elizabethan bibliographies; Vol. 6). Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1967. Ian Fletcher: Beaumont and Fletcher. London: Longmans, Green, 1967. Naomi Conn Liebler: Philip Massinger's The Roman actor and the idea of the play within a play. Stony Brook, State Univ. of New York, Diss., 1976. Philip Edwards and Colin Gibson (Hrsg.): The plays and poems of Philip Massinger. London: Oxford Univ. Pr., 1976. Terence P.Logan: Philip Massinger. In: Terence P. Logan and Denzell S. Smith, eds., The Later Jacobean and Caroline Dramatists: A Survey and Bibliography of Recent Studies in English Renaissance Drama. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1978. Colin Gibson (Ed.): The selected plays of Philip Massinger: The Duke of Milan; The Roman actor; A new way to pay old debts; The city madam. (Plays by Renaissance and Restoration dramatists). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978. ;. Martin Garrett: Philip Massinger's attitude to spectacle. (Jacobean drama studies; 72). 1984. Douglas Howard (Ed.): Philip Massinger: a crit. reassessment. Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1985. . Doris Adler: Philip Massinger. (Twayne's English authors series; 435) Boston: Twayne, 1987. . Martin Garrett (Ed.): Massinger: the critical heritage. London [a.o.]: Routledge, 1991. . Lawless, Donald S. Philip Massinger and his Associates, Ball State University monograph, 1967 Lawless, Donald S. The Poems of Philip Massinger, Ball State University monograph, 1968 T.S. Eliot, "Philip Massinger" (1920), available abridged in 'Selected Prose of T.S. Eliot' at 153 (Frank Kermode, ed.) Harcourt Brace 1975. . External links 1583 births 1640 deaths Alumni of St Alban Hall, Oxford English Renaissance dramatists Burials at Southwark Cathedral 17th-century English male writers 17th-century English dramatists and playwrights English male dramatists and playwrights	[ -0.5537353157997131, 0.2467457354068756, -0.5373076796531677, -0.5778141021728516, 0.2631649971008301, 1.1987676620483398, 0.9493105411529541, 0.4075469374656677, -0.6535236835479736, -0.06088847666978836, -0.19997091591358185, -0.16919244825839996, -0.2995668053627014, -0.2802983820438385, -0.13866883516311646, 0.3051319718360901, 0.11708147078752518, -0.7937480807304382, -0.20567791163921356, -0.5800752639770508, -0.29914137721061707, -0.5185135006904602, 0.8173772692680359, 0.20130610466003418, -0.06355684250593185, -0.256282776594162, -0.14722318947315216, -0.695771336555481, 0.6275167465209961, -0.41957566142082214, -0.3493351340293884, 0.7467269897460938, 0.6558240056037903, -0.4011341333389282, -0.6842219829559326, 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221427	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphus%20Ward	Adolphus Ward	Sir Adolphus William Ward (2 December 1837 in Hampstead, London19 June 1924) was an English historian and man of letters. Life Ward was born at Hampstead, London, the son of John Ward. He was educated in Germany and at Peterhouse, Cambridge. In 1866, Ward was appointed professor of history and English literature in Owens College, Manchester, and was principal from 1890 to 1897, when he retired. He took an active part in the foundation of Victoria University, of which he was vice-chancellor from 1886 to 1890 and from 1894 to 1896, and he was a founder of Withington Girls' School in 1890. He was a Member of the Chetham Society, serving as a member of council from 1884 and as president from 1901 until 1915. In 1897, the freedom of the city of Manchester was conferred upon him, he delivered the Ford Lectures at the University of Oxford in 1898, and on 29 October 1900 he was elected master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He was elected in 1903 a fellow of the British Academy and was the academy's president from 1911 to 1913. In 1919 he delivered the British Academy's Shakespeare Lecture. Ward served as president of the Royal Historical Society from 1899 to 1901, and he was knighted in 1913. Works Ward's major work is his standard History of English Dramatic Literature to the Age of Queen Anne (1875), re-edited after a thorough revision in three volumes in 1899. He also wrote The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' War (1869), Great Britain and Hanover: Some Aspects of the Personal Union (1899), and The Electress Sophia and the Hanoverian Succession (1903) (2nd ed. 1909). His Germany, 1815–1890 has three volumes. Ward edited George Crabbe's Poems (2 vols., 1905–1906) and Alexander Pope's Poetical Works (1869); he wrote the volumes on Geoffrey Chaucer and Charles Dickens in the "English Men of Letters" series, translated Ernst Curtius's History of Greece (5 vols., 1868–1873); with G. W. Prothero and Stanley Mordaunt Leathes he edited the Cambridge Modern History between 1901 and 1912, and with A. R. Waller edited the Cambridge History of English Literature (1907, etc.). Ward's collected papers were published in 5 volumes by Cambridge University Press in 1921. Notes External links Chetham Society 1837 births 1924 deaths English historians Fellows of Peterhouse, Cambridge Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester Masters of Peterhouse, Cambridge Fellows of the Royal Historical Society Chaucer scholars Presidents of the British Academy Presidents of the Royal Historical Society Vice-Chancellors of the Victoria University of Manchester Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge Knights Bachelor Fellows of the British Academy Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Chetham Society	[ 0.24421632289886475, 0.489104688167572, -0.6615528464317322, -0.6446074843406677, 0.011896138079464436, 0.5337367057800293, 0.9289647936820984, -0.09364132583141327, 0.20237618684768677, -0.5210490822792053, -0.2349107563495636, -0.35579606890678406, -0.31509825587272644, 0.3371020257472992, 0.45117998123168945, 0.15441618859767914, -0.8352106809616089, -0.4714261591434479, -0.42405185103416443, 0.12124793231487274, 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221428	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Unionist%20Party	Democratic Unionist Party	The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) is a unionist and loyalist political party in Northern Ireland. It was founded in 1971 during the Troubles by Ian Paisley, who led the party for the next 37 years. Currently led by Jeffrey Donaldson, it is the joint-largest party in the Northern Ireland Assembly, and is the fifth-largest party in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The party has been described as right-wing and socially conservative, being anti-abortion and opposing same-sex marriage. The DUP sees itself as defending Britishness and Ulster Protestant culture against Irish nationalism. The party is Eurosceptic and supported Brexit. The DUP evolved from the Protestant Unionist Party and has historically strong links to the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the church Paisley founded. During the Troubles, the DUP opposed sharing power with Irish nationalists or republicans as a means of resolving the conflict, and likewise rejected attempts to involve the Republic of Ireland in Northern Irish affairs. It campaigned against the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973, the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985, and the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. In the 1980s, the DUP was involved in setting up the loyalist paramilitary movements Third Force and Ulster Resistance, the latter of which helped smuggle a large shipment of weapons into Northern Ireland. For most of the DUP's history, the Ulster Unionist Party was the largest unionist party in Northern Ireland, but by 2004 the DUP had overtaken the UUP in terms of seats in both the Northern Ireland Assembly and the UK House of Commons. In 2006, the DUP co-signed the St Andrews Agreement and the following year agreed to enter into power-sharing devolved government with Sinn Féin, who agreed to support the Police Service, courts, and rule of law. Paisley became joint First Minister of Northern Ireland. However, the DUP's only Member of the European Parliament (MEP), Jim Allister, and seven DUP councillors left the party in protest, founding the Traditional Unionist Voice. Paisley was succeeded as DUP leader and First Minister by Peter Robinson (2008–2015), then by Arlene Foster (2015–2021). After she was ousted, Edwin Poots briefly became leader but was himself forced to step down after three weeks. In June 2021, he was succeeded by Jeffrey Donaldson. History 1970s The Democratic Unionist Party evolved from the Protestant Unionist Party, which itself grew out of the Ulster Protestant Action movement. The DUP was founded on 30 September 1971 by Ian Paisley, leader of the Protestant Unionist Party, and Desmond Boal, formerly of the Ulster Unionist Party. Paisley, a well-known Protestant fundamentalist minister, was the founder and leader of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster. He would lead both the DUP and the Free Presbyterian Church for the next 37 years, and his party and church would be closely linked. When the DUP formed, Northern Ireland was in the midst of an ethnic-nationalist conflict known as the Troubles, which began in 1969 and would last for the next thirty years. The conflict began amid a campaign to end discrimination against the Catholic/Irish nationalist minority by the Protestant/unionist government and police force. This protest campaign was opposed, often violently, by unionists who viewed it as an Irish republican front. Paisley had led the unionist opposition to the civil rights movement. The DUP were more hardline or loyalist than the UUP and its founding arguably stemmed from worries of the Ulster Protestant working class that the UUP was not paying them enough heed. The DUP opposed the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973. The Agreement was an attempt to resolve the conflict by setting up a new assembly and government for Northern Ireland in which unionists and Irish nationalists would share power. The Agreement also proposed the creation of a Council of Ireland, which would facilitate co-operation between the governments of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The DUP won eight seats in the 1973 election to the Assembly. Along with other anti-Agreement unionists, the DUP formed the United Ulster Unionist Council (UUUC) to oppose the Agreement. In the February 1974 UK election, the UUUC won 11 out of 12 Northern Ireland seats, while the pro-Agreement unionists failed to win any. On 15 May 1974, anti-Agreement unionists called a general strike aimed at bringing down the Agreement. The strike coordinating committee included DUP leader Paisley, the other UUUC leaders, and the leaders of the loyalist paramilitary groups. The strike lasted fourteen days and brought Northern Ireland to a standstill. Loyalist paramilitaries helped enforce the strike by blocking roads and intimidating workers. On the third day of the strike, loyalists detonated four car bombs in Dublin and Monaghan, killing 33 civilians. The strike led to the downfall of the Agreement on 28 May. Following the downfall of the Agreement, in 1975 the British government set up a Constitutional Convention, an elected body of unionists and nationalists which would seek agreement on a political settlement for Northern Ireland. In the election to the convention, the UUUC (which included the DUP) won 53% of the vote. The UUUC opposed a power-sharing government and recommended only a return to majority rule (i.e. unionist rule). As this was unacceptable to nationalists, the convention was dissolved. The DUP opposed UK membership of the European Economic Community (EEC). In June 1979, in the first election to the European Parliament, Paisley won one of the three Northern Ireland seats. He topped the poll, with 29.8% of the first preference votes. He retained that seat in every European election until 2004, when he was replaced by Jim Allister, who resigned from the DUP in 2007 while retaining his seat. 1980s and 1990s During 1981, the DUP opposed the then-ongoing talks between British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Taoiseach Charles Haughey. That year, Paisley and other DUP members attempted to create a Protestant loyalist volunteer militia—called the (Ulster) Third Force—which would work alongside the police and army to fight the Irish Republican Army (IRA). They organized large rallies where men were photographed in military formation waving firearms certificates. Paisley declared: "This is a small token of the men who are placed to devastate any attempt by Margaret Thatcher and Charles Haughey to destroy the Union". The DUP helped organize a loyalist 'Day of Action' on 23 November 1981, to pressure the British government to take a harder line against the IRA. Paisley addressed a Third Force rally in Newtownards, where thousands of masked and uniformed men marched before him. He declared: "My men are ready to be recruited under the crown to destroy the vermin of the IRA. But if they refuse to recruit them, then we will have no other decision to make but to destroy the IRA ourselves!" In December, Paisley claimed that the Third Force had 15,000–20,000 members. James Prior, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, replied that private armies would not be tolerated. The Anglo-Irish Agreement was signed by the British and Irish governments in November 1985, following months of talks between the two. The Agreement confirmed there would be no change in the status of Northern Ireland without the consent of a majority of its citizens, and proposed the creation of a new power-sharing government. It also gave the Irish government an advisory role on some matters in Northern Ireland. Both the DUP and UUP mounted a major protest campaign against the Agreement, dubbed "Ulster Says No". Both unionist parties resigned their seats in the British House of Commons, suspended district council meetings, and led a campaign of mass civil disobedience. There were strikes and mass protest rallies. On 23 June 1986, DUP politicians occupied the Stormont Parliament Building in protest at the Agreement, while 200 supporters protested outside and clashed with police. The DUP politicians were forcibly removed by police the next day. On 10 July, Paisley and deputy DUP leader Peter Robinson led 4,000 loyalist supporters in a protest in which they 'occupied' the town of Hillsborough. Hillsborough Castle is where the Agreement had been signed. On 7 August, Robinson led hundreds of loyalist supporters in an invasion of the village of Clontibret, in the Republic of Ireland. The loyalists marched up and down the main street, vandalised property, and attacked two Irish police officers (Gardaí) before fleeing back over the border. Robinson was arrested and convicted for unlawful assembly. On 10 November 1986, a rally was held in which DUP politicians Paisley, Robinson and Ivan Foster announced the formation of the Ulster Resistance Movement (URM). This was a loyalist paramilitary group whose purpose was to "take direct action as and when required" to bring down the Agreement and defeat republicanism. Recruitment rallies were held in towns across Northern Ireland and thousands were said to have joined. The following year, the URM helped smuggle a large shipment of weapons into Northern Ireland, which were shared out between the URM, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA). Most, but not all, of the weaponry was seized by police in 1988. In 1989, URM members attempted to trade Shorts' missile blueprints for weapons from the apartheid South African regime. Following these revelations, the DUP said that it had cut its links with the URM in 1987. In the mid-1980s, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin began to contest and win seats in local council elections. In response, the DUP fought elections under the slogan "Smash Sinn Féin" and vowed to exclude Sinn Féin councillors from all council business. Their 1985 manifesto said "The Sinn Féiners must be ostracised and isolated" at all local government bodies. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, DUP councillors attempted to exclude Sinn Féin councillors by ignoring them, boycotting their speeches, or drowning them out by making as much noise as possible – such as by heckling and banging tables. In early January 1994, the UDA released a document calling for the repartition of Ireland with the goal of making Northern Ireland wholly Protestant. The plan was to be implemented should the British Army withdraw from Northern Ireland. The Irish Catholic/nationalist-majority areas would be handed over to the Republic, and those left in the rump state would be "expelled, nullified, or interned". DUP press officer Sammy Wilson spoke positively of the document, calling it a "valuable return to reality" and lauded the UDA for "contemplating what needs to be done to maintain our separate Ulster identity". 1998–2004 During the Northern Ireland peace process of the 1990s, the DUP was initially involved in the negotiations under former United States Senator George J. Mitchell that led to the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, but withdrew in protest when Sinn Féin, an Irish republican party with links to the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), was allowed to participate while the IRA kept its weapons. The DUP opposed the Agreement in the Good Friday Agreement referendum, in which the Agreement was approved with 71.1% of the electorate in favour. The DUP's opposition was based on a number of reasons, including: The early release of paramilitary prisoners The mechanism to allow Sinn Féin to hold government office despite ongoing IRA activity (of which it was the political wing) The lack of accountability of ministers in the Northern Ireland Executive The lack of accountability of the North/South Ministerial Council and North/South Implementation Bodies The DUP contested the 1998 Northern Ireland Assembly election that resulted from the Good Friday Agreement, winning 20 seats, the third-highest of any party. It then took up two of the ten seats in the multi-party power-sharing Executive. While serving as ministers, they refused to sit at meetings of the Executive Committee in protest at Sinn Féin's participation. The Executive ultimately collapsed over an alleged IRA espionage ring at Stormont (see Stormontgate). The Good Friday Agreement relied on the support of a majority of unionists and a majority of nationalists in order for it to operate. During the 2003 Northern Ireland Assembly election, the DUP argued for a "fair deal" that could command the support of both unionists and nationalists. After the results of this election the DUP argued that support was no longer present within unionism for the Good Friday Agreement. They went on to publish their proposals for devolution in Ireland entitled Devolution Now. These proposals have been refined and re-stated in further policy documents including Moving on and Facing Reality. In the 2003 Northern Ireland Assembly election, the DUP won 30 seats, the most of any party. In January 2004, it became the largest Northern Ireland party at Westminster, when MP Jeffrey Donaldson joined after defecting from the UUP. In December 2004, English MP Andrew Hunter took the DUP whip after earlier withdrawing from the Conservative Party, giving the party seven seats, in comparison to the UUP's five, Sinn Féin's four, and the Social Democratic and Labour Party's (SDLP) three. 2005–2007 In the 2005 UK general election, the party reinforced its position as the largest unionist party, winning nine seats, making it the fourth largest party in terms of seats in the British House of Commons behind Labour, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. In terms of votes, the DUP was the fourth largest party on the island of Ireland. At the local government election of 2005, the DUP emerged as the largest party at local government level with 182 councillors across Northern Ireland's 26 district councils. The DUP had a majority of the members on Castlereagh Borough Council, which had long been a DUP stronghold and was home to party leader Peter Robinson, also in Ballymena Borough Council, home to the party's founder Ian Paisley, and finally Ards Borough Council. As well as outright control on these councils, the DUP was also the largest party in eight other councils – Antrim Borough Council, Ballymoney Borough Council, Banbridge District Council, Belfast City Council, Carrickfergus Borough Council, Coleraine Borough Council, Craigavon Borough Council and Newtownabbey Borough Council. On 11 April 2006, it was announced that three DUP members were to be elevated to the House of Lords: Maurice Morrow, Wallace Browne, the former Lord Mayor of Belfast, and Eileen Paisley, a vice-president of the DUP and wife of DUP Leader Ian Paisley. None, however, sit as DUP peers. On 27 October 2006, the DUP issued a four-page letter in the Belfast Telegraph newspaper asking "Are the terms of Saint Andrew's a basis of moving forward to devolution?", with responses to be received to its party headquarters by 8 November. It was part of the party's policy of consultation with its electorate before entering a power-sharing government. On 24 November 2006, Ian Paisley refused to nominate himself as First Minister of Northern Ireland designate. There was confusion between all parties whether he actually said that if Sinn Féin supported policing and the rule of law that he would nominate himself on 28 March 2007 after the Assembly elections on 7 March 2007. The Assembly meeting was brought to an abrupt end when the building had to be evacuated because of a security breach. Paisley later released a statement through the press office stating that he did in fact imply that if Sinn Féin supported policing and the rule of law, he would go into a power-sharing government with them. This was following a statement issued by 12 DUP MLAs stating that what Ian Paisley had said in the chamber could not be interpreted as a nomination. In February 2007, the DUP suggested that it would begin to impose fines up to £20,000 on members disobeying the party whip on crucial votes. On 24 March 2007 the DUP party executive overwhelmingly endorsed a resolution put to them by the party officers that did not agree to an establishment of devolution and an executive in Northern Ireland by the Government's deadline of 26 March, but did agree to setting up an executive on 8 May 2007. On 27 March 2007, the party's sole Member of the European Parliament (MEP), Jim Allister, resigned from the party, in opposition to the decision to enter a power-sharing government with Sinn Féin. He retained his seat as an independent MEP as leader of his new hard-line anti-St Andrews Agreement splinter group that he formed with other disaffected members who had left the DUP over the issue, Traditional Unionist Voice, a seat which he retained until Diane Dodds won the seat back for the DUP in 2009. MP Gregory Campbell warned on 6 April 2007 that his party would be watching to see if benefits flow from its agreement to share power with Sinn Féin. Robinson leadership On 31 May 2008, the party's central Executive Committee met at the offices of Castlereagh Borough Council where Ian Paisley formally stepped down as party leader and Peter Robinson was ratified as the new leader, with Nigel Dodds as his deputy. On 11 June 2008, the party supported the government's proposal to detain terrorist suspects for up to 42 days as part of the Counter-Terrorism Bill, leading The Independent newspaper to dub all of the party's nine MPs as part of "Brown's dirty dozen". The Times reported that the party had been given "sweeteners for Northern Ireland" and "a peerage for the Rev Ian Paisley", amongst other offers, to secure the bill. Members of the DUP were lambasted by the press and voters, after MPs' expenses reports were leaked to the media. Several newspapers referred to the "Swish Family Robinson" after Peter Robinson, and his wife Iris, claimed £571,939.41 in expenses with a further £150,000 being paid to family members. Further embarrassment was caused to the party when its deputy leader, Nigel Dodds, had the highest expenses claims of any Northern Ireland MP, ranking 13th highest out of all UK MPs. Details of all MPs' expenses claims since 2004 were published in July 2009 under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. In January 2010, Peter Robinson was at the centre of a high-profile scandal relating to his 60-year-old MP/MLA wife Iris Robinson's infidelity with a 19-year-old man, and alleged serious financial irregularities associated with the scandal. In the 2010 general election, the party suffered a major upset when its leader, Peter Robinson, lost his Belfast East seat to Naomi Long of the APNI on a swing of 22.9%. However, the party maintained its position elsewhere, fighting off a challenge from the Ulster Conservatives and Unionists – New Force in Antrim South and Strangford and from Jim Allister's Traditional Unionist Voice in Antrim North. The DUP were strongly criticised after the Red Sky scandal in which DUP ministers attempted to influence a decision at a meeting of the Northern Ireland Housing Executive. The decision related to an £8 million contract of east Belfast firm Red Sky. The Housing Executive cancelled Red Sky's contract after a BBC Spotlight investigation into the company, which was shown to be overcharging taxpayers. The DUP cited "sectarian bias" in relation to the decision. The party suspended DUP councillor Jenny Palmer, who sat on the Executive board, after she confessed that DUP special adviser Stephen Brimstone pressured her into changing her vote at the meeting. In the 2015 general election, when the result was expected to be a hung parliament, the issue of DUP and the UK Independence Party forming a coalition government with the UK Conservative Party was considered by Nigel Farage (leader of UKIP). The then Deputy Prime Minister and leader of the Liberal Democrats, Nick Clegg, warned against this "Blukip" coalition, with a spoof website highlighting imagined policies from this coalition – such as reinstating the death penalty, scrapping all benefits for under 25s and charging for hospital visits. Additionally, issues were raised about the continued existence of the BBC (as the DUP, UKIP and Conservatives had made a number of statements criticising the institution) and support for same-sex marriage. However, in an interview with BBC Radio 5 Live deputy leader of the DUP Nigel Dodds told BBC Newsline that the DUP was "against discrimination based on religion ... or sexual orientation". On 10 September 2015, Peter Robinson stepped aside as First Minister and other DUP ministers, with the exception of Arlene Foster, resigned their portfolios. Foster leadership Arlene Foster became leader of the DUP on 17 December 2015, and served as First Minister of Northern Ireland from January 2016 to January 2017. Two days before the UK Brexit referendum, held on 23 June 2016, the DUP paid £282,000 for a four-page glossy wrap-around to the free newspaper Metro, which is distributed in major towns and cities in the British mainland, but not Northern Ireland, advocating a 'Leave' vote. On 4 October 2016, First Minister Arlene Foster and DUP MPs held a champagne reception at the Conservative Party conference, marking what some have described as an "informal coalition" or an "understanding" between the two parties to account for the Conservatives' narrow majority in the House of Commons. The relationship between the parties was formalised after the 2017 United Kingdom general election with the signing of the Conservative–DUP agreement. In October 2017, the DUP held a similar reception at the Conservative Party conference, which was attended by leading Conservative figures including First Secretary of State Damian Green, Brexit Secretary David Davis, then-Chief Whip Gavin Williamson, and party chairman Patrick McLoughlin. This was reciprocated in November, when Damian Green and Conservative Chief Whip Julian Smith attended the DUP's conference, with Smith giving a keynote address. The third such annual DUP reception at the Conservative conference took place in October 2018, with Chancellor of the Exchequer Philip Hammond and former Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson addressing the DUP conference a month later. Prominent Conservative MPs such as Environment Secretary Michael Gove, Leader of the House of Commons Andrea Leadsom, Defence Secretary Gavin Williamson, former International Development Secretary Priti Patel, Sports Minister Tracey Crouch, Defence Select Committee chair Julian Lewis, and European Research Group chair Jacob Rees-Mogg headlined various fundraising events for the DUP from 2017 onwards. Former UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage also spoke at a DUP fundraiser in May 2018, with his main financial backer, Arron Banks, stating that he would support a bid by Farage to seek office as a DUP candidate after the end of his tenure as Member of the European Parliament in 2019. In her capacity as Minister of Enterprise, Trade and Investment in 2012, Foster oversaw the establishment of a green energy scheme, which led to the Renewable Heat Incentive scandal (RHI scandal). The scheme gave a perverse incentive to use more energy and increase their carbon footprint to those who signed up to it since they could claim £1.60 for every £1 spent on heating with, for example, wood pellets. With no cost controls, it could cost the public purse up to £490 million. Foster refused calls to step down as First Minister over her alleged role in the RHI scandal. In January 2017 this led Martin McGuinness to resign in protest and the Northern Ireland Executive collapsed. A snap election followed after Sinn Féin refused to re-nominate a deputy First Minister. In this Northern Ireland Assembly election, held in March 2017, the DUP lost 10 seats, leaving them only one seat and 1,200 votes ahead of Sinn Féin, a result described by the Belfast Telegraph as "catastrophic". The withdrawal of the party whip from Jim Wells in May 2018 left the DUP on 27 seats, the same number as Sinn Féin. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP had 10 seats overall, 3 seats ahead of Sinn Féin. With no party having received an outright majority in the UK Parliament, the DUP entered into an agreement to support government by the Conservative Party. A DUP source said: "The alternative is intolerable. For as long as Corbyn leads Labour, we will ensure there’s a Tory PM." The DUP would later withdraw their support over new Prime Minister Boris Johnson's revised proposal for a deal with the EU. At the 2019 UK general election, the DUP lost vote share and lost two of its seats. Due to the RHI scandal and deadlock between the DUP and Sinn Féin, Northern Ireland did not have an Executive and the Assembly did not meet for three years. In January 2020, the main parties signed the New Decade, New Approach agreement and the Executive was re-formed with Foster as First Minister and Michelle O'Neill of Sinn Féin as deputy First Minister. In April 2021, it was reported that the majority of DUP MLAs and MPs had signed a letter of no confidence in Foster. She therefore announced that she would step down as DUP leader in May and as First Minister in June. Poots leadership After Foster's announcement, the DUP held its first ever leadership election in May 2021, with Edwin Poots becoming leader after narrowly defeating Jeffrey Donaldson. This caused a fracture in the party. Some DUP members spoke of their "disgust" at the way in which Foster had been ousted. There were claims that Poots supporters engaged in bullying and intimidation during the leadership election, and some party members walked out before his speech. Police also investigated claims the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) threatened members of Donaldson's campaign team. Poots admitted party members are "bruised" but denied claims of intimidation. Several party members resigned, including councillors. On 17 June, 21 days after becoming DUP leader, Poots announced he would be resigning after an internal party revolt. He said he would stay in post until a successor was elected. He had agreed a deal whereby his close ally, Paul Givan, would become First Minister. In return, he would let Westminster pass Irish language law for Northern Ireland, which the DUP had earlier agreed to implement by signing the New Decade, New Approach agreement. Most DUP MLAs opposed Poots's decision, forcing him to step down. On 22 June, Jeffrey Donaldson was confirmed to be succeeding Poots, as the only candidate in the leadership contest. Donaldson leadership Jeffrey Donaldson was ratified as DUP leader on 30 June 2021, and said his top priority was to get rid of the Northern Ireland Protocol, the post-Brexit trade arrangements. Hours after he became leader, MLA Alex Easton left the DUP, saying the party no longer had any "respect, discipline or decency". This meant the DUP were no longer the biggest party in the Assembly. Policies and views Unionism The Democratic Unionist Party are Ulster unionists, which means that they support Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom and are opposed to a united Ireland. The party sees itself as defending Britishness and Ulster Protestant culture against Irish nationalism and republicanism. It supports marching rights for the loyalist Orange Order, which many DUP members are members of; is also in favour of flying the British Union Flag from government buildings all year round. The DUP assert that "Irish and Gaelic culture should not be allowed to dominate funding" in Northern Ireland and have blocked proposed laws that would promote and protect the Irish language. The DUP are staunch supporters of the British security forces and their role in the Northern Ireland conflict. The party wants to prevent British soldiers and police officers from being prosecuted for killings committed during the conflict. Ulster loyalism The party has also been described as right-wing populist and containing some extremist tendencies. It is linked to the Ulster loyalist faction of unionism, which has been identified as a form of ethnic nationalism. The DUP was endorsed in the 2017 general election by the Loyalist Communities Council, an umbrella group of loyalist paramilitary groups, which are proscribed terrorist organisations. However, the party leadership strongly rejected the endorsement, with party leader Arlene Foster stating: "We did not seek that statement, we did not seek endorsement from any paramilitary organisation and indeed I fundamentally reject an endorsement from anyone that's involved with paramilitarism or criminality." Euroscepticism and foreign policy The DUP is a Eurosceptic party that supported the UK's withdrawal from the European Union in the 2016 Brexit referendum and was the only party in the Stormont power executive to campaign for leave. The party opposes a hard Irish border, and wishes to maintain the Common Travel Area. East Antrim MP Sammy Wilson caused controversy in March 2016 during a BBC Spotlight episode discussing the implications of the EU referendum, when he was recorded agreeing with a member of the public who said that they wanted to leave the European Union and "get the ethnics out". Wilson stated "You are absolutely right". Wilson claimed he was agreeing with the desire to leave the European Union, not the "ethnics out" call. Wilson was criticised by the Polish consul in Northern Ireland and various other political parties. The DUP strongly opposed the Northern Ireland backstop in 2019 seeing it as weakening Northern Ireland's place within the United Kingdom, and this opposition was regarded by a number of commentators as the main reason why the withdrawal agreement was not ratified by the Parliament of the United Kingdom before 2020. Since 2018, the DUP have said the Northern Ireland backstop must be removed from the Brexit withdrawal agreement if they are to continue to support Theresa May's government in the House of Commons, although the party has said that it is open to a time limit on the backstop. The DUP voted "No" in all three meaningful votes on the EU Withdrawal Agreement negotiated by Theresa May. The DUP are strongly supportive of Israel, conforming to the hawkish end of the Israeli political spectrum. Social policies The DUP is socially conservative and has strong links to the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the small church founded by the party's founder Ian Paisley. The vast majority of DUP members are evangelical Christians and, on average, 65% of its representatives since the party was founded have been Free Presbyterians. The party also has links with the Caleb Foundation, a Protestant fundamentalist pressure group. The DUP has opposed LGBT rights in Northern Ireland. Party leaders—as well as many prominent party members—have condemned homosexuality, and a 2014 survey found that two-thirds of party members believe homosexuality is wrong. The DUP campaigned against the legalisation of homosexual acts, which it believed to be a "harmful deviance" linked to paedophilia, in Northern Ireland through the "Save Ulster from Sodomy" campaign between 1977–82, and the party has vetoed the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Northern Ireland since 2015, making Northern Ireland the only region of the UK where same-sex marriage is not permitted, although provision is now being made under the Northern Ireland (Executive Formation etc) Act 2019. Former DUP minister Jim Wells called the issue a "red line" for power-sharing talks, adding that "Peter will not marry Paul in Northern Ireland". The party attempted to introduce a "conscience clause" into law in Northern Ireland, which would let businesses refuse to provide a service if it went against their religious beliefs. This came after a Christian-owned bakery was taken to court for refusing to make a cake bearing a pro-gay marriage slogan. Opponents argued that the clause would allow discrimination against LGBT people. In recent years, the party has become more split on the issue of LGBT rights with some DUP members moderating their opinions on the matter. In 2021, The Guardian claimed that Arlene Foster softening her stance on LGBT issues was a contributing factor in her resignation as leader. In July 2021, deputy leader Paula Bradley expressed an apology for the "absolutely atrocious" statements made by the party's politicians about LGBT people and added "there have been some very hurtful comments and some language that really should not have been used.”. Her apology was supported by DUP leader Jeffrey Donaldson. In September 2021, Donaldson met with the Rainbow Project, the first official meeting between a DUP leader and an LGBT group. Party members have campaigned strongly against any extension of abortion rights to Northern Ireland, unanimously opposing a bill by Labour MP Diana Johnson to protect women in England and Wales from criminal prosecution if they ended a pregnancy using pills bought online. They have opposed extra funding for international family planning programmes. Some DUP politicians have called for creationism to be taught in schools, and for museums to include creationism in their exhibits. In 2007, a DUP spokesman confirmed that these views were in line with party policy. In 2011, the DUP called for a debate in the House of Commons over bringing back the death penalty for some serious crimes such as murder or rape. Economic and fiscal policies The DUP is in favour of keeping the "triple lock" for pensions, the Winter Fuel Allowance, and greater spending in Northern Ireland for services such as health. The DUP revived calls for a 25-mile sea bridge to link Northern Ireland with Scotland. Leadership Founder Ian Paisley led the party from its foundation in 1971 onwards, and retired as leader of the party in spring 2008. Paisley was replaced by former deputy leader Peter Robinson on 31 May 2008, who in turn was replaced by Arlene Foster on 17 December 2015. Foster announced in April 2021 that she would stand down as leader on 28 May 2021. Edwin Poots won the subsequent leadership election (the first in the party's history), against Sir Jeffrey Donaldson, however he stepped down after just 20 days in office and was replaced as leader by Donaldson on 26 June 2021. Party leader The following are the terms of office as party leader and as First Minister of Northern Ireland: Deputy leader Chairman General Secretary Northern Ireland Executive Ministers Westminster Party leaders at Westminster Party Chief Whip at Westminster Party spokespersons at Westminster Representatives Parliament of the United Kingdom Members of the House of Commons following 12 December 2019 general election: Gregory Campbell – East Londonderry Jeffrey Donaldson – Lagan Valley Paul Girvan – South Antrim Carla Lockhart – Upper Bann Ian Paisley Jr. – North Antrim Gavin Robinson – Belfast East Jim Shannon – Strangford Sammy Wilson – East Antrim Members of the House of Lords The Lord Browne of Belmont The Lord Hay of Ballyore The Lord Morrow The Lord McCrea of Magherafelt and Cookstown The Lord Dodds of Duncairn Northern Ireland Assembly Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly elected as of October 2021: Maurice Bradley – East Londonderry Paula Bradley – Belfast North Joanne Bunting – Belfast East Keith Buchanan – Mid Ulster Thomas Buchanan – West Tyrone Pam Cameron – South Antrim Trevor Clarke – South Antrim Stephen Dunne – North Down Deborah Erskine – Fermanagh and South Tyrone Paul Frew – North Antrim Trevor Clarke – South Antrim Paul Givan – Lagan Valley Harry Harvey – Strangford David Hilditch – East Antrim William Humphrey – Belfast North Diane Dodds – Upper Bann William Irwin – Newry and Armagh Gordon Lyons – East Antrim Michelle McIlveen – Strangford Gary Middleton – Foyle Robin Newton – Belfast East Edwin Poots – Lagan Valley George Robinson – East Londonderry Christopher Stalford – Belfast South Mervyn Storey – North Antrim Peter Weir – Strangford Election results General election results Northern Ireland Assembly election results See also List of Democratic Unionist Party MPs List of Northern Ireland Members of the House of Lords British Isles fixed sea link connections Democratic Unionist Party scandals Notes References External links 1971 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221429	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing%20%28angle%29	Bearing (angle)	In navigation, bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object, or between it and that of true north. Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic north (magnetic bearing) or true north (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object to the East would have an absolute bearing of 90 degrees. Relative bearing refers to the angle between the craft's forward direction and the location of another object. For example, an object relative bearing of 0 degrees would be dead ahead; an object relative bearing 180 degrees would be behind. Bearings can be measured in mils, points or degrees. Types Absolute In nautical navigation the absolute bearing is the clockwise angle between north and an object observed from the vessel. If the north used as reference is the true geographical north then the bearing is a true bearing whereas if the reference used is magnetic north then the bearing is a magnetic bearing. An absolute bearing is measured with a bearing compass. The measurement of absolute bearings of fixed landmarks and other navigation aids is useful for the navigator because this information can be used on the nautical chart together with simple geometrical techniques to aid in determining the position of the vessel. A grid bearing (also known as grid azimuth) is measured in relation to the fixed horizontal reference plane of grid north, that is, using the direction northwards along the grid lines of the map projection as a reference point. A compass bearing, as in vehicle or marine navigation, is measured in relation to the magnetic compass of the navigator's vehicle or vessel (if aboard ship). It should be very close to the magnetic bearing. The difference between a magnetic bearing and a compass bearing is the deviation caused to the compass by ferrous metals and local magnetic fields generated by any variety of vehicle or shipboard sources (steel vehicle bodies/frames or vessel hulls, ignition systems, etc.) Relative In nautical navigation the relative bearing of an object is the clockwise angle from the heading of the vessel to a straight line drawn from the observation station on the vessel to the object. The relative bearing is measured with a pelorus or other optical and electronic aids to navigation such as a periscope, sonar system, and radar systems. Since World War II, relative bearings of such diverse point sources have been and are calibrated carefully to one another. The United States Navy operates a special range off Puerto Rico and another on the west coast to perform such systems integration. Relative bearings then serve as the baseline data for converting relative directional data into true bearings (N-S-E-W, relative to the Earth's true geography). By contrast, Compass bearings have a varying error factor at differing locations about the globe, and are less reliable than the compensated or true bearings. The measurement of relative bearings of fixed landmarks and other navigational aids is useful for the navigator because this information can be used on the nautical chart together with simple geometrical techniques to aid in determining the position of the vessel and/or its speed, course, etc. The measurement of relative bearings of other vessels and objects in movement is useful to the navigator in avoiding the danger of collision. For example: The navigator on a ship observes a lighthouse when its relative bearing is 45° and again when it is 90°. He now knows that the distance from the ship to the lighthouse is equal to the distance travelled by the vessel between both observations. The pilot of a boat observes that the relative bearing of another boat is less than 180° and decreasing (that is, it is now closer to dead ahead than before). He now knows he will pass astern of the other boat. If the bearing were to remain constant, the two boats would be on a collision course. General examples Piloting A bearing can be taken on another vessel to aid piloting. If the two vessels are travelling towards each other and the relative bearing remains the same over time, there is likelihood of collision and action needs to be taken by one or both vessels to prevent this from happening. Warfare A bearing can be taken to a fixed or moving object in order to target it with gunfire or missiles. This is mainly used by ground troops when planning on using an air-strike on the target. Search and rescue A bearing can be taken to a person or vessel in distress in order to go to their aid. Usages There are several methods used to measure navigation bearings including: In land navigation, a 'bearing' is ordinarily calculated in a clockwise direction starting from a reference direction of 0° and increasing to 359.9 degrees. Measured in this way, a bearing is referred to as an azimuth by the US Army but not by armies in other English speaking nations, which use the term bearing. If the reference direction is north (either true north, magnetic north, or grid north), the bearing is termed an absolute bearing. In a contemporary land navigation context, true, magnetic, and grid bearings are always measured in this way, with true north, magnetic north, or grid north being 0° in a 360-degree system. In aircraft navigation, an angle is normally measured from the aircraft's track or heading, in a clockwise direction. If the aircraft encounters a target that is not ahead of the aircraft and not on an identical track, then the angular bearing to that target is called a relative bearing. In marine navigation, starboard bearings are 'green' and port bearings are 'red'. Thus, in ship navigation, a target directly off the starboard side would be 'Green090' or 'G090'. This method is only used for a relative bearing. A navigator on watch does not always have a corrected compass available with which to give an accurate bearing. If available, the bearing might not be numerate. Therefore, every forty-five degrees of direction from north on the compass was divided into four 'points'. Thus, 32 points of 11.25° each makes a circle of 360°. An object at 022.5° relative would be 'two points off the starboard bow', an object at 101.25° relative would be 'one point abaft the starboard beam' and an object at 213.75° relative would be 'three points on the port quarter'. This method is only used for a relative bearing. An informal method of measuring a relative bearing is by using the 'clock method'. In this method, the direction a vessel, aircraft or object is measured as if a clock face is laid over the vessel or aircraft, with the number twelve pointing forward. Something straight ahead is at 'twelve o'clock', while something directly off to the right is at 'three o'clock'. This method is only used for a relative bearing. In land surveying, a bearing is the clockwise or counterclockwise angle between north or south and a direction. For example, bearings are recorded as N57°E, S51°E, S21°W, N87°W, or N15°W. In surveying, bearings can be referenced to true north, magnetic north, grid north (the Y axis of a map projection), or a previous map, which is often a historical magnetic north. If navigating by gyrocompass, the reference direction is true north, in which case the terms true bearing and geodetic bearing are used. In stellar navigation, the reference direction is that of the North Star, Polaris. In satellite broadcasting, a bearing is the combination of antenna azimuth and elevation required to point (aim) an satellite dish antenna in a given direction. The bearing for geostationary satellites is constant. The bearing for polar-orbiting satellites varies continuously. Arcs Moving from A to B along a great circle can be considered as always going in the same direction (the direction of B), but not in the sense of keeping the same bearing, which applies when following a rhumb line. Accordingly, the direction at A of B, expressed as a bearing, is not in general the opposite of the direction at B of A (when traveling on the great circle formed by A and B). For example, assume A and B in the northern hemisphere have the same latitude, and at A the direction to B is east-northeast. Then going from A to B, one arrives at B with the direction east-southeast, and conversely, the direction at B of A is west-northwest. US Army definition The US Army defines the bearing from Point A to Point B as the angle between a ray in the direction of north or south, whose origin is Point A, and Ray AB, the ray whose origin is Point A and which contains Point B. The bearing consists of 2 characters and 1 number: first, the character is either N or S. Next is the angle value. Third, the character representing the direction of the angle away from the reference ray - thus, either E, or W. The angle value will always be less than 90 degrees. For example, if Point B is located exactly southeast of Point A, the bearing from Point A to Point B is S 45° E. The US Army defines the azimuth between Point A and Point B as the angle, measured in the clockwise direction, between the north reference ray and Ray AB. For example, if the bearing between Point A and Point B is S 45° E, the azimuth between Point A and Point B is 135°. The angle value in a bearing can be specified in the units of degrees, mils, or grad. An azimuth is specified in the same angle units. See also Cardinal direction Constant bearing, decreasing range Course (navigation) Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft) Ground track Hand compass Heading (navigation) Notes References Keay, Waly, Land Navigation: Routefinding with Map & Compass, Coventry, UK: Clifford Press Ltd. (1995), , Rutstrum, Carl, The Wilderness Route Finder, University of Minnesota Press (2000), U.S. Army, Advanced Map and Aerial Photograph Reading, Headquarters, War Department, Washington, D.C. (17 September 1941) U.S. Army, Map Reading and Land Navigation, FM 21-26, Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, Washington, D.C. (28 March 1956) U.S. Army, Map Reading and Land Navigation, FM 21-26, Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, Washington, D.C. (7 May 1993) External links Webpage with program to calculate Distance & Bearing Calculate distance and bearing between two Latitude/Longitude points and much more See the end point on a map when you specify a start point, a bearing and a distance. 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221430	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing%20%28mechanical%29	Bearing (mechanical)	A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts. Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance. The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear"; a bearing being a machine element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest standards of current technology. History The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing, an object being moved is of great antiquity and may predate the invention of a wheel rotating on a plain bearing used for transportation. Though it is often claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form of tree trunks under sleds, this is modern speculation. The Egyptians' own drawings in the tomb of Djehutihotep show the process of moving massive stone blocks on sledges as using liquid-lubricated runners which would constitute plain bearings. There are also Egyptian drawings of plain bearings used with hand drills. Wheeled vehicles using plain bearings emerged between about 5000 BC and 3000 BC. The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a wooden ball bearing supporting a rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake Nemi, Italy. The wrecks were dated to 40 BC. Leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter around the year 1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design. However, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have published sketches of roller and thrust bearings. An issue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be reduced by enclosing the balls or rollers within a cage. The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century. The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in the mid-1740s by horologist John Harrison for his H3 marine timekeeper. This uses the bearing for a very limited oscillating motion but Harrison also used a similar bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporaneous regulator clock. Industrial era The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan, a British inventor and ironmaster who created the first design for a ball bearing in Carmarthen in 1794. His was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly. Bearings have played a pivotal role in the nascent Industrial Revolution, allowing the new industrial machinery to operate efficiently. For example, they saw use for holding wheel and axle to greatly reduce friction over that of dragging an object by making the friction act over a shorter distance as the wheel turned. The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed by bronze. Over their history bearings have been made of many materials including ceramic, sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic (e.g., nylon, polyoxymethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and UHMWPE) which are all used today. Watch makers produce "jeweled" watches using sapphire plain bearings to reduce friction thus allowing more precise time keeping. Even basic materials can have good durability. As examples, wooden bearings can still be seen today in old clocks or in water mills where the water provides cooling and lubrication. The first patent for a radial style ball bearing was awarded to Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August 1869. The bearings were then fitted to the winning bicycle ridden by James Moore in the world's first bicycle road race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869. In 1883, Friedrich Fischer, founder of FAG, developed an approach for milling and grinding balls of equal size and exact roundness by means of a suitable production machine and formed the foundation for creation of an independent bearing industry. His hometown Schweinfurt later became a world leading centre for ball bearing production. The modern, self-aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to Sven Wingquist of the SKF ball-bearing manufacturer in 1907, when he was awarded Swedish patent No. 25406 on its design. Henry Timken, a 19th-century visionary and innovator in carriage manufacturing, patented the tapered roller bearing in 1898. The following year he formed a company to produce his innovation. Over a century the company grew to make bearings of all types, including specialty steel and an array of related products and services. Erich Franke invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934. His focus was on a bearing design with a cross section as small as possible and which could be integrated into the enclosing design. After World War II he founded together with Gerhard Heydrich the company Franke & Heydrich KG (today Franke GmbH) to push the development and production of wire race bearings. Richard Stribeck’s extensive research on ball bearing steels identified the metallurgy of the commonly used 100Cr6 (AISI 52100) showing coefficient of friction as a function of pressure. Designed in 1968 and later patented in 1972, Bishop-Wisecarver's co-founder Bud Wisecarver created vee groove bearing guide wheels, a type of linear motion bearing consisting of both an external and internal 90-degree vee angle. In the early 1980s, Pacific Bearing's founder, Robert Schroeder, invented the first bi-material plain bearing which was size interchangeable with linear ball bearings. This bearing had a metal shell (aluminum, steel or stainless steel) and a layer of Teflon-based material connected by a thin adhesive layer. Today ball and roller bearings are used in many applications which include a rotating component. Examples include ultra high speed bearings in dental drills, aerospace bearings in the Mars Rover, gearbox and wheel bearings on automobiles, flexure bearings in optical alignment systems, bicycle wheel hubs, and air bearings used in Coordinate-measuring machines. Common By far, the most common bearing is the plain bearing, a bearing which uses surfaces in rubbing contact, often with a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A plain bearing may or may not be a discrete device. It may be nothing more than the bearing surface of a hole with a shaft passing through it, or of a planar surface that bears another (in these cases, not a discrete device); or it may be a layer of bearing metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete) or in the form of a separable sleeve (discrete). With suitable lubrication, plain bearings often give entirely acceptable accuracy, life, and friction at minimal cost. Therefore, they are very widely used. However, there are many applications where a more suitable bearing can improve efficiency, accuracy, service intervals, reliability, speed of operation, size, weight, and costs of purchasing and operating machinery. Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, lubrication, principle of operation, and so on. Types There are at least 6 common types of bearing, each of which operates on different principles: Plain bearing, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole. There are several specific styles: bushing, journal bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing, composite bearing; Rolling-element bearing, in which rolling elements placed between the turning and stationary races prevent sliding friction. There are two main types: Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls; Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical rollers; Jewel bearing, a plain bearing in which one of the bearing surfaces is made of an ultrahard glassy jewel material such as sapphire to reduce friction and wear; Fluid bearing, a noncontact bearing in which the load is supported by a gas or liquid (i.e. air bearing); Magnetic bearing, in which the load is supported by a magnetic field; Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends. Motions Common motions permitted by bearings are: Radial rotation e.g. shaft rotation; linear motion e.g. drawer; spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint; hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee. Friction Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field. By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by forming flexure bearings. By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An example would be using plastics that have low surface friction.) By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a lubricant or as a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reducing the normal force between them. By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to keep solid parts from touching. Air pressure exploits air pressure to keep solid parts from touching. Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An example of this is where the cage is made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which reduce friction by their shape and finish. Loads Bearing design varies depending on the size and directions of the forces that they are required to support. Forces can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings), or bending moments perpendicular to the main axis. Speeds Different bearing types have different operating speed limits. Speed is typically specified as maximum relative surface speeds, often specified ft/s or m/s. Rotational bearings typically describe performance in terms of the product DN where D is the mean diameter (often in mm) of the bearing and N is the rotation rate in revolutions per minute. Generally, there is considerable speed range overlap between bearing types. Plain bearings typically handle only lower speeds, rolling element bearings are faster, followed by fluid bearings and finally magnetic bearings which are limited ultimately by centripetal force overcoming material strength. Play Some applications apply bearing loads from varying directions and accept only limited play or "slop" as the applied load changes. One source of motion is gaps or "play" in the bearing. For example, a 10 mm shaft in a 12 mm hole has 2 mm play. Allowable play varies greatly depending on the use. As an example, a wheelbarrow wheel supports radial and axial loads. Axial loads may be hundreds of newtons force left or right, and it is typically acceptable for the wheel to wobble by as much as 10 mm under the varying load. In contrast, a lathe may position a cutting tool to ±0.002 mm using a ball lead screw held by rotating bearings. The bearings support axial loads of thousands of newtons in either direction and must hold the ball lead screw to ±0.002 mm across that range of loads Stiffness A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing itself. For example, the balls in a ball bearing are like stiff rubber, and under load deform from round to a slightly flattened shape. The race is also elastic and develops a slight dent where the ball presses on it. The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between the parts which are separated by the bearing varies with applied load. With rolling element bearings this is due to the strain of the ball and race. With fluid bearings it is due to how the pressure of the fluid varies with the gap (when correctly loaded, fluid bearings are typically stiffer than rolling element bearings). Service life Fluid and magnetic bearings Fluid and magnetic bearings can have practically indefinite service lives. In practice, there are fluid bearings supporting high loads in hydroelectric plants that have been in nearly continuous service since about 1900 and which show no signs of wear. Rolling element bearings Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature, maintenance, lubrication, material defects, contamination, handling, installation and other factors. These factors can all have a significant effect on bearing life. For example, the service life of bearings in one application was extended dramatically by changing how the bearings were stored before installation and use, as vibrations during storage caused lubricant failure even when the only load on the bearing was its own weight; the resulting damage is often false brinelling. Bearing life is statistical: several samples of a given bearing will often exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a few samples showing significantly better or worse life. Bearing life varies because microscopic structure and contamination vary greatly even where macroscopically they seem identical. L10 life Bearings are often specified to give an "L10" life (outside the USA, it may be referred to as "B10" life.) This is the life at which ten percent of the bearings in that application can be expected to have failed due to classical fatigue failure (and not any other mode of failure like lubrication starvation, wrong mounting etc.), or, alternatively, the life at which ninety percent will still be operating. The L10 life of the bearing is theoretical life and may not represent service life of the bearing. Bearings are also rated using C0 (static loading) value. This is the basic load rating as a reference, and not an actual load value. Plain bearings For plain bearings, some materials give much longer life than others. Some of the John Harrison clocks still operate after hundreds of years because of the lignum vitae wood employed in their construction, whereas his metal clocks are seldom run due to potential wear. Flexure bearings Flexure bearings rely on elastic properties of a material. Flexure bearings bend a piece of material repeatedly. Some materials fail after repeated bending, even at low loads, but careful material selection and bearing design can make flexure bearing life indefinite. Short-life bearings Although long bearing life is often desirable, it is sometimes not necessary. describes a bearing for a rocket motor oxygen pump that gave several hours life, far in excess of the several tens of minutes life needed. Composite bearings Depending on the customized specifications (backing material and PTFE compounds), composite bearings can operate up to 30 years without maintenance. Oscillating bearings For bearings which are used in oscillating applications, customized approaches to calculate L10 are used. External factors The service life of the bearing is affected by many parameters that are not controlled by the bearing manufacturers. For example, bearing mounting, temperature, exposure to external environment, lubricant cleanliness and electrical currents through bearings etc. High frequency PWM inverters can induce currents in a bearing, which can be suppressed by the use of ferrite chokes. The temperature and terrain of the micro-surface will determine the amount of friction by the touching of solid parts. Certain elements and fields reduce friction while increasing speeds. Strength and mobility help determine the amount of load the bearing type can carry. Alignment factors can play a damaging role in wear and tear, yet overcome by computer aid signaling and non-rubbing bearing types, such as magnetic levitation or air field pressure. Mounting There are many methods of mounting bearings, usually involving an interference fit. When press fitting or shrink fitting a bearing into a bore or onto a shaft, it's important to keep the housing bore and shaft outer diameter to very close limits, which can involve one or more counterboring operations, several facing operations, and drilling, tapping, and threading operations. Alternatively, an interference fit can also be achieved with the addition of a tolerance ring. Maintenance and lubrication Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, but many others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds of polymer, fluid and magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that are described with terms including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These contain seals to keep the dirt out and the grease in. They work successfully in many applications, providing maintenance-free operation. Some applications cannot use them effectively. Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a grease gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed bearings were not encountered on most machinery, and oiling and greasing were a more common activity than they are today. For example, automotive chassis used to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as engine oil changes, but today's car chassis are mostly sealed for life. From the late 1700s through the mid-1900s, industry relied on many workers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans. Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central pump serves periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the various lube points in the machine's bearing surfaces, bearing journals, pillow blocks, and so on. The timing and number of such lube cycles is controlled by the machine's computerized control, such as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual override functions when occasionally needed. This automated process is how all modern CNC machine tools and many other modern factory machines are lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on nonautomated machines, in which case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to pump once daily (for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are called one-shot systems from their chief selling point: one pull on one handle to lube the whole machine, instead of a dozen pumps of an alemite gun or oil can in a dozen different positions around the machine. The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck engine is similar in concept to the lube systems mentioned above, except that oil is pumped continuously. Much of this oil flows through passages drilled or cast into the engine block and cylinder heads, escaping through ports directly onto bearings, and squirting elsewhere to provide an oil bath. The oil pump simply pumps constantly, and any excess pumped oil continuously escapes through a relief valve back into the sump. Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need periodic lubrication and cleaning, and many require occasional adjustment, such as pre-load adjustment, to minimize the effects of wear. Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well lubricated. However, many applications make good maintenance difficult. One example is bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of little use because cleaning is expensive yet the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a good maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but not include any disassembly for cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature, provides a limited kind of cleaning action, by displacing older (grit-filled) oil or grease with a fresh charge, which itself collects grit before being displaced by the next cycle. Another example are bearings in wind turbines, which makes maintenance difficult since the nacelle is placed high up in the air in strong wind areas. In addition, the turbine does not always run and is subjected to different operating behavior in different weather conditions, which makes proper lubrication a challenge. Rolling-element bearing outer race fault detection Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries today, and hence maintenance of these bearings becomes an important task for the maintenance professionals. The rolling-element bearings wear out easily due to metal-to-metal contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner race and ball. It is also the most vulnerable component of a machine because it is often under high load and high running speed conditions. Regular diagnostics of rolling-element bearing faults is critical for industrial safety and operations of the machines along with reducing the maintenance costs or avoiding shutdown time. Among the outer race, inner race and ball, the outer race tends to be more vulnerable to faults and defects. There is still room for discussion as to whether the rolling element excites the natural frequencies of bearing component when it passes the fault on the outer race. Hence we need to identify the bearing outer race natural frequency and its harmonics. The bearing faults create impulses and results in strong harmonics of the fault frequencies in the spectrum of vibration signals. These fault frequencies are sometimes masked by adjacent frequencies in the spectra due to their little energy. Hence, a very high spectral resolution is often needed to identify these frequencies during a FFT analysis. The natural frequencies of a rolling element bearing with the free boundary conditions are 3 kHz. Therefore, in order to use the bearing component resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault at an initial stage a high frequency range accelerometer should be adopted, and data obtained from a long duration needs to be acquired. A fault characteristic frequency can only be identified when the fault extent is severe, such as that of the presence of a hole in the outer race. The harmonics of fault frequency is a more sensitive indicator of a bearing outer race fault. For a more serious detection of defected bearing faults waveform, spectrum and envelope techniques will help reveal these faults. However, if a high frequency demodulation is used in the envelope analysis in order to detect bearing fault characteristic frequencies, the maintenance professionals have to be more careful in the analysis because of resonance, as it may or may not contain fault frequency components. Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the bearings faces challenges due to issues like low energy, signal smearing, cyclostationarity etc. High resolution is often desired to differentiate the fault frequency components from the other high-amplitude adjacent frequencies. Hence, when the signal is sampled for FFT analysis, the sample length should be large enough to give adequate frequency resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the computation time and memory within limits and avoiding unwanted aliasing may be demanding. However, a minimal frequency resolution required can be obtained by estimating the bearing fault frequencies and other vibration frequency components and its harmonics due to shaft speed, misalignment, line frequency, gearbox etc. Packing Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the gaps between the bearing surfaces, also known as packing. The grease is held in place by a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also called a gland) that covers the inside and outside edges of the bearing race to keep the grease from escaping. Bearings may also be packed with other materials. Historically, the wheels on railroad cars used sleeve bearings packed with waste or loose scraps of cotton or wool fiber soaked in oil, then later used solid pads of cotton. Ring oiler Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the central rotating shaft of the bearing. The ring hangs down into a chamber containing lubricating oil. As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws oil up the ring and onto the shaft, where the oil migrates into the bearing to lubricate it. Excess oil is flung off and collects in the pool again. Splash lubrication A rudimentary form of lubrication is splash lubrication. Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears partially immersed in the liquid, or crank rods that can swing down into the pool as the device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, while the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the interior surfaces of the engine. Some small internal combustion engines specifically contain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil around the interior of the mechanism. Pressure lubrication For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in rapid bearing heating and damage due to friction. Also in dirty environments, the oil can become contaminated with dust or debris that increases friction. In these applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be continuously supplied to the bearing and all other contact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for filtration, cooling, and possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly used in large and complex internal combustion engines in parts of the engine where directly splashed oil cannot reach, such as up into overhead valve assemblies. High speed turbochargers also typically require a pressurized oil system to cool the bearings and keep them from burning up due to the heat from the turbine. Composite bearings Composite bearings are designed with a self-lubricating polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) liner with a laminated metal backing. The PTFE liner offers consistent, controlled friction as well as durability whilst the metal backing ensures the composite bearing is robust and capable of withstanding high loads and stresses throughout its long life. Its design also makes it lightweight-one tenth the weight of a traditional rolling element bearing. Types There are many different types of bearings. Newer versions of more enabling designs are in development being tested, which will reduce friction, increase bearing load, increase momentum build-up, and speed. See also References External links ISO Dimensional system and bearing numbers Comprehensive review on bearings, University of Cambridge A glossary of bearing terms How bearings work Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) – Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering. 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